University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Preventing recidivism for females through education

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Preventing recidivism for females through education

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PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES THROUGH EDUCATION

by

Lisa S. Kaneko

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The unwavering support and encouragement of my parents, Richard and Alice Kaneko, to
always pursue my dreams and the importance of education gave me the foundation to embark on
this part of my journey in life. This, however, would not have been possible without my
dissertation chair, Dr. Tracy Tambascia. Your gentle guidance and quiet encouragement got me
through many rough patches from hurricanes to study participants. Thank you very much to my
committee members, Professor Shafiqa Ahmadi and Dr. Darnell Cole, for the knowledge you
imparted in classes along with your mentorship and encouragement.
Thank you also to the Hawaii Cohort. I could not have gotten to know and grow with
better people or have had such great snacks. Big Brother, you were always there for me, both in
school and out of school. I would not have been able to do this without your love and
encouragement. Finally, thank you BJ. You always supported me from fixing broken things
around the house to taking care of my parents, so that I could get through this part of my journey.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 3
Table of Contents

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 6
Statement of the Problem 6
Purpose of the Study 9
Significance of the Study 10
Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions 11
Limitations 11
Delimitations 12
Assumptions 13
Definitions of Terms 13
Conclusion 15

Chapter Two: Literature Review 16
History of Education in United States Correctional Facilities 17
Educational Focus 18
Needs of Currently Incarcerated or Exiting Students 19
Impact of Education on Recidivism 21
Education Alone 22
General Education Programs 22
Postsecondary Education 24
Education as Part of a Rehabilitation Program 28
Criminal Justice System and Postsecondary Education Institution Response 29
Criminal Justice System Response 29
Application of Education Research to Correctional Education Programs 29
Postsecondary Response 33
Identity Formation and Development 34
Gender Identity and Theoretical Frameworks 38
Self-Authorship Model and Framework 41
Women’s Ways of Knowing 43
Reference to the Study 45
Conclusion 47

Chapter Three: Methodology 48
ABC Program Study 49
Methods 51
Qualitative Study 51
Site 52

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 4
Population and Sample 54
Population 54
Sample 54
Instrumentation 56
Data Collection Process 58
Data Analysis 61
Validity 62
Role of the Researcher 63
Conclusion 63

Chapter Four: Findings 65
Introduction 65
Study Participant Demographics 65
Student Participant Profiles 67
Staff and Peer Mentor Participant Profiles 69
Emergent Themes 70
Theme 1: A Sense of Belonging and Community 70
Theme 2: Empowerment and Self-Efficacy 74
Theme 3: Personal Accountability 80
Theme 4: Value of Communication in Identity Development 82
Conclusion 87

Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations 89
Overview of Findings 89
Discussion of Findings 94
Perceptions of Participation in the ABC Program 94
Student Relationships 95
Importance of the Environment 95
Identity Development 96
Funding 98
Recommendations for Practice 99
Recommendation 1: Increase Funding 100
Recommendation 2: Increase and Expand Peer Mentor Program 101
Recommendation 3: Expand the ABC Program in Hawaii 102
Future Studies 104
Conclusion 105

References 107

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 5
Appendices 122
Appendix A: Survey Questions 122
Appendix B: Student Study Participant Interview Protocol 125
Appendix C: Coach and Peer Mentor Interview Protocol 132
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Research 135
Appendix E: Study Information Sheet 137
Appendix F: Recruitment Email 140

