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Investigating discrimination and depression within a couple context

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Investigating discrimination and depression within a couple context

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Content Running head: COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 1

Investigating Discrimination and Depression Within a Couple Context

Yehsong Kim
Master of Art (Psychology) – August 2019
University of Southern California

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 2
Table of Contents

Abstract ·································································································· 3
Introduction ······························································································ 4
Discrimination and Depression in Young Adults ·········································· 4
Discrimination and Romantic Relationships ················································ 5
Present Study ··················································································· 8
Methods ································································································ 10
Sample and Procedure ······································································· 10
Measures ······················································································ 10
Analytic Plan ················································································· 12
Results ·································································································· 12
Descriptive Statistics ········································································· 12
Main Analyses ················································································ 13
Discussion ····························································································· 15
Appendix ······························································································· 21
Table 1 ························································································· 21
Table 2 ························································································· 22
Figure 1 ························································································ 24
Figure 2 ························································································ 25
Figure 3 ························································································ 26
References ····························································································· 27

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 3
Abstract
In light of the prevalence of discrimination and its adverse impacts mental health, this
study investigates the link between discrimination and depressive symptoms within the context
of romantic relationships. Among a sample of 109 heterosexual young adult couples, we tested
direct and interactive effects of discrimination, partner’s discrimination, and either relationship
satisfaction or relationship aggression on depressive symptoms. Participants’ own discrimination
was associated with depressive symptoms for women and men. The link between one’s own
discrimination and depressive symptoms was stronger in women in more aggressive
relationships. Women in more aggressive relationships also reported lower depressive symptoms
when partners’ discrimination was high. A three-way interaction emerged for men, such that for
men in less satisfying relationships, low partner discrimination predicted a positive relationship
between own discrimination and depressive symptoms; however, for men in more satisfying
relationships, high partner discrimination predicted a positive relationship between own
discrimination and depressive symptoms. These results suggest that the quality of the
relationships matters in how one’s own discrimination and partner’s discrimination may affect
depressive symptoms.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 4
Introduction
Discrimination is prevalent in the United States. A recent large-scale national survey
reported that 32-57% of racial and sexual minorities reported personally experiencing identity-
related personal slurs and 20-57% also endorsed institutional forms of discrimination
(NPR/Robert Wood Johnson Foundation/Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 2017).
Perceived discrimination is understood as an uncontrollable and unpredictable stressor, and has
been found to be particularly harmful to mental health (Williams & Mohammed, 2009).
Depression is one mental health outcomes linked with discrimination at various developmental
stages—in children, adolescents, and adults (Paradies et al., 2015; Schmitt, Branscombe,
Postmes, & Garcia, 2014). Despite the plethora of evidence on the effects of discrimination on
individuals’ depression, less is known about the effects of discrimination in the context of
romantic relationships. Discrimination is not experienced within a vacuum, but affects one’s
relationships as well (Doyle & Molix, 2014). Discrimination experiences may affect one’s
partner, or the relationship itself may help with or hinder—depending on the qualities of the
relationship—coping with these stressful experiences. Thus, the present study seeks to
investigate discrimination-related risks for depression within the context of romantic
relationships in dating couples.
Discrimination and Depression in Young Adults
Though most frequently studied in relation to racial discrimination, discrimination is also
construed more broadly (Kessler, Mickelson, & Williams, 1999), referring to negative attitudes,
judgments, or prejudicial or unfair treatment based on protected characteristics (i.e., race, sex, or
disability) or due to any unique characteristic, such as other cognitive, physical, or social
qualities. Discrimination is typically viewed as a chronic and cumulative stressor (Pascoe &
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 5
Richman, 2009) with long term effects on health (Paradies et al., 2015) and psychological well-
being (Schmitt, Branscombe, Postmes, & Garcia, 2014). The effects of discrimination on health
