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Under reporting of male sexual assault in the United States Marine Corps: a gap analysis
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Under reporting of male sexual assault in the United States Marine Corps: a gap analysis
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Content
Running head: UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 1
Copyright 2019 Stephanie Marie Grudberg
Under Reporting of Male Sexual Assault in the United States Marine Corps:
A Gap Analysis
Stephanie Marie Grudberg
University of Southern California
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2019
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 2
Dedication
To Lisa, you are my warden, my CC, the best big sister I could ever ask for. Thank you
for protecting me, pushing me, and always driving me towards excellence and my “inner
Pollyanna.”
To Marcus, Esteban, Gabriella & Raphael, Auntie loves you!!!
To Sherrie, thank you for being the warden’s deputy. You are right, God doesn’t make
mistakes, and I am so glad He sent you to me. Vegas here we come!
To Sharin, you are my lifesaver (literally) and best friend for life.
My Reyna clan- Poppa Bear Jose, Mother Bear Reyna, Victoria, Cris & Anali…I love
you all.
To Momma Lorraine, thank you for being my bulldog.
To Casper, you are the ghostest with the mostest. Thank you for being my protector.
To my village of people that are still raising this adult child…thank you.
To Brent, thank you for inspiring me. I am excited for all of the adventures. I love you.
To Harley, my wonderful medical service dog, thank you for being my constant
companion and protector.
To my Angels-mommy and Kadyn, thank you for always watching out for me and letting
me know you are around. I hope I make you proud.
To every victim of Military Sexual Trauma, you are not just a survivor-but an overcomer.
This great work is to make it better for us all.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 3
Acknowledgments
A dissertation is not an island; it is a vibrant and ever-changing village that is lead by the
Dissertation Chair and governed by the Dissertation Committee. Dr. Helena Seli was the brave
and vigilant leader who has been there since day one helping to mold and shed light on a
sometimes dark and lonely path. Dr. Heather Davis was crucial in helping me hone in on my
problem of practice, which has now developed into a completed Doctoral Dissertation. Dr.
Darlene Robles proved invaluable in being able to assist me in deepening my ability to analyze
social constructs and giving me the courage to assert my voice into the conversation. To say I am
forever grateful to the time, talent, and dedication these women have devoted to my work is only
the beginning of my fond sentiments towards them.
My journey has also been enhanced by several key professors who went above and
beyond the call of duty. These professors ensured that I not only had the skill sets necessary to
complete the Dissertation but that I turned the learning principles into mastery. Dr. Esther Kim,
Dr. Melanie Brady, Dr. Patrick Crispen, and Dr. Susanne Foulk, you are all phenomenal, and I
am fortunate to have had you during this process.
I am grateful to the Marine Corps and the leadership I interfaced with for being so
gracious and accommodating in the midst of such a sensitive topic. Thank you to Dr. Lisa
Rapayea for all of your mentorship, time, and feedback. Elly Rabben, you are my writing guru,
and I am forever grateful for your time and effort in cleaning up my work. The great Jack
Mathis, your video and audio skills were paramount in my initial and final defense presentations.
Dr. Theresa Haskins, thank you for helping bring me to home plate and being a wonderful friend
and confidante throughout this experience.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 4
The dissertation process has been made easier to handle because of the amazing love and
support from my family and friends. I am forever grateful to my sister Lisa for all of the meals,
encouraging text messages while she was at work and the overall daily care she gave me
throughout this process. Watching her tackle her own personal struggles while never wavering to
support me, all I can say without tearing up is that I wouldn’t be who I am today without her
imprint on my life and heart. My friend Sherrie tried to help lighten Lisa’s load when it came to
listening to me vent and allowing me to text or call her at all hours of the day or night whenever I
needed to. My best friend Sharin had to hear her share of laments in the middle of the night.
Mother Bear Reyna, thank you for bringing me into your crazy. Poppa Bear Jose, I will always
strive to make you proud of this kid. I am so grateful to the wonderful staff, Corpsmen, and
Doctors at 29 Palms Naval Hospital and Balboa Naval Hospital for their care and dedication to
my healing. Virg, Mike, Gloria, the Marquez family, Cory, Gail, Deontae, Dr. Megan, Wes, Dr.
Liz, Z and family, Momma Catherine Stratton, Guzman, Isaac, Jeanette, David & Louis, Dave
C., Anna, Bulldog, Alice, Christina, Ashley, Lou, Brandon…I may be a brat, but I know you all
love me too much to ever give up on me, and for that, I am grateful. Thank you for letting me
quit whenever I needed to but not really letting me quit.
Last but definitely not least, my amazing little family, Brent and my service dog Harley.
Brent, I am so grateful you are on this journey with me and that I signed the dotted line.
Remember always that it is the man you are that counts above all. We have an awesome life
together, and I love you for eternity. I know you and Harley will be my sidekicks through thick
or thin. Even though Harley has learned how to sleep through the incessant clicking away of
computer clicks and bright lights into the wee hours of the night, I am sure she will be expecting
all my new found free time to be spent with Brent and I giving her belly rubs and ear scratches.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 5
Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 9
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice ................................................................. 11
Organizational Context and Mission ........................................................................................ 11
Related Literature ..................................................................................................................... 12
Importance of Addressing the Problem .................................................................................... 13
Organizational Performance Goal ............................................................................................ 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................................... 14
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals ................................................................................. 14
Stakeholder Group for the Study .............................................................................................. 15
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 16
Methodological Approach and Rationale ................................................................................. 17
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................................... 17
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 18
Overview of Male Rape in the United States and Its Armed Forces ........................................ 18
The United States Marine Corps ............................................................................................... 22
Statistics and Research on Male versus Female Rapes ............................................................. 23
USMC Culture and Male Stereotypes That May Affect Male Rape ........................................ 25
Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework ................................................. 27
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 6
USMC Direct Line Unit Supervisor Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences . 27
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of USMC Direct Line Unit Supervisors’ Knowledge,
Motivation, and the Organizational Context ............................................................................. 41
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 45
Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................................... 46
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 46
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 46
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................... 49
Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................................. 50
Qualitative Collection and Instrumentation .............................................................................. 51
Credibility and Trustworthiness ................................................................................................ 52
Ethics ........................................................................................................................................ 52
Limitations and Delimitations .................................................................................................. 54
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 55
Quantitative Analysis Overview ............................................................................................... 56
Knowledge Findings ................................................................................................................. 59
Knowledge Findings Summary ................................................................................................ 68
Motivation Findings .................................................................................................................. 68
Motivation Results and Findings Summary .............................................................................. 76
Organizational Results and Findings ........................................................................................ 76
Organizational Findings Summary ........................................................................................... 86
Findings Summary .................................................................................................................... 87
Chapter Five: Recommendations .................................................................................................. 88
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 7
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ................................................... 89
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................................... 102
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 112
Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 114
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 114
References ................................................................................................................................... 116
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 125
Appendix B: Survey Items .......................................................................................................... 128
Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol ................................................................................. 130
Appendix D: Training Evaluation Form ..................................................................................... 131
Appendix E: Checklist for SAPR Trainers ................................................................................. 133
Appendix F: Interview Participant Write Up .............................................................................. 134
Appendix G: Unit Direct Line Supervisor Self-Reported Deficiencies in their Knowledge ...... 137
Appendix H: Descriptive Statistics, Sample and Subgroup Means Comparisons-Knowledge .. 140
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 8
List of Tables
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals .............. 15
Table 2. Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment ..................... 32
Table 3. Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessments ............................. 37
Table 4. Organizational Influences and Organizational Assessment ......................................... 40
Table 5. Survey Participant Demographics ............................................................................... 57
Table 6. Comparison of Overall Population .............................................................................. 57
Table 7. Qualitative Participants and Subgroup Distribution .................................................... 58
Table 8. Survey Question by Mean............................................................................................ 60
Table 9. Survey Question by Mean............................................................................................ 70
Table 10. Survey Question by Mean............................................................................................ 79
Table 11. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ....................................... 90
Table 12. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ........................................ 95
Table 13. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations .................................... 99
Table 14. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..................... 104
Table 15. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ........................... 106
Table 16. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................ 107
Table 17. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ..................................... 110
Table 18. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ................................................... 111
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 9
List of Figures
Figure 1. Interaction of stakeholder knowledge and motivation within organizational cultural
model settings. .............................................................................................................................. 43
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 10
Abstract
This dissertation examined the under reporting of male rape in the United States Marine Corps
through the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis model. The stakeholders of focus were unit direct line
supervisors and their mandated sexual assault reporting duties. The study focused on determining
whether there were gaps in unit direct line supervisor’s knowledge, motivation, or organizational
support. The research questions that guided this study were: 1. What is the direct line unit
supervisors’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being 100% compliant with all mandatory
sexual-assault reporting duties? 2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and
context with direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge and motivation? 3. What are the
recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions? The study used a
mixed methods approach of anonymous surveys and interviews. Survey results reflected that
males reported to have a higher confidence level in accurately reporting sexual assaults than
females. The interviews showed that while unit direct line supervisors were able to reference
sexual assault reporting policies and procedures, it was difficult for them to be able to give
specifics. The recommendations for implementing solutions used the New World Kirkpatrick
Model. They include re-evaluating SAPR training metrics and models during sexual assault
reporting training to ensure that there is a way to assess the learners retained knowledge as well
as establishing a feedback loop from Commands to the SAPR office to conduct regular pulse
checks to see if refresher training is needed at any given time.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 11
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
In recent years, the Department of Veterans Affairs has received an average of 60,000
reports of military sexual trauma (MST) per year from male former service members
(Department of Veterans Affairs, 2013). In 2015, there were 1,220 male victims who reported
sexual assault (Department of Defense [DOD], 2015a). These numbers do not correlate with the
number of active duty males who report sexual assault each year. The perpetrators in most of
these crimes are male as well. While there have been many resources and high-level campaigns
implemented military-wide to help service members get access to the resources they need after
sexual assaults, it is apparent that male victims are still not coming forward (DOD, 2019). The
disparity in the reporting numbers makes it hard to properly forecast the amount of services,
fiscal resources, and care that service members will need in the future to properly deal with the
trauma they have endured. In 2011, the Department of Veterans Affairs spent an average of
$10,880 per rape victim for medical costs alone (Scott, 2013). Male service members who suffer
from MST are at higher risk of suicide, anger, sexual dysfunction, major psychiatric dysfunction,
and sexual deviance, among other severe lifelong issues that if not treated can spill over and
affect society (Elliott, Mok & Briere, 2004; Kimerling, Rellini, Kelly, Judson & Learman, 2002).
Organizational Context and Mission
The United States Marine Corps (USMC) was chosen as the branch to study because
while it is the smallest branch of the United States Armed Forces, it has the highest number of
male sexual assault reports at over 14% (DOD, 2019). Additionally, the researcher has open
access to this particular branch, making it easier to gather the necessary data. The research
gathered can be generalized in some instances to make suggestions to the other branches of the
military.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 12
The USMC is known as the most elite fighting force in the world. The purpose of the
USMC is to defend the United States and protect its interests abroad (USMC, 2017). The USMC
was founded November 10, 1775, at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia, PA, through a resolution of the
Continental Congress. The USMC is under the leadership of the Department of the Navy, and
Headquarters Marine Corps (HQMC) is located in Arlington, VA. The USMC is comprised of
20,828 officers and 162,766 enlisted personnel, of whom 92% are men (United States Marine
Corps–Marine Corps Community Services [USMC-MCCS], 2017). The ethnic makeup of the
USMC is currently 64.6% White, 16.8% Hispanic, 10.4% Black, 3.5% Asian, 1.3% American
Indian/Alaskan Native, 0.8% Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, 1.3% Other, and 1.3%
Declined to Respond (USMC–MCCS, 2017).
Related Literature
Sexual assault in the military began to be heavily scrutinized and addressed by Congress
after a series of scandals in the 1990s and early 2000s (O’Brien, Keith, & Shoemaker, 2015). In
response to congressional pressure, the Department of Defense created the Care for Victims of
Sexual Assault Task Force in 2004 and included a provision in the 2004 National Defense
Authorization Act which mandated investigation and reporting of sexual assault and harassment
at all United States military academies (DOD, 2015a; Hubbert, 2013; O’Brien et al., 2015).
While the reporting numbers for sexual assault in the military have increased over the years,
males have consistently underreported their sexual assaults (DOD, 2015a). The problem of males
underreporting in the military is linked to various masculine stereotypes, fear of retaliation by or
scrutiny from their peers, and stigma around what an American warfighter should be able to
handle (DOD, 2012; DOD, 2015a; Hubbert, 2013; O’Brien et al., 2015).
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 13
A Department of Defense Workplace and Gender Relations Survey of Active Duty
Members showed that fear of negative consequences was the highest factor in not reporting
sexual crimes (DOD, 2012). Researchers are beginning to study how views of traditional
masculine and feminine sexual norms impact military sexual-assault victims’ thoughts and
beliefs on reporting the crime (O’Brien et al., 2015). It has also been found that military police
can hinder reporting by male sexual-assault victims because of the stereotype that a dominant
male could not possibly be the victim of a sexual crime. This results in allegations being over-
scrutinized by Command representatives and under-investigated by investigating authorities
(Scott, 2013).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of underreporting of male rape in the USMC is important to solve in order
for discharged members of the USMC to return to society as productive members of their
communities instead of broken, dysfunctional and dangerous. Statistics showed that males who
are victims of sexual assault have a 65% higher chance of developing Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) than female victims (Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, & Nelson, 1995).
Studies also showed that male victims have significantly higher rates of distressing psychological
and sociological issues, including suicide (Elliott et al., 2004; Kimerling et al., 2002). Thus,
properly addressing the need for male victims to come forward would help in returning more
Marines back into civilian society as productive members of their communities. Male victims
and survivors need specialized care, resources, and services which can only be properly
developed and forecasted once the true state of the issue is known. Properly developed and
successful resources and programs could also be imported into and implemented in the other
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 14
branches of the armed forces to address the overarching issue of male rape in the U.S. military as
a whole.
Organizational Performance Goal
The ultimate goal set forth by the Secretary of the Navy was to completely eradicate all
forms of sexual assault from the Navy and USMC. It was proposed that the USMC set an interim
goal to raise the reporting rate of male sexual-assault victims from the current 1-10% a year to
40-50% a year by 2022 (DOD, 2019). This goal was refined through continuing discussion with
all valid stakeholders, HQMC, the Department of Defense, and the Sexual Assault Prevention
and Response (SAPR) program coordinators. The reason that the goal does not reflect a 100%
report rate was due to the complexity of the issue and the fact that it would take years to fight a
systemic silence that has been forged over several decades.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The USMC stakeholders included personnel, leadership, and the Department of the Navy.
The personnel of the USMC are enlisted, officer, and civilian personnel who work to achieve full
combat readiness of the fighting force at all times. The direct line unit supervisor could be either
an officer or an enlisted Marine in charge of a group of other Marines. The leadership of the
USMC is comprised of the decision makers at HQMC in Arlington, VA, and at the Pentagon.
The Department of the Navy oversees the USMC and is in charge of issuing overarching
mandates and decisions that affect both the USMC and the Navy in the areas of operations,
budget, and vision.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
In order to meet the suggested reporting goals for 2022, all USMC direct line unit
supervisors would implement the sexual-assault training guidelines with 100% accuracy and
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 15
compliance. They would also ensure all subordinates were aware they have a safe space to report
sexual crimes. Table 1 shows the proposed goals for the key stakeholder in order to reach the
suggested performance goals.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the USMC’s Sexual Assault Prevention and Response (SAPR) program is to
eliminate the occurrence of sexual assault by strengthening a culture of prevention through risk
reduction, education and training, response capability, victim support, reporting procedures and
offender accountability, as appropriate, that enhances the safety and well-being of all.
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2022, male reporting numbers will increase from 1-10% annually to 40-50% annually.
Unit Supervisors Commandant Congress
By 2020, all unit supervisors
will be in 100% compliance
with all mandatory sexual
assault reporting duties.
By 2021, the Commandant of
the Marine Corps will rewrite
the Marine Corps Order
(MCO) to further instruct
direct line unit supervisors on
how to create a safe reporting
environment.
By 2021, Congress will
implement new directives for
the military, which will create
safe spaces for male military
members to report sexual
crimes in a discreet and safe
environment.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Because of the complex nature of MST, it will take coordination with all stakeholders to
reach the organizational goal of raising male reporting numbers. For this study, the researcher
focused on direct line unit supervisors. When a sexual assault is reported to a direct line unit
supervisor, the report is an unrestricted report meaning that the victim will get access to all of the
services they need and an investigation will ensue. If a victim is unsure they want to pursue a
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 16
formal investigation and possible adjudication of the crime they are encouraged to report with
their unit Uniformed Victim Advocate (UVA), SAPR or a chaplain.
Unit leadership is key to mission readiness, and the direct line unit supervisors are the
individuals tasked with ensuring all of the Marines in their care are at full operational readiness,
which includes mental, physical, emotional, spiritual, and financial preparedness. In order to
alleviate stress up the chain of command, the unit supervisor has the responsibility of ensuring
that problems are solved immediately. Unit leadership is key to any task, great or small, and
therefore, it is essential to learn the culture of the unit through the eyes of its leadership. If gaps
between direct line unit supervisors’ understanding and their ability to handle the reporting of
MST can be resolved, then the reporting numbers on male rape are likely to rise significantly.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the underreporting
of male rape in the USMC. While a complete gap analysis would include all of the USMC’s
stakeholders, for practical purposes, the focus was on the USMC direct line unit supervisors. The
analysis focused on causes for gaps in the areas of unit supervisors’ knowledge and skill,
motivation, and organizational resources. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or
assumed influences, which was examined systematically to focus on actual or validated causes.
As such, the questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. What is the direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge and motivation related to being 100%
compliant with all mandatory sexual-assault reporting duties?
2. How do organizational culture and context facilitate or inhibit direct line unit supervisors’
knowledge and motivation related to being 100% compliant with all mandatory sexual
assault reporting duties?
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 17
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Methodological Approach and Rationale
The research was conducted using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach.
An explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach allows quantitative and qualitative data to
be collected one after the other (Creswell, 2014). With the complex nature of USMC
victimology, the explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach brought the strengths of both
quantitative and qualitative research. Survey data was collected and then followed up with
interviews, which allowed for further in-depth analysis of the research questions. Document
analysis was conducted as a way to triangulate the findings. The use of these methods allowed
for a broader understanding of the issue and increased the formation of causes and solutions
(Creswell, 2014).
Organization of the Project
Five chapters were used to organize this study. This chapter provided the key concepts
and terminology commonly found in a discussion about USMC victimology. The organization’s
mission, goals, and stakeholders, as well as the initial concepts of gap analysis, have been
introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature on the scope of the study. The
topics of victimology in American society, the United States armed forces, and the USMC will
be discussed. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering elements, as well as the methodology
for choosing participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing
the perceived gaps, as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for
the solutions.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 18
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review examines the root causes of the underreporting of male rape in the
USMC. The review begins with a brief history of rape in general society and the United States
armed forces, and then specific data about rape in the USMC. The review presents an in-depth
discussion of the attitudes, attributes, and specific issues around male rape, including the
stigmas and cultural barriers victims encounter. The section includes current research on male
victims in the active-duty and military veteran populations from the Department of Defense,
USMC and Department of Veterans Affairs. Following the general research literature, the
review turns to the Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework to focus on
the unit supervisor’s knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences within the
USMC’s unit structure.
Overview of Male Rape in the United States and Its Armed Forces
The issue of male rape is not a new phenomenon. This section will address the historical
background of rape in American society and in the United States armed forces. The background
presented will give the reader a basic understanding of the landscape of the issue in order to
better frame the issue of male rape in the USMC.
American Society
Multiple sources contend that rape in America affects one in every six women and one in
every ten men (Lauer & Lauer, 2008; Martin, Taft, & Resick 2007). Experts have varying
opinions on whether social revolutions like the free-love movement of the 1960s have shifted
Americans’ views on traditionally taboo topics such as rape and domestic violence but can agree
that the perception of any sexual behavior is a social issue (Hubbert, 2013; Lauer & Lauer, 2008;
Martin et al., 2007). For example, in the 1800s it was a common practice for white American
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 19
slave owners to repeatedly and openly rape their female slaves, and any children that were
procreated from these acts were still considered slaves (Block, 2006). Slave victims were
commonly blamed for the rapes and were called temptresses or Jezebels, in reference to the
biblical character who seduced the strong Samson and cut his hair, rendering him powerless
(Block, 2006). Victim blame is still a very common practice, which places the responsibility of
recovery and rehabilitation on the victim (Lauer & Lauer, 2008).
Early America defined the crime of rape as an act of carnal knowledge that occurred with
an individual other than a woman’s husband; since it was illegal for a woman to withhold sexual
intercourse from her husband, this restricted the definition of a rapist (Block, 2006; Martin et al.,
2007). The feminist movement, which started in the mid-1800s, challenged society’s views and
laws on rape and by 1900 had made significant progress in tightening laws on rape, acquaintance
rape, and statutory rape, even changing the age of consent from 14 to 18 (Block, 2006; Martin et
al., 2007). Marital rape had its first federal court battle in the early 1970s, and the first conviction
came in 1979 (Martin et al., 2007). Individual U.S. states began outlawing marital rape in 1992,
the U.S. military outlawed marital rape in 1992, and all 50 states outlawed marital rape by 1993
(Martin et al., 2007; Morris, 1996).