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 6
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The current twofold focus of the United States correctional system is to first punish an
individual for a State or Federal infraction and second, to educate and rehabilitate that individual
so that he or she becomes a productive member of society upon their release (Cullen &
Gendreau, 2000). This dual purpose was intended to foster a citizenry who learned from past
missteps through a mixture of academic and social education programs, and emerge from this
experience better equipped to productively contribute to society. However, this is not necessarily
the case, as three out of ten individuals released from Federal institutions and six in ten
individuals released from State institutions return to the criminal justice system within a five year
period (Markman, Durose, & Rantala, 2016). The result is a significant proportion of individuals
who return to the State and Federal correctional system, adding to the estimated $80.7 billion
annual cost of correctional facilities. Individuals who return to prison make up a significant
portion of the approximately 6,613,500 individuals under the supervision of the various United
States adult correctional systems as of the end of December 2016 (Kaeble & Cowhig, 2018;
Wagner & Rabuy, 2017). Due to the large number of individuals who reenter the correctional
system, researchers have sought to determine the most effective method of addressing this
pervasive problem.
Statement of the Problem
Exit programs in the United States correctional system revolve around the parole process
(Hawaii Paroling Authority, 1991). This process involves periodic meetings with an assigned
caseworker for a specified period of time that is determined by the Parole Board as a part of the
conditions of an individual’s release (Hawaii Paroling Authority, 1991). One way that
researchers from various disciplines have sought to understand the rehabilitative process is to
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 7
focus on the education component of the United States correctional system programs. This focus
on education is based on the finding that as of 2003, 41% of incarcerated individuals and 31% of
individuals on probation did not earn a high school diploma or a General Education Diploma
(GED) prior to becoming incarcerated, versus 18% of the general population (Harlow, 2003). In
addition, in 2014, only 14.4% of incarcerated individuals possessed some postsecondary
education prior to becoming incarcerated versus 51% of the general population, pointing to the
detriment in education level attainment as a contributing variable (Davis et al., 2014). Therefore,
by providing education that they were lacking prior to becoming incarcerated as part of their
rehabilitation process, these individuals will be provided with the skillsets and knowledge
necessary to be productive members of society (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; Vacca, 2004).
Research specifically pertaining to education programs has been divided into two
predominant points of view. The first is that education alone via vocational training or basic
education courses prevents recidivism because individuals would now have the necessary
knowledge and skills to obtain meaningful employment and thus, are not reliant on alternative
means to provide for their needs (Lockwood, Nally, Ho, & Knutson, 2012; Steurer & Smith,
2003). However, according to the most recent U. S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Recidivism of
Offenders Placed on Federal Community Supervision in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010
report (2016), 47.2% of individuals released into Federal community supervision were rearrested
within five years and 76.5% of individuals released into State community supervision were
rearrested within five years, significantly contributing to the prevalence of individuals in the
correctional system (Markman et al., 2016). More specifically, 35.4% of females released into
Federal community supervision were rearrested within five years and 68.1% of females released
into State community supervision were rearrested within five years (Markman et al., 2016). This
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 8
issue is especially problematic in the State of Hawaii as the state’s jail and prison population
grew 18% from the 2000 to 2010 fiscal years (Council of State Governments Justice Center,
2014). Currently, the State of Hawaii spends $211 million annually to maintain the current
system, which does not take into account the estimated $1.35 billion that would be necessary to
build a new facility to house inmates that are currently housed at out-of-state facilities and $21
million that has been budgeted to improve current State facilities (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017).
Among the preliminary findings of the House of Representatives HCR 85 Task Force is that
Hawaii’s average recidivism rate for individuals who were released on State supervised release is
over 50% within a three-year period, with more than 60% of individuals reoffending within the
first year and 85% of individuals reoffending within the first two years (HCR 85 Task Force,
2017). Moreover, the task force found that the recidivism rate for individuals who were released
upon serving their maximum sentence is 61.9% (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017). Females in Hawaii
have a 43.8% overall recidivism rate, with 41.1% of probationers, 51.7% of parolees and 56.5%
of maximum-term released individuals returning to the criminal justice system within a three
year period, according to the most recent State of Hawaii, Fiscal Year 2013 Cohort: 2016
Recidivism Update report (Wong, 2017). These statistics lend support to the contention of the
second predominant point of view, that an education program solely focused on attainment of
employment-based knowledge and skills alone, will not prevent recidivism. These researchers
argue that an education program must be expanded to include a systematic program that includes
cognitive-behavioral and social interaction education and intensive post-release support that
results in reduced recidivism rates (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; HCR 85
Task Force, 2017; Listwan, Cullen, & Latessa, 2006; Morani, Wikoff, Linhorst, & Bratton, 2011;
Ross & Fabiano, 1985; Visher & Travis, 2011). The high rate of recidivism and the millions of
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 9
dollars spent annually on the correctional system, does not take into account the burden placed
on our communities, incarcerated individuals and their families, which highlights the problem of
the scarcity of research on recidivism as a whole (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; Ka’Opua, Braun,
Browne, Mokuau, & Park, 2011; Visher & Travis, 2011; Wheeldon, 2011).
The general trend of an increasing incarceration rate across the United States is most
profound for women, who are an increasingly larger proportion of the incarcerated population
over the last quarter century (The Sentencing Project, 2015). From 1980 to 2014, the number of
incarcerated women increased by more than 700% and the rate of growth for imprisonment has
grown by more than 50% in comparison to the rate of imprisonment for men (The Sentencing
Project, 2015). Moreover, at the end of 2015, women made up 7% of the sentenced Federal and
State prison population (Carson & Anderson, 2016). More than 60% of women in State prisons
have a minor child (The Sentencing Project, 2015). Along with the scarcity of research on
recidivism as a whole and the scarcity of research on recidivism in Hawaii, there is little research
that focuses specifically on women in Hawaii.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine how women perceive their
participation in the ABC Program as supporting their efforts to achieve education goals and
identity development, thus reducing the likelihood of recidivism. Two learning theories were
used to frame this study. The first was Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship theory that models
how an individual transitions from her present self to a new possible self, based on the individual
internalizing and committing to new ideas to actualize a new self (Pizzolato, 2003). The second
learning theory was Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberg and Tarule’s (1997) Women’s Ways of
Knowing. This theory was important to incorporate the “…different perspectives from which
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 10
women view reality and draw conclusions about truth, knowledge and authority” (p. 3), thus
uniquely shaping how a woman transitions to a new possible self. This study utilized these
frameworks in order to understand how women perceive their participation in the ABC Program
as supporting them in their efforts to not return to the criminal justice system and support the
development of a new possible self. This study used a qualitative study methodology and
individual interviews to examine the experiences of women participating in the ABC Program.
This study utilized a qualitative research approach to address the following research questions:
• How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
o What are their self-identified needs?
o What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement?
• How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
Significance of the Study
This study on women who were previously under the supervision of the criminal justice
system who are now assimilating into a higher education institution is important for several
reasons. This study will add to the current body of research about the use of higher education as
a way of lessening the chance of an individual recidivating. Current research describes the
reentry process and roadblocks that are faced by predominantly male subjects. There is much
less research focused on the female perspective, this group of individuals as students, their
transition and the effectiveness of higher education to reduce recidivism in Hawaii. Focusing on
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 11
how women in Hawaii perceive their participation in the ABC Program supports their efforts to
not return to the criminal justice system will contribute to the field of education.
This study can potentially help to improve practices in both education and the criminal
justice system through the identification of best practices that have been developed among the
key stakeholders of the ABC Program. Through analysis of the experiences of the female
participants in the ABC Program, interactions with peers and educators who facilitate this
program, insight into educational practices that support this group of students can be clarified.
Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions
Limitations
This study was focused on a very narrowly defined subject pool and thus, purposeful
sampling was necessary to choose study participants (Maxwell, 2013). Due to this constraint, the
generalizability of this study’s results will be limited (Johnson, 1997; Johnson & Christensen,
2008). Future studies that replicate this research process could help to determine the
generalizability of emergent themes for other Hawaii-based education programs or other
education programs on the continental United States with similar demographics and cultural
norms.
Another limitation is that study participants will need to accurately recall and recount
past life events. This limitation may be especially problematic as recall may be difficult not only
because of the length of time that has passed, but also due to the sensitive or painful nature of the
past event itself (Travis, 2003; Travis, Solomon, & Waul, 2011; Yuen, Hu, & Engel, 2005).
Accuracy of the findings of this study is highly dependent on the forthrightness of the study
participants as data was gathered through individual interviews (Travis, 2003; Travis, Solomon,
& Waul, 2001).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 12
A third limitation of this study was that participation in metacognitive and education
programs while an individual is incarcerated will not be addressed. Previous researchers (Anders
& Noblit, 2011; Listwan, Cullen, & Latessa, 2006; Morani, Wikoff, Linhorst, & Bratton, 2011;
Ross & Fabiano, 1995) have found that education programs while incarcerated that include both
academic and social education courses were the most effective in reducing recidivism rates,
though the general limitation of the self-selection bias of individuals who enroll in these
programs were not addressed. Therefore, future research to develop a more effective education
program for these individuals must take the education experience while incarcerated into account
as well.
Researcher bias may be a fourth limitation to this study. Careful reflection, keeping this
limitation in mind, will be vital to minimize the potential of this bias throughout the process of
this research study (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Finally, this research study will be conducted in a unique location in the United States.
As previously stated, Hawaii is not only geographically separated from the continental United
States, but also cultivates unique cultural norms based on the traditional Hawaiian values of
aloha and pu’uhonua (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017).
Delimitations
Students who do not participate in the ABC program were not interviewed. Similarly,
faculty and staff who are not directly affiliated with the ABC program were also not interviewed.
This delimitation was the result of the constrained time period for this research study, in addition
to the purposeful sampling of individuals who are associated with this particular program
(Maxwell, 2013).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 13
A second delimitation in this research study was that data collection took the form of
individual interviews as opposed to focus groups. The purpose of concentrating data collection
on individual interviews was due to the possibility that study participants may not have been
comfortable recounting events and decisions in a group setting or may have been influenced by
the reactions of the other participants, thus diminishing the accuracy of the data that was
collected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Assumptions
The first assumption of this research study was that the data collection of subject
interviews, analysis of student-generated and program-generated documents will accurately
capture and portray each individual student’s experiences. The second assumption was that
anecdotal evidence gathered from educators and mentors directly associated with the ABC
Program is valid evidence of a relationship between program participation and its ability to
influence a lowered rate of recidivism for program participants. A final assumption of this
research study was that qualitative research is the best methodological approach to most
accurately capture the study participant’s experiences in this program as a means of supporting
their education goals and identity development.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms will be used throughout this dissertation:
Aloha: means love, affection, compassion, mercy, sympathy, pity, kindness, grace and charity
are integral components of Hawaii’s core values (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017).
American Indian or Alaska Native: refers to an individual who self-identifies as any of the
original peoples from North America, South America or Central America (United States
Department of Commerce, United States Census Bureau, 2017).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 14
Asian: refers to an individual who self-identifies as any of the original peoples from the Far
East, Southeast Asia or the Indian subcontinent (United States Department of Commerce, United
States Census Bureau, 2017).
Black or African American: refers to an individual who self-identifies as any of the original
peoples from Africa (United States Department of Commerce, United States Census Bureau,
2017).
Female or Woman: refers to an individual who expresses the biological attributes of a female or
an individual whose “…gender identity, gender related self-image, gender-related appearance, or
gender-related expression…” (Hawaii Civil Rights Commission, 2017, p. 1) is female, that may
be “…different from that traditionally associated with the person’s sex at birth” (Hawaii Civil
Rights Commission, 2017, p. 1; United States Department of Commerce, United States Census
Bureau, n.d.).
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander: refers to an individual who self-identifies as any
of the original peoples from Hawaii, Guam, Samoa or the Pacific Islands (United States
Department of Commerce, United States Census Bureau, 2017).
White: refers to an individual who self-identifies as any of the original peoples from Europe, the
Middle East or North Africa (United States Department of Commerce, United States Census
Bureau, 2017).
Pu’uhonua: means a place of refuge, sanctuary, asylum, a place of peace, safety and healing, a
core Hawaiian concept (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017).
Recidivism: refers to an individual who returns to criminal behavior after being sanctioned or
undergoing intervention for a previous crime and is measured by the commission of a criminal
act that results in the re-arrest, reconviction or the return to prison with or without a new
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 15
sentence within a three-year period (United States Department of Justice, National Institute of
Justice, 2014).
Conclusion
Recidivism greatly contributes to not only the monumental financial cost of correctional
facilities alone, but also adds to the financial costs of the criminal justice system that some
researchers have estimated to be $182 billion annually (Wagner & Rabuy, 2017). The financial
burden does not take into account the cost to the community itself that is incurred due to crime,
nor does it take into account the cost to the individual and their families while the individual is
incarcerated or under the supervision of the criminal justice system (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000;
Visher & Travis, 2011). This issue is especially problematic in the State of Hawaii as the state’s
jail and prison populations increased in contrast to the decrease of the nation’s jail and prison
populations during the same time period and women have increasingly become involved in the
criminal justice system (Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2014; Kaeble & Cowhig,
2018; The Sentencing Project, 2015). One method to stem these trends is for women to achieve
post-secondary education goals while developing a new identity, thus minimizing their
likelihood of returning to the criminal justice system.
There is little research pertaining to the effects of a post-secondary education program in
minimizing the likelihood of recidivating and moreover, how institutions of higher education in
Hawaii can assist individuals who are no longer under the supervision of the criminal justice
system successfully transition to family and community roles (Ka’Opua et al., 2011). The
subsequent chapter provides a review of the relevant literature.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 16
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this chapter is to review the research and literature related to female
students who were formerly under the supervision of the criminal justice system, who are
accessing higher education as a means of improving their life circumstances. Research and
literature related to efforts to support their academic success and individual development will
also be discussed.
This review will cover a brief history of higher education access to formerly incarcerated
individuals, the needs of currently incarcerated and exiting from the criminal justice system
female students, how the criminal justice system and institutions of higher education have
responded to their needs, and the experience of female students and practitioners who serve this
population.
Research questions are:
• How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
o What are their self-identified needs?
o What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement?
• How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
This chapter will begin with a brief history of the purpose of education within the State and
Federal criminal justice system in the United States, the needs of current individuals who are
incarcerated or in the process of exiting out of the United States criminal justice system, and
partnerships between United States institutions of higher education and the United States
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 17
criminal justice system. The identity development needs of students currently incarcerated and
exiting from the criminal justice system will be described, along with a review of how the
criminal justice system and institutions of higher education have responded to this population’s
needs. This chapter will conclude with the theoretical models that were explored through this
study.
History of Education in United States Correctional Facilities
The United States corrections system was founded in the 1900’s based on a rehabilitative
philosophy (Alexander, 1922; Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; Pollock, 2014). This philosophy was
based on the premise that individuals who committed an infraction needed to be punished for
their action while engaging in activities while incarcerated that could assist them in learning
behaviors that were socially acceptable and by extension, not return to the correctional system
(i.e. recidivate) because their behaviors would have changed (Alexander, 1922; Cullen &
Gendreau, 2000; Pollock, 2014). This philosophy radically changed at the beginning of the
1970s, most explicitly articulated by Robert Martinson, who argued that the vast majority of
correctional system rehabilitation programs were not effective in reducing recidivism and thus,
were failing at the overall goal of rehabilitating incarcerated individuals (Cullen & Gendreau,
2000; Pollock, 2014). Therefore, the major purpose of the United States correctional system
should be solely based on retribution (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; Pollock, 2014). At the end of
the 1970s, Martinson himself retreated from his sweeping conclusion and instead, argued that
there were many confounding conditions that affected the effectiveness of a particular program
and thus, there was merit to the rehabilitative philosophy (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000). The
reemergence of the rehabilitative philosophy was led by psychologists Gendreau and Ross
(Cullen & Gendreau, 2000). Based on their analyses of 245 studies, Gendreau and Ross found
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 18
that the ability of a particular program to rehabilitate an individual depended on the structure and
implementation of the program itself and needed to include a behavioral component in addition
to taking into account individual differences that exist among incarcerated individuals (Cullen &
Gendreau, 2000). These researchers concluded that correctional programs based on a
rehabilitative philosophy could help individuals learn and acquire new behaviors, thus fulfilling
the rehabilitative goal of the United States correctional system (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000).
Though the rehabilitative philosophy of United States corrections has remained the same since
Grendreau and Ross’ analyses in the late 1970s, there continues to be debate about just what in a
particular program contributes to rehabilitative success and how differences among individuals
contributes to an individual’s success in becoming rehabilitated (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000).
Educational Focus
Today, programs in the United States correctional system revolve around the parole
process, facilitated by an assigned caseworker (Hawaii Paroling Authority, 1991). The assigned
caseworker helps the incarcerated individual plan for parole through self-reflection and
enrollment in specific programs in the areas of personal strengths and weaknesses, employment
history and skills, family and community support, education and the development of a release
plan (Hawaii Paroling Authority, 1991). However, again, what contributes to an individual’s
successful rehabilitation continues to be debated. One way that researchers from various
disciplines have sought to understand the rehabilitative process is to focus on the education
component of United States correctional system programs. The general assumption for this focus
is, in part, based on the finding that in 2003, 41% of incarcerated individuals and 31% of
individuals on probation did not earn a high school diploma or a General Education Diploma
(GED) prior to becoming incarcerated, versus 18% of the general population (Harlow, 2003). In
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 19
addition, in 2014 only 14.4% of incarcerated individuals possessed some postsecondary
education prior to becoming incarcerated versus 51% of the general population, pointing to the
detriment in education level attainment as a contributing variable (Davis et al., 2014). Providing
education to individuals as part of their rehabilitation process could therefore, give them the
skillsets and knowledge necessary to be productive members of society (Cullen & Gendreau,
2000; Vacca, 2004).
Needs of Currently Incarcerated or Exiting Students
The majority of State and Federal correctional departments have implemented literacy
programs to assist individuals in earning their high school equivalency diploma through the
General Educational Development (GED) test, parenting classes, wellness classes and various
adult continuing education programs. These programs are primarily funded through the Carl D.
Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.b;
United States Department of Education, 2017).
With an increasing focus on fiscal responsibility and accountability, State and Federal
correctional departments have started to explore alternative programs. Though incarceration and
recidivism rates are slowly declining, there continues to be discussion about how to better serve
individuals who enter the criminal justice system as the population has shifted from a
predominantly male, violent offender to an increasingly female, non-violent offender profile
(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.a; The Sentencing Project, 2015).
With this slow shift in offender profile, researchers from various disciplines wanted to
determine the needs for this changing offender profile, as the United States correctional system
was originally developed to rehabilitate male offenders. Morani, Wikoff, Lindhorst and Bratton
(2011) surveyed 107 voluntary participants of Missouri’s Project Re-Connect program while
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 20
comparing characteristics of program participants to nonparticipants. This program provided
case management and monetary support to individuals who were no longer under the supervision
of the State criminal justice system (Morani et al., 2011). Though the majority of survey
responders were African American males (89 of 107 were African American; 102 of 107 were
male), the minority (51 of 107) were incarcerated for a violent offense (Morani et al., 2011).
Morani et al. (2011) found that the greatest need was transportation (99.2%), followed by basic
needs like clothing (95.1%), food (92.6%) and housing (90.2%). Though program participants
entered the correctional system with an arguably higher education level, as evidenced by 48
participants having less than a high school education versus 85 nonparticipants having less than a
high school education, the third greatest need for participants was education and vocational
training (85%) (Morani et al., 2011). Interest in a mentoring relationship (67%) was the next
most identified need (Morani et al., 2011). Counseling or psychiatric services were the least
identified need (29.5%), though support systems or renewal of familial relationships were not
included in the predetermined list of needs available for study participants to choose from
(Morani et al., 2011).
In a similar study, Stein (2001) sought to determine the needs of 31 women living in a
secure work-furlough program as a part of the final year of their State-supervised sentence. This
transitional program served women who were released from the Women’s Community
Correctional Center (WCCC) on Oahu, Hawaii, and were considered to be of minimal risk to the
community (Stein, 2001). Nineteen areas of need were assessed using a Likert scale, though this
survey also included a section that allowed survey responders to identify need areas that were not
addressed in the predetermined need areas (Stein, 2001). In support of the shifting profile of
incarcerated individuals, Stein (2001) found that 58% of the study participants were incarcerated
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 21
specifically for a drug offense and 90% stated that their current sentence was the result of
committing an offense, like theft, in order to fund their drug addiction. Further, 97% admitted to
an addiction to an illegal substance at the time of their initial arrest (Stein, 2001). Drug treatment
was identified by the study participants as the greatest need area, with 68% of study participants
rating their need for drug treatment as extreme or strong and 55% of the study participants rating
drug treatment as one of their top three needs (Stein, 2001). Collectively, 71% of the study
participants rated employment needs, followed by financial needs and then education or
vocational skill needs, as their top need areas (Stein, 2001). This was unlike the findings of
Morani et al. (2011) who found that 29.5% of the study participants self-identified a need for
counseling or psychiatric services and only 28.1% of the study participants participated in
substance abuse treatment programs, even though 86% of the study participants had a history of
drug use. Basic needs like housing, food and transportation were identified by the vast majority
of study participants (over 90% for all needs in this category) followed by vocation (60.7%) or
education (85.2%) program needs (Morani et al., 2011). Similar to the findings of Morani et al.
(2011) support groups with a focus on women’s issues were next identified as a need by 52% of
the study participants (Stein, 2001). Familial support, followed by counseling, was the next most
identified need, also similar to the findings of Morani et al. (2011). Of interest was the finding
that although 84% of the study participants were mothers and 71% of the study participants had
minor children, only 23% (7 individuals) of the participants indicated any need for child care or
parenting classes (Stein, 2001).
Impact of Education on Recidivism
Research pertaining to education programs is divided into two predominant points of
view. The first is that vocational training or basic education courses prevents recidivism because
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 22
individuals would have the necessary knowledge and skills to obtain meaningful employment
and thus, would not be reliant on alternative means to provide for their needs (Lockwood, Nally,
Ho, & Knutson, 2012; Steurer & Smith, 2003). The second is that cognitive-behavioral education
must be included alongside vocational training or education courses to reduce the chances of an
individual recidivating, as a change in social skills is a necessary component to reducing an
individual’s chances of engaging in behaviors that previously led to their incarceration (Ellis,
McFadden, & Colaric, 2008; HCR 85 Task Force, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Listwan, Cullen,
& Latessa, 2006; Meyer, 2011; Morani et al., 2011; Petersilia, 2004; Wheeldon, 2011).
Education Alone
The earliest studies of education within the United States correctional system focused
solely on content-based courses that would lead to a high school equivalency diploma, an
associate’s degree or a bachelor’s degree (Anderson, 1995; Duwe & Clark, 2014). In 2003, over
90% of State correctional institutions provided some kind of vocational training or basic
education courses, with a 52% participation rate, and approximately 26% of State prison inmates
reported completing their GED while incarcerated (Harlow, 2003). These statistics point to the
general consensus that increasing the education level of an incarcerated individual is an
important component of the United States correctional system and the reduction of individuals
returning to the criminal justice system.
General education programs. The most recent Education and Correctional
Populations, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report stated that 68% of individuals who
entered the State and Federal correctional systems had not obtained a high school diploma prior
to their incarceration, compared to 18.4% of the United States general population (Harlow,
2003). In addition, Ewert and Wildhagen (2011) found that economically disadvantaged and at-
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 23
risk populations, defined as individuals who were not employed at the time of the survey or
whose annual income was below $14,000 in the general population, had a higher level of
education, on average, in comparison to their incarcerated peers in all age groups. Minority
groups were overrepresented in both populations in their analysis of American Community
Survey (ACS) data (Ewert & Wildhagen, 2011). With these statistics in mind, research has
focused on addressing basic adult education programs and the lack of a general education
diploma (GED) through United States correction system education programs.
Negligible effect on recidivism. Research on the effect of basic adult education programs
and high school education equivalency programs on decisions to commit crime in the future have
been mixed. In their study of 18,068 inmates released from the Ohio correctional system in 1992,
Anderson (1995) found that participation in an education program while incarcerated slightly
reduced recidivism rates after a two year period. The most pronounced effects were for young,
African American females who were incarcerated for a first-time drug offence. More
specifically, Anderson (1995) found that the adult basic education (ABE) program that primarily
focused on improving literacy did not have an effect on reducing recidivism, though the GED
program did appear to have a significant effect, followed by college and then vocational
education programs. In the GED program, the greatest positive impact was for young, African
American males who were first-time offenders and were incarcerated for less serious offenses
(Anderson, 1995). Though the researchers concluded that ABE program participation was the
least effective adult education program in reducing recidivism, of note was the finding that the
greatest positive impact were for female offenders and those with one prior incarceration
(Anderson, 1995).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 24
Duwe and Clark (2014) conducted a study of 9,394 individuals released from the
Minnesota Department of Corrections between 2007 and 2008. Based on an analysis of
Minnesota Department of Corrections data, they found that individuals who earned a secondary
degree while incarcerated were rearrested at a similar rate in comparison to the control group,
who did not participate in educational programming during the same time period. Moreover,
these researchers found that individuals who earned a secondary degree were reconvicted and
reincarcerated for a felony offense at a lower rate than the control group (Duwe & Clark, 2014).
However, individuals who earned a secondary degree while incarcerated had a higher technical
revocation rate, defined as a return to the criminal justice system due to a violation of a condition
of an individual’s supervised release, than the control group (Duwe & Clark, 2014).
Improved employment. Research pertaining to the effect of high school education
equivalency programs in obtaining employment post release have been more positive. In their
study of education program participants in Minnesota, Duwe and Clark (2014) found that 60% of
individuals who earned a secondary degree found employment within two years of their release,
in comparison to 50% of the control group who did not participate in Minnesota’s correctional
education programs. This finding lends support to the contention by proponents of correctional
education programs that education achievement is an important factor in preventing recidivism
(Duwe & Clark, 2014). This finding is supported by the Ohio study that found that those who
obtained or were close to obtaining their GED prior to their release were less likely to recidivate
(Anderson, 1995).
Postsecondary education. Several researchers have focused exclusively on
postsecondary education programs, including vocational education programs, and found that
participation in a postsecondary education program while incarcerated lowered the rate of
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 25
recidivism for both violent and nonviolent offenders (Anderson, 1995; Chase & Dickover, 1983;
Duwe & Clark, 2014; O’Neil, 1990; Stevens & Ward, 1997; Wolf & Sylves, 1981).
Decreased recidivism. Researchers specifically focused on recidivism rates for
individuals enrolled in postsecondary education programs while incarcerated have reported that
participation in these education programs decrease recidivism rates (Anderson, 1995; Batiuk,
Lahm, McKeever, Wilcox, & Wilcox, 2005; Chase & Dickover, 1983; Duwe & Clark, 2014;
O’Neil, 1990; Stevens & Ward, 1997; Wolf & Sylves, 1981). In a study of 277 male offenders
released during the last quarter of 1977 from five maximum security prisons in New York, Wolf
and Sylves (1981) found that participants in the Higher Education Opportunity Program (HEOP)
returned to prison at a rate of 28.24% versus non-program participants who returned to prison at
a rate of 33.6%.
The lower rate of return to the correctional system is supported by a study of 70 students
enrolled in Folsom Prison’s California State University, Sacramento (CSUS) Special Session at
Folsom Prison program. Chase and Dickover (1983) concluded that enrollment in the Bachelor
of Arts in Social Science degree significantly contributed to preventing recidivism for program
participants, reporting a 96% success rate (29 of 30 successful releases) with fifteen program
participants remaining in their community for at least one year. Similarly, Stevens and Ward
(1997) found that none of the 60 men or women who earned a bachelor’s degree through the
North Carolina prison system were reincarcerated within a three-year period, which supported
their contention that investment in postsecondary education programs is a cost-effective strategy,
saving taxpayers approximately “…6.6 million [dollars] for every 1% reduction in recidivism”
(Stevens & Ward, 1997, p. 108) annually. In addition, Batiuk, Lahm, McKeever, Wilcox and
Wilcox (2005) studied 972 individuals released from the Ohio Department of Corrections
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 26
between 1989 through 1992. Batiuk et al. (2005) found that “…the college variable proved to be
the only educational program variable to significantly decrease recidivism hazard [(i.e. chance of
recidivating)] rates (or increase survival) when compared to the ‘no education group’…” (p. 67)
and thus, these researchers concluded “…that college has a positive effect on time to recidivism”
(p. 67). Unlike the findings of Anderson (1995), Batiuk et al. (2005) found that age and type of
initial offense were significant variables in the length of time between an individual’s release and
re-arrest for a new offense. Inmates over the age of 30 and those who were incarcerated for a
drug offense were the most successful in remaining out of the criminal justice system for a
longer period of time (Batiuk et al., 2005).
In their analysis of 18,068 inmates released from the Ohio correctional system during the
1992 fiscal year, Anderson (1995) found that individuals who obtained or were close to
obtaining a college degree or certificate while incarcerated were less likely to return to the
correctional system. Anderson (1995) found that both vocational program and college education
program participation were the most effective for young female, first-time offenders of drug or
other non-violent crimes. Finally, in their study of 9,394 individuals released from the Minnesota
Department of Corrections between 2007 – 2008, Duwe and Clark (2014) concluded that
individuals who earned a postsecondary degree while incarcerated had lower rates on all four
measures of recidivism – re-arrest, reconviction, new offense reincarceration, technical violation
– in comparison to the control group and even individuals who earned a secondary degree prior
to their incarceration. Individuals who earned a post-secondary degree while incarcerated
decreased the rate by “…14% for re-arrest, 16% for reconviction, and 24% for new offense
reincarceration…” (p. 469) though there was no significant difference in the technical revocation
rate. However, as all four measures of recidivism decreased for individuals who participated in
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 27
Minnesota postsecondary degree programs, the findings by Duwe and Clark (2014) support the
contention that post-secondary education can reduce the overall recidivism rate as well as
lending support to the importance of education level in analyzing the relationship between
education and recidivism.
Expansion of employment opportunities. Researchers further found that students who
participated in postsecondary education programs while incarcerated generally were more
successful in obtaining employment post release. Wolf and Sylves (1981) found that 75% of
HEOP student participants found employment after release from New York’s correctional
system. In the CSUS Special Session at Folsom Prison program, Chase and Dickover (1983)
found that students enrolled in this program generally felt that their participation in the program
would increase their chances of securing “…higher level employment following their release” (p.
94). Similarly, in their study of North Carolina’s postsecondary education programs, Stevens and
Ward (1997) found that fifty-nine of the sixty study graduates were able to obtain employment
that was related to their degree in a three-year period after their release, thus supporting the
contention that postsecondary education programs help to facilitate gainful employment.
In their study of Minnesota’s correctional education programs, Duwe and Clark (2014) found
that 71% of individuals who earned a postsecondary degree while incarcerated found
employment within two years of their release, in comparison to 50% of the control group and
even those who earned a secondary degree (60% of individuals) while incarcerated. Duwe and
Clark (2014) therefore concluded that attainment of a postsecondary degree lowers the
recidivism rate, even more than the recidivism rate for individuals who obtain a secondary
degree while incarcerated.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 28
Education as Part of a Rehabilitation Program
Though researchers studying correctional education programs have found that content-
specific education programs lowered the rate of recidivism for program participants, there are
still individuals who participate in these education programs who do recidivate. Moreover,
according to the most recent U. S. Bureau of Justice Statistics Recidivism of Offenders Placed on
Federal Community Supervision in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010 report (2016), 35% of
individuals released to Federal community supervision were rearrested within three years and
47% of individuals released to Federal community supervision were rearrested within five years
(Markman et al., 2016). Additionally, these researchers found that 77% of individuals released
from State institutions into State community supervision were rearrested within five years, a
significantly higher recidivism rate versus the Federal system, adding to the prevalence of
individuals returning to the correctional system (Markman et al., 2016).
The aforementioned statistics lends support to the contention of the second predominant
point of view, which is that an education program solely focused on attainment of employment-
based knowledge and skills will not prevent recidivism. Echoing the research of Grendreau and
Ross (as cited in Cullen & Gendreau, 2000) who ushered in the return to a rehabilitation
philosophy, these researchers argued that an education program must be expanded to include
systematic, cognitive-behavioral and social interaction education and intensive post-release
support (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Listwan et al., 2006; Morani et al., 2011; Ross & Fabiano,
1985). Similar to the findings of Grendreau and Ross (as cited in Cullen & Gendreau, 2000)
these researchers found that programs that implemented education programming beyond strictly
employment-related endeavors reduced recidivism rates (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Cullen &
Gendreau, 2000; Listwan et al., 2006; Morani et al., 2011; Ross & Fabiano, 1985).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 29
Criminal Justice System and Postsecondary Education Institution Response
As a relatively new area of research, published studies to date have solely focused on
proposed designs of effective reentry programs (Ellis, McFadden, & Colaric, 2008; HCR 85