has been understood through social stress theory, which posits that having a lower social status
leads to both stressful events and chronic strain, which deplete one’s resources, which in turn
affects one’s health (Aneshensel, Rutter, & Lachenbruch, 1991; Pearlin, 1989). The frequency of
discrimination can wax and wane over an individual’s life course based on changes in life
situations, (e.g., values and mores of specific schools, workplace environments, and
neighborhoods), but discourteous and demeaning incidents can crop up unexpectedly in everyday
encounters. In the present study, discrimination is defined with respect to protected
characteristics as well as personal characteristics (e.g. overweight, family social standing). The
association between discrimination and depression, which has been observed throughout the
lifespan but even in those as young as preschool-aged children (Caughy, O'Campo, & Muntaner,
2004; Priest et al., 2013), is further investigated here in young adults. Young adulthood is an
optimal life stage to investigate the link between discrimination and depression, as it is a
developmental period marked by both heightened discrimination (Hughes et al., 2006) and high
prevalence of depressive episodes (Ahrnsbrak, Bose, Hedden, Lipari, & Park-Lee, 2017).
Discrimination and Romantic Relationships
Discrimination is universally recognized as an individual stressor with less known about
how discrimination fits within couple models of stress. Within the lens of dyadic processes, one
partner’s individual stress (e.g., health problems, tensions at work) can cross over to the other
partner and affect the second partner’s well-being (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler & Wetherington,
1989; Neff & Karney, 2007; Timmons, Arbel & Margolin, 2016). Thus far, the crossover of
discrimination stress has been demonstrated with relationship effects, i.e., men’s discrimination
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 6
was negatively associated with women’s psychological aggression (Lavner, Barton, Bryant, &
Beach, 2018) but not individual mental health. It is possible to imagine, however, how one
partner’s experience of discrimination stress gets communicated to the partner, and perhaps,
affect that partner’s mental health. One study of same-sex couples showed effects of partner’s
discrimination on increased levels of one’s stress (Otis, Rostosky, Riggle, & Hamrin, 2006),
demonstrating some individual crossover effects of discrimination. Beyond crossover, little is
known about whether partners tend to experience similar levels of discrimination and, relatedly,
whether depression is intensified when both partners experience high discrimination. On the one
hand, crossover research would suggest that one’s partner’s discrimination in the context of
one’s own discrimination might intensify overall stress and be associated with heightened mental
health symptoms. Alternatively, experiencing similarly high levels of discrimination could be a
source of connection between romantic partners, perhaps buffering individual symptoms.
Research to date about partners’ similarities in perceived discrimination is quite limited. In one
study, interracial married couples who shared perceptions of the level of discrimination
experienced had less ambivalence about their relationship compared to those who did not have a
shared perception (Walker, 2005). Qualitative data suggest alternative possibilities: that minority
stress can make relationships stronger or make life harder (Stewart, Frost, and LeBlanc, 2019).
More research is needed to test the effects of both partners’ discrimination experiences on each
individual’s wellbeing and whether shared discrimination experiences may be a vulnerability or
protective factor for mental health. Based on considerable evidence that stress crosses over from
one partner to the other (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler & Wetherington, 1989; Timmons, Arbel &
Margolin, 2016), the present study assesses discrimination and depression symptoms in both
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 7
partners, allowing us to investigate cross-partner effects as well as interactive effects where each
partner’s level of discrimination is accounted for.
From the lens of the social stress theory (Pearlin, 1989), romantic relationships can also
be seen as a source of social support in the face of discrimination, increasing one’s resources to
handle discrimination, or if the relationship is another source of stress, further deplete one’s
resources. A number of studies have shown that positive couple relationships can buffer the links
between discrimination as an individual stressors and mental health outcomes. For example,
spousal support has been found to buffer the association between perceived discrimination and
psychological distress in Asian Americans (Rollock & Lui, 2016) and between discrimination
and depressive symptoms among those in same-sex marriages (Donnelly, Robinson, &
Umberson, 2018). Moreover, in African American couples, perceived racial discrimination
predicted depressive symptoms in men who experienced low levels of spousal support, but not in
those with high levels of spousal support (McNeil, Fincham, & Beach, 2014). Similarly, in same-
sex couples, those who perceived that their partners as less empathetic reported more depressive
symptoms when experiencing higher discrimination stress (Randall, Tao, Totenhagen, Walsh, &
Cooper, 2017). Despite consistency across these findings, the question of whether relationship
factors moderate associations between discrimination and depression is necessary to probe in
terms of understanding the toll of discrimination and why certain individuals may be more
affected than others.
Negative relationship processes as context in which discrimination affects wellbeing have
been less well-studied. Recent data suggests that discrimination may have direct associations
with relationship aggression (Trail, Goff, Bradbury, & Karney, 2012). Among men who have sex
with men, those experiencing more racial discrimination were more likely to report experiencing
