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Measuring student persistence at an alternative charter high school: internal school evaluation and external policy implications
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Measuring student persistence at an alternative charter high school: internal school evaluation and external policy implications
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Content
Running head: STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 1
MEASURING STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT AN ALTERNATIVE CHARTER HIGH
SCHOOL: INTERNAL SCHOOL EVALUATION AND EXTERNAL POLICY
IMPLICATIONS
By
Timothy Andrew Smith
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2019
Copyright 2018 Timothy Smith
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to all of the people that have contributed to and influenced my journey and
successful completion of the University of Southern California Global Executive Education
doctoral program. I am especially grateful to Dr. Mark Robison for chairing the USC Global
Executive EDD, for Dr. Mike Diamond for conceiving of such a unique educational concept, and
for Dean Karen Symms Gallagher for her leadership and support of the program. I appreciated
the kind and thoughtful support of Dr. Monique Datta who patiently and positively corrected and
gave insights to my numerous revisions. I will always remember to not allow my readers to
“read my bias.” I am also grateful to the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Ruth Gim
Chung and Dr. Tracy Tambascia for their wisdom and guidance as my dissertation took shape. I
am also appreciative to all of the wonderful professors throughout the program. Dr. Krop, Dr.
Seli, Dr. Wertman, Dr. Maddox, Dr. Adolph, Dr. Yates, and Dr. Picus engaged us in a variety of
ways and provoked much thought and discussion in our classes and assignments. Dr. Sabrina
Chong was also an integral part of our program by keeping us all on schedule and on time with
dates, locations, assignments, and I am grateful for her meticulous attention to the many details
needed for us to progress through the program. Lastly, I am grateful to my colleagues that I have
had the pleasure to associate with for the last two years. Thank you to: Cathy Atwell, Tadios
Belay, Nancy Bjorkland, Brittany Barker, Crissy Gayagas, Frank Gettridge, Kaili Hwang, Jamie
Lee, Li Lui, Nefertiti Makeda, Michael McAlister, Will Pierros, Charles Prince, Emmanuel
Reed, Emon Reyes, Paulo Rodrigues, John Wilkerson, and YongFei Zhao. I hope that we can
stay connected indefinitely.
I am also grateful to all of my work colleagues and associates for allowing me the time
away to be able to participate in and finish such an amazing program. I appreciate Vicki
McFarland, Vice President of Learning Matters Educational Group, Calibre Academy and E-
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 3
Institute Charter Schools, for courageously leading our great team of educational leaders,
teachers and staff and for keeping them accountable and always ready to adapt to change in the
best interest of our students. I also greatly appreciate Benoni Pantoja, Vice President of Schools,
at Taylion Academy of San Diego and High Desert, California, for his leadership over the last
two years. Thank you Benoni for getting us through two charter renewals, one new charter
petition, a WASC cycle, school improvement plans, budgets, LCAPs and all the many things that
needed to get done, in addition to leading the entire Taylion team of leaders, teachers and staff. I
am also grateful to the students of EICS. I am always amazed by the persistence and positivity
after hearing their stories of challenges and setbacks, yet they continue to persevere to
accomplish their educational goals. Their courage is what motivates me to work each day.
Finally, I am very grateful to my family for their patience and love in encouraging me
through this journey. Thank you to Rachel and Philipp for the trips that we were able to take to
Europe in order to get me excited to participate in this program, and for believing in me. Thank
you to Taylor for being my 한국말 speaking companion and for being such a great care giver to
Fitz. Thank you to Hannah for being a great student right along with me and for always being a
good reality checker when needed. Thank you Dallin for accompanying me to Japan and for
keeping me up to speed in the world of video gaming. Thank you Dawson for being my Arizona
Cardinals sports companion and for always keeping me on schedule. Thank you Shannon for
always believing in me, even when I did not, for being a positive support, and a great business
and parenting partner. I love you all.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 2
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 8
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem .................................................................................... 11
Background of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 11
Importance of Addressing the Problem .................................................................................... 14
Organizational Context and Mission ........................................................................................ 17
Organizational Performance Status ............................................................................................... 17
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance ....................................................... 18
Description of Stakeholder Groups ............................................................................................... 19
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ............................................................................................. 20
Stakeholder Group for the Study .................................................................................................. 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 21
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ............................................................................ 22
Definitions................................................................................................................................. 22
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................................... 23
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 24
Public Alternative Schools ........................................................................................................ 27
Definitions of Alternative Education ............................................................................................ 27
History of Alternative Education .............................................................................................. 29
Parochial Schools as an Alternative to Public Education ............................................................. 30
The Progressive Education Movement ......................................................................................... 31
Educational Reform in the 1960s and 1970s ................................................................................ 32
Alternative Education Outside of the Public School System........................................................ 33
Alternative Education Within the Public School System ............................................................. 34
Types of Public Alternative Schools and Programs Established During the 1970s ..................... 35
Alternative Education in the 1980s ............................................................................................... 45
Characteristics of Effective Alternative Schools ...................................................................... 47
School Choice ........................................................................................................................... 56
Charter Schools ......................................................................................................................... 59
Public Charter School Performance .............................................................................................. 61
Dropout Prevention ....................................................................................................................... 62
One Third of a Nation ................................................................................................................... 64
Redefining the School-to-Prison Pipeline ..................................................................................... 66
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 69
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 69
Stakeholders of Focus ............................................................................................................... 70
Methodological Framework ...................................................................................................... 71
Assumed Influences of the Performance Gap ........................................................................... 73
Preliminary Scanning Data and Critical Observations ................................................................. 74
Knowledge and Skills ................................................................................................................... 75
Motivation ..................................................................................................................................... 81
Organizational ............................................................................................................................... 85
Dropout Prevention and School and Student’s Role..................................................................... 87
Population ................................................................................................................................. 91
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 5
Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 91
Surveys .......................................................................................................................................... 91
Interviews ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Validation of Influences ............................................................................................................ 92
Trustworthiness of Data ............................................................................................................ 95
Role of Investigator................................................................................................................... 95
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 96
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 97
Chapter Four: Results and Analysis .............................................................................................. 99
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 99
Data Collection and Validity .................................................................................................. 100
Demographic Data ...................................................................................................................... 100
Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs ........................................................................... 102
Factual Knowledge About E-Institute Charter School ............................................................... 102
Conceptual Knowledge About E-Institute Charter School ......................................................... 103
Procedural Knowledge ................................................................................................................ 104
Metacognitive Knowledge .......................................................................................................... 107
Synthesis of Results and Findings of Knowledge Needs........................................................ 112
Results and Findings for Motivation Needs............................................................................ 113
Intrinsic Motivation .................................................................................................................... 113
Self-Determination Theory ......................................................................................................... 115
Extrinsic Motivation ................................................................................................................... 117
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Needs ....................................................... 120
Results and Findings for Organization Needs ........................................................................ 121
External Culture .......................................................................................................................... 122
Internal Culture ........................................................................................................................... 125
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Needs .................................................... 128
Validated Causes Summary Table .......................................................................................... 129
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 131
Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation, and Evaluation ......................................................... 132
Validated Causes ..................................................................................................................... 132
Closing the Gap: Solutions for Implementation ..................................................................... 133
Solutions for Validated Causes ................................................................................................... 134
Solutions for Knowledge Causes ................................................................................................ 134
Solutions for Motivation Causes ................................................................................................. 136
Solutions for Organizational Causes ........................................................................................... 140
Strategies and Action Items .................................................................................................... 142
Resource Requirements .......................................................................................................... 143
Professional Learning and Improvement Plan ............................................................................ 144
Timeline for Implementation .................................................................................................. 146
Implementation Constraints and Challenges .......................................................................... 147
Traditional and Alternative Accountability Measures ................................................................ 147
Advocacy for Alternative Education and Dropout Prevention ................................................... 148
Funding and Staffing Limitations ............................................................................................... 148
Partnership Opportunities ........................................................................................................... 149
Evaluation Plan ....................................................................................................................... 149
Level One: Reaction ................................................................................................................... 152
Level Two: Learning................................................................................................................... 153
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 6
Level Three: Behavior ................................................................................................................ 154
Level Four: Results ..................................................................................................................... 155
Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 155
Promising Practices in Blended Learning ................................................................................... 156
Accountability Measures for Alternative Schools ...................................................................... 156
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 157
Appendix A: Assumed Needs and Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Validation
Methods....................................................................................................................................... 182
Appendix B: Survey Questions ................................................................................................... 184
Appendix C: Interview Protocols................................................................................................ 187
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder
Performance Goals 21
Table 2: Alternative Schools by Type (Barr, 1975) 45
Table 3: Alternative Schools by Type (Raywid, 1982) 47
Table 4: Essential Elements of Alternative Schools (Ashcroft, 1999; Dynarski & Gleason, 1998;
Frymier, 1987; Gregg, 1999; Guerin & Denti, 1999; Krovetz, 1999; Leone & Drakeford, 1999;
Raywid, 1993) 56
Table 5: Reasons for Leaving School (Hahn, 1987) 63
Table 6: Assumed Needs and Validation Methods for Knowledge, Motivation and
Organization 93
Table 7: Validated Assumed Knowledge Causes 112
Table 8: Validated Assumed Motivation Causes 120
Table 9: Validated Assumed Organization Causes 128
Table 10: Validated Causes Summary Table 129
Table 11: Validated Needs Summary Table 133
Table 12: Knowledge Validated Needs and Solutions 135
Table 13: Motivation Validated Needs and Solutions 138
Table 14: Organization Validated Needs and Solutions 141
Table 15: Solutions and Action Items 143
Table 16: Solutions and Implementation Timeline 146
Table 17: Evaluation Plan (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) 150
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Enrollment in charter public schools, 2006-2007 to 2016-2017 (National Alliance for
Public Charter Schools, 2017). 60
Figure 2: High School Graduation Rates 1869-2000 (Barton, 2005) 65
Figure 3: Actual High School Completion Rates compared to Predicted Rates (Barton, 2005) 66
Figure 4: Gap Analysis Process (Clark & Estes, 2008). 72
Figure 5: Demographic data: Age of students 101
Figure 6: Demographic data: Grade level of students. 101
Figure 7: Demographic data: Campus location. 102
Figure 8: Survey results: Smaller school environment is important and provides opportunities for
me to informally connect with teachers and staff. 104
Figure 9: Survey results: Instruction is individualized and personalized for me and my
educational goals 105
Figure 10: Survey results: Better understanding of the learning process. 106
Figure 11: Survey results: Teachers utilize effective instructional methods which engage me and
increase my sense of belonging at the school. 107
Figure 12: Survey results: Was able to develop relationships with my teachers, staff and fellow
students. 108
Figure 13: Survey results: I feel in control of my learning at EICS. 109
Figure 14: Teachers believe that all students can learn and they involve me and my peers in
learning and teaching activities. 110
Figure 15: Survey results: Learning environment allows me to persist in school and stay
motivated. 114
Figure 16: Survey results: My ability to choose options such as online learning and flexible
scheduling is important to my academic success. 115
Figure 17: Survey results: I feel a sense of membership and belonging that allows me to be
committed to school and be academically engaged. 116
Figure 18: Survey results: I think EICS was able to assist me to see value in completing my high
school education. 118
Figure 19: I agree that schools should not excessively expel students and should encourage
students to stay in school. 123
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 9
Figure 20: Schools need to provide early interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out.124
Figure 21: Survey results: Alternative schools are important and needed in Arizona. 125
Figure 22: Survey results: EICS encourages me and other students to stay in school, rather than
pushing students out. 126
Figure 23: Survey results: EICS’s flexible scheduling allowing me to work, parent, or take care
of other personal responsibilities was a major factor to enroll. 127
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 10
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences causing at-risk students at an alternative school to consistently perform below
traditional Arizona state and federal academic accountability measures. This evaluation study
was conducted by collecting data from over 200 students over the age of 18 using a 29-question
survey asking a variety of questions related to their feelings about their academic experiences at
an alternative school. Additionally, 20 students over the age of 18 were interviewed to further
understand their academic experiences at an alternative school. Despite the fact that the
alternative school consistently performs below Arizona state and federal academic accountability
measures, the majority of students that participated in both the surveys and in the individual
interviews confirmed that they have made significant improvements in their academics since
attending the school. In fact, 94% of students either strongly agreed or agreed that learning at
the alternative school was personalized for them to allow them to be more successful.
Additionally, 95% of students either strongly agreed or agreed that they had a much better
understanding of the learning process after attending the alternative school. Finally, 96% of
students either strongly agreed or agreed that they felt more in control of their learning
environment after having attended the alternative school. Students attending the alternative
school connected with their teachers in a smaller, more individualized environment and therefore
experienced academic success. Many students come to the school behind in credits, prohibiting
them from graduating with their four-year cohorts. Consequently, academic accountability
measures should be different for these types of students and schools when compared to
traditional schools.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM
High dropout rates are a systemic problem afflicting the nation’s high schools
(Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006; Rumberger, 2001). The dropout crisis in the United
States is further compounded because of its impact on low-income or minority students or
students who are single parents attending large, urban public high schools. On a national level,
the high school graduation rate has ranged between 61% and 71%, showing that up to one-third
of the students of public high schools in the United States fail to graduate (Barton, 2005; Greene
& Winters, 2005; Swanson, 2004). The percentage of failure is significantly greater for certain
minority populations. Black, Native American, and Hispanic students graduated with a regular
diploma at the rates of 50%, 51%, and 53% respectively (Swanson, 2004). White students and
Asian students compare somewhat favorably at 75% and 77% respectively. Nonetheless, about
one in four students fail to graduate (Greene & Winters, 2005; Swanson, 2004).
Researchers studying this issue have suggested possible interventions to solve a problem
that impacts so many young people. Many experts have recommended that alternative schools
specifically targeting students at risk of dropping out should be encouraged and supported, and
the growth of these types of schools would be a promising resolution to the growing need for
dropout prevention (Bridgeland et al., 2006; Dynarski & Gleason, 1998; Rumberger, 2001;
Wehlage, 1989). The e-Institute Charter High School, an alternative charter high school in
Glendale, Arizona, is an example of an effective alternative charter school worthy of evaluation
to determine if this type of approach can help solve the dropout problem in the United States.
Background of the Problem
Historically, the U.S. high school graduation rate rose during the 1960s, peaking in 1969
at 77%. Since then, the rate has decreased, plummeting to 70% in 1995 (Barton, 2005). In spite
of a variety of efforts and initiatives intended to reduce this trend, the last 20 years have seen no
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 12
significant change in high school graduation rates. Many dropout prevention experts have
claimed that the increasing pressure on high schools from recent federal accountability measures,
such as the No Child Left Behind Act, have caused administrators to focus on academic
achievement measures rather than measuring success on the rate of high school completion,
inadvertently causing students to be pushed out of school to improve test scores (Darling-
Hammond, 2010; Hursh, 2007). Rumberger (2001) determined that schools that are effective in
improving student academic success are not necessarily effective in reducing dropout or transfer
rates and recommended that schools be responsible to report multiple measures of high school
performance so that schools can work to improve in all areas. The most compelling reason for
those recommendations is that the accomplishment of one academic outcome may actually
conflict with the goal of improving a different outcome.
Even more troubling, researchers uncovered a common tactic used by traditional public
school administrators to artificially boost their academic data by simply increasing the number of
students who drop out or otherwise leave school, since those that leave school typically have
lower test scores than students who stay in school (Bowditch, 1993; Riehl, 1999; Rumberger &
Larson, 1998). For example, both the New York City and Houston school systems have been
investigated for pushing out their low-performing students into alternative, non-diploma
programs or by identifying some students as transfers to other schools and not as dropouts
(Howard, 2004; Lewin & Medina, 2003). Due to the large number of students being pushed out,
an analogy became used to characterize this process: discharge, meaning students drop out of
school and schools discharge students (Riehl, 1999).
Barton (2005) believed that the pressure of achievement tests has led some conventional
schools to encourage many students to participate in GED testing. In fact, according to
Rumberger (2001), an increasing number of students complete high school by getting a GED or
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 13
through other alternative means rather than obtaining a traditional high school diploma. He
discovered that, although the proportion of youth completing high school has remained
consistent over the last decade, the proportion earning traditional high school diplomas has
actually declined, while the percentage of students getting a GED has risen from 4% in 1988 to
10% in 1998 (Rumberger, 2001). Experts studying dropouts believe that this increase in the
number of GEDs awarded annually has masked a decline in diplomas awarded for completing
four years of high school (Barton, 2005). This is important because a myriad of studies have
questioned whether the economic payoff of a high school GED is comparable to that of a
traditional high school diploma (Cameron & Heckman, 1993; Murnane, Willett, & Boudett,
1995, 1997; Murnane, Willett, & Tyler, 2000; Rumberger & Lamb, 1998).
One of the predictors of high school dropouts is the attrition rate. The rate at which
students vanish--attrition rate--between grades nine and ten has grown by over 300% over the
last 30 years (Haney et al., 2004). Corville-Smith, Ryan, Adams, and Dalicandro (1998) found
six variables that were statistically significant predictors for distinguishing absentee high school
students from regularly attending students: (1) Students’ school perceptions: Absentees are less
likely to perceive school favorably. (2) Perception of parental discipline: Absentees perceive
discipline as lax or inconsistent. (3) Parents’ control: Absentees believe parents are attempting
to exert control over them. (4) Students’ academic self-concept: Absentees feel inferior
academically. (5) Perceived family conflict: Absentees experience family conflict. (6) Social
competence in class: Absentees are less likely to feel socially competent in class. (Corville-Smith
et al., 1998)
Several studies that have attempted to better understand the reasons students give for
leaving school. Researchers have observed other commonly cited reasons that students given for
not attending school. These include: (1) viewing classes as being boring, irrelevant, and a waste
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 14
of time. (2) Did not have a positive relationship with teachers. (3) Did not have a positive
relationship with other students. (4) Was suspended too often (5) Did not feel safe at school. (6)
Could not keep up with the schoolwork or was failing (and there were no timely interventions).
(7) Found classes not challenging enough (worksheets and reading with lectures were the
predominant activities). (8) students can miss class days and still receive credit. (9) couldn’t
work and go to school at the same time (Clement, Gwynne, & Younkin, 2001; Wagstaff, Combs,
& Jarvis, 2000).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Reducing the number of dropouts became a national policy interest, as demonstrated by
the adoption of Goals 2000 by the U. S. President George H. W. Bush based on the findings of
the National Forum on Information Literacy (Doyle, 1992). One of the educational issues
developed by that study specifically addressed dropouts establishing a goal of increasing the
national high school graduation rate to 90%. At the same time the study identified a related goal
of eliminating the disparity between minority and non-minority students (Rumberger, 2001).
President Barack Obama has described the large race-based and class-based achievement
gaps as “morally unacceptable and economically untenable” (Darling-Hammond, 2010, p. 3).
Darling-Hammond noticed that while three-quarters of the fastest growing occupations in the
United States require a postsecondary education, yet college participation rates have fallen and
the U. S., once ranked first in the rate of college participation now ranks sixteenth worldwide.
In 2010, only 1 in 10 low-income kindergartners goes on to graduate from college. Far too many
of these children eventually join the growing ranks of inmates in what the New York Times
dubbed our “prison nation” (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Researchers have estimated that based
on a seven-hour school day for 180 days a year, one high school student drops out every nine
seconds (Lehr, Johnson, Bremer, Cosio, & Thompson, 2004).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 15
To improve graduation rates and decrease the number of dropouts in the United States,
knowing why students are leaving school would obviously be important. If schools can better
understand the needs of students at risk of dropping out, school intervention strategies can be
more effective. Based on the results of a report from the Educational Development Center
(1996), alternative schools understand these concerns and make their schools relevant, safe and
flexible so students will be less likely to drop out. Many alternative schools use a self-paced
mastery-based curriculum, often in a blended format. This environment allows for truly engaged
learning—challenging, exciting but not overwhelming—supported by caring teachers and staff.
The smaller school size and low student-teacher ratios in these schools allow teachers to attend
to not only their students’ academic but also their social and emotional needs.
Roughly 160,000 students per day do not go to school because they fear physical harm
(Educational Development Center, 1996). Many researchers have concluded that a safe learning
environment has a major impact on school attendance. The welcoming environment that
alternative schools create is especially important for those students who are struggling in school
and need added social and emotional support.
Students who leave school start out on a downward cycle of negative experiences. These
choices not only negatively impact the individual student, but cause potential challenges for
society in general. Dropouts present a variety of challenges to the country, from health concerns,
to social issues, and economic impacts (Amos, 2008).
Students who drop out of school are a drain on the American economy. The predicted
tax revenue loss from every male between the ages of 25 and 34 years of age who did not
complete high school is approximately $944 billion; public welfare and crime add $24 billion to
this figure (Thorstensen, 2004). The average high school graduate earns $9,245 more per year
than the average high school dropout (Doland, 2001). Strikingly, the U.S. could save nearly
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 16
$18.5 billion in annual crime costs if the high school male graduation rate were to increase by
merely five percentage points (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2013).
A growing body of data shows the connection between dropouts and crime.
Understanding this relationship could inform school dropout prevention programs so that this
negative trend can be halted or even reversed (Freeman, 1991; Machin, Marie, & Vujic, 2011).
Seventy-five percent of U.S. state prison inmates are high school dropouts, and 59% of
America’s federal prison inmates did not complete high school (Harlow, 2003). High school
dropouts are 3.5 times more likely than high school graduates to be arrested sometime in their
lifetime (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2003).
Compared to their high school graduate peers, dropouts often have difficulties becoming
responsible adults. This challenge is compounded by the fact that many dropouts prematurely
become parents themselves. Teen girls that score in the lowest 20% of basic reading and math
skills are five times more likely to become mothers over a 2-year high school period than teen
girls in the highest 20% (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2003). Male and female students
with low academic performance are twice as likely to become parents by their senior year of high
school compared to high academic achievers (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2003).
Based on the research showing the negative impact of dropping out of school, educational
reform is seen by many as a possible way of reducing the number of dropouts. Numerous studies
have shown that graduating more students from high school and closing achievement gaps is not
only economically helpful but should also be considered a critical civil rights issue (DeBaun &
Roc, 2013).
DeBaun and Roc (2013) have pointed out that high schools play a significant role in the
school-to-prison pipeline and have argued that exclusionary, discriminatory and punitive
discipline practices be replaced with positive behavioral support programs backed up by mental
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 17
health and social work providers. Academic and school climate reforms should be linked to
create high schools that keep students engaged in ways that will lead them to college and a career
and away from crime and prison (DeBaun & Roc, 2013). National, state and local educational
policies should reinforce and support effective reforms and innovative practices that help
students stay in school. Interventions that bring struggling students up to grade level and
experiences that bring real-world relevance into classrooms are crucial, as are school
environments that support excellence in teaching and learning (DeBaun & Roc, 2013).
Organizational Context and Mission
E-Institute Charter High School (EICS) is a public alternative charter high school
network with seven satellite locations in Glendale, Northwest Phoenix, Surprise, Avondale and
Surprise, Arizona and one completely virtual school environment that serves students in grades
9-12. EICS provides a structured learning environment with personalized education plans
supported by computer-based courses and mastery-based instruction. EICS students receive a
valid high school diploma upon fulfilling Arizona graduation requirements. EICS services
adjudicated youth, pregnant or parenting students, and dropout students with poor academic
standing, students behind in credits and students with behavioral issues. The charter
management organization (CMO) Learning Matters Educational Group advises EICS as well as a
traditional K-8 sister school, Calibre Academy, located in Surprise, Arizona.
Organizational Performance Status
For the 2016-17 academic year, EICS had a total enrollment of 800 students: 45% were
Hispanic, 43% were White, 6% were Black, 3% were two or more races, and 2% were Native
American and .06% were Asian. Males constituted 56% of the student population and females
44%. EICS had 0.6% of the population classified as English learners, compared to the median
across all reported school districts at 4.3%. EICS reported to have 8.5% of students to have an
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 18
individualized education program which is an average rate comparable to the median across all
Maricopa county districts (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017).
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance
The EICS performance goal is to be in 100% compliance with all state and federal
academic indicators. But at the beginning of 2016-17, three of EICS’s school campuses were
identified for federal program improvement due to not meeting all the academic requirements for
traditional students set forth in the Arizona State Board of Education academic framework. This
judgment is based on having the majority of students in their age cohort meet the four-year
graduation requirements. But due to the nature of EICS’s alternative academic program and the
fact that the majority of IECS’s students come to the school at least two years behind their
cohort, IECS will never be able to meet this traditional academic requirement.
Fortunately, however, since the state of Arizona is currently authorizing a new traditional
academic framework, the Arizona Department of Education has decided to temporarily suspend
all federal accountability requirements, leaving EICS, for the moment, in 100% compliance with
all state and federal academic indicators. However, once the new traditional accountability
measures have been authorized, EICS (and most other alternative schools in the state) will
almost certainly be once again out of compliance.
On the positive side, because EICS has been working with both the Arizona Department
of Education (ADE) and the Arizona State Board for Charter Schools (ASBCS) on the school’s
performance improvement plans and goals, the staff members of both departments have become
more familiar with EICS’s alternative program and the at-risk students that EICS serves. Over
time, ADE’s staff have become more helpful and supportive in working with and approving
EICS’s improvement plans and goals, while ASBCS has become more relaxed and less punitive
in their working relationship with EICS.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 19
As part of the federal Title I grant program, EICS was selected to participate in a new
Arizona program for federal grant recipients called Project Elevate. This program has been very
helpful to the EICS leadership team, which involved more EICS teachers in this professional
development program in 2017-18.
The most encouraging sign for the future of accountability for EICS and other alternative
schools in Arizona is the new relationship forming between the Arizona Alternative Education
Consortium (AZAEC) and the ASBCS, which had previously been very hostile to many
alternative charter schools. More recently, however, the ASBCS staff have come to meetings
with AZAEC to explore alternative school accountability measures. AZAEC has recently been
in discussion with several policy makers at the capital about drafting a new Arizona alternative
school framework. One of the draft ideas includes a shifting of the weight of a 4-year graduation
rate to a sliding scale including points for a 5-year and a 6-year graduation rate, which would be
much more attainable for many EICS students. Other ideas are to give points for students doing
service learning or part-time work credit, which would also be helpful since the majority of EICS
students work part time.
While EICS does not yet know the new alternative framework requirements, it has
already begun the process of developing a new school improvement plan. One of the areas that
EICS is looking to improve is to use academic and demographic student data more effectively.
To accomplish this goal, EICS will hire a new data coordinator. EICS would also like to gather
data related to credit completion rates and persistence rates of its students. Finally, EICS would
like to utilize data to better inform instructional strategies.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
EICS has a variety of internal and external stakeholder groups that all play a role in
accomplishing its goal of 100% compliance with all state and federal academic indicators.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 20
EICS’s internal stakeholder groups include parents and students, administrators, teachers and
staff. Additionally, EICS has leadership positions at both the district level and the CMO level to
assist curriculum development, technology, outreach and systems support. Learning Matters
Educational Group provides a leadership team to EICS and the other charter schools under their
CMO structure. EICS also has a board of directors that includes community leaders, citizens,
parents, and educators from the local area. The non-profit board overseas the budget, and the
curriculum and provides oversight for charter compliance.