Task Force, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Listwan et al., 2006; Meyer, 2011; Morani et al., 2011;
Petersilia, 2004; Wheeldon, 2011). No published studies have specifically focused on
postsecondary education’s response to this population of students, save the general premise that
postsecondary education institutions have formed partnerships with various departments of
corrections to provide content-specific classes that can lead to degree attainment (Anderson,
1995; Chase & Dickover, 1983; Duwe & Clark, 2014; HCR 85 Task Force, 2017; O’Neil, 1990;
Stevens & Ward, 1997; Wolf & Sylves, 1981).
Criminal Justice System Response
Application of education research to correctional education programs. Though
general education research has historically recognized the importance of a postsecondary degree
to both economic and noneconomic outcomes for individuals in the general United States
population, these findings have not been clearly translated to the correctional education system
(Institute for Higher Education Policy, 1998; Meyer, Fredericks, Borden, & Richardson, 2010).
This problem was further compounded in 1994 when the Federal government rescinded Pell
Grant assistance to incarcerated students, hampering the effort to enroll them in postsecondary
education programs (Batiuk et al., 2005; Meyer et al., 2010; Ubah, 2004). Finally, general
education research about the importance of tailoring education programs to females has not been
systematically studied, nor applied to the development of education programs within the
correctional education system (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Ellis et al., 2008; Salisbury & Van
Voorhis, 2009).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 30
Application of general education research. Wheeldon (2011) framed his argument from
the premise that research thus far has predominantly “…shown that investments in correctional
education provide better cost/benefit outcomes than other sorts of correctional investments” (p.
96) for not only the incarcerated individual, but their family and the wider community. Though
Wheeldon (2011) further argued that postsecondary education programs have been the most
effective at reducing recidivism, he cautioned that future research must incorporate methods and
designs that evaluate other variables beyond just recidivism rates in order to better elucidate how
participation in a postsecondary education program reduces the probability of recidivating. Only
then can research in this area address the accountability concerns of lawmakers and the wider
community to provide the most effective and cost-effective rehabilitation program (Wheeldon,
2011). Of further concern is addressing the research problem of selection bias, as participants
self select to participate in education programs and research has not been able to clearly “…draw
conclusions about whether it is the program or the individual” (Wheeldon, 2011, p. 104) that
have the greatest influence. Wheeldon (2011) argued that one way of addressing this is to include
a wider scope of data because data that is currently collected focuses solely on “…post-prison
outcomes [that] may fail to identify other benefits of correctional education…” (p. 104) as part of
a qualitative or mixed methods research methodology. Ultimately, Wheeldon (2011) argued that
a thorough understanding of the relationship between education and outcomes for previously
incarcerated individuals stems from analyzing data of student outcomes, student perceptions,
instructor views and institutional effects.
Behavioral and cognitive-behavioral treatment. Pearson, Lipton, Cleland and Yee
(2002) conducted a meta-analysis of 69 research studies to determine the effectiveness of
behavioral or cognitive-behavioral treatment programs in reducing recidivism. Though the
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 31
programs in this analysis were not a part of an education program, researchers found that there
was a slightly greater effect that resulted from participation in a behavioral or cognitive-
behavioral treatment program as opposed to generalized life skills programs or standard behavior
modification programs (Pearson et al., 2002). Though Pearson et al. (2002) conceded that their
results did not reach statistical significance, these researchers concluded that their findings
support previous research and “…sho[w] that cognitive-behavioral programs can reduce
recidivism rates by significant amounts” (p. 490). Of importance to this study is the finding that
the greatest effect was for cognitive-behavioral programs that included “…social skills
development training and cognitive skills training” (p. 490). Therefore, inclusion of social skills
development and cognitive skills training should be included as part of an effective education
curriculum (Pearson et al., 2002).
Education programs must incorporate transitional education in addition to course-
specific coursework. In her analysis of Canadian and United States research pertaining to
effective reentry programs, Petersilia (2004) determined that the most effective program designs
were housed in the community, were at least six months in duration and focused on high-risk
individuals. Moreover, these programs and the facilitating therapist would be closely matched to
the individual and would use cognitive-behavior techniques (Petersilia, 2004). Vocational
training and other job-related supports, along with positive reinforcement for pro-social
behaviors, would also be an integral part of a well-designed reentry program (Petersilia, 2004).
Petersilia (2004) argued that a well-designed reentry program would reduce recidivism by 30%
and further, “…would pay for itself in terms of future criminal justice and corrections costs
avoided” (p. 7).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 32
This program design was studied by Anders and Noblit (2011) who studied the North
Carolina Workplace and Community Transition Youthful Offender Program (YOP) that
incorporates life skills classes into their postsecondary education curriculum. Several
cooperating institutions of higher education provided postsecondary education classes while life
skills classes were provided by instructors from the fourteen correctional facilities that
participated in the YOP program (Anders & Noblit, 2011). Based on the analysis of their data,
Anders and Noblit (2011) found that over the nine-year duration of the program, the recidivism
rate for individuals enrolled in this program was 19% as opposed to the 49% recidivism rate for
individuals not enrolled in the YOP program during the same time period. Through observations,
interviews and data gathered through the North Carolina Department of Corrections (NCDOC),
these researchers concluded that the YOP program has been successful because of the
relationships that have been established between the instructors and students, a “…better
educational experience…” (p. 83) than what individuals had previously experienced and giving
enrolled students a constructive outlet while developing skills to “…manage the stigma of prison
post-release” (p. 83). Though these researchers do concede that there is a selection bias for
students in this program because they must have either graduated from high school or have
earned a GED prior to enrollment in this program and these researchers were instructors in this
program, this study does point to the importance of a comprehensive program that includes
supports for students outside of the traditional classroom setting in the development of a
program.
Application of general education research to designing effective correctional education
programs for females. Ellis, McFadden and Colaric (2008) focused exclusively on the
postsecondary education needs of female inmates supervised by the North Carolina Department
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 33
of Corrections in order to investigate the factors that influenced the development, structure and
administration of education programs. Ellis et al. (2008) argued that the needs of females are
different from those of males and education programs must take these differences into account
when not only creating education programs, but also while studying their efficacy for reducing
recidivism. However, these researchers found very little research that focused on female
offenders, and research focused on incarcerated males cannot be generalized to the entire
population.
Support for this contention that education programming must be tailored to a specific
population comes from research by Ka’Opua et al. (2012) in their study of the overrepresentation
of Native Hawaiians in the criminal justice system. Among their many suggestions, Ka’Opua et
al. (2012) asserted that culturally responsive services must be provided to address past traumatic
experiences and the use of substances to cope with these experiences, especially for female
offenders. Further, culturally responsive practices couched in Native Hawaiian values will assist
in improving the criminal justice system in Hawaii for all incarcerated individuals, regardless of
racial identification, due to the unique culture of Hawaii (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017; Ka’Opua et
al., 2012).
Postsecondary Response
In their study of the range of education programs offered to inmates through the Ohio
Department of Corrections, Batiuk et al. (2005) found that participation in postsecondary
education programs were the most effective in reducing the probability of reincarceration and
increased the time between release and reincarceration in comparison to high school, GED and
vocational training programs.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 34
Other researchers have found similar results. One example is a study of the Correctional
Education Association College of the Air (CEA/COA) postsecondary program offered through
pre-recorded instruction in contrast to direct instruction postsecondary programs in 43 prisons in
Iowa, Massachusetts, Nevada, Oklahoma, South Carolina and Wisconsin (Meyer & Randel,
2013). Meyer and Randel (2013) found that students enrolled in direct instruction postsecondary
programs made greater gains in average critical thinking scores and credit acquisition, thus
pointing to the importance of student engagement in designing effective postsecondary education
programs that will support increased academic performance and persistence. Though not
specifically addressed by the researchers, findings from these studies suggest that participation in
a postsecondary program is beneficial, in general, through they recommend that alternative
education delivery systems should be further explored, especially for correctional institutions not
in close proximity to a postsecondary institution (Meyer & Randel, 2013; Meyer et al., 2010).
Most germane to this study is the recommendation by the HCR 85 Task Force (2017) to
expand the relationship between the University of Hawaii system and the Hawaii Department of
Corrections. Though this recommendation has not yet been implemented, the taskforce cited the
fifth to sixth grade average reading level of Hawaii’s inmate population, in addition to a lack of
vocational skills, as significant roadblocks that hamper the successful reentry of individuals and
a driving factor behind Hawaii’s high recidivism rate (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017).
Identity Formation and Development
Erikson (1968) defined identity formation as the continual process of the individual
interacting with his or her environment and is further:
…a process of simultaneous reflection and observation, a process taking place on all
levels of mental functioning, by which the individual judges himself in the light of what
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 35
he perceives to be the way in which others judge him in comparison to themselves and to
a typology significant to them; while he judges their way of judging him in the light of
how he perceives himself in comparison to them and to types that have become relevant
to him. (p. 22)
Based on the work of Freud, Erikson (1968) based his theory of identity development on an
individual’s continual interaction between himself or herself and the environment. The result is
the development of an individual’s “…self-made identity…” (Erikson, 1968, p. 20) through the
process of an individual “…locat[ing himself or herself] in the core of the individual and yet also
in the core of his command culture…” (Erikson, 1968, p. 22). An individual’s decisions are
based on his or her “…self-made identity…” (Erikson, 1968, p. 20) and thus, are based on the
continual interaction between the individual and his or her environment. Previously, these
particular students interacted with their environment in such a way that developed behaviors and
actions that resulted in incarceration. The study of identity development for previously
incarcerated females is therefore important in order to identify the environmental conditions that
foster the growth of a pro-social “…self-made identity…” (Erikson, 1968, p. 20).
Though there is little research that focuses on this specific population in a postsecondary
education setting, what does exist points to the importance of including support programs or
support services in order to assist students in their individual identity development. The
importance of these supports is based on the premise that these particular students have
encountered some kind of trauma in their past, which manifested in behaviors like substance
abuse, that have led to their incarceration (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Kajstura, 2017; Ka’Opua
et al., 2012; Morani et al., 2011; Sawyer, 2018; Stein, 2001; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009;
The Sentencing Project, 2015; Yuen, Hu, & Engel, 2005). An education program with the overall
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 36
goal of reducing recidivism must include a program that addresses the needs of students who are
currently incarcerated and exiting from the criminal justice system, to help them foster the
development of a more efficacious, reflective and capable sense of self.
The first step in assisting these students is the acknowledgement that the majority of these
students have coped with past events through abusing various substances like alcohol and drugs
(Kajstura, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Morani et al., 2011; Sawyer, 2018; Stein, 2001; Salisbury
& Van Voorhis, 2009; The Sentencing Project, 2015; Yuen et al., 2005). The use of substances
to cope with various life events may have led to the development of an identity that is dependent
on substance abuse and behaviors that support this need (Kajstura, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012;
Morani et al., 2011; Sawyer, 2018; Stein, 2001; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009; The Sentencing
Project, 2015; Yuen et al., 2005). This dependence then leads to incarceration, either directly
because they are incarcerated for their use of an illegal substance, or indirectly by engaging in
behaviors to support their dependence on a substance like committing a property crime (Kajstura,
2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Morani et al., 2011; Sawyer, 2018; Stein, 2001; Salisbury & Van
Voorhis, 2009; The Sentencing Project, 2015; Yuen et al., 2005). As a result of their
incarceration, these individuals then develop an identity that is further constrained by their
substance abuse (Kajstura, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Morani et al., 2011; Sawyer, 2018; Stein,
2001; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009; The Sentencing Project, 2015; Yuen et al., 2005). The
prevalence of this problem across the United States was highlighted in a joint report by the
Prison Policy Initiative and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), not only in the
exponential rise of individuals incarcerated in prisons and jails between 1980 to 2015 (40,900
individuals in 1980 versus 469,545 individuals in 2015), but also in the sheer number of
incarcerated females in prisons (13,206 individuals in 1980 versus 111,495 individuals in 2015)
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 37
during the same time period (Carson & Anderson, 2016; James, 2004; Kajstura, 2017; Mauer &
King, 2007; Minor-Harper, 1986; Minton & Zeng, 2016; The Sentencing Project, 2017). This
national trend was also identified by Morani et al. (2011),who found that 86% of individuals in
their study population of 122 individuals who were released from the Missouri Department of
Corrections had a history of substance abuse, though the vast majority of the study population
were males. Specific to Hawaii, Yuen et al. (2005) reported that the majority of individuals in
their study population of 55 Native Hawaiian and non-Native Hawaiian females self-reported the
use of alcohol (55% of Native Hawaiians and 44% of non-Native Hawaiians) and drugs (67% of
Native Hawaiians and 94% of non-Native Hawaiians) to cope with past negative life events. This
finding echoes previous research by Stein (2001) who found a 97% substance abuse rate in his
study of 31 Native Hawaiian and non-Native Hawaiian females.
Previous research (Ellis et al., 2008; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005)
found that gender matters in the development of a program that supports the individual identity
development of female students. Female students must deal with trauma and stressors, including
parental responsibilities, that may be different from those of their male counterparts, as well as
economic inequalities that are the result of a generalized earning disparity in addition to the type
of sentence that is imposed (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Jorgenson, 2009; Kajstura, 2017;
Sawyer, 2018; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009).
Finally, programs that incorporate cognitive-behavioral interventions have been the most
effective in the overall goal of reducing recidivism. At the behest of the National Institute on
Drug Abuse (NIDA), Pearson, Lipton, Cleland, and Yee (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of 69
primary research studies focused on the effectiveness of behavioral and cognitive-behavioral
treatment programs in reducing recidivism. Pearson et al. (2002) found that cognitive-behavioral
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 38
treatment programs, defined as providing cognitive skill development in the areas of social skills
development, problem solving skill development, self-control and relapse prevention, were the
most effective in reducing the rate of recidivism, with a 55.7% success rate versus a 44.3%
success rate for programs that focused solely on standard behavior modification techniques such
as positive reinforcement, contingency contracting or token rewards. Of importance to this study
was the identification of relapse prevention programs, defined as a program that “…prepare[s]
the offender to deal with cravings, per pressure, etc. to prevent relapse to the illicit behavior…”
(Pearson et al., 2002, p. 483), pointing to the importance of a program that focuses on developing
an individual’s individual identity. This finding is supported by Meyer (2011) who found that
participation in a postsecondary education program has positive benefits for individual students,
but that additional supports are necessary to assist formerly incarcerated students. Though Meyer
(2011) primarily focused on the academic-related needs of the 591 individuals in his study
population, of importance to this study was the identification of need areas beyond those that
were strictly academic, to include the areas of personal development, educational staff and peer
support.
Gender Identity and Theoretical Frameworks
Purposeful scaffolding of academic, social and emotional support via specifically
designed education programs rely on narrative and discourse among the program participants and
institutional staff (Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Wimer & Bloom, 2014). These relationships, in turn,
help to facilitate the internalization of emotional well-being and interpersonal problem-solving
education interventions in the development of an individual’s new possible self (Heller, Pollack,
Ander, & Ludwig, 2013; Patel & Valenzuela, 2013; Pizzolato, 2003; Scrivener & Weiss, 2013).
This is especially important for women, as the majority of women who enter the criminal justice
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 39
system come from marginalized positions in society (Kajstura, 2017; The Sentencing Project,
2015; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005). As a whole, most come from impoverished backgrounds,
with a history of physical or sexual abuse, little social support, and have a history of substance
abuse. They may also suffer from mental health problems and are primary caregivers (Kajstura,
2017; The Sentencing Project, 2015; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005). This is further impactful for
women because they enter a system that was designed to rehabilitate or exact retribution from
male, violent offenders (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Greene & Pranis, 2007). Patriarchal theories
of criminality, from which sentencing models and rehabilitation programs are based, are either
directly applied to women without regard to the fact that they generally do not commit violent
offenses or without regard to the idea that women come from and return to marginalized
positions in society, with the added stigma of a criminal record (Covington & Bloom, 2003;
Greene & Pranis, 2007). Criminality, and therefore effective sentencing models and
rehabilitation programs for women, must take these factors into account, along with previous
research (Ellis et al., 2008; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005) based in social-
cognitive theories of gender identity development.
Social-cognitive theories of gender identity development are based on the interaction
between a person, the environment and patterns of gendered expressions of behavior (Patton,
Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016). These categories continuously interact, forming an individual’s
identity along with an individual’s “…self-perception, self-regulation…” (Patton et al., 2016, p.
183) and shape their interactions with others. As proposed by Bem (1983), an individual:
…filter[s] information through gender schema that are formed at an early age but are not
immutable. Students process information about themselves and their environments
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 40
through gender schema and then interact with their environments informed by those
schemas… (Patton et al., 2016, pp. 183-184)
The development of an individual’s gender schema occurs through the personal components that:
…include biological characteristics, self-concept, self-perception, and regulation.
Behavioral factors [that] are gender-related activity patterns…[and e]nvironmental
components [that] include families, peer, educational settings, media, and digital
contexts. (Patton et al., 2016, 183)
A socio-cognitive approach to identity development (Ellis et al., 2008; HCR 85 Task Force,
2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005) points to the importance of tailoring
educational programs to specific populations in order to be most effective. This is especially
germane to this study because the vast majority of the research pertaining to access to academic,
social and emotional support in a postsecondary environment to decrease the chance of an
individual recidivating have been focused on previously incarcerated males, and thus, does not
take into account the personal, behavioral and environmental components that interact to form a
female identity (Heller et al., 2013; Patel & Valenzuela, 2013; Savage, 2016; Scrivener & Weiss,
2013). The importance of an educational program, constructed from a female gender identity
development base, is best exemplified by Reisig, Holtfreter and Morash (2002), who studied
social networking among 402 female offenders. Reisig et al. (2002) surmised that women who
belonged to a more robust social network, consisting of authentic relationships, and emotional,
social and instrumental support from kin and non-kin, recidivated at a lower rate due to their
participation in “…gender-responsive programs…” (p. 180). Taken together, the most effective
education program with the goal of reducing the likelihood of an individual recidivating would
involve the development of an individual’s new possible self that includes building strength and
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 41
resiliency (i.e. personal components) while decreasing the probability of engaging in behaviors
and activities that have previously led to criminal acts.
Self-Authorship Model and Framework
Self authorship is “…the internal capacity to define one’s beliefs, identity and social
relations…[that help adults] meet the challenges of adult life…[and] a necessary foundation for
adults to meet typical expectations they face at work, home and school…” (Baxter Magolda,
2008, p. 269). Based on the work of Robert Kegan (1982), Baxter Magolda (1999; 2001; 2007)
focused on the transition of identity making based on external expectations to one that the
individual creates for himself or herself, especially in their relationships with others (Patton et
al., 2016). Ultimately, an important outcome of this growth process is the development of self-
authorship (Patton et al., 2016).
This constructivist-developmental approach to identity making consists of four stages of
epistemological reflection: absolute knowledge, transitional knowledge, independent knowing
and contextual knowing, which Baxter Magolda (1992) further concluded follows gendered
patterns, though they are not dictated by gender (Patton et al., 2016). In the first stage, absolute
knowledge, individuals accept knowledge from authoritative figures without question (Patton et
al., 2016). Women generally do so through what Baxter Magolda (1992) terms receiving
knowledge, characterized by “…minimal interaction with instructors [i.e. authority figures], an
emphasis on comfort in the learning environment, relationships with peers…[and] do not always
express…independent perspectives” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 363). This female gender-related
pattern was important within the context of this study as the majority of these individuals first
developed their identity in an environment where authority figures subjected them to emotional
and physical abuse, and these individuals were not in a position to have, much less express, an
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 42
“…independent perspective” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 363). A need for “…comfort in the learning
environment…” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 363), the home environment in this context, and a
probable deficient social network, would further prevent these individuals from engaging in the
process of epistemological reflection (Patton et al., 2016). In addition, many of these women do
not progress in the process of epistemological reflection, as many continue to encounter the same
abusive environmental conditions in adulthood (Ellis et al., 2008; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein,
2001; Yuen et al., 2005).
Lack of engagement in the epistemological reflection process, cognitive, intrapersonal
and interpersonal aspects that would facilitate the overall transition from external identity
development to internal identity development -- inhibits self-authorship (Patton et al., 2016). The
development of self-authorship progresses through four phases: following formulas, crossroads,
becoming the author of one’s life and internal foundation (Patton et al., 2016). The first phase,
following formulas, is characterized by “…follow[ing] the plans laid out for them by external
authorities about what they should think and…they allow others to define who they are. Gaining
approval of others is a critical aspect of relationship-building” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 366). A
lack of progression to the second phase, crossroads, prevents women from developing an
independent sense of self, and thus, these women continue to seek a sense of self from others
(Patton et al., 2016). As a result of adhering to others’ expectations, these women may not have
“…a clear sense of self [which] made it difficult to determine what to do, both personally and in
relationships…” and may instead, turn to the abuse of substances to cope with past trauma (Ellis
et al., 2008; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Patton et al., 2016, p. 367; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005).
One proposed method of better addressing these disparities is through a postsecondary education
program for females who were previously incarcerated that incorporates practices that will
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 43
scaffold an epistemological reflection model (Patton et al., 2016). This program would also
include academic supports so that these students can ultimately progress to the fourth phase of
self-authorship, internal foundation, where these women are certain of “…their self-determined
belief system, in their sense of who they are, and in the mutuality of their relationships” (Patton
et al., 2016, p. 368). Progression through the four phases of self-authorship will further develop
individuals’ trust in their internal voice, help to develop their internal foundation, and commit to
listening to their internal voice (Patton et al., 2016). This change in thought process will change
the individual’s personal lens, thus changing how these women interact with their environment
and her patterns of gendered expressions of behavior (Patton et al., 2016).
The ability of a tailored education program to assist in the development of self-authorship
is evidenced by a study conducted by Ka’Opua et al. (2012), who found that access to academic,
social and emotional support were important factors in helping previously incarcerated Native
Hawaiian males adjust to their new postsecondary environment and become participating
members in their respective communities. Though this study was not focused on women, as a
similarly minoritized group, the development of a new possible self that resulted from engaging
in this support structure aligns with Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship model (Baxter Magolda,
2004; Ka’Opua et al., 2012).
Women’s Ways of Knowing
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule’s (1997) Women’s Ways of Knowing theory
further assisted in understanding how an education-based program assisted women in achieving
education goals and supporting their identity development, within the context of a gender-based
socio-cognitive approach to identity development. Based on the work of Gilligan (1982) and
Perry (1968), this theory seeks to elucidate how women develop their “…voice, mind, and
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 44
self…” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 324) through studying the thought process of internalizing stimuli
from an individual’s environment, thereby shaping how they perceive the incoming stimulus,
make internal decisions based on this input and then react to the external environment (Belenky
et al., 1997; Patton et al., 2016). Belenky et al.’s (1997) Women’s Ways of Knowing theory was
important to better understand how women incorporate knowledge into their existing schema and
to better elucidate how participation in an education-based postsecondary program possibly
changed the perspective from which a woman interacted with her external environment (Belenky
et al., 1997; Patton et al., 2016).
The gendered patterns observed by Baxter Magolda (1992) support previous findings by
Belenky et al. (1997) in their study of 135 women (Patton et al., 2016). Five perspectives, or
ways of knowing, that emerged from this study describe their theory of how women “…know
and view the world…[and how] family and the schools…both promote and hinder women’s
development” (Belenky et al., 1986, p. 15; Belenky et al., 1997, p. 4). These five perspectives
are: silence, received knowledge, subjective knowledge, procedural knowledge and constructed
knowledge (Patton et al., 2016). Though Belenky et al. (1986; 1997) caution that these
perspectives are generalizations, these researchers contend that the perspectives are insightful in
understanding how a woman makes sense of the events that occur and how those events
contribute to her personal development (Patton et al., 2016). A more nuanced and gendered
understanding of how a woman makes sense of the events that occur and how those events
contributed to her personal development is important to this study, as the majority of women
who were previously incarcerated “…know and view the world…” (Belenky et al., 1986, p. 15)
from the perspectives of silence or received knowing as evidenced by maladaptive coping
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 45
mechanisms that manifest as a dependency on alcohol or drugs or the repetition, continuation, or
reproduction of abusive environmental conditions (Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005). .
The perspective of silence, characterized as “…mindless, voiceless, and
obedient…[where] women find themselves subject to the whims of external authority” (Patton et
al., 2016, p. 324) and the perspective of received knowing, characterized by “[a] lack of self-
confidence…” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 324) and a belief that knowledge is externally derived is
important to understanding how a postsecondary education program can foster internally-based
perspectives of knowing (Patton et al., 2016).
Most important to this study was the shift to the perspective of subjective knowing,
which is characterized as “…truth…now [being] seen as residing in the self…” (Patton et al.,
2016, p. 324) as this significant change in perspective would be a hallmark in an individual’s
“…quest for the self…” (Patton et al., 2016, p. 324) and the development of an individual’s new
possible self.
Reference to the Study
This qualitative study explored the education-based ABC Program (a pseudonym) located
at Aloha Community College (ACC) (a pseudonym), a local community college located on
Oahu, Hawaii. The overarching goal of the ABC Program is to support students who enroll and
are continuing their postsecondary education at ACC with the goal of reducing recidivism
through assisting these students in achieving their education goals. Interviews with program
participants and staff directly associated with the ABC Program, along with analysis of
document artifacts helped to elucidate how female participants perceived their participation in
the ABC Program as supporting their efforts to achieve their education goals and supporting their
identity development.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 46
Recent research (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017; Lockwood et al., 2012; Nally, Lockwood,
Knutson, & Ho, 2012; Travis, 2003; Travis, 2005; Travis et al., 2001) has noted an increased
interest by postsecondary education institutions in the United States in helping to stem the rate of
recidivism through programs and processes that support formerly incarcerated students in
successfully acclimating to the academic and social postsecondary environment. This support is
especially important for students from traditionally minoritized groups, that include women,
along with individuals of Native Hawaiian descent that make up a disproportionate number of
individuals involved in Hawaii’s criminal justice system (Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Office of
Hawaiian Affairs, 2010; Wimer & Bloom, 2014).
Programs like the ABC Program are important for formerly incarcerated individuals,
especially women, in developing a new possible self as the majority of women who become
involved in the criminal justice system do so because of non-violent, drug-related crimes like
theft (The Sentencing Project, 2015; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005). For many of these women,
drug and alcohol abuse were used to cope with negative life events like incest, abuse and
generalized poverty (The Sentencing Project, 2015; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005). An
understanding of the development of self-authorship through epistemological reflection and more
specifically, in the context of a women’s ways of knowing, helped to explore how females
perceive their participation in the education-based ABC Program at ACC as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals, support their identity development and reduce their chance of
recidivating. Understanding an alternative means of lowering the rate of recidivism for females is
especially important as the criminal justice system was originally developed to rehabilitate male,
violent offenders and thus, even current education-based programs are focused on a radically
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 47
different population (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Flanagan, 1995; Green & Pranis, 2007;
Kajstura, 2017; Ka’Opua, 2012; Stein, 2011; Yuen et al., 2005).
The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine how female participants in the ABC
Program at ACC utilize this program to support their attainment of their education goals and
identity development in their effort to not return to the criminal justice system.
Conclusion
This literature review outlined the barriers that previously incarcerated women must
overcome during their reentry into family and community life after their release from the
criminal justice system. More specifically, the obstacles that previously incarcerated women face
when entering and attending a postsecondary institution to improve themselves both
academically and personally. Further, this literature review describes the characteristics of
postsecondary programs that support formerly incarcerated student success in achieving their
education and personal goals. Chapter Three details the population and methodology that was
used in this study and outlines the rationale for selecting a qualitative approach to this
researcher’s study of female participants in the ABC Program, along with the study of their
interactions with their peers and staff directly associated with the ABC Program at ACC.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 48
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
According to the United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2016 report, there was an average annual decline
of 1.2% annual in the correctional population from 2007 to 2016 (Kaeble & Cowhig, 2018). This
overall decline in the number of individuals includes those who are in the community on parole
or probation and those who are housed in Federal or State prisons or jails, continuing the trend of
a decreasing incarceration rate that began in 2009 and as of the end of 2016, is at “…its lowest
rate since 1996” (Kaeble & Cowhig, 2018, p. 1).
Unlike the national trend, the State of Hawaii’s jail and prison population grew 18%
during the 2000 to 2010 fiscal years (Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2014). A
significant portion of this increasing incarceration rate of 841% over the past four decades is due
to the 50% average recidivism rate within a three-year period, with more than 85% of individuals
reoffending within the first two years of being released (HCR 85 Task Force, 2017).
Moreover, this exponential growth has been profound as “[n]ationwide, women’s state prison
populations grew 834% over nearly forty years – more than double the pace of the growth among
men” (Sawyer, 2018, para. 6). Hawaii has not experienced an exponential growth in women’s
state prison incarceration rates, as women’s State prison incarceration rates decreased by 20%
between 2009 to 2015 (Sawyer, 2018). However, what remains problematic is “…how little
progress states have made in curbing [women’s incarceration] growth – especially in light of the
progress made to reduce men’s prison populations” (Sawyer, 2018, para. 8). This issue,
according to Sawyer (2018), is evidenced by a 5% reduction for males that were incarcerated
versus a 0.29% reduction for females that were incarcerated between 2009 and 2015. Sawyer
(2018) attributed this asymmetrical reduction, in part, to a difference in earning potential as a
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 49
whole and further argues that “…women’s prisons do not meet the need or demand for
vocational and educational program opportunities” (para. 18) that are available to their male
counterparts.
Alternative education-based programs like the Hawaii Opportunity Probation with
Enforcement (HOPE) program and the ABC Program (a pseudonym) have been implemented to
provide program participants with the necessary knowledge and skills so they can become
productive members of society and avoid returning to the criminal justice system (Alm, 2015;
Bartels, 2016; Kornell, 2013). These alternative programs have helped to reduce Hawaii’s
incarceration rate through academic and social education components. However, the problem
still remains that a large number of individuals recidivate. During the 2016 fiscal year alone, 553
individuals were released on parole in the State of Hawaii, and 399 individuals had their parole
revoked (Matsuoka, Amaral, Matsumori-Hoshijo, Town, & Tua, 2016). The high number of
individuals who returned to a correctional facility due to a parole violation alone not only places
a financial burden on the various government agencies involved in the criminal justice system,
but negatively affects their families and communities as well (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000;
Ka’Opua et al., 2011; Visher & Travis, 2011; Wheeldon, 2011). Taken together, this points to
the problem that there is limited research that pertains to women, more specifically, women in
Hawaii.
ABC Program Study
This study sought to understand the experiences of female study participants on the
barriers they encountered when they transition from prison, and the support processes they found
through their participation in the ABC Program. This study also examined the perceptions of
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 50
female study participants in their identity development process while enrolled in the ABC
Program.
The qualitative research approach was best suited for this study because it allowed a
closer examination of the female study participants’ individual thought processes as opposed to a
static outcome or product that would best be studied through a quantitative research approach
(Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Historically, research in the area of recidivism has focused primarily
on the individual, gathering quantitative measures like education program participation (Chase &
Dickover, 1983; Cho & Tyler, 2010; Hull, Forrester, Brown, Jobe, & McCullen, 2000;
Lockwood et al., 2012; Nally et al., 2012; Wolf & Sylves, 1981), attainment of a General
Education Diploma (GED) or degree (Gordon & Weldon, 2003; Jancic, 1998; Tyler & Kling,
2006) and rate of recidivism (Duwe & Clark, 2014; Fabelo, 2002; O’Neil, 1990; Steurer &
Smith, 2003). More recently, however, research in this area has expanded to include a wider
scope of research questions that include inquiry about the education program itself (Anders &
Noblit, 2011; Ellis et al., 2008; Hunte & Esmail, 2011; Listwan et al., 2006; Meyer, 2011; Meyer
et al., 2010; Petersilia, 2004; Seiter & Kadela, 2003; Vacca, 2004; Wheeldon, 2011) and the
inclusion of qualitative data (Morani et al., 2011; Pearson et al., 2002; Stein, 2001; Visher &
Travis, 2011) to better elucidate why and how a particular program is able to assist an individual
in her or his efforts to reintegrate into their families and community.
The depth and breadth of information necessary for this type of data necessitated that a
screening survey be first administered to gather basic data (Merriam, 2009). Interviews followed
to focus on the process of how the ABC Program was able to support these individuals in
attaining their academic goals and develop their identity through their transition from being
released from State or Federal supervision to an independent student, family and community
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 51
member and how the ABC Program supports the study participants through the process of
developing a new identity (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Pierce, 1994).
This study examined methods used by the ABC Program to support study participants’
efforts to achieve education goals and identity development with the goal of reducing their
chance of recidivating. Post-secondary educators, along with program administrators and peer
mentors, some of whom were previously incarcerated, work together with program participants
to address both the academic and social educational needs of participants (R. Kang, personal
communication, March 19, 2018). A focus on the methodologies used to scaffold study
participants’ academic and social education needs will help to elucidate how the ABC Program
supports these students in their efforts to not recidivate. The two research questions are:
• How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
o What are their self-identified needs?
o What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement?
• How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
Methods
Qualitative Study
Qualitative research involves elucidating the respective experiences of study participants
(Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The use of pre-surveys served as a screening tool in order to
purposefully determine the study sample population (Fink, 2013).