Rape awareness and activism became a large movement in the 1960s and 1970s through
various Women’s Liberation Movement and other radical feminist groups (Baxandall & Gordon,
2000). Feminist theorists began a rallying cry for change, justice, and encouraged victims to
speak out against the “male oppression and forced submission” (Baxandall & Gordon, 2000).
While the fight for awareness and justice was necessary for American culture, it is believed that
a counter result has been that males are always perceived to be the perpetrators (Stemple &
Meyer, 2014). This makes it harder for male victims to find the motivation and courage to come
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 20
forward (Stemple & Meyer, 2014). Current data shows that male victim rates in America are
almost equal to that of female victims (Stemple & Meyer, 2014).
The definitions referring to male victims have changed even more slowly, with the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) only changing its definition of rape to include males as
victims in 2013 (O’Brien et al., 2015). The FBI now describes rape as “penetration, no matter
how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ
of another person, without the consent of the victim” (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2018).
United States Armed Forces Victimology Laws on rape and numbers of rapes in the U.S. armed
forces mirror those of society as a whole (Futures Without Violence, 2013; Hubbert, 2013). As
recently as the beginning of the 21
st
century, there were still very few studies focused solely on
military sexual assault and abuse (Rentz et al., 2006). The Universal Code of Military Justice
(UCMJ) defines sexual assault under Article 120 as:
Commits a sexual act upon another person by— (a) threatening or placing that other
person in fear; (b) causing bodily harm to that other person; (c) making a fraudulent
representation that the sexual act serves a professional purpose; or (d) inducing a belief
by any artifice, pretense, or concealment that the person is another person; (2) commits a
sexual act upon another person when the person knows or reasonably should know that
the other person is asleep , unconscious, or otherwise unaware that the sexual act is
occurring; or (3) commits a sexual act upon another person when the other person is
incapable of consenting to the sexual act due to— (a) impairment by any drug, intoxicant,
IV-68 Article 120 ¶45.a.(g)(8)(a) or other similar substance, and that condition is known
or reasonably should be known by the person; or (b) a mental disease or defect, or
physical disability, and that condition is known or reasonably should be known by the
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 21
person; is guilty of sexual assault and shall be punished as a court-martial may direct
(SAPR, 2018).
Sexual assault includes rape, nonconsensual sodomy (oral or anal sex), indecent assault
(unwanted, inappropriate sexual contact or fondling), or attempts to commit these acts (Powers,
n.d.; SAPR, 2018).
Commanders have long condemned sexual assault in the ranks going so far as to make
base wide comments warning potential offenders that they would be prosecuted to the fullest
extent of the law (Choik, 2009). However, in 2010, only 14% of all sexual assaults across all five
branches of the military were reported; one in three sex offenders kept their military careers, and
out of the 3,192 reports, only 191 went to full adjudication and conviction (Futures Without
Violence, 2013). The most recent data for the USMC shows that adjudication rates for sexual
assault cases remain at 3.2% (SAPR), 2018). Experts argue that low adjudication rates are a
contributing factor to victims not wanting to come forward when they experience a sexual assault
(Hubbert, 2013; Williston, 2015).
The outcry from the public over military sexual assaults has caused several major shifts
in victimology practices and procedures throughout the DOD. High occupational stress and the
high deployment tempo are large factors in military victimology (Hubbert, 2013; Rentz et al.,
2006; Williston, 2015). High deployment tempo refers to the ratio of a service member’s time on
deployment to the service member’s time home between deployments. Due to these stressors,
there has been an increased focus on preventative measures to try to prevent assaults, including
trying to identify perpetrators through the health care system, and large social media and
marketing campaigns urging peers to be proactive in stopping assaults as they unfold (DOD,
2012; Hubbert, 2013; Williston, 2015). While annual reports from the DOD showed an overall
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 22
1% decline in instances of sexual assault for FY14, that is most likely not accurate, because
unreported incidents are not accounted for (DOD, 2015a). The most recent annual report from
FY17 showed that male victims in the USMC made up 22% of total reports, which was down
from FY16 by 8% (DOD, 2019).
The United States Marine Corps
While the USMC is considered to be one of the five branches of the American military,
the organization is actually a branch of the Department of the Navy. USMC victimology is
extremely complex because of the many stakeholders that are involved. For the purpose of this
study, the literature review will focus on victims, statistics, research, and stereotypes in the
USMC and in society that may affect a victim’s willingness to report.
Victims
Male victims deserve to be treated with the same dignity and respect as their female
counterparts. Forced sexual acts take away victims’ power, consent, dignity, and the right to
decide what happens to their body. While it is most common to hear about men committing
assault against women, sexual assault victims can be men. The National Comorbidity Survey
found that the probability of receiving a PTSD diagnosis following sexual assault was higher for
men (65%) than for women (46%) (Kessler et al., 1995).
Male victims have just as high or a higher likelihood of mental and emotional trauma as a
result of their assault (Kessler et al., 1995; Kimerling et al., 2002). A study of a nationally
representative sample of 941 male and female survivors of adult sexual assault found that male
survivors reported significantly higher levels of distress in areas including sexual concerns,
dysfunctional sexual behavior, externalizing activities, anger, anxious arousal, impaired self-
image, and defensive avoidance (Elliot et al., 2004). Civilian studies of male sexual assault
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 23
suggest that when compared with women, men who are sexually assaulted have significantly
higher rates of psychiatric hospitalization, psychiatric symptoms, and reported distress
(Kimerling et al., 2002).
Cost
While the DOD or HQMC does not publish how much is spent on victimology issues,
there is enough data from various sources to argue that it is a significant amount. The $10,880
that the VA spent on individual victims in 2011 comes out to a total of over $872 million. It is
estimated that the United States spends an average of $4 billion a year on medical costs and $67
billion in crime debt related to sexual-assault victims (Scott, 2013; Trevillion, Williamson, &
Thandi, 2015). In 2012, the military spent an estimated $3.6 billion to address sexual assaults,
including manpower, legal fees, medical and psychiatric costs (Futures Without Violence, 2013).
The annual sexual assault report that is published by the DOD costs an estimated $3.3
million to create (DOD, 2018). It is estimated that the average lifetime cost of a rape victim for
legal, medical, and mental health services is $122,461 (Futures Without Violence, 2013). The
latest data from the Department of Veterans Affairs shows that from 1998-2018, the organization
has paid out over $8.7 million in 263 cases to survivors of sexual harassment (Ioanes, 2018).
Statistics and Research on Male versus Female Rapes
In 2009 the Inspector General of the USMC ordered an audit of the entire SAPR program
(HQMC, 2009). In the USMC specifically, one in every three Marines will be a victim of an
attempted or completed rape at some point in their career (DOD, 2015a; Futures Without
Violence, 2013). The current statistics show male rape as being an estimated 1% of all rapes in
the USMC; however, research shows those numbers to be false (DOD, 2015a). There have been
several major changes to the USMC’s SAPR program, as well as several major audits and
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 24
congressional inquiries aimed at trying to discern the reasons for the major discrepancies in the
numbers of reports as well as in the number of occurrences of sexual assault (DOD, 2015a;
HQMC, 2009). In FY18 (Fiscal Year 2018), the DOD implemented a new program called the
Plan to Prevent and Respond to the Sexual Assault of Military Men (DOD, 2019). This plan is a
comprehensive program which has been rolled out to all branches of the military to implement.
The reasons males do not report rapes differ from the reasons females do not report. The
Department of Defense reports submitted to Congress, which attempted to explain the male
versus female reporting discrepancy included summary data from the 2012 Workplace and
Gender Relations Survey of Active Duty Members. The report described how female and male
active-duty service members who experienced an assault but did not report were asked to select
from a set of reasons for their decision not to report. Males tended to endorse items related to the
consequences of reporting (punishment for other violations, decreasing the chance for
promotion, not being believed), while females endorsed items such as feelings of discomfort and
wanting to keep the assault confidential. Although not included in the survey, the male service
members’ concerns about their career and other consequences of reporting may, in part, reflect
an awareness of cultural norms related to masculinity and male sexuality and the heightened
emphasis on these expectations and possible consequences in a military environment.
Military victimology experts have called for more accurate and comprehensive research
to find out the true number of instances of sexual violence each year. Policies and procedures
have not made a difference in lowering the incidents of assault in the USMC (Hubbert, 2013).
The DOD does not monitor occurrences of marital rape, and now that same-sex marriage is
allowed in the DOD, rape within the confines of marriage is a factor in male rape statistics
(DOD, 2015b). Abuse in military couples tends to be more severe than in civilian occurrences, so
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 25
it is extremely important to find ways to screen and identify instances of abuse (Lutgendorf,
Thagard, Rockswold, Busch, & Magann, 2012; Tinney & Gerlock, 2014; Trevillion et al., 2015).
USMC Culture and Male Stereotypes That May Affect Male Rape
Because of the high demands and standards that are placed on Marines, it can be argued
that the pressure for perfection in battle and in life can cause more damage than good (Hubbert,
2013; Scott, 2012). Hollywood movies and society, in general, have long propagated a
personification of Marines as macho hard chargers with killer instincts and little or no feelings or
personality (Scott, 2013). Marines have several nicknames which personify them as strong
warriors who never back down from a fight, two of the most popular being “leatherneck” and
“devil dog.” Historians agree that the term “leatherneck” originated from the leather collar that
Marines wore to keep their posture straight. The term “devil dog,” or in German teufelheunden,
comes from the Battle of Belleau Wood in World War I. The title was given to the Marines by
the Germans, who said the Marines were like dogs from hell who would not give up (USMC,
2017).
One of the main reasons male rape is so grossly underreported is the common cultural
viewpoint that the victim of rape is weak, and most men resist the portrayal of themselves as
weak. The warrior mentality prevalent in the USMC is not tolerant of weakness in individuals
(Bruneau, 2009). Some experts argue that the issue of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in the
USMC should take precedence over the issue of male rape (Hubbert, 2013; Lutgendorf et al.,
2012; Trevillion et al.,2015). This type of argument further produces an unstated cultural bias
within the USMC that male victims are not as important as other victims of sexual and intimate
crimes. Historically, the USMC has always treated victim crimes as separate issues, with
separate causes and factors, instead of linking instances of domestic abuse, child abuse, or sexual
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 26
assault to similar factors, patterns, and stressors (Bruneau, 2009; Edwards, 2010; Hubbert, 2013).
This separation allows the USMC to keep its reporting numbers low and hinders the ability to get
to the root causes of the issues, such as high stress and Marine culture (Edwards, 2010; Hubbert,
2013).
In American society, most male children and adolescents are exposed to numerous media
influences that glorify the role of a soldier (O’Brien et al., 2015). Through this exposure, they
come to identify with military figures. For those who enlist, this identification is heightened and
reinforced. For many male military sexual-assault survivors, their constructs about masculinity
and the male role are related to the image of a warrior (Morris, 1996). For the male military
veteran, the experience of military sexual assault is often associated with a larger sense of defeat
and failure to win the battle, which results in shame (Morris, 1996).
Assisting the veteran to identify these constructs and process their impact is an important
aspect of recovery; the ability to maintain pride in one’s veteran status and separate the soldier
identity from the victim/survivor identity is critical to healing (Kimerling et al., 2002). It is also
important to specifically address the military context in which the assault occurred and to
recognize its impact on the veteran’s life. Treatment interventions designed to undermine the
focus on hypermasculinity that may have started in the military can be important for many male
veterans. This should include a careful processing of what it means to be male, review of the
individual’s early learning about masculinity, identification of role models from both civilian and
military settings that express masculinity in a variety of ways, exploration of the interplay of
sexuality and masculinity, and identification of values and valued life directions that are related
to male roles and masculinity (Kimerling et al., 2002; O’Brien et al., 2015).
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 27
Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analytic framework is grounded in understanding clear and
concise goals for both the organization and stakeholders. These objectives help researchers then
identify the gaps that exist between goals and current performance levels. Once the goals have
been identified, the framework suggests an analysis of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that could impact stakeholder performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). Four
types of knowledge and skills have been defined that can help stakeholders achieve their
performance goals: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002).
Motivational influences and principles that can be used to analyze performance gaps include
value, self-efficacy, goal, and goal orientation (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Some of the
organizational influences that impact stakeholder goal achievement are resources, workplace
culture, and processes (Clark & Estes, 2008).
USMC Direct Line Unit Supervisor Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Each element of the gap analysis framework by Clark and Estes (2008) will be addressed
with regard to USMC direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences in order to meet the goal of implementing their mandatory sexual-assault reporting
duties with 100% compliance, and ensuring that all subordinates are aware they have a safe
space to report sexual crimes. In the first section, assumed influences related to knowledge and
skills are discussed in the context of the stakeholder performance goal. Next, assumed influences
on motivation for attaining the stakeholder goal are discussed. Finally, assumed organizational
influences on achievement of the stakeholder goal are discussed.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 28
Knowledge and Skills
The USMC’s SAPR program exists to combat sexual assault in the organization, educate
the ranks on the epidemic, and ensure that victims receive proper care and services (HQMC,
2009). To help raise the reporting numbers of male victims, the USMC must look at its current
practices and align its goals with process improvement in mind. One of these goals is that by
2022 all direct line unit supervisors will be 100% compliant with all sexual assault reporting
duties and ensure that all subordinates are aware they have a safe space to report sexual crimes.
Individuals who have a solid skill set in their focused task can achieve better results (Krathwohl,
2002). It is important for direct line unit supervisors to study victimology and skill sets for
handling sexual-assault victims in order to ensure they are learning the sexual-assault reporting
policies and procedures to their highest potential.
HQMC and congressional authorities can utilize the gap analysis to help identify areas of
opportunity for growth and improvement in learning habits and strategies. The literature review
will focus on the methods and strategies that will help direct line unit supervisors sharpen their
skills for performing all mandatory sexual-assault reporting duties. The information can be
synthesized to give direct line unit supervisors real-world applications in their sexual-assault
mandatory reporting duties.
Knowledge influences and learning principles related to proper victimology
knowledge. Many factors influence the ability of an individual to perform a task. Analyzing a
knowledge gap requires the researcher to identify specific types of knowledge (Clark & Estes,
2008). There are four main types of knowledge that need to be examined in order to understand
stakeholders’ capacity to achieve their goals: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002). Factual knowledge deals with the basic elements a
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 29
person needs to know about a certain subject in order to be able to claim familiarity with a
subject or to have the ability to solve problems in that area (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual
knowledge is the way that basic concepts or ideas relate to each other in order to function
together (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge is knowing how to complete a certain task,
technique, or procedure, as well as the ability to know the appropriate way to use the skills
acquired (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge is awareness of one’s own cognition and
cognition in general (Krathwohl, 2002).
Direct line unit supervisors do not have the knowledge needed. Direct line unit
supervisors must have an understanding of conceptual and procedural knowledge in order to
analyze, process, and retain the necessary victimology knowledge and to meet their goal of
raising reporting numbers of male victims. When addressing the victimology knowledge level of
direct line unit supervisors, it is crucial to remember that these individuals are generally not
subject-matter experts (Bruneau, 2009; Dalton, 1997). A greater understanding of which
metacognition, procedural, and conceptual knowledge individuals have helps them identify areas
of knowledge they lack; this understanding can lead to the development of a proper action plan
to attain the correct knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). If trainers and victimology experts maintain
the mental framework that direct line unit supervisors need in order to be taught new
information, and not assume previous knowledge of USMC victimology policies and procedures,
it can ensure a more thorough knowledge action plan.
Once direct line unit supervisors have been signed off as being trained in victim reporting
requirements, they are expected to have the processes memorized and be ready to receive reports
at any time (HQMC, 2009). Currently, direct line unit supervisors are trained in their roles as
reporters through online video training, in conjunction with live classroom training time
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 30
(HQMC, 2009). Individuals who maximize their information intake and achieve mastery in the
core concepts of the field set themselves up for success in real-world application (Krathwohl,
2002). Direct line unit supervisors can achieve success by ensuring they have the proper
knowledge of victimology training and processes.
Direct line unit supervisors’ need knowledge of how to apply the proper victim
handling methods and procedures. Direct line unit supervisors’ exposure to conceptual
knowledge principles can help them identify the key victimology concepts they need to master in
order to retain and transfer the information for their mandated positions. Using conceptual
knowledge can also help individuals develop a better sense of theories, concepts, and models in
their day-to-day operations (Krathwohl, 2002). This type of framework helps direct line unit
supervisors create safe spaces within their work environments to make victims feel more
comfortable in reporting to them. Direct line unit supervisors who have a good grasp of
victimology frameworks use the tools to set up or identify the proper physical safe spaces to have
conversations with their Marines when a report needs to be made. Safe spaces and open-door
policies are crucial to victims who are in need of assistance (Hubbert, 2013; SAPR, 2018)
Direct line unit supervisors need to recognize their strengths and areas of growth when
it comes to being first line mandatory reporters. Direct line unit supervisors cannot be expected
to know what knowledge they lack, nor can they be expected to know how to obtain the missing
knowledge (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). When assumptions are made about prior knowledge or
there are false expectations about people’s knowledge, the organization and its mission suffer
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Proper and thorough training of
direct line unit supervisors ensures that every Marine who is required to handle the duties of a
mandatory sexual-assault reporter will have the proper knowledge and mindset to do so.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 31
One of the larger challenges is combating the influence of peers on direct line unit
supervisors’ views and knowledge on victimology, from “locker room”-type conversations,
instead of the official training sanctioned by the DOD and HQMC (Hubbert, 2013; O’Brien et
al., 2015). This type of mentality caused a national problem for the USMC in 2017, when the
Marines United Facebook site was exposed worldwide (Lamothe, 2017). Several main figures in
USMC leadership even made public statements arguing that, given Marines’ status as America’s
elite warriors, they should be allowed to enjoy “carnal knowledge” without political interference
(Lamothe, 2017).
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 32
Table 2
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Direct line unit supervisors need
victimology knowledge to enhance
their ability to increase reporting
numbers.
Conceptual Conduct a pre-interview survey to
analyze the direct line unit
supervisor’s knowledge. Then during
an interview, talk about ways the unit
supervisor can increase their
knowledge successfully.
Sample Question:
Tell me what you perceive to be your
areas of strength as a first-line
reporter.
Are there any areas that you perceive
to be challenges?
Direct line unit supervisors need to
know how to apply the proper
victim handling methods and
procedures.
Procedural Conduct an initial survey to analyze
the direct line unit supervisor’s
knowledge of victim handling, as
well as to analyze their learning
strategies and knowledge of learning
strategies.
Direct line unit supervisors need to
recognize their strengths and areas
of growth when it comes to being
first line mandatory reporters.
Metacognitive Conduct a pre-survey or interview
with the direct line unit supervisor
and also the training program authors
to analyze where the gaps are.
Motivation
The USMC reaching its goals relies heavily on the motivation of its stakeholders to work
toward them. Motivation is the element that drives people from the beginning of a task to its
completion (Grossman & Salas, 2011; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Motivation takes mental
effort and persistence and can be a key factor in success, or, if it is lacking, a key factor in failure
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 33
(Grossman & Salas, 2011; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Motivation is influenced by such
psychological influences as individuals’ self-efficacy, perceived value, and goal orientation
(Grossman & Salas, 2011; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Direct line unit supervisors must possess
and display motivation in order to gain and implement the proper knowledge and skills necessary
to play their part in helping to raise the reporting numbers of male victims.
The motivation theories underlying this study relating to direct line unit supervisors are
self-efficacy, expectancy-value theory, and attribution theory. Using expectancy-value theory,
direct line unit supervisors need to see the value in their training and ultimately, in being a
mandatory reporter. Under attribution theory, direct line unit supervisors need to identify the
complex issues that have resulted in low reporting numbers. They must overcome the idea that
their role or position is being criticized, and they need to believe they have the power to make a
direct impact on the reporting results.
Self-efficacy theory and self-efficacy related to reporting duties. Self-efficacy is the
way people judge their ability to learn or perform tasks (Bandura, 1991; Pajares, 2006).
Individuals in any situation are not capable of assessing themselves if they have never been
given the tools to do so (Bandura, 1991; Pajares, 2006). It is important for learners to have
positive experiences with learning and task mastery in order to create a strong determination to
continue learning and growing their skills (Bandura, 1991; Pajares, 2006).
Self-efficacy is a key conceptual element that direct line unit supervisors need to use to
be confident and control their ability to apply the mandated victimology policies and procedures.
Issues with self-efficacy and regulation can be extreme detriments to task learning, knowledge
retention, and task performance (Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Ensuring that direct
line supervisors have the proper self-efficacy and regulation will be beneficial to them as they
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 34
assess their skill sets in relation to the goal of being 100% compliant with all mandatory sexual
assault reporting duties.
Task mastery and self-efficacy can converge and become an individual’s resolve to do
the right thing at all costs (Bandura, 1991; Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Direct
line unit supervisors who have self-efficacy when it comes to their knowledge of proper
mandatory sexual-assault reporting guidelines are more likely to persist in their efforts when
faced with challenges. As previously discussed, issues such as misogyny within the ranks,
command cover-ups, and overall lack of adherence to procedural actions when it comes to sexual
assault throughout the ranks and leadership of the USMC, can make it difficult for an individual
direct line unit supervisor to make a proper and efficient sexual-assault report (Bruneau, 2009;
Hubbert, 2013; Lamothe, 2017; SAPR, 2018).