As a public charter school, EICS must comply with an annual financial audit, special
education audits, and show compliance with Arizona’s authorizing agencies. The school must
also report to a bond rating agency related to the public borrowing that EICS is the guarantor for,
in addition to all other requirements that an Arizona public charter school has including state,
federal and foundation grants.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
EICS has temporarily accomplished its goal of 100% compliance with all state and
federal school academic indicators and school improvement objectives. However, when the new
Arizona Accountability measurement goals come out, its goals and plans could change as well.
The future goal would, of course, to be in compliance with all ASBCS academic requirements
for Arizona alternative charter schools.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders contribute to the achievement of the goal of
100% compliance, students, of course, play a large role in EICS’s success as an effective
alternative school. While not many students graduate with their four-year graduation cohort
group, a large number of students do finish with a high school diploma as fifth year and sixth
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 21
year seniors. Therefore, the stakeholder group for this study are the fifth year and sixth year
seniors who are 18 years of age and older.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of E-Institute Charter High School (EICS) is to provide students an alternative
choice in completing their high school education by providing a structured learning
environment with personalized education plans including computer-based courses and
mastery-based instruction and awarding a diploma upon fulfilling graduation requirements.
We service adjudicated youth, pregnant/parenting students, dropout students, students with
poor academic standing, behind in credits and students with behavioral issues.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2019, EICS will be 100% in compliance with all Arizona state and federal academic
requirements for Arizona alternative schools.
EICS Students EICS Leadership Team EICS Teachers
By June 2019, 100% of EICS
students will have a tailored
and individualized learning
plan that includes academic
achievement and growth data
along with a college and
career readiness pathway
after the results of the school
evaluation.
By June 2019, 100% of EICS
leadership team will have
completed the leadership
components of the
organizational school
improvement plan after the
results of the school
evaluation.
By June 2019, 100% of EICS
teachers will have completed
the teacher components of the
organizational school
improvement plan after the
results of the school
evaluation.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study EICS’s performance related to a larger problem
of practice, bridging the high school dropout gap between low-income and minority students and
middle-income white students. While a complete study would focus on all students, for practical
purposes, this study’s stakeholders include all EICS fifth year and sixth year seniors that are 18
years of age and older. The analysis focused on assets of these students in the areas of
knowledge and skill, motivation and organizational resources.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 22
As such, the questions that guided this evaluation study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational causes preventing all students at
EICS from being in academic compliance with Arizona state and federal academic
achievement requirements?
2. Despite the gaps in traditional academic performance, what are the EICS fifth and sixth
year seniors’ knowledge, motivation and organizational influences leading them to persist
in school and graduate?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to
understand organizational goal achievement, will be adapted to an evaluation study and
implemented as the conceptual framework. The methodological framework is a qualitative case
study with descriptive statistics. Assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational assets will
be generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. The researcher used surveys,
document analysis, interviews, literature review and content analysis to assess these influences.
At the conclusion of this study, the researcher will recommend and comprehensively evaluate the
research-based solutions that emerge.
Definitions
Alternative education: An educational program or system that is separate from a mainstream
educational program or system and that is designed for students with academic or behavioral
difficulties.
Academic framework: Through its academic framework, the ASBCS Board communicates its
expectations for ensuring that all charter holders in its portfolio are providing a learning
environment where measurable improvement in pupil achievement can be measured.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 23
General educational development (GED): Test designed for people, who, for various reasons,
did not graduate from high school but want a certificate equivalent to the traditional high school
diploma.
Organization of the Project
This study report includes five chapters. This chapter provided the reader with the key
concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion of alternative charter schools in
relation to closing the dropout gap. The chapter also introduced the organization’s mission,
goals and stakeholders as well as the initial concepts of gap analysis. Chapter Two provides a
review of current literature surrounding the topic of this study and addresses topics of alternative
education, magnet schools, and charter schools, characteristics of effective alternative schools,
evaluation and dropout prevention. Chapter Three details the assumed assets for this study as
well as the methodology, which includes choice of participants, and data collection and analysis
procedures. Chapter Four presents the assessment and analysis of the data and the results of the
study. Chapter Five provides recommendations for practice, based on both the data and the
literature as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 24
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter investigates the literature to determine a definition of alternative schools,
introduce the history of these schools, review early and current research on alternative schools,
and define the characteristics, typology, and essential components of these schools. In addition,
the chapter includes case studies of particularly effective alternative schools. While some
students are assigned to certain alternative schools by external authorities, most families choose
to have their children attend these schools. The chapter therefore addresses the value of having
that choice and the impact choice has on students, parents, teachers, and administrators.
Other topics addressed in this chapter include the value of magnet schools as a solution to
integration and equity in schools and discusses the pros and cons of educational vouchers. Many
effective alternative school models operate as charter schools, and their impact on school choice
is reviewed. Many of these schools look to virtual and blended learning programs as an
educational reform that has the potential to have an impact on the success of educational
alternatives.
State and federal policy has had both positive and negative impacts on alternative
schools. Alternative school accountability and the role of state and federal policy are
consequently discussed in this chapter, along with the related role of evaluation of alternative
schools. Finally, the chapter addresses the social and economic impact of school dropouts,
dropout prevention efforts, and workforce development efforts for out of school youth.
Alternative schools have the potential to break the school-to-prison pipeline that
characterizes the lives of far too many students in this country and thus hopefully contribute to
the solution of at least some of our current social and economic ills.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 25
Choosing to Drop out of School
Although people in a democracy make free choices every day—most families have few
options when choosing which type of school to attend. Particularly in low-income, urban
settings, most students have only a conventional school based on the outdated factory model of
the 1900s--the “one best system” (Tyack, 1974). Although most students give this system of
compulsory education a real attempt, an increasing number of students get lost in the shuffle of a
large school—thousands of students, teachers tied to rigid and arbitrary schedules, and a school
community more concerned with high-stakes testing than with the needs of the individual
student. But the lost student does have a choice: he or she decides to leave school (Bowditch,
1993; Rumberger, 2001).
Johnson (2006) and Franklin, Streeter, Kim and Tripodi (2007) argue that there must be
an alternative to either staying in a traditional school or dropping out. Unfortunately, the current
public school system still resembles the factory-based model first established in the 1900s to
increase efficiency and conformity, rather than encourage individuality and creativity. Today’s
comprehensive high school, designed to serve thousands of students, coupled with high-stakes
testing, has created a competitive environment that favors a select few, leaving many students
feeling left out and alone. Some argue that the neglect many students feel could be eliminated if
students and parents were able to choose which school they could attend, rather than have the
school assigned to them based on where they live (Johnson, 2006; Franklin et al., 2007).
In a 2013 Address at the 2000 Magnet Schools Conference, Irving Phillips, one of
today’s leading educators reviewed the history of magnet schools. He noted that school choice is
not a new educational reform, but one that began as early as the 1960s. Magnet schools were an
educational reform that promoted public school choice as a way of addressing educational
inequity and facilitating school desegregation (Phillips, 2013). Magnet schools assert that
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 26
students do not all learn in the same way, nor do they acquire and retain information at the same
rate. As Phillips puts it, “The theory was that if a magnet school voluntarily attracted students
and teachers, it would succeed because, for more than any other reason, those in attendance want
to be there. They will have chosen that school.” (Phillips, 2013, p. 17).
Policy makers soon realized that the popularity of magnet schools and school choice in
their districts were evidence of the success of this approach to educational reform and,
consequently, many educational reformers began calling for a greater expansion of public school
choice (Goldring & Smrekar, 2000). The term magnet gained popularity in the 1970s when
policy makers began developing desegregation plans that would make those schools more
appealing to parents, educators, and students. Since 1975, when federal courts accepted magnet
schools as a method of desegregation, the number of magnet schools increased dramatically
(Goldring & Smrekar, 2000). Between 1982 and 1991 the number of individual schools offering
magnet programs nearly doubled to more than 2,400 and the number of students enrolled in these
programs almost tripled (Goldring & Smrekar, 2000). Today there are over 3,000 magnet
schools across the more than 600 school districts within 34 states (Polikoff & Hardaway, 2017).
A recent study showed that one out of every 15 public school students—nearly 3.5 million U.S.
students attend a magnet school (Gavarkavich, Hawn-Nelson, Marcus, & Alvarado, 2016).
Some experts, both inside and outside of education, began pushing public school
vouchers in the 1990s as one way to expanding school choice. Milton Friedman, an economist
and fervent supporter of vouchers, believed that education should participate in a competitive
free marketplace with the leaders and families as consumers (Friedman, 1997). According to
Friedman, the most sensible way to bring about a gradual yet consequential transfer from
government to private enterprise was to execute in each state a voucher system that allowed
parents to choose freely the schools that their children attend (Friedman, 1997). Friedman
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 27
believed that such a voucher system would unlock the drive, creativity and energy of competitive
free enterprise to revolutionize the educational process. Such competition would coerce
government schools to improve to retain the clientele in Friedman’s view (Friedman, 1997).
Other voucher advocates viewed the idea as creating equity if applied to public schools only, and
not to private or religious schools as well. While vouchers have not gained significant traction as
a successful reform model, there are a few examples in urban settings. Researchers studying the
Milwaukee choice experiment concluded that the success of the program suggested that
privatization in education may result in efficiency gains (Greene, Peterson, & Du, 1999). Greene
et al. (1999) inferred that privatizing education through vouchers could increase competition
among providers, better meet consumer preferences, and stimulate participation of students and
their families in the educational process. Although the privatization of public education is
outside the scope of this study, clearly, charter schools, magnet schools and the use of school
vouchers have led the way in attempts in this country to reduce the rate of students dropping out
of school.
Public Alternative Schools
Alternative education programs, broadly defined as educational activities that fall outside
the traditional K-12 curriculum, include home schooling, GED programs, gifted and talented
programs, and charter schools (Aron, 2006). Because individual states or school districts define
and determine the features of their alternative education programs differently (Lehr, Lanners, &
Lange, 2003), these programs may have the same name yet differ in target populations, setting,
services, and structure.
Definitions of Alternative Education
Most states have education programs, services and options considered “alternative”
(Lange & Sletten, 2002), coupled with formal definitions of alternative education in their statutes
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 28
and codes. In a 1998 survey of state coordinators of alternative education, 20 states reported
having adopted a common definition of alternative education (Katsiyannis & Williams, 1998).
By 2002, 48 states had passed alternative education legislation, and 34 states had developed a
formal definition of alternative education (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). But because of these
various attempts at definition, finding consensus on a single definition of alternative education is
difficult if not impossible.
At the federal level an alternative school is “a public elementary/secondary school that
addresses students’ needs that typically cannot be met in a regular school, provides
nontraditional education, serves as an adjunct to a regular school, or falls outside the categories
of regular, special, or vocational education” (Sable, Plotts, & Mitchell, 2010, p. C-1).
Nonetheless, the lack of a commonly accepted definition of alternative education causes some
confusion in policies and legislation, across a variety of contexts and settings, and a failure to
define which of the various groups of at-risk youth that may benefit from alternative education
(Aron, 2003). This lack of consensus is itself a reflection of the belief that, “there are many ways
to become educated, as well as many types of environments and structures within which this may
occur” (Morley, 1991, p. 8). Although many alternative and magnet schools originally began as
an attempt to deal with desegregation (Goldring & Smrekar, 2000), more recent attempts have
focused on students’ educational challenges and issues rather than demographic characteristics or
programmatic classification (Roderick, 2003).
The changing nature of alternative education further complicates the task of reaching
consensus on a definition of alternative education. Today’s alternative schools look very
different from the alternative schools that emerged in the 1960s, and alternative education has
evolved to embody a wide range of options to serve students from divergent circumstances with
varying interests and abilities (Lange & Sletten, 2002). Alternative education changed from
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 29
private schools or special education programs to less traditional settings with specialized
programs targeting specific groups of students. As alternative programs escalate across the
country, the policies that govern them are also changing (Lange & Sletten, 2002). But all current
alternative education systems share the same philosophy as its ancestors--“one size cannot
possibly fit all” (Raywid, 2001, p. 582).
History of Alternative Education
Alternatives in American education have been in existence since the beginning of the
country. The early colonists mostly instructed their children informally at home, although there
were a variety of early public and private schools that provided formal education (Young, 1990).
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, private schools greatly outnumbered
public schools. Benjamin Franklin, who wanted to provide an alternative to the classical
curriculum of the grammar school, introduced an additional option in 1751. He established an
academy in Philadelphia for proficient older boys who did not desire to pursue higher education
but wanted a general preparation for careers in commerce and business (Young, 1990).
During the nineteenth century, enrollment in public education surpassed that of home and
private school, as the now traditional elementary school became the choice of parents and
children. Educational leaders such as Henry Barnard of Connecticut, Caleb Mills of Indiana, and
Samuel Lewis of Ohio worked successfully to sell the idea of a “free” common school education
for children in their states. The most famous advocate of the common school, however, was
Horace Mann, Secretary of the State Board of Education in Massachusetts. Mann worked to
increase funding for public schools and to lengthen the school year from 12 to 16 weeks. Mann
introduced such innovations as teacher training and pupil testing, declaring in 1840 that the
common school “is the greatest discovery ever made by man: we repeat it, the common school is
the greatest discovery ever made by man” (Perkinson, 1976, p. 110).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 30
While Mann implemented many popular innovations to public education, others had quite
different ideas regarding the purpose of education. Ralph Waldo Emerson, an outspoken critic
and contemporary of Mann’s, did not share in his enthusiasm for public education and the
common school. According to Emerson, “Education should be as broad as man and
demonstrating whatever elements are in him [but]…today’s Education does none of this. We
confront the vanity of our education when we look at its result: society.” (Perkinson, 1976, p.
110). Thus began the perennial debate between the value of individualized curricula, compared
with developing a common set of standards or benchmarks.
While Mann emphasized the social functions of public education, Emerson focused on
the needs of the individual. Mann wanted common schools to teach values and skills that would
contribute to an orderly and productive society. Emerson was more interested in personal
freedom than in social order and worried that common schools contributed to needless
conformity at the expense of personal growth. As Young (1990) suggests, these two points of
view still constitute a significant debate in public education today.
Parochial Schools as an Alternative to Public Education
An enduring alternative to the public common school was the establishment and growth
of the Catholic parochial school system in the middle and latter parts of the nineteenth century
(Young, 1990). Catholic parents, many of them newly arrived immigrants, were dissatisfied
with what they saw as the control of public education by Protestants. Catholic clergy publicly
attacked religious bias in the schools and argued unsuccessfully for a more pluralistic
educational philosophy. In response, the Catholic Church created a parochial system of
education to coexist with the public one (Young, 1990). By 1890, 42% of Catholic parishes had
schools and enrolled more than 633,000 students (McCluskey, 1969). In 1987, about 2.7 million
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 31
students were enrolled in 9,120 Catholic schools, constituting about 7% of all K-12 students
(Pavuk, 1987).
The Progressive Education Movement
The progressive education movement, which began in the late nineteenth century, saw
educators such as Francis Parker, John Dewey, Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner suggesting
that education should foster the moral, emotional, physical, psychological and spiritual capacities
of the developing child (Miller, 1999). In particular, proponents of community service learning
believe that Dewey’s educational philosophies are the root of the modern service-learning
movement. Dewey identified five specific areas of concern: linking education to experience,
democratic community, social service, reflective inquiry, and education for social
transformation. Many of today’s alternative educators believe that service learning is an
essential element to any effective alternative school (Saltmarsh, 1996). Numerous innovations
and options within public education were introduced during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries as progressive educators shared John Dewey’s belief in child-centered education,
experiential learning, and democratic classrooms. Several outstanding examples emerged in the
period inspired my Dewey’s ideologies. Francis Parker developed the Quincy Method in 1876
showing progress in reading, writing, and spelling from a school system in Quincy that was
considered failing just four years prior (Shannon, 1990). Helen Parkhurst established the Dalton
Laboratory Plan, a system of individualized instruction, in Dalton, Massachusetts in 1907. The
plan was so successful that the Dalton School was established in New York in 1920 (Semel,
2002). William Wirt, a student of Dewey’s progressive ideas at the University of Chicago,
initiated the “Gary Plan” as superintendent of schools in Gary, Indiana in 1907. Wirt expanded
the curriculum to include vocational and after-school activities (Cohen, 2014). Additionally,
Carleton Washburne, superintendent of Winetka Public Schools from 1919-1943, and a Dewey
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 32
protégé, restructured schools in Winetka as one of the first activity-based or project-based
learning school systems (Little, 2013).
Educational Reform in the 1960s and 1970s
During the cold war in the 1960s, cultural conservatism prevailed. At that time,
competing with the Soviets was a primary concern and many progressive ideas were temporarily
halted. Even still, during the late 1950s and early 1960s, the conventional public education
system was widely chastised for being racist and designed for the success of the few (Lange &
Sletten, 2002).
Due to concerns about Russia, American education emphasized competition and serving
the nation’s workforce. Several critics of this emphasis, however, claimed that these schools
were cold and dehumanizing institutions largely indifferent to human values and the people in
them (Raywid, 1981). Some scholars contended that children were being schooled, but not
educated. Friedenberg (1959) and Goodman (1964) believed that public schools were forcing
children to accept national norms, encouraging them to meet the nation’s workforce needs rather
than providing an education that was child-centered and that stimulated intellectual growth
(Friedenberg, 1959; Goodman, 1964; ).
Lange and Sletten (2002) argued that current educational policies were inequitable and
only served the needs of the few. This changed, however, after the landmark 1954 Supreme
Court decision in Brown verses the Board of Education that required schools to welcome and
serve children from all racial and ethnic backgrounds (Lange & Sletten, 2002). After many years
of such protests and criticism, President Johnson and congress passed the Elementary and
Secondary Act of 1965, placing the public school system on the front line of educational change.
This new humanist goal of equity was backed with government endorsement and funding,
generating a new wave of alternatives intended to offer equal and meaningful educational
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 33
opportunities to disadvantaged and minority students. This change in policy created a split in the
alternative education movement between those inside the system and those outside the system
(Lange & Sletten, 2002).
Alternative Education Outside of the Public School System
Young (1990) described two versions of reform that emerged regarding alternatives that
lay outside the public education system. The first produced schools intended to provide high-
quality education to minorities because of the inadequate education they received from the public
system. These schools, called Freedom Schools, were developed as a community-school model.
Students were even housed in church basements or in storefronts (Young, 1990). Allen
Graubard (1972) went beyond the criticism of public schools and worked to institute a new type
of alternative school recommending independent free schools in their place. Graubard (1972)
described this evolution as based on groups of people who were seeking control over the heavy-
handed educational processes to which they and their children had traditionally been subjected.
During this period, community control of education became one of the central issues in the
educational debate.
The Free School Movement, envisioned by Alexander Sutherland Neill, a Scottish
progressive educator, author, and founder of the Summerhill School, was another idea that
gained much support during the 1960s and 1970s (Neill, 1960). Neill was educated in his one-
room, five class village school. Neill believed that a child’s happiness came from a sense of
personal freedom, and that the deprivation of freedom during childhood and all the consequent
unhappiness experienced by the repressed child was responsible for most of the psychological
disorders of adulthood (Neill, 1960). While the idea seemed controversial at the time, it
resonated with many in the U.S. during the 1960s and 1970s (Appleton, 2002).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 34
Alternative Education Within the Public School System
Seeing the popularity and acceptance of these educational reforms imposed from outside
the public school system, educators began to design their own alternative educational programs
from within. Among the critics of the philosophy behind the educational practices of the time
was Charles Silberman. In Crisis in the Classroom, Silberman portrayed public school
classrooms as “grim, joyless places” (p. 10), where there was a stringent “preoccupation with
order and control” (p. 122), “a slavish adherence to routine for the sake of routine” (p. 126),
which was coupled all too often with an outdated, irrelevant, ill-taught curriculum (Silberman,
1970). He noted that teachers were rarely held accountable if their students learned little or
nothing but that teachers were routinely admonished if students were found talking or moving
about the classroom—even worse, if they were found outside of the classroom (Silberman,
1970). Silberman bemoaned the consequence of this environment, which he felt destroyed
curiosity and the ability or desire of students to think and act for themselves (Silberman, 1970).
Open Classrooms and Open Schools. As an antidote to these destructive environments,
Silberman was one of many analysts of the time who were impressed by the concept of the Open
Classroom or Open School environments that provided students freedom of movement, increased
interaction with their peers and opportunities for individually paced learning, often based on
materials selected by the student (Winett & Winkler, 1972). These schools attempted to make
classroom work relevant to the outside world, without an emphasis on routines. Further, these
schools relaxed disciplinary sanctions, thus changing the role of the teacher from authoritarian to
facilitator of learning (Winett & Winkler, 1972).
By the early 1970s, the idea of open classrooms dominated discussions among educators,
and many school district boards approved open educational programs and built open space
schools to support student-centered learning. Both open education and open space schools
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 35
emerged in Fargo, North Dakota, Harlem, and Los Angeles (Cuban, 2009). The Murray Road
Annex in Massachusetts, The John Adams High School in Oregon, and the St. Paul Open School
in Minnesota were among the first to offer open public high schools in America. These schools
and the Open School movement in general greatly influenced the creation of public alternatives
at all levels of education (Young, 1990).
Open classrooms as an innovation peaked in the mid-1970s but within a few years moved
from the center of public attention to being little more than an afterthought compared to other,
more current, reforms (Cuban, 2009). Cuban (2009) suggests that public concern with a negative
economy, rising unemployment, and the Vietnam War grew into a perception that academic
standards had dropped, that desegregation in schools was not working, and that violence in urban
schools had become the norm. This rising public concern resulted in a back-to-basics policy that
toughened curriculum, increased teacher authority, and required more work from students
(Cuban, 2009).
Bennett (2012) acknowledges that while many consider the Open School movement
merely a craze of the 1970s, futurists are reevaluating the Open Concept School and
reintroducing it as a model of school design that could re-engineer schools for 21
st
century
learning and prepare students for the digital workplace. Indeed, open education still exists in
schools founded over 30 years ago including the Los Angeles Open Charter School, the Irwin
Avenue Open Elementary in North Carolina, the Heatherwood Open Space Elementary School
in Boulder, Colorado, and many others (Cuban, 2009).
Types of Public Alternative Schools and Programs Established During the 1970s
With the apparent success of open schools and widespread criticism of public education,
public schools began to experiment with a variety of options in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
During this period, alternative education grew into a broad social movement. Writers from the
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 36
United States, Europe even Brazil questioned the values and methods of public schooling.
(Freire, 19672 Hentoff, 1967; Holt, 1964; Illich, 1971; Kohl, 1967; Kozol, 1967; Neill, 1960).
Illich (1971) condemned the institutional dependence that public education created in young
people and he argued that public schools should be destroyed. A.S. Neill, founder of the
Summerhill School, a radical British experiment in free choice, believed that children were
inherently wise and would progress as far as they were capable without adult intervention
(1960). Holt (1964) attacked the emphasis that public schools give to producing right answers at
the expense of curiosity and reflection. Hentoff, a Black writer, fought for the right to educate
Black children in his book Our Children are Dying (Hentoff, 1967). In Kozol’s book, Death at
an Early Age the author recounted his experience of teaching in a predominantly Black
elementary school in Boston and documented the school’s negative attitudes and unjust
treatments that led his students to feel inferior (1967). Herbert Kohl, in his book 36 children
characterized public schools as racist (Kohl, 1967). Paulo Freire, in his seminal work Pedagogy
of the Oppressed taught peasants reading and writing and introduced participation as part of the
political process (1968). According to him, “It is only the oppressed who, by freeing themselves,
can free their oppressors” (Freire, 1968, p. 56).
The period between 1967 and 1972, in particular, saw intense criticism of public
education, resulting in student demonstrations and teacher strikes in many countries. Reacting to
this profound protest, policy makers approved the first magnet schools and other types of
alternative schools, encouraging them to become part of the U.S. public school system (Sliwka,
2008).
Schools Without Walls. The most significant school recognized as using the schools
without walls philosophy was the Parkway School in Philadelphia, started in 1969 by the British
educator, John Bremer. Parkway’s use of the city as the classroom and its humanistic
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 37
philosophy of how students learn marked its greatest departure from the traditional high school
(Greenberg & Roush, 1970). In this model the students, teachers, and administrators were on a
first name basis and were free to dress however they wished. When visitors came to the campus
it was sometimes difficult to distinguish the teachers from the students. Bremer’s position was
that he had no idea what the specific educational activities consisted of, and that it was not his
business to know (Bremer & Von Moschzisker, 1971). Students and teachers defined the
content, value, and details of their pursuits and were doing whatever they felt was important to
do. In fact, Bremer regarded his administrative structure as even more important than the
curricular changes. Bremer divided the school into three self-governing units and set up a
weekly “town meeting” for each unit, involving both students and faculty (Bremer & Von
Moschzisker, 1971). Bremer expanded the Parkway Program far beyond its original design,
logically enough creating an auto mechanics class in an auto repair shop, a leather-working class
in a leather shop, a journalism course at the offices of the Philadelphia Bulletin, and several
other similar programs that were taught on location (Greenberg & Roush, 1970).
Initially financed by a Ford Foundation grant, Philadelphia Parkway enrolled 140
students in the first year, with the second year enrollment increasing to three units of 160
students each. Within each unit, the school had tutorials of 16 students, a teacher, and a
university intern (Lange & Sletten, 2002). Tutorials met four hours weekly for counseling and
basic skills instruction in language and math. The remainder of the student’s time was spent in
required coursework for graduation and in electives and independent study using the city as the
curriculum. Classes were conducted at a variety of businesses, banks, museums, and community
agencies and were taught mostly by local community members rather than professional teachers
(Lange & Sletten, 2002). Enrollment was not selective and represented the demographics of the
community. Philadelphia Parkway caught the imagination of educational reformers and for
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 38
many became the symbol of public alternative education. Other schools without walls followed:
Metro High in Chicago, Shanti School in Hartford, City School in Madison, Wisconsin and
Walden II in Racine, Wisconsin. By 1972, schools without walls had become the most popular
alternative school option, making up 22% of public alternative schools (Lange & Sletten, 2002;
Young, 1990).
Schools Within a School. Reacting to pressure from policy makers and outside
influential financial incentives, in 2001 the U.S. federal government offered grants up to $50,000
to large comprehensive schools that would convert themselves into small learning communities.
Additionally, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation committed $250,000 to the creation of
small schools. In 1983 New York City created the earliest of these model schools within a
school under Chancellor Anthony Alverado (Raywid, 2002) although the idea had begun to be
implemented almost 15 years earlier. Variations on this concept included the Cambridge Pilot
School in Massachusetts and Education by Choice in Quincy, Illinois.