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 52
Site
The ABC Program is housed at a satellite campus of Aloha Community College (a
pseudonym), located on Oahu island, Hawaii (college website, 2018). This satellite campus
offers the full range of courses necessary for a student to obtain an Associate in Arts Degree
(college website, 2018).
Aloha Community College (ACC) was founded in 1968 and offers more than 60 degree
and certificate programs, in addition to supporting the efforts of students to either transfer to a
four-year university or in preparation to enter the workforce (college website, 2018). Both ACC
and its satellite campus (ACC2) serve a wide range of both traditional and non-traditional
students from various ethnic groups (college website, 2018). The Carnegie Classification of
Institutions of Higher Education (2017) identifies ACC as a two-year, medium, public institution
with an enrollment of approximately 8,000 undergraduate students. Annual tuition and fees to
attend ACC is based on residency and ranges between $128.50 per credit (resident) to $843.00
per credit (300-level courses for non-residents) (college website, 2018). Need-based and merit
scholarships, grants and need-based financial aid are available to students (college website,
2018).
The ACC student body is composed of a wide range of ethnic groups and also included
70 students from 26 countries in 2016 (college website, 2018).

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 53
Table 1
Ethnic groups represented in the student body of ACC in 2016
Ethnic Group Percentage of Study Body
Native Hawaiian 26.5%
Filipino 22.5%
Pacific Islanders 11.0%
European 10.5%
Other Asian 9.0%
Two or more races 15.5%
Black/African American 2.5%
Hispanic 2.0%
Other 0.5%