Expectancy-value theory and perception of training value. Expectancy-value theory
holds that learners choose behaviors they believe will have a combination of the greatest value
and the greatest success (Eccles, 2006). The expectancy portion of the theory addresses the
amount of confidence the learner has about his or her ability to accomplish the task, and the
value portion of the theory deals with how much importance the learner gives the task (Rueda,
2011). Learners can find value in a task in various ways: intrinsic value, attainment value, utility
value, and cost value (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). When learners make these types of decisions
on the value of a task, it is essential that their personal values and self-efficacy are in line with
the truth, or the outcomes will not be favorable (Eccles, 2006). If direct line unit supervisors
have an inaccurate perception of their ability to handle situations, it can affect the way they
handle sexual-assault reports.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 35
The various constructs in the theory aim to define aspects of both learning action and
outcome through the lens of this theory. Intrinsic value is the amount of happiness, or pleasure
learners believe they will experience in performing the task at hand (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
Attainment value is the level of importance the task has in relation to how learners see
themselves (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Utility value deals with the way the task aligns with
learners’ goals or helps to meet their desires, such as positive occurrences or financial gain
(Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Cost value is the amount of time the learner will need to expend on
the task (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Direct line unit supervisors need to see the value in their
mandatory sexual assault reporting training, which is why the utility value perspective is a key
factor to ensure that proper attention is being given to learning the necessary information.
Direct line unit supervisors need to see the value in training. When direct line unit
supervisors recognize the utility value in victimology training, it will help keep them engaged in
the learning process and raise the chances of proper protocol and procedure retention (Eccles,
2006; Singh, 2016; Welch, 2011; Woodruffe, 2006). In victimology, the front-line reporter
usually has to make quick initial decisions, which can have long-lasting ramifications for the
victim and case. Protocol, policies, and procedures must be strictly adhered to and executed
flawlessly while giving victims the dignity and respect they need and deserve (Hubbert, 2013).
In order to ensure that direct line unit supervisors have the necessary motivation to handle
victims properly, they need to take their training seriously and be proactive and engaged in the
learning process (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Singh, 2016; Welch, 2011; Woodruffe, 2006).
Attributions for low reporting numbers. Attribution theory focuses on the way
individuals explain the causes of behaviors and achievement events. This is of particular interest
when individuals are uncertain why an event happened, especially when it is unexpected
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 36
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Failure at any point during a task can make it difficult for the
individual to resist internalizing the failure (Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006). When an individual’s
perception of an event is different from the true cause of the event or its outcomes, there can be
grave consequences (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). When an individual internalizes perception
of an event in the wrong way, it can cause the individual to respond in unfavorable ways that are
unnecessary (Anderman & Anderman, 2006).
The issues of victimology are incredibly complex, and direct line unit supervisors who do
not see the complexity of the issue can wrongfully internalize negative outcomes. Direct line unit
supervisors need to make sure that, while they are working on their portion of the issue, they do
not internalize poor results or blame them solely on their department. It is necessary for all
stakeholders to be open and honest about their perceived role in the issue so that those
viewpoints can be analyzed and then corrected, as necessary, through proper training (Aguinis &
Kraiger, 2009). It would be detrimental for direct line supervisors to see the low reporting
numbers as primarily due to their lack of leadership. Such an internal attribution might cause
them to doubt their leadership capacity and keep them from taking appropriate actions to ensure
that they are doing their part in being 100% compliant with all aspects of their duties within the
reporting process. However, if they see low reporting numbers also as a result of the victims’
distrust in the system, lack of knowledge of the victims’ part and potential cover-up, it will give
them a better mental framework of the problem. In other words, the direct line unit supervisors
need to see reasons external to them as significant contributing factors to low reporting numbers.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 37
Table 3
Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessments
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Utility Value
Direct line unit supervisors need to see the
value of being in compliance with the sexual-
assault training.
Anonymous survey where their point of view
is assessed: “The sexual-assault mandatory
training is valuable in my position.”
1) strongly agree
2) agree
3) no opinion
4) disagree
5) strongly disagree
Attributions
Direct line unit supervisors should see the
low reporting numbers as a complex issue
and not solely the fault of a bad direct line
unit supervisor.
Anonymous survey: “Victim reporting
numbers are low because:”
a) Direct line unit supervisors suck
b) The numbers are accurate; there is no
problem
c) Victims are scared to come forward
d) It is a complex issue with no one clear
answer
e) Other_________________
Organizational Influences
An organization can be viewed and analyzed by its culture (Schein, 2017). The USMC
prides itself on its motto, “The Few, the Proud, the Marines.” This exclusive branch of the U.S.
military considers itself to be the epitome of what a war-fighting organization should look like.
The culture of an organization includes its employees, social and societal constructs, policies and
procedures, and the methodologies for why those policies and procedures are in place (Schein,
2017). While the USMC has specific mandates from higher authorities, such as the DOD,
Congress, and the Department of the Navy, regarding policies, procedures, and organizational
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 38
structure, there are other elements, such as culture and ethos, that are unique to the branch
(USMC, 2017; SAPR, 2018). Cultural models can be used to not only analyze the cultural
practices within an organization but the mental schemas that are shared by the individuals within
the organization (Schein, 2017; Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). These models can be used to
analyze whether or not certain cultural practices are affecting the number of male rapes that are
reported each year.
The organizational factors that can be impacting why direct line unit supervisors are not
compliant with their mandatory reporting duties are the following: a) the organization needs to
give clear expectations of its programs and processes; b) the organization needs to be consistent
in enforcement of its policies and procedures; and c) the organization needs to be open and
honest about its current state of affairs. If there are not clear expectations about SAPR programs
and processes, it could impact direct line unit supervisors’ ability to handle suspicion of, or
reports of, male sexual assault (DOD, 2012; DOD, 2015a; SAPR, 2018). A lack of consistency in
enforcement of policies and procedures can make direct line unit supervisors apathetic about the
urgency of performing their duty to report instances of male rape (Hubbert, 2013; Scott, 2013). If
the USMC does not fully disclose the extent of the issue, it can cause direct line unit supervisors
to distrust the system or the process and therefore neglect their duty to report instances of male
rape (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Clear expectations of programs and processes available to male rape victims. An
organization must give stakeholders clear expectations of programs and procedures by providing
clear guidelines, policies, and procedures. When organizations fail to set clear expectations, it is
quite common for stakeholders to get frustrated and begin to become apathetic (Bolman & Deal,
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 39
2013). Outlining clear expectations ensures that all stakeholders are on the same page and are
given a clear direction in which to take the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
One of the obstacles in USMC victimology is that every unit commander is given “Commander’s
Discretion,” which is the latitude to make certain decisions about processes, procedures, and the
way disciplinary measures are handled (Hubbert, 2013). When there are conflicting orders
between an outside entity and a unit commander, it can cause confusion, as subordinates
typically trust their superior regardless of outside governing policies and procedures (Bruneau,
2009; Hubbert, 2013). This discrepancy can cause a disconnect between the guidance given and
the way male victims are actually handled by direct line unit supervisors when a report is made.
Consistent enforcement of policies and procedures related to sexual assault. In any
organization, consistency is one of the main keys to success. Consistency not only ensures a
seamless execution of policies and procedures; it also gives stakeholders a sense of stability and
security (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Schein, 2017; Senge, 2006). When organizations are not
consistent in the enforcement of policies and procedures, chaos and distrust among stakeholders
may result.
When there are discrepancies between the policies and procedures set by an outside entity
versus the actual execution of a program by a unit, it can cause confusion and discontent.
Stakeholders can also begin to form distrust of the system, or become discouraged, which is
detrimental to anyone involved (Bolman & Deal, 2013). The consistency of enforcement in the
USMC needs to be addressed in all areas, including but not limited to the initial reporting
process, investigation, preferral of charges, and adjudication (Dalton, 1997; Hubbert, 2013;
SAPR, 2018). Preferral of charges is an official legal process that happens when the accused is
officially charged with their alleged crimes.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 40
Transparency about the current state of male rape reporting numbers. It is difficult
for an organization to be completely open and honest about its current state of affairs when the
current state is less than excellent. Organizational leadership’s courage to be open and honest
allows a complete analysis of the situation so that the proper improvements can be made
(Bolman & Deal, 2013; Schein, 2017; Senge, 2006). When leadership does not disclose the full
details of issues, it not only leads to the possibility of an improper solution, it also causes distrust
from its stakeholders.
It is important that direct line unit supervisors be actively made aware of the deficiencies
that exist in the area of male sexual-assault reports. A problem cannot be adequately solved in an
organization until the organization openly admits there is a problem. When stakeholders are not
included in the process of formulating a solution, they can become disenfranchised and
disengaged (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Table 4 shows the correlation between assumed
organizational influences and the organizational assessments.
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Organizational Assessment
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
The organization must give clear expectations
of its programs and processes.
Ask questions in the survey regarding SAPR
policies and procedures. Build follow-up
interview questions based on survey results.
The organization needs to enforce its policies
and procedures consistently.
Ask questions in the survey regarding how
stakeholders feel policies and procedures are
being followed. Build follow-up interview
questions based on survey results.
The organization must be open and honest
about its current state of affairs.
Ask questions in the survey regarding how
stakeholders feel the organization is handling
the issues. Build follow-up interview
questions based on survey results.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 41
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of USMC Direct Line Unit Supervisors’
Knowledge, Motivation, and the Organizational Context
Conceptual frameworks are used to explain how the factors explored and represented in a
study interact with the various ideas presented in the literature (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual framework helps the researcher better understand how the
research, personal experiences, and other processes combine, in order to form theories on how
and why certain phenomena occur, and to then decide how the study can further contribute or
build on what has already been done (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The conceptual framework in this paper focused on the previous research on male rape in
the USMC. The framework put the previous research into perspective when looking at the rates
of underreporting and in analyzing how direct line unit supervisors were impacted in their role as
first-line reporters. The previous research assisted the researcher in identifying methods and
pathways that will assist direct line unit supervisors and the USMC as a whole in raising the
reporting numbers of male rape. It is this framework and the convergence of the following two
worldviews that informed this study.
There were two worldviews that inform this study: an advocacy/participatory worldview
and a pragmatic worldview (Creswell, 2014). An advocacy/participatory worldview is one in
which research is intertwined with politics and a political agenda (Creswell, 2014). An
advocacy/participatory researcher usually has some type of action agenda for reform that can be
life changing for the various stakeholders involved. This study has potential political
ramifications in that Congress can mandate measurable changes in programs, policies, and
procedures in the military. However, pragmatism was also a forming worldview in this body of
work. The pragmatism worldview comes from actions, situations, and consequences within an
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 42
organization, rather than pre-existing conditions (Creswell, 2014). The use of multiple
approaches in addressing the underreporting of male rape in the USMC helped ensure that a
workable solution was found. The advocacy/participatory worldview allowed the researcher to
lay the groundwork for significant change in the victimology process when it comes to how male
rape is reported and handled in the USMC. The pragmatic worldview allowed multiple types of
research to be used in order to generate a better understanding of the problem from multiple
viewpoints, as well as to bring about new knowledge. These balanced worldviews brought
important change and meaning to the underreporting of male rape in the USMC.
Even though the former section outlined the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences separately, these elements worked together in the way they affect the
direct line unit supervisors involved in the reporting of male rape in the USMC. Clark and Estes
argue that knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs must be addressed at the same time
in order for proper goal achievement to take place (2008). The conceptual framework presented
here introduced the ways in which knowledge and motivation should work together in the USMC
to reach the reporting goals for 2022, which are that all direct line unit supervisors will
implement the sexual-assault training guidelines with 100% compliance and will ensure that all
subordinates are aware they have a safe space to report sexual crimes. Figure 1 illustrates this
framework.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 43
Figure 1. Interaction of stakeholder knowledge and motivation within organizational cultural
model settings.
This figure depicts the relationship between the factors that influence the underreporting
of male rape in the USMC and the stakeholder goal. In Figure 1, the pink circle represents the
USMC as an organization and the cultural settings and models that exist within it. These cultural
influences include organizational identity and the clear communication of Corps values, and
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 44
victim support systems and resources (Hubbert, 2013; Schein, 2017; Schneider et al., 1996;
Senge, 2006).
The green circle depicts the stakeholders’ knowledge and motivation as reporters of male
rape within the global organization and its goals. The knowledge influences include self-efficacy
and regulation awareness. The motivational influences include the stakeholders’ ability to see the
value in training and to identify complex issues. The knowledge and motivational influences
work together to achieve the stakeholder goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011). The
influences are depicted within the same circle, as all influences interact with each other in a
cyclical fashion and not only give the causal factors of the problem but also provide a pathway to
the solution.
This study sought to understand how the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences of direct line unit supervisors converged to best facilitate their ability to properly and
diligently do their duties as front-line reporters of male rape in the USMC. As such, direct line
unit supervisors should see their duties as front-line reporters as not only a task but also as a
personal investment in taking care of their own. They should have a direct and clear knowledge
of the reporting mandates, process, and guidelines, and be intrinsically rewarded by seeing male
rape victims get the resources and services they need (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Eccles, 2006;
Rueda, 2011; Singh, 2016; Welch, 2011; Woodruffe, 2006). Figure 1 situates the goals as
stacked concentric circles instead of placing the stakeholder goal outside of the KM&O because
the results of the influences impact the goals, problem, and solution in a cyclical fashion. In this
framework, the achievement of the stakeholder goal offers the tentative theory that if knowledge
and motivation in the ranks of direct line unit supervisors are addressed simultaneously with the
issues within USMC organizational culture, the stakeholder goal will become easier to achieve.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 45
Conclusion
This dissertation explored the issue of underreporting of male rape in the USMC and
workable solutions for raising the reporting numbers. This chapter provided a general history of
the USMC, the history of rape in American society and the United States armed forces, and more
specifically, the history of male rape in the USMC. The stakeholder of focus for this study, the
direct line unit supervisor, was also presented, along with the proposed knowledge, motivational,
and organizational influences. This chapter finished by presenting the conceptual framework for
the study, supported by the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework. Chapter 3 presents the
methodological approach for this study.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 46
Chapter Three: Methods
This chapter describes the mixed-methods approach that was used to guide this study,
including the design of the research, sampling strategy, data collection, and instrumentation
methods. The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to the organizational goal of raising the reporting numbers of male sexual
assaults from 1-10% annually to 40-50% annually. The researcher was specifically studying
USMC direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related
to becoming 100% compliant in all sexual-assault training and implementation guidelines.
Research Questions
The questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. What is the direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being
100% compliant with all mandatory sexual-assault reporting duties?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context with direct line unit
supervisors’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Participating Stakeholders
For this study, active duty individuals who were serving as USMC direct line unit
supervisors were invited to participate through e-mail and social media outlets. Direct line unit
supervisors were responsible for all aspects of their Marines personal, spiritual, career, and
financial decisions. It is because of this mantel of responsibility that they are truly one of the
first line defenses against rapes and sexual assaults being unreported. Surveys were sent out and
relied on the snowball method to gather more participants who met the criteria. Snowball
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 47
sampling is an effective way to gather additional participants who can add deeper meaning to the
information gathered (Maxwell, 2013). Survey participants had the opportunity to leave their
contact information to participate in the interview portion of the study. Interviews are an
effective way to create deeper meaning and context of an organizational problem and help find
broader solutions (Patton, 2002).
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Individuals must be currently active duty Marines and either currently
serving as a direct line unit supervisor or have held the billet within the past five years.
The survey was an invitation style which sought to reach a minimum of 100 participants.
The participants in the survey could be referred to as a convenience sample because they were
willing participants who were available to take the survey instead of being purposefully chosen
(Fink, 2013). The data collected was intended to be a representation of the entire population of
direct line unit supervisors within the USMC which is why there were no other restrictions to the
survey other than the facts that they must either currently hold the billet or have held the billet
within the past five years. In order to ensure the data collected represented the targeted
population, the researcher ensured that the recruitment criteria was strictly adhered to (Creswell,
2014; Fink, 2013). The survey was the initial phase of the data collection. While the interview
questions were submitted to IRB, the researcher analyzed the survey data before the interviews
were conducted in order to be able to ask richer follow up questions during the interviews.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Individuals must be a current active duty or active reserve direct line
supervisor in the USMC or have served as one within the past five years at the time of data
collection.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 48
Criterion 2. Individuals must be comfortable with either a phone or in-person interview.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The interview sampling consisted of individuals who volunteered to be interviewed as
well as those who accepted an invitation to be interviewed after they had taken the survey.
Emails, social media, and word of mouth were used to recruit individuals to participate.
Everyone who took the survey received an invitation to participate in an interview in order to
keep the data collection unbiased. The interviews were qualitative in nature because the
questions were exploratory and did not have a structured agenda or outcome (Creswell, 2014;
Johnson & Christensen, 2015). The researcher conducted a total of 12 interviews, which began
after all of the survey results have been collected and analyzed.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents can be an important way to learn about how policies and procedures are
interpreted by the individuals mandated to carry them out (Bogdan & Bilken, 2007). The
researcher gathered various SAPR Training documents pertaining to the current protocol and
procedures that are mandated by HQMC (Headquarters Marine Corps), Congress, and the DOD
(Department of Defense). The documents were used to assess the difference between what was
mandated in regards to the reporting process and what was actually occurring.
Explanation for Choices
The researcher chose to use the data collection methods of surveys, interviews, and
document analysis that enabled the triangulation of data in order to get a comprehensive
understanding of the strengths and weaknesses that currently exist within the direct line
supervisor community in relation to the under reporting of male rape in the USMC. This mixed
methods approach allowed the researcher to go into a deeper exploration and gain a better
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 49
understanding of the topic and problem of practice than any one method of collecting data alone
(Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Due to the fact that victims were not allowed to
be a part of the process in data collection, the observation method in this study was impossible. If
the researcher had been allowed to use the observation method, it would have been used to
observe direct line supervisors as they go through the USMC male rape reporting process.
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
As one method of data collection, the study implemented the quantitative method, using
surveys. Surveys are an efficient method to gather data that describes a population's
characteristics, thoughts, and demographics in a way that is meaningful and cost-effective
(Creswell, 2008; Fink, 2013; Irwin & Stafford, 2016; Pazzaglia, Stafford, & Rodriguez, 2016).
The survey items began with basic demographic information. The questions then progressed into
subjects that helped define the characteristics of direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational outlook as it relates to USMC victimology as a whole, the
specific issue of male rape, and their role as mandatory reporters of sexual assault.
Survey Protocol and Procedures
The researcher used an anonymous survey to protect the identity of the respondents and
to ensure that respondents did not feel pressured to take take the survey (Creswell, 2008; Fink,
2013). The survey gave participants a way to share their experiences as mandatory reporters and
with the USMC relating to victimology, in a way that was safe and confidential. Surveys were a
good fit for this study because they allowed the researcher to collect a large set of data within a
short time frame, without having to dedicate financial resources and travel time.
Invitations to take the survey went out through various organizations, such as the
Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW), Veterans Affairs hospitals (VAs), and individuals who were
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 50
either current or former Marines. In order to ensure that the survey was taken only once by each
person, a unique identifier code was issued in each email and text invitation. There were 19
survey items, designed to explore how a direct line unit supervisor's knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences either support or hinder reporting of male rape. The researcher
followed up the surveys with 12 interviews as a way to validate the data and to provide a
stronger argument for the validity of the stakeholders’ experience (Fink, 2013; Patton, 2002;
Weiss, 1994). The researcher solicited interviewees by having an inquiry form at the end of the
survey that allowed the individual to create a pseudonym and provide contact information to be
reached at a later date.
Validity and Reliability
In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the study, the researcher ensured that the
questions answered were free from any bias or probing language. Defining the terms of the study
and setting a clear message is crucial in ensuring that the data collected is not only free from bias
but is the right data for the purpose of the study (Creswell, 2008; Fink, 2013). The survey items
were built with the specific intent of the research questions in mind, getting to the core of what a
direct line unit supervisor's knowledge, motivation, and organizational mindset were as they
relate to USMC victimology and how that impacts the underreporting of male rape in the USMC.
The researcher tested the survey questions out on victimology subject-matter experts and USMC
personnel to further refine the questions and ensure they would gather the data that was needed
to conduct a meaningful and reliable study.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 51
Qualitative Collection and Instrumentation
In addition to surveys, the qualitative method of interviews was used in this study.
Interviews give researchers the ability to gather, observe, and learn about an individual’s
thoughts, history, and experiences which could otherwise be lost or inaccessible (Bogdan &
Bilken, 2007; Creswell, 2008; Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). The researcher designed and utilized
the interviews to gain a deeper understanding of the knowledge and motivation of direct line unit
supervisors about male sexual-assault reporting. The researcher also hoped to achieve a deeper
perspective than what surveys alone could offer on their perception of how the USMC as an
organization supports them in their role. The researcher also used the interviews to assess
participants’ opinions on the culture of the USMC as it pertains to victimology and specifically
the issue of male rape.