The Cambridge Pilot School. The Cambridge Pilot School began in 1969 as a joint
effort of the Cambridge School Department and the Harvard Graduate School of Education. The
inspiration for the innovative program came from a small group of faculty who obtained federal
money to train people to train teachers (Riordan, 1972). Space for the school was made available
at the Rindge Technical School in Cambridge. Riordan proposed the notion that one method to
counteract public school bureaucracy was to create small schools that respected cultural diversity
and emphasized informal relationships between teachers and students (Riordan, 1972). The
concept was tested with a group of 60 freshmen selected by lottery who represented a cross-
section of the larger community. The school would add students until the first graduating class
reached 200 students (Riordan, 1972).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 39
The Pilot School encouraged considerable student movement and informality that some
visitors liked while others saw as chaotic (Riordan, 1972). Students would call teachers by their
first names, often walking freely in and out of rooms where classes were going on and bargained
over homework assignments (Riordan, 1972). The atmosphere at the school within a school was
much freer than that of the Rindge host school, which still maintained a rigid structure.
However, as time went on, students noticed external pressures beginning to impose restrictions
on their independence (Riordan, 1972).
While moderately successful, Riordan observed that the Pilot School founding group had
identified some built-in conflicts of the program (Riordan, 1972). The staff, students, and
parents came to the Pilot School with differing goals and expectations. According to Riordan,
the group identified three goal conflicts that the school continually struggled with: (1) the
conflict between institutionalization and autonomy; (2) the conflict between informal, non-
authoritarian relationships and the necessity for structure; and (3) the conflict between the choice
goals and the goal of education through diversity (Riordan, 1972). This third conflict between
choice and diversity is a continual struggle for the larger alternative education community and
presents challenges even today.
Quincy’s Education by Choice. From 1973 until 1978, Quincy Senior High School
offered seven educational programs known as Education by Choice. Students in grades 11 and
12, with guidance from school personnel and parents, chose one of these programs (McGinley,
1988). In the mid-seventies, Quincy High School was one of the most widely known schools in
the country, with articles about the school appearing in the Kappan, Newsweek, Time, and
several newspapers, yet the program lasted only five years (McGinley, 1988).
Much of the influence for the concept of choice came from the writings of Mario Fantini,
an alternative education advocate. Fantini (1973) was enthusiastic about Education by Choice
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 40
and believed that the school’s success was founded on a set of ground rules that were
incorporated in the planning phase of the school. The first rule was that each educational option
would be based on the same common set of educational objectives, with every alternative
accomplished in its own distinctive way. Each program would be different, yet equal (Fantini,
1973). The second rule was that alternative schools should be non-exclusive, meaning that none
of the options could practice exclusion in enrollment practices. There was to be no creaming of
the crop (Fantini, 1973). The third rule was that each alternative had equal validity and that
programs could not make inflated claims nor belittle another alternative program. There was to
be no backbiting or unsubstantiated claims but instead a spirit of cooperation (Fantini, 1973).
The fourth rule was that alternatives were based on individual choice and that none of the
alternatives could be imposed upon students. Voluntary free choice by students, parents, and
teachers was critical (Fantini, 1973). The fifth rule promoted evaluation to provide a necessary
guide for continuing improvement efforts to establish the relative effectiveness of each option
and to measure effectiveness of allowing choice in exchange for greater accountability (Fantini,
1973).
In 1971, the Quincy Public School District received a Title III ESEA grant to set up a
school within a school at both its junior and senior high schools. The Project to Individualize
Education was based on a constructivist philosophy of student-centered schooling (McGinley,
1988). The seven school alternative models were (1) the traditional school, (2) the Project to
Individualize Education School, (3) a flexible school, (4) a fine arts school, (5) a career school,
(6) a work-study school, and (7) a special education school (McGinley, 1988). There was much
initial excitement for the project, but enthusiasm waned in the next few years and eventually the
project closed after five years.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 41
Several factors played a part in the demise of Quincy’s program. Funding following the
initial grant was not approved, and enrollment declined which led to less revenue for the program
(McGinley, 1988). Due to reduced staffing, some of the teachers had to teach in more than one
program which weakened the integrity of each program (McGinley, 1988). Several teachers in
the ninth and tenth grade did not support the program, and several community members did not
understand the purpose of the program, believing that students had too much free time
(McGinley, 1988). Additionally, new Quincy school board members did not support the concept
and were reluctant to accept additional federal funds to continue the program (McGinley, 1988).
Because of this criticism, school administrators grew defensive, many left the project, and little
effort was made to follow through on evaluation efforts (McGinley, 1988). In retrospect, with
more community and teacher buy-in and a longer commitment to funding the project, the Quincy
choice concept could have been much more successful than it was.
Continuation Schools. The concept of continuation schools exists as an option for
students struggling in the regular school system due to issues such as dropout, pregnancy, and
academic difficulties. Continuation schools are less competitive and more individualized, much
like the other educational alternatives of the period (Lange & Sletten, 2002). In the early 1900s,
as compulsory education laws extended to people as old as 16 to 18, students began dropping out
at higher rates. In 1907, the U.S. Board of Education published a bulletin describing German
and English continuation schools as possible models for replication in American high schools
(Jones, 1907). In formulating the U.S. model Jones looked to continuation schools developed in
Germany in the 1870s called Fortbidungsschulen. Although the system looked promising, the
German method included sorting students by class at a young age, a prospect that did not appeal
to Jones (Jones, 1907). During the progressive era, proponents of social efficiency found
vocational programs like continuation classes particularly appealing. The British combination of
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 42
industrial and civic training via locally determined instruction and management formed the basis
of the American continuation school (Williamson, 2008).
In 1911, Wisconsin started the first continuation school in the U.S. In 1917, the federal
government passed the Smith-Hughes Act, which established a Federal Board of Vocational
Education and authorized funding of vocational programs. The legislation stipulated that at least
one-third of the sum appropriated to any state be applied to part-time schools or classes for
workers over 14 years of age who entered upon employment (Superintendent of Public
Instruction, 1917). California accepted the Smith-Hughes Act, but failed to establish any
continuation schools due to lack of enforcement (California Department of Education, 1918),
although a few years later California did manage to implement continuation education programs.
Nationally, 23 states passed laws requiring part-time education clearing the way for continuing
education implementation (Keller, 1924).
California’s continuing education programs continue to grow today, with state analysts
estimating over 115,000 California high school students will pass through one of California’s
519 continuation high schools each year, either on their way to a diploma or to dropping out of
school altogether (Austin et al., 2008). Since 1965, California state education code has stipulated
that school districts make available a continuation program that provides an alternative route to a
high school diploma for youth that are vulnerable to academic or behavioral failure (Austin et al.,
2008). Continuation schools are designed to meet the educational needs of each student,
including, but not limited to, independent study, regional occupation programs, work-study,
career counseling, and job placement services (Austin et al., 2008).
Austin et al. (2008) provided a comprehensive description of California’s Continuation
High Schools. In that report, the authors noted that students at California’s continuation schools
are more likely to be racially or ethnically concentrated than those in comprehensive high
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 43
schools with Hispanic enrollment at 61% in continuation schools compared to the statewide
average of 42% for conventional schools. In addition, continuation schools had a higher
percentage of English learners at 25% compared to 14% as the state average (Austin et al.,
2008). Austin et al. (2008) also noted that students in continuation schools were three times more
likely to be in foster care or living with a relative other than a parent when compared to
traditional students. Almost half of California’s continuation students were enrolled for less than
90 days, giving schools very little time to help them. Continuation students were twice as likely
to engage in drug and alcohol use when compared to their eleventh grade peers in comprehensive
schools (Austin et al., 2008). Nearly one-fifth of continuation students have been under the
influence of drugs or alcohol at school at least seven times, and these students are three times
more likely to have been in at least four physical fights and/or have brought a weapon to school
than their regular education peers (Austin et al., 2008).
This report supports the claim that academic efforts cannot be separated from the need to
address the nonacademic learning barriers that continuation students experience. Despite these
significant barriers to success several continuation high school models in California and other
states have succeeded. In 2011, California Superintendent Jack O’Connell named 27 California
schools as model continuation high schools for their programs designed to help struggling
students stay in school. To qualify for recognition as a model continuation school, candidate
schools needed to be accredited and to have applied to the California Department of Education
for review (California Department of Education, 2010).
Learning Centers. Learning centers were intended to meet particular student needs by
including special resources, such as vocational education, in the school setting (Lange & Sletten,
2002). One popular school utilizing this methodology was the New John Dewey High School in
Brooklyn. According to an evaluation done of the school in 1970 the school was specifically
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 44
designed to meet the educational needs of an ethnically, culturally, and economically diverse
urban population (Forlano & Williamson, 1970). The fundamental purpose in the design of the
curriculum, organization, and physical plant was to facilitate individualized instruction. Students
participated in flexible scheduling with five seven-week cycles and an option for summer school
to remediate or accelerate their learning (Forlano & Williamson, 1970). Since learning was
mastery based, students did not receive letter grades and work was completed through
independent study packets (Forlano & Williamson, 1970). Students either received a grade of
“Mastered,” meaning that they could move on to the next module, “Mastered with Conditions”
or “Retention” (Forlano & Williamson, 1970).
Teachers enjoyed their involvement at John Dewey and in a survey gave the school high
marks. Teachers mostly agreed that they played integral roles in curriculum development, that
the school climate was condusive to the teaching-learning relationship, and that students at John
Dewey received a better education than they would receive at a traditional high school (Forlano
& Williamson, 1970). John Dewey High School is still successful today as an experimental high
school. A notable contrast between the John Dewey High School learning center model and the
Quincy High School School within a school model is that Dewey was a new start-up school,
while Quincy was implemented as a turnaround of an existing school. Research has
documented that changing the model of an existing school can be much more challenging than
starting something new.
Multicultural Schools. Multicultural schools serve students from a variety of ethnic and
racial backgrounds with curricula that emphasize cultural pluralism. Coursework in human
relations and cultural practices and languages are common. These schools frequently offer
classes in Black and Chicano studies, Swahili and Spanish, international cooking and folk dance
in addition to the traditional curriculum (Morley, 1991; Young, 1990). The Newcomer High
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 45
School in San Francisco offers a transitional program for foreign-born students (14-17 years old)
with limited knowledge of English (Morley, 1991). The Dallas Independent School District
offers a multicultural program called High-Intensity Language Training in 28 secondary
programs. The emphasis for these programs is dual immersion with the goal to prepare the
larger community to become multi-lingual (Morley, 1991). Agora in Berkeley and Palmer
School in Grand Rapids had an ethnically diverse student body and therefore they designed their
curricula to serve a particular local ethnic or racial group (Morley, 1991). Marcus Garvey
Institute and Alliance Black House (both in Berkeley) serve Black students. SAND Everywhere
in Hartford enrolls primarily Black and Puerto Rican students (Morley, 1991; Young, 1990).
Public alternative schools grew from a few hundred in 1970 to more than 1,000 by 1975.
Table 2 shows the results of a survey conducted for the Center for Options in Public Education
(ICOPE), which identified options within alternative schools (Barr, 1975).
Table 2
Alternative Schools by Type (Barr, 1975)
School Type Percent
Continuation schools 20%
Learning Centers 18%
Schools within schools 17%
Open schools 15%
Schools without walls 6%
Multicultural Schools 4%
Free schools 3%
Others 17%
Alternative Education in the 1980s
At the start of the 1980s, alternative schools had become deeply rooted in the American
public school system. As of 1981, an estimated 10,000 public alternative schools provided a
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 46
range of options to some 3 million students (Raywid, 1981). But two surveys conducted in the
1980s showed a movement from a more progressive and open style to a more conservative and
remedial set of choices (Raywid, 1982; Young, 1988). The 1982 survey found 20% of
alternative school students identified as low achievers (Raywid, 1982). While in the 1988
survey, 53% of responders identified as low achievers (Young, 1988). This increase in only six
years shows a substantial change in both the audience and the justification for public alternative
education since its beginnings in the 1960s.
While the growth of public alternative education in the 1980s may be difficult to track on
a national level, some states showed substantial growth during this period. The Washington
Alternative Learning Association’s 1981 directory listed 52 public alternative education schools
with a combined enrollment of 6,274 students. In 1988, the number of schools increased to 104
with an enrollment of 9,945, showing a growth rate of over 60% (Young, 1990). Young also
makes the claim that if other states grew by only half this rate, the national growth of public
alternative education schools could have gone from 3 million in 1981 to 4 million, 7% of the
public school population by 1988.
The demand for options and choice continued to increase during the 1980s. The Gallup
Organization sent out a national poll to gather information on school choice. The results were
dramatic, showing that 71% of the public, and 77% of minority adults felt that parents should
have the right to choose among public schools (Gallup & Clark, 1987). The Wisconsin Policy
Research Institute conducted a poll with Wisconsin residents showing similar results. The
institute found that 75% of respondents believed that parents should have the right to choose a
school or district for their children (Young, 1990).
Raywid’s 1982 survey of public alternative schools found that respondents from 1,200
public alternative secondary schools indicated the following distribution of options (p. 29).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 47
Table 3
Alternative Schools by Type (Raywid, 1982)
School Type Percent
Separate schools 38%
Schools within a school 20%
Remedial/Corrective schools 13%
Satellite/annex schools 9%
Course offerings within a parent school 8%
Schools maintained by several districts 3%
Schools without walls 1%
Others 8%
Some intriguing shifts took place between the 1975 poll and the 1982 poll. Among the models,
Schools Within a School had increased while the Schools Without Walls concept had dropped in
popularity. Experts at the time attributed the increase in the Schools Within a School model to
increases in federal and foundation grant sources and rising political pressure to reduce school
size and to develop differentiated smaller school programs as opposed to a one size fits all
comprehensive model (Raywid, 2001). The Schools Without Walls was considered a passing
phase by many critics and political pressure toward standardization led to a preference for
structured programs compared to the open experiential nature of the Schools Without Walls
model (Young, 1990).
Characteristics of Effective Alternative Schools
The research reviewed above identified certain characteristics of alternative schools that
tend to generate positive outcomes for teachers and students. These characteristics included a
greater sense of efficacy for both students and teachers, principals who served as head teachers
rather than as authoritarian figures, existence of a support system for teachers, a governance
model based on democratic principles, the removal of external control as a primary response to
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 48
behavioral issues, and strong community identification with the school and its teachers and
students.
Effective alternative schools ensure that both students and teachers can choose the
alternative school rather than having students assigned to the school (Kellmayer, 1995).
Teachers in alternative programs also must be well-trained in human relations and understand the
distinction between influence and control. Sweeney and Wheelock (1989) supported this
position, noting that educators, advocates, and parents must oppose alternatives that are based on
segregation and exclusion and should favor schools that are inclusive and not segregated.
Scholars supporting Kellmayer’s argument for inclusiveness and choice believe that alternative
schools that are designed to be punitive run counter to effective alternative school practices.
These punitive schools are designed to separate disruptive students from the mainstream until
someone, typically an administrator that might not even know the student, decides that he or she
can conform to mainstream behavior standards. The same problem can be seen in alternative
remedial programs that are designed to help students catch up to their peers, yet force them back
into a traditional school environment before successfully finishing high school (Gold & Mann,
1984). Often times at-risk students who have chosen to be in a smaller, nurturing, and effective
alternative setting, are unable to maintain that same level of success, when forced back into the
rigid mainstream environment (Sweeney & Wheelock, 1989).
Kellmayer (1995) also identified participatory decision making, and the opportunity for
students to participate in determining policies and in setting rules, as important characteristics of
alternative schools. In addition, the curriculum must be student-centered and related to students’
personal concerns (Kellmayer, 1995). Raywid’s 1988 study (as cited in Kellmayer, 1995)
maintained that alternative schools should have broad objectives and be concerned with the
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 49
development of character, intellect, personal and social skills as well as with academic
achievement.
Kellmayer (1995) pointed out that successful alternative schools had managerial and
instructional leadership that could intervene on the part of students. In addition, alternative
schools require political leadership to create and maintain positive relations with the larger
school system and to ensure that the program is perceived as reliable by outside organizations.
Kellmayer (1995) also believed that having a distinctive mission, a sense of community, shared
values, and a family environment were also important to successful alternative schools. Such
characteristics fostered cooperation, rather than competition, and developed positive
relationships between students and teachers.
Kellmayer (1995) asserted that adaptable teacher roles, program self-governance and
access to social services were important for success in alternative schools. Such services could
include individual, group, and family counseling; access to basic health screening and
counseling; employment services; probation support; and welfare and social services. Finally,
alternative schools embraced technology, which offered students personalized learning resources
that give real-time feedback, encourage mastery-based learning, and enhance their ability to learn
(Kellmayer, 1995). In his view, technology was a resource that would provide individualized
learning and help students to determine a learning pace and path that works best for them.
Other authors have pinpointed the characteristics of effective alternative schools. Foley
and McConnaughy (1982) and Foley and Crull (1984) described the importance of positive
student-teacher relationships, a student-centered curriculum; a broad set of roles for teachers; a
noncompetitive classroom emphasizing peer cooperation and sharing; a clear mission tailored
individually to students; and a school size small enough to establish a close community yet large
enough to provide rich resources. Similarly, Wehlage (1983) found that effective alternative
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 50
schools were small, created a family atmosphere, and empowered teachers. Wehlage (1983) also
noted that successful alternative schools had students who felt comfortable in a supportive peer
and adult environment, and that the school fostered cooperation rather than competition in an
experiential curriculum. Based on the research reviewed above, the following sections present a
more detailed discussion of the most commonly identified characteristics of successful
alternative schools.
School Size
Gold and Mann (1984) recognized several elements of effective alternative schools, such
as flexibility, personal contacts, and consideration of student needs, all of which are influenced
by school size. As early as the 1960s, researchers noticed the benefits for students of smaller
school environments. Barker and Gump (1964) found that students in smaller schools tended to
participate in extra-curricular activities and held positions of larger importance and authority in
higher proportion than students in larger schools. Several other researchers supported Barker
and Gump’s results related to school size. Grabe (1976) discovered greater student participation
in extra-curricular activities, which influenced self-esteem, confirming that students in smaller
schools felt a greater obligation to participate in school activities. Lindsay (1984) noticed that
small school size increased student participation as well as student satisfaction and attendance.
These students participated in greater rates than students in larger schools, and this in turn, had a
positive effect on their later participation as young adults.
In contrast to the benefits of a smaller school, many negatives have been found in larger
schools. For example, Ianni and Reuss-Ianni (1979) showed that large schools encouraged
violence and disruption, and Garbarino noticed (1980) that school size matters, particularly to
academically marginalized youth. Further, Garbarino (1980) believed that recent trends have
colluded against youth by simultaneously producing larger schools—so that most schools are
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 51
above the size threshold—and forcing ever larger numbers of academically marginal students
into large secondary schools. Finally, Garbarino (1980) hypothesized that large institutions
contributed to adolescent crime.
Some research concluded that the size of school might also have an influence on student
academic performance. Mortimore, Sammons, Stoll, Ecob, and Lewis (1988) discovered that
middle to small sized schools (160 or fewer students) were positively related to students’
cognitive outcomes. These researchers determined that school membership is far more
influential in determining pupil progress than background factors such as sex and age
(Mortimore et al., 1988). Coleman (1981) pinpointed school size as one important reason that
many parents choose to send their children to private schools. Coleman (1981) perceived that
discipline carried out by someone you know well has a very different effect than discipline from
a stranger.
An additional finding related to school size was the observation from numerous studies
that people in small schools and units come to know and care about one another to a greater
degree than is possible in large schools. This applied to relationships among students, among
staff members, between staff and students, and between the school and its surrounding
community (Bates, 1993; Berlin & Cienkus, 1989; Miller, Ellsworth, & Howell, 1986; Rutter,
1988; Schoggen & Schoggen, 1988). Students who moved from a large school to an alternative
school or school within a school in almost all cases pointed to the attentive, caring staff as the
reason for their academic and attitudinal improvements (Cotton, 1996). As Rutter stated,
“Evidence of increases in social bonding to teachers and school, self-esteem, academic self-
concept, locus of control and sociocentric reasoning suggest that small alternative programs can
respond constructively to students’ underlying needs” (1988, p. 22).
Positivity
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 52
Students in alternative schools had more positive attitudes about themselves and school
than similar students attending traditional schools (Fleming, Blank, Dentler, & Baltzell, 1982;
Gold & Mann, 1984; Gregory & Smith, 1987; Smith et al., 1981). Alternative schools also help
improve student attendance and lead to better in-school behavior (Fleming et al., 1982; Foley &
McConnaughy, 1982; Foley & Crull, 1984; Gold & Mann, 1984; Raywid, 1982). Leone and
Drakeford (1999) concluded that alternative schools should provide positive, proactive responses
to the needs of children and families for whom existing school structures are a bad fit. The
authors felt that alternative education could promote excellence and high expectations within a
nontraditional school setting, claiming, “professionals for too long have adopted a deficit model
in examining the needs of children and adolescents who fail in and disrupt the traditional school
setting” (Leone & Drakeford, 1999, pp. 87-88).
Experts found that participation in alternative and magnet schools was also related to
higher academic achievement (Blank, 1984; New York State Education Department, 1985).
Gold and Mann (1984) concluded that attendance in alternative schools resulted in slightly better
grades but not in increased test scores. Two other studies determined that earned credits
increased considerably with participation in alternative schools (Foley & Crull, 1984; Foley &
McConnaughy, 1982).
Concern for the Whole Student
Several studies supported the notion of care for the whole child being a vital component
of effective alternative schools. Gold and Mann (1984) reflected on the importance of schools
being flexible and teachers taking students’ feelings, needs and abilities into consideration.
Teacher optimism, positive student-teacher relationships, and student-centered curriculum all
showed researchers a concern for the whole student (Foley & McConnaughy, 1982; Foley &
Crull, 1984; Wehlage, 1983). Gregory and Smith (1987) concluded that teachers who are
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 53
positive and student-centered strive to make instruction relevant and are willing to discuss both
nonacademic and well as academic subjects with students.
Powell et al. (1985) ascertained that the role of a private school teacher was far more
holistic than that of a typical public school teacher. This researcher also noticed that private
school teachers counseled and advised students as well as taught them. Powell et al. (1985)
found that although comprehensive high schools served the very worst and best students quite
well, the three-quarters of the student body in the middle of achievement were treated as less
special and received minimal counseling and attention. The class sizes for these mid-level
students tended to be larger than those of the special students ranked at the top and bottom, and
teachers held lower expectations for this group (Powell et al., 1985).
Raywid’s (1982) research also found positive student-teacher interactions to be a unique
attribute of effective alternative schools. Two highlights of the Raywid (1982) survey report
were that most respondents agreed that alternative schools had better student-teacher
relationships and that teachers were considered the central ingredient to the success of the
school. Raywid (1982) found that respondents felt that human relationships and instructional
activities were more valued at alternative schools than equipment, facilities, or curriculum.
There was also strong evidence in the report that staff role diffusion or expansion appeared to be
important to avoiding alienation from students. Teachers agreed that they wore many hats, with
50% of the schools reporting to have neither counselors nor janitors; and most teachers were
proud that they spent time in public and community relations activities (Raywid, 1982). One
responding teacher stated that she performed all duties from director to custodian (Raywid,
1982).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 54
Supportive Environment
Several studies supported a cooperative and supportive atmosphere as more efficient for
at-risk students than a competitive, high-stakes environment (Foley & McConnaughy, 1982;
Foley & Crull, 1984; Wehlage, 1983). Cooperative learning is one approach that encourages
supporting students while decreasing the competitive nature of most norm-referenced
assessments. In the cooperative learning model, the group, rather than the individual, is
primarily responsible for completing tasks that may include both individual and group skills.
Slavin (1983) and Johnson and Johnson (1987, 2002) conducted research on the use of
cooperative learning strategies in alternative schools. These researchers found cooperative
learning strategies increased academic achievement and improved student relationships in the
classroom (Johnson & Johnson, 1987, 2002; Slavin, 1983).
Clear Sense of Community and Mission
A sense of community, a clear mission for the school, and a shared set of values are
qualities identified in research related to effective alternative schools. Gregory and Smith (1987)
found that this sense of community was the key attribute that allowed the students and staff to
collaborate and to make the school work. The most effective schools knew their unique student
population and designed specific programs to meet their needs (Foley & McConnaughy, 1982;
Foley & Crull, 1984). Doyle and Levine (1984) found that developing different programs for
specific student populations is a sound educational practice from both a pedagogical and an
organizational perspective. Further, the researchers determined that learning demanded an
intellectual engagement between the student and the teacher that can be accomplished more
readily if both parties are aware of why they are there (Doyle & Levine, 1984).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 55
Individualized Teaching Methods and Strategies
The teacher is at the core of the learning experience in alternative schools. Therefore,
one of the most important influences on students to help them stay in school is kind attention and
a supportive atmosphere (Gregory & Smith, 1987; Morley, 1985; Pariser, 1990). Pariser (1990)
stated that intimacy, connectedness, and education were critical interconnected attributes when
working with at-risk youth in an alternative setting. Pariser’s perspective was that success with
students is a direct result of a learning environment that “provides an experience of intimacy and
connectedness, a sense of emotional closeness between two or more people” (Pariser, 1990, p.
11). Avirch (2014) believed that teachers should encourage active methods of learning and
educational leaders should develop informal relations with students. The researcher thought that
students should be allowed to develop in their own ways and that timelines should be flexible
allowing for support services and the successful accomplishment of goals. Teachers should
mentor students to be self-disciplined, and be self-directed to successfully implement
independent study methods (Avrich, 2014). In addition, students should learn by doing and
through experience to make education practical, placing the emphasis on a student-centered
education (Avrich, 2014).
Morley (1991) ascertained that an essential element for a successful alternative school
was that participation of both staff and students was voluntary and by choice. The alternative
school could thus represent a genuine, continuing educational option for its students. The staff
played a significant role in the design of the successful alternative educational program and thus
could modify programs as conditions warranted (Morley, 1991). This allowed the alternative
school to exert high levels of control over the various features of its program and generate higher
levels of teacher autonomy (Morley, 1991).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 56
The literature on alternative education and programs for at-risk students has thus
identified several essential elements of programs that will help these students. The research
contains lists of a large number of these elements, depending on the focus of the research, and
may vary to accommodate specific student populations. Lange and Sletten (2002) after a
synthesis of the literature classified the essential elements in the following categories, as shown
in Table 4.
Table 4
Essential Elements of Alternative Schools (Ashcroft, 1999; Dynarski & Gleason, 1998; Frymier,
1987; Gregg, 1999; Guerin & Denti, 1999; Krovetz, 1999; Leone & Drakeford, 1999; Raywid,
1993)
Elements Source
Clearly identified goals to inform both evaluation and
enrollment
(Gregg, 1999)
Wholehearted implementation without a piecemeal
approach to structuring programs
(Raywid, 1993)
Autonomy (Gregg, 1999)
Student-centered atmosphere (Frymier, 1987)
Integration of research and practice in areas such as
assessment, curriculum, teacher competencies, and
integration of special education services
(Guerin & Denti, 1999)
Training and support for teachers who work with at-risk
populations with or without disabilities
(Ashcroft, 1999; Krovetz,1999)
Links to multiple agencies, an element that may become
increasingly important as alternatives are required to serve
students with special education needs
(Dynarski & Gleason, 1998;
Leone & Drakeford, 1999)
School Choice
The topic of school choice has been contested for many years. Within the last 70 years,
vouchers, magnet schools, and charter schools are all proposed alternatives to public schools.