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 8
intimate partner violence while those who experienced homophobic discrimination were more
likely to report both experiencing and perpetrating intimate partner violence (Finneran &
Stephenson, 2014). In low-income heterosexual African American couples, men who
experienced higher levels of racial discrimination reported higher levels of perpetrating
psychological aggression while women experiencing more racial discrimination reported higher
levels of perpetrating physical aggression (Lavner, Barton, Bryant, & Beach, 2018). Given the
ramifications of relationship aggression, the connection between discrimination and both
experiencing and perpetrating relationship aggression deserves further attention. As no studies
have yet examined relationship aggression as a moderator of the link between discrimination and
depression, the present study investigates relationship aggression, along with overall relationship
quality, as contexts for the links between discrimination and depression. We propose that the
romantic relationships of young adulthood may provide an important context for the link
between discrimination and depression, due to the naturally reparative, or alternatively,
inherently stressful, qualities of those relationships.
Present Study
The present study investigates the effects of discrimination on depressive symptoms
within a couple context. This relationship context is first examined by testing whether partner’s
discrimination has direct effects on their partners and whether there are interactive effects when
both partners experience discrimination. Second, the relationship context is considered by
investigating whether relationship factors (i.e. relationship satisfaction or relationship
aggression) moderate the association between own discrimination and depressive symptoms.
Given the differing possibilities of how having shared experiences of high discrimination may
affect depressive symptoms of both partners, (i.e. that it could be associated with more or less
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 9
depressive symptoms than if one’s partner did not experience discrimination), three-way
interactions that include own discrimination, partner’s discrimination, and either relationship
satisfaction or relationship aggression are tested to investigate if the links between one’s own and
partner’s discrimination and depressive symptoms vary as a function of relationship factors. By
examining these questions in young adults and their romantic partners, we can study a unique
window of time in which discrimination and depression are heightened, but also in which
romantic relationships have developed into a primary source of social support or aggravation.
Aim 1: Investigate the link between one’s own discrimination and depressive symptoms.
HO1: More discrimination experiences will be associated with more depressive symptoms.
Aim 2: Examine the effects of partner discrimination on one’s own depressive symptoms, and
how partners’ combined discrimination experiences relate to depressive symptoms.
HO2: Partner’s reported discrimination will be positively associated with depressive symptoms
and there will be an interactive effect between one’s own and the partner’s discrimination such
that the association between one’s own discrimination and depressive symptoms will be stronger
among those with high partner discrimination.
Aim 3: Examine whether the associations between either one’s own discrimination, the partner’s
discrimination, or the combination of own and partner discrimination and depressive symptoms
differ depending on proximal relationship factors.
HO3: The associations between both self and partner discrimination and depressive symptoms
will be weaker among those with high relationship satisfaction and stronger among those with
high relationship aggression. In addition, relationship satisfaction and relationship aggression
will moderate the interactive effects of own and partner’s discrimination on depressive
symptoms.
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 10
Methods
Sample and Procedure
The total sample for analyses in this study was 109 heterosexual couples, after excluding
from a sample of 121 three same-sex couples, and nine couples with missing measures.
Participants were recruited via flyers and Craigslist (n = 82 couples) for a study on couples’
interactions, or as an extension of a prior longitudinal study (n = 27 couples). The couples were
together an average of 30 months (SD = 24.3) and 44% reported living together. Participants
were racially diverse emerging adults living in a large metropolitan area (12% Asian, 16% Black,
25% Latinx, 15% Multiracial, 28% White, and 4% other; Mage = 22.1, SD = 1.8). 51% were
students and 74% were employed either part-time or full-time. In an online survey, participants
answered questions about perceived discrimination and symptoms of depression, and completed
a survey in the laboratory on their level of relationship satisfaction and the level of aggression in
their relationship.
Measures
Perceived Discrimination. Participants completed a 26-item discrimination survey
(Rasmussen, Ramos, Han, Pettit, & Margolin, 2018) that assessed the extent to which they “have
ever been teased, picked on, excluded from something [they] wished to do, felt disliked, or
discriminated against” due to a range of identities and characteristics, including but not limited
to: race/ethnicity, gender, religion, physical appearance, weight, and family characteristics.
Responses were reported on a 4-point scale (0 = not at all, 3 = a lot). Reliability for this measure
was good (α = .86). Most participants reported at least some amount of perceived discrimination
(women: 87%; men: 89%).
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 11
Relationship satisfaction (RS). Participants completed the Quality of Marriage Index
(Norton, 1983) to assess their own relationship satisfaction, a 6-item measure assessing degree of
satisfaction with the current relationship. Responses to five Likert scale items range from 0 (very
strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree), and the sixth item ranges from 0 (unhappy) to 10