Interview Protocol and Procedures
The protocol the researcher used for the interviews was semi-structured. According to
Patton (2002), conversational interviews, in conjunction with an interview guide, gave the
researcher the flexibility to adjust individual interviews in real time, while still having a solid
outline to keep interviews consistent. This allowed the researcher to dig deeper when the
interviewee offered relevant or interesting information that was not necessarily targeted by the
questions. Some of the questions were closed-ended to gather specific information, and other
questions were open-ended, to allow the researcher to explore subjects’ thoughts on specific
elements of their personal knowledge and motivation around their role in USMC victimology.
Following up surveys with interviews gave the researcher the ability to present a stronger
case about the experiences of the stakeholders by being able to give deeper insight, as well as
giving the study enhanced validity (Fink, 2013; Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). The researcher
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 52
conducted 12 in-person interviews, following a thorough review of the surveys collected. The
interviews were informal, and participants were asked to come in civilian clothes in order to
maintain anonymity. The researcher began each interview by ensuring the Marines knew that
their answers would in no way be linked to their identity in hopes that this knowledge would
ensure the highest level of honesty and openness possible. Because of the short time frame for
data collection, the researcher only collected 12 in-depth interviews, as a way to further analyze
the survey data collected.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In order to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the study, the researcher ensured
that the questions and conclusions drawn from the data collection were free from any biased
language and clearly represented the point of view of the subjects, without adding interpretation
of what was said or heard. In the designing of all research, it is crucial that human subjects be
treated with dignity and the highest ethical standards (Glesne, 2011). The researcher ensured the
anonymity of all survey and interview subjects so that there could be no question of either
tampering with the data, or bias. The researcher also used triangulation to compare the data to
ensure that the results are not one-sided misrepresentations of the stakeholder group.
Ethics
In conducting research that involves human beings, the researcher has a responsibility to
ensure that all research subjects are treated with respect, dignity, and confidentiality (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). It is imperative that the research follow all ethical and legal guidelines in the
preparation, conducting, and follow-up of all research subjects, and ensure any personal
information collected is protected. (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research participants were
given full disclosure of the goals of the research and were able to opt in or out of receiving a
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 53
copy of the finished text. Participants were completely anonymous; those who chose to interview
went by a pseudonym and did not give the researcher any identifying information about
themselves or their units. This double-blind method ensured that participants could remain
strictly anonymous at all times (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The data collected from each
participant was stored on an encrypted computer which will remain in the researcher’s
possession or in a locked room in the researcher’s home at all times. Any handwritten notes were
cross-cut shredded as soon as they were transcribed into the researcher’s computer; if there was a
lapse in time, the notes were stored in a double-locked file cabinet. These security measures
ensured the confidentiality and safety of the collected data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
This study focused on the USMC and its active-duty and Reserve components. At one
point in her career, the researcher served as a Special Staff Officer in an Air Wing Unit. Because
the researcher is no longer embedded in a USMC unit, there was no chance the researcher would
encounter a conflict of interest or risk having subordinates feel pressured to answer questions
because of any type of bias or pressure. While the researcher’s affiliation with the USMC may
have made research participants more comfortable during the process, there was no risk in the
researcher’s ability to establish her role as an outside investigator on this issue. The researcher
had a strong sense of urgency when it came to USMC Victimology due to personal tragedies as
well as seeing many cases of sexual assault with female victims go unreported or mishandled.
There was a curiosity to find out what types of issues revolved around male rape victims.
Researchers must acknowledge any personal biases that they have in order to ensure the validity
of the study that they are conducting (Glesne, 2011). This researcher does not have any
assumptions or biases regarding the issue that is being researched. The researcher was aware of
her own personal experiences with USMC victimology and the processes that surrounded it.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 54
While the subject matter is similar, it is different enough that the researcher did not have a
difficult time keeping the study and her personal opinions separate.
Limitations and Delimitations
Utilizing a mixed-methods research approach, this study involved the use of surveys and
interviews as the main methods of data collection. The study focused on a thorough examination
of the training and preparation that direct line unit supervisors in the USMC receive to perform
their duties as mandatory sexual-assault reporters. Limitations to the study and potential
weaknesses out of the researcher’s control will exist. The limitations of this study included the
truthfulness of participants in the researcher’s interviews and whether survey respondents
answered in a fair and honest manner. This study was limited by the time allotted to gather data
and is only a representative snapshot of the conditions that occurred during this time frame. The
study is also limited to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences the researcher
selected for the conceptual framework.
Delimitation choices the researcher made, such as the questions asked in interviews, the
number of participants, and survey questions asked and answered, limited the scope of the study.
The study is delimited to USMC direct line unit supervisor input and the USMC as an
organization only. The region where the Marines were stationed did not inhibit the study in any
way. Because of the mixed-methods nature of the study, some generalizations to the larger
military population may be inferred.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 55
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to the proposed organizational goal of raising the reporting numbers of male
sexual assaults in the USMC from 1-10% annually to 40-50% annually. The researcher
specifically studied USMC direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to becoming 100% compliant in all sexual-assault training and
implementation guidelines. By identifying the gaps that prevent USMC direct line unit
supervisors from properly handling reports of sexual assault, the organization will be better set
up for success in achieving their goals of increasing male victim reports. The following questions
guided this study:
1. What is the direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being
100% compliant with all mandatory sexual-assault reporting duties?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context with direct line unit
supervisors’ knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
The research conducted used a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data in the form of
anonymous surveys were initially collected. There were 100 Marines serving as direct line unit
supervisors that completed the anonymous survey. The surveys were collected through the
snowball method, and some surveys were collected via an encrypted online link while other
participants took the survey via paper and pen without names or any other identifying
information.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 56
The surveys were followed by the qualitative method of 12 semi-formal interviews,
which allowed the researcher to explore the results of the surveys in a more meaningful way.
Seven of the interviews were collected over the phone, and five were conducted in person. All of
the interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed. No identifying personal information was
collected during the interviews; individuals that participated in the in-person interviews wore
civilian clothing to protect their identity. The researcher used the SAPR training manuals as part
of the document analysis to further develop the findings.
Quantitative Analysis Overview
The quantitative overview describes the results of the 19 question survey. Qualtrics,
Excel, and SPSS helped provide a detailed analysis of the results. Means, standard deviations,
and chi-square tests were generated. The use of descriptive statistics, means, and comparisons
helped the researcher find deeper meaning within the data. While more men than women took
the survey, there was a higher statistical significance in the number of female direct line unit
supervisors that admitted to having dealt with male victim rape reports than male direct line unit
supervisors. Various tables throughout the paper will portray the various findings and
statistically meaningful data. Table 5 shows that 100 Marines took the survey, 30 females and
70 males.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 57
Table 5
Survey Participant Demographics
Characteristic Number (n)
Total Quantitative Sample (TS) 100
Female (F) 30
Male (M) 70
0-4 Years Active Duty 70
5-8 Years Active Duty 10
9-12 Years Active Duty 10
20+ Years Active Duty 10
Table 6 breaks down the demographics of both the Quantitative and Qualitative groups
by the number of SAPR training hours they have completed and gender. Out of the 112
participants, 107 were enlisted and five were officers. There were 34 females, 30 for the surveys
and four in the interviews. There were 78 males, 70 for the surveys and eight in the interviews.
There were 51 that said that had received under two hours of SAPR training, 10 said that had
received 2-5 hours of training, one said they had received 5-10 hours of training and 50 said they
had more than 10 hours of training.
Table 6
Comparison of Overall Population
Subgroup
Element N F M O E 2T 5T 10T 11T
Total Population 112 29% 71% 5 107 51 10 1 50
Quantitative Sample 100 30% 70% 1 99 50 10 0 40
Qualitative Sample 12 25% 75% 4 8 1 0 1 10
Notes. N = Number; F = female; M = male; O = Officer; E = Enlisted; 2T = 0-2 hours of training; 5T =
2-5 hours of training; 10T = 5-10 hours of training; 11T = more than 10 hours of training.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 58
Qualitative Findings Overview
Twelve active duty Marines that served as direct line unit supervisors participated in the
qualitative interviews, three females and nine males. Four of the participants were Officers, and
eight were Enlisted personnel. Interviews followed the semi-structured interview protocol, seven
of the interviews were done over the phone and five were done in person. All interviews were
recorded and transcribed by the researcher and their responses were coded and analyzed. Table 7
provides information about the qualitative participants, their subgroups, and findings. In order to
keep their privacy, actual names were not given during the interview process. More information
about the participants can be found in Appendix F.
Table 7
Qualitative Participants and Subgroup Distribution
Participant* Rank Gender Unit Type Training Hours
Number of
Official Male
Rape Reports
Adam E-6 Male Ground 20+ 0
Allison E-6 Female Auxiliary 30 1
Benji O-5 Male Ground 100+ 8
Caden WO-3 Male Auxiliary 30+ 2
Caleb E-4 Male Ground 12 0
Dante E-4 Male Wing 6 0
Frank E-5 Male Auxiliary 12 0
Freddie E-8 Male Ground 50+ 3
Gerardo E-9 Male HQMC 50+ 0
Haleigh O-1 Female Wing 0 0
Lukas E-8 Male Ground 35 0
Sherrie O-4 Female Wing 20 4
Note. * Pseudonyms replace actual names.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 59
Knowledge Findings
There were three knowledge influences that guided this study, as outlined in Chapter 3.
The qualitative and quantitative research was designed with these influences in mind. The study
focused on determining whether unit direct line supervisors had the conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge needed to handle rape victim reports properly. A description of each
influence, as well as the findings and results from the research and the themes that surfaced,
follows in order.
Victimology Knowledge
Direct line unit supervisors need to have the proper victimology knowledge. The
quantitative survey focused on assessing whether or not direct line unit supervisors felt like they
had the proper knowledge. The qualitative interviews focused on having direct line unit
supervisors describe their level of knowledge of victimology policies and procedures. Document
analysis helped to verify the knowledge that direct line supervisors purported to have were really
being offered in training.
Survey results. Direct line unit supervisors expressed an overall positive ability on their
knowledge of victimology policies and procedures. The seven option Likert scale asked direct
line unit supervisors to rate their knowledge from 7 (strongly agree), 6 (agree), 5 (somewhat
agree), 4 (somewhat disagree), 3 (disagree), 2 (strongly disagree) and 1 (n/a). Table 8 table
shows the mean and standard deviation results of the survey. For Survey Item 7, the mean shows
that there was a high agreement that they understand their duties as a mandatory sexual assault
reporter.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 60
Table 8
Survey Question by Mean
Question M SD
7 I fully understand my duties as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter. 5.10 2.71
8 When a sexual assault is reported to me, I can perform all the necessary
tasks without needing to ask for assistance or rely on job aids.
4.70 2.51
9 I know how to accurately and confidentially write up all the necessary
documents and reports associated with sexual assaults reported to me.
4.00 2.46
10 I am fully capable of training a peer or replacement in the duties
associated with the SAPR reporting process.
4.00 2.62
Though not a direct measure of knowledge, the quantitative data highlights direct line
unit supervisors‘ confidence in their knowledge of victimology knowledge. Secondary findings
show that younger direct line unit supervisors were more prone to select n/a for many of the
questions. While the data reflects the fact that Junior Marines serving as direct line unit
supervisors were more apt to be complacent about their outlook on things, further research would
need to be conducted to stipulate that as fact.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the motivation influence
responses from the males and females, as well as between Marines that had been serving in the
USMC under ten years versus over ten years. For Survey Item 7 which asked Marines if they
fully understood their duties as a mandatory sexual assault reporter, there was a significant
difference between junior (M = 4.6, SD = 2.838) and seniors (M = 7.0, SD = 0.000), t(115 ) =
3.721, p = .000. Survey Item 8 probed for whether or not Marines felt that they could perform
all the necessary tasks when a sexual assault is reported to them without the necessary job aids.
There was a significant difference between junior (M = 4.4, SD = 2.707) and seniors (M = 6.0,
SD = 0.000), t(115) = 2.675, p = .009. There was a significant difference between males (M =
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 61
4.7, SD = 2.566) and females (M = 2.3, SD = .959), t(115) = 4.925, p = .000 in the responses for
Survey Item 9 that probed for their perceived ability to accurately write up the necessary reports
related to sexual assaults. This indicates that males were less likely to identify as having
challenges in being able to accurately write up sexual assault reports. For Survey Item 10 there
was a significant difference between males (M = 4.7, SD = 2.566) and females (M = 2.3, SD =
1.918), t(115) = 4.560, p = .000. There was not a significant difference between males and
females for Survey Items 7 and 8, which dealt with varying aspects of Marines’ perception of
their ability to perform mandatory sexual assault reporting duties. For Survey Item 7 males (M =
5.1, SD = 2.651) and females (M = 5.0, 2.877), t(115) = 0.240, p = .811. For Survey Item 8
males (M = 5.0, SD = 2.582) and females (M = 4.0, SD = 2.197), t(115) = 1.852, p = .067. More
research would need to be completed to determine the differences in male and female opinions as
there were more males than females in this study. In regard to junior versus senior Marines, there
was not a significant difference in the survey responses. For Survey Item 9 junior (M = 4.1, SD =
2.730) and seniors (M = 3.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = 1.016, p = 312. For Survey Item 10 junior (M
= 3.9, SD = 2.910) and seniors (M = 4.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = .953, p =.343. These detailed
findings can be found in Appendix H.
Interview findings. In the interviews, direct line unit supervisors expressed their
perception of overall confidence in the fact that they received the proper victimology knowledge
in SAPR Training. The 12 interview participants agreed that issues of knowledge did not exist in
the availability of SAPR knowledge, but the issue dealt more on whether or not the individuals
taking the course wanted to learn what was being taught. The interview subjects were also in
agreement that HQMC put abundant financial resources to ensure that the knowledge given in
SAPR Training was accurate and up to date.
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Marines were generally confident in the SAPR Training that they received. There was a
general consensus of 10 out of the 12 interview participants that the training given was clear,
concise, and relevant. Adam mentioned that training was made for the masses. He commented,
“The training is designed so a fourth grader could understand it, the way it is administered, not
the content obviously.” Freddie discussed how the SAPR Training is designed to ensure that
Marines have the knowledge they need to handle reports:
At the end of the day, the training, while sometimes boring for those of us that have taken
multiple times, serves its purpose. The folks at HQMC are paid the big bucks to ensure
that the material covers everything that it needs to and at the end of every training there is
always a survey for the Marines to take to give any feedback they want to.
Freddie acknowledged that surveys are given out to get Marines feedback at the end of training
and although he felt like the USMC was serious about handling the issue, he also felt like he had
personally had “too much” training and the topic was redundant.
Other participants had similar views regarding the training provided. Dante expressed
skepticism in the necessity of so much training, but agreed that the training was thorough:
It always seems like we are in some type of training, and it gets old. I know that there is
important s*** I gotta know, but hell, it’s not like the head shed is gonna really do
something about it. The training itself is fine and all, I mean you can tell they put a lot of
money and effort into it...but I just don’t see it being a realistic thing ya know.
While the Marines interviewed fluctuated on how much they believed in the necessity of the
training, their belief in the relevance of the training never wavered.
An interesting observation is that when the interview participants were pressed on the
specifics of their knowledge, most were vague and could not give specifics. Haleigh tried very
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hard to give specifics of her knowledge, even referencing specific forms that needed to be filled
out during the reporting process, stating:
Well, there are several forms that we need to fill out, but...I really couldn’t tell you what
they are...I know there is a process for everything...well I just would need to Google them
or look in the manual or the unit I think has a CGIP checklist on reporting, so it is
probably in there.
Adam mentioned the fact that the victimology process included restricted and unrestricted
reports, but he could not remember the specifics of either or if there were timeframes associated
with each reporting process. He stated:
Whenever we get a report, we give the Marines the option of restricted and unrestricted
reports. I don’t remember which one is which, but I know one CID and/or NCIS gets
involved...I can’t tell you off the top of my head if there are timelines, but things usually
have a statute of limitations, don’t they?
Freddie was pretty well versed in the difference between restricted and unrestricted reports but
could not remember the order in which phone calls are made. He mentioned:
There are so many d**n people you gotta call in these situations it gets confusing
sometimes who gets called when. Especially when you get called at two in the morning,
and you got a Marine crying and bleeding at the barracks and you gotta think on your
feet.
The Marines‘ lack of detail can prove detrimental to ensuring reports are being completed
accurately. More research should be conducted that focuses on this issue.
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Victimology Methods
Direct line unit supervisors need to know how to apply the proper victim handling
methods and procedures. The analysis used quantitative, qualitative, and document analysis. The
procedural knowledge requirements show that they are present through the quantitative data;
however, the qualitative data collected in the interview process shows that there could be room
for improvement.
Quantitative results. Direct line unit supervisors reported a deficiency in being able to
apply the proper victim handling methods and procedures when writing up all of the necessary
documents associated with a report. The deficiency was pretty equal in Junior Marines (M = 4.1,
SD = 2.730) and more Senior Marines (M = 3.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = 1.016, p = .312. Males
also showed a higher likelihood of admitting to their deficiencies in using the proper victim
handling methods and procedures (M = 4.7, SD = 2.566) and females (M = 2.3, SD = .959),
t(115) = 4.925, p = .000. However, males were also the more prevalent respondents, so there
would need to be further research done to further validate the data.
Qualitative findings. The qualitative interviews reflect that 100% of the respondents
discussed some type of challenge or discrepancy in the definition of what proper victim handling
methods and procedures were. Gerardo and Freddie, both senior enlisted personnel, expressed
frustration in the fact that things have changed so much and so fast that it is hard to not only keep
up with the changes but keep everyone properly trained. Gerardo mentioned:
I can’t keep it straight in my head sometimes...what step goes first. Am I supposed to
contact CID or NCIS? Do I get Chaps involved...? Honestly, sometimes I just wing it and
let it get worked out in the end.
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Freddie discussed his overall detachment from the entire sexual assault issue. He noted at one
point:
My first reaction when stuff like this comes to me is honestly, s*** I don’t have time for
this. Then I go and find one of my Staff Sergeants or Gunny’s to deal with it. I assume
they follow proper protocol and procedure, but honestly, I rarely do more than just take
them at their word and say good to go.
Self-Awareness of Strengths and Weaknesses
Direct line unit supervisors need to recognize their strengths and areas of growth when it
comes to being first line mandatory reporters. The analysis used quantitative and qualitative
methods in order to explore this influence. The quantitative and qualitative metacognitive
knowledge results both show that Marines recognize where they have the proper knowledge and
where they have areas of opportunity.
Quantitative results. The Marines showed a strong sense of their awareness of their
strengths and weaknesses when it comes to training incumbent first line mandatory reporters.
There was no significant difference in junior versus senior Marines reporting deficiencies in
being able to train a peer or replacement in their mandatory sexual assault reporting duties.
Junior Marines (M = 3.9, SD = 2.910) and seniors (M = 4.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = .953, p =
.343. Males and females had varying viewpoints with training a peer or replacement, and there
was a statistical difference. Males (M = 4.7, SD = 2.566) and females (M = 2.3, SD = 1.918),
t(115) = 4.560, p = .000.
Qualitative findings. One hundred percent of the respondents mentioned their ability to
recognize their strengths and weaknesses when it comes to being first line mandatory reporters.
However, many of them did not seem to be overly interested in pro-actively using the skill.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 66
Frank stated, “...there are probably things that I can do to get my Marines to talk to me more or
confide in me,...I don’t have any time to focus on skills that I may or may not need.” Sherrie put
it this way, “Everyone can improve themselves in some way, shape or form...I tell my Marines
all the time that I don’t expect perfection, but I do expect 100% effort 100% of the time.” A little
later in the interview, Sherrie also stated, “...but I don’t sit here and analyze my abilities as a
mandatory reporter, I don’t think there is any Marine that does honestly....it’s just not the reality
of the beast.”
Marines know that there is a problem with rape in the ranks, but the issue is so complex
most have grown complacent and are not interested in being proactive about fixing the issue.
Benji stated:
My job is to keep my Marines alive. There are a lot of moving parts that go into that
ma’am. Do I want my Marines to be hurt in any way? No. Do I want to see any of my
Marines get in trouble for doing stupid s***? No. Can I be with all of them at all times to
ensure that none of this happens? Absolutely not. I have to rely on the fact that they have
had the best training the world can offer, and maybe God will offer his divine providence
as well. We do what we can with what we have; however, I, unfortunately, don’t have the
time or the resources to go around trying to fix every issue. There are times you just have
to pull your bootstraps up and take things as they come, do your best to address the
problems that arise, and let the good Lord take care of the rest.
Gerardo had a similar viewpoint but was a bit more cynical stating:
In a perfect world, we wouldn’t have any issues. Marines would treat each other with the
respect that they should, but the world isn’t perfect, and Marines do stupid s*** all the
time. In a perfect world, I would have all the time in the world to solve all the issues that
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 67
face us in a day, but I don’t. We have so much on our plates as leaders, and at the end of
the day, operations always come first. I am not here to make Marines feel good about
themselves; I am here to prepare them and teach them how to stay alive when they face
the enemy. All this feel-good stuff, I mean don’t get me wrong, the Corps has definitely
changed over the years. No one cared about my family or my feelings when I first started,
and I am not saying it’s right or wrong, it’s just different and we are living in different
times with different rules. We all just have to adapt and overcome to the best of our
ability.
It was clear to all the participants that there was an issue with rape in the ranks, but it was also
clear that most felt helpless or lost when it comes to trying to make a difference in the issue.