Advocates on both sides argued for and against the benefits of each of these alternatives (Powers
& Cookson, 1999). Researchers mostly from the left tend to characterize school choice as a
social movement coordinated by politicians, policy advocates and public personalities as
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 57
opposed to educators and friends of the traditional public education establishment (Cookson,
1995; Henig, 1995).
Two policy groupings regarding choice can be identified. On the one side is an alliance
of business groups, market theorists, policy advocates, religious groups, and entrepreneurs who
believe that the traditional public school system is rigid, unaccountable and failing America’s
children. This group mostly believes that market-driven choice will bring positive change to the
current school system (Chubb & Moe, 1990; Finn, Manno, Bierlein & Vanourek, 1997). Those
in this camp believe that market-based competition will change traditional school organizations
encouraging them to change and reform, or potentially lose students. This resulting change will
enhance the overall school system producing more efficient schools that will more effectively
serve their customers (Moe, 1995; Peterson, Greene & Noyes, 1996).
On the other side is the public school establishment including teachers’ unions, school
boards, school administrators, policy advocates, liberal foundations, and academicians who view
public education as one of the foundations for democracy. Proponents of the traditional system
tend to be less positive toward market-based factors and are resistant to change from the outside
of their own system. While it may be difficult to argue the benefit that school choice as a policy
can promote change within schools, researchers do point out that the success or failure of school
choice is a function of how well it is implemented in any given setting (Powers & Cookson,
1999).
Raywid (1989), a school choice advocate, made a case for student choice under three
fundamental conditions: (1) there is no one best school for everyone, (2) it is necessary to
provide diversity in school structure and programs to accommodate all students and to enable
them to succeed, and (3) students perform better and accomplished more in learning
environments they chose freely than in those to which they are simply assigned. Raywid (1989)
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 58
and Foley and McConnaughy (1982) concluded that broadening the opportunity of choice could
do much to prevent students from dropping out. The data also showed that students who attend a
school of choice have much lower dropout rates than do students assigned to a school. A
Chicago research team came to the same conclusion (Kyle, 1986).
Experts have shown parent satisfaction levels in public schools of choice to be incredibly
high (Blank, 1983; Raywid, 1982) and these satisfaction levels dramatically exceeded
satisfaction levels at comparable schools (Nicholson, 1980). Erickson (1982) asserted that the
very act of choosing may increase parents’ awareness of special school benefits that would
otherwise go unnoticed. Erickson (1982) argued that people, having made a choice, did not like
to be wrong and, hence, tended to demonstrate engagement by attempting to ensure that the
choice turns out well. In Erickson’s view, the freedom to choose generated a sense of power that
itself enhanced commitment, and voluntary affiliation brings agency and means that a school
cannot take its patrons for granted (Erickson, 1982).
Research also supports the benefits for teachers at a school of choice. A large number of
studies have reached the conclusion that teachers had higher satisfaction levels at schools that
they chose to work for compared to satisfaction levels of teachers that are assigned to a school
(Gladstone & Levin, 1982; Kottkamp, 1974; Lytle, 1980; Mahon-Lowe, 1986; Raywid, 1982).
Lytle (1980) believed that schools of choice offer teachers more opportunities for self-
actualization than do traditional schools. Schools of choice make for a “teachers’ school,”
according to Lytle (1980). Schools of choice can reduce or even eradicate sources of
dissatisfaction that teachers feel, including feelings of powerlessness, isolation, and
depersonalization. In effective schools of choice, teachers are challenged to create and sustain
programs over which they have feelings of ownership. In schools of choice teachers engage in
collective reflection on school purposes and collaborate to design and implement a program.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 59
Therefore, they must confront questions about curriculum and instruction and come up with
programs designed to answer those questions. These expectations are not commonly found in
most traditional schools (Kottkamp, 1974; Lortie, 1975)
Student-teacher relationships tended to be more satisfying in schools of choice as well.
Studies acknowledged that, due to a common interest and commitment to the school by students
and teachers, there is less need for external student control systems (Trickett, 1978). Behavior
necessitating disciplinary action was consistently less in such schools as well (Perry & Duke,
1978; Raywid, 1982). Students perceived teachers as more caring and helpful (Arnove & Strout,
1980; Sweeney, 1983). There was a greater degree of trust between students and teachers
(Sweeney, 1983) and students recognized that teachers contributed to their success (Kottkamp,
1974; Moilanen, 1986).
School choice may not be the magic bullet some proponents claim, but the research is
consistent that, if properly implemented, choice has numerous powerful benefits for students,
teachers and parents alike.
Charter Schools
Over the past 10 years, enrollment in charter schools has nearly tripled, from 1.2 million
students in 2006-07 to an estimated 3.1 million in 2016-17. Between 2015-16 and 2016-17,
estimated charter school enrollment increased by over 200,000 students, with an estimated 7%
growth in charter school enrollment between fall 2015 to fall 2016 (National Alliance for Public
Charter Schools, 2017) Figure 1 illustrates the growth in charter school enrollments.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 60
Figure 1. Enrollment in charter public schools, 2006-2007 to 2016-2017 (National Alliance for
Public Charter Schools, 2017).
According to a recent national survey of 1,000 parents with school-aged children
conducted by the National Alliance for Charter Schools, 73% of parents prefer increasing the
number of charter schools. Further, 78% of parents who have charter schools in their
community, and 73% of parents who do not, favor having one open in their neighborhood
(National Alliance for Charter Schools, 2017). These data suggest that, while the charter school
sector continues to grow, it would likely grow faster if more charters were able to open (National
Alliance for Charter Schools, 2017).
Other data sources show similar support for charter schools in America. According to the
forty-sixth annual PDK/Gallup poll of public attitudes toward public schools, 7 out of 10 or 70%
of respondents favor public charter schools (PDK/Gallup, 2014). The survey also found that a
majority (54%) of Americans believe that students receive a better education at public charter
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 61
schools than at other public schools (PDK/Gallup, 2014). Additionally, 50% of respondents
believed that charter schools are public schools (PDK/Gallup, 2014).
Despite the recent anti charter and anti-school choice politically-driven initiatives and
concerns about President Trump’s appointment of Betsy Devos, national polls still show public
support for school choice, including both charter schools and education voucher plans. In a
recent poll conducted by the Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research (AP-
NORC) nearly 4 in 10 Americans (40%) say that parents have too little choice in where their
children attend school (Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research [AP-NORC],
2017). When respondents were asked if they would favor opening more charter schools, 47% of
the public supported the idea and 49% of school parents supported the idea of expanding charter
schools (AP-NORC, 2017).
Public Charter School Performance
While charter schools are growing in number and popularity, questions remain as to their
performance compared to traditional schools. Different groups answer the question in many
different ways. Academic performance comparisons are highly politicized and data can be
skewed. Regardless, among the many charter school initiatives in the United States, two in
particular should be noted.
New York City. A study conducted by researchers for the New York City Charter
Schools Evaluation Project in 2009 concluded that charter school applicants were much more
likely to be Black and much less likely to be Asian or white than the average student in New
York City’s traditional public schools (Hoxby, Kang & Murarka, 2009). According to the
Hoxby report, on average, a student who attended a charter school during grades kindergarten
through eight would likely close about 86% of the “Scarsdale-Harlem achievement gap” in math
and 66% of the achievement gap in English (Hoxby et al., 2009). Additionally, a student who
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 62
attended a charter high school had New York State Regents Examination scores three points
higher for each year spent in the charter school before taking the test compared to those not
attending a charter school (Hoxby et al., 2009).
New Orleans. The devastation of Hurricane Katrina provided the city with the
opportunity to completely revamp its school system. Ten years after Katrina, over 90% of New
Orleans’ students attended a public charter, far more than any other American city (Robinson,
2015). Following Hurricane Katrina, student performance is New Orleans increased
consistently. The four-year cohort graduation rate rose from 54% in 2005 to 73% in 2015. The
percent of New Orleans students enrolling in college rose from 20% in 2005 to 59% in 2015.
Academic gains were also dramatic with 15% of students at Recovery District Schools scoring at
basic and above to 57% of students in the Recovery District Schools scoring at basic and above
in 2015. Further, improvements for students with disabilities in New Orleans were made as well
with this population performing at 18% proficiency in 2008 growing to 44% proficiency in 2013
(Robinson, 2015).
Dropout Prevention
In the late 1980s. educational reformers, noticing a rising dropout rate and increasing
concern for at-risk students, identified dropout prevention as a top agenda item (Young, 1990)
which became a dominant influence on the growth of school choice. During the 1980s, over
25% of students in the nation did not complete 12 years of schooling. In 10 states, the dropout
rate exceeded 35%, and in the cities of Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit, New York, and Boston,
more than 40% of the students left school before completion (Kunisawa, 1988).
The causes behind such discouraging dropout rates are numerous and because race and
socio-economics only tell part of the story, Hahn conducted a review of research on reasons for
students leaving school and found several commonalities. Not surprisingly, Hahn determined
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 63
academic difficulty was a major reason that many students choose to leave school (Hahn, 1987).
Increasing academic standards and graduation requirements only exacerbated this problem and
guaranteed that the comprehensive high school remained an undesirable experience for many
students (Hahn, 1987). Table 5 details the reasons students chose to drop out.
Table 5
Reasons for Leaving School (Hahn, 1987)
Reason Explanation
Poor academic performance Most dropouts had basic skills test results in the
bottom 20% of the population
Retention and suspension 25% of dropouts received school suspensions
Work or military service
Learning disabilities and
emotional problems
Language difficulties Students with a primary language other than English
were more likely to drop out
Pregnancy Four out of five girls who become pregnant in high
school dropped out
Dislike of school
Wehlage and Rutter’s (1985) analysis of the data concluded that students were more
likely to drop out of a school when they felt teachers were not interested in them and that school
discipline was neither efficient nor fair. Wheelock (1986) confirmed that the act of rejecting
such a fundamental institution as public school, was accompanied by the belief that the system
had rejected them as individuals. In dropping out, students expressed profound customer
dissatisfaction with schools and their programs.
Consequently, communities have increasingly turned to alternative schools and programs
to serve at-risk students. Hahn (1987) felt that alternative schools were often the best available
option for both potential and actual dropouts, especially if the programs have reasonable
eligibility criteria, teach real skills, and accommodate working students.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 64
Many leaders felt that business-related training could be a solution to the dropout crisis.
In the late 1980s, business and community leaders in several cities called for the development of
alternative schools and programs to address the increasing dropout problem (Young, 1990).
Many of these programs were established as magnet schools with business-related themes. The
Philadelphia High School Academy Association provided cooperative education options in
electrical skills, automotive trades, business, and health (Young, 1990). Atlanta established a
retail magnet program at Archer High School with support from J.C. Penney, Neiman-Marcus,
Sears, and others. New York City instituted a partnership between public schools and the city’s
financial community at the Murray Bergtraum High School for Business Careers (Young, 1990).
Politicians at the state level saw the value of these successes and called for increased
choice and options in public education. The National Governors Association (1986) sanctioned
the goal of providing more choice among public schools. During the 1980s, several states
believed that providing choice among schools aided in reducing dropouts, raised student
achievement and gratitude for learning, advanced parental involvement and satisfaction, assured
racial and economic integration, supplied extra demand for students unhappy with conventional
schools, increased the morale of educators and allowed educators to develop extraordinary
programs from which families can choose (Nathan, 1987).
One Third of a Nation
In 2005, the Educational Testing Service reported that state high school completion
estimates were too high and that high school dropout rates were steadily increasing up to one-
third of the nation (Barton, 2005). Figure 2 shows that that national high school completion
rates, after peaking at 77.1% in 1969, decreased to 69.9% in 2000.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 65
Figure 2. High School Graduation Rates 1869-2000 (Barton, 2005)
Figure 3 shows the differences by state between actual and predicted high school
completion rates. The completion rates fluctuate extensively among the states and range from a
high of 88% in Vermont to a low of 48% in the District of Columbia and 55% in Arizona
(Barton, 2005). ETS explains this to be due to a combination of three factors, socioeconomic
aspects, number of parents living in the home, and a history of transiency in school attendance,
are associated with 58% of the variation in completion rates among the states.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 66
Figure 3. Actual High School Completion Rates compared to Predicted Rates (Barton, 2005)
Redefining the School-to-Prison Pipeline
The United States public education system is afflicted with profound inequalities, which
all too often are determined along the lines of race and color. Students in high-poverty, high-
minority schools, are consistently provided fewer resources, fewer qualified teachers, and fewer
advanced-level courses than their more affluent white peers (Brennan, 2002). Not surprisingly,
they experience lower rates of high school graduation, lower levels of academic achievement,
and higher rates of college attrition (Wald & Losen, 2003). The proliferating use of high-stakes
tests has only increased the number of students dropping out of school.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 67
Since the early 1990s, many school districts have adopted a zero-tolerance approach to
school code violations. The result is a near doubling of the number of students suspended
annually from school since 1974 [from 1.7 million to 3.1 million] U.S. Department of Education,
2000). Minorities are massively overrepresented among those most harshly sanctioned in
schools. Nationally, Black students are 2.6 times as likely to be suspended as white students
(Wald & Losen, 2003). In 2000 they represented 17% of the student population, but 34% of
those suspended (U.S. Department of Education, 2000).
The get-tough approach to discipline found in schools is emulated in the treatment of
youth in the criminal justice system. Despite a decrease in juvenile crime during the last half of
the 1990s, the number of formally processed cases involving juveniles, most of them non-violent
cases—increased, along with the number of youth held in secure facilities for non-violent
offenses (Stahl, Finnegan, & Kang, 2002). In 1998, Black youths with no prior criminal records
were six times, and Latino youths were three times, more likely to be incarcerated than whites
for the same offenses (Poe-Yamagata & Jones, 2000). Four out of five new juveniles detained
between 1983 and 1997 were youths of color (Hoyt, Schiraldi, Smith & Zeidenberg, 2002).
The racial disparities within the school system and the juvenile justice system are so
similar that it becomes unrealistic not to connect them. Many educators and advocates crafted
terms such as prison track or school-to-prison pipeline to describe these dual trends (Wald &
Losen, 2003). These phrases depict a migration through school that becomes increasingly
punitive and isolating. Many will be instructed by unqualified teachers, tested on material they
never reviewed, held back in grade, placed in restrictive special education programs, repeatedly
suspended, and banished to alternative outplacements before dropping or getting pushed out of
school altogether. Without a safety net, the likelihood that these same youths will end up
arrested and incarcerated increases sharply (Wald & Losen, 2003). Despite the robust
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 68
connection between distressed educational histories and subsequent arrests and incarcerations,
the specific methods that schools employ that either contribute to or that can prevent the flow of
students into the criminal justice is still yet to be examined (Wald & Losen, 2003).
Conclusion
This chapter reviewed available literature to attempt a definition of alternative schools,
review the history of these schools and explore the extensive research on alternative schools. On
the basis of this research, this chapter has identified the characteristics and essential components
of successful alternative schools and provided selected case studies of particularly effective
alternative schools. While some students are assigned to certain alternative schools by external
authorities, most families choose to have their children attend these schools. The chapter
therefore addressed the value of having that choice and the impact choice has on students,
parents, teachers, and administrators. The chapter concluded with a discussion of the problem of
school dropout and of ways to reduce the increasingly common school-to-prison pipeline.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 69
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This methodology chapter addresses the methods used to collect data through student
surveys and interviews in an attempt to answer the research questions. Stakeholder goals and
behaviors drove the knowledge, motivation and organizational assumed influences and data
collection methods. This chapter reviews the methodological framework used in this study as
determined by the gap between the desired performance outcomes and present performance of
the students in this study.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine the root causes of the organizational problem
of noncompliance with traditional Arizona state and federal accountability measures at the EICS.
More specifically, some of EICS’s schools are currently undertaking academic school
improvement efforts to meet current federal and Arizona state accountability measures. Gap
analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) is a systematic analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual and the preferred level of
performance by focusing on knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers within an
organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). This analysis focused on causes of this gap at EICS in the
areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational issues.
EICS is an open enrollment alternative charter high school serving an at-risk student
population, enrolling students at any time throughout the school year; with classes held in
morning, afternoon and evening sessions. EICS does not have a limit of student enrollment and
wants to serve all students. The teachers and leadership team are constantly striving to help each
student successfully finish high school and become career and college ready.
A majority of EICS students come to school severely credit deficient and many average
at least two grade levels behind their peers. A large number of EICS students read at least two
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 70
grade levels below their age. EICS uses a mastery-based grading system, which allows students
to retake classes or modules until they achieve a level of mastery acceptable to the teaching staff.
But the mission of assisting at-risk students in an alternative setting complicates the challenge of
maintaining compliance with the moving target of state and federal academic indicators.
Historically, EICS has been a leader among alternative charter schools in Arizona with
two campuses achieving an “Alternative A” letter grade based on the 2012 Arizona alternative
accountability framework and letter grading system (Faller, 2013). However, with the advent of
new federal and Arizona guidelines in 2016, the former letter grading system can no longer be
used. EICS, along with other members of the AZAEC, is currently encouraging the legislature to
identify new alternative school evaluation criteria. Until that is accomplished, EICS needs to
analyze its current data to implement a strategic plan that would accomplish the goal of 100%
compliance with all Arizona state and federal academic indicators for alternative schools. The
questions that guided this study were the following.
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational causes preventing all students at
EICS from being in academic compliance with Arizona state and federal academic
achievement requirements?
2. Despite the gaps in traditional academic performance, what are the EICS fifth and sixth
year seniors’ knowledge, motivation and organizational influences leading them to persist
in school and graduate?
Stakeholders of Focus
EICS has several stakeholder groups involved with the mission and goals of the
organization, including students, teachers and the leadership team. The leadership team plays a
key role in assuring that the mission and vision of the school is being met and in supervising the
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 71
teachers and students at each campus. The leadership team is also in charge of the curriculum
and academic compliance with state and federal authorities.
EICS’s teachers mentor and instruct students and assure that each student is making
adequate progress on his or her personalized learning plan and goals. Teachers work with
students individually and in small groups and, using the school’s educational materials and
technology, they assist students in a blended learning environment.
EICS’s students are significantly deficient in credits and see the school as a second
chance to finish high school. Many EICS students have not had success in a traditional school
environment and understandably have some anxiety about school. Many students are fifth or
sixth year high school students and are older than their peers attending a comprehensive high
school. The stakeholders of focus for this study are the fifth year senior and older students at
EICS.
Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify knowledge, motivational and organizational influences, was
adapted to an evaluation model and implemented as the conceptual framework for this study
(Clark & Estes, 2008). As shown in Figure 4, that framework enabled a systematic analysis of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that revealed the root causes of the gap
between the actual performance outcomes and the desired performance outcomes and goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The initial step in gap analysis was to identify the organizational goals
and compare the present level of performance of the organization against those goals that have
not been achieved. The root causes for the perceived gap were attributed to a lack of knowledge
and skills, potentially negative intrinsic, extrinsic, and social motivation, and a combination of
internal and external organizational factors. To investigate the fifth and sixth year seniors as
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 72
stakeholders, the investigator employed various techniques for collecting quantitative data
through surveys and qualitative data through interviews.
Figure 4. Gap Analysis Process (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Once data were collected, the identified influences and needs were validated, partially
validated, or invalidated. The influences were validated if they continued to demonstrate a need
for the organization based on the findings. They were partially validated if they presented a low
priority need for the organization based on student responses. They were invalidated if they
were not currently a need for the organization pertaining to the innovation. The final stage in the
gap analysis was to review and analyze the results of each measure and recommend solutions or
implementations based on whether they were related to knowledge and skills, motivation, or
organization.
EICS is an alternative charter high school serving students at-risk of dropping out of
school. Due to its consistent gap of performing below traditional Arizona academic performance
measures, the researcher utilized an evaluation model for this study. While there are various
definitions of evaluation studies, Trochim (2006, p. 36) defined evaluation as the “systematic
acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object.” The
purpose of the evaluation gap analysis model is to identify academic performance gaps in the
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 73
areas of knowledge and skills, motivation and organizational influences and to recommend
solutions based on the results of data gathered in the form of student surveys and interviews.
Despite the fact that EICS students consistently perform below traditional state academic
measures of performance, a large number of students are able to persist in school and
successfully graduate as fifth and sixth year seniors. Therefore, the researcher was very
interested in identifying the assumed influences in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that allowed these students to persist in school despite the school being
consistently placed in program improvement based on school performance on traditional
statewide academic performance measurements.
In addition to internal organizational influences for EICS, the researcher included data
related to external organizational influences that often impact at-risk students. These influences
include students choosing EICS after having been somehow pushed out of their original schools
or from students choosing to work or assist with family related situations that do not allow them
to attend school on a traditional academic schedule.
Assumed Influences of the Performance Gap
Clark and Estes (2008) define the gap analysis process as a systematic problem-solving
approach to improve performance and achieve organizational goals. According to Rueda (2011),
the gap analysis process “provides a way to clarify both short-term and long-term organizational
goals, assess them, and describe gaps from the actual levels of performance or achievement to
the desired levels” (p. 73). Often, individuals assume causes for problems within organizations
without appropriately validating those causes. This “jumping to conclusions” often leads to
either inaction or the application of inappropriate solutions because of the perceived complexity
of the problem. Thus, individuals may omit or misdiagnose causes for performance gaps. As
such, a thorough investigation into the causes of performance gaps should include three
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 74
components: (1) informal interviews with stakeholders; (2) learning, motivation, and
organization/culture theory; and (3) a review of related literature on alternative education
strategies. What follows is a discussion of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
assumed causes for academic noncompliance at EICS.
Preliminary Scanning Data and Critical Observations
Based on conversations conducted with EICS teachers, educational leaders and personal
knowledge, the assumed causes impacting fifth and sixth year seniors’ performance are identified
in three categories: (1) knowledge and skills, (2) motivation, and (3) organization.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Theory and Observation of Students
The first section below reviews the assumed knowledge and skills influences that impact
the ability of fifth and sixth year seniors to meet the stakeholder goal. Knowledge and skills are
composed of factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
Factual knowledge is static information and reflects the ability to retrieve a definitive
recollection of the terms associated with the influences (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002).
Conceptual knowledge is the ability to recollect or retell the underlying concepts behind the
definition (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge requires students to demonstrate or
describe familiarity with the process of accomplishing a step, series of steps, or component of the
required skill (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge is the ability to reflect upon the
information, concepts, and procedure, and adjust to improve the outcomes (Krathwohl, 2002).
The second section reviews the assumed motivation influences that impact the ability of
students to attain the stakeholder goal. Motivation indices are qualified by choice, persistence,
and mental effort. Choice is the intentional determination to partake in an activity or utilize a
specific resource, and it engages the beliefs and values of a person (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Persistence is the ability to continue striving for the goal, even in spite of any potential
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 75
difficulties, challenges, or distraction and is influenced by the goal-orientation and attributions of
the individual (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Mental effort requires intellectual investment
in accomplishing the goal without misjudging the requirements needed to complete the job; it
often engages the expectancy-value and self-efficacy of an individual (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011).
The third section reviews the assumed organizational influences that impact the students’
ability to achieve the stakeholder goal. Organizational culture consists of the individual culture,
group culture, and the interplay between all the individuals and groups within the broad
organization; these contribute to the cultural settings and cultural models that exist within
organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Other organizational influences include
policies and procedures, resources, and training.
Knowledge and Skills
Assessing the knowledge of the assumed causes involves utilizing research literature,
survey data from students, and qualitative data collected through student interviews.
Recommendations for potentially closing knowledge gaps will be informed by Krathwohl’s
(2002) framework of learning, which includes factual learning, executed by remembering;
conceptual learning, demonstrated through understanding and analyzing; procedural learning,
such as applying and creating the steps to execute the pedagogy; and metacognition, which
involves analyzing and evaluating (Anderson et al., 2001; Krathwohl, 2002).
Factual knowledge. Students should have sufficient factual knowledge about concepts
of math, English language arts, science, and other core concepts aligned to Arizona state
standards to receive a high school diploma.
Conceptual knowledge. Students need to have a smaller school environment that
provides opportunities to informally connect with teachers and staff.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 76
Procedural knowledge. Students need to have instruction that is individualized and
personalized for them and their educational goals. Several studies have emphasized the value of
personalized and individualized instruction, particularly for at-risk students (Archambault et al,
2010; Bullis, Walker & Sprague, 2001; McLaughlin & Vacha, 1992).
Students also need to have a better understanding of the learning process after having
attended school. Bouffard-Bouchard, Parent and Larivee (1991) took the position that a better
understanding of the learning process is critical for at-risk students to persist in school. Research
has found self-efficacy and the use of self-regulation strategies to have reflexive and positive
impacts on each other (Pajares, 2008). Higher self-efficacy increases the use of self-regulation
strategies and the use of self-regulation strategies can lead to increases in self-efficacy beliefs
and academic achievement (Bouffard-Bouchard et al., 1991; Schunk, 1990; Schunk & Hanson,
1985; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990).
Students also need to have teachers that utilize effective instructional methods, which
engage at-risk students and increase their sense of belonging at school. Researchers have asserted
that at-risk students need effective instructional methods such as cooperative learning (Slavin,
1996) or reciprocal teaching (Brown & Palincsar, 1984) to gain a stronger sense of belonging.
Chistle, Jolivetter and Nelson (2007) have hypothesized that teachers need to use instructional
strategies that encourage increased student engagement. In a study of school characteristics
related to high school dropout rates, the research team observed that schools with low dropout
rates had a much higher interaction and engagement rate with students, than did schools with
high dropout rates. This finding was confirmed with the results of the High School and Beyond
study, where dropouts perceived teacher interest in students to be low (Jones, 2002).
Metacognitive knowledge. At-risk students need to develop relationships with teachers,
staff and fellow students. Coleman (2000) asserted that at-risk students require a social
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 77
connection to be successful in school. According to Coleman, social capital is pivotal in
socializing children and youths. Coleman (2000) identified three ways in which social
relationships become social capital. First, actors expect obligations to be repaid because of the
inherent trustworthiness in the structure. Second, social capital gives actors access to
information. Third, norms are a form of social capital, which facilitates actions. Norms of the
teacher-student relationship include the idea that both teacher and student are to act in ways that
promote learning (Coleman, 2000).
Students also need to feel in control of their learning, since many at-risk students feel out
of control in educational settings for a variety of reasons. Wehlage and Rutter (1985) note that
the most powerful determinants of dropping out are low expectations and low grades with
disciplinary problems and truancy being the most common offense. They claim that while
schools cannot do much about socioeconomic factors that are associated with being at risk, the
items found to be determinants of dropping out are very much under the school’s control.