(perfectly happy). Reliability for this measure was excellent (α = .94). On average, relationship
satisfaction in this sample was high (women: M = 6.37; SD = 1.20; men: M = 6.59; SD = 0.93).
Relationship aggression (RA). Aggression was measured using the How Dating
Partners Treat Each Other Scale (HDPTEO), adapted from the How Friends Treat Each Other
scale (HFTEO; Bennett, Guran, Ramos & Margolin, 2011). The HDPTEO has 65 items
encompassing four categories of aggression (i.e., electronic, physical, sexual, and verbal). Using
a response scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (>10 times), participants go through all items once
to report level of aggression victimization and go through the same items a second time to report
aggression perpetration in the current relationship. To account for underreporting of dating
aggression (O'Leary & Williams, 2006), we used the maximum report per item between one
partner’s report of aggression perpetration and the other’s report of victimization to derive each
partner’s aggression perpetration score. As partners’ aggression scores were highly correlated (r
= .802, p < .001), a mean score between each partner’s aggression was used to create a single
relationship aggression score for each couple. Reliability with this sample was excellent (α
= .94). Most couples reported at least some aggression (73%).
Depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms in each partner were measured using the
Beck Depression Inventory-II (suicide item not included; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996), with
responses ranging from 0 to 3 (higher symptom levels). Reliability within the sample was good
(α = .88). Overall, this community sample showed modest levels of depression symptoms with
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 12
only a small number reaching moderate to severe levels of depression (women: 10.1%, men:
10.1%).
Analytic Plan
We ran six multiple linear regression models each for men and women separately. Model
1a and 1b tested main effects, Model 2a and 2b tested two-way interactions, and Model 3a and
3b tested 3-way interactions. Models were separated into a and b to test separate effects of
relationship satisfaction (a) and relationship aggression (b). In all analyses, relationship length,
co-habitation, and one’s own race with the “white” race as the comparison group were
covariates. In the first model, main effects models examined effects of own discrimination,
partner’s discrimination, and either relationship satisfaction or relationship aggression. In the
second model, two-way interactions were examined to test the interactive effects of own and
partner’s discrimination and interactive effects of own or partner’s discrimination and either
relationship satisfaction or relationship aggression. Finally, three-way interactions between own
discrimination, partner’s discrimination, and one of the relationship factors were tested.
Significant interactions were probed through simple slopes analyses. Variables were tested at +/-
1 SD for low and high levels of the moderators. All analyses were conducted using SPSS
Version 24 (IBM Corp., 2016).
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for variables of interest.
Women and men’s discrimination experiences were positively correlated as were their
depressive symptoms. Each partner’s discrimination experiences correlated with their own
depressive symptoms and showed cross-over associations to the partner’s depressive symptoms.
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 13
Women and men significantly but only modestly showed agreement in their relationship
satisfaction. Reports about aggression perpetration in the relationship showed high correlations
indicating largely reciprocal aggression (or lack of aggression) in these relationships.
Discrimination was unrelated to relationship variables—either satisfaction or aggression—for
men and women. Men’s depressive symptoms showed bivariate associations in expected
directions with both their own and the partner’s relationship variables; women’ depressive
symptoms were inversely associated with their own relationship satisfaction but unrelated to
partner’s relationship satisfaction and either one’s aggression.
Main Analyses
Table 2 presents the multiple linear regression analyses, with models testing predictors of
women’s depression presented in the upper half and results from models testing predictors of
men’s depression in the lower half. The analyses proceeded with three stages of model
building—main effects, two-way interactions, and the three-way interactions. Models two and
three, which introduce the two relationship variables were conducted separately for relationship
satisfaction (RS) and relationship aggression (RA). Covariates, which are interpreted, in Models
1a and 1b, show no effects for months together or whether or not couples live together. However,
there were some racial differences in overall depression such that Asian women and Black and
Latinx men reported more depressive symptoms relative to White counterparts.
HO1: Hypothesis 1, that discrimination is associated with one’s own depression
symptoms, is supported for both men and women.
HO2: Hypothesis 2, testing direct cross-partner effects of discrimination on depressive
symptoms, was not supported. Interactive effects between the two partners’ discrimination was
also not supported.
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 14
HO3: Beyond main effect associations between relationship satisfaction and depressive
symptoms for both women and men and positive associations between relationship aggression
and depressive symptoms for women, model two shows interactive effects between own
discrimination and relationship aggression for women. Simple slopes analyses, seen in Figure 1,
show that high own discrimination was associated with higher depressive symptoms when
relationship aggression was high (+1 SD; b = 0.99, p < .001), but not low (-1 SD; b = 0.22, ns).
Model two also shows interactive effects between partner’s discrimination and relationship
aggression for women but the direction of the effect was somewhat unanticipated. As shown in