Sixty percent of the student body population in 2016 was female and forty percent was male
(college website, 2018).
The Aloha Community College satellite campus (ACC2) is the most appropriate location
for this study because the ABC Program is currently only offered on that campus. Moreover, this
institution is ideal for this study because of its commitment to student-centered learning and their
strong ties to the communities in which they are located (college website, 2018). The mission of
Aloha Community College is to foster student growth and knowledge through their liberal arts,
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 54
career and technical education programs (college website, 2018). Through their educational
experiences, ACC students become responsible citizens on local, national and international
levels, and are guided through the process of attaining their education goals, with a emphasis on
Native Hawaiian students (college website, 2018).
The college website (2018) outlines the guiding mission of ACC and its core values:
• Community: Building a sense of community within and outside of ACC through a
commitment to cooperation, collaboration, social responsibility and concern for others
• Diversity and respect: Valuing of individual differences that contribute to a learning
environment that fosters an enriching intellectual and social environment through
exposure to and understanding of diverse experiences, beliefs and perspectives
• Integrity: Personal and institutional integrity through fostering continuous improvement
and a commitment to assisting students in attaining their education goals
• Open access: Valuing of each student by meeting the needs of the students and the
community
Population and Sample
Population
The population for this study were previously incarcerated females participating or who
have previously participated in the ABC Program at ACC2.
Sample
The primary consideration in choosing the ABC Program for this study was the type of
students that this program serves. Therefore, the general choice of purposive sampling was
necessary in order to answer this study’s research questions (Maxwell, 2013). More specifically,
purposeful sampling was chosen for this study because it allowed for the selection of study
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 55
participants that meet gender, age and length of time participation criterion (Johnson &
Christensen, 2008). Only female participants currently enrolled in the ABC Program were
surveyed. Grouping criterion was an individual’s length of time participating in the ABC
Program, dividing the sample group into individuals who have participated in the program for up
to nine months (one to two semesters) and ten months and greater (more than three semesters).
The use of purposeful sampling allowed for the capture of data from study participants with a
range of program participation lengths, and thus, more robust and rich data from which to form
emergent themes. This researcher anticipated purposeful sampling would have resulted in
between eight to ten study participants.
Triangulation through the use of multiple data sources was used to increase the validity of
the findings of this study (Creswell, 2014). Interviews with ACC2 peer mentors and coaches
directly involved with the ABC Program collected data about the perspective of two groups
within the ABC Program. Both groups were individually interviewed to understand their
perception of how female participants of the ABC Program may be supported in their efforts to
achieve education goals, their perception of the needs of this particular group of students and if
they differ from the needs of students who are not participants of the ABC Program. Data also
evaluated study participant perceptions of the ways that a post-secondary institution can support
or constrain these students’ efforts to achieve their education goals. Additionally, peer mentors
and coaches were asked their thoughts on the potential role of the ABC Program to reduce
female students’ chances of recidivating and supporting identity development. Finally,
instructors and peer mentors were asked to describe the programs and interventions that are
implemented to support these students in achieving their education goals and identity
development.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 56
Instrumentation
Fink (2013) described surveys as a self-administered questionnaire to solicit information
from respondents about a generalized effect or for a specific need. Creswell (2014) further
defines surveys through a description of survey design, described as the “…quantitative or
numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population [provided] by studying a
sample of that population” (p. 155).
Surveys for this study included a mixture of close-ended questions and open-ended
questions (Anders & Noblit, 2011). An example of a close-ended question was the length of time
the student has participated in the ABC Program. This data would be uniform and therefore
reliable and then lead to open-ended questions of why the study participant chose to become a
participant in and why the individual chose to remain in the ABC Program (Fink, 2013). The
close-ended question data was furthermore used to estimate the nested sample population along
with initially sorting the initial study population (Fink, 2013). The open-ended question data was
coded and analyzed based on the close-ended question data in order to identify an individual’s
reasons for participating in the ABC Program based on their longevity in the program (Fink,
2013). Additionally, as this study followed an emergent research design methodology, the open-
ended question data helped to shape later interview questions (Creswell, 2014).
As described by Merriam and Tisdell (2016) interviews were chosen for this study in
order to find out study participants’ explicit thought process as they navigate through this
transitional period, as this decision-making process is a thought process that cannot be observed
(Weiss, 1994). A semi-structured interview was the best format to frame the interview process
for this study to ensure that pertinent questions that would address this study’s research questions
were asked with minimal variation and limiting bias in their delivery, while allowing for
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 57
flexibility in order to ask clarifying questions or allowing for the study participant to offer a
different point of view on the topic, for example (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002; Patton
1987). Questions pertained to an individual’s experiences, behaviors, opinions, beliefs and
feelings (Patton, 1987). Notes and audio recordings upon consent of the study participant were
used to document each of the interviews (Patton, 1987). Professional transcription of the audio
recording assisted in accurately transcribing the raw data and allowed for the validation of in
vivo and descriptive coding (Patton, 1987).
Interviews with ABC Program peer mentor and coaching staff were conducted to gather
data about their perspective about how female ABC Program participants are supported in their
effort to reach education goals, develop a new identity and use their participation in the ABC
Program to lessen their chances of recidivating. This researcher again used a semi-structured
interview protocol (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). Standard, open-ended questions
again ensured that interview questions that addressed this study’s research questions were
addressed in a uniform manner while informal conversational interview questions allowed for
probing questions to gain clarification or a deeper understanding of a topic (Patton, 1987).
Merriam (2009) suggests the review of documents as another method of gathering data.
ABC Program archival documents were collected and analyzed for background information, the
program structure and the support methodologies of this program. Examples of documents
included attendance rosters, activity announcements and program syllabi. Analysis of the ABC
Program archival documents helped to understand the planned structure and goals of ABC
Program activities in comparison to study participant perceptions of the benefit gained from
participation in the various planned activities. Student-created documents like self-reflections
written as part of individual and group program activities, classwork and homework, were
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 58
reviewed to capture the experiences of the study participants in the program (R. Kang, personal
communication, March 19, 2018). Analysis of student-created documents were another venue for
study participants to convey their development that may not have been thoroughly captured in
the interview process. These documents, along with interview data, were analyzed in order to
elucidate emergent themes about the experiences and expectations of the study participants.
Data Collection Process
Prior to beginning this study, research plans were reviewed by the University of Southern
California (USC) institutional review board (IRB) to ensure that this study’s procedures did not
place study participants in undue risk (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This process
further required that this researcher self-assesses the potential risk to study participants to include
“…physical, psychological, social, economic, or legal harm” (Creswell, 2014, p. 95) in addition
to potential study participants who belong to vulnerable populations (Creswell, 2014; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Due to purposeful sampling that this study necessitates, the nested study
participants were anticipated to be legal adults who no longer are under the jurisdiction of the
criminal justice system (i.e. not on probation or parole). Subsequent to approval from the IRB at
USC, approval from the IRB at ACC was sought (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The ACC2 Campus Coordinator was contacted to request permission to conduct this
study (Creswell, 2014). Once approval was granted, the ACC Campus Coordinator then solicited
voluntary participation from ABC Program participants (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Similarly,
access to instructors and peer mentors in the ABC Program was also facilitated through the ACC
Campus Coordinator (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Information sheets describing this study and
requesting consent from the study participants were distributed by the ACC Campus
Coordinator.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 59
Once an invitation to participate in the study was accepted and consent from study
participants was obtained, a survey with questions that pertain to the respective populations was
sent to those who agreed to participate in the study. Survey questions included a mixture of
close-ended and open-ended questions that asked the respondent to identify or describe
engagement in activities, frequency of their involvement and their perceptions of the ABC
Program. The final survey question requested participation in a follow-up interview with the
researcher. Based on the survey participant response to the final question, eight to ten
participants were selected to become study participants. Snowball sampling was utilized to
increase study participants.
An informational sheet describing the study was again provided to all study participants,
along with the ability for study participants to end the interview at any time. All study
participants were scheduled for one hour to allow for discussion via informal conversational
interview questions. Interview questions were modified from existing and published interview
protocols (Baxter Magolda & King, 2007; Belenky et al., 1997; King, 2007). The identity
activity was modified from a common identity identification activity (National Institutes of
Health Office of Intramural Training and Education, 2016). A semi-structured approach was
utilized by this researcher to ensure that answers that address this study’s research questions
were delivered with minimal variation while allowing for follow-up questions to obtain
clarification or depth to a study participant’s answers.
Once permission was obtained by the study participant, the interview was audio recorded
and transcribed by a third-party service. All study participants were provided with the
opportunity to create a pseudonym to protect their identity and the pseudonym was used
throughout the interviews. All study participants were also provided with a copy of their
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 60
transcribed interview to review in order to verify its accuracy. Audio recordings will be stored on
a password protected hard drive. All notes collected during the course of the interviews will be
stored in a locked file cabinet, accessible only to this researcher.
Study participants were provided with a $30 CVS/Longs Drugs gift card at the
conclusion of the interview as a token of appreciation for participation in the interview.
ABC Program instructors and peer mentors were interviewed to learn about their
perceptions of how female participants in the ABC Program are supported in their achievement
of education goals and identity development.
Other documents that were collected for analysis first consisted of archival documents
like course syllabi and lesson plans from instructors and peer mentors of the ABC Program and
were requested prior to data collection in order to develop anticipated themes that may emerge
during the data analysis process. Additionally, documents created by study participants were also
requested. Possible student documents that were used, with the expressed permission of the
document owner, included items such as journals, term papers, coursework notes and self-
reflections that were created in the course of a study participant’s academic coursework and
ABC Program participation. These documents were similarly reviewed and coded for themes and
data in the data analysis process in order to give this researcher as enhanced sense of the program
structure and support elements. In summation, these documents helped to better elucidate the
depth and breadth of students’ experiences in the program from multiple perspectives.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 61
Data Analysis
Data obtained in this study consisted of a mixture of surveys, interviews and document
analysis. The survey was used as a screening tool to appropriately choose potential interview
subjects.
Data obtained from interviews was analyzed using the Corbin and Strauss (2008)
constant comparative method. The constant comparative method allowed this researcher to
compare data sets for similarities and differences in order to elucidate emergent themes that
provided the basis of this study’s narrative (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Codes that signified key
themes further developed into additional interview questions that better addressed this study’s
research questions (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
In vivo coding and descriptive coding was used to analyze all interview responses in
order to generate emergent themes (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Creswell, 2014). The themes that
emerged from both the survey responses and the interview responses were then compared to
discuss emergent themes regarding the perception of the female ABC Program study participants
in regard to the contributing factors that participation in the ABC Program supports their efforts
to achieve education goals and develop a new identity and the effectiveness of the ABC Program
in reducing recidivism.
A primary anticipated grouping criterion was age-based that was anticipated to emerge
through the analysis of the gathered data. The anticipated grouping was based on Erikson’s Stage
6: Intimacy versus Isolation and Stage 7: Generativity versus Stagnation early adulthood and
middle adulthood stages (Patton et al., 2016). A second anticipated grouping criterion was based
on type of offense that again, was anticipated to emerge through the analysis of the gathered
data. The anticipated grouping was based on a violent versus non-violent versus drug or drug-
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 62
related offense. This grouping was anticipated to help in understanding if the ABC Program is
better suited to address the academic and identity development needs for a particular group of
individuals who committed a particular offense.
All interview notes, transcripts and surveys will be secured in a locked file cabinet that is
only accessible to this researcher. All audio recordings and interview transcriptions will be
secured on this researcher’s personal computer hard drive that is password protected.
Validity
Survey responses and interview findings represent the truth as described by this study’s
participants. The data represent the study participant’s perceptions and thus, is reliable as the
findings are representative of the study participant’s reality (Merriam, 2009). This study’s
respondents included female student participants of the ABC Program, along with instructors and
peer mentors directly involved with the ABC Program. The perceptions of instructors and peer
mentors directly involved with the ABC Program was important in gaining a deeper and richer
understanding of the findings as they pertain to this study’s research questions.
Member checking was used throughout the interview process in order to ensure that the
information that was collected was interpreted and represented accurately (Creswell, 2014;
Maxwell, 2013). The periodic summarizing of information throughout each interview helped to
ensure that the content and context of respondent answers was being accurately understood.
Summarizing information throughout the interview process gave the respondent the opportunity
to affirm or to clarify misconceptions immediately. While reviewing emergent themes as a result
of data analysis, it was anticipated that it could have become necessary to request answers to
follow-up questions. The member checking process assisted in improving the accuracy of and
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 63
validity of the information gathered from each study participant; comparison of data between
groups helped in triangulating emergent themes (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013).
Role of the Researcher
Qualitative researchers must always be cognizant of the possibility of personal bias in the
collection of and interpretation of data (Merriam, 2009). Identifying and keeping in mind
individual biases of this researcher helped to minimize its impact on this qualitative study
(Merriam, 2009). As a secondary educator, one bias that had to be kept in mind for this
researcher throughout this study was the assumption that an education program would have a
positive effect for these students. As a female researcher studying females, this perspective had
to be kept in mind throughout this study in order to not place undue weight on particular
emergent themes based on this researcher’s life experiences (Creswell, 2013).
All study participants were made aware of the nature of this study so that respondents had
a framework from which to respond to during the interview process. It was also important to
keep in mind that all of the study participants interviewed for this study are affiliated with this
program, and therefore, key informant bias could influence the data that was collected, as all
study participants volunteered to participate in this study as opposed to a subject pool that was
randomly sampled (Maxwell, 2013). Interviewing several individuals from each key respondent
group helped to mitigate this potential bias along with helping to ensure that unrelated agendas
were not influencing the themes that emerged through the data analysis process.
Conclusion
This chapter described the methods that were used to examine how female students
perceived their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their efforts to achieve education
goals and identity development. More specifically, this chapter described the choice of a
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 64
qualitative study in order to capture study subjects’ decision-making processes. This chapter then
described the site, population and sampling method. This chapter also described the data
collection process and the types of data that was collected. Finally, this chapter addressed
possible issues with validity and researcher influence and potential biases. Chapter Four
introduces the participants in this study to include demographic information, along with their
respective experiences in the ABC Program.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 65
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine how females perceive their
participation in the ABC Program as supporting their efforts to achieve education goals and
identity development, reducing the likelihood of recidivism. Seven females and four peer
mentors and staff at the Aloha Community College satellite campus (ACC2) were selected to
participate in this study.
This chapter discusses the participants of this qualitative methodological study through
demographic data and their roles as ABC Program students, peer mentors and staff. This chapter
will further outline the study findings by defining four themes that emerged from the one-on-one,
semi-structured interview data: (a) a sense of belonging and community, (b) empowerment and
self-efficacy, (c) personal accountability and (d) the value of communication for females in
developing a new identity. Data from the semi-structured interviews is presented to answer the
primary research questions that guided this study, “How do females perceive their participation
in the ABC Program as supporting their efforts to achieve education goals? What are their self-
identified needs? What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement? How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their
identity development?”
Study Participant Demographics
Data for this study was collected from November 2018 through February 2019. Student
participants reported demographic information including identification as a female, age, ethnic
group identity, reason for incarceration (violent or non-violent offense; drug or drug-related
offense) and length of participation in the ABC Program. Study participants reported their ages
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 66
ranged from 31 to 55 years of age, with an average age of 42.7 years. Age data for peer mentor
and staff participants was not captured.
Table 2
Student Participants
Name Identified as
Female
Age Ethnic or
Racial
Group
Reason for
Incarceration:

Incarcerated
for
Drug or
Drug-
related
Offense
Time enrolled in
the ABC
Program (by
Semester)
Kujo Yes 55 Other Non-violent
offense
Yes 1
Mandy Yes 51 Other Non-violent
offense
Yes 5
Alohalani Yes 50 Native
Hawaiian
Non-violent
offense
Yes 6
Mamu Yes 35 Native
Hawaiian
Non-violent
offense
Yes 3
Michelle Yes 41 Pacific
Islander
Violent
offense
No 6
Kay Yes 31 Native
Hawaiian
Non-violent
offense
No 3
Kamaka Yes 36 Native
Hawaiian
Non-violent
offense
No 1