Wehlage criticizes programs that stress basic skills alone as being too narrow. According to
Wehlage (1983), schools must provide young people with experiences of success to counteract
the messages of failure that they are constantly receiving. Among Wehlage’s recommendations
for schools are smaller school size, with individualized attention and frequent progress
monitoring. Effective alternative schools should provide young people with a sense of
competence and success, opportunity to exercise initiative and responsibility, and a task that has
integrity and reinforces a sense of dignity. This increased sense of self-efficacy leads students to
a sense of control over their learning environment (Wehlage & Rutter, 1985).
At-risk students need to have teachers that believe all students can learn and that involve
students and their peers in learning and teaching activities. Carol Dweck believes that mindsets
are not only malleable but that students can and should develop a positive and resilient mindset
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 78
(Yeager & Dweck, 2012). Dweck asserts that teachers play a critical role in fostering positive
mindsets for their students and assisting them to cultivate a resilient mindset (Yeager & Dweck,
2012). According to Dweck, mindsets can contribute to two current academic issues facing
educators (1) academic underachievement, and (2) the impact of peer exclusion and
victimization. The implicit theory that intelligence is fixed lies at the heart of obstacles allowing
both students and educators to develop and promote positive mindsets and a belief that human
characteristics are malleable (Yeager & Dweck, 2012).
Additionally, research suggests that learning activities designed to increase student
engagement need to address engagement behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively (Pino-James,
2017). In aiming for full engagement, it is essential that students perceive activities as
meaningful (Pino-James, 2017). Students must also develop a sense of competence for the
activity. In other words, does the student feel that he or she can do the activity? Providing
autonomy support means that a student’s sense of control over the learning needs to be nurtured.
Collaborative learning should be embraced as a powerful facilitator of engagement. A high-
quality and positive teacher-student relationship should be developed. Students should pursue an
activity with a mastery orientation, because they want to learn, rather than have a performance
orientation (Pino-James, 2017). Students need to have friends or family influencing them to
persist in school.
Knowledge influences for at-risk students. Students who miss weeks, months or years
fall behind in course credits. Credit deficiency, creating at times an insurmountable obstacle to
catching up, is a leading cause for dropping out and an obstruction to graduation for dropouts
who return to school (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). Dropouts and fifth and 6th year seniors need
support in a variety of ways to persist in successfully graduating from school. Rumberger (1987)
has identified four factors that he believes are critical to supporting student persistence: listening
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 79
to students, communicating caring, the school’s role in dropout prevention, students’ role in
dropout prevention. According to Rumberger (1987), attention should to be given to the
influence that schools, their organization, leadership, and teachers may have on a student’s
decision to stay in or drop out of school.
Listening to students. Several voices participate in the high school dropout
conversation—teachers, administrators, school board members, district superintendents, parents,
politicians, school counselors and researchers. However, students are rarely involved in the
conversation, especially students who have either dropped out of school or are considering
leaving school (Gallagher, 2002).
Knesting (2008) conducted a qualitative study of at-risk student perspectives at a
comprehensive school by interviewing students at Washington High School. In asking at-risk
students at the school about listening, one student had this to say, “If they just listened to what
we had to say, even though they’re going to go ahead with the policy we disagree with, it would
make a big difference” (Knesting, 2008, p. 7). One teacher at Washington agreed with the
importance of listening to students. “I think the thing about getting respect from any student is
that you listen to them-and you can’t fake it—what they say is important.” (Knesting, 2008, p.7).
Researchers agree with the importance that listening has in a student’s decision to leave a school
or not. Michelle Fine had the following finding in her seminal book, Framing Dropouts:
“Listening forces a conversation about dropping out, which schools too often try to avoid” (Fine,
1991, p. 65). Schools cannot say they do not have a problem with dropouts because they do.
Talking to the students opens the door to finding solutions (Knesting, 2008).
Listening to students can also include assisting students that are credit deficient with a
plan to graduate with a high school diploma. Re-enrolled students at a school district in San
Bernardino experienced the following challenges. Without ways to make up credits before the
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 80
deficiencies mount over time, reenrolled dropouts can “lose hope, give up, and drop out again.”
Despite this discouraging situation, school leaders at San Bernardino City School District had no
credit recovery interventions. “We have no viable plan to recover credits early on, when it
matters,” explained one school leader (Barrat, Berliner & Fong, 2012, p. 228). Interventions
such as summer school, after school, and Saturday school programs are available for remediation
and high school exit examinations, but not for making up credit bearing courses. Accelerated
credit recovery options are available in the district continuation schools and adult education
schools, which have a minimum age requirement of 16 and 17 years respectively. Therefore,
ninth and tenth graders, the majority of dropouts at the district, were required to advance to the
next grade with no make-up options (Barrat et al., 2012).
The capacity limitations at the district’s continuation schools create waiting lists of up to
one year, despite the district decision to double enrollment capacity by splitting morning and
afternoon sessions. Additionally, by the time that many students are able to attend continuation
schools they are too old to participate and are referred to adult education schools which have a
much lower high school completion rate (Barrat et al., 2012). Regardless of the limited capacity,
continuation schools were favored over traditional schools by re-enrollees and school leaders at
SCBUSD because the educational delivery at these schools was a much better fit for these
students, providing self-paced accelerated credit programs and flexible scheduling that allowed
students the option to work or attend vocational schools (Barrat et al., 2012).
Re-enrollees at SBCUSD were given a variety of options to earn credits needed to
graduate, with many students concurrently enrolled in adult education classes, work-study, and
community college classes, in addition to district night and day classes. However, no one was
designated by the district to ensure that each enrollee was taking the necessary courses from each
of these systems to fulfill graduation requirements. As a group, all of the enrollees that were
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 81
interviewed considered graduation as an unreachable goal because recovering from credit
deficiencies in a traditional school setting was viewed as a complex and unlikely undertaking
(Barrat et al., 2012).
Motivation
Motivational influences are critical for students, particularly those at risk of dropping out
of school, in order for students to develop the persistence to stay in school and successfully
graduate. While there may be a variety of negative external and internal influences causing
students that are falling behind to feel the need to drop out of school, it is surprising the change
that can occur when just one or a few individuals let these students know that they care about
them and they believe in them (Osterman, 2000). Experts have described motivation as one of
the most powerful determinants of students’ success or failure in school (Hidi & Harackiewicz,
2000). Pintrich and Schunk (1996) have defined motivation as one’s wish and will to behave in
a directed way, which in turn initiates a series of actions to engage in particular activities. Beck
(2004) determined that motivation in academic terms refers to the reasons that students want to
attend, engage in, and put effort in learning and achieving in school. Finally, Connell and
Wellborn (1991) assert that in behavioral terms, academic motivation results in increased
student’s involvement in activities related to learning.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation forces. In reviewing potential push or pull forces
that influence students to learn, participate in school and have academic success, there is a
variety and potentially a combination of forces at play. Be it external motivation or internal
motivation, both will help to attract students to learning and act as a shield in the lure of negative
activities. According the Deci and Ryan (1985), extrinsic motivation refers to the pull by
external factors such as rewards, punishment, and peer pressures; whereas intrinsic motivation
refers to the push from within that results from internal factors such as interests and enjoyment.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 82
Motivation needs. Motivation is instrumental in the execution of tasks. Motivation is
the paramount element of the KMO framework to influence the assumed root causes (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The motivation needs that are related to the students’ progress toward attaining the
organizational goal are intrinsic motivation, self-determination theory and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation. At-risk students must develop the capacity to increase intrinsic
motivation. At-risk students need a learning environment that allows them to persist in school
and stay motivated to successfully completing a high school diploma. At-risk students,
particularly, need to be positively motivated to learn to persist in school. At-risk students also
need to have the ability to choose options to learning including online learning and flexible
scheduling.
Self-Determination Theory. Ryan and Deci (2000) have proposed self-determination
theory (SDT) to make the critical distinction between behaviors that are volitional and by the
experience of freedom and autonomy, those that emanate from one’s sense of self, and those that
are accompanied by the experience of pressure and control and are not representative of one’s
self (Ryan & Deci, 2000). At-risk students increasingly need to feel a sense of membership and
belonging at school to be committed and academically engaged in school. Students also need to
feel a warm personal connection to their teachers, which allows them to maintain their academic
motivation.
Extrinsic motivation. At-risk students need to have a safe and orderly environment at
school, with teachers that are committed to all students. At-risk students also need the school to
help them to see value in completing their high school education. Many of the successful fifth
and sixth year seniors were able to overcome specific challenges to persist in school. In addition,
these students are influenced by friends that have dropped out of high school.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 83
Additional support for motivation needs of at-risk youth communicating caring.
Students in the San Bernardino study acknowledged caring and persistent school staff as a factor
influencing them to come back to school. Other factors were self-paced catch-up courses,
flexible school schedules, job training embedded into the academic program, and child care for
parenting students. Another pull factor for those in the juvenile justice and child welfare systems
that encouraged them to reenroll and attend traditional school regularly was a mandated
probation provision or an eligibility condition for their parents to receive public assistance
(Barrat et al., 2012).
While there are sometimes pockets of caring teachers and staff in urban comprehensive
high schools, numerous studies have been conducted showing comprehensive school
environments that frequently push students out of school, rather than attempting to keep them in
school. Fine (1991) in her ethnographic case study of an urban high school after reviewing
student-teacher interactions, disciplinary procedures, curricula, and district policy designed to
push students out of school concluded that these factors contributed to an estimated annual
dropout rate of 40-60% at the schools that she had studied. Altenbaugh, Engel, and Martin
(1995) interviewed 100 students who dropped out but then returned to an alternative program to
earn their diplomas. Students in this study felt overwhelmed by the school size and climate,
perceived teachers as uncaring and not invested in learning, and school counselors as busy,
overloaded, and unable to provide personal attention or support (Altenbaugh et al., 1995).
The Washington study of student perspectives tells a story that confirms the conclusions
of other researchers in that the students’ biggest grievance was that the school was uncaring and
had disrespectful teachers and administrators (Barrat et al., 2012; Fine, 1991; Knesting, 2008;).
While many educators strive to create a climate of respect and caring, to truly nurture this type of
environment, teachers and administrators must contemplate the ways and methods to
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 84
communicate caring to all of the students in their school, not just those who are more affable or
who are their favorites. Knesting (2008) acknowledged at Washington High School there were a
variety of opportunities for recognizing certain groups of students such as National Honor
Society or the Dean’s list for students who excelled academically. Yet, for many students,
Washington did not feel like a caring or welcoming environment. Few teachers or administrators
seemed to be attentive to the feelings of students identified as at risk for dropping out (Knesting,
2008).
Knesting surprisingly discovered that committed and caring teachers at Washington High
were more important to the at-risk students in the study than were the traditional academic
support or counseling programs that were assigned to students and designed to support the need
of this population (2008). Some at-risk students at Washington noticed and connected with the
isolated teachers who sought to understand students’ behavior, believed in students’ ability to
succeed, and accepted them “as-is.” These individual teachers in some cases were able to help
at-risk students stay in school. These individual teachers’ acceptance of the students’
worldviews, whether or not they believed them to be valid, helped them to better understand
their students’ behavior at school (Knesting, 2008). Since these teachers validated how students’
feelings of being powerless and unimportant at school could contribute to their decision to drop
out, these teachers put extra effort into developing classrooms that were student-centric and
where students felt they belonged (Knesting, 2008).
Another important characteristic for teachers working with at-risk students was the belief
that all students can succeed. This can be exemplified by classrooms with high expectations,
academic challenges, with safety and respect being the norm. In these classrooms students were
active and equal participants in learning. These teachers strongly believed that all students could
be successful, regardless of ability level and future plans, and they worked diligently to
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 85
communicate this belief to the students (Knesting, 2008). According to one teacher in the study,
“I think it’s having very high expectations for all students, I think it’s personalizing, caring about
their life.” “I think it’s looking for the good.” For many students, this environment of
acceptance made the classroom a supportive haven at school (Knesting, 2008, p. 6).
While studies have shown the push factors that influence students’ decisions to leave
comprehensive high schools, other researchers have described the important influence of caring
school communities in alternative school settings. Several studies have reported that students’
behavior often changes when they feel like a part of a community at school. A sense of
belonging boosts the possibility that students will accept school rules and policy (Knesting,
2008; Osterman, 2000). Also, as students become valued members of their peer and adult
networks, students become more interested in school. Students are more likely to take
educational risks when they feel safe in their school environment (Knesting, 2008). Wehlage
(1991) contended that the most effective means of serving students at risk for dropping out is
through the establishment and development of alternative school settings. The culture of the
alternative school—administration and organization, teacher culture, student culture, and
curriculum—is focused on meeting the needs of individual students (Wehlage, Rutter &
Turnbaugh, 1986). Considering the potential impact that a sense of belonging in a school
community has to at-risk students, if schools have the capacity to negatively influence students’
decisions to leave school early, then schools should, conversely, make efforts to tap into the
positive potential that creating a sense of belonging for all students possesses, and therefore
could contribute to students’ persistence as well (Knesting, 2008).
Organizational
While much of the literature on at-risk student populations focuses on either the academic
or social internal deficits that this population possesses, or the external societal impacts that
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influence students in their decision to leave school early, there has not been as much attention
given to organizational influences that may cause students to either be pushed out, or to cause
students to leave out of a feeling of hopelessness. Traditional comprehensive school districts and
schools often play a large part in an at-risk student’s decision to drop out of school.
Organization needs. EICS students often come to the school with previous perspectives
of school based on a traditional comprehensive school background. Therefore, to fully
understand the organization needs of at-risk students, the researcher expanded the cultural
organization model to dividing between external cultural influences and internal cultural
influences. Cultural models are often automated and invisible for the insiders within the
organization to unfold (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Though values and beliefs are
invisible, behavior can be observed and measured. Some observable behaviors include group
norms, language, rituals, and celebrations can be observed (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
External culture. Schools should not show favoritism toward high achieving students or
athletes, at the expense of ignoring other students. Schools should not excessively expel students
and should encourage students to stay in school. Schools should also provide early interventions
to assist students at risk of dropping out of school.
Internal culture. While it is important for schools to not be a negative factor to students,
there are many positive things that schools should work toward, to make their school
environment more conducive to learning for at-risk youth. Schools should provide the necessary
social and emotional supports for students to persist in school. Schools should also provide
flexible scheduling allowing students to work, parent, or take care of other personal
responsibilities. Schools should provide a positive school culture allowing students to feel
comfortable and familiar. Teachers should also feel personally responsible for student learning.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 87
Additionally, alternative schools specifically designed for at-risk students are important and
should be encouraged to flourish and grow.
Dropout Prevention and School and Student’s Role
There is a significant body of research in dropout prevention with lessons for both
comprehensive schools and smaller alternative school settings.
Schools role in dropout prevention. Knesting (2008) discovered that while there may be
pockets of safe havens within classrooms designed to work with at-risk students, overall the
students felt that Washington High School was a stressful and unsupportive place. Several
students commented that the school was more concerned about discipline than education and that
they emphasized conformity over education, rather than a caring and supportive environment
with high expectations for everyone’s success. Students could sense that only certain students
were valued at Washington. According to one student, “It’s like if you do sports or are a
cheerleader…that’s having Husky spirit.” “Just because I’m not playing volleyball or
cheerleading that doesn’t make me any less important” (Knesting, 2009, p. 6). Students’ feelings
of not being valued participants at their school extended to feeling that some teachers did not
care about them or their graduation from high school (Knesting, 2008). Students at Washington
High complained that for some teachers at the school it was just a job and they were not
concerned about the number of F grades that were given out, or whether a student was kicked out
of school. One student explained that she wanted to get involved with yearbook, but was told
that she could not participate since she didn’t have a 3.0 GPA. Other students complained that
their opinions were not respected and some teachers allowed only one right answer to the
question…their own. According to one Washington student, “Several of my friends have just
been kicked out. It just depends who you are and if they like you…They don’t want you
infecting other students with any rebellious ideas” (Knesting, 2008, p.7).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 88
While Washington High School is making efforts to work with at-risk students, the school
administration still feels pressure to have high academic standards and seems to not be concerned
if some students leave the school in light of this pressure. The principal at Washington stated
that higher standards may influence some students to leave school before graduation (Knesting,
2008). The vice principal admitted that he has counseled some students to drop out rather than
stay in school. The vice principal claimed that he was not afraid to say to some students that they
could go, and that the school is not for them. The vice principal further commented that he
thought for some kids it was better that they were out. This belief was a letdown to those
students who believed that an education was important for everyone (Knesting, 2008).
Perverse incentives. Many comprehensive school system leaders acknowledge the
pressure to perform and have influenced some at-risk students to leave school. San Bernardino
City Unified School District leaders described some of the disincentives for the district in
working with at-risk youth and reenrolling dropouts. Due to California state funding being tied
to enrollment and attendance rates, school leaders noticed that unstable attendance of dropouts
results in reduced per pupil funding in high-poverty districts where families move suddenly, seek
affordable housing and work, and large numbers of students drop out and reenroll again.
Additionally, SBCUSD school officials allege that students who come back for a fifth year
penalize the district in funding due to budget projections being based on a 4 year graduation rate,
resulting in less funding for fifth-year seniors (Barrat et al., 2012).
Another challenge that school leaders expressed were the testing and accountability
measures of NCLB which require 95% participation on state tests. To meet this nearly
impossible target school leaders have tried measures such as rounding up students at the mall and
juvenile hall and knocking on doors at students’ homes and arranging transportation for test days.
Dropouts and reenrolled students are also counted against schools in accountability measures
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 89
where one dropout that reenrolls can be counted as double or triple the weight of one dropout.
The final disincentive that school officials claim is that reenrolled students that refuse to take the
district high school exit exam (which happens often, since it has no relevance to these students)
are counted against the school for accountability purposes (Barrat et al., 2012).
Addressing organizational challenges. While school district staff can sometimes feel
they are put in the middle of conflicting policies and procedures, the educational leaders at San
Bernardino City made several suggestions to policy and practice that could address the obstacles
and disincentives for the district to reenroll dropouts:
1. Increase the capacity to offer credit recovery through self-paced computer assisted
courses, independent study contracts, summer school, weekend and twilight academies,
and concurrent enrollment agreements with adult education programs and community
colleges.
2. Enroll credit deficient students early in rapid recovery interventions as soon as
deficiencies are detected, especially for students in grades 9 and 10.
3. Advocate for academic, behavioral and social interventions to follow re-enrollees to the
schools where they return by targeting special funds to support continuity of these efforts.
4. Designate staff to coordinate short-term course-credit accrual and long-term graduation
plans for individual re-enrollees. Each re-enrollee’s schedule must be carefully
constructed and managed by the district to ensure that the right number, type, and
sequence of courses are completed to fulfill graduation requirements.
5. Address the funding disincentives for districts by adjusting the formula for the dropout
rate to account for a 5 or 6-year time frame.
Student’s role in dropout prevention. While there is a growing body of research related to
school organizational influences related to students leaving school, there is a much larger body of
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 90
work related to individual social and academic risk factors that could cause students to drop out .
Much of this literature addresses the disparity between dropouts in traditional environments as
opposed to low-income, or diverse and urban communities. Youth in alternative settings either
have been strongly encouraged to leave their comprehensive campus or officially excluded from
mainstream education. Lee and Burkam (2003) have studied the demographics of at-risk youth
and have determined them to be disproportionately poor, disabled, bilingual, and from minority
groups: the proportion of minority students increases as the level of restriction increases.
Concerning the composition of this community they often live in shelters and many attend
continuation high schools. State detention facilities tend to have extraordinarily high minority
and disabled enrollments with a large number of at-risk youth (Guerin & Denti, 1999). Leone
gathered and interpreted data from the 1999 California Youth Authority data and determined that
the ethnic minority population in alternative settings is approximately 64% in continuation
schools, 75% in regional or court schools, and 96% in state detention centers (Leone, 1994).
Researchers have identified a series of common characteristics that at-risk youth with disabilities
share. These students tend to have poor literacy and academic skills; inadequate social,
emotional, and behavioral skills; suffer from alienation from school; low self-esteem; limited
language proficiency; many times receive ethnic or racial discrimination; have impulsivity and
poor judgement; limited or unavailable family support; antisocial peer influence; and lack of
positive adult role models (McIntyre, 1993; Waldi & Spreen, 1993).
While there may always continue to be a gap between dropouts in low-income and urban
communities compared to middle-income, suburban communities, looking at strategies and
interventions at the school and organizational level that could assist in reducing the dropout
disparity could be far more effective, rather than focusing on individual student risk factors that
may also be a cause of the dropout gap.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 91
Population
The stakeholder of focus for this study, representing the population are the approximately
250 fifth year or sixth year seniors at EICS. These students learn both online at home, at school
in teacher facilitated computer labs, and in small group teacher led direct instruction classes.
Each student has a specific personalized learning plan that allows them to start a pathway to
successful high school graduation.
As fifth year or sixth year seniors all students that participated in the study were over 18
years of age and they voluntarily participated. The researcher took the perspective of an active-
participant researcher. For observation purposes, the researcher acted as a participant-observer,
where the researcher’s observer activities were secondary to the researcher’s participant role
(Merriam, 2009).
Data Collection
Permission from University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board was
obtained. The researcher employed a mixed method approach which included, surveys and in-
person interviews. This methodology encourages triangulation of data for purposes of
trustworthiness and validates knowledge, motivational and organizational assumed causes. In
developing the data collection process, the researcher utilized existing sources from peer
reviewed research-based literature to develop instruments that would be reliable and valid.
Surveys
The survey was administered in English and was distributed to all fifth year and sixth
seniors that were over the age of 18. The survey consisted of approximately 29 multiple choice
survey items, five open-ended survey items, and 13 interview questions, and included a copy of
Likert scale items, dichotomous survey items, and open-ended questions. Survey items assessing
motivation, knowledge and organization items were designed for the project.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 92
Responses were collected anonymously, tabulated through software, and a copy was
made for back up purposes and was stored on an external hard drive and maintained in a locked
drawer. No identifiable demographic information was collected during the project and all results
were maintained on a password-protected laptop. Upon completion of the data analysis, all
copies of data and recordings were destroyed. The researcher distributed the surveys through the
Qualtrics online platform. The researcher collected the responses anonymously and calculated
and analyzed them using password-protected security codes in Qualtrics.
Interviews
EICS interview participants were interviewed individually in person. Interviews
consisted of approximately 13 questions and lasted approximately 15 to 30 minutes. Interviews
were conducted in English and took place at EICS school locations in an additional office that
was not currently in use by employees. Each interview began with a standard interview protocol
that included obtaining permission to record the interview for later transcription and coding.
As stated earlier, the participants for the interview portion of the project were
purposefully selected. To be selected for the interview portion of the project, respondents must
have been currently enrolled as a fifth year or sixth year senior at EICS and must have been over
the age of 18. There are approximately 250 fifth year or sixth year seniors at EICS. Students
were purposefully selected to participate in the interviews. For the first two interviews, member
checks were conducted to ensure the interpretation is accurate.
Validation of Influences
To validate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences identified, the
researcher used a case study methodology including utilizing surveys, and interviews. The
researcher believed this approach of using a variety of different data sources allowed the
researcher to triangulate the data by examining evidence and using it to build a justification for
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 93
themes (Creswell, 2009). Table 6 summarizes influences and how each influence was validated.
Each of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were validated using both
qualitative and quantitative data to the extent that such data was available.
Table 6
Assumed Needs and Validation Methods for Knowledge, Motivation and Organization
Assumed Need Survey Interview
Knowledge
At-risk students need to develop social relationships. X
At-risk students need to know that teachers care about and are interested in
them.
At-risk students need a safe school environment. X
At-risk students need to have positive peer relationships in school and at
home to be successful in school.
X
At-risk students need to have a high sense of self-efficacy and self-esteem
and a sense of self-control of their learning.
X
At-risk students need more individualized instruction. X
At-risk students need teachers that are more sensitive and responsive to the
needs of students.
X
At-risk students need to better understand the learning process in order to
persist in school.
X
At-risk students need effective instructional methods such as cooperative
learning or reciprocal teaching in order to gain a stronger sense of
belonging.
X
Teachers need to use instructional strategies that encourage higher student
engagement.
X
At-risk students need a smaller school that would provide substantial
opportunities for informal adult-student interactions.
X
Teachers need to believe that all students can learn and allow their
students to work with their peers in a learning and teaching environment.
X X
Motivation
At-risk students need to be motivated to learn in order to persist in school. X
At-risk students need to feel that teachers support them in order to stay
engaged in school.
X
At-risk students need to feel a sense of membership in order to committee
to school and its values.
X
At-risk students need a positive peer support system. X
At-risk students need to feel a sense of belonging in school in order to be
more motivated in school and be more academically engaged.
X
At-risk students need to meet the feeling of belonging before higher needs
such as the desire for knowledge are met.
X X
At-risk students need a warm personal connection to teachers to maintain
academic motivation.
X
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Table 6, continued
Assumed Need Survey Interview
Motivation
At-risk students need teachers that are committed to and interested in
working with students that are pursuing similar courses of academic study
in a safe and orderly environment.
X
At-risk students need to have the ability to choose an alternative
educational setting if they are not having success in their current school.
X
At-risk students need an autonomy-supported classroom which nurtures
students’ needs for self-determination and competence.
X
At-risk students need to be given the opportunity to choose options in
educational settings, and flexibility in learning environments such as
independent study, online learning, home-based learning with the option to
create their own schedule.
X
At-risk students need to perceive value in school in order to be motivated
to persist.
X
Organizational
Schools need to develop a student profile in order to produce early
identification and early interventions to assist students at risk of dropping
out.
X
Schools need to have high expectations for all students. X
At-risk students need an alternative educational setting designed to assist
students that are credit deficient.
X
At-risk students need to have a smaller school environment. X X
Schools must assume primary responsibility for teaching students social
and cognitive skills needed to successfully fulfill adult roles.
X
Teachers need a smaller school environment in order to feel personally
responsible for student learning.
X
Schools serving at-risk students need to encourage students to stay in
school, rather than rely on exclusionary discipline practices.
X X
At-risk students need a positive school culture that they are familiar with
and feel comfortable in.
X
At-risk students need to develop relationships of trust with teachers or
other adults at school.
X
Schools need to engage all students at school, and not just athletes and
high achieving students.
X
At-risk students need flexible schedules that allow for work, parenting, or
other responsibilities.
X
At-risk students need flexibility and relevance in course requirements for
graduation.
X
At-risk students need social and emotional supports at school in order to
maintain persistence in school attendance.
X
At-risk students need positive social relationships with teachers and adult
staff to be successful in school.
X
At-risk students need alternative schools that have open enrollment
policies without a waiting list.
X
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Trustworthiness of Data
Creswell (2009) recommends that researchers actively incorporate validity strategies into
their proposal. Triangulation is one strategy that the researcher employed in this study.
Triangulation involves examining evidence from a variety of sources through surveys,
interviews, observations and document reviews to add validity to the study. The researcher’s
survey items are based on existing valid and reliable instruments taken from peer reviewed
research from experts in the fields of alternative education and blended learning.
The researcher took great care to ensure that surveys were delivered in a secure online
environment using a proven online survey product that ensured anonymity. The researcher
ensured that all interviews were conducted in a manner to protect complete confidentiality of all
interviewees. The researcher used member checking to determine the accuracy of the qualitative
findings through taking the final report back to participants to determine whether the participants
felt that they were accurate.