Figure 2, high partner’s discrimination was associated with lower depressive symptoms in
women in the context of a relationship with high aggression (+1 SD; b = -0.59, p < .05), but not
in the context of a relationship with low aggression (-1 SD; b = 0.27, ns). Relationship
aggression did not moderate associations between one’s own discrimination for men. In
addition, relationship satisfaction did not significantly moderate the association between one’s
own discrimination and depressive symptoms in women or men.
Finally, with respect to HO3, a 3-way interaction model was added to test whether the
interactive effect of own and partner’s discrimination on depressive symptoms was changed by
the relationship context. One significant 3-way interaction for men emerged between own
discrimination, partner’s discrimination, and relationship satisfaction. As seen in Figure 3, in the
context of a satisfying relationship, the anticipated interactive effect between men’s own
discrimination and the partner’s discrimination on depressive symptoms is observed. Men’s own
discrimination was associated with depressive symptoms when their partner’s discrimination was
high (+1SD, b = 0.63 p < .05) but not when the partner’s discrimination was low (+1 SD, b =
0.10, ns). In other words, high discrimination reported by both partners related to men’s high
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 15
depressive symptoms. However, a different pattern emerged in the context of low relationship
satisfaction; men’s own discrimination when partner’s discrimination was low (-1SD, b = 1.07, p
< .001) was associated with higher depressive symptoms but not when partner’s discrimination
was high (+1 SD, b = 0.02, ns). Namely, among men who reported low relationship satisfaction,
a “mismatch” pattern occurs, such that when partner’s report low discrimination, men’s high
discrimination is associated with depressive symptoms.
Discussion
The present study has provided support for past literature linking perceived
discrimination with depressive symptoms in young adult couples and provided further insight
into how the romantic relationship context may play a role in this link. Specifically, we focused
on crossover between partners’ discrimination on depressive symptoms and moderating effects
of relationship satisfaction and relationship aggression. As hypothesized and consistent with the
literature, own discrimination was associated with depressive symptoms in both women and
men. Moreover, a positive relationship between discrimination and depressive symptoms was
found in women in more aggressive relationships. A negative relationship between partner’s
discrimination and depressive symptoms was found in women in more aggressive relationships.
The two-way interaction between own discrimination and partner discrimination was not
associated with depressive symptoms in men or women; however, own discrimination and
partner discrimination did show an interaction effect on men’s depressive symptoms once
relationship satisfaction was introduced as an additional moderator. Specifically, in men who
reported low relationship satisfaction, low partner discrimination predicted a positive
relationship between own discrimination and depressive symptoms. In contrast, in men who
reported high relationship satisfaction, high partner discrimination predicted a positive
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 16
relationship between own discrimination and depressive symptoms. By investigating interactions
between romantic partners’ discrimination experiences in the context of the relationship, the
current study provides a better understanding of the role romantic relationships may play in
buffering or exacerbating depressive symptoms in young adults.
Among women, discrimination and depressive symptoms were more strongly positively
associated when in a more aggressive relationship. This finding is in line with social stress theory
(Pearlin, 1989), which suggests that social stressors—in this case, discrimination and negative
social relationship processes—deplete one’s resources and affect mental health. It appears that
for those who both experience more discrimination and are in a more aggressive relationship, the
“double disadvantage” of having multiple social stressors manifests in higher depressive
symptoms. Direct crossover effects of partner’s discrimination on depressive symptoms were not
found; however, crossover effects were seen when accounting for relationship factors, suggesting
that there may be different patterns of crossover effects depending upon the quality of the
relationship. Interestingly, partner’s discrimination was associated with fewer depressive
symptoms in women who reported high relationship aggression. In other words, women who
were in more aggressive relationships felt less depressed if partners reported experiencing
discrimination. One possibility is that women who see their partners being discriminated against
are more understanding when aggression occurs, as the aggression may be attributed to
frustrations outside of the relationship. Discrimination has been linked to higher relationship
aggression (Lavner, Barton, Bryant, & Beach, 2018; Trail, Goff, Bradbury, & Karney, 2012) and
women may be empathetic when their partner’s engage in aggression after seeing partner’s deal
with discrimination. The discrimination may provide an “explanation” for the aggression in the
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 17
relationship, and potentially reduce feelings of guilt and blame in partners in aggressive
relationships, an associated symptom of depression (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
For men in satisfying relationships, own discrimination and depressive symptoms were
positively associated when partner’s discrimination was also high. These findings may be
understood by considering how a satisfying relationship was defined. Of the six items assessing
relationship satisfaction, one item was “feeling like part of a team”. Possibly, then, when men
endorsed satisfaction with their relationship, they felt as though they were navigating the ups and
downs of life together with their partner, and were more prone to acutely feeling the effects of