Additional Findings
In reviewing the over 20 hours of interview data, there were several themes that emerged
which are crucial to addressing the research questions. The Junior Marines that were interviewed
were fully engaged during the interview session, but their responses also reflected some lack of
empathy and engagement in the reporting process and its importance. Further research is
required to find out whether or not this type of prevalent response in this demographic stems
from a lack of interest or simply lack of experience.
Document Analysis
The SAPR Training manuals were acquired and analyzed to get a better understanding of
what is being taught in the training. SAPR Training is handled by SAPR personnel who are
mainly civilians. The manuals were comprehensive and not only had talking points but sample
scenarios and responses for various questions and scenarios. Marines were trained how to
intervene when they see something, which was even broken down to Junior Marine and Senior
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Marine specific training, pre-deployment SAPR training focuses on situations that happen on
deployment, and all-hands training focuses on situations in garrison. The manuals give trainers a
significant amount of follow on resources and methodologies to teach the material. The material
within the manuals and the information that the Marines gave in the interviews supported each
other. However, Marines had a difficult time giving specifics as to what they learned in the
training as well as specifics of the reporting process.
Knowledge Findings Summary
Gaps in direct line unit supervisors knowledge can greatly hinder the proper reporting of
sexual assault for both male and female victims. During the interviews, it was difficult for all the
participants to give deep in-depth explanations of the reporting processes they were referencing.
While the data demonstrated some conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge, there
is an opportunity for improvement in stakeholder knowledge implementation and independent
demonstration. The data suggests that while direct line supervisors express confidence in their
knowledge, the expression of that knowledge seems to be a challenge. There need to be open
conversations between the direct line reporters and those that are not only writing the SAPR
Training Manuals, but the policies and procedures regarding what they feel is missing in helping
them gain the knowledge they need.
Motivation Findings
Direct line unit supervisors‘ motivation is key to the proper handling of sexual assault
victims and carrying out reporting procedures. The conceptual framework outlines three
motivational factors which emerged from the literature review that are crucial to direct line unit
supervisors properly handling their mandatory reporting duties. Self-efficacy, utility value, and
attribution theory were highlighted in one survey question each.
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The research findings provide assessments of utility value and attribution theory based on
the mixed methods approach used for this study. It is not only important to understand
motivation in isolation but to understand how these motivational influences impacted the
knowledge and organizational elements as well the overall problem of practice. The format of
this section follows closely to that of the knowledge section.
Victimology Motivation
The motivation of direct line unit supervisors was key in their ability to properly follow
the guidelines of the mandatory sexual assault reporting duties, as well as be able to complete the
task even when they faced challenges and fierce opposition. Motivation is complex because it
deals with a person’s inner drive, so the qualitative and quantitative data was gathered to explore
this influence. As shown in Appendix H, quantitative results did not show a significant
difference in the motivation of Junior versus Senior Marines. Qualitative results showed that the
Marines might be overconfident in their abilities.
Quantitative results. The motivation of direct line unit supervisors affects various
aspects of the reporting process. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the
motivation influence responses from the males and females as well as Marines that had been
serving in the USMC under ten years versus over ten years. There was not a significant
difference between males and females addressing motivation for Survey Items 11 and 12. For
Survey Item 11 males (M = 5.3, SD = 2.730) and females (M = 4.7, SD = 2.670), t(115) = 1.046,
p = .298. For Survey Item 12 males (M = 4.7, SD = 2.730) and females (M = 5, SD = 2.877),
t(115) = .472, p=.638. For Survey Item 13 males (M = 6, SD = 2.085) indicated they were more
likely than females (M = 4, SD = 2.491), t(115) = 4.141, p = .000 to be proactive about letting
their Marines know that they can come to them with any instances of sexual assault. Junior
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Marines (M = 5.0, SD = 2.516) were less likely than senior Marines (M = 7.0, SD = 0.000),
t(115) = 3.542, p = .001 to be proactive. For Survey Item 14, males (M = 5, SD = 2.582)
indicated they were more driven than females (M = 3.3, SD = 2.090), t(115) = 3.122, p = .002 to
learn everything they could about being a mandatory reporter. Junior Marines (M = 4.1, SD =
2.730) were less driven than senior Marines (M = 6.0, SD = 0.000), t(115) = 3.060, p = .003. For
Survey Item 11, junior (M = 4.6, SD = 2.843) indicated that being a mandatory reporter was less
important to them than senior Marines (M = 7, SD = 0.000), t(115) = 3.721, p = .000. For Survey
Item 12, there was no significant difference in junior (M = 4.8, SD = 2.923) and senior Marines
(M = 5, SD = 2.052), t(115) = .360, p = .719. The table (Table 9) shows the various statistics and
findings.
Table 9
Survey Question by Mean
Question M SD
11 Being a mandatory reporter is extremely important to me. 5.10 2.71
12 My part in the reporting process is a crucial element to ensuring victims
get justice.
4.80 2.76
13 I proactively let my Marines know that they can report any instances of
sexual assault to me.
5.40 2.39
14 I am driven to learn all that I can about being the best mandatory reporter
I can be.
4.50 2.55
Qualitative findings. Once the quantitative surveys were completed, interviews were
conducted to further explore the direct line unit supervisors‘ views on self-efficacy in relation to
their mandatory sexual assault reporting duties. In the interviews, the self-efficacy of direct line
unit supervisors in their mandated reporting duties seemed to increase with experience. It was
found in the interviews that (a) Senior Marines seemed to be more confident in their self-efficacy
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abilities; and (b) while their self-efficacy does not decrease when they see cases not handled
right, their motivation to learn and try does decrease due to discouragement. The discussion for
each finding follows.
Senior Marines are more confident in their self-efficacy abilities. While only one of the
interview subjects can be considered a Junior Officer, all 12 had the perception that Junior
Marines struggled with self-efficacy and admitted to having issues themselves when they were in
that stage of their career. It was a theme that junior Marines struggle with self-efficacy in many
areas of their lives and careers, their ability to report sexual assaults properly seems to fall within
those struggles as well according to the opinions of the interviewees. Many Junior Marines join
the ranks straight out of high school. For many, this is their first time away from home and
family. It can be overwhelming to have to grow up, learn a new way of life, and a new career all
at the same time (Dalton, 1997; Hubbert, 2013)
Haleigh, a Junior Officer, readily admitted to having issues with self-efficacy and self-
doubt in her reporting duties. Haleigh said:
Sometimes I feel like my ability to keep up with the pack is not there. I think we all strive
to be number one, and when we don’t feel like we are there, it can take a toll on us
mentally.
Caden talked about his desire to not fail his Marines and angst about adhering to protocol. He
stated, “When a Marine comes to me in need I don’t want to fail them, but yeah I worry I will
mess up protocol. Especially if they want to tell the head shed and get justice and s***” Freddie
focused on the Marines‘ ability to handle the pressure of Marine Corps life while being able to
recognize what they need as reporters:
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These kids are really just that- kids. We ask a lot of them-leave home, parents...become
killing machines...I can see why they are not always confident in their ability to keep up
and learn what they need to.
Self-efficacy remains the same in the midst of discouragement. If Marines lose their
self-efficacy in the midst of frustrating circumstances during the reporting process, it can be
detrimental to the case. The data suggests that Marines retain their self-efficacy when they are
frustrated, but they do get discouraged and lose motivation. It was further gathered that the loss
of motivation does not stop them from doing their duties, but it does seem to inhibit them from
doing more than the bare minimum. Frank stated:
I know that I am good at my job, but with having seen so many Marines get screwed by
the system, I refuse to waste my time or risk my career on an issue that I can’t do
anything about.
For Dante, the line of self-efficacy and motivation was a little blurred due to conflicting actions
and words he saw from his command. He commented, “For the most part, I know I have the right
skills, but when I see how my Command treats certain things I wonder if I am not doing
something right.” Lukas focused on the impact challenges have on his Marines, “It’s frustrating
to see a kid that knows his stuff begins to drop his pack because the system has failed him or his
buddies.”
Self-efficacy summary. The self-efficacy of direct line unit supervisors is crucial to
ensuring that they are able to accurately assess their skills when it comes to being 100%
compliant with their mandatory reporting duties. The qualitative data showed that Junior Marines
displayed a lower level of self-efficacy. The qualitative data also showed that discouragement
does not lower self-efficacy, but it does affect the direct line unit supervisors‘ motivation.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 73
Utility Value
Utility value is necessary to ensure that direct line unit supervisors see the value in the
training they receive. If value is given to the SAPR training, there is a higher likelihood that
participants in the training will put their full effort into learning, retaining, and mastering the
information. The quantitative and qualitative research focused on finding out whether or not
Marines saw value in the SAPR Training and the reporting process in general. Quantitative
results showed that Junior Marines were more likely to see less of a value or select n/a.
Qualitative results showed that all Marines expressed value in the training and the reporting
process. The discussion that follows is in a similar order to that of the previous sections.
Quantitative results. Seeing the value in the training they receive and in the program
itself has long-reaching effects as it can determine whether or not a case is properly reported and
eventually adjudicated. The 7-point Likert –type items in the quantitative survey analyzed the
value that Marines put on their positions as mandatory reporters in the reporting process. There
was no significant difference in males (M = 5.3, SD = 2.730 and females (M = 4.7, SD = 2.670),
t(115) = 1.046, p = .298. Junior Marines(M = 4.6, SD = 2.843) put less value on their positions
over senior Marines (M = 7, SD = 0.000), t(115)=-3.721, p = .000.
Qualitative findings. Utility value aligns in several aspects of direct line unit supervisors
being mandated reporters. The levels on which they can give or take away value that affect the
overall dynamic of victim reports are multiple, and many hold crucial elements of the reporting
process. The qualitative interviews reflected varying levels of value is given to each step, which
makes it difficult to quantify the results. The one area where there was 100% consensus was that
it was important to have a reporting process in place.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 74
Sherrie framed her role in the reporting process through the lens of the victims. She
stated, “It is important for me to be available to my Marines and Sailors, they are my concern. I
could honestly care less about the other aspects of the reporting process.” Caden had a different
viewpoint, “I fully advocate and support all aspects of the reporting process. It’s a domino
effect; if it don’t start right-it don’t end right.” Allison was somewhat in the middle of the
spectrum, stating, “Every step of the reporting process is important; I am sure. I think the main
thing is that we get the Marine taken care of.”
Utility value summary. The quantitative data shows that there was no significant
difference of junior and Marines in their complacency or lack of interest in the value of their held
positions as mandatory reporters. Due to the fact that the only Junior Marine in the surveys
exhibited greater responsibility and interest in her role as a mandatory reporter and was also an
Officer, there is not enough quantitative and qualitative data to validate the results and findings.
It is important that all Marines find a way to give value to their mandatory reporting tasks as so
much relies on them. The qualitative interviews showed how varied the participants were on
their beliefs and priorities.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory applies to Marines being able to identify the issues that surround the
underreporting of male rape as a complex issue and not solely the responsibility of direct line
unit supervisors. This rounded view will help direct line unit supervisors not get overwhelmed or
feel overly pressured when results are not positive. Quantitative and qualitative results and
findings indicated that the Marines seemed to have a healthy perspective on the issue and
realized that the onus was not on one factor or set of individuals. The following format is similar
to that of the previous sections.
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Quantitative results. Having a well-rounded outlook on the complexity of the reporting
issue gave the Marines a well-rounded perspective and a sense of grounding. The 7-point Likert
type questions focused on how Marines felt about their Commands‘ and HQMC’s ability to
handle sexual assault reports and cases. Male respondents saw the USMC taking all instances of
sexual assault seriously (M = 5.6, SD =2.075) and females showed less confidence (M = 3.7, SD
= 1.918), t(115) = 4.300, p = .000. Junior Marines (M = 4.75, SD = 2.347) indicated less
confidence versus senior Marines (M = 6.0, SD = 1.026), t(115) = 2.320, p = .022. The data
suggests that there is an overall consensus that Commands take reports seriously. Males (M =
5.6, SD = 2.004) had a higher confidence in their Commands than females (M = 4.7, SD =
2.670), t(115) = 1.866, p = .065. Junior Marines (M = 5, SD = 2.413) had less confidence in their
Commands versus senior Marines (M = 6.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = 2.754, p = .007. Assessing
whether or not Marines perceive their Commands as taking issues of sexual assault seriously is
important to determine how their views of the larger issues are constructed.
Qualitative findings. If Marines have a well-rounded approach to the problems in the
reporting process and the low reporting numbers, it can help ensure that they refrain from getting
discouraged in their role and start to slip in their duties. The qualitative interviews sought to get a
deeper understanding of the perspectives Marines had on the complexity of the underreporting
issues. All 12 interview subjects (100%) exhibited a well-rounded outlook on the problems that
surrounded the underreporting of male rape.
Caleb stated, “The issue is way bigger than me or my command ma’am. It’s everyone’s
fault and everyone’s duty to make it better.” Frank commented, “Ma’am, frankly we as a Marine
Corps, a society-a whole god d****d world has made this mess, and we either don’t know how
to fix it like myself, or we don’t care to.” Benji mentioned, “I am not more part of the problem as
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 76
I am the solution, ma’am. I do me, I take care of my Marines, and I let the brass that gets the
high pay worry about the rest.”
Attribution theory summary. The collective data showed cohesion in both quantitative
and qualitative responses. The Marines expressed that while they played a key role in the success
of higher reports, they recognize other key factors such as the support from their Commands and
HQMC. The key to success was building on the positive and well-rounded viewpoints of the
current Marines to propagate that mindset in future generations. Having a solid ground to build
on is a positive win for the Marine Corps.
Motivation Results and Findings Summary
Motivation is crucial to direct line unit supervisors being successful in seeing their
mandatory reporting duties through to full and proper completion. Through appropriate levels of
self-efficacy, valuing their learning and tasks, and a well-rounded perspective on the issues at
hand, direct line unit supervisors can be successful at achieving 100% compliance in their
mandatory reporting duties. The quantitative and qualitative data suggests that more focus needs
to be put on Marines‘ their willingness to engage, be present, and see the value in their duties.
Organizational Results and Findings
There were three organizational factors that were outlined in the conceptual framework
which stemmed from the literature review. Organizational support is crucial to unit direct line
supervisors being able to be successful in their goals as mandatory reporters. The quantitative
survey used a 7-point Likert scale, which had five questions that focused on organizational
aspects. The qualitative interviews used the survey data and probed deeper into the interviewees'
thoughts and opinions.
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Clear Expectations of Programs and Processes
The leadership of HQMC can have a significant impact on direct line unit supervisors‘
ability to be successful through policies, procedures and the delivery of expectations with regard
to their portion of the sexual assault reporting process. The organization must give clear
expectations of its programs and processes. The qualitative and quantitative findings show that
Marines are mostly confident in the organization‘s support and care for not only them as
mandatory reporters, but the actual victims themselves. The qualitative results showed three
main themes: (a) Marines are afraid of retaliation, in spite of the official zero-tolerance policies;
(b) Marines are not usually swayed by the public campaigns HQMC launches; and (c) the
constant updates of policies and procedures do not necessarily help the situation because, by the
time a mandate is implemented, a new mandate is on its way. This section follows a similar
structure of the previous sections.
Quantitative results. The support or lack of support that HQMC provides to its troops
on the ground plays a significant role in the success or failure of any mission. While it will
always prove a very difficult task for leadership at HQMC to interact with the entire force, there
are ways for leadership to stay connected to the troops on the ground through Command Climate
Surveys, Video Conferences with various leaders in the fleet and visiting the fleet as often as
battle rhythm allows. Survey results showed that when boots on the ground troops see this type
of effort from leadership, it helps them feel supported.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the organization influence
responses from the males and females as well as Marines that had been serving in the USMC
under ten years versus over ten years. For Survey Item 15 that probed for whether the
respondents saw the USMC taking all instances of sexual assault seriously, there was a
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significant difference between males (M = 5.6, SD =2.075) and females (M = 3.7, SD =1.918),
t(115) = 4.300, p = .000. Females felt that the USMC does not take all instances of sexual assault
seriously in comparison with their male counterparts. There was also a significant difference
between junior (M = 4.75, SD = 2.347) and senior Marines (M = 6.0, SD = 1.026), t(115) =
2.320, p = .022. Junior Marines were less confident than their senior counterparts that all reports
are taken seriously. For Survey Item 16 which dealt with how Marines felt about the way their
Commands and HQMC handled sexual assaults, there was not a significant difference between
males (M = 5.6, SD = 2.004) and females (M = 4.7, SD = 2.670), t(115) = 1.866, p = .065. There
was a significant difference between junior (M = 5.0, SD = 2.413) and senior Marines (M = 6.5,
SD = 0.513), t(115) = 2.754, p = .007. Females (M = 3.7, SD = 1.918) indicated they felt less
confident that they were set up for success over their male counterparts (M = 4.7, SD = 2.450),
t(115) = 2.082, p = .040. Junior Marines (M = 4.1, SD = 2.538) were less confident than senior
Marines (M = 5.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = 2.402, p = .018 for the same question. For Survey Item
18, females (M = 4.0, SD = 2.197) indicated they had less confidence than males (M = 5.7, SD =
2.065), t(115) = 3.732, p = .000 that the USMC does everything in its power to eradicate stigmas
and biases within the ranks. There was no significant difference between junior (M = 5.3, SD =
2.503) and senior (M = 6.0, SD = 0.000), t(115) = 0.445, p = .657. For Survey Item 19, females
(M = 4.7, SD = 2.670) had less confidence than males (M = 5.9, SD = 2.045), t(115) = 2.427, p =
.017 that the USMC protects mandatory reporters from retaliatory actions by their Chain of
Command. There was no significant difference between junior (M = 5.4, SD = 2.563) and senior
Marines (M = 6.0, SD = 0.000), t(115) = 1.087, p =.280 for the same question.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 79
Table 10
Survey Question by Mean
Question M SD
15 The Marine Corps takes all instances of sexual assault seriously. 5.00 2.20
16 My Command takes all instances of sexual assault seriously. 5.30 2.25
17 Marine Corps SAPR training sets me up for success as a mandatory
reporter.
4.40 2.34
18 The Marine Corps does everything in its power to ensure that the stigmas
and biases surrounding sexual assault are eradicated within the ranks.
5.20 2.24
19 The Marine Corps ensures that I and my peers that are mandatory
reporters are safe from any retaliatory actions by anyone in the Chain of
Command.
5.50 2.30
Qualitative findings. The interviews focused on learning about how Marines feel about
the support HQMC gives to direct line supervisors, the policies and procedures that come down
from HQMC and the perception of how HQMC truly handles and feels about the sexual assault
crisis as a whole. The three main themes from the interviews that emerged were as follows: (a)
Marines are afraid of retaliation, in spite of the official zero-tolerance policies; (b) Marines are
not usually swayed by the public campaigns HQMC launches; and (c) the constant updates of
policies and procedures do not necessarily help the situation because by the time something hits
the fleet a new mandate is on its way. Another point the Marines made was that they were
comfortable giving their opinions because the interviews were not conducted on their respective
bases.
Fear of retaliation. Even though the official communications coming from HQMC is a
zero-tolerance policy on retaliation, the fear of retaliation and the actions of retaliation are very
prevalent in the operating forces. All 12 Marines (100%) discussed retaliation in some form or
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 80
fashion. While most of the Marines shared that they had not personally experienced retaliation,
they had all witnessed it in some fashion, and they were all worried to some degree that one day
it could happen to them.
Haleigh and Dante being two of the most Junior Marines in the group expressed concern
that retaliation would impact their career because they had not built the report with colleagues
that other more Senior Marines have. Haleigh stated:
Just because I am an officer it doesn’t give me extra protection, I mean I am a woman,
and I have absolutely zero time in the fleet compared to most. I see things that aren’t
right, and my training makes me want to jump in and follow the policies and procedures
the classroom taught me, but this is the fleet, and the fleet is different no matter what they
tell you....it’s like fight club....number one rule...you don’t talk about it.
Dante is enlisted but had more time in the fleet than Haleigh. His discussion on the topic focused
on internal unit politics from his perspective and experience. He commented,
While I have been in the fleet for a few years now, I still don’t have enough pull to do
anything when someone’s career goes to the sh***er because someone has it out for
them. Ya just gotta keep your head down ya know cuz there is nothing to say it can’t be
you too.
Unsuccessful HQMC campaigns. Major internal marketing campaigns are not solely the
product of the Marine Corps; almost every organization comes up with campaigns to get buy-in
on a range of social and community issues from corporate citizenship to green initiatives. The
factor that makes the Marine Corps unique is its audience, the 1% of the 1% of US warfighters.
Each of the interviewees mentioned the various initiatives and campaigns that HQMC launches.
Six interviewees (50%) mentioned the SAPR specific campaign and the other six (50%) focused
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 81
on the Protect What You’ve Earned Campaign which focuses more on good choices in a variety
of different life decisions such as drinking, drugs, driving under the influence, and rape.
Constant change over of policies and procedures. In order for policies and procedures to
be successful, there needs to be proper planning and implementation on all levels. The
interviewed Marines thought a critical issue in the military as a whole was that leadership
positions turn over quickly, and each Commander has the authority to change things as they see
fit. This type of Commander’s discretion makes it difficult for any one policy and procedure to
complete its entire life cycle because by the time a policy or procedure “hits the fleet,” leadership
has usually changed, and policies and procedures are being mandated again. Hitting the fleet
refers to anything that is introduced to the operating forces.