Role of Investigator
The researcher is the CEO of the CMO that advises EICS, Learning Matters Educational
Group (LMEG). The researcher is also the Executive Director and President of EICS, an
Arizona non-profit charter school with seven satellite resource centers in the Phoenix
metropolitan west valley. The researcher’s role in this project is to conduct a problem-solving
investigation to improve the organization’s performance.
As the CEO of this charter organization, the researcher is potentially interested in the
results of this project. Given that this study is an evaluation model and currently EICS is not in
compliance with current Arizona academic achievement standards, the researcher has a vested
interest in seeing the school succeed and improve. However, the level to which the researcher
and all other stakeholders conduct themselves in truthfully acknowledging current gaps in
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 96
performance will be the true indicator as to how much they as an organization can improve and
bridge the gap. The researcher also feels that he is somewhat more removed from his
supervisory role for LMEG’s Arizona schools, since he is not directly involved in the supervision
of their Arizona students, and he lives in California and is currently much more involved in their
California operations.
While there may be potential for students to feel coerced or pressured to participate, the
researcher took several measures to reduce the risk that participants may feel coerced or
pressured to participate. The researcher took the following measures to reduce the risk of
students feeling coerced or pressured to participate in this study:
Ensured that steps were in place to preserve the anonymity of all participants.
Posted recruitment flyers in public areas or had them disseminated through other
individuals rather than directly approaching students.
Ensured that the voluntary nature of participation and the right not to participate in the
project was clearly understood.
Ensured complete confidentiality of information, identity and data.
Got permission to use documentation or data that was produced for other institutional
purposes.
Planned to check with others at a similar level as the researcher in the organization for
feedback and any misunderstandings.
Negotiated with those concerned how the researcher would publish descriptions of their
work and points of views.
Data Analysis
To determine themes in the validation of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
assumed causes, data analysis consisted of several steps. Once survey data were collected, they
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 97
were prepared within a spreadsheet to analyze. The interviews were transcribed, coded, and
analyzed with the knowledge, motivation, and organization categories of assumed influences.
Survey and interview questions were aggregated by category of knowledge, motivation, and
organization; therefore, knowledge, motivation, and organization questions within the surveys
and interviews were cross-checked for accuracy, consistency, and themes. The student survey
and interview data were consolidated into Excel spreadsheets to organize the process for
validating the assumed causes. Each assumed cause was reviewed against the results of the data
to deduce whether each assumed influence was validated, partially validated, or not validated as
a potential reason for the organizational gap.
Limitations and Delimitations
Some limitations resulted from the design of this project. First, the project was limited
by the honesty and social desirability bias resulting in participants providing answers they
believe to be socially desirable and not a true representation of their experience. This was the
case both in interview and survey contexts. Second, the project was limited by the fact that it
assumed that all participants understood and interpreted the interview questions and survey items
in the manner intended. Participants could also have had someone else complete the survey
since it was administered online. Third, any statistical analysis was based on a correlational, not
a causational relationship.
The focus of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
organizational problem of EICS noncompliance with Arizona state and federal academic
standards. The primary delimitation of the project was that it is context specific to EICS and
addresses this specific organization’s mission and organizational goal and cannot be generalized.
However, other institutions may benefit from the application of this project’s use of Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis process to bring about performance improvement.
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This project was also delimited to examining one key stakeholder group’s experience that
may or may not be representative of that or other stakeholder groups. While other stakeholder
groups’ experiences and contributions are important to the organization, an in-depth investigation
of those lies outside the scope of the current project.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The objective of this study was to evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to the gaps in academic achievement of E-Institute Charter Schools, Inc.
(EICS) students compared to state and federal academic indicators for schools in Arizona. A
systematic method adapted from Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis was applied to validate the
assumed causes, examining organizational performance by clearly articulating organizational
performance goals, and evaluating the gap between actual performance and desired performance
goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Surveys and interviews were conducted to validate assumed
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences.
This chapter examines the data collected from a knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences perspective. Analysis reveals key findings and the chapter concludes
by summarizing these findings and laying a framework for solutions to be developed in Chapter
Five.
Participating Stakeholders
This study focused on the 250 fifth and sixth year seniors at EICS that were able to
persist in school and stay on a successful path to high school graduation. In total, 112 fifth year
and sixth year seniors participated in the survey. Of the 112 participants, 20 student volunteers
were purposefully selected to participate in the in-person interviews.
The findings revealed that EICS’ fifth and sixth year seniors are very happy with their
educational experience. Data also revealed that flexibility in scheduling and mode of delivery,
such as online courses, played a key role in both student academic success and in the decision to
attend an alternative charter high school. Furthermore, EICS students developed a personal
relationship with their teachers, staff and peers, which played a significant part in fifth year and
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 100
sixth year seniors’ persistence and willingness to stay on a path toward attaining a high school
diploma. Pseudonyms were used for the names of the interviewees.
Data Collection and Validity
To answer the research questions, data was collected in the form of student surveys for
quantitative results and student interviews for qualitative results, which included an interview
protocol for qualitatively analyzing student responses to specific questions. The research
questions to be answered were:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational causes preventing all students at
EICS from being in academic compliance with Arizona state and federal academic
achievement requirements?
2. Despite the gaps in traditional academic performance, what are the EICS fifth and sixth
year seniors’ knowledge, motivation and organizational influences leading them to persist
in school and graduate.
Demographic Data
Demographic data were collected on the survey participants, and the results are displayed in
the following Figures 5 to 7.
Age. The majority of students participating in the study were 18 years old with an additional
20% of students being 19 years of age, and over 11% being 20 years old.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 101
Figure 5. Demographic data: Age of students
Grade level. When asked what grade level they thought they were at, the largest number
of students believed that they were seniors, with some reporting they were fifth year seniors and
others reporting being sixth year seniors. It is important to note that some respondents indicated
that they were considered freshmen or sophomores. At EICS grade levels are not significant, as
number of credits earned where each student has a personalized learning plan with an evaluation
of the number of credits earned, the number of credits needed to finish, along with a timeline as
to when they will successfully finish high school.
Figure 6. Demographic data: Grade level of students.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 102
Campus. When students were asked which campus they attended, the highest number of
respondents came from Union Hills (45%), followed by Avondale (15%) and Metro Center
(15%), with Taylion Online (10%) coming in fourth. These numbers correlate to the campuses
with the longest history and highest enrollment levels.
Figure 7. Demographic data: Campus location.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
Knowledge is a critical component in the Clark and Estes (2008) framework and can be
best understood through the categories in the Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) framework.
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) framework reflects four dimensions of knowledge: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Given the importance of these dimensions of
knowledge, the survey and interview protocols were designed to examine these dimensions.
Factual Knowledge About E-Institute Charter School
While factual knowledge gaps can often be an important influence for students, specific
factual knowledge was not a critical component of this study. Many of the fifth and sixth year
students admitted in the interviews that they may have knowledge gaps, but these same students
were more interested in learning how to address their factual knowledge gaps as they also
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 103
worked to address the gaps in their conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge
influences.
Conceptual Knowledge About E-Institute Charter School
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) classified factual knowledge as basic details,
terminology and standards in any discipline. Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of underlying
categories, principles, structure, or theory of any area or field. To evaluate EICS students’
conceptual understanding of effective practices in alternative education students were asked if
they agreed that a smaller school environment is important to them and provides opportunities to
informally connect with teachers and staff. Bryk and Thum (1989) noted that at-risk students
need a smaller school environment that would provide substantial opportunities for informal
adult-student interactions.
Students need a smaller school environment that provides opportunities to
informally connect with teachers and staff. This influence was validated. Of the student
survey respondents, 94% either strongly agreed or agreed that a smaller school environment is
important to them and provides opportunities to informally connect with teachers and staff.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 104
Figure 8. Survey results: Smaller school environment is important and provides opportunities for
me to informally connect with teachers and staff.
Procedural Knowledge
Rueda (2011) refers to the knowing of how to do something as procedural knowledge—
the skills and procedures involved with the task, including techniques, methods and necessary
steps to achieve the desired results. Three procedural knowledge causes were assumed and all
three were validated. To validate if students understood what instructional techniques and
methods worked best for them, they were asked a series of survey and interview questions
Students need instruction that is individualized and personalized for them and their
educational goals. This influence was validated. Of the survey respondents, 94% either
strongly agreed or agreed that instruction at EICS was individualized and personalized for them
and their educational goals.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 105
Figure 9. Survey results: Instruction is individualized and personalized for me and my
educational goals.
This assumed cause was also validated during the interviews. Several students that were
interviewed echoed the sentiment that personalization of instruction was important to them. One
of the students that were interviewed, David, works part time at a body shop and likes the fact
that he has scheduling flexibility. As he said, “It would have been great if Boulder Creek [a local
high school] would have given me the personalized, one-to-one attention that I get at E-
Institute.” David would have preferred a personalized and flexible approach to school so that he
could have stayed on track academically and continued to work at the same time pursuing his
passion for cars. He was very excited to tell about the type of cars that he wanted to acquire and
rebuild in addition to the fact that he likes “Mr. Fox’s, the school principal’s Mustang.”
Students need to have a better understanding of the learning process after having
attended EICS. This influence was validated. On the surveys, students were asked if they
agreed that they have a better understanding of the learning process after having attended EICS.
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Of the survey respondents, 94% either strongly agreed or agreed that they have a better
understanding of the learning process after having attended EICS.
Figure 10. Survey results: Better understanding of the learning process.
Students need teachers to effectively utilize instructional methods, which engage
them as students and increase their sense of belonging at the school. This influence was
validated. Based on the results of the student survey for this item, of the student respondents,
90% either strongly agreed or agreed that teachers at EICS utilize effective instructional methods
that engage them as students and increase their sense of belonging at the school. This assumed
cause was also validated by student interviews. Many of the EICS student interviews confirmed
high rates of student engagement and cooperative learning practices. A female student, Moana,
mentioned that her teacher, Mr. Anthony was “very engaging in the classroom.” According to
Moana, he would “explain things well and would work one-on-one with students.” Moana stated
that “Mr. Anthony would also encourage me to help other students in math if I was able to
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 107
master the concepts on my own.” Another student, Sharon, shared that during the tutoring time
that she was “pretty good at math” and would help other students with math and they, in turn
would assist her with language arts, an area in which she needed help. Sharon liked that
approach to learning and felt that it boosted her confidence in addition to building her cognitive
skills.
Figure 11. Survey results: Teachers utilize effective instructional methods which engage me and
increase my sense of belonging at the school.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) argue that performance requires the ability to reflect and
adjust as necessary including assessing demands, planning one’s approach, modifying strategies
and monitoring progress. Rueda (2011) calls understanding of “when and why to do something”
metacognitive knowledge.
At-risk students need to be able to develop relationships with teachers, staff and
fellow students. This cause was validated. Students were asked if they were able to develop
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 108
relationships with teachers, staff and fellow students. Based on the results of this survey item,
98% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they were able to develop relationships
with their teachers, staff and fellow students.
Figure 12. Survey results: Was able to develop relationships with my teachers, staff and fellow
students.
At-risk students need to feel in control of their learning. This cause was validated.
To validate this assumed cause, students were asked if they felt in control of their learning at
EICS. Based on the results of this survey item, 93% of students either strongly agreed or agreed
that they felt in control of their learning at EICS.
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Figure 13. Survey results: I feel in control of my learning at EICS.
Students need teachers that believe that all students can learn and they involve them
and their peers in learning and teaching activities. This cause was validated. To validate this
assumed cause, students were asked if they agreed teachers at EICS believed that all students can
learn and they involve them in learning and teaching activities. Of survey respondents, 94%
either strongly agreed or agreed that teachers at EICS believe that all students can learn and they
involve them and their peers in learning and teaching activities.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 110
Figure 14. Teachers believe that all students can learn and they involve me and my peers in
learning and teaching activities.
Students need to have significant influence from family members to decide to finish
high school. This influence was validated. In fact, all of the students that were interviewed told
accounts of their family’s influence in their lives related to their desire to stay in school. One
student, Kenneth, mentioned that he was going to be the first in his family to get a high school
diploma. Both of his parents obtained their GED and his father tried to finish college but
frequently dropped out due to lack of money. His grandfather was a huge influence on the boy’s
life and was a major influence on him to stay in school. Another student, Heidi, a 20 year old
girl, had many struggles on her journey to a high school diploma. She was very excited to state
that she was going to be the first in her family to finish high school, and her goal was to become
a teacher. Chris, a 19-year-old boy, was very excited about his family’s military service history
and he looked forward to following his father’s example of going into the military. Reynaldo, an
18-year-old male, was very passionate about his grandmother’s influence and looked to her as a
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 111
symbol for him to continuing to persist in school. He appreciated the school’s flexibility in
allowing him the time to take care of her while his parents worked.
Students need to have significant influence from friends in their decision to finish
high school. This caused was not validated. Surprisingly, while the student interviewees all
agreed that family members played a large role in their decision to persist in school, they did not
respond in the same manner when asked about friends. Many students stated that they did not
have any friends. One student, 18-year-old Willie claimed proudly that he did not have any
friends and that they would have been a distraction. He further went on to explain that at his
previous school he would be disciplined and get into trouble for socializing with friends and
would not get his work done. Therefore, to Willie, digging in to schoolwork and learning rather
than socializing was a new and welcome experience for him.
Another female student, 19-year-old Jessica, was quite affable, hardworking and was
proud to be the assist manager at a local restaurant. Jessica explained that her friends at her
previous school did not understand why she wanted to go to an alternative school. Jessica
further explained that she was working part-time and wanted to catch up so that she could finish
on time and go to community college to prepare to become a doctor. Jessica explained that she
did not have time for the prom or social things like that. While some students acknowledged that
they had friends outside of school, most students enjoyed being with their classmates at school,
but considered this relationship mostly about learning and did not associate too much with them
outside of school. Almost all of the students that were interviewed had full-time or part-time
jobs and were mostly concerned with working and finishing school.
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Synthesis of Results and Findings of Knowledge Needs
Table 7
Validated Assumed Knowledge Causes
Category Assumed Cause Validated Not Validated
Conceptual Students agree that a smaller school
environment is important to them and provides
opportunities to informally connect with
teachers and staff. (Survey)
Procedural Students agreed that instruction at EICS is
individualized and personalized for them and
their educational goals. (Survey & Interviews)
Students agreed that they have a better
understanding of the learning process after
having attended EICS (Survey)
Students agree that teachers at EICS utilize
effective instructional methods that engage me
as a student and increase my sense of belonging
at the school (Survey)
Metacognitive Students agreed that they were able to develop
relationships with teachers, staff and fellow
students at EICS. (Survey)
Students agreed that they felt in control of their
learning at EICS. (Survey)
Students agreed that teachers at EICS believe
that all students can learn and they involve me
and my peers in learning and teaching activities.
(Survey)
Students agreed that their family had a
significant influence in their decision to finish
high school (Interviews)
Students did not agree that their friends had a
significant influence in their decision to finish
high school (Interviews)
The analysis from the collected date identified mostly validated causes. Regarding
knowledge assumed causes it seemed clear that students agreed for the most part that the
conceptual and procedural knowledge assumptions were valid. Students agreed that a smaller
learning environment was important and provided better connections with teachers and staff.
Students agreed that instruction at the school was personalized toward accomplishment of their
educational goals. Students also believed that they have a better understanding of the learning
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 113
process and that teachers used engaging instructional methods, which increased their sense of
belonging.
In relation to metacognitive knowledge, students agreed that they were able to develop
relations with teachers, staff and fellow students. Students also agreed that they felt in control of
their learning and that teachers believed that they could learn and actively engaged them in the
learning process. Students also strongly felt that family was a major influence in their decision
to stay in and persist in school. However, the assumed knowledge cause that friends had a
significant influence in their decision to finish school was not validated. In fact, many students
looked at friends as a potentially negative influence even among those friends that were still in
another school. While many students had friends and classmates at EICS that somewhat
influenced them, their influence was not as significant as family or the desire to have a job and to
finish school to get a better job. The above table summarizes the assumed knowledge needs and
their validation status.
Results and Findings for Motivation Needs
Motivation is a crucial factor of this study as it related to what causes students to persist.
Are students intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to persist and stay in school, or are there a
variety of factors contributing to motivation?
Intrinsic Motivation
There were a variety of assumed influences related to intrinsic motivation. At-risk
students tend to lose intrinsic motivation over time. This phenomenon is based on a series of
failures or messages in traditional schools that they either do not fit in, are not fast enough, or are
not intelligent enough to keep up with the specific pace or style of teaching to which they are
exposed.
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Students need a learning environment that allows them to persist in school and stay
motivated to complete a high school diploma. This cause was validated. Students were asked
if they agreed that the learning environment at EICS allowed them to persist in school and stay
motivated to complete their high school diploma. Based on the results of this survey item, 90%
of survey respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that the learning environment at EICS
allowed them to persist in school and stay motivated to complete their high school diploma.
Figure 15. Survey results: Learning environment allows me to persist in school and stay
motivated.
Students need the ability to choose options such as online learning and be provided
with flexible scheduling. This cause was validated. Based on the survey results, 94% of
students either strongly agreed or agreed that they “believed that my ability to choose options
such as online learning, and flexible scheduling played an important part in my academic
success.”
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Figure 16. Survey results: My ability to choose options such as online learning and flexible
scheduling is important to my academic success.
At-risk students need to be motivated to learn to persist in school. This cause was
validated. Each of the students that were interviewed showed a variety of reasons that they were
motivated to persist and finish high school. Garwin, an 18-year-old male student was working
100% online to finish his diploma. When asked about his motivation, he stated that he wanted to
move on in life. Upon further probing, Garwin mentioned that he wanted to go to college and
wanted to study computer science or software engineering. His uncle played a big influence on
his decision, and his mother kept him on track with his online courses so that he could accelerate
his learning. Garwin was also interested in working at Space X and was a huge Elon Musk
follower. Sylvia, a 19-year-old female, wants to become a music producer and is motivated by
her father who was once in the music industry. Sylvia was also motivated by her teacher, Mr.
Novara who mentored her both academically and emotionally to persist and succeed.
Self-Determination Theory
Ryan and Deci (2000) have proposed SDT to make the critical distinction between
individuals that are proactively engaged verses those that are withdrawn and passive. The
authors focus on those social and contextual conditions that encourage and facilitate one set of
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behaviors as opposed to the other (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The authors then postulate that three
psychological needs—competence, autonomy, and relatedness—need to be met to produce
motivated behavior.
Students need to feel a sense of membership and belonging, which allows them to be
committed to school and academically engaged. This cause was validated. To test the validity
of SDT in the case of EICS, students were asked if they felt a sense of membership and
belonging at EICS, which allowed them to be committed to school and academically engaged.
Based on the results of this survey item, 90% of survey respondents either strongly agreed or
agreed that they felt a sense of membership and belonging at EICS, which allowed them to be
committed to school, and academically engaged.
Figure 17. Survey results: I feel a sense of membership and belonging that allows me to be
committed to school and be academically engaged.
One of the student interviews further validated the assumed cause of the validity of SDT
at EICS. Joshua, who is 19 years old, male, and a sixth year senior, was kicked out of his
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previous school for having a knife at school, and was referred to attend EICS by his former
school. When asked about his academic experience at EICS, Joshua described the learning
process to be quite different than at other schools, because to him it was “weird” that you get to
choose how to learn things. Joshua’s example was health class, where at his previous school the
only modality that his teacher used was to listen to his teacher’s lectures. However, at EICS he
was able to learn health concepts on his own. For example, Joshua had options of the following:
doing a research paper on healthy eating, reading about healthy eating from a variety of online
and text based resources, watching a YouTube video on healthy eating, collaborating on a group
project related to healthy eating, giving a speech or presentation on healthy eating, and then
taking a test for mastery on healthy eating, all without having to listen to a teacher lecturing.
Later in the interview, when this student was asked what kind of a student he was at his
previous school, he described himself as a “really lazy kid.” He went on to explain that his focus
was not on schoolwork, but on everything else. Notwithstanding, ever since Joshua has been at
EICS, he said that they “pretty much check on me to not be lazy.” And now Joshua says that he
“asks them to check on him.” Joshua’s educational maturation shows a progression from a
student who was at first self-described to be “lazy,’ upon coming to an environment of active
engagement, Joshua became interested in learning and felt a sense of belonging. Joshua
exemplifies progressing along the SDT continuum to becoming more intrinsically motivated
with increased self-efficacy and being more self-regulated in his learning.
Extrinsic Motivation
In terms of analyzing extrinsic motivational factors researchers tend to see that students
with extrinsic motivation tend to focus on receiving rewards, getting higher grades, and winning
peer students’ approval since their behaviors are controlled by external rather than internal
factors (Ames, 1992; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1984).
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Students need teachers that are committed to students and contribute to the school
being a safe and orderly environment. This cause is validated. Based on the student survey
results, 95% of students either strongly agreed or agreed that EICS teachers are committed to
students and contribute to the school being a safe and orderly environment.
At-risk students need the school to assist them to see value in completing their high
school education. This cause is validated. To validate this assumed cause, students were asked
if they agreed that EICS was able to assist them to see value in completing their high school
education. Based on the results of this survey item, 93% of survey respondents agreed or
strongly agreed that EICS was able to assist them to see value in completing their high school
education.
Figure 18. Survey results: I think EICS was able to assist me to see value in completing my high
school education.
Fifth and sixth year seniors need to overcome specific challenges to persist in school.
This cause is validated. Each of the students that were interviewed described the setbacks and
challenges that they had overcome to persist in school. Leticia, an 18-year-old female described
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her setbacks at her previous school before coming to EICS. Leticia found that she would often
have to wait to get help in class, since teachers were helping other people. Leticia, described her
school as preoccupied with sports and assisting the athletes. Additionally. Leticia had suffered
from a math phobia but found her teacher at EICS, Mr. Roberts, to be very helpful. Leticia has
gained new hope in her math skills, since Mr. Roberts explains the concepts in a way that helps
her understanding.
Another female student, Violet, 19, suffered from depression and anxiety and would be
out of school or homebound for months at a time. According to Violet, the best way for her to
overcome many of her depression issues was to work part-time as a way of getting away from
her personal concerns. Violet found EICS’ scheduling flexibility very helpful for her to take
online classes, connect with teachers on campus, and still manage a part-time job to more
effectively deal with her personal issues. Violet also appreciated the social and emotional
support and mentoring that the school and her teachers provided.
Fifth and sixth year seniors need the influence of friends that have dropped out of
school. This cause is not validated. While each student that was interviewed relayed compelling
stories of family members that influenced their decision to persist in school, students did not feel
the same way about friends. While some students admitted that they had friends, many students
found that between school, family, work or parenting obligations that they did not have much
time for friends. While some students had fellow classmates at school, they did not see them as a
significant factor in their academic persistence.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 120
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Needs
Table 8
Validated Assumed Motivation Causes
Category Assumed Cause Validated Not Validated
Intrinsic
Motivation
Students agreed that the learning environment at
EICS allows me to persist in school and stay
motivated to complete my high school diploma.
(Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that their ability to choose
options such as online learning and flexible
scheduling played an important part in their
academic success. (Survey and Interviews)
At-risk students need to be motivated to learn to
persist in school. (Interviews)
Self-
Determination
Theory (SDT)
Students agreed that they felt a sense of
membership and belonging at EICS, which
allowed them to be committed to school and
academically engaged. (Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that they felt a warm personal
connection to their teachers at EICS, which
allows them to maintain their academic
motivation. (Survey)
Extrinsic
Motivation
Students agreed that teachers at EICS are
committed to students and contribute to the
school being a safe and orderly environment.
(Survey)
Students agree that EICS was able to assist them
to see value in completing their high school
education. (Survey)
Fifth and sixth year seniors overcame specific
challenges in order to persist in school.
(Interview)
Fifth and sixth year seniors are influenced by
friends that have dropped out of high school.
(Interview)
In reviewing the assumed causes related to intrinsic, extrinsic and self-determination
theory motivation, most of the assumed causes were validated. Students agreed that the learning
environment at EICS allowed them to persist and stay motivated to succeed in school. They also
agreed that their ability to choose their schedule and mode of learning allowed for more
flexibility and therefore increased their intrinsic motivation to persist. The student interviews
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 121
validated that all students were motivated to persist and successfully graduate from school.
Additionally, all students mentioned that they saw themselves either in a career or in college—or
a combination of both—when asked where they saw themselves in five years. Students also
agreed that they felt a warm personal connection to their teachers at EICS and felt a sense of
membership and belonging, which allowed them to be committed to school. Additionally,
students agreed that committed teachers and a safe learning environment were positive extrinsic
motivators for them to persist. They also believed that EICS helped them to see value in
completing high school.
Several students described specific challenges or obstacles they were able to overcome to
persist in school. However, once again, friends did not seem to be a consistent external
motivator related to persistence. Some students mentioned that they liked working with
classmates at school, and that classmates and friends at school are part of the warm environment
that they feel at EICS. However, when students were asked if friends were motivating them to
decide to go back to school, few students agreed with this assumption and therefore this cause
was not validated.
Results and Findings for Organization Needs
Clark and Estes (2008) pinpoint that organizational barriers can often be the source of
performance gaps. EICS, as a small network of alternative charter schools has an internal culture
with areas of effective performance and other areas where gaps show room for improvement.
Additionally, EICS is part of a group of similar schools in structure and mission called the
AZAEC. AZAEC’s mission is to advocate for at-risk students and educate the larger political
community in Arizona and the nation about the needs of at-risk youth and the best practices of
effective alternative schools. Finally, as an Arizona public charter school, EICS is accountable
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 122
to both the ASBCS and the Arizona State Board of Education (ASBE) along with federal
guidelines from the United States Department of Education.
The conflicting goals of advocating for the needs of at-risk students, while at the same
time accomplishing educational goals and objectives at the state and federal level designed for
traditional students, creates gaps from both an internal and external cultural perspective. Much
of the educational research is clear on what the best practices are for effectively working with at-
risk youth in an alternative environment. Numerous studies have confirmed that at-risk students
need to have a smaller school environment (Barker & Gump, 1964; Lee & Loeb, 2000; Lee &
Smith, 1997) Researchers agree that at-risk students, particularly, need to develop relationships
of trust with teachers or other adults at school (Brantlinger, 1993; Glasser, 1998; Sizer, 2004).
Finally, a large body of work confirms that at-risk students need flexible schedules that allow for
work, parenting, or other responsibilities (Ekstrom, 1986; Gallagher, 2002).
However, the measurement of educational outcomes for alternative schools is not clear
and the level of understanding of the needs of at-risk youth among state and federal policy
makers is quite low. Therefore, EICS and other similar alternative schools will be constantly
working from a deficit, since most academic measures of student success are based on a four-
year graduation rate. This is the very measure that alternative schools will never meet due to the
nature of their student composition—students that are at least two academic years behind in
credits.