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 67
The average ABC Program study participant is Native Hawaiian, was incarcerated for a
non-violent, drug-related offense, and has been a participant in the ABC Program for four
semesters. One study participant has been in the ABC Program for seven semesters, while two
participants have participated in the ABC Program for one semester. Pseudonyms were used to
maintain the confidentiality of the participants and no specific descriptions of the participants are
provided. The study participants are grouped into two categories based on their roles and
responsibilities; the first category was student and the second category was staff or peer mentor.
The ABC Program student study participants were asked ten interview questions and the
staff and peer mentors were asked eight interview questions. All study participants expressed that
the interviews were an opportunity for them to not only be a part of this study, but more
importantly, gave them a chance to help others understand the importance of the ABC Program
through being able to express, in their own words, how they began, persist and encourage others
in the program.
The purposeful sampling of identified ABC Program participants, peer mentors and staff
who were willing to share their respective experiences allowed this researcher to gain specialized
and specific details in the study participants’ narratives. The narratives were complemented by
data collected through pre-survey questions and use of the Identity Pie activity during the
interview (Travis, Solomon, & Waul, 2001; Travis, 2003).
Student Participant Profiles
Kujo is a divorced mother in her first semester in the ABC Program. She wants to
graduate from college, which would be the fulfillment of a lifetime goal. Kujo would like to
pursue a career in a field where she would be able to assist others. Kujo is currently working part
time.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 68
Mandy is a single mother of two teenage daughters in her fifth semester in the ABC
Program. Her goal is to graduate from college and pursue a career in the field of social work.
Mandy originally chose to pursue a higher education in order to encourage her teenage daughters
to attend college upon their graduation from high school and was encouraged to enroll in the
ABC Program by a good friend who had been enrolled in the program for a period of time.
Alohalani is a single mother of a son in his early twenties, and in her eighth semester in
the ABC Program. She will be graduating in the next semester and her goal is to further her
education so that she can pursue a career in social work. Alohalani chose to pursue a higher
education in order to create a better life for herself and her family. She is currently working as
the lead Peer Mentor with the ABC Program and as a writing tutor.
Mamu has been attending the ABC Program for three semesters. Her goal is to graduate
from college and pursue a career where she can help others. Mamu chose to pursue a higher
education after being inspired by a presentation by the former ABC Program counselor while
living at a clean and sober house. Pursuing a higher education for Mamu was an especially big
life change, as she dropped out of school at age thirteen.
Michelle is a divorced mother who has been attending the ABC Program for eight
semesters. She will be graduating in the next semester and hopes to continue her education in the
medical field. Michelle chose to enroll in the ABC Program in order to do something different as
she was unemployed at the time that she enrolled in school. Michelle is currently employed as a
substance abuse counselor and was the only study participant who was incarcerated for a violent
offense.
Kay is a single mother of three children who has been attending the ABC Program for
three semesters. Kay has since graduated from the Aloha Community College satellite campus
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 69
(ACC2) and is currently pursuing a bachelors degree in social work. Kay was one of the first
female Peer Mentors of the ABC Program and one of the main components of her job was to
present information to those transitioning out of prison or drug treatment in order to “…help
make education more simple for them” and to share her experiences and struggles with and about
education with others.
Kamaka is a mother who is in her first semester of the ABC Program. Kamaka would like
to pursue a career as a social worker for Child Protective Services (CPS) or as a case manager for
homeless individuals. Though Kamaka just began her pursuit of a higher education degree, she is
motivated to complete her education in order to have a career where she can help and give back
to others while bettering her family’s situation.
Staff and Peer Mentor Participant Profiles
Snuffy is a senior administrator at ACC2 and has supported the ABC Program since its
inception. Snuffy oversees all of the counselors and peer mentors while assisting staff and
students as needed.
Jane is a staff member and counselor. Jane has been affiliated with the ABC Program for
approximately eight months. Jane works closely with all ACC2 students, but more specifically,
with the students enrolled in the ABC Program.
Sam is a staff member and Peer Mentor. Sam has been involved with the ABC Program
since its inception and has been involved in the professional development of other peer mentors
while working with ABC Program participants. Sam has been a Peer Mentor for over a year.
Oliver was an ABC Program graduate and has been affiliated with the ABC Program for
over four years. Oliver was a staff member and Peer Mentor at ACC2.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 70
Emergent Themes
The four themes that emerged in this study were: (a) a sense of belonging and
community, (b) empowerment and self-efficacy, (c) personal accountability and (d) the value of
communication for females in developing a new identity.
Theme 1: A Sense of Belonging and Community
All seven study student participants specifically discussed the sense of belonging and
community that the ABC Program creates by helping them through the process of applying to
school and for various scholarships and grants. Assistance in other forms, like being able to
borrow textbooks or laptops, and having ready access to tutors, are other ways that community
was developed within this group.
More specifically, the ABC Program first cultivates this foundational and overarching
sense of belonging and community through outreach even prior to enrolling at ACC2. Three of
the seven study student participations specifically mentioned that these presentations given by
ACC2 staff gave them a feeling of motivation and empowerment to pursue a post-secondary
education. This sentiment was best described by Mamu, who stated that:
…the motivational speeches that he was giving us, was like a hit. Just the things he said,
the way he said it and how motivated he was saying it, listening just made me want it
too…they made it sound like it was possible and it was attainable. It’s gonna take a lot of
hard work, but anyone can have it. You’ve just got to want it.
Through the outreach presentations, the ABC Program staff were able to make a connection with
these students, thus establishing a foundational relationship with them.
This sense of belonging and community was further developed through interaction with
other students who have shared similar life experiences. In five of the seven student interviews, a
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 71
common theme that emerged was the purpose of this program, which was to provide a place of
support for students who were transitioning and adjusting to academic responsibilities, while
balancing personal responsibilities and the potential of recidivating. Many of the study
participants noted that being a part of a program where others are having the same struggles and
life experiences helped them to feel like they could be successful. As Kujo stated, “Just to have
that support network is very helpful to get you through those hard days at school when you
wanna give up, and you’ve got other people saying, ‘No, no, don’t give up,’ and they reach out
and cheer you on, and you just keep going.” This description of students reaching out to others
demonstrated that the ABC Program is able to foster a place of support.
Another activity that was specifically mentioned by three of the seven study student
participants that helped to build this sense of community and belonging within the ABC Program
was listening to guest speakers who would present motivational talks at various meetings. More
specifically, Mandy described the impact that these speakers had:
Some of the speakers that we had…I don’t know what it was about them, but they were
so down to earth and they were so realistic and they gave me real life ways to combat
falling back into where I was…these people had been through similar circumstances and
when you’re in this kind of situation you don’t listen to people that haven’t been there. If
they’ve never lived that life, they don’t really, you know, people that learn it from the
book just don’t have it the same knowledge that somebody that’s actually been there
does. And then they provided us real life examples of how to handle situations where we
might be drawn back in and to stop us from being drawn back in…like getting yourself
out of the situation, excusing friends – basically that kind of you know, that really aren’t
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 72
important to your life. I mean realize that and not worry about what they think and feel,
you know?
The immediate connection that the guest speakers made with the students made them relatable
and contributed to the successful delivery of the speaker’s message. The students were not only
able to potentially incorporate the speaker’s message into their existing schema, but contributed
to the students’ sense of belonging and community through having the shared experience of the
guest speaker and the relevance of the speaker’s message.
This sense of community and belonging that the ABC Program developed between its
participants was further reinforced by giving study participants a place of support without
judgment. The majority of the study participants stated that their initial adjustment out of
incarceration and addiction was difficult and as Alohalani stated, “…you kind of feel like you
stick out from the crowd. You don’t really fit in.” Other concerns stated by study participants
included doubt about not fitting into college, as the average age of study participants was 42.7
years old. They doubted their ability to do the coursework and some felt like professors and other
students would look down on them. However, Alohalani stated that the ABC Program “…helped
me to feel more part of, because it’s a group that we all come from the same background in one
way or another, and for me, I know that was important for me feel like I belonged to something,
so [ABC] actually played that part.”
In reflecting on the specific activities that the ABC Program facilitates to build this sense
of community and belonging, Kay stated:
…the weekly meetings, the camaraderie, the relationships that were being built
within the program is what helped me to get to this place. It built my confidence.
It’s acknowledgement of achievement. Another week down. That you’re doing it.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 73
Reminding you even though it’s overwhelming, it can be so challenging, you
can’t see the end at times, that you got through another week and you can do it.
This sense of community and belonging was further reinforced by the faculty and staff affiliated
with the ABC Program. This sentiment was best explained by Michelle, who stated:
I love my professors. Like most of them, I could share. You know, I could be open with
them. Telling them what I went through, all that. That’s why I didn’t give up, and just
having positive feedbacks from them, and with them saying that they’re just an email
away, or we can always have a talk session before class started, and after. Having
somebody to come to me and say, “Are you okay?” Giving them affirmations, positive
affirmations.
The relationships that were formed and the non-judgmental support that was freely given and
available contributed to and cultivated the sense of belonging and community among all of the
stakeholders affiliated with the ABC Program.
The interview data from the student study participants was supported by interviews with
staff, coaches and Peer Mentors. All of these interviews stated that the successes of their
program were the supportive efforts from all of the staff, coaches and Peer Mentors in helping
students in a non-judgmental and safe environment. More specifically, having a strong female
Peer Mentor “…who is very relatable in many ways in terms of life experience as well as
achieving education,” according to Jane. Sense of belonging and community was also fostered
through the development of relationships through the tutoring program, as well as periodic
activities like hikes and environmental clean ups, that helped to build a deeper bond between the
students in the ABC Program.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 74
Theme 2: Empowerment and Self-Efficacy
Having a place where one can receive non-judgmental assistance and support has given
the study participants the belief that they can achieve more than they thought they could and has
further helped to solidify future plans to give back from a place of authority with their
achievement of a higher education degree. In other words, the study participants are first driven
to “pass it on” to others in the ABC Program by becoming Peer Mentors or tutors, and then, to
others in the outside community and know that in order to do so, they must obtain a
postsecondary degree.
The empowerment of these students stems from the development of a sense of belonging
and community that is cultivated during bi-monthly “check in” meetings, which all seven student
study participants felt were critical to their success thus far. In these support group meetings,
students in the ABC Program come together to share their thoughts, personal or academic, with
each other. Students are able to talk about any subject – their “…thoughts, whether it has to do
with our personal lives, because our personal lives always have to be at a certain level for us to
be able to complete our education goals, so when we get in this group, we discuss whatever is on
our plate at the time” as described by Alohalani.
These “check in” meetings are especially germane to Hawaii’s unique environment,
where the value of pu’uhonua is another important cultural value for how individuals interact
with their environment and others. This value that focuses on having a place of refuge where an
individual can be at peace, feel safe and heal. All seven of the student participants who were
interviewed discussed this as integral to their success thus far. More specifically, the importance
of these meetings to the success of the study participants is best described by Kay:
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 75
Because, you have so many weeks in a semester and at any time it can make and break
you. Once you have one bad week, you can go downhill from then. Especially with our
type of background. One week can make a big difference in your confidence level,
whether or not you want to pursue it or go back to what you know. So that’s why groups
are so important. So important just to check-in, just to process, just to touch bases.
The importance of these regular “check in” meetings was unanimously supported by the
staff and Peer Mentors. Students enrolled in the ABC Program are not only expected to fulfill the
requirements of their course load, but are also juggling personal responsibilities like childcare,
housing, food and even the self-doubt that they can be successful in school after not attending
school for decades. All of these pressures can lead to a student feeling overwhelmed, and the
tendency is for the student to stop attending classes, which may lead to a relapse, as these
students are no longer surrounded by positive influences. These students “ghost out” as termed
by the staff and Peer Mentors and this behavior greatly increases the chances that a student will
become reincarcerated. Peer Mentor Sam stated that “…the handholding, the coaching, the
saying, ‘You can do it,’ is super important to their success. It’s just telling them that we believe
in you and we’re going to show you how to do it, and we’re going to be with you every step of
the way. Super key…”
This sentiment was reinforced through interviews with ABC Program staff and Peer
Mentors, who observed the students in the program becoming more confident in their academic
abilities. This confidence and self-efficacy in their own academic success is then transferred to
areas outside of the academic setting, which is a key component of the ABC Program according
to interviews with students and staff.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 76
The sense of belonging and community that was developed through these regular
meetings gave these students the confidence and self-efficacy to not only help themselves, but
help others who are in the program. These students can then transfer this confidence in the
academic and social skills that they have acquired through the ABC Program to further their
success in school and in life. Alohalani, speaking as a Peer Mentor, further stated that these
meetings “…gives you self-esteem. If you’re willing to offer the feedback or the camaraderie
that would go with the group, it not only helps you with your self-esteem, but for me, it helped
me reach different potentials that I wasn’t aware that I was able to do or I doubted myself in
doing it.” In other words, these students have begun to serve as role models for other students in
the program as well as for those in the community. Interviews with students, staff and Peer
Mentors revealed evidence of improved confidence and self-efficacy. In reflecting on her
observations of the students in the ABC Program, Jane stated:
I see their confidence grow…[at the beginning,] they’re very unsure of themselves,
unsure of how they would fare in school, let alone life. When they’re up and rolling and
they feel supported and they start getting some of the grades or some of the positive
feedback, they grow confidence and you almost see a shift, night and day, in how they
interact with not only me as a faculty member, but with their peers and how engaged they
are with the school. Then eventually since a lot of my students in ABC is non-traditional,
they start to take on more role model roles for our younger students.
The students’ desire to “pass it on” and become a role model to others in the ABC
Program as a result of their increased confidence and self-efficacy, is first demonstrated through
obtaining employment as an ABC Program Peer Mentor or tutor. This desire to “pass it on”
stemmed from the sense of community and belonging cultivated by activities like the bi-weekly
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 77
meetings and outings. By becoming a Peer Mentor or tutor, these students became a part of the
ABC Program support network, which all seven student study participants stated was vital to
their success. This feeling of support that Peer Mentors and tutors contributed to was best
described by Kay, who stated “…not only can they relate to you as a student, but they can relate
to you because [of] things that typically you go through when you come from that type of
background…you have a support network for personal issues too.” This growth of confidence
and self-efficacy is an outgrowth of the non-judgmental support students in the ABC Program
receive while developing a sense of community and belonging. Alohalani said that having a safe
environment in which to share:
…gives you the self-esteem you need to believe in yourself and to hear other people
share the same thoughts you have or the negative thoughts you might have…So that was
the most, for me, beneficial part about the program, being part of and having someplace
that I feel comfortable to share my personal [pause] whatever roadblocks I thought I was
facing because everybody else kind of shares that same thing one way or another at a
different time.
This willingness to share is especially germane to Hawaii’s unique environment through the core
value of aloha, specifically the generosity, good will, kindness and charity, that this value
conveys. In combination with the sense of belonging and community that the ABC Program
develops between its students, Peer Mentors and staff, students gain confidence and self-efficacy
to become role models for others. This sentiment is best described by Michelle who stated that “I
can be one of those that they are able to look up to. Like before, I was the one looking up to
somebody that’s in the group. Having to share a lot, and just being there for them, whenever they
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 78
need help or whatever.” This safe environment then further bolstered the student’s confidence,
self-efficacy and ability to role model.
This increased self-confidence, self-efficacy and ability to role model is then transferred
to the wider community, as students feel the desire to “pass it on” to others. This sentiment was
best described by Mandy, who stated that as she progressed in the program, she became:
…eager to bring other people into it, so I’m sort of outreaching out there and when I
encounter other people in the same situation that I was – you know that could benefit
from the program or going back to school. I definitely encourage them to sign up. I’ve
actually dragged a couple of my friends along with me.
This sentiment demonstrates that the ABC Program cultivated an environment that students feel
is not only beneficial, but is one that they feel would be beneficial to others who come from a
similar background. This desire to “pass it on” is then transferred to an even wider community
through these students achieving a higher education degree. This general goal of the students
attending ACC2 is best described by Alohalani, who stated that she “…chose to come to
school…because I enjoy helping others, so I figure if I go to school, then I can actually get a job
doing that, with some credentials behind it…” This general sentiment is based on the students’
sense of empowerment and self-efficacy that developed as a result of the sense of community
and belonging that the ABC Program. This desire to “pass it on” was rooted in the students’
experiences in the ABC Program, which was described by Kay:
…college just opens your mind to say, “No, there’s more.” And then it gives you more
possibilities. Makes you feel like there’s more. You want more and there is more. There’s
not just A or B. There’s A through Z. The ABC Program helps you to get a taste of that
possible life and gives me the opportunity to say, “Hey, this is how you do it.” You just
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 79
get to that option as long as you know that that option is there. Exposing people to
know…it gives them that opportunity to see what else is out there.
Participants felt the need to share their experience of widening opportunities with others, and
further, has guided these students to choose a degree path that would support their effort to “pass
it on” to others. In describing her future plans and how the ABC Program has influenced her
choice of career, Kay stated “…I loved it. It open[ed] my heart and my eyes to really choose a
career path that I want. And really made me feel prideful – pride to be part of that
demographic…we’re going places.” This sense of empowerment and self-efficacy is then
transferred to a student’s drive to obtain credentials, like counseling certificates and a higher
education degree, necessary for employment in fields like drug abuse counseling or as social
workers, as all student participant interviewees stated is their education goal. This sense of
empowerment, self-efficacy and drive to obtain education goals is best described by Michelle,
who stated:
So even for my job, I got hired [pause] just taking the classes to get my certified
substance abuse counselor certificate…My job, I love my job. I get to see what it was
like, people being locked up, to their trying to better themselves. There’s some that trying
to get through school, but then their doubting themselves because they don’t know how
to read and write. But I share, I said “There’s a program that will help you, and you guys
would make it. Like you guys, put your guys mind to it, you guys going to make it too.”
Students in this program are able to transfer their individually-focused empowerment and self-
efficacy and self-confidence to others in the outside community through first becoming a Peer
Mentor or tutor to others in the ABC Program and then in pursuing credentials to help others in
the community who come from similar circumstances.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 80
Theme 3: Personal Accountability
All of the participants – students, staff and Peer Mentors – discussed the reoccurring
theme of personal accountability. Though all of the students have different academic and
personal responsibilities, all described their struggle in finding the time to fulfill all of their
responsibilities while continuing to feel successful. This theme is important as it is a radical
change in thinking. Prior to being a part of the ABC Program, all of the student participants
stated that when their responsibilities became “too much,” they would rely on coping
mechanisms like alcohol or illegal substances, which prevented them from fulfilling their
responsibilities. Participation in the ABC Program has guided students toward a mindset where
students are able to not only recognize and acknowledge their responsibilities, but fulfill their
responsibilities to the best of their ability, and develop personal accountability. This transition to
a mindset of personal accountability is best described by Alohalani in stating “…besides sharing
our thoughts and our feelings that most of the time are negative or kind of holds somebody just
coming out of jail back, it encourages us to step out on that limb in a positive direction, and not
just give up on ourselves or not just say we cannot complete it, and as a group, we kind of help
push each person towards their best potential in school.” The relationships that were formed via
activities like the bi-weekly meetings, an environment was developed where students felt
supported and increased accountability for personal goals.
This change in the student mindset to one of personal accountability was echoed in the
interviews with staff and Peer Mentors. To help students in the ABC Program become personally
accountable, the program was designed to address time management skills, as the majority of the
students in the ABC Program did not have much responsibility for time management during their
incarceration. The ABC Program has tried to address this skill and help ABC Program students
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 81
in developing personal accountability by teaching students how to manage their time. As
explained by Snuffy:
It’s a different kind of stress that they’re under in order to perform academically as
opposed to what they’ve been going through before. For a lot of them, it’s new and
they’re having a hard time with it…we’re not telling you what to do all the time…They
have to develop these skills on their own. Whereas you know when you’re incarcerated,
they tell you what to do. You wake up right now, you do this, now you do that. For a lot
of my students, it’s this idea of freedom is hard. It’s hard to deal with. Time management
is a problem.
The education on life skills, like time management, was built into the ABC Program in order to
provide tools for these students, contributing to their success. ACC2 staff and Peer Mentors work
with all students on time management, but ABC Program students have additional personal
responsibilities in comparison to the traditional higher education student. ABC Program staff,
Peer Mentors and instructors work together to build the students’ skillsets of being in attendance
as scheduled, following through on course assignments and developing of study skills. ABC
Program staff and Peer Mentors are able to model these skills and students feel successful while
being personally accountable. The importance of time management and personal accountability
was best described by Kujo in stating that:
…(sometimes) it becomes so overwhelming because you’ve either fallen behind or you
can’t figure out how to balance things out and stuff like that. So to put that [school] first
and foremost into your thought, that this what you’re doing, you need to focus on it. They
instill that from the very beginning. It needs to be a priority. Sleeping needs to be a
priority, getting enough rest and going to class and doing your homework. They even told
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 82
us how much time we need to study per course and per time in the class, how many hours
we need to study per [time] and things like that.
The ABC Program was designed to provide a plethora of applicable skills to foster these
students’ success, inside and outside of a strictly academic setting, which gives them the tools to
be able to be personally accountable to their responsibilities, both academically and personally.
The development of personal accountability, however, would not be possible without the
sense of belonging and community developed within the ABC Program, which was built on
relationships that developed in meetings, tutoring sessions and periodic outings. As described by
Kay, the importance of relationships to the development of personal accountability and its
connection to time management is crucial as all of these students are “…way more loaded” and
therefore, the relationships that are developed help to “…build your confidence. It’s
acknowledgement of achievement. Another week down. That you’re doing it. Reminding you
even though it’s overwhelming, it can be so challenging, you can’t see the end at time, that you
got through another week and you can do it.”
In summary, the sense of belonging and community developed in the ABC Program help
students to develop personal accountability. Developing personal accountability then leads to
probable student success, described by Alohalani as “[i]t helped me to realize that not everything
is impossible to do. Everything is a step at a time. Never to forget where you came from, because
if you forget that, then you just might end up right back there. So for us, we don’t dwell in the
past. We take what we did before and use it to empower us to move on.”
Theme 4: Value of Communication in Identity Development
Of the seven student participants who were interviewed, five specifically said that
through the relationships that were developed with others within the ABC Program, they
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 83
discussed issues with other students and staff more frequently. This was important in their
respective identity development, as they became more open to advice from other people and
better at building trusting relationships with others, which then facilitated their development into
a more empowered and responsible individual. The fostering of this community has created a
culture where students “…don’t go out there and say, ‘Okay, I know how to do this.’ Well, we’re
gonna learn together if I don’t know how to do this. We can find somebody who can give us
answers” said Alohalani. Kindness and patience and an understanding of each other’s needs
further facilitates this process of developing a new identity for these students as they feel
empowered to continue to seek out connections as they no longer “…feel like the little kid on the
small bus” as Kujo stated.
Most importantly, the ABC Program has helped these students in developing a new
identity through helping them to reprioritize and change their attitude toward life as a whole. In
completing the Identity Pie activity, all seven study participants have changed their mindset,
from a fixed to a growth mindset by changing their focus. In reflecting on the Identity Pie
activity, where students were asked to identify the priorities in their lives previous to their
incarceration and after starting the ABC Program, all study participants identified that their
biggest change in focus was away from drugs/alcohol and unhealthy relationships to a focus on
future goals and education.. All of the study participants recounted a conflict that they recently
encountered, noting that previous to their participation in the ABC Program, would have been
resolved through a confrontation or the use of alcohol or illegal substances. This change in the
students’ thinking and being open to other ways of thinking alludes to how communication in the
ABC Program fosters a change in identity.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 84
One example of a change in thinking was a story from Mandy about an incident with her
daughter’s teacher in recounting that “[b]efore, my instinct would’ve been totally protective of
my daughter you know? And go read off the instructor at the school you know? But I was able to
approach him calmly and find out what it was from the assignment that he wanted her to get out
of it and we found a different way to get it.” Another example of a change in thinking that
resulted from participation in this program came from Kay, who recounted how one of her
biggest struggles is being a single parent to three small children. During the course of her
participation in the ABC Program, the conflict of finding balance and juggling the
responsibilities of parent, student, personal relationships and parole requirements led Kay to
relapse. However, in deciding to continue her education, Kay made the decision that college was
still a priority “…for you to do so and get ahead,” but also realizing that she was “…way more
loaded. There’s way more things at risk here. You don’t spend enough time with your kid, your
kid is going to become a felon” which has since, kept her from relapsing. This realization was an
outgrowth of the support that she did receive from the ABC Program in getting connected to
community resources, which Kay was able to access due to her changed willingness to ask for
assistance and connect with others.
Interviews with staff and Peer Mentors further supported the idea that the ABC Program
helps students facilitate a change in thinking. Speaking as a Peer Mentor, Alohalani stated:
…now, I’m the lead Peer Mentor of this program. So I found that what I thought I
couldn’t do [pause] I still doubt myself about being able to [pause] I knew what I could
do but didn’t push it to a potential where I am now, so yes, academically I do excel a lot.
I found a way to juggle my personal life outside of school plus I work here, so yeah. It
taught me how to be better [at] time management, how to interact with people better, how
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 85
to be empathetic to the next person’s needs. I mean, I always had slightly that because I
already came from that role, but to actually be the person to give that person the next
chance or the next foundation to make a positive change…
Further interviews with staff and other Peer Mentors support that the ABC Program is able to
assist students in developing a new identity. Sam, a Peer Mentor and staff member, reported that:
So when we talk about what’s one of the key things we focus on here at the ABC
Program with preventing recidivism, I think it really is about teaching them those
resilience kind of traits or behaviors…And so we really, really focus on building your
relationships, being vulnerable, knowing that that’s an area of strength and asking for
help and providing help. Kind of creating interdependent relationships with each other.
So we really focus on teaching them those critical life skills about the importance of a
positive support network here and outside, the importance of asking for help when you
need it…and getting the help, accepting the help.
Students, staff and Peer Mentors all acknowledged that ABC program participants will continue
to develop their identity. However, they all unanimously agree that the life skills that they have
gained through the ABC Program and the manner in which these skills are taught to the students
have greatly changed how students think and therefore, their identity as well.
An overarching message that emerged from this study was the problem of funding.
Without adequate funding, the necessary supports that the ABC Program provides for its students
would be drastically reduced. Though there is community support for the ABC Program, the
immediate community around ACC2 is economically depressed and funding for the ABC
Program is of great concern to the staff associated with the ABC Program. The current issue of
funding the ABC Program was best described by the ABC Program administrator, Snuffy:
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 86
Right now, funding is coming out of our normal budget. Right, and if things were to get
tight [pause] Right now, we’re covering a lot of our student employee costs by innovative
funding out of the central office, so a lot of the costs that would normally go that would
normally come out of our regular budget, especially student workers is coming out of
that. I’m able to tap into the ACC system funding instead, which has been a big help
because I only get about $90,000 to run our campus, include supplies and all that other
crap.
Jane added:
…additional support would be having financial support. This program is not funded by
anyone, so a lot of the…it’s kind of on donated time, I would say. It’s an addition to the
duties that we do here. It would be nice to be able to one, institutionalize the program or
find more grant money to support the program. In addition to that, activities wise, we’ve
been blessed because we’re very connected with community members. A lot of times we
have guest speakers who are just willing to come down and talk to our students without
being compensated, but it would be nice to sometimes be able to give them a lei or
something like that or just have a little bit of funds to help support, say thank you, to
those community members. Activities, if we had more funding, I would definitely do
more bonding and experiential activities with the group. Right now, I just pretty much
piggy back it off of main campus events and with my other program that I
run…Sometimes we want more group-specific activities, I guess, just for the ABC
students. Right now, we don’t have the funding to be able to take them out, do things, and
provide transportation, things of that sort.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 87
The funding sub-theme also came up frequently in student interviews. Mandy indirectly
addressed this subtheme by stating that “[s]o far we haven’t had any of that inspirational stuff.
Although we had a couple of activities, more group activities if anything. More bonding
activities between the group. And maybe more speakers.” Michelle also indirectly addressed this
subtheme by stating that she “…didn’t have the funds to pay for my books…but ABC helped me
with getting my books, even though it was only rent or borrow kind of thing, I could use it for
the whole semester, plus the laptops.” Regular funding for the ABC Program would support the
long-term sustainability of this program, thus supporting the themes that were identified in this
study.
Conclusion
This study examined the ABC Program and explored how females utilize the ABC
Program on Oahu to support the reduction of recidivism through the pursuit of a higher
education and how the ABC Program supports their identity development. Chapter Four
introduced the eleven study participants. There were seven student participants, all of which
were previously incarcerated females at varying phases in the ABC Program. All of these
students are managing differing academic, employment and home responsibilities as described
through student, staff and Peer Mentor interviews along with the Identity Pie activity. The four
ABC Program staff and Peer Mentor participants provided additional insights about the students
and goals of the ABC Program. Emergent themes were parallel in the student, staff and Peer
Mentor perceptions of the ABC Program.
Five themes emerged as a result of the interviews: (a) a sense of belonging and
community, (b) empowerment and self-efficacy, (c) personal accountability, (d) the importance
of regularly-scheduled talking sessions and (e) the value of communication for females in
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developing a new identity. Student study participants perceive that the ABC Program has been
highly supportive and has enabled them to transition to life in an academic setting while
developing a new identity through building relationships and learning life skills with staff, Peer
Mentors and other students in the ABC Program. The development of a sense of belonging and
community through the building of relationships and communication was a reoccurring and vital
theme, and is the cornerstone of the ABC Program success.
In Chapter Five, this researcher discusses how the data relates to the conceptual
frameworks and to the emergent themes identified in this chapter. Chapter Five will answer this
study’s research questions while connecting to prior research. Chapter Five will also examine
implications for future practice at ACC2 and other institutions of higher education, and explore
the opportunity for future research to improve practice for students in the ABC Program.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
There are over two million men and women incarcerated in various penal facilities across
the United States, and the United States has the largest correctional population in the world
(Stullich, Morgan, & Schak, 2016). A significant portion of these individuals are those who
reenter the system, negatively affecting their families, communities, and government agencies.
These individuals contribute significantly to the estimated $80.7 billion annual cost of the
correctional system (Kaeble & Cowhig, 2018; Stullich et al., 2016; Visher & Travis, 2011;
Wagner & Rabuy, 2017). This problem is important to address holistically, and in Hawaii
specifically, due to a disproportionately high number of individuals who recidivate in Hawaii
(Matsuoka et al., 2016).
Previous researchers found that an education program that incorporates cognitive
behavioral and social education, along with traditional education and intensive post-release
support, are the most successful in decreasing recidivism (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Listwan,
Cullen, & Latessa, 2006; Meyer, 2011; Morani, Wikoff, Linhorst, & Bratton, 2011; Pearson et
al., 2002; Ross & Fabiano, 1985). However, there is a dearth of research about recidivism in
general, with even less research that has examined recidivism among women, nor has there been
research about the effectiveness of utilizing higher education to address recidivism in Hawaii.
Ka’Opua et al. (2011) suggested that systematic research specific to how institutions of higher
education can assist individuals being released from incarceration in the transition back to their
families and communities needs to be undertaken.
Overview of Findings
The objective of this study was to examine recidivism deterrence through Hawaii’s
education-based ABC Program. More specifically, this analysis examined how women utilize the
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 90
ABC Program to reduce their chance of recidivating, while gaining life skills that support their
identity development through becoming self-authored. Seven women enrolled in the ABC
Program at the satellite campus of Aloha Community College (ACC) were interviewed to get
their perspectives on their experiences at ACC, their experiences in the ABC Program, and their
interactions with ABC Program students, staff and Peer Mentors. Pre-interview survey questions
and an Identity Pie activity enabled a broader, richer and more insightful analysis. Four ACC
staff and Peer Mentors were also interviewed, imparting insights from the perspectives of an
administrator, counselor and Peer Mentors.
This study focused on the following research questions:
• How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
o What are their self-identified needs?
o What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement?
• How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
The ABC Program students’ experiences were explored through a socio-cognitive
approach to identity development, a theory that is based on the interaction between a person, the
environment and patterns of gendered expressions of behavior (Patton et al., 2016). More
specifically, this study focused on Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship model and framework,
which focuses on how an individual develops an identity based on internal and external
expectations as well as personal relationships (Patton et al., 2016). Interview data indicated that
ABC Program students perceived the program as a place where they were able to engage in the
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 91
necessary epistemological reflective process to progress from the first stage, absolute knowledge
where students are solely reliant on answers from an authority, to the third stage, independent
knowing, where students seek answers from a variety of sources while engaging in independent
thinking and an exchange of opinions (Patton et al., 2016). Alohalani, speaking as a student
participant, stated:
…if I don’t understand something, I’ll question it. If you’re a professor, that’s fine, but I
won’t just take what a textbook will say because I do know coming from incarceration
and addiction that there’s a lot of things in the textbook that is not relatable to everybody.
So, I kind of draw on some of the textbook but I also do outside research and then I’ll ask
my professors. I’ll question them. I mean, I will not take everything that anybody says if I
have any question about it, and then I also use part of my personal experience.
Mandy, another student participant, stated “…I probably believe only half about what I read in
here. I mean, so, I’m much more likely to listen to somebody that’s actually been through the
situation or been in similar situations or somebody’s opinion that I trust.” These students’
seeking of answers from a variety of sources, while thinking independently and their engagement
with others during this process of seeking answers, demonstrate their progression to Baxter
Magolda’s independent knowing stage through the supports the ABC Program provides (Patton
et al., 2016).
In addition, interview data indicated that the ABC Program provides a space for students
to engage in the epistemological reflective process to transition from a reliance on Baxter
Magolda’s external formulas, where individuals accept knowledge from authority figures, to
crossroads, where individuals view knowledge from a variety of sources (Baxter Magolda,
2004). A student participant, Kay, stated “…more information is better than less information, as
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 92
much as you can get. I like to look at all the options and then make an informed decision which
one I want. So, I filter out what supports what I want.” Another student, Mamu, stated “I’m open
minded. Yeah. But I would rely on the expert and the professor or the textbook…the librarian. I
would look to my Peer Mentors and family…” Again, these students’ seeking of answers from a
variety of sources, engaging with others and thinking independently demonstrated that the ABC
Program provides the support necessary for students to progress in self-authorship (Baxter
Magolda, 2004). Moreover, these experiences align with previous research which posited that
tailoring an education program to a specific population is most effective (Ellis et al., 2008; HCR
85 Task Force, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005). Additionally, the
Peer Mentors and student meetings supported the finding by Reisig et al. (2002) that individuals
vested in the building of a more robust social network recidivated at a lower rate due to engaging
in authentic relationships that are emotionally, socially and instrumentally supportive.
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule’s (1997) Women’s Ways of Knowing theory
was the second framework used to examine student’s experiences in the ABC Program. This
theory describes five perspectives (silence, received knowledge, subjective knowledge,
procedural knowledge and constructed knowledge) from which women view the world and are
influenced by their environment (Belenky et al., 1986; Belenky et al., 1997; Patton et al., 2016).
Analysis of the data indicated the ABC Program has assisted students in transitioning to a
subjective knowledge perspective, and is supported by previous research that a change in
perspective is an important component of preventing recidivism; pointedly, a perspective of
silence or received knowledge has led women to develop maladaptive coping mechanisms that
manifest as a dependency on alcohol or drugs (Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 93
Interview data found that for these students, the ABC Program has helped them in
changing perspective to subjective knowledge. This way of knowing is characterized by a
woman who is starting to develop and listen to her inner voice (Belenky et al., 1997). During the
transition to subjective knowledge, women need encouragement and support in the judgments
that they make (Belenky et al., 1997). This is best described by Kujo in saying “It has been pretty
good in what it’s doing, really keeping us on track, really being supportive of our issues if we
have any. Being supportive in our academics and things like that.” This demonstrates that the
ABC Program is assisting women in transitioning to a different way of knowing. The ability of
the ABC Program to assist women in changing their perspective to one of subjective knowledge
where there is an understanding that there are multiple frames of reference and answers is best
described by Alohalani, speaking as a Peer Mentor, in stating “…what it taught me being here is
I have to learn that I can lead a student to doing the process. I can lead them through the process
of applying the next step to take and stuff but I have to know when to let go, and let them do the
journey.”
Both Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship model framework and Belenky et al.’s Women’s
Ways of Knowing are applicable to this study’s examination of the use of higher education as a
means of reducing recidivism for women. Interview data as well as examination of the identity
activity strongly supported that the ABC Program has helped guide these women toward being
more self-confident and empowered. The sense of community and belonging that is developed
through the ABC Program’s student meetings and mentoring strongly supported the importance
of the environment and an individual’s interactions with others in becoming self-authored. Kujo
stated “…since I started school…my whole attitude about life has changed and everything is
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 94
based around school now…something else has come in, so it’s kind of made me grow up and
made me more aware of my time and how precious my time is.”
Discussion of Findings
Perceptions of Participation in the ABC Program
This section analyzes the findings from this study, relating the themes outlined in Chapter
Four to the research questions. Research question one explored students’ perceptions of
participation in the ABC Program, challenges that they encountered and how the ABC Program
supports their efforts to not recidivate. All student study participants indicated that their
participation in the ABC Program has been beneficial to their efforts and success due to the
scaffolding and support they received from staff, Peer Mentors and other students in the
program.
Anders and Noblit (2011) found that participation in a postsecondary education program
that incorporated life skills classes significantly reduced recidivism rates due to the relationships
that were established between the program’s instructors and students. The ABC Program is
aligned with this research, as the ABC Program focuses on the building of a sense of belonging
and community through its Peer Mentor program, tutoring program, collaborative meetings,
outings, counseling and resource sharing that is readily available. Petersilia (2004) iterated that
the most effective reentry education programs were community-based, were for at least six
months in duration and were focused on high-risk individuals, further supporting the efficiency
of activities of the ABC Program.
The ABC Program provided students with community and social support, job
opportunities through the Peer Mentor and tutoring programs, life skills and educational support.
The sense of community and belonging in an accepting and non-judgmental environment not
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 95
only empowered these students, but drove them to assist others in the community, both
educationally and in other aspects of their lives. Student, staff and Peer Mentor interviews
highlighted the importance of time management and personal accountability life skills on which
the ABC Program focused.
Student relationships. Analysis of the ABC student, Peer Mentor and staff interview
data revealed a consistent theme of the importance of the relationships that are formed among all
of the members of the ABC Program. The data indicated the importance of the relationships that
were established through the Peer Mentor program and student meetings in developing a
community that is non-judgmental and supportive, ergo contributing to these students’ academic
success. Several students and staff members that were interviewed specifically stated that these
relationships created a feeling of empowerment and a sense of self-efficacy. As noted in Chapter
Two, Ellis et al. (2008) argued that the needs of females are different from those of males and
education programs must take these differences into account. In addition, Ka’Opua et al. (2012)
argued that it is necessary to have a supportive environment to address past experiences,
especially for females. Moreover, it was argued by the HCR 85 Task Force (2017) that a
“…stronger and more supportive community for prisoners” necessitates the inclusion of the core
Hawaiian values of aloha and pu’uhonua, due to Hawaii’s unique environment and cultural
values. The ABC Program focuses on building relationships in a supportive and non-judgmental
environment.
Importance of the environment. Interview data as well as a review of the Identity Pie
activity and student reflection highlighted the importance of the environment for students in the
ABC Program. Having Peer Mentors and tutors who were also previously incarcerated, as well
as the relationships that were developed with other ABC Program students, helped to develop a
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 96
sense of belonging and community that then led to a sense of empowerment, self-efficacy and
personal accountability. Interview data revealed that a sense of belonging and acceptance is
imperative to the success of students in the ABC Program in becoming self-authored. Findings
from this study aligned with research by Erikson (1968), who distinguished identity formation as
the continual process of the individual interacting with their environment, in a continual process
of co-constructed knowledge.
Scaffolding academic, social and emotional support along with providing postsecondary
education facilitated the transition for previously incarcerated females into an academic
environment by creating an accepted place for students to develop self-authorship. The ABC
Program does this by implementing supports that are based on the premise that these students
have encountered some kind of trauma in their past, which led to their incarceration (Covington
& Bloom, 2003; Kajstura, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Morani et al., 2011; Sawyer, 2018; Stein,
2001; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009; The Sentencing Project, 2015; Yuen et al., 2005).
Researchers have found that participation in a cognitive-behavior program, such as the ABC
Program, helped students to evolve a new identity through life skills development, reduced
recidivism and increased employment (Heller et al., 2013; Meyer, 2011; Patel & Valenzuela,
2013; Pearson et al., 2002; Scrivener & Weiss, 2013).
Identity Development
Research question two investigated how female students use their participation in the
ABC Program to develop a new identity and thus support non-recidivism. Previous research
found that women are constituting an increasingly larger proportion of the incarcerated
population, and the majority of these women have a history of using alcohol or illegal drugs to
cope with past negative life events (Carson & Anderson, 2016; James, 2004; Kajstura, 2017;
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 97
Mauer & King, 2007; Minor-Harper, 1986; Minton & Zeng, 2016; Stein, 2001; The Sentencing
Project, 2017; Yuen et al., 2005). Even if women participate in education programs, if emotional
well-being and interpersonal problem-solving skills are not incorporated, thus helping the student
to develop a new possible self, the student remains at a higher risk of recidivating (Heller et al.,
2013; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Patel & Valenzuela, 2013; Pizzolato, 2003; Scrivener & Weiss,
2013; Wimer & Bloom, 2014). This is especially impactful for women as the majority of them
entered the criminal justice system from marginalized positions in society and return to the same
marginalized position with the added stigma of a criminal record (Covington & Bloom, 2003;
Greene & Pranis, 2007; Kajstura, 2017; The Sentencing Project, 2015; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al.,
2005).
The study data found that developing self-authorship is an integral element of the ABC
Program as students are guided through the process of solving problems in a different way than
they previously would have. Moreover, the development of self-authorship is based on the sense
of belonging and community that is created. The ABC Program facilitated this by exposing
students to new ideas in a safe and non-judgmental environment and, in turn, these students are
now willing to be open to listening to ideas that may differ from their own. The ABC Program
facilitated the development of co-constructed knowledge, where students became self-authored
by constructing knowledge with new goals in mind. This aligns with social-cognitive theories of
gender identity development as students are developing self-authorship while interacting with
others in an academic environment (Patton et al., 2016).
An analysis of the student, staff and Peer Mentor interview data found that the
development of self-authorship is a prevalent outcome of a student’s participation in the ABC
Program, as the sense of belonging and community that is developed in this program lead to
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 98
feelings of trust, acceptance and self-efficacy for these students. The ability to give and receive
non-judgmental support and advice through the bi-weekly meetings was definitively noted by
ABC Program students to be integral to their success in their efforts to not recidivate.
Funding
Previous researchers (Liptik, 2008; Quan-Baffour & Zawada, 2012) found that funding
for post-incarceration education programs continues to be an ongoing issue, with social and
political implications. Further, in 1994, the Federal government rescinded Pell Grant assistance
to incarcerated students, hampering their efforts to enroll in postsecondary programs (Batiuk et
al., 2005; Meyer et al., 2010; Ubah, 2004). This is especially important for incarcerated women,
who usually come from marginalized positions in society and later return to the same social
status with the added stigma of a criminal record that further restricts their employment
opportunities and educational funding (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Greene & Pranis, 2007;
Liptik, 2008). Added to this is a criminal justice system that was designed to rehabilitate male,
violent offenders as opposed to female, generally non-violent offenders (Covington & Bloom,
2003; Greene & Pranis, 2007).
A reoccurring sub-theme that focused on funding was prevalent in all of the student, staff
and Peer Mentor interviews conducted for this study. Currently, funding concerns greatly
constrain the frequency and types of activities and supports the ABC Program can provide to its
students, as most of the staff, Peer Mentor and instructional staff supports donate their time.
Regular funding for the ABC Program would alleviate the current situation of stretching an
already strained budged and finding creative alternatives to provide the current necessary
supports, as previously described by the ABC Program administrator. Regular funding of the
ABC Program would enhance the environment cultivated in the ABC Program by allowing for
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 99
additional activities, like more guest speakers and outings, that would contribute to the sense of
belonging and community, in an environment that is not strictly academic in nature. Moreover,
regular funding would increase the availability of basic resources, like textbooks and computers,
which would lessen the burden on students who may not have these necessary resources readily
available to them.
The ABC Program is currently the only program of this type in Hawaii. Student, staff and
Peer Mentor interviews indicated that a lack of dedicated funding for the ABC Program is
disconcerting to the stakeholders. The ABC Program faces a very real risk of being drastically
reduced in the supports that it can offer to students or worse yet, discontinued in its entirety.
Recommendations for Practice
Findings from this study can be used to inform other institutions of higher education that
may contemplate adopting the ABC Program to serve students who have been previously
incarcerated. These findings may also be used by educators who are developing educational
programs within the criminal justice system for individuals who are incarcerated or close to
being released so that students can build a support network while attending classes, thus reducing
the possibility of recidivating (Agan & Star, 2016; Aukerman, 2005; Holzer, 2007; Oliver, 2010;
Pager, 2003; Quan-Baffour & Zawada, 2012). This is especially important for females who are
exiting out of the criminal justice system, as our current system continues to be based on
patriarchal theories of criminality (Covington & Bloom, 2003; Ellis et al., 2008; Greene &
Pranis, 2007; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein, 2001; Yuen et al., 2005).
Data from this study indicated that for this specific population of students, the ABC
Program supports their efforts to not recidivate, both academically and socially. These students
were supported through the development of a sense of belonging and community, which fosters
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 100
self-efficacy, resiliency and personal responsibility. This data can be used by politicians and
educators to enhance and deepen their understanding of the needs of post-incarcerated higher
education students and may expand programs like the ABC Program to other states. A more
comprehensive understanding of the needs of post-incarcerated higher education students and the
positive aspects of the continued success of the ABC Program may spur more funding for
educational institutions that support post-incarcerated, higher education students. This section
discusses implications of practice based on data gathered in this study.
Recommendation 1: Increase Funding
ACC2 receives operational funding from State allocations for education as one
community college in a ten-campus higher education system. ACC2 also receives Federal
funding for the Going to Finish On Time (G2FO) Program. Staff interviews indicated that ACC2
currently does not receive Federal funding for the ABC Program, nor is funding for the ABC
Program provided through the State. Initial funding for the ABC Program came from a private
donor and the community (R. Kang, personal communication, March 19, 2018). Since that time,
funding from the State via Title Three and the G2FO program partially covered the costs of the
program. However, funding through the State ended a year prior, as explained by Snuffy. There
has been no funding from the State since that time.
This study found that the ABC Program was able to assist female students in developing
a new identity while supporting them academically. Due to this success, ACC2 administrators
utilized available fiscal opportunities to maintain the ABC Program. For example, students who
are Peer Mentors or tutors are also enrolled in the G2FO program, which receives Federal
financial support. According to Snuffy, Peer Mentors are paid “…through our regular budget and
then also the feds are paying for part of it because we snuck part of it adding it under Title Three
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 101
then G2FO program so students who are both in the ABC Program and in the G2FO program are
being paid out of federal money for the G2FO part of things.”
One way that funding for the ABC Program could be reinstated is through a cost benefit
analysis that defines the merits and long-term advantages of fiscally supporting the ABC
Program. This cost benefit analysis could then be used to lobby and educate politicians and other
higher education administrators about the importance of the ABC Program. As stated by Snuffy,
“If they’re in school and not in jail or they’re not doing drugs. Anytime you keep people out of
jail, you’re saving the state about $50,000 bucks and plus people.” The semester tuition cost for a
full-time student at ACC2 is currently $1,542.00, according to Jane, the counselor associated
with the ABC Program. Moreover, a case can be made for successful participants and graduates
of the program contributing directly to their local and state economies by taxes paid, commercial
goods purchased, and productivity of employment. This same cost benefit analysis could also be
used to lobby for Federal funding for the ABC Program or in the application for grants and other
budgetary initiatives.
Recommendation 2: Increase and Expand Peer Mentor Program
All of the research data gathered through interviewing students, staff and Peer Mentors
consistently iterated the importance of the Peer Mentors to the success of the ABC Program.
Keeping this finding in mind, increasing and expanding the Peer Mentor program would further
assist the students that this program serves, in addition to students who come from similarly
marginalized populations such as the Native Hawaiian population or those who matriculated
from the foster care system, thus creating a more robust program. Opportunity, counseling and
mentorship are key elements for the success of any education program that serves incarcerated or
post-incarcerated students (Travis, 2011).
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 102
The importance of mentorship was best described by Kay who stated:
I don’t mean to criticize the program how it is now, but the idea was to branch it out to all
the community colleges instead of being offered at one. The original idea was to give that
support and be consistent about it…you have so many weeks in a semester and at any
time it can make and break you. Once you have one bad week you can go downhill from
then. Especially with our type of background. One week can make a big difference in
your confidence level…Also we had a mentor check-in, mandatory mentor check-in at
least twice a month. Where we sit down and we reassess and there’s a whole checklist of
things.
The importance of the relationships that are formed between students and the Peer Mentors is
best described by Peer Mentor Oliver in stating that “…ABC students are learning how to
assimilate, how to project themselves to be accepted as proactive and productive members of
their community…ABC students learn they are not less than any other person, and they are truly
assets to their community, capable and confident of using the social and academic skills they’ve
learned to succeed in school and in life.”
Recommendation 3: Expand the ABC Program in Hawaii
ACC2 is one of ten campuses under a higher education structure that supports students
from all of the Hawaiian islands, the continental United States and international students. This
higher education structure is focused on one main four-year research institution with six other
community colleges, none of which have an ABC Program.
Data gained through interviews with students, staff and Peer Mentors unanimously
demonstrated that the ABC Program has been successful in assisting previously incarcerated
females start to develop a new identity and feel successful and empowered. Several students
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 103
expressed that they hope for the expansion of the program to other campuses as they reflected on
graduating from ACC2 in the next semester, and how this level of support would not be available
to them at other campuses in the university system. Several Peer Mentors mentioned that
students that have matriculated from ACC2 and who are now pursuing degrees at other
university system campuses still return to ACC2 to “give back” and to also experience the sense
of community and belonging again. This was especially important for females to be more
successful in a postsecondary setting as the ABC Program created an environment where they
can find academic, social and emotional support, and the ABC Program provided the
foundational elements of opportunity, counseling and mentorship that is necessary for an
education program that focuses on an incarcerated or post-incarcerated population (Ellis et al.,
2008; HCR 85 Task Force, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Stein, 2001; Travis, 2011; Yuen et al.,
2005).
Previous research indicated that programs incorporating cognitive-behavioral education
along with academic education and are tailored to a specific type of individual have been the
most successful in lowering the rate of students who recidivate (Heller et al., 2013; Patel &
Valenzuela, 2013; Reisig et al., 2002; Savage, 2016; Scrivener & Weiss, 2013). This study’s data
showed that ABC Program students became more self-confident and empowered through openly
discussing events and factors that must be considered for them to be successful academically and
personally. In turn, the relationships that were built through the ABC Program facilitated the
positive influence of these students within and outside of the ABC Program. Expansion of this
program to other university campuses could enhance the success of previously incarcerated
students and other similarly minoritized groups.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 104
Future Studies
This study focused on the examination of how previously incarcerated females utilized a
higher education program in Hawaii to support the reduction of recidivism, and how this higher
education program supported self-authorship, scaffolding these students’ efforts to not recidivate.
There is little empirical research specific to Hawaii on educational programs and the connection
to lowering the rate of recidivism, thus pointing to the significance of this study as it contributes
to the research literature discussing previously incarcerated females. This study informs the field
of higher education by identifying the research on the programs and services that an institution of
higher education in Hawaii developed to support the needs of this distinct group of students.
Additionally, this study contributes data through the identification of best practices that have
been developed at ACC2 to scaffold and support this specific group of students.
Future research should continue to explore methods that other two and four-year
institutions of higher education have implemented to support previously incarcerated students.
Specifically, future research should explore the implementation of a similar program on other
campuses within this university system, as previous research has pointed to the importance of
Hawaii’s unique culture (HCR Task Force, 2017; Ka’Opua et al., 2012). Additionally, future
research should explore the implementation of a similar program in other university settings as
previous research identified the importance of discourse to a socio-cognitive approach to identity
development for females (Ellis et al., 2008; Heller et al., 2013; Ka’Opua et al., 2012; Patel &
Valenzuela, 2013; Savage, 2016; Scrivener & Weiss, 2013). Future research should also explore
various funding options to secure consistent funding for the ABC Program and other similar
education programs. Moreover, future research could explore how self-efficacy, empowerment
and personal responsibility continue to develop in students who were previously incarcerated and
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 105
participate in the ABC Program and other similar education programs. Continuing to explore
these students’ development would help to better elucidate how the ABC Program and other
similar education programs scaffold and support students’ efforts to succeed academically and
personally while not recidivating.
Conclusion
This study determined that female students who were previously incarcerated can be
successful in an academic setting, and can begin to develop an empowered identity that transfers
to areas outside of an education setting. Programs like the ABC Program at ACC2 demonstrated
that female students can be successful, both academically and personally, due to the sense of
belonging and community that is developed through collaborative meetings, the Peer Mentor
program and other activities. Numerous studies on recidivism have pointed to the diverse
problems students who were previously incarcerated must navigate when transitioning back into
their families and communities. Participants in this study have demonstrated that female students
can be successful in making this transition, along with developing a new identity in an
environment where empowerment, learning, self-worth and self-efficacy are nurtured.
The four themes explored in Chapter Four demonstrate that previously incarcerated
females are capable of achieving academic success and developing a new identity when they are
in an environment that supports and nurtures them, thus making them less susceptible to
recidivating. While all of these students expressed self-doubt about their ability to be successful
academically and in balancing their many personal responsibilities, they persisted in excelling
and improving, both academically and personally. Peer Mentors, student meetings, and staff of
the ABC Program each play an essential role in providing the necessary scaffolding for these
students so that they feel empowered and can continue to find success.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 106
Further analysis of the costs, benefits and effectiveness of educational programs to reduce
the rate of recidivism will continue to be debated by education policy makers, and will
necessitate the continued exploration of the areas of discussion presented in this study.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 107
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PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 122
Appendix A
Survey Questions
Survey Questions (Student):
Directions: Please answer the following questions to the best of your ability. All responses will
remain confidential.