Freddie talked about how it can be difficult to make sure the right policy is being
followed. He stated, “This set of policies and procedures is definitely not my first rodeo, and
honestly, I am lucky I can keep them straight anymore.” Allison mentioned, “I am on my fourth
Commandant ma’am, and I have only been in 12 years! Policies around here are like the ocean
tide-they ebb and flow. Change is the only constant.” Lukas did not talk about his personal
opinions on the issuance of policies and procedures but kept his comments very broad. He said,
“Everyone wants to make their mark. Can’t say I blame them one bit. It’s challenging-especially
on those A types that want to get it right all the time, but you just deal.”
Clear expectations of programs and processes summary. The qualitative interviews
gave insight into the fact that there was still retaliation and consistency issues that the
organization must address. The results of the qualitative data give a roadmap into ways the
Marine Corps can improve by maintaining open lines of communication with the Marines, giving
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 82
them access to safe ways to give feedback and working on policy consistency, the overall issues
in victimology can start to be addressed.
Consistent Enforcement of Policies and Procedures
The victimology process can be frustrating for those involved in the Marine Corps
because of the current lack of consistency (Hubbert, 2013; Ioanes, 2018). With the Marine Corps
not being consistent in its policies, procedures and adjudication rates, it can cause crucial
stakeholders like mandatory reporters to give up or lose their commitment to their duties
(Bruneau, 2009; Hubbert, 2013). The quantitative survey had two items on a 7-point Likert
Scale, which focused on Marines‘ perception of their Commands and HQMC’s level of
consistency as to the seriousness of each case. The qualitative interviews focused on delving
deeper into the thoughts and opinions of the Marines on whether or not there was consistency in
the process from their point of view.
Quantitative results. Consistency in the enforcement of policies and procedures help
those in the victimology process know that they are doing the right thing. The perceptions of
those involved in the reporting process are crucial to the success of each case. The answers to the
7-point Likert Scale showed females (M = 3.7, SD =1.918) reported less confidence that the
USMC takes all instances of sexual assault seriously over males (M = 5.6, SD =2.075), t(115) =
4.300, p = .000. Junior Marines (M = 4.75, SD = 2.347) were less confident than senior Marines
(M = 6.0, SD = 1.026), t(115) = 2.320, p = .022.
Qualitative findings. The level of consistency in cases is crucial to the continued
commitment and dedication to the mission of all stakeholders involved in the victimology
process. While each direct line unit supervisor had different experiences with the process, their
duties are all the same. The 12 interviewees all resonated with the fact that there needs to be a
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 83
stronger commitment on HQMC’s part to work towards more consistency. Marines also
expressed frustration in how low adjudication numbers were, and all seemed to focus their
criticism towards the Commander’s Discretion and the way each unit was able to handle cases as
they see fit.
Haleigh was very honest about her views as a new Marine and what she was worried
about. She stated, “I am so new to the fleet, and yet I am already dreading this aspect of my
career because I have heard so many horror stories of how Commands either don’t care or cover
things up.” Caden talked about some of his Command’s decisions that he didn't agree with. At
one point he mentioned, “There have been calls a CO or XO has made that has almost cost me
my career, but in the end, you gotta shut up and take it. Good Marines sometimes get away with
literal murder...literal.” Freddie was very cynical when it came to seeing a full positive change in
the way Commander’s Discretion is handled. He commented, “The numbers are pathetic, but
until these Commanders either get a different perspective or it gets taken away from them. I
don’t see it changing. No. Not happening.”
Marines believed that while the official speak of HQMC was that sexual assault reporting
was important, in reality, many commands did not want to be bothered with it. Lukas stated:
Look, ma’am, we all understand that anything like this is bad, it’s all bad, but there is
also what it does to the accused Marines career, and frankly, if they are a good Marine
there is usually a want on their leaderships part to help them out ya know. I mean these
kids work so hard to get where they are, and anything like this can be a career ender.
Sometimes we as leaders love our Marines too much if you know what I am saying.
Caleb had a more cynical thought process when it came to the way Commands perceived
and dealt with sexual assault. He responded:
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 84
No matter what they tell us, we all know at the end of the day that Gunny doesn’t want to
deal with this s***, so we know there is no point in saying anything. You have these girls
that have sex with Marines and then claim rape, and it becomes a s*** show, and we all
see that and the way they react so why would we want to say anything? We keep our
mouths shut and we deal with it so that we don’t become the unit b****.
While some Marines were more cynical than others, the overall sentiment was that while there
are different reasons in each Command, it is clear that what Command’s say in public and do in
private are two very different things.
Consistent enforcement of policies and procedures summary. The data supports that
Marines saw the need for more consistency in the Marine Corps victimology policies and
procedures. Specifically, Marines recognized the need for a more consistent set of policies and
procedures to get adjudications to happen in cases. It is perceived that HQMC has built a solid
starting point, but there needs to be deeper and more meaningful conversations with stakeholders
as to what needs to change.
Openness and Honesty about the Current State of Affairs
The military has been highlighted for various sexual assault scandals and cover-ups such
as the Tailhook scandal of the 1990s and the Marines United Facebook page. Bruneau (2009)
shared that even though sexual assault is not an issue an organization wants to highlight, the
Marine Corps needs to be transparent about the issue.The problem of sexual assault as a whole,
especially the underreporting of male rape, can not be addressed until the depth and breadth of
the problem are truly understood. The quantitative survey had one 7-point Likert Scale question
regarding the Marine Corps handling of the issue. The qualitative interviews focused on delving
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 85
into the beliefs of the Marines on the true severity of the issue and getting their input on things
the organization can do to be more open and honest.
Quantitative results. Unfortunately, the Marine Corps is known for cover-ups and
scandal (Hubbert, 2013; Ioanes, 2018; Scott, 2013). The quantitative data shows that there was a
significant difference between males (M=5.7, SD=2.065) versus female Marines (M = 4.0, SD =
2.197), t(115) = 3.732, p = .000 in terms of their belief that the USMC does everything in its
power to ensure that stigmas and biases are eradicated within the ranks with females indicating a
lower degree of agreement. There was no significant difference between junior (M = 5.3, SD =
2.503) versus senior Marines (M = 6.0, SD = 0.000), t(115) = 0.445, p = .657. Further studies
could be done to find out what the under reporting of male Marines is directly linked to.
Qualitative findings. Once HQMC is open and honest about the state of affairs with all
stakeholders, there can be an opportunity for open and honest conversations on how to correct
the problem. The qualitative interviews showed that Marines believed that the reason HQMC
does not talk openly about the raw data is that it could reflect negatively on the Marine Corps.
Issues regarding reputational risk came up consistently in almost every interview. It was asserted
that if the Marine Corps could overcome the fear of the potential impact revealing the raw data
would have on their reputation, true change would be achievable. However, most of the
participants' statements indicated that they did not believe the Marine Corps would never get to
that point.
Sherrie discussed her feelings about how the USMC protects its own. She stated, “No one
likes a black eye. They hurt, they are ugly, and they take forever to heal. Image is everything in
the good ole boys club. Change that? Not in our lifetime.” Lukas made it very clear that he felt
that politicians and the media had way too much say in the modern-day Corps. He commented,
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 86
“The irony is we are trained killers, but the brass is scared of reporters and politicians. If they
could overcome their fear, I think we could get somewhere.” Allison had a more positive outlook
on HQMC and its ability to improve. She mentioned, “I want to believe that we have the
potential to be better. I want to believe that those that are over us WANT to do the right
thing..but sometimes I just don’t know.” Benji discussed the disparity between fleet Marines and
those in power. He said, “If it was happening to their sons or daughters, you bet your a** they
would be making the change tomorrow.”
Openness and honesty about the current state of affairs summary. The quantitative
and qualitative data both showed skepticism in the Marine Corps’ ability to be open and honest
about the raw sexual assault data. Marines did display some positivity by asserting that if
openness and honesty could ever be achieved, true change was actually possible. The
conversation needs to be more open and honest on the organizations part in order for true change
to occur.
Organizational Findings Summary
The organizational findings primarily focus on HQMC. The main themes that emerged
were that HQMCs need to be clear of processes and procedures, there needs to be consistency in
the enforcement of policies and procedures, and HQMC needs to be completely transparent with
the raw data of the sexual assault crisis. Quantitatively, females (M = 3.7, SD = 1.918) reported
less confidence in HQMC to take all instances of sexual assault over males (M = 5.6, SD =
2.075), t(115) = 4.300, p = .000. Junior Marines (M = 5.0, SD = 2.413) were less confident than
senior Marines (M = 6.5, SD = 0.513), t(115) = 2.754, p = .007. Qualitatively, the Marines were
very pessimistic about the reality that there could be meaningful change with the current state of
affairs with HQMC.
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Findings Summary
The findings which stem from this mixed-methods study focused on finding out the
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences to find the gaps in direct line unit
supervisor’s ability to be 100% compliant with their mandatory sexual assault reporting duties in
order to combat the issue of the underreporting of male rape in the Marine Corps. The data
collected from Active Duty Marines that are direct line unit supervisors or have been within the
past five years helped to capture and give rich description and meaning to the KMO influencers
that affect mandatory reporting.
Marines displayed confidence in their knowledge of policies and procedures in both the
quantitative and qualitative sections but had difficulty giving specific examples of that
knowledge in the interviews. Females showed lower confidence in their ability to properly write
up all reports that are necessary for sexual assault reporting versus their male counterparts.
Marines expressed mixed feelings on whether or not they had the right motivation in the
quantitative and qualitative data. In relation to Command and HQMC support, female and junior
Marines reported lower confidence that the Marine Corps as an organization takes all reports of
sexual assault seriously.
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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This gap analysis study analyzed the USMC’s direct line unit supervisors knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences affecting the under reporting of male rape in the
Marine Corps. Chapter One introduced the problem of practice while Chapters Two and Three
provided an in-depth literature review and outlined the mixed methods approach to data
collection and analysis, respectively. The data collected in Chapter Four was collected over a two
month period and included surveys, interviews and document analysis.
There were eight assumed KMO influences which were identified through the literature
review and guided the recommendations of this study. Knowledge influences focused on whether
direct line unit supervisors‘ had the knowledge to make proper reports, the ability to know how
to apply that knowledge and their ability to recognize their strengths and weaknesses in their
roles as mandatory reporters. Motivational influences focused on the fact that direct line unit
supervisors need to see the value in the reporting process and the fact that the low numbers
reflect a complex issue, not just the result of their performance. Finally, organizational influences
focused on the USMC giving clear expectations of its programs and processes, the organization
needs to be consistent in the enforcement of policies and procedures and needs to be open and
honest about the current state of affairs.
This chapter offers recommendations in order to address the gaps in the under reporting
of male rape in the Marine Corps using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The solutions offered could be used in other branches of the military and in
the private sector as well. The solutions offered focus on the training program provided to direct
line unit supervisors and can be implemented in phases or as a larger program initiative, both
Marine Corps and military wide.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 89
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
The knowledge influences affecting unit direct line supervisors ability to properly carry
out their mandatory sexual-assault reporting duties with 100% compliance will be validated by
assessing which knowledge influences were mentioned the most during the interview process
and will be supported by the survey and document analysis results, literature review. The
conceptual framework is based on the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. The
knowledge influences presented represent various aspects of an individual's ability to develop
solid skill sets in order to achieve better results (Krathwohl, 2002). As shown in Table 11, the
results are a high priority in order for unit direct line supervisors to achieve their goal. Table 11
also gives recommendations for these influences based on research.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 90
Table 11
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Direct line unit supervisors
do not have victimology
knowledge needed to
enhance their ability to
increase reporting
numbers.
(D)
To develop mastery, individuals
must acquire component skills,
practice integrating them, and
know when to apply what they
have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Providing scaffolding and
assisted performance in a
person’s ZPD promotes
developmentally
appropriate instruction (Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).
Create victimology
knowledge learning goals
that are checked off during
the training as mastery
happens. Develop SAPR
training in a scaffolding
manner in order to attain
those goals.
Direct line unit supervisors
do not know how to apply
proper victim handling
methods and procedures.
(P)
Modeling to-be-learned strategies
or behaviors improves self-
efficacy, learning, and
performance (Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).
Information learned meaningfully
and connected with prior
knowledge is stored more quickly
and remembered more accurately
because it is elaborated with prior
learning (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006).
Create scenario training to
help unit direct line
supervisors practice
implementing the proper
strategies in the appropriate
situation. Allow for trainers
to give real-time feedback
and insight into how unit
direct line supervisors can
improve the skills they are
implementing.
Direct line unit supervisors
need to recognize their
strengths and areas of
growth when it comes to
being first line mandatory
reporters.(M)
Motivation is enhanced when
individuals attribute success or
failures to effort rather than
ability. (Anderman & Anderman,
2006).
Create exercises that help
unit direct line supervisors
become aware and reflect
on seeing their own
strengths and weaknesses in
a fair, balanced and honest
way using practice
exercises and feedback
Note: The knowledge type for each assumed influence is indicated by the following abbreviations:
(D) Declarative; (P) Procedural; (M) Metacognitive
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 91
Continuing to reinforce direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge of sexual assault
reporting procedures. There was an apparent disconnect in the way direct line unit supervisors
perceived their abilities, versus their actual ability to exhibit their working knowledge of the
reporting procedures. Direct line unit supervisors expressed their confidence in their abilities to
handle sexual assault reports properly but had issues giving specific details of how to complete a
report in the interviews. To develop mastery, individuals must acquire component skills, practice
integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006). Providing scaffolding and assisted performance in a person’s ZPD promotes
developmentally appropriate instruction (Scott & Palincsar, 2006). Conceptual knowledge is the
way that basic concepts or ideas relate to each other in order to function together (Krathwohl,
2002). Individuals who have a solid skill set in their focused task can achieve better results
(Krathwohl, 2002). When dealing with victims, an individual needs a specific skill set in order to
be able to handle them with the proper care and demeanor in order for the victim to feel
comfortable and safe enough to report. Training designers must come up with the proper
combination of behavioral traits, and skill sets that unit direct line supervisors must master in
order to be considered ready to perform their mandatory reporting duties. Once those skill sets
have been identified, trainers need to come up with scenarios that direct line unit supervisors can
work through during the training and receive real-time feedback and insight which can help them
further hone their skills.
Daly (2009) said that individuals must come up with specific behavioral objectives for
learning. Mastery of techniques can help further the unit direct line supervisors’ success in
winning the trust of their Marines and Sailors. By providing opportunities for learners to check
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 92
their progress and adjust their learning strategies as needed, it will further help hone skills
(Denler et al., 2009). Military victimology researchers have established that many victims agree
that one of the main reasons of not reporting is fear of retaliation and an overall feeling that no
one cares (Rentz et al., 2006; Williston, 2015). While unit direct line supervisors cannot change
the overall culture of victimology in the military by themselves, they can create a safe space for
reporting that focuses on combining the SAPR Training with general true care and concern for
their Marines and Sailors.
Increasing direct line unit supervisors’ ability to write the necessary sexual assault
reports. Female direct line unit supervisors indicated in the surveys that they do not have
victimology knowledge needed to write the necessary sexual assault reports. Information learned
meaningfully and connected with prior knowledge is stored more quickly and remembered more
accurately because it is elaborated with prior learning (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Procedural
knowledge is knowing how to complete a certain task, technique, or procedure, as well as the
ability to know the appropriate way to use the skills acquired (Krathwohl, 2002). Sometimes
individuals know the information necessary to perform a task, but they do not necessarily know
how to put the information into practice. Modeling to-be-learned strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance (Denler et al., 2009). The SAPR Training
designers need to ensure that proper, effective, and relevant scenario training is given to unit
direct line supervisors and mandatory reporters.
When designing training, it is important to be mindful of your audience and incorporate
any previous feedback from prior occurrences. Shute (2008) argued that providing timely
feedback that links the use of learning strategies with improved performance assists in the
learning process. SAPR scenario training design would need to incorporate years of feedback
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 93
from participants that have said current training is ineffective and loses the interests of
participants (DOD, 2018; HQMC, 2009). Schraw and McCrudden (2006) found that individuals
need people to model effective strategy use, including “how” and “when” to use particular
strategies. Designers could do pilot testing or interview focus groups to get valid real-time
feedback to incorporate during the actual design phase instead of relying on feedback alone in
order to get a more accurate and reliable product.
Reinforcing awareness of direct line unit supervisors’ strengths and areas of growth
in sexual assault reporting duties. Most direct line unit supervisors were able to recognize their
strengths and areas of growth when it comes to being first line mandatory reporters during the
interviews. Metacognitive knowledge is awareness of one’s own cognition and cognition in
general (Krathwohl, 2002). If individuals do not know how to stop and reflect on their strengths
and weaknesses, it can be detrimental to their professional and personal growth. Dembo and
Eaton (2000) stated that it is necessary to teach learners strategies to manage their motivation,
time, learning strategies, control their physical and social environment, and monitor their
performance. Learning and motivation are enhanced when individuals attribute success or
failures to effort rather than ability. (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). As part of the SAPR
Training, direct line unit supervisors need to be given opportunities to assess their strengths and
weaknesses and receive valuable feedback on how to hone their skills.
In order for feedback in SAPR training to be meaningful, those administering the training
and feedback should be practitioners of the content in order to be able to provide valuable and
real experiences which will help unit direct line supervisors when they are boots on the ground.
Providing feedback that stresses the nature of learning, including the importance of effort,
strategies, and potential self-control of learning is important in training (Pintrich, 2003).
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 94
Learning and motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for success
(Pajares, 2006). When properly administered, feedback can be a valuable tool in helping
individuals grow and further turn their skills into mastery (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Unit direct
line supervisors will have a better chance at being successful in their goal of being 100%
compliant with all mandatory reporting duties by not only receiving valuable feedback but
incorporating that feedback into their daily lives.
Motivation Recommendations
The motivation influences in Table 3 represent the complete list of assumed motivation
influences and whether or not they were validated. The motivation influences of utility value and
attribution theory as they pertain to the unit direct line supervisor’s goal of being 100%
compliant with all mandatory sexual assault reporting duties were validated based on the most
frequently mentioned motivational influences during interviews and supported by surveys and
the literature review. In order to make significant changes in an organization,
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that individuals must make a choice, use mental effort, and
persist in undertakings that make a difference. The level of motivation a unit direct line
supervisor has when learning their mandatory reporting duties and acting within their position
was evaluated through both the surveys and interviews to determine any gaps that exist. As
shown in Table 12, these motivational factors are a high priority and were validated as an
important part of helping direct line unit supervisors achieve their goal. Recommendations for
the influences based on theoretical principles are also listed in Table 12.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 95
Table 12
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Direct line unit supervisors need to
see the value in being in
compliance with the sexual-assault
training. (Utility Value)
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the learner
values the task (Eccles,
2006).
Give unit direct line supervisors
the opportunity to hear
testimony of stories from both
peers and victims on the way
proper reporting benefitted their
lives.
Direct line unit supervisors should
see the low reporting numbers as a
complex issue and not solely the
fault of a bad direct line unit
supervisor. (Attribution Theory)
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
individuals
attribute success or
failures to effort rather
than ability.
(Anderman &
Anderman, 2006).
Ensure unit direct line
supervisors have access to real-
time statistics and facts at all
times that show not only the
breadth and depth of the issue
but the roles of all the
stakeholders and how they
interplay with each other.
Promoting the value of sexual assault training in direct line unit supervisors. Direct
line unit supervisors expressed that they saw the value in being in 100% compliance with the
mandatory sexual assault training in both the surveys and the interviews. By allowing direct line
unit supervisors the opportunity in SAPR training to hear impactful stories on how the reporting
process impacted the lives of peers and victims it gives them the opportunity to have those
necessary experiences and increase their utility value. Learning and motivation are enhanced if
the learner values the task (Eccles, 2006). Utility value deals with the way the task aligns with
learners’ goals or helps to meet their desires, such as positive occurrences or financial gain
(Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Eccles (2006) suggests that learners choose behaviors in which
they believe will have a combination of the greatest value and the greatest success. Clark and
Estes (2008) stated that in order to increase things like an individual's persistence, choice, and
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 96
mental effort the activities they engage in must have a significant impact. It is recommended that
the SAPR training designers integrate impactful testimonials during crucial elements of the
training curriculum to ensure unit direct line supervisors have every opportunity to understand
and process their true impact on the mandatory reporting process.
Eccles (2006) stated that when individuals value a task, their motivation increases. Proper
task alignment during the training process sets learners up for success (Eccles, 2006.) When an
individual has an elevated motivation to learn the proper tools in order to be compliant with their
goals, they see better results (Rueda, 2011; Singh, 2016). If direct line unit supervisors are
presented with real stories that are impactful and given the opportunity to reflect on their ability
to make positive change in light of what they learned, heard and experienced it is highly likely
they will set goals that will be in line with working towards their goal of becoming 100%
compliant with their mandated SAPR Training duties. From a theoretical perspective, by
increasing unit direct line supervisors’ utility value, it will set them up for better success in being
able to learn and retain the proper SAPR reporting procedural and protocol knowledge.