External Culture
While a variety of internal cultural influences impact student persistence at EICS, there
are a number of external cultural influences that at-risk students deal with that cause them to
choose to attend, or to be sent to, an alternative school.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 123
At-risk students need their school to not favor high achieving students and athletes
and help them feel engaged at school. This cause is validated. Based on the results of the
survey question, “I feel that my previous school favored high achieving students and athletes and
they were not able to help me feel engaged at school,” 79% of respondents either strongly agreed
or agreed that this was the case.
Schools should not excessively expel students and should encourage students to stay
in school. This cause is validated. To validate the assumed cause that schools should not
excessively expel students and should encourage students to stay in school, students were asked
if they agreed with the statement. Based on the results of this survey item, 89% of respondents
either strongly agreed or agreed that schools should not excessively expel students and that they
should encourage students to stay in school.
Figure 19. I agree that schools should not excessively expel students and should encourage
students to stay in school.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 124
Schools need to provide early interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out.
This cause was validated. One of the recommendations from the expert panel on dropouts was
that schools should provide early interventions and assist students at risk of dropping out. To
validate this assumed cause, students were asked if they agreed that schools need to provide early
interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out. Based on the results of this survey item,
90% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that schools need to provide early
interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out.
Figure 20. Schools need to provide early interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out.
The student interviews also validated this cause. Amber, an 18-year-old female student,
experienced bullying and anxiety at her previous school. Amber described the one-on-one,
individualized approach to be an early intervention that the school successfully uses for EICS
students. Amber spoke very highly of both the teachers and staff as being like family. Amber
also had challenges in math and felt encouraged by the personalized attention she received from
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 125
her math teacher, Mr. Jackson. He was able to intervene in her problem areas to allow her to
develop mastery on key math concepts.
Internal Culture
As an alternative school, EICS has a particular culture that has strengths and areas for
improvement. There were several influences that were validated. Additionally, EICS has many
areas of the school that can be improved upon and evaluated to make the organization more
effective.
Alternative schools, such as EICS, designed to assist students that are credit
deficient are important and needed in Arizona. This cause is validated. Based on the results
of the survey question, “I agree that alternative schools such as EICS designed to assist students
that are credit deficient are important and needed in Arizona,” 96% of respondents either
strongly agreed or agreed with the statement.
Figure 21. Survey results: Alternative schools are important and needed in Arizona.
Students need teachers that feel personally responsible for student learning. This
cause is validated. When asked in the student survey if students believed that EICS teachers felt
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 126
personally responsible for student learning, 76% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed
with the statement.
Students need to be encouraged to stay in school rather than be pushed out of
school. This cause is validated. The survey results for the statement, “EICS encourages me and
other students to stay in school, rather than pushing students out,” was confirmed with 94% of
students either strongly agreeing or agreeing with this statement.
Figure 22. Survey results: EICS encourages me and other students to stay in school, rather than
pushing students out.
Additionally, student interviews validated this cause as well. Lucas, a 19-year-old male
student believes that there is always a teacher to help him out if he ever has a problem in school.
Lucas works part-time and his ability to work while going to school was critical to his ability to
stay in school, rather than quitting.
At-risk students need a positive school culture that allows them to feel comfortable
and familiar. This cause is validated. Based on the results of the student survey statement, “I
feel that E-Institute Charter School creates a positive school culture that allows students to feel
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 127
comfortable and familiar,” 92% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed with this
statement. Additionally, Isaac confirmed in his interview that EICS provided a positive school
culture because of his connection with his teacher, Mr. B. Isaac stated that he and his teachers
have a lot in common since they both love reptiles. Isaac described Mr. B.’s class pet, a ball
python. While the interviewer stated that it sounded somewhat dangerous, Isaac reassured him,
explaining that they are quite kid friendly. Isaac’s connection with Mr. B. through snakes,
allowed him to feel comfortable at school and thereby encouraging his ability to catch up in
credits.
At-risk students need flexible school scheduling that allows students to work,
parent, or take care of other personal interests. This cause is validated. Based on student
survey responses to the statement, “EICS’s flexible school scheduling allowing me to work,
parent, or take care of other personal responsibilities was a major factor in my decision to
enroll,” 97% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed to the statement. This cause was
also validated from the interviews since 100% of the students interviewed either worked or were
parents.
Figure 23. Survey results: EICS’s flexible scheduling allowing me to work, parent, or take care
of other personal responsibilities was a major factor to enroll.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 128
At-risk students need social and emotional supports to persist in school. This cause
is validated. Based on the student survey results in response to the statement, “I feel that E-
Institute Charter School provides the necessary social and emotional supports to allow me to
persist in school,” 87% of respondents agreed with the statement.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Needs
Table 9
Validated Assumed Organization Causes
Category Assumed Cause Validated Not Validated
External Culture
Students agreed that their previous school favored
high achieving students and athletes and the
school did not help them to feel engaged at
school. (Survey)
Students agreed that schools should not
excessively expel students and that they should
encourage students to stay in school. (Survey)
Students agreed that schools need to provide early
interventions to assist students at risk of dropping
out. (Survey and Interview)
Internal Culture
Students agreed that alternative schools such as
EICS designed to assist students that are credit
deficient are important and needed in Arizona.
(Survey)
Students agreed that EICS teachers feel personally
responsible for student learning. (Survey)
Students agreed that EICS encourages them to
stay in school rather than pushing them out.
(Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that EICS creates a positive
school culture that allows students to feel
comfortable and familiar. (Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that EICS’ flexible school
scheduling allowing students to work, parent, or
take care of other personal responsibilities was a
major factor in their decision to enroll. (Survey
and Interviews)
Students agreed that EICS provides the necessary
social and emotional supports to allow me to
persist in school (Survey and Interviews)
In reviewing the assumed causes related to external culture and internal culture, all of the
assumed causes were validated. Students agreed that their previous school favored high
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 129
achieving students and athletes and the school did not help them feel engaged at school.
Students also agreed that traditional schools should not excessively expel students and should
encourage students to stay in school. Students in both surveys and interviews agreed that
traditional schools should provide early interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out.
Students also validated the various assumed influences related to internal organizational
culture. Students agreed that alternative schools designed to assist students that are credit
deficient are important and needed in Arizona. Students also agreed that EICS teachers feel
personally responsible for student learning, that EICS encourages students to stay in school and
that the school creates a positive culture allowing students to feel comfortable and familiar. Each
student that was interviewed had many great stories to share of the connections and positive
feelings that they had with EICS teachers, staff and administrators. Students also agreed that the
flexible scheduling and social and emotional supports at EICS were critical factors in their
success and in their decision to enroll in the school.
Validated Causes Summary Table
Table 10
Validated Causes Summary Table
Category Assumed Cause Validated Not Validated
Conceptual
Knowledge
Students agree that a smaller school environment
is important to them and provides opportunities to
informally connect with teachers and staff.
(Survey)
Procedural
Knowledge
Students agreed that instruction at EICS is
individualized and personalized for them and their
educational goals. (Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that they have a better
understanding of the learning process after having
attended EICS (Survey)
Students agree that teachers at EICS utilize
effective instructional methods that engage me as
a student and increase my sense of belonging at
the school (Survey)
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 130
Table 10, continued
Category Assumed Cause Validated Not Validated
Metacognitive
Knowledge
Students agreed that they were able to develop
relationships with teachers, staff and fellow
students at EICS. (Survey)
Students agreed that they felt in control of their
learning at EICS. (Survey)
Students agreed that teachers at EICS believe that
all students can learn and they involve them and
their peers in learning and teaching activities.
(Survey and student description of cooperative
learning)
Students agreed that their family had a significant
influence in their decision to finish high school
(Interviews)
Students didn’t agree that their friends had a
significant influence in their decision to finish
high school (Interviews)
Intrinsic
Motivation
Students agreed that the learning environment at
EICS allows me to persist in school and stay
motivated to complete my high school diploma.
(Interviews)
Students agreed that their ability to choose options
such as online learning and flexible scheduling
played an important part in their academic
success. (Survey and Interviews)
At-risk students need to be motivated to learn to
persist in school. (Interviews)
Self-
Determination
Theory (SDT)
Students agreed that they felt a sense of
membership and belonging at EICS, which
allowed them to be committed to school and
academically engaged. (Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that they felt a warm personal
connection to their teachers at EICS, which allows
them to maintain their academic motivation.
(Survey)
Extrinsic
Motivation
Students agreed that teachers at EICS are
committed to students and contribute to the school
being a safe and orderly environment. (Survey)
Students agree that EICS was able to assist them
to see value in completing their high school
education. (Survey)
Fifth and Sixth year seniors overcame specific
challenges in order to persist in school.
(Interviews)
Fifth and Sixth year seniors are influenced by
friends that have dropped out of high school.
(Interviews)
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 131
Table 10, continued
Category Assumed Cause Validated Not Validated
External Culture
Students agreed that their previous school favored
high achieving students and athletes and the
school did not help them to feel engaged at
school. (Survey)
Students agreed that schools should not
excessively expel students and that they should
encourage students to stay in school. (Survey)
Students agreed that schools need to provide early
interventions to assist students at risk of dropping
out. (Survey and Interviews)
Internal Culture
Students agreed that alternative schools such as
EICS designed to assist students that are credit
deficient are important and needed in Arizona.
(Survey)
Students agreed that EICS teachers feel personally
responsible for student learning. (Survey)
Students agreed that EICS encourages them to
stay in school rather than pushing them out.
(Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that EICS creates a positive
school culture that allows students to feel
comfortable and familiar. (Survey and Interviews)
Students agreed that EICS’ flexible school
scheduling allowing students to work, parent, or
take care of other personal responsibilities was a
major factor in their decision to enroll. (Survey
and Interviews)
Students agreed that EICS provides the necessary
social and emotional supports to allow me to
persist in school (Survey and Interviews)
Conclusion
In conclusion, both the surveys and the in-person interviews validated a number of
assumed influences. These influences included personalized learning, teachers that care about all
students, students being provided flexibility in delivery of instruction and in scheduling, having a
smaller learning environment and being in control of their learning. The result of students
agreeing that these components are present allows them to feel comfortable at school and
experience academic success and the desire to persist in school.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this study was to identify and validate the knowledge, motivation and
organization causes affecting the EICS fifth and sixth year seniors’ decision to persist in school
to a successful high school graduation. The study took an evaluation approach due to EICS
consistently performing below Arizona state and federal performance standards based on
traditional academic measures. Therefore, the study also strived to understand the knowledge,
motivation and organization causes creating gaps in performance on traditional academic
measures for EICS.
Four sections serve as the organizational structure for this chapter. The first section
presents the validated causes and the selection for the key validated causes. The second section
provides empirical evidence for the solutions. The third section outlines an implementation plan
that must be in place to address the key validated knowledge, motivation and organizational
needs. The fourth section presents direction for implementing and evaluating the recommended
solutions.
Validated Causes
Following the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model, surveys and interviews were
utilized to highlight the gaps in current performance and desired outcomes. In Chapter Four, 25
assumed causes were validated: eight validated knowledge causes, eight validated motivation
causes, and nine validated organization causes. To effectively answer the question as to what
fifth and sixth year seniors believed were the knowledge, motivation and organization solutions
needed to close the gaps in academic achievement, the last section of the study presents the
validated causes and related recommended practices that could be adapted by EICS and other
alternative schools to improve performance and close achievement gaps.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 133
Closing the Gap: Solutions for Implementation
With the conclusion of the following validated needs for knowledge, motivation, and
organization, solutions and action items will be proposed for implementing the innovation.
Table 11
Validated Needs Summary Table
Gap Analysis
Dimension
Validated Needs
Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge
Students need a smaller school environment that provides
opportunities to informally connect with teachers and staff.
Procedural Knowledge
Students need instruction that is individualized and personalized for
them and their educational goals.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Students need to be able to develop relationships with teachers, staff
and fellow students at EICS.
Motivation Intrinsic Motivation
Students need a learning environment that allows them to persist in
school and stay motivated to complete their high school diploma.
Extrinsic Motivation
Students need teachers that are committed to students and contribute to
the school being a safe and orderly environment.
Social Motivation
Students need to feel a sense of membership and belonging, which
allows them to be committed to school and academically engaged.
Organizational External Culture
Schools should not favor high achieving students and athletes and
schools need to help students to feel engaged at school.
Internal Culture
Alternative schools such as EICS designed to assist students that are
credit deficient are important and needed in Arizona.
Internal Culture
Students need teachers that feel personally responsible for student
learning.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 134
Solutions for Validated Causes
The following sections highlight the validated causes within the study and propose
solutions that align with the maximum impact for improving the outcomes of fifth and sixth year
seniors at EICS. Most notably through the research findings, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge related to EICS fifth and sixth year senior student persistence was
validated. Student needs for a sense of belonging, and a safe and orderly learning environment
appeared as significant influences to student persistence and were validated as motivational
causes. At-risk student need teachers that feel personally responsible for student learning and
schools that are designed to assist with credit recovery emerged as organizational influences that
were validated.
Solutions for Knowledge Causes
The knowledge validated causes were conceptual, procedural and metacognitive related
to achievement gaps at EICS. Considering conceptual knowledge, solutions included that
informal staff connections were as important as teacher connections. Another solution related to
conceptual knowledge was that smaller school environments of no more than 250 students at any
one school site are critical for at-risk students to connect with teachers and staff in an informal
manner to experience academic success. Associated with procedural knowledge, solutions
included that personalized instruction is an important educational strategy, and that personalized
learning is clearly aligned to student persistence. Solutions connected to metacognitive
knowledge were that developing relationships with teachers and staff led to students feeling a
higher sense of self-efficacy at school and increased awareness of their own cognitive processes.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 135
Table 12
Knowledge Validated Needs and Solutions
Knowledge
Category
Validated Needs Solutions
Conceptual At-risk students need a smaller
school environment that
provides opportunities to
informally connect with
teachers and staff.
A smaller school environment of no less
than 250 students at any one school is
critical for students to connect with
teachers and staff.
Procedural At-risk students need
instruction that is
individualized and
personalized for them and
their educational goals.
Personalized instruction is an important
educational strategy for students at EICS.
Personalized learning is clearly aligned to
student persistence and success in
accomplishing educational goals.
Metacognitive
At-risk students need to be
able to develop relationships
with teachers, staff and fellow
students at EICS.
Developing relationships with teachers,
staff and fellow students is an important
aspect for students to feel a higher sense
of self-efficacy and to persist in school.
Having relationships in school encourages
students to feel connected with school and
leads to an increased awareness of one’s
own cognitive processes.
Smaller school environments. This study has validated previous research on the
effectiveness of smaller school environments. New York City is one example with its new Small
Schools of Choice (SSC) movement designed to address the city’s dropout problem (Bloom,
Thompson & Unterman, 2010). The program started in 2002 and was designed to be
academically nonselective, and the new schools are designed to be located in historically
disadvantaged communities, and were intended to be alternatives to the neighboring high schools
that were closing. The results of the program were promising, with 58.5% of SSC enrollees
being on track to graduate in four years compared with 48.5% of their non-SSC counterparts
(Bloom et al., 2010).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 136
There have been other studies done on the effectiveness of smaller schools working with
at-risk students. Additionally, several charter schools have successfully reconfigured
comprehensive high schools into smaller schools within a school, the most recently successful
model being the Green Dot Schools.
Personalized learning. Much has been written recently on how traditional schools can
implement personalized learning strategies to make instruction more student-centric. Several
foundations including the Bill & Melinda Gates foundation have given out grants and start-up
funds to establish schools that are implementing this educational innovation. The Rand
Corporation conducted a study on the effectiveness of personalized learning (Pane, Steiner, Baird
& Hamilton, 2015).
EICS has been using both smaller learning environments, and personalized learning since
the school was started in 2002. However, the school is constantly working on school
improvement efforts and will be looking into research and methods to improve on both of these
promising practices.
Developing relationships. EICS has a small school environment and a low student to
teacher ratio, therefore each teacher and staff member knows each teacher very well and can
connect with each student in an informal manner to mentor him or her. EICS is working to
standardize this mentoring process through student advisories, personalized learning plans, and
experiential learning.
Solutions for Motivation Causes
The motivation validated causes were intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and
social motivation associated with achievement gaps at EICS. Students at EICS agreed that
several factors in the EICS environment allowed for them to have increased intrinsic motivation.
Choice and flexibility in their learning environment and modality of learning were key solutions
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 137
related to intrinsic motivation for EICS students. Many studies of both continuation schools and
mandated punitive alternative schools have shown that students feel a negative stigma connected
to being in a school for “losers” or “dummies” or “delinquents.” Conversely, allowing students
to choose to have a second chance at success has proven to be the catalyst for many students in
developing their intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy at EICS and at other alternative schools as
well. Allowing students to have flexibility in where and how they participate in school was
critical to all the students that were interviewed since all of them were either working, or taking
care of children or family members.
Various components were associated with extrinsic motivation addressing the
achievement gaps of EICS students. Two valuable solutions were that a safe and orderly
environment is a necessary condition for at-risk students to be motivated for academic success
and that having teachers that care about and are committed to the needs of at-risk youth is a
driving factor to increasing their motivation to succeed. Finally, social motivation was a critical
element for EICS students. A solution identified from both the surveys and the interviews that is
confirmed by research was that at-risk students need to feel a sense of belonging and a warm
personal connection to teachers and staff that extends beyond academics for this population to
feel motivated to build self-efficacy to try again and to persist in school.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 138
Table 13
Motivation Validated Needs and Solutions
Validated Needs Solutions
Intrinsic Motivation
Students need a learning environment
that allows them to persist in school and
stay motivated to complete a high
school diploma.
A learning environment that is small,
personalized, allows for informal
connections with teachers and staff
encourages students to stay motivated in
school.
The ability for students to have the
choice to attend an alternative school
such as EICS if they are not having
success in a traditional school is
important.
The ability for at-risk students to have
flexibility in their time and modality of
learning is important to their academic
success.
Extrinsic Motivation
Students need teachers that are
committed to students and contribute to
the school being a safe and orderly
environment.
Having a safe and orderly environment
is an important criterion for an
alternative school working with at-risk
youth.
Having teachers that are committed to
the needs of their students encourages
student persistence and assists them to
see value in completing high school.
Social Motivation
Students need to feel a sense of
membership and belonging, which
allows them to be committed to school
and academically engaged.
Feeling a sense of membership and
belonging at school is critical for at-
risks students to be successful at school.
Students need to feel a warm personal
connection to teachers in order to
maintain academic motivation.
Each of the students that were
interviewed described specific stories of
connections made with teachers that
encouraged them to stay in school and
to persist.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 139
Student flexibility in scheduling and modes of learning. At-risk students need to have
flexibility in class time instruction and in the model of instruction. Many students work or have
children that they need to take care of for part of the day and cannot attend a traditional school
that requires students to be in attendance for most of the workday. EICS has morning, afternoon,
and evening sessions. This flexible schedule allows for part-time or full-time work and for
students that are parents to attend at a time that works best for them.
Since the expansion of online learning in Arizona in 2009, EICS students have the
additional option to attend either completely online, or in a blended or combined format of
having one brick and mortar class and one online class. Given that the state of Arizona has two
different funding models for online schools and brick and mortar schools, coming up with the
best blended solution at EICS is an area for improvement at the school. Most of the EICS staff
work in a brick and mortar setting, and therefore do not communicate that often with EICS’s
online teachers. EICS’s goal is to develop a strategic plan that would combine the best practices
of both models into a newer blended approach that would give EICS students additional
flexibility.
Feeling a sense of membership and belonging. Many EICS students blossom in a
smaller, personalized environment, with teachers that know their goals as well as their
challenges. Some students have become student assistants, leaders in student clubs and
activities, blood donors, and have done a variety of other activities. While EICS students all feel
very included and connected in school, each campus accomplishes student connections in
different ways. Formulating a consistent student connection and inclusion plan could be an
improvement goal for the school.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 140
Solutions for Organizational Causes
At-risk students typically come to EICS after previously being unsuccessful in a
traditional school environment. Therefore, EICS students are influenced by both the external
culture of their previous school and the internal culture of the EICS organization. EICS’s
external environment including local and state authorizers, policy makers, and stakeholders also
play a role in the vitality, integrity and continuing operation of the EICS program. Associated
with external culture, both the surveys and interviews validated the solution that comprehensive
schools should not excessively expel or push students out of school. These schools should
provide early interventions to assist students at-risk of dropping out.
Schools should have high expectations for all students and allow each student to have a
voice in his or her education. Related to internal culture, a critical solution was that students
confirmed that alternative schools designed to assist at-risk students are needed in Arizona and in
the nation. Related to this validated cause an additional solution is that state and federal policies
need to address and identify alternative accountability measures, rather than traditional measures.
Finally, connected to internal culture, a substantial solution is that alternative schools need to
have an open enrollment policy and be available throughout the year for students to be able to
recover academic credits and make progress. In addition, alternative schools need to provide
social and emotional supports to at-risk students and teachers must feel personally responsible to
work to develop the whole student both academically and socially.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 141
Table 14
Organization Validated Needs and Solutions
Validated Causes Solutions
External Culture
Schools should not favor high achieving
students and athletes and should help all
students to feel engaged at school.
Schools should have high expectations
for all students and should make sure
that each student has a voice in his or
her education.
Schools should not excessively expel
students and they should encourage
students to stay in school.
Schools need to provide early
interventions to assist students that are
at-risk of dropping out.
Internal Culture
Alternative schools such as EICS
designed to assist students that are
credit deficient are important and
needed in Arizona.
District, state, and federal agencies
should work with and encourage the
growth of more effective alternative
schools.
State and Federal policies need to
address and identify alternative
accountability measures, rather than
accountabilities measures that are
designed for traditional schools.
Internal Culture
At-risk students need teachers that feel
personally responsible for student
learning.
Having teachers that feel a personal
responsibility for each student, is an
important factor for student success.
Social and emotional supports are
critical for schools that are working
with at-risk students.
Year round open enrollment is an
effective tool for alternative schools to
allow students to recover credits and
make progress throughout the year.
Pushing students out and providing supports. EICS leaders, teachers, and staff care
about each student that enters their doors and they truly believe that all students can learn. Many
comprehensive high schools, for a variety of reasons, tend to neglect students that may be falling
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 142
behind or who are not high achievers. Additionally, much of the school accountability measures
encourage school leaders to push out certain students to have higher graduation rates and higher
academic performance.
Current research has identified recommendations for policy makers and educators
intended to address the dropout epidemic. Among the recommendations from an expert panel on
dropout prevention research Preventing Dropout in Secondary Schools (Rumberger et al., 2017),
was to monitor the progress of all students, and proactively intervene when students show signs
of poor attendance, disruptive behavior, or academic problems (Rumberger et al., 2017).
Arizona policy measures. EICS, as an Arizona alternative education school, is part of
the AZAEC. This group of educators, both district and charter, is an important organization
involved in advocating for at-risk students, and for assisting Arizona policy makers in
developing and formulating accountability measures for alternative schools. Many traditional
school educators and policy makers are unclear about alternative schools and why there is a need
for alternative accountability measurement for schools working with this student population.
Social and emotional supports. EICS students feel that their school provides them with
social and emotional support. However, there is always room for improvements in this area, and
improving social and emotional supports is part of EICS’ improvement plan.
Strategies and Action Items
The following section summarizes the overall solutions and implementation action items
that EICS can employ to improve various aspects of the school and to close performance gaps.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 143
Table 15
Solutions and Action Items
Solution
Categories
Solutions
Implementation Action Items
Smaller School
Environments
(external) (K)
Develop smaller schools within a schoolDevelop smaller career
academies with linked learningDevelop smaller schools through charter
school conversions
Personalized
Learning (internal)
(K)
Expand current ECAP plan to include a Personalized Learning Plan
(PLP)
Add a career pathway track to PLP
Add a career internship program
Developing
Relationships (K)
Formalize advisory program across school sites
Coordinate school counseling with community resources at each school
site
Formulate student advocate plan for specified subgroups
Student Flexibility
and Modes of
Learning (M)
Formalize plan for blending brick and mortar planning with online
planning
Establish professional development using best practices in blended
learning
Establish team to review new online learning system adoption
Feeling a Sense of
Membership and
Belonging (M)
Develop formal advisory group plan
Build connections to the community
Provide opportunities for students to work together
Pushing Students
out and Providing
Supports
(External) (O)
Provide early interventions in order to identify students falling behind
before they drop out of school
Encourage schools to have high expectations for all students
Change state and federal policies that incentivize schools to push out at-
risk students
Arizona Policy
Measures (O)
Advocate for alternative schools at Arizona State Board of Education,
and Arizona State Board for Charter Schools
Develop alternative accountability measures that are realistic and
attainable for effective alternative schools
Provide research on best practices for alternative schools in Arizona and
in other states
Social and
Emotional
Supports (O)
Give students roles in helping their peers
Organize service learning projects
Promote meaningful participation in policy and decision making
Resource Requirements
A variety of resources are required for EICS and associated groups to develop and
implement a strategic improvement plan. EICS strives for internal improvement in the following
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 144
strategic areas: personalized learning, developing relationships, student modes of learning,
feeling a sense of belonging, and social and emotional supports. To build a strategic plan
including these initiatives EICS has several resource requirements. These resources include:
professional development planning time, training by outside consultants and experts in areas
needed for improvement, software and tools for online learning, and grants, donations and fund-
raising in the areas of career and technical education (CTE) workforce training partnerships and
community partnerships.
Related to Arizona policy measures, EICS teachers and staff need additional planning
time to better understand and develop alternative accountability measures that demonstrate
student growth and success of EISC students. Externally, EICS leaders, teachers and staff need
additional time and training to become more involved in advocacy at the state level for at-risk
students and alternative schools.
Professional Learning and Improvement Plan
Research has shown that alternative schools, as compared to traditional schools, are more
adaptable to change, and more open to new ideas that will not only help create better teachers,
but also will help to improve the outcomes of the students (Calkins, Guenther, Belfiore & Lash,
2007). This situation has certainly been the case with EICS. Although the school is involved
with a series of visits and improvement plan initiatives, school leaders and teachers have
remained optimistic and willing to strive toward working on a variety of interventions that could
demonstrate an increase in student outcomes.
Project Elevate. EICS is currently the only alternative charter school in Arizona
participating in Project Elevate, an executive leadership program developed and supported by the
ADE and WestED. The program focuses on developing the knowledge, competencies and skills
of leaders as they work toward systemic changes within schools and LEAs (ADE, 2018).
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 145
Considering that EICS has already begun school improvement efforts, rather than beginning with
a new strategic plan, EICS can simply integrate the identified action steps into the current school
improvement plan.
Online learning system. In order the support the learning needs and potential gaps that
teachers might have related to new initiatives such as blended learning, PLPs, service learning,
and student advisory planning, leaders, teachers and staff need to have access to learning tools
and resources to assist them in gaining competency in new and innovative areas of school
improvement. Teachers will need to be involved in the selection and acquisition of this system
so that they will be able to navigate and eventually share best practices within this online portal.