their partners’ individualized stress (e.g., discrimination) themselves. However, the same effects
do not occur when men are less satisfied with their relationship. On the contrary, men in less
satisfying relationships felt more depressed when they themselves were experiencing
discrimination but their partners experienced less. Potentially, having a partner who experienced
less discrimination may highlight the unfairness of discriminatory treatment, and heighten a loss
of justice and fairness, which may increase feelings of depression (Priest, Perry, Ferdinand,
Paradies, & Kelaher, 2014; Schaafsma, 2013). Another possibility is that men feel more
depressed in the face of experiencing discrimination when their partners cannot understand what
they were going through or provide empathic support (McNeil, Fincham, & Beach, 2014;
Randall, Tao, Totenhagen, Walsh, & Cooper, 2017). Alternatively, having low relationship
satisfaction may be a stressor in and of itself, adding to the social stressor of discrimination to
increase depressive symptoms.
These findings shed light on the nuances of how the relationship context may relate to
discrimination and mental health. As seen in previous studies, a highly satisfying relationship
may act as a buffer against discrimination’s adverse effects (Donnelly, Robinson, & Umberson,
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 18
2018; Rollock & Lui, 2016), but our study shows that a satisfying relationship can also be a
context for more stress for one’s partner, if the partner is feeling particularly connected and
empathetic and taking the unfair treatment of one’s partner personally. Experiences of
discrimination could cause damage not only to the recipient of discrimination but also to their
loved ones. One caveat, however, is the main effect of relationship satisfaction on depressive
symptoms for men and women in our sample, which shows that high relationship satisfaction is
associated with fewer depressive symptoms. Thus, while some evidence for crossover effects of
discrimination are present, the positive effects of a good relationship should also be
acknowledged.
There were several limitations to the present study. First, there is evidence that
discrimination is perceived as more prevalent and severe for persons of disadvantaged groups
(Schmitt, Branscombe, Postmes, Garcia, 2014). Although we tested race as a covariate, the
sample size here did not permit investigation of interactions between discrimination and either
ethnic/racial groups or other stigmatized characteristics. Second, this study is cross-sectional, and
effects of discrimination are generally somewhat stronger in cross-sectional than in longitudinal
studies (Paradies et al., 2015). Third, the timing and chronicity of discrimination experiences are
unknown. For more precision in assessing the impacts of discrimination, repeated ecological
momentary assessments (e.g., Livingston, Flentje, Heck, Szalda-Petree, & Cochran, 2017) could
capture fluctuations in discrimination experiences along with fluctuations in emotions and health
symptoms. Finally, data were collected contemporaneously and thus, directionality of effects
cannot be assumed. Due to the broader literature on discrimination’s effect on mental health, we
drew theoretical assumptions that discrimination may be contributing to depressive symptoms
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 19
and relationship factors were a context of this association. However, it is also possible that in this
sample, depressive symptoms, for example, affected reports of other variables of interest.
Despite these limitations, this study provides a more nuanced understanding of how the
couple context may relate to the link between discrimination and depressive symptoms in young
adults. While the romantic relationship has mostly been studied as a form of stress buffering
within the context of discrimination, these findings suggest that different qualities of the
relationship determine differing patterns in how individuals respond to discrimination directed at
themselves or their partners. Relationship aggression and relationship satisfaction were both
double-edged swords, neither being a blanket “good” or “bad” context for the link between
discrimination and depressive symptoms, but rather revealed a more complex interplay of how
couples navigate discrimination experiences together. One implication of these findings is
harnessing the potential of the couple relationship to help buffer against the negative mental
health effects of outside stressors for oneself and one’s partner. Strengthening the relationship
equips couples with more tools to handle external stressors (Baik & Adams, 2011; Martire,
Schulz, Helgeson, Small, & Saghafi, 2010) such as discrimination. Reducing negative
relationship processes like aggression may reduce development of depression (Rivas et al.,
2015). However, findings also suggest the importance of teaching couples how to empathize
with one’s partner’s individual life difficulties without creating crossover burnout, a common
symptom of overstressed couples (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler & Wetherington, 1989; Song, Foo,
Uy, & Sun, 2011). Moreover, having empathy in the face of a partner’s discrimination
experiences may reduce the mental and emotional load for oneself if the stress of a partner’s
individual stressor spills over into the relationship. Importantly, research has shown that
conventional evidence-based couples’ interventions are not efficacious for low-income couples
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 20
(Lavner, Karney, & Bradbury, 2015), who may be more likely to encounter discrimination and
other individual life stressors (Kessler, Mickelson & Williams, 1999). Therefore, more research
in effective couples’ interventions for historically disadvantaged communities is needed. The
associations shown in the current study demonstrate the importance of understanding the dyadic
context of support and stress as it interacts with more individual processes and events and mental
health.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 21
Appendix