Reinforce the proper attributions for male sexual assault under reporting. Direct
line unit supervisors should see the low reporting numbers as a complex issue and not solely the
fault of a bad direct line unit supervisor. When individuals attribute success or failures to effort
rather than ability, learning is enhanced (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Attribution theory
focuses on the way individuals explain the causes of behaviors and achievement events
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006). This theory suggests that if direct line unit supervisors perceive
low reporting numbers as being heavily at the fault of their stakeholder group, it can cause them
to give up or get overwhelmed at trying to do their part to fix the problem.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 97
It is important that SAPR training designers include opportunities for direct line unit
supervisors to see the big picture of the reporting process and the strengths and weaknesses in the
entire system to not only gain a better understanding of their part but the depth of the issue.
Anderman and Anderman (2006) assert that when an individual internalizes perception of an
event in the wrong way it can cause the individual to respond in unfavorable ways such as
displaying the wrong behavior, that is unnecessary. If direct line unit supervisors internalize the
low reporting numbers as being solely their fault, they could lose interest in continuing to follow
procedures and the reporting process properly. It is important that individuals success or failure
of task to effort and not internal factors (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). From a theoretical
perspective, by allowing direct line supervisors to have full disclosure of the depth and breadth
of the problem, it will help them keep the bigger picture in mind and not feel like they are solely
to blame. The problem of under reporting of male rape in the USMC is extremely complex, and
if direct line unit supervisors are convinced that there is nothing they can do to fix the issue, it
could be detrimental to change efforts because they are the first line defense to ensuring incident
reports are handled properly.
Organization Recommendations
The organizational influences that appear in Table 13 include all of the validated
organizational influences and recommendations. The organizational influences used to achieve
the direct line unit supervisor’s goal were validated based on the most frequently mentioned
organizational influences by the direct line unit supervisors during interviews and supported by
direct line supervisors’ surveys and the literature reviewed. Clark and Estes (2008) argued that
even when stakeholders have the proper tools and motivation if there is a lack in organizational
resources, policies, procedures and cultural settings/models that are effective, stakeholders can
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 98
still be prevented from achieving their performance goals. An organization’s cultural setting is
comprised of the visible characteristics of the who, what, when, where, and why in an
organization’s day to day operation (Rueda, 2011). An organization’s cultural model is
comprised of the intangible shared mental representation of the organization’s values, practices,
structures, and policies that come about in specific settings (Rueda, 2011). For this problem of
practice, some of the cultural models that will be important to focus on are the outlook of direct
line unit supervisors on being a mandated reporter and victim bias from stakeholders especially
Unit Commander’s that have adjudication authority. The cultural settings which are important to
focus on are the stigmas surrounding male victims and sexual assault in general, the timelines
and processes the organization has in place to educate all stakeholders on the current state of
victimology affairs, and the policies and procedures that Unit Commander’s follow when
deciding on adjudication procedures.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 99
Table 13
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Policies
The organization must
give clear expectations of
its programs and
processes.
Effective change efforts are
communicated regularly
and frequently to all key
stakeholders (Clark and
Estes, 2008).
Ensure that learning and
implementation goals are not
just communicated in SAPR
Training but through regular
communications from the SAPR
Program office and HQMC.
Processes
The organization needs to
enforce its policies and
procedures consistently.
Effective organizations
ensure that organizational
messages, rewards, policies
and procedures that govern
the work of the organization
are aligned with or are
supportive of organizational
goals and values (Clark and
Estes, 2008).
Establish mandatory policies and
procedures in the reporting and
adjudication process that get rid
of Commander’s discretion in
order to ensure a more uniform
and fair outcome in cases for
both perpetrators and victims.
Policies
The organization must be
open and honest about its
current state of affairs.
Effective change begins by
addressing motivation
influencers; it ensures the
group knows why it needs
to change. It then addresses
organizational barriers and
then knowledge and skills
needed (Clark and Estes,
2008).
HQMC, the SAPR Program
office must publish open and
honest communications
regarding the numbers of reports
and adjudication results and give
measurable goals and updates on
the goals regularly.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 100
The organization must give clear expectations on the metrics of SAPR programs
and processes. The research showed that direct line unit supervisors felt that HQMC is not
always consistent with the way it presents its official stance versus the way policies and
procedures are implemented. Effective change efforts are communicated regularly and frequently
to all key stakeholders (Clark and Estes, 2008). Research tells us that systems of accountability
are evolving (Conner & Rabovsky, 2011; Darling-Hammond, Amrein-Beardsley, Haertel, &
Rothstein (2012). The SAPR Program, HQMC, and Congress must work together to create and
deliver a strategic message that outlines not only expectations for reporting, but SAPR Training
design, tighter investigation policies, and stricter adjudication parameters for convening
authorities to follow.
The organization needs to ensure that learning and implementation goals are not just
communicated in SAPR Training but through regular communications from the SAPR Program
office and HQMC. Research tells us that subordinates usually trust their superiors without
question or needing proof (Bruneau, 2009). Proper benchmarking tools should be implemented
which not only accurately track the progress of the change effort, but effectively communicate to
all necessary stakeholders and the American public; data is one of the main tools that drive
benchmarking (Dowd, 2005; Levy & Ronco, 2012). From a theoretical standpoint, the use of
data and benchmarking will inherently give all stakeholders, especially direct line unit
supervisors a clear vision of the SAPR Program and HQMC’s expectations of the
implementation of its policies and procedures.
The organization needs to enforce its policies and procedures consistently. The
quantitative research showed that female direct line unit supervisors felt less confident that
HQMC takes all instances of sexual assault seriously. The qualitative research showed that the
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 101
Marines felt policies and procedures overturned too often to become fully successful. Effective
organizations ensure that organizational messages, rewards, policies, and procedures that govern
the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of organizational goals and values
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, the recommendation is to establish mandatory policies and
procedures in the reporting and adjudication process that get rid of Commander’s discretion in
order to ensure a more uniform and fair outcome in cases for both perpetrators and victims.
One of the ways to monitor policy and procedure trends in real time is developing a
scorecard system; scorecards can be used to hold a group accountable by detecting inequalities
and bringing them to the attention of the proper stakeholders (Bensimon, 2007). The
organization can implement a scorecard system which can be used to evaluate if units are
properly implementing the policies and procedures.
The organization must be open and honest about its current state of affairs. The
interviewed Marines all agreed that it was hard for HQMC to willfully admit there was an issue
with the under reporting of male sexual assault. Effective change begins by addressing
motivation influencers; it ensures the group knows why it needs to change; organizational
barriers, knowledge, and skills needs can then be addressed (Clark & Estes, 2008). HQMC must
be willing to combat the overarching culture of silence directly in order for significant change to
happen. HQMC and the SAPR Program office must publish open and honest communications
regarding the numbers of reports and adjudication results and give measurable goals and updates
on the goals regularly.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that effective organizations use statistical evidence as a
basis to advocate for change). Providing real-time statistical data ensures that all stakeholders
have the proper information they need to make decisions that affect the organization's process,
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 102
policies, and procedures (Clark & Estes, 2008). While the SAPR Program does make annual
reports available through their website, every Marine should be given the opportunity to be
presented with the yearly metrics through briefs and in already mandated stand downs that
happen throughout the year.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that forms the implementation and evaluation plan of this study is the New
World Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). There are four levels of training
and evaluation in this model. The model turns traditional change processes on its head and
focuses on the final end goal first in order to design the entire change cycle. The reverse order
starts with: Level 4- results, Level 3- behavior, Level 2- learning, and Level 1- reaction. Level 4
is focused on the final goal and planning backwards. This ensures that outcomes are measured by
using leading indicators to monitor critical behaviors which are necessary to achieve the desired
results. In Level 3, the organization evaluates how much knowledge learners transfer on the job.
This is done by looking at critical behaviors which need to be consistently performed. The
required drivers monitor, reinforce, encourage, and reward the critical behaviors followed by on
the job learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Learners are evaluated on the degree of
knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment they received from training in Level 2.
The organization evaluates learners experience and reaction to the training in things like reaction,
satisfaction, engagement, and relevance (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). To successfully
implement change, creating the implementation plan and framework using this model involves
integrating the organizational goal with the recommendation for solutions and increasing the
needed support (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
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Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The ultimate goal set forth by the Secretary of the Navy is to completely eradicate all
forms of sexual assault from the Navy and USMC. The USMC has set an interim goal to raise
the reporting rate of male sexual-assault victims from the current 1-10% a year to 40-50% a year
by 2022. This goal will be refined through continuing discussion with all valid stakeholders,
HQMC, the Department of Defense, and the Sexual Assault Prevention and Response (SAPR)
program coordinators. In order to meet the reporting goals for 2022, all USMC unit supervisors
will implement the sexual-assault training guidelines with 100% accuracy and compliance, and
ensure all subordinates are aware they have a safe space to report sexual crimes.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that by tracking the impact of the critical
behaviors on desired outcomes, organizations can identify leading indicators and use those to
measure accomplishments and/or undesirable outcomes. Table 14 shows the proposed leading
indicators of internal and external outcomes, metrics, and methods that show direct line unit
supervisors are achieving their desired results. It is expected that with the proper training,
feedback, and organizational support, external and internal outcomes will be met.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 104
Table 14
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
Internal Outcomes
Increased victimology
knowledge in direct line
unit supervisors.
A test or survey that shows direct
line unit supervisors’ knowledge has
improved to a minimum of 80% or is
above 80% in conjunction with
positive and negative examples from
direct line unit supervisors about
their current knowledge versus their
previous knowledge.
Compare victim exit
surveys on their
impressions of direct line
supervisors’ knowledge
between previous and
current years as well as the
examples given by the
direct line unit supervisors.
Increased proper victim
handling implementation
by direct line unit
supervisors.
Victim exit surveys as well as victim
statements that attest to how they
were treated with a minimum
approval rating of 80%.
Compare victim exit
surveys from previous and
current years as well as
analyze victim witness
statements.
Direct line unit
supervisors will display
an increased ability to
analyze their strengths
and weaknesses.
A survey and the collection of
statements that show direct line unit
supervisors analyzing their abilities
that shows satisfaction at a minimum
of 80%.
Analyzation of the survey
and statements in
comparison with previous
years to show the
difference in how direct
line unit supervisors’ rate
themselves.
Direct line unit
supervisors see the
importance of sexual
assault training.
Increased participation and attention
in sessions. The collection of surveys
and testimonies from direct line unit
supervisors on their feelings about
the sexual assault training that shows
satisfaction at a minimum of 80%.
Survey which shows the
value direct line unit
supervisors put in the
sexual assault training.
Direct line unit
supervisors will have an
increased understanding
of the complexity of the
reporting issue.
Direct line unit supervisors will give
briefs to their Marines and Sailors on
the complexity of the issue at least
once a quarter.
Give direct line unit
supervisors the data they
need to create their
presentations.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 105
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
All stakeholders will
have a better
understanding of the
SAPR Programs policies
and procedures.
Increased cohesion in the process
from report to adjudication shown
through reports which will have a
target of 80% satisfaction.
Stakeholders will write a
monthly report on each of
the cases they are handling,
including their views on
how other stakeholders
involved are handling the
matter and opportunities to
improve.
External Outcomes
Increased consistency in
the outcomes of cases.
Conduct an analysis of pre and post-
adjudication rates with a minimum
of 60% adjudication.
HQMC will continue to do
an annual report which
shows the adjudication
rates and outcomes.
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Unit direct line supervisors are the stakeholders of focus in this
study. The first critical behavior is that unit direct line supervisors will efficiently and effectively
follow all SAPR reporting policies and procedures. The second critical behavior is that all sexual
assault reports will be complete and without error every single time. The third critical behavior is
the unit direct line supervisors will be able to analyze their actions and responses during the
reporting process through after action reports which will also give them the opportunity to line
out a personal roadmap for any improvements as well as highlighting their strengths. The
specific methods, metrics, and timing for each behavior are outlined in Table 15.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 106
Table 15
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
Unit Direct Line
Supervisors will
efficiently and
effectively follow all
SAPR reporting
policies and
procedures
The number of errors
in reports with a
maximum error
margin of 5%
The SAPR office will
review the initial
reports to ensure
accuracy and provide
feedback to the
Command if there are
any errors as well as
provide a roadmap for
improvement.
Each report will be
reviewed within a
week and feedback
given back to the
Command within 3
weeks.
SAPR reports will be
complete and without
error.
The number of errors
in reports with a
maximum error
margin of 5%
The SAPR office will
review the initial
reports to ensure
accuracy and provide
feedback to the
Command if there are
any errors as well as
provide a roadmap for
improvement.
Each report will be
reviewed within a
week and feedback
given back to the
Command within 3
weeks.
Unit Direct Line
Supervisors will
conduct after-action
reports, which will
give them the
opportunity to analyze
their performance,
highlight their
strengths, and
roadmap any
opportunities for
growth.
The number of reports
that have more or less
positive versus
negative outcomes,
with an average of
60% positive-40%
negative.
The SAPR office will
review the reports and
provide feedback to
the Commands.
The reports will be
reviewed, and
feedback given within
3 weeks.
Required drivers. Direct line unit supervisors require the support of the direct
leadership, their Command, the SAPR Program office, HQMC, and Congress to guide their
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 107
development and ensure they have the proper tools they need for success. Each level of support
is necessary to provide direct line unit supervisors the reinforcement, encouragement, rewards,
and monitoring that they need. Reinforcement will be used to remind direct line unit supervisors
of their training and provide any refresher training that they need. Encouragement is considered
to be a formal way to provide mentoring and coaching. Rewards provide incentives for critical
behaviors. Monitoring ensures that there is accountability in the actions and performance of
direct line unit supervisors. The recommended drivers to support direct line unit supervisors are
shown in Table 16.
Table 16
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing
Create a job aid which gives an overview of the steps of
sexual assault reporting and the after action report.
Annually 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
SAPR trainers providing modeling during training and
feedback sessions to direct line unit supervisors
Annually 1, 2, 3
Feedback from the SAPR office will be reviewed one on
one with direct line unit supervisors and their
supervisors.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Direct line unit supervisors who have the most accurate
reports in a year will be asked to speak at the annual
SAPR conference to present their best practices
Annually 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
The SAPR office will provide oversight and feedback on
the after action reports and sexual assault reports to
Commands
Monthly 1, 2, 3
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Organizational support. The organization will provide the following support in order to
ensure that the required drivers are implemented. The organization will first analyze the current
workload of the SAPR Program to ensure that there is proper local staffing at each installation to
handle all the required tasks. Time will be allotted each week for SAPR staff to review the
incoming reports and after-action reports and provide feedback to the Commands. There will
also be a quarterly installation meeting with all Commands and the SAPR office to go over
quarterly metrics, goals, and accomplishments. The organization will ensure that all
stakeholders, including direct line unit supervisors, have access to the data and reports that come
out of the quarterly meetings. Finally, the organization will compare the feedback outcomes of
direct line unit supervisors between the current and previous fiscal years every quarter and
annually.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Upon completion of the recommended solutions, direct line unit
supervisors will be able to:
1. Identify the need to create a sexual assault report when talking to their Marines and
Sailors.
2. Create a sexual assault report with no errors and without missing any important details or
information.
3. Be able to accurately reflect on their own performance and record their strengths and
weaknesses in the after-action report.
4. See the value in turning in all reports in a timely manner to the proper departments.
Program. In order for the learning goals that were presented in the previous section to
be achieved, training and feedback that increases the knowledge and motivation of direct line
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 109
unit supervisors will need to occur in order to ensure that they reach 100% compliance of all
mandatory reporting duties. In order to further develop the capabilities and skill sets of direct line
unit supervisors, they will be given job aids, receive feedback in training, and write reflective
after action reports where they will receive timely feedback on their performance. The cycle of
training and feedback will need to be continuous due to the uncertain nature of how long each
direct line unit supervisor stays in their position. Annual SAPR training will need to be
supplemented by quarterly training for those direct line unit supervisors that take on their
positions at various times of the year.
Evaluation of the components of learning. In order for direct line unit supervisors to
apply their training and become 100% compliant with their mandated reporting duties, they must
have the proper knowledge, skills, and motivation. Conceptual and procedural knowledge being
taught must be assessed in order to assure accuracy. Direct line unit supervisors need to see the
value in their training and in the accuracy of the reporting process in order to achieve success
when they are boots on the ground. The timeline for the learning components is outlined in Table
17.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 110
Table 17
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Sexual assault reports will be accurate As they happen
There will be no instances of sexual assaults that go unreported
due to direct line unit supervisors not making a report.
As they happen
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Feedback from the SAPR Program regarding the after-action
reports.
Monthly
Reports are filed to the proper departments by direct line unit
supervisors.
As they happen
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre and post training survey to see if the value has increased
with the training.
Before and after training
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Feedback from SAPR Trainers during training After training
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Have trainees write commitment cards during training During training session
Level 1: Reaction
Assessing the direct line unit supervisors’ reaction to SAPR Program training is
extremely important. Confirming that the training is of acceptable quality and efficiency by
direct line unit supervisors is one of the ways to ensure everything is on track. The reaction of
direct line unit supervisors to SAPR Program training in the realms of being favorable, engaging,
and relevant are listed below in Table 18.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 111
Table 18
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Training satisfaction survey At the end of the training
Trainer evaluation survey At the end of the training
Relevance
Check-ins with SAPR Program Staff and Unit
Leadership
Once a quarter
Pulse check with direct line unit supervisors After each training and after each report and
feedback
Customer Satisfaction
Training evaluation survey At the end of the training
Pulse check with direct line unit supervisors After each training and after each report and
feedback
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Once the SAPR Program
training is complete, there is a survey that will be handed out to the learners to fill out before
they are dismissed (see Appendix A for the survey questions). There will also be a trainer
evaluation survey which will identify the strengths and weaknesses of each learner (see
Appendix B for the evaluation). The survey for the learners will indicate the relevance of the
material in relation to the mandated reporting duties, participant satisfaction, as well as their
commitment, attitude, and confidence in being able to apply the material to their reporting duties.
For Level 1 and Level 2, the SAPR Trainers will fill out evaluations which analyze
various abilities of trainees and also provide valuable feedback. During the training sessions, the
SAPR Trainers will continually check in with their trainees in order to ensure that the
information they are receiving is valid and giving them practical solutions. The SAPR Trainers
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 112
will ensure that they are providing the most conducive environment for learning. Level 2 will
include checks for performance, understanding, and execution of materials.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Each mandated report taken
by trained mandated reporters will be submitted to the SAPR Program Office immediately after
the report is taken. The report will be analyzed by the SAPR staff, and any errors or feedback on
the report will be submitted back to the reporters Command within 3 weeks (see Appendix C for
sample feedback). The reports will be a good tool for direct line unit supervisor’s to be able to
further hone their skills as mandated reporters in order to reach their goals of being 100%
compliant with their duties as mandatory reporters.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal is that direct line unit supervisors will perform all of the mandatory
sexual assault reporting duties with 100% compliance. Direct line unit supervisors must have the
knowledge, skills, and motivation to be able to receive reports of sexual assault victims and
report them with accuracy and diligence. Each report will go to the SAPR office, and personnel
will review each report for accuracy and will provide feedback to the parent Command that each
report stems from. The reports will be compiled quarterly and annually to track the progress of
the reporting numbers. The following graphic (Figure 2) shows the Level 4 goal; similar graphics
will be created to monitor Levels 1, 2, and 3.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick model informed the implementation and evaluation plan for
this study (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In order to ensure that direct line unit supervisors
have the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support they need to perform their
mandatory sexual assault reporting duties with 100% compliance, there are four levels of
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 113
evaluation and training that need to be utilized. In adherence with this model, the training for
direct line unit supervisors starts with identifying the outcomes, metrics, and methods with which
to measure the results of the targeted outcomes that are integrated with the organization's goals
as a whole. The program then establishes the critical behaviors which need to be assessed in
order to ensure that direct line unit supervisors are applying the knowledge when they are boots
on the ground. Direct line unit supervisors are evaluated on identified learning outcomes in order
to determine their level of knowledge, attitude, commitment, and confidence during their
training. Lastly, in order to determine direct line unit supervisors’ satisfaction, engagement, and
relevance of the SAPR training methods were developed to measure each factor. Data will be
collected and analyzed during all steps of the program implementation in order to implement
maximum change and program results. This section focuses on the four levels of training and
answers the questions, “Does the level of ...meet expectations? If so, then why? If not, then why
not?” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
When the level of reaction and learning does not meet expectations, the SAPR Program
Trainers need to notify higher headquarters of their feedback so that changes can be made to the
program. While curriculum changes can be a long, arduous process due to the nature of the
Federal Government, the SAPR Program Trainers do have the latitude to tweak the delivery of
the material in order to try and improve responses. Pulse checks during training when
participants aren’t reacting in an expected manner are a real and relevant way to get participant
feedback and address real-time issues (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Pulse checks can be
relevant in situations where participants are reacting in expected ways by discussing the positive
elements that encouraged increased engagement (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 114
The final step in the process is the evaluations that will be provided to Commands by the
SAPR Program. One of the main things that determine the success of any training program is
organizational support (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Reports and touch points throughout
the implementation process help drive performance and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). The reports need to address the relevance, credibility, compelling evidence, and efficiency
of the program in order to engage Commands in topics that are important to them (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Future Research
The critical areas for further research are the mindsets of Junior Marines that have high-
level responsibility put on them through surveys and interviews, analyzing the KMO of SAPR
Program trainers and analyzing Unit Commanders regarding their use and views of Commanders
Discretion when it comes to adjudication. Junior Marines should be examined for how the
potential general generational traits versus what the Marine Corps trains affects the way they
perceive and carry out their duties. SAPR Program trainers should be analyzed for their KMO in
training the Marines on sexual assault reporting procedures. Various other stakeholders also
should be researched as to how their KMO plays into the issue of the under reporting of male
victims. While the researcher did come across compelling data on adjudicated versus non-
adjudicated cases, the researcher chose not to discuss the data out of respect for the Marine
Corps internal investigative processes.