Teacher professional development and planning time. While EICS principals and
school leaders have devoted the time necessary to learn about and participate in school
improvement efforts such as Project Elevate, devoting sufficient time for teachers to be more
involved in school improvement and professional development opportunities has proven to be
challenging. Due to the flexible nature of making the school available to students throughout
the day, many school sites have morning, afternoon, and evening sessions with full-time teachers
working with students for much of the day without free time available to collaborate with each
other on school improvement efforts. EICS will need to make additional changes in scheduling
to allow for additional time for teacher collaboration and learning opportunities.
Instructional materials, software and teacher and student textbooks. Included in this
strategic plan are several new initiatives that will require additional learning materials for
students such as online materials, books, and other materials for both teachers and students.
Advocacy and public relations training and support. Since all EICS leaders, teachers,
and staff are advocates for at-risk students, it is their responsibility to advocate for the unique
needs of this student population to the larger community. Many teachers did not study or receive
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 146
training in public policy or public relations and therefore require training from experts and
professionals in the field to effectively advocate for their students both locally and at the state
level. Additional time to participate in this training will need to be identified for teachers and
staff that choose to participate as advocates for EICS
Timeline for Implementation
Developing both an efficient and coordinated timeline will allow EICS to focus on
attaining the goals of the organization to bridge the achievement gap for EICS students and allow
more fifth and sixth year seniors to successfully finish high school. The timeline reflects a three-
year commitment for EICS to fully develop plans to achieve identified goals and to complete
identified action steps and plans.
Table 16
Solutions and Implementation Timeline
Timeline Solutions
Implementation Action Items
July 2018 Develop smaller schools within a school
July 2018 Develop smaller career academies with linked learning
July 2018 Develop smaller schools through charter school conversions
August 2018 Expand current ECAP plan to include a Personalized
Learning Plan (PLP)
August 2018 Add a career pathway track to PLP
August 2018 to
June 2019
Add a career internship program
August 2018 to
June 2019
Formalize Advisory program across school sites
August 2018 to
June 2019
Coordinate school counseling with community resources at
each school site
August 2018 Formulate student advocate plan for specified subgroups
September 2018 to
December 2018
Formalize plan for blending brick and mortar planning with
online planning
September 2018 to
December 2018
Establish professional development using best practices in
blended learning
January 2019 Establish team to review new online learning system
adoption
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 147
Table 16, continued
Timeline Solutions
Implementation Action Items
August 2019 to
June 2020
Develop formal advisory group plan
August 2019 Build connections to the community
August 2019 to
June 2020
Provide opportunities for students to work together
August 2018 to
June 2019
Provide early interventions in order to identify students
falling behind before they drop out of school
August 2018 to
June 2019
Encourage schools to have high expectations for all students
August 2018 to
June 2019
Change state and federal policies that incentivize schools to
push out at-risk students
September 2019 Advocate for alternative schools at Arizona State Board of
Education, and Arizona State Board for Charter Schools
August 2019 to
June 2020
Develop alternative accountability measures that are realistic
and attainable for effective alternative schools
September 2019 to
June 2020
Provide research on best practices for alternative schools in
Arizona and in other states
September 2019 to
June 2020
Give students roles in helping their peers
January 2020 to
June 2021
Organize service learning projects
January 2020 to
June 2021
Promote meaningful participation in policy and decision
making
Implementation Constraints and Challenges
A multitude of potential constraints and challenges face any implementation plan.
Particularly in the case of EICS, while the teachers and staff are motivated to make
improvements and implement change, organizational resources in the form of budget limitations
cause the biggest challenge for implementation. Additionally, the gaps in knowledge and skills
needed to execute new interventions or initiatives, could pose challenges to the implementation.
Traditional and Alternative Accountability Measures
Some of the challenges and constraints to implementation of this plan include the failure
of EICS and the AZAEC to significantly influence the ASBE and the ASBCS. Many of the
current accountability measures for both entities are based on traditional schools that consider
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 148
four-year cohorts and have a majority of students going to universities. EICS and other Arizona
alternative charter schools are considered failing schools and not in compliance with Arizona
academic accountability measures. Nonetheless, alternative schools are willing to take in and
work with the very at-risk students that traditional schools are pushing out. Despite this
challenge, more recently, there has been much discussion about alternative accountability in
Arizona, and both EICS and AZAEC are optimistic that new alternative accountability measures
will be adopted.
Advocacy for Alternative Education and Dropout Prevention
Additionally, EICS has identified two external strategies in this implementation plan
related to encouraging traditional schools to stop pushing students out of school and improving
alternative school advocacy efforts as well. These external solutions are important because
improvements from both traditional schools and policy makers in Arizona will have a more
positive impact statewide in closing the gap to the larger dropout dilemma in the state overall.
Dropout prevention efforts could influence at-risk youth and the alternative schools that serve
their needs. While EICS is just one small group of schools, banding together the AZAEC has
increased their impact recently at the Arizona policy level.
Funding and Staffing Limitations
The other internal strategies and action plans are merely a function of time for planning
and preparation as well as additional budgeting and/or funding mechanisms that can assist in
accomplishing the goals. Therefore, while EICS has developed a strong strategic improvement
plan, the school is limited in resources, training capabilities and qualified staff to enact the
initiatives.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 149
Partnership Opportunities
Some of the identified initiatives involve outside partnerships from local employers,
workforce providers, and social and emotional support providers and community organizers.
EICS may need to find and hire staff with the time and capacity to pursue and nurture those
potential partnerships.
Evaluation Plan
Evaluation plans are necessary to determine if implemented solutions are effective in
closing identified gaps in the goals of any program, school, or organization. Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2006) postulate that influence of policies and procedures can be evaluated through a
sequence of four steps: reaction, learning, behavior and results. In level one, reaction measures
the thoughts people have regarding the process. Level two, according to Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick, involves learning that takes place and measuring the increase in knowledge from the
experience. The third level relates to behavioral change that takes place because of participation
in the program. The fourth level of the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick model recognizes the impact
that the results have had on the organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). Each level of
the process requires a different evaluation approach to determine the success of the program.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 150
Table 17
Evaluation Plan (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006)
Proposed
Intervention
Reaction
(Level 1)
Learning
(Level 2)
Behavior
(Level 3)
Impact
(Level 4)
Expand current
Education and
Career Action
Plan (ECAP) to
include a
Personalized
Learning Plan
(PLP) including
career and
technical
education training,
with a career
pathway track and
professional
development and
training.
Survey students
and teachers to
determine current
levels of
understanding of
ECAP, career and
technical
education (CTE),
and proposed
expansion of PLP.
Self-rating before,
during and after
training to
measure change in
learning from both
students and
teachers.
Review student
and teacher
participation in
online learning
system related to
CTE and
expanded PLP
usage.
Observations and
interviews of
students and
teachers to
determine levels
of change in
behavior due to
intervention.
CTE teachers are
hired and
significantly
involved in the
development of
new programs.
Students involved
and increasingly
interested in
careers and job
placement and
career training
programs.
Evidence
including number
of students
participating in
jobs or training
related to chosen
career pathway.
Establish a career
internship
program including
community
advisory
committees and
partnerships with
local employers
and workforce
investment
opportunity act
(WIOA) providers
including
professional
development and
training.
Survey students
and teachers to
determine current
levels of
understanding of
career internship
opportunities,
local partnership
opportunities,
local employers
and local WIOA
providers.
Self-rating before,
during and after
training to
measure change in
learning from both
students and
teachers.
Review student
and teacher
participation in
online learning
system related to
training in career
internship
programs and
developing
partnerships with
local employers
and WIOA
providers.
Observations and
interviews of
students and
teachers to
determine levels
of change in
behavior due to
intervention.
Local community
advisory members
are involved at the
school and local
employers and
WIOA partners
are working to
improve the
school’s career
programs.
Students are
engaged in career
internships.
Students are
finding new jobs
and careers due to
local employer
partnerships.
Students are
receiving career
training through
partnerships with
WIOA providers.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 151
Table 17, continued
Proposed
Intervention
Reaction
(Level 1)
Learning
(Level 2)
Behavior
(Level 3)
Impact
(Level 4)
Formalize student
advisory program
across all school
sites including
school counseling
with community
resources and
student advocacy
for specified
subgroups and
professional
development and
training.
Use rating sheets
at the end of each
training session
with space for
qualitative
responses.
Use focus groups
and student
surveys to identify
areas of need for
counseling and
support services.
Pre and post
intervention
surveys will
document change
in attitudes and
improvements in
programming
related to
community
resource needs
and solutions for
students.
Students will
receive increased
levels of support
and services for
counseling and
other wrap around
support and
service needs.
Students will
receive an
increased amount
of guidance
related to college
and career
planning from
teachers and
counselors.
Students will
receive increased
support from
community
mentors.
Promote students
roles in helping
their peers by
organizing peer
tutoring, service
learning projects,
and increased
participation in
policy and
decision making
including
professional
development and
training.
Survey students
and teachers to
determine current
levels of
understanding and
needs related to
peer tutoring,
service learning,
student advisory
committees and
restorative justice.
Self-rating before,
during and after
training to
measure change in
learning from both
students and
teachers.
Review student
and teacher
participation in
online learning
system related to
peer tutoring,
service learning,
student advisory
committees and
restorative justice.
Pre and post
intervention
surveys will
document change
in attitudes and
improvements in
programming
related to peer
tutoring, service
learning, student
advisory
committees and
restorative justice.
Evidence of
improvement will
include students
participating in
service learning,
formalized peer
tutoring, student
advisory
committees and
restorative justice.
Students will
experience
increased self-
efficacy and
empowerment
from increased
levels of
involvement.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 152
Table 17, continued
Proposed
Intervention
Reaction
(Level 1)
Learning
(Level 2)
Behavior
(Level 3)
Impact
(Level 4)
Expand blended
learning program
to increase
flexibility in
student learning
options including
adoption of new
online content and
professional
development and
training.
Survey students
and teachers to
determine current
levels of
understanding and
needs related to
online and
blended learning
systems and
content.
Establish focus
group to gather
feedback and
interest in
participating in
blended learning
system adoption
team.
Self-rating before,
during and after
training to
measure change in
learning from both
students and
teachers.
Teachers will
learn and share
from visiting
model blended
school programs
and attending
workshops related
to effective
practices in
blended learning.
Review student
and teacher
participation in
online learning
system related to
best practices in
blended learning.
Pre and post
intervention
surveys will
document change
in attitudes and
improvements in
programming
related to
community
resource needs
and solutions for
students.
Changes in
behavior resulting
in increased
sharing and
dialogue related to
blended learning.
Teacher
understand of best
practices in
blended learning
will increase.
Metrics will
include increased
number of credits
recovered.
Increased number
of teacher
generated online
and blended
classes.
Increased
collaboration from
both online
teachers and brick
and mortar
teachers.
The separation
between fully
online students
and fully brick
and mortar will be
diminished and
students will be
able to more
freely participate
in both online,
brick and mortar
and blended
classes.
Level One: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) describe level one reactions as being a measure of
customer satisfaction. While many organizations regularly gather feedback from external
stakeholders since there is a direct connection to them being customers, it is equally important to
measure internal customer satisfaction as the level one indicator in the evaluation of any school,
program or organization. Gathering feedback allows participants the chance to be motivated to
learn or be a part of the change process (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). EICS will gather
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 153
level one reactions by utilizing rating sheets at the end of each intervention session with space
for qualitative responses. While it is important to gather input from the students as the primary
stakeholder group, it is valuable to attain teacher responses to intervention sessions to ascertain
their position as to whether the specified intervention is working. Blended Learning, Student
Advisory Program, Service Learning, CTE and Workforce Training are just some of the
interventions that will be evaluated as part of the overall improvement plan evaluation.
Evaluating online learning as an intervention for both students and teachers allows for
additional feedback at level one. Learners can participate in their reaction to the program by
giving feedback on course design. A simple survey can be gathered at the end of each lesson.
Learners can also post comments about concepts or lessons on the course discussion thread.
Users can also use instant messaging or chat to form a focus group. Online learning allows users
to continually gather feedback through embedded evaluation events throughout the learning
experience (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). The learning management system also can be
utilized to measure user time spent in different portions of the lessons or other assessment
modules.
Level Two: Learning
Level two learning metrics can be gathered using pretests, diagnostic tests, and post-tests
to assess change in learning. Elements to measure include changing attitudes, improving
knowledge, or increasing skill (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). Surveys related to impact of
the intervention, reflection sheets responding to participant perceptions before and after the
intervention, and focus groups measuring changes in attitudes after implementation will be used.
Additionally, monitoring the attainment of particular skills or knowledge related to interventions
such as PLPs, student advisories or experiential learning can be evaluated through assessments in
the learning management system. Much like the personalization that students gain as they
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 154
navigate through the student academic learning system, teachers will gain skill and knowledge as
they participate, share, and present new information as well. The new EICS professional
development learning management system that the school will cooperatively design with vendors
and input from leaders, teachers and staff will be a critical source of learning related to
developing new initiatives.
Level Three: Behavior
Level three relates to the change in behavior of both participants individually and for the
group collectively. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) assert that in order for behavior changes
to occur the person must: (1) have a desire to change, (2) know what to do and how to do it, (3)
work in the right climate, and (4) be rewarded for changing. Measuring change in behavior
effectively can be challenging and requires long-term commitment. Changes in behavior are not
immediate and should only be assessed when enough time has elapsed to see a change
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006).
Multiple perspectives and multiple methods for collecting data are essential to evaluate
behavioral change. One of the best ways to check for behavior change for EICS will be to
conduct observations and interviews with students and teachers over time. Interviews of students
that have successfully persisted and graduated from EICS can be a means of evaluating the
perspective that these students hold about the interventions and improvements that EICS has
employed over the duration of the improvement planning cycle. Face to face and telephone
interviews can both generate detailed information and allow for change to be probed in more
depth. The interviews will highlight how knowledge and skills gained through the interventions
have changed student attitudes and have aided in student persistence.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 155
Level Four: Results
Level four influence examines all of the knowledge, motivation and organizational
transformations to address the objectives of the initiative. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006)
offer the following guidelines to follow when evaluating results: (1) use a control group where
applicable, (2) allocate sufficient time for results to be accomplished, (3) measure data and
metrics before and after implementing solutions, (4) consistently measure data throughout the
duration of the solution implementation period, (5) conduct a cost-benefit analysis, and (6) be
satisfied with the evidence if objectively measured.
The best method for evaluating results is to formulate some idea of what success looks
like to the stakeholders in advance of the intervention. Once that common language of what
successful outcomes look like is defined, identifying a measurement tool to assess potential
outcomes becomes much easier. Understanding the impact of the results is equally important
when measuring them. After measurement tools and definition of successful outcomes is
achieved, the best method to measure impact is to compare the results of the intervention to a
control group that did not participate in the intervention. This comparison can give more
credibility to the results rather than only post-solution data.
Future Research
Alternative education encompasses the areas of school choice, charter schools, online and
blended learning, dropout prevention, at-risk student needs, competency based instruction,
service and experiential learning, restorative justice, the school-to-prison pipeline, turnaround
schools, and a whole host of other educational reforms and change initiatives too exhaustive to
list for the purposes of this study. Notwithstanding, to further advance the study of promising
practices in the realm of alternative education, the following aspects of future research will
inform best practices.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 156
Promising Practices in Blended Learning
While much has been written recently on blended learning, researchers with the
International Association for K-12 Online Learning (INACOL) have generated a large amount of
research on the benefits of blended learning programs and initiatives. Originally written in 2008,
a group of researchers affiliated with INACOL has annually updated a report evaluating
promising practices in blended and online learning (Powell et al., 2015). Additionally, Watson
and Gemin (2008) of Evergreen Consulting studied specific promising practices in online
learning for at-risk students.
Accountability Measures for Alternative Schools
Various groups are researching the impact that alternative accountability measures will
have on evaluating the effectiveness of alternative schools. The American Youth Policy Forum
has published a variety of studies on alternative school accountability under the Every Student
Succeeds Act, which provides states the opportunity to develop robust accountability systems
(Deeds & DePaoli, 2017). Several states are becoming more aware that traditional
accountability measures do not effectively evaluate alternative schools and are looking to
alternative measurements for guidance. Arizona recently identified an alternative framework for
these schools, but is now reconsidering the framework given that policy makers at the state level
have recently changed.
Most recently, California’s State Board of Education implemented a one-year graduation
rate for alternative schools in May (RAPSA, 2018). Recognizing that alternative schools serve
high-risk students who are highly mobile, credit deficient, or out of school for years at a time, the
California Department of Education initiated an alternative schools taskforce to explore
alternative methods for meeting California accountability indicators. Of the alternative measures
discussed, the one-year graduation rate measure received unanimous support. This alternative
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 157
measurement identifies and reviews the success of a twelfth grade cohort as opposed to a four-
year cohort, which is a much more effective way to evaluate alternative schools. Other districts,
such as Portland Public Schools and Chicago Public Schools are using this assessment and the
measure is endorsed by WestEd (RAPSA, 2018).
Conclusion
This evaluative gap analysis study focused on exploring knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources influencing gaps in academic achievement of EICS fifth and sixth year
seniors according to Arizona academic measures. As an alternative school serving the needs of
at-risk students, EICS has a history of successfully serving the needs of students that have not
succeeded in traditional school, have fallen behind in credits, and are at-risk of dropping out of
high school. Despite gaps in traditional academic achievement measures, the results of the
student surveys and interviews revealed that fifth and sixth year students were able to develop
the necessary knowledge, skills, and motivation to overcome the challenges they had previously
experienced in traditional schools. These fifth and sixth year seniors were able to develop a
higher level of self-efficacy and persist in EICS’s academic setting toward a successful
completion with a high school diploma and college and career readiness skills.
Conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge influences were validated in all
areas except in areas related to the influence that friends might have had in relation to
metacognitive knowledge influences, which was not validated. Motivational influences were
validated in all areas other than the extrinsic motivational cause that friends might play in EICS
student persistence, which was not validated. Organizational influences related to EICS student
persistence were validated in all the areas identified in the study. Of the findings, students
responded resoundingly both in interviews and surveys that having a small, personalized learning
environment with caring teachers, a flexible schedule, and the ability to select the pace, the
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 158
modality, and the setting where learning takes place allowed students to feel a sense of belonging
at school and to persist in school to a successful completion of their goal—a high school
diploma. With the recommended solutions in this study EICS will not only continue to serve the
needs of more students, but will thrive and continue to improve as the school develops and
establishes additional metrics and programs to measure alternative school effectiveness.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 159
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STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 182
APPENDIX A
Assumed Needs and Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Validation Methods
Assumed Need Survey Interview
Knowledge
At-risk students need to develop social relationships. X
At-risk students need to know that teachers care about and are
interested in them.
At-risk students need a safe school environment. X
At-risk students need to have positive peer relationships in school
and at home to be successful in school.
X
At-risk students need to have a high sense of self-efficacy and self-
esteem and a sense of self-control of their learning.
X
At-risk students need more individualized instruction. X
At-risk students need teachers that are more sensitive and responsive
to the needs of students.
X
At-risk students need to better understand the learning process in
order to persist in school.
X
At-risk students need effective instructional methods such as
cooperative learning or reciprocal teaching in order to gain a
stronger sense of belonging.
X
Teachers need to use instructional strategies that encourage higher
student engagement.
X
At-risk students need a smaller school that would provide substantial
opportunities for informal adult-student interactions.
X
Teachers need to believe that all students can learn and allow their
students to work with their peers in a learning and teaching
environment.
X X
Motivation
At-risk students need to be motivated to learn in order to persist in
school.
X
At-risk students need to feel that teachers support them in order to
stay engaged in school.
X
At-risk students need to feel a sense of membership in order to
committee to school and its values.
X
At-risk students need a positive peer support system. X
At-risk students need to feel a sense of belonging in school in order
to be more motivated in school and be more academically engaged.
X
At-risk students need to meet the feeling of belonging before higher
needs such as the desire for knowledge are met.
X X
At-risk students need a warm personal connection to teachers to
maintain academic motivation.
X
At-risk students need teachers that are committed to and interested
in working with students that are pursuing similar courses of
academic study in a safe and orderly environment.
X
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 183
At-risk students need to have the ability to choose an alternative
educational setting if they are not having success in their current
school.
X
At-risk students need an autonomy-supported classroom which
nurtures students’ needs for self-determination and competence.
X
At-risk students need to be given the opportunity to choose options
in educational settings, and flexibility in learning environments such
as independent study, online learning, home-based learning with the
option to create their own schedule.
X
At-risk students need to perceive value in school in order to be
motivated to persist.
X
Organizational
Schools need to develop a student profile in order to produce early
identification and early interventions to assist students at risk of
dropping out.
X
Schools need to have high expectations for all students X
At-risk students need an alternative educational setting designed to
assist students that are credit deficient.
X
At-risk students need to have a smaller school environment. X X
Schools must assume primary responsibility for teaching students
social and cognitive skills needed to successfully fulfill adult roles.
X
Teachers need a smaller school environment in order to feel
personally responsible for student learning.
X
Schools serving at-risk students need to encourage students to stay
in school, rather than rely on exclusionary discipline practices.
X X
At-risk students need a positive school culture that they are familiar
with and feel comfortable in.
X
At-risk students need to develop relationships of trust with teachers
or other adults at school.
X
Schools need to engage all students at school, and not just athletes
and high achieving students.
X
At-risk students need flexible schedules that allow for work,
parenting, or other responsibilities.
X
At-risk students need flexibility and relevance in course
requirements for graduation.
X
At-risk students need social and emotional supports at school in
order to maintain persistence in school attendance.
X
At-risk students need positive social relationships with teachers and
adult staff to be successful in school.
X
At-risk students need alternative schools that have open enrollment
policies without a waiting list.
X
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 184
APPENDIX B
Survey Questions
Survey Questions
Knowledge
1. I was able to develop relationships with my teachers, staff and fellow students at EICS
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. I feel in control of my learning at EICS
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. I feel that the instruction at EICS is individualized and personalized for me and my educational
goals.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. I feel that EICS teachers are sensitive and responsive to my needs.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
5. I have a better understanding of the learning process after having attended EICS.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
6. Teachers at EICS utilize effective instructional methods which engage me as a students and
increase my sense of belonging at the school.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
7. The smaller school environment is important to me and provides opportunities for me to
informally connect with teachers and staff.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
8. Teachers at EICS believe that all students can learn and they involve me and my peers in
learning and teaching activities.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Motivation
9. The learning environment at EICS allows me to persist in school and stay motived to complete
my high school diploma.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
10. Teachers at EICS support me in order for me to stay engaged in school.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
11. I feel a sense of membership and belonging at EICS which allows me to be committed to school
and academically engaged.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
12. I feel a warm personal connection to my teachers at EICS which allows me to maintain my
academic motivation.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
13. Teachers at EICS are committed to students and contribute to the school being a safe and
orderly environment.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
14. I chose to attend EICS because I was not having success in my previous school.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
15. I believe that my ability to choose options such online learning, and flexible scheduling played
an important part in my academic success.
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 185
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
16. I think that EICS was able to assist me to see value in completing my high school education.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Organizational
17. I agree that schools need to provide early interventions to assist students at risk of dropping out.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
18. I feel that EICS has high expectations for all students.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
19. I agree that alternative schools such as EICS designed to assist students that are credit deficient
are important and needed in Arizona.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
20. I believe that EICS teachers feel personally responsible for my learning.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
21. I agree that schools should not excessively expel students and that they should encourage
students to stay in school.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
22. EICS encourages me and other students to stay in school, rather than pushing students out.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
23. I feel that EICS creates a positive school culture that allows students to feel comfortable and
familiar.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
24. I feel that I have developed a relationship of trust with the teachers and staff at EICS.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
25. I feel that my previous school favored high achieving students and athletes and they were not
able to help me feel engaged at school.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
26. EICS’ flexible school scheduling allowing me to work, parent, or take care of other personal
responsibilities was a major factor in my decision to enroll.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
27. I feel that EICS provides the necessary social and emotional supports to allow me to persist in
school.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
28. The fact that EICS has open enrollment throughout the year allowing me to enroll without
having to wait for a semester or year was important to me.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
29. I would be willing to participate in a follow-up in person interview.
Yes No
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 186
Open-Ended Survey Questions
1. Why did you choose an alternative school to complete your high school education?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Why did you choose EICS as your avenue toward earning your diploma?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What do you see as the biggest advantage to completing high school?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What you think is the best part of EICS.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What about EICS could be changed for the better?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 187
APPENDIX C
Interview Protocols
1. What is your driving motivation behind your persistence to stay in school?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the influence that your family had in your decision to finish high school?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the influence that you friends had in your decision to finish high school?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Please describe your academic experience at EICS.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Have you had the opportunity to develop relationships at EICS with one or two adults? Peers?
Please describe.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Do you feel that you have had more connections with EICS staff members than at your previous
school, and if so, describe them.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. How would you describe yourself as a student throughout high school before EICS and since
attending EICS?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Where do you see yourself in five years?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe specific challenges, hurdles or obstacles that you have had to overcome being a super
senior and an older high school student?
______________________________________________________________________________
STUDENT PERSISTENCE AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL 188
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. What were some ways that your previous school could have helped you so that you would not
have fallen behind?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
11. How long were you out of school before you came to EICS?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
12. What do your friends that have dropped out of high school say about their reasons for dropping
out of high school?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
13. How will earning you high school diploma affect your future plans?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences causing at-risk students at an alternative school to consistently perform below traditional Arizona state and federal academic accountability measures. This evaluation study was conducted by collecting data from over 200 students over the age of 18 using a 29-question survey asking a variety of questions related to their feelings about their academic experiences at an alternative school. Additionally, 20 students over the age of 18 were interviewed to further understand their academic experiences at an alternative school. Despite the fact that the alternative school consistently performs below Arizona state and federal academic accountability measures, the majority of students that participated in both the surveys and in the individual interviews confirmed that they have made significant improvements in their academics since attending the school. In fact, 94% of students either strongly agreed or agreed that learning at the alternative school was personalized for them to allow them to be more successful. Additionally, 95% of students either strongly agreed or agreed that they had a much better understanding of the learning process after attending the alternative school. Finally, 96% of students either strongly agreed or agreed that they felt more in control of their learning environment after having attended the alternative school. Students attending the alternative school connected with their teachers in a smaller, more individualized environment and therefore experienced academic success. Many students come to the school behind in credits, prohibiting them from graduating with their four-year cohorts. Consequently, academic accountability measures should be different for these types of students and schools when compared to traditional schools.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Smith, Timothy Andrew
(author)
Core Title
Measuring student persistence at an alternative charter high school: internal school evaluation and external policy implications
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Global Executive
Publication Date
05/01/2019
Defense Date
05/01/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
alternative high school,alternative school evaluation,alternative school policy,charter high school,OAI-PMH Harvest,school choice,student persistence
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Datta, Monique Claire (
committee chair
), Chung, Ruth H. (
committee member
), Tambascia, Tracy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
timothas@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-164914
Unique identifier
UC11660974
Identifier
etd-SmithTimot-7385.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-164914 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-SmithTimot-7385.pdf
Dmrecord
164914
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Smith, Timothy Andrew
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
alternative high school
alternative school evaluation
alternative school policy
charter high school
school choice
student persistence