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Coefficients for Study Variables.

M SD Range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Women's Discrimination 0.33 0.34 0-1.89

2. Women's Relationship Satisfaction 6.37 1.20 2.33-7.50 -.108

3. Women's Relationship Aggression 0.21 0.38 0-2.11 .053 -.349***

4. Women's Depressive Symptoms 0.53 0.39 0-2.30 .302** -.270** .156

5. Men's Discrimination 0.33 0.30 0-1.56 .439*** -.174 .137 .190*

6. Men's Relationship Satisfaction 6.59 0.93 2.33-7.50 .111 .391*** -.330*** -.083 -.050

7. Men's Relationship Aggression 0.16 0.27 0-2.19 .026 -.383*** .802*** .135 .142 -.425***

8. Men's Depressive Symptoms 0.43 0.47 0-2.30 .193* -.410*** .482*** .199* .404*** -.297** .353***

9. Months Together 29.83 24.25 2-109 -.112 .104 .083 .047 .032 -.063 .060 .061

10. Cohabitating 44% -- -- .124 .108 .173 -.027 .011 .072 .174 .020 .079
Note. All scores are means across items, except months together and cohabitating. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 22
Table 2. Multiple Linear Regression Analyses Examining Relationship Factors and Partners’ Discrimination as Moderators of the Associations Between
Discrimination and Depression Symptoms.

b SE b SE b SE b SE b SE b SE
Women's DS
Model 1a, RS
(R
2
=.229)
Model 1b, RA
(R
2
= .199)
Model 2a, RS
(R
2
= .255)
Model 2b, RA
(R
2
= .309)
Model 3a, RS
(R
2
= .255)
Model 3b, RA
(R
2
= .317)
Months Together 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001
Co-habitation 0.025 0.077 -0.018 0.081 0.021 0.078 -0.061 0.077 0.021 0.079 -0.059 0.077
Asian 0.280* 0.121 0.243 0.127 0.283* 0.123 0.223 0.120 0.283* 0.124 0.217 0.120
Black 0.108 0.125 0.150 0.126 0.137 0.127 0.154 0.120 0.137 0.128 0.150 0.120
Latinx 0.055 0.104 0.082 0.105 0.048 0.105 0.035 0.100 0.048 0.106 0.029 0.100
Multiracial -0.072 0.119 -0.088 0.122 -0.058 0.122 -0.132 0.115 -0.058 0.123 -0.104 0.119
Other -0.110 0.179 -0.167 0.196 -0.084 0.181 -0.057 0.191 -0.084 0.183 -0.023 0.193
OD 0.374** 0.126 0.392** 0.128 0.390** 0.139 0.506*** 0.137 0.390** 0.140 0.535*** 0.140
PD 0.019 0.141 0.022 0.144 0.045 0.149 -0.050 0.144 0.045 0.151 -0.054 0.144
RF -0.079* 0.031 0.206 0.131 -0.080* 0.031 0.416** 0.136 -0.080* 0.032 0.490** 0.152
OD x PD -- -- -- -- -0.147 0.263 -0.145 0.249 -0.152 0.292 -0.164 0.250
OD x RF -- -- -- -- -0.164 0.094 1.577*** 0.436 -0.1161 0.111 2.065** 0.630
PD x RF -- -- -- -- 0.108 0.114 -1.768** 0.509 0.109 0.117 -1.599** 0.532
OD x PD x RF -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -0.009 0.234 -1.030 0.961
Men's DS
Model 1a, RS
(R
2
= .323)
Model 1b, RA
(R
2
= .386)
Model 2a, RS
(R
2
= .387)
Model 2b, RA
(R
2
= .265)
Model 3a, RS
(R
2
= .360)
Model 3b, RA
(R
2
= .398)
Months Together 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.002
Co-habitation 0.039 0.082 -0.044 0.080 0.045 0.084 0.000 0.086 0.042 0.082 -0.031 0.083
Asian -0.009 0.146 0.033 0.137 -0.004 0.149 0.035 0.146 -0.007 0.147 0.031 0.140
Black 0.304* 0.126 0.272* 0.120 0.300* 0.132 0.314* 0.126 0.326* 0.130 0.280* 0.122
Latinx 0.231* 0.115 0.179 0.111 0.220 0.117 0.214 0.116 0.212 0.115 0.171 0.113
Multiracial 0.003 0.129 -0.045 0.124 0.011 0.131 -0.001 0.130 0.039 0.129 -0.041 0.126
Other -0.056 0.227 -0.088 0.216 -0.027 0.232 -0.041 0.228 -0.074 0.230 -0.089 0.220
OD 0.543** 0.156 0.514** 0.149 0.568** 0.164 0.569** 0.164 0.454** 0.171 0.551** 0.157
PD 0.028 0.138 -0.013 0.130 0.045 0.159 -0.001 0.156 0.117 0.160 0.026 0.152
RF -0.126** 0.043 0.557*** 0.126 -0.119* 0.051 0.333 0.178 -0.157** 0.053 0.540** 0.166
OD x PD -- -- -- -- -0.046 0.286 -0.069 0.286 -0.410 0.333 -0.100 0.275
OD x RF -- -- -- -- -0.196 0.195 0.587 0.604 -0.089 0.199 0.364 0.584
PD x RF -- -- -- -- 0.073 0.201 -0.710 0.514 -0.073 0.210 -0.307 0.663
OD x PD x RF -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1.267* 0.619 -0.467 1.018
COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 23
Note. DS: depressive symptoms; RS: relationship satisfaction; RA: relationship aggression; OD: own discrimination; RF: relationship factor (either RA or
RS); PD: partner’s discrimination. Relationship satisfaction is calculated as each person’s relationship satisfaction scores while relationship aggression
scores are a mean aggression score between partners. Reported values are from models run with the “white” race category as the comparison group. Race
covariates are the race of the "self". *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 24
Figure 1. Relationship Aggression Moderates the Association Between Own Discrimination and Depressive
Symptoms for Women.

Note. OD: own discrimination; RA: relationship aggression. Low and high levels of the moderator were at +/-
1SD. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 25

Figure 2. Relationship Aggression Moderates the Association Between Partner Discrimination and
Depressive Symptoms for Women.

Note. PD: partner discrimination; RA: relationship aggression. Low and high levels of the moderator were at
+/-1SD. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 26
Figure 3. Partner's Discrimination and Own Relationship Satisfaction Moderates the Association Between Own Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms
for Men.

Note. OD: own discrimination; PD: partner’s discrimination. Low and high levels of the moderator were at +/-1SD. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

COUPLES’ DISCRIMINATION AND DEPRESSION 27
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract In light of the prevalence of discrimination and its adverse impacts mental health, this study investigates the link between discrimination and depressive symptoms within the context of romantic relationships. Among a sample of 109 heterosexual young adult couples, we tested direct and interactive effects of discrimination, partner’s discrimination, and either relationship satisfaction or relationship aggression on depressive symptoms. Participants’ own discrimination was associated with depressive symptoms for women and men. The link between one’s own discrimination and depressive symptoms was stronger in women in more aggressive relationships. Women in more aggressive relationships also reported lower depressive symptoms when partners’ discrimination was high. A three-way interaction emerged for men, such that for men in less satisfying relationships, low partner discrimination predicted a positive relationship between own discrimination and depressive symptoms

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Creator Kim, Yehsong (author)

Core Title Investigating discrimination and depression within a couple context

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 07/03/2019

Defense Date 04/23/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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