Conclusion
This dissertation in practice studied the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences of direct line unit supervisors in the USMC as it relates to their mandatory duties in
reporting sexual assault. The DOD (2019) as expressed clear intent with the Plan to Prevent and
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 115
Respond to the Sexual Assault of Military Men that the issue of male rape needs to be addressed
across all branches. The study focused on the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences of direct line unit supervisors in relation to their goal of being 100% compliant with
all mandatory sexual assault reporting duties. The survey results showed that males had a higher
confidence level than females in their ability to accurately report sexual assaults. The interviews
also revealed that while unit direct line supervisors were able to reference sexual assault
reporting policies and procedures, it was difficult for them to elaborate on specific details of the
process.
Training and additional supports can help the USMC address the gaps in direct line unit
supervisors ability to perform their sexual assault reporting duties autonomously. The
recommendations to improve outcomes of direct line unit supervisors can be achieved by re-
evaluating SAPR training metrics and models during sexual assault reporting training to ensure
that there is a way to assess the learners retained knowledge. Incorporating a feedback loop
during the actual training will help ensure mastery of the skills needed to support victims
effectively. Building stronger bridges of communication between Commands and the SAPR
program office will ensure that direct line unit supervisors have the training and support they
need at all times.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 116
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UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 117
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
First and foremost, I would like to begin by expressing my gratitude for your agreeing to
participate in my study. Thank you for taking some time out of your extremely busy schedule to
meet with me and answer some questions. This interview will take about an hour, although we
have allocated an hour and a half for some cushion on time.
I am currently enrolled in a doctoral program at USC and am conducting a study on the
underreporting of male rape in the United States Marine Corps, and finding a workable solution
to raise the reporting numbers. I am focusing on direct line unit supervisors and their ability to
perform the duties of mandatory sexual-assault reporters with 100% compliance.
Today, I am not here as an employee of this organization nor to make a professional
assessment or judgment of your performance as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter. I would like
to emphasize that today, I am only here as a researcher collecting data for my study. The
information I will ask you to share with me will be placed into my study as part of the data
collection. In addition, this interview is completely confidential, and your name and responses
will not be disclosed to anyone or anywhere outside the scope of this study. They will be known
only to me, specifically for this data collection. While I may utilize a direct quote from you in
my study, I will not provide your name specifically and will make the best effort possible to
remove any potentially identifying information. I will gladly provide you with a copy of my final
product upon request.
During the interview, I will utilize a recording device to assist me in capturing all of your
responses accurately and completely. This recording will not be shared with anyone outside the
scope of this project. The recording will be transferred to my password-protected files on a cloud
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 126
file storage account and deleted from the recording device immediately upon transfer. The
recording will then be destroyed two years after the date my dissertation defense is approved.
With that, do you have any questions about the study before we get started? If not, I
would like your permission to begin the interview. May I also have your permission to record
this conversation?
• Please give me a brief introduction of yourself, your home life, and your military career.
• How would you describe yourself as a leader of Marines?
• Can you tell me about the training you received when you began your role as a mandated
reporter?
• Did you have/have you had update training?
• If so, how many/how often?
• What aspects of the training did you find the most valuable and why?
• What aspects of the training would you like to see improved? How? Why?
• Please tell me about your experience with being a mandatory sexual-assault reporter.
• How many male rape cases have you seen in your time as a direct line unit supervisor?
• What types of challenges have you faced as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter?
• Have you witnessed any type of retaliation when it comes to reporting?
• Have you experienced any type of retaliation?
• Are you concerned with retaliation?
• What benefits have you found in being a direct line unit supervisor in the role of a
mandatory sexual-assault reporter?
• What downfalls have you experienced in being a direct line unit supervisor in the role of
a mandatory sexual-assault reporter?
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• Can you tell me about any instances where you have witnessed your peers in similar
position express their beliefs, positive or negative, about the current reporting system or
male rape in general?
• Do you see any disparities or differences in how the policies and procedures are followed
among your peers who have had similar positions?
• What types of improvements or suggestions would you make regarding the mandated
duties of someone in your rank/position?
• What opportunities for improvement does the SAPR program have, in your experience?
• Do you feel there is anything the Marine Corps could do to improve male victim
reporting?
• Tell me about the ways the Marine Corps supports you in your role as a direct line unit
supervisor.
• Where do you think the Marine Corps should focus its improvement efforts on the SAPR
program regarding male victims?
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Appendix B: Survey Items
1. I am
Male Female
2. My time served in the Marine Corps to date is
0-4 years 5-8 years 9-12 years 13-16 years 17-20 years 20+ years
3. My total time as a direct line unit supervisor to date is
0-2 years 3-6 years 7-10 years 10+years
4. I have had ________ number of sexual assaults reported to me.
0-2 3-5 6-10 more than 10
5. I have had ________ male sexual assaults reported to me.
0-2 3-5 6-10 more than 10
6. I have had ________many hours of SAPR training as a mandatory reporter.
0-2 hours 3-5 hours 6-10 hours more than 10
7. I fully understand my duties as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
8. When a sexual assault is reported to me, I can perform all the necessary tasks without needing
to ask for assistance or rely on job aids.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
9. I know how to accurately and confidentially write up all the necessary documents and reports
associated with sexual assaults reported to me.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
10. I am fully capable of training a peer or replacement in the duties associated with the SAPR
reporting process.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 129
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
11. Being a mandatory reporter is extremely important to me.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
12. My part in the reporting process is a crucial element to ensuring victims get justice.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
13. I proactively let my Marines know that they can report any instances of sexual assault to me.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
14. I am driven to learn all that I can about being the best mandatory reporter I can be.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
15. The Marine Corps takes all instances of sexual assault seriously.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
16. My Command takes all instances of sexual assault seriously.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
17. The Marine Corps SAPR training sets me up for success as a mandatory reporter.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
18. The Marine Corps does everything in its power to ensure that the stigmas and biases
surrounding sexual assault are eradicated within the ranks.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
19. The Marine Corps ensures that I and my peers that are mandatory reporters are safe from any
retaliatory actions by anyone in the Chain of Command.
Strongly Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
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Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol
SAPR Training Manual:
1. Where is the SAPR Training Manual located?
2. When was the latest update of the SAPR Training Manual Published?
3. What is Commander’s Intent of the SAPR Training Manual?
4. Does the SAPR Training Manual align with the goals set forth by HQMC, the
Pentagon, and Congress?
5. Are there specific requirements for unit direct line supervisors to become mandatory
reporters?
6. What specific guidance does the training manual give unit direct line supervisors?
7. Is there an appendix of terms in the SAPR Training Manual?
8. Does the SAPR Training Manual require unit direct line supervisors to learn about the
investigation and adjudication process?
9. Are there any parts of the SAPR Training Manual that seem out of alignment with the
organization's current goals?
10. Does the SAPR Training Manual differentiate between female and male victims?
11. Does the SAPR Training Manual differentiate between female and male offenders?
12. Does the SAPR Training Manual define how long direct line supervisors need to be
trained, how often and the type of training required?
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Appendix D: Training Evaluation Form
For each question, please choose an answer which best fits your perceptions about this training
session only.
1. I am
Male Female
2. My time served in the Marine Corps to date is
0-4 years 5-8 years 9-12 years 13-16 years 17-20 years 20+ years
3. My total time as a direct line unit supervisor to date is
0-2 years 3-6 years 7-10 years 10+years
4. I have had ________ number of sexual assaults reported to me.
0-2 3-5 6-10 more than 10
5. Including today’s training, I have had ________many hours of SAPR training as a mandatory
reporter.
0-2 hours 3-5 hours 6-10 hours more than 10
6. After today’s training, I fully understand my duties as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
7. After today’s training, when a sexual assault is reported to me, I can perform all the necessary
tasks without needing to ask for assistance or rely on job aids.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
8. After today’s training, I know how to accurately and confidentially write up all the necessary
documents and reports associated with sexual assaults reported to me.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 132
9. After today’s training, I am fully capable of training a peer or replacement in the duties
associated with the SAPR reporting process.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
10. Today’s training helped me understand that my part in the reporting process is a crucial
element to ensuring victims get justice.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
11. This training motivated me to proactively let my Marines know that they can report any
instances of sexual assault to me.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
12. After today’s training, I am driven to learn all that I can about being the best mandatory
reporter I can be.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
13. The Marine Corps SAPR training sets me up for success as a mandatory reporter.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree N/A
Please provide any additional feedback or comments here:
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 133
Appendix E: Checklist for SAPR Trainers
Checklist for SAPR Trainers to use in providing feedback during SAPR Training
1. Appropriate behavior
2. Moderately Appropriate behavior
3. Inappropriate behavior
Please only use one rating number for each behavior. Please be as specific as possible to address
trainees attitudes, customs and courtesies, and professional SAPR knowledge.
Target Behavior Rating Feedback
Trainee connected with
the reportee using active
listening skills and validating
their thoughts and feelings.
Trainee asked open-ended and
appropriate leading questions.
Trainee clarified reportee’s
wishes with appropriate follow
up questions.
Trainee offered reportee the
appropriate resources based on
which reporting option they chose.
Trainee let reportee know they
were there to support them
throughout the entire process.
Trainee was able to fully address
reportee’s needs, explaining both
reporting options thoroughly and
without pressuring the reportee into
a decision and giving appropriate
resources and answers to any and all
of their questions.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 134
Appendix F: Interview Participant Write Up
Adam has been serving for nine years now and is a Staff Sergeant with a ground unit. He
has been with his current unit for two years and considers himself a Career Marine. He states that
he has had over 20 hours of SAPR Training and has encountered over 10 instances of male rape
victims, but none of them were officially reported.
Allison has been serving for 12 years now and is a Staff Sergeant with an auxiliary
command. She has been with her current unit for one year and considers herself a Career Marine
with aspirations to become an Officer. She states that she has had a minimum of 30 hours of
SAPR Training and has encountered over 10 instances of male rape victims, but only one of
them was officially reported that she knows of and the case didn’t go very far.
Benji has been serving for 18 years now and is a Lieutenant Colonel with a ground unit.
He has been in command of his unit for eight months and considers himself a Career Marine. He
states that he has had over 100 hours of SAPR Training. He states that he has encountered
approximately seven instances of male rape victims in his time as a Marine, and there is one
restricted case in his current command.
Caden has been serving for 24 years now and is a Chief Warrant Officer 3. He has been
in his current unit for two years now and is preparing for retirement. He states that he has had
well over 30 hours of SAPR Training throughout his career and has encountered maybe two
male rape victims in his career, both instances were reported, but he does not know any further
details.
Caleb has been serving for 6 years now and is a Corporal. He has been in his current unit
for 3 years and just re-enlisted. He is not sure if he will be a Career Marine, but the idea of
becoming an Officer one day intrigues him. He states that he has had about 12 hours of SAPR
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 135
Training and has encountered four instances of male rape victims, him being one of them. He
states that none of them were officially reported.
Dante has been serving for four years and is a Corporal. He has been in his current unit
for a little over two years and is with the Air Wing. He states that he has had approximately six
hours of SAPR Training and is not sure if he is re-enlisting or getting out. He has encountered
two male rape victims in his career; both instances were not reported.
Frank has been serving eight years and is a Sergeant. He has been in his current unit, an
auxiliary command, for two years and is preparing to get out. He states that he has had
approximately 12 hours of SAPR Training and has encountered over 10 instances of male rape
victims in his career, and none of them were reported.
Freddie has been serving 24 years and is a Master Sergeant. He has been in his current
unit for a year and plans on staying in as long as possible. He states that he has more than likely
endured more than 50 hours of SAPR Training throughout his career. He has encountered
multiple male rape victims over the span of his career; he has seen 3 instances of reported male
rape in his career with one ending up in a conviction for the perpetrator.
Gerardo has been serving for 30 years and is a Master Gunnery Sergeant. He has been in
his current position at a higher headquarters command for two years and is preparing for
retirement. He states that he has probably had well over 50 hours of SAPR Training in his career
and is not aware of how many rape victims he has encountered in his career, but he would say
probably over 10. He states that he has never seen a case of a male rape victim, but knows that
they exist.
Haleigh is a Naval Academy graduate and is a Second Lieutenant. She has been in her
current command with the Air Wing for six months. She does not know if she will be a Career
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 136
Marine as she is simply focusing on getting to know her billet and her Marines. She states that
she has yet to go through Marine Corps SAPR Training, but there was training that they had to
take at the Naval Academy but it was focused on choices and what happens if you are a victim,
not how to take a report from a subordinate. She has not had any reports of rape come to her yet,
but she saw a lot happen at the Naval Academy to both male and females, but only a few severe
cases went to trial.
Lukas has been serving for 22 years and he is a Master Sergeant. He has been in his
current command for three years and is planning for retirement. He states that he has probably
had around 35 hours of SAPR Training is his career. He states that he has seen countless
instances of male victims in his career, but no official cases.
Sherrie has been serving for 12 years and is a Major. She has been at her current
command for two years and just put in her package to stay in. She believes that she has maybe
had a little over 20 hours of SAPR Training over the span of her career. She has encountered
approximately four cases of male victims in her career, three of which were restricted and one
which started as restricted and then became unrestricted.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 137
Appendix G: Unit Direct Line Supervisor Self-Reported Deficiencies in their Knowledge
Gender
Years of
Service Count of Answers
N/A
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree Agree
Strongly
Agree
Q7. I fully understand my duties as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter
Female 0 - 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q8. When a sexual assault is reported to me, I can perform all the necessary tasks without needing
to ask for assistance or rely on job aids
Female 0 - 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 10 20
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q9. I know how to accurately and confidentially write up all the necessary documents and
reports associated with sexual assaults reported to me.
Female 0 - 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 10 20
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q10. I am fully capable of training a peer or replacement in the duties associated with the
SAPR reporting process.
Female 0 - 4 20
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 10 20
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q11. Being a mandatory reporter is extremely important to me
Female 0 - 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 30
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 138
Gender
Years of
Service Count of Answers
N/A
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree Agree
Strongly
Agree
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q12. My part in the reporting process is a crucial element to ensuring victims get justice.
Female 0 – 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q13. I proactively let my Marines know that they can report any instances of sexual assault to
me.
Female 0 – 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 10 10 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q14. I am driven to learn all that I can about being the best mandatory reporter I can be.
Female 0 – 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 – 4 20 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q15. The Marine Corps takes all instances of sexual assault seriously.
Female 0 - 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 10 10 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q16. My Command takes all instances of sexual assault seriously.
Female 0 – 4 10 10
9-12 10
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 139
Gender
Years of
Service Count of Answers
N/A
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree Agree
Strongly
Agree
Male 0 - 4 10 10 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q17. The Marine Corps SAPR training sets me up for success as a mandatory reporter.
Female 0 – 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 - 4 20 10 20
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q18. The Marine Corps does everything in its power to ensure that the stigmas and biases
surrounding sexual assault are eradicated within the ranks.
Female 0 – 4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0 – 4 10 10 30
5 - 8 10
20 + 10
Q19. The Marine Corps ensures that I and my peers that are mandatory reporters are safe from
any retaliatory actions by anyone in the Chain of Command.
Female 0-4 10 10
9-12 10
Male 0-4 10 10 30
5-8 10
20+ 10
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 140
Appendix H: Descriptive Statistics, Sample and Subgroup Means Comparisons-Knowledge
Gender
Statistics
N M SD T DF P
Q7. I fully understand my duties as a mandatory sexual-assault reporter
Female
30 5 2.877 0.240 99 .811
Male
70 5.1 2.661
10 Yrs+
20 7 0.000 -3.721 99 .000
10Yrs-
80 4.6 2.843
Q8. When a sexual assault is reported to me, I can perform all the necessary tasks
without needing to ask for assistance or rely on job aids
Female
30 4 2.197 1.852 99 .067
Male
70 5 2.582
10 Yrs+
20 6 0.000 -2.675 99 .009
10 Yrs-
80 4.4 2.707
Q9. I know how to accurately and confidentially write up all the necessary documents and
reports associated with sexual assaults reported to me.
Female
30 2.3 0.959 4.925 99 0.000
Male
70 4.7 2.566
10 Yrs+
20 3.5 0.513 1.016 99 .312
10 Yrs-
80 4.1 2.730
Q10. I am fully capable of training a peer or replacement in the duties associated with the SAPR
reporting process.
Female
30 2.3 1.918 4.560 99 0.000
Male
70 4.7 2.566
10 Yrs+
20 4.5 0.513 -.953 99 0.343
10 Yrs-
80 3.9 2.910
Q11. Being a mandatory reporter is extremely important to me
Female
30 4.7 2.670 1.046 99 .298
Male
70 5.3 2.730
10 Yrs+
20 7 0.000 -3.721 99 .000
10Yrs-
80 4.6 2.843
Q12. My part in the reporting process is a crucial element to ensuring victims get justice.
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 141
Gender
Statistics
N M SD T DF P
Female
30 5 2.877 -.472 99 .638
Male
70 4.7 2.730
10 Yrs+
20 5 2.052 -.360 99 .719
10 Yrs-
80 4.8 2.923
Q13. I proactively let my Marines know that they can report
any instances of sexual assault to me.
Female
30 4 2.491 4.141 99 .000
Male
70 6 2.085
10 Yrs+
20 7 0.000 -3.542 99 .001
10 Yrs-
80 5 2.516
Q14. I am driven to learn all that I can about being the best mandatory reporter I can be.
Female
30 3.3 2.090 3.122 99 .002
Male
70 5 2.582
10 Yrs+
20 6 0.000 -3.060 99 .003
10 Yrs-
80 4.1 2.730
Q15. The Marine Corps takes all instances of sexual assault seriously.
Female
30 3.7 1.918 4.300 99 .000
Male
70 5.6 2.075
10 Yrs+
20 6 1.026 -2.320 99 .022
10Yrs-
80 4.75 2.347
Q16. My Command takes all instances of sexual assault seriously.
Female
30 4.7 2.670 1.866 99 .065
Male
70 5.6 2.004
10 Yrs+
20 6.5 0.513 -2.754 99 .007
10 Yrs-
80 5 2.413
Q17. The Marine Corps SAPR training sets me up for success as a mandatory reporter.
Female
30 3.7 1.918 2.082 99 .040
UNDER REPORTING OF MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT 142
Gender
Statistics
N M SD T DF P
Male
70 4.7 2.450
10 Yrs+
20 5.5 0.513 -2.402 99 .018
10 Yrs-
80 4.1 2.538
Q18. The Marine Corps does everything in its power to ensure that the stigmas and biases
surrounding sexual assault are 4eradicated within the ranks.
Female
30 4 2.197 3.732 99 .000
Male
70 5.7 2.065
10 Yrs+
20 5 0.000 0.445 99 .657
10 Yrs-
80 5.3 2.503
Q19. The Marine Corps ensures that I and my peers that are mandatory reporters are safe from
any retaliatory actions by anyone in the Chain of Command.
Female
30 4.7 2.670 2.427 99 .017
Male
70 5.9 2.045
10 Yr+
20 6 0.000 -1.087 99 .280
10 Yrs-
80 5.4 2.563
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This dissertation examined the under reporting of male rape in the United States Marine Corps through the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis model. The stakeholders of focus were unit direct line supervisors and their mandated sexual assault reporting duties. The study focused on determining whether there were gaps in unit direct line supervisor’s knowledge, motivation, or organizational support. The research questions that guided this study were: 1. What is the direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being 100% compliant with all mandatory sexual-assault reporting duties? 2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context with direct line unit supervisors’ knowledge and motivation? 3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions? The study used a mixed methods approach of anonymous surveys and interviews. Survey results reflected that males reported to have a higher confidence level in accurately reporting sexual assaults than females. The interviews showed that while unit direct line supervisors were able to reference sexual assault reporting policies and procedures, it was difficult for them to be able to give specifics. The recommendations for implementing solutions used the New World Kirkpatrick Model. They include re-evaluating SAPR training metrics and models during sexual assault reporting training to ensure that there is a way to assess the learners retained knowledge as well as establishing a feedback loop from Commands to the SAPR office to conduct regular pulse checks to see if refresher training is needed at any given time.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Grudberg, Stephanie Marie
(author)
Core Title
Under reporting of male sexual assault in the United States Marine Corps: a gap analysis
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
06/27/2019
Defense Date
06/07/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
male Marine Corps rape,male Marine Corps sexual assault,male military rape,male military sexual assault,male rape,male rape research,male rape statistics,male sexual assault,Marine Corps,Marine Corps rape,Marine Corps rape research,Marine Corps rape statistics,Marine Corps SAPR,Marine Corps sexual assault,Military,military rape,military SAPR,military sexual assault,OAI-PMH Harvest,rape,SAPR,SAPRO,Sexual assault,United States Marine Corps,United States Marine Corps rape research,United States Marine Corps rape statistics,United States Marine Corps SAPR,USMC,USMC SAPR
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Seli, Helena (
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), Davis, Heather (
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), Robles, Darline (
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