1. Do you identify as a female? [yes or no radio button]
2. What is your current age? [fill in box with age space]
3. What ethnic group do you most identify with? [drop down box with “Native Hawaiian,”
“Filipino,” “Pacific Islanders,” “European,” “Other Asian,” “Black/African American,”
“Hispanic” and “Other”]
4. Were you previously incarcerated, either as a juvenile or an adult? [yes or no radio
button]
5. Was your incarceration due to a violent or a non-violent offense? [violent offense or non-
violent offense radio button]
6. Was your incarceration due to a drug or drug-related offense? [yes or no radio button]
7. How long have you been a participant in the Access to Education Program? [fill in box
with semester space]
8. Did you stop attending college since you were a participant in the Access to Education
Program? [yes or no radio button]
9. If you answered “yes” to the previous question, how many semesters did you not attend
classes? [fill in box with semesters space]
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 123
10. Please chose the option that best represents how you would complete the statement:
When I make decisions about my education, I will usually… [drop down box with
“Gather as much information as possible from sources like professors, counselors and
students who are further along in the program,” “Consider my own views,” and “Make a
decision that considers information from sources like professors, counselors and students
who are further along in the program, while considering my own views equally”]
11. Please chose the option that best represents how you would complete the statement:
When I make decisions about my personal life, I will usually… [drop down box with
“Gather as much information as possible from sources like family and friends,”
“Consider my own view,” and “Make a decision that considers information from sources
like family and friends, while considering my own views equally”]
12. Please chose the option that best represents how you would complete the statement: The
most important role of an effective career counselor or advisor is to… [drop down box
with “Provide guidance about a choice that is appropriate to me,” “Help students think
through multiple options,” and “Provide students information that will help them to make
a decision on their own”]
13. Please chose the option that best represents how you would complete the statement: To
make a good choice about my education, I think that… [drop down box with “Facts and
following what an expert tells me would be the best ways to make a good choice,” “My
personal opinion is the most important,” and “My decision will be based on my values,
interests, and skills aligning with my education goals”]
14. May I contact you for a 1-hour interview regarding your experience as a student? [yes or
no radio button]
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 124
15. If yes, please provide the following contact information: [fill in boxes]
Last name:
First name:
Best contact phone number:
Best contact email address:
Preferred method of contact: [drop down box with phone, email or either options]
Thank you for your participation.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 125
Appendix B
Student Study Participant Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
• How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
o What are their self-identified needs?
o What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement?
• How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
Interview Introduction:
• Thank the interviewee for participating in the interview
• Explain why the interviewee was selected to participate in the interview
• Explain the purpose of the overall study and the importance of the interview. Explain
how the interview responses will be used as data.
• State that the interview will take approximately 60 minutes
• Review the Information Sheet with the participants and ask if they have any questions
• Ask for permission to audio record the interview
• Ask for permission to take notes during the interview
• Ask interviewee for their chosen pseudonym
Interview Questions (Student):
Background
1. What were your reasons for choosing to attend college?
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 126
2. What were your reasons for enrolling in the Access to Education Program?
RQ1: How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
3. What were your expectations about the ways that the activities or supports in the Access
to Education Program would help you to be successful in college? In your personal life?
[RQ1a]
a. How has [activity or support] helped you in college? In your personal life?
b. Can you give an example of a change that you have made?
4. When you are learning about something new, do you rely only on information from an
expert, like the professor or textbook? [RQ1b]
a. If not, who or what do you rely on? If so, what do you use when what an expert
says conflicts with other experts? If so, what do you use when what an expert says
conflicts with what your experiences have been?
b. How do you know that someone is an expert?
5. What additional activities or supports in the Access to Education Program would help
you to be more successful in college or personally? [RQ1b]

RQ2: How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
We’ve spent some time talking about you as a student. Now, I’d like to shift this conversation a
little to talking about our other topic, identity.
6. Think about a recent situation, either in college or personally, when you had to make a
decision, but were not sure what the right thing to do was.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 127
a. Please briefly describe the situation.
b. What was the conflict for you in this situation?
c. In thinking about what to do, what did you consider?
i. Why did you consider these things?
ii. Were there other things that you thought of in trying to decide what to do?
iii. How did you determine what would be the right thing to do?
d. What did you decide to do?
i. Why did you decide to follow through with this solution?
ii. What happened as a result of this decision?
e. How would you have dealt with this situation prior to attending college?
f. How have your experiences in the Access to Education Program affected how you
actually dealt with this situation?

Thinking about who you are now, what are some of the things or roles that define who you are?
An example of a role that currently defines you would be student. Another example would be
friend. Please make a list of the things or roles that describe what makes you who you are today.
[Wait time]

Now, looking at your list, please rank which thing or role has the greatest presence or is the most
important to who you are today with a 1, followed by the next most important thing or role with
a 2, until you have ranked all of the items on your list. [Wait time]

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 128
This circle represents your identity today. Using your ranked list, divide and label the circle. The
size of the wedge for each thing or role should coincide with how large or small of an influence
the thing or role has in making up your identity today. For example, you ranked (study
participant answer) as being the most important to your identity today, so that would be the
largest wedge that would be labeled 1. [Wait time]

Thank you. We will now repeat this process, thinking about who you were during the time
leading up to you becoming incarcerated. What are some of the things or roles that defined who
you were? Please make a list of the things or roles that describe what made you who you were
previously. [Wait time]

Now, looking at your list, please rank which thing or role had the greatest presence or was the
most important to who you were with a 1, followed by the next most important thing or role with
a 2, until you have ranked all of the items on your list. [Wait time]

This circle represents your identity leading up to the time when you became incarcerated. Using
your ranked list, divide and label the circle. The size of the wedge for each thing or role should
coincide with how large or small of an influence the thing or role had in making up your identity
previously. For example, you ranked (study participant answer) as being the most important to
your identity previously, so that would be the largest wedge that would be labeled 1. [Wait time]

7. Thank you. Now, comparing the two identity circles, how has participating in the Access
to Education program changed how your view yourself?
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 129
a. What activity or activities did you participate in that prompted this change?
i. How did this/these activity/activities cause you to change how you view
yourself?
b. What strategy or strategies did you learn in the Access to Education program that
helped you to make this change?
i. How did this/these strategy/strategies cause you to change how you view
yourself?
8. How have your experiences in the Access to Education Program and in college changed
how you think about events in your life?
9. How have your experiences in the Access to Education Program and in college changed
how you see yourself?
10. How have your experiences in the Access to Education Program and in college changed
how you interact or relate to others?

Thank you very much for taking the time to speak with me today about your experiences. May I
contact you at a later date if I have additional questions or need clarification?

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 130

Current Identity List for __________________________________________________
Study participant pseudonym
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 131

Previous Identity List for __________________________________________________
Study participant pseudonym
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 132
Appendix C
Coach and Peer Mentor Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
• How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
o What are their self-identified needs?
o What are ways that a post-secondary institution can support education goal
achievement?
• How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
Interview Introduction:
• Thank the interviewee for participating in the interview
• Explain why the interviewee was selected to participate in the interview
• Explain the purpose of the overall study and the importance of the interview. Explain
how the interview responses will be used as data.
• State that the interview will take approximately 60 minutes
• Review the Information Sheet with the participants and ask if they have any questions
• Ask for permission to audio record the interview
• Ask for permission to take notes during the interview
• Ask interviewee for their chosen pseudonym
Interview Questions (Coaches and Peer Mentors):
Background
1. How long have you been a coach or peer mentor in the Access to Education Program?
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 133
RQ1: How do females perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting their
efforts to achieve education goals?
2. What activities or supports of the program do you feel contribute to students’ academic
success? [RQ1a]
3. What activities or supports of the program do you feel contribute to students’
nonacademic success? [RQ1a]
4. What additional activities or supports in the Access to Education Program do you feel
would help students to be more successful academically? [RQ1b]
5. What additional activities or supports in the Access to Education Program do you feel
would help students to be more successful nonacademically? [RQ1b]
RQ2: How do females use their participation in the ABC Program to support their identity
development?
6. Think about a recent situation where a student had to make a decision, but it was not clear
what the right thing to do would be.
a. Please briefly describe the situation.
b. How did you help this student through making this decision?
i. What was the conflict for the student in this situation?
ii. What was the final outcome of this decision?
c. How would the student most likely have dealt with this situation prior to attending
college?
d. How do you feel that the student’s experiences in the Access to Education
Program affected how they actually dealt with this situation?
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 134
7. How do you feel that students’ experiences in the Access to Education Program and in
college changed how they think about events in their lives?
8. How do you feel that students’ experiences in the Access to Education Program and in
college changed how you see themselves?
9. How do you feel that students’ experiences in the Access to Education Program and in
college changed how they interact or relate to others?

Thank you very much for taking the time to speak with me today about your experiences. May I
contact you at a later date if I have additional questions or need clarification?

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 135
Appendix D
Information Sheet for Exempt Research
University of Southern California
Information Sheet for Research

Preventing Recidivism for Females

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Lisa Kaneko at the University of
Southern California. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before
deciding whether or not you want to participate.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand how female students utilize the ABC Program on Oahu to
foster and support the reduction of recidivism, and how the ABC Program may influence and
support a student in achieving their education goals and identity development. This study will
inform the field of higher education by identifying the services and methods that institutions of
higher education in Hawaii have developed to support the distinct needs of this particular
population of students. This study will contribute to the research by focusing on how females
perceive their participation in the ABC Program as supporting them in their efforts to not return
to the criminal justice system through their attainment of their education goals and identity
development. Moreover, this study will potentially improve practices in the analysis of the
experiences of previously incarcerated females in their use of higher education to not recidivate.
Additionally, this study can potentially contribute data in support of the best practices that have
been developed and shared among this community of students, educators and administrators
facilitating the ABC Program by providing insight into methods of improving educational
practices that support this population of students.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 10 minute survey and
a 60 minute audio-recorded, in-person interview. You do not have to answer any questions that
you do not want to answer. You many also stop the interview or decline to continue to participate
in this study at any time. If you do not wish to be audio-recorded, please feel free to inform me
of this prior to your participation in the study.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Following the completion of the survey and interview, you will receive a $30 CVS/Longs Drugs
gift card for your time.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 136
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. At
the completion of the study, direct identifiers will be destroyed and the de-identified data may be
used for future research studies. If you do not want your data used in future studies, you should
not participate.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Lisa Kaneko
at lskaneko@usc.edu or at (808) 628-1356 or Dr. Tracy Tambascia, Dissertation Chair, at
tpoon@rossier.usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 137
Appendix E
Study Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
PROJECT TITLE: Addressing Recidivism Among Females

APPROVAL DATE OF PROJECT:
EXPIATION DATE OF PROJECT:

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH: The purpose of this study is to learn more about how
previously incarcerated females use post-secondary education to address recidivism. With this
student insight, urban post-secondary professionals may be able to improve practice to increase
student persistence, retention and graduation rates.

Response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in this research
project.

PROCEDURES OR METHODS TO BE USED: This will be a qualitative study relying upon
qualitative interview methods to answer research questions. Working with the College, the
College will solicit for prospective participants. I will send out a survey to these prospective
participants explaining the study and ask each to complete a brief set of questions to determine
eligibility and willingness to participate. Students who meet the study requirements and who
indicate a desire to participate will receive a follow-up phone call or email asking them to
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 138
schedule a 1-hour interview. Using an interview protocol, recorded interviews will take place in-
person. The interviews will be transcribed and the transcripts coded for emerging themes.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS: None

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY: Participants will be
able to reflect on their college experience as it relates to persistence, retention and graduation.
Urban post-secondary professionals will be able to achieve a better understanding of previously
incarcerated females and their set of needs within this institutional context.

PAYMENT/COMPENSAION FOR PARTICIPATION: Participants will each receive a $30
CVS/Longs Drugs gift card for participating in the study.

CONFIDENTIALITY: Participant-selected pseudonyms will be used throughout the study to
protect all participants and institutions. All data will be kept in a locked storage cabinet in the
home of the researcher. At the conclusion of the research project, the digital recordings will
remain in locked storage indefinitely until it is deemed appropriate by the researcher to be
professionally deleted. It is important to note that data must be kept for a minimum of three years
after the completion of the study. Transcripts of interviews will have no personal information
connecting them to individual participants or to institutions.

CONTACTS AND QUESTIONS: The researcher conducting this study is Lisa Kaneko. The
dissertation chair is Dr. Tracy Tambascia. You may ask any questions you have now or later by
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 139
contacting (808) 628-1356 or lskaneko@usc.edu. You will be given a copy of this form to keep
for your records.

PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 140
Appendix F
Recruitment Email
Dear [Name],

My name is Lisa Kaneko and I am a doctoral candidate in the Hawaii Cohort of the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study
as part of my dissertation that examines previously incarcerated Females and their use of post-
secondary education to address recidivism. You are cordially invited to participate in this study.
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be first asked to complete an online survey that
contains multiple choice and short answer questions. The survey link will be sent to you once
you agree to participate in the study. The anticipated time to complete the online survey is 10
minutes.

Following the completion of the online survey, you will be next asked to be interviewed in
person at your institution, or at a location of your choosing. You will be contacted at a later time
to schedule a date and time for your individual interview. Each interview is anticipated to last for
approximately 1 hour and may be audio-recorded.

Participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times, during and after the study.

If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at lskaneko@usc.edu or at
(808) 628-1356.
PREVENTING RECIDIVISM FOR FEMALES 141

Thank you in advance for your consideration in participating in this study.

Best regards,

Lisa Kaneko
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine study participants' thought processes and personal development while participating in the ABC Program, located at a local community college. The goal of this study was to examine the students' gaining of knowledge and skills necessary to successfully become a productive member of their community and as a means of deterring their reentry into the criminal justice system. This study examined the experiences of women, their identity development and the support processes they found through their voluntary participation in this program.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Kaneko, Lisa Sachie (author)

Core Title Preventing recidivism for females through education

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/17/2019

Defense Date 08/15/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Female,formerly incarcerated,Higher education,identity development,OAI-PMH Harvest,recidivism

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy (committee chair)

Creator Email kanekol@gmail.com,lskaneko@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-173964

Unique identifier UC11660816

Identifier etd-KanekoLisa-7480.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-173964 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-KanekoLisa-7480.pdf

Dmrecord 173964

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Kaneko, Lisa Sachie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA