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Developing aspiring school leaders to address the diverse racial equity needs in school communities: an evaluation study

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Developing aspiring school leaders to address the diverse racial equity needs in school communities: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS TO ADDRESS THE DIVERSE RACIAL
EQUITY NEEDS IN SCHOOL COMMUNITIES: AN EVALUATION STUDY

by

Caron Martin

_____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Caron Martin

DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to express my gratitude and deep admiration for my dissertation chair,
Dr. Monique Datta. Dr. Datta, with your calming reassurance, thoughtful feedback, loving
accountability, and timely sense of humor, you became a touchstone for me as I completed this
process. While I may have been overcome with anxiety and panic at times, you helped me to
remember the excitement and joy of the journey, which made it all the more momentous. I
would also like to thank the members of my dissertation committee. Dr. Maddox, your
reputation and brilliance preceded you and I felt as if the universe aligned itself once you agreed
to be on my committee. You pushed me to think deeper about my content and to move past my
initial assumptions about race, bias, and theoretical practice to meaningful application in my
research study. Dr. Yoak, you were the comforting voice as I doubted myself as well as the calm
reminder that I would indeed succeed. I will always appreciate your thoughtful responses to my
panicking texts and calls with your offer to guide me when I needed it most.
I must acknowledge my New York City family, my son’s father and his bonus mother.
Claribel and Luis, you were always patient and flexible, enduring extra long car rides, and last
minute schedule changes over the last three years. I would have never had the time or energy to
complete this program without your amazing co-parenting love and commitment. I could truly
not have done this without you. To Augusta and Nicole, your encouragement, laughter, and
support were truly appreciated and uplifting over the past three years!
I am so fortunate to have met a dynamic group of men and women who became my
support system during the OCL program. However, I am incredibly grateful to have had Mary
on this journey with me. Dr. Rice Boothe, you were an invaluable thought partner, always at the
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ready to encourage me, push me, and support me at every turn. I am eternally thankful for our
friendship.
I would like to thank my parents and siblings. From far, far away they were always
cheering me on, believing in me and encouraging me to forge ahead. To my father, your sense
of humor was always a welcomed distraction and I was thankful every time you allowed me to
lecture you on my newly acquired knowledge or expertise. Laurie Beth, our evening facetime
sessions swapping resources and your constant reminders of why we do this work were deeply
appreciated efforts that kept me motivated to complete this process. You are the best APA and
writing editor I could have asked for! To my mother, your faith in me moves me in ways that I
can only try to reach. Your love and support guide to be a better mother and human.
Most importantly, thank you Benjamin. You are the oldest and most hilarious 10-year-
old on the planet! You were so patient with me, forgiving when I was exhausted, understanding
when I couldn’t sing at bedtime, and my cheerleader when you saw I was doubtful or
overwhelmed. This is for you my sweet, magical, forever baby boy.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 9
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Goal 11
Related Literature 12
Importance of the Evaluation 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups 15
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 16
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions 20
Methodological Framework: The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic 20
Conceptual Framework
Definitions of Terms 21
Organization of the Dissertation 22
Chapter 2: Literature Review 24
Historical Presence of Cultural Theories in Education 24
Race and Equity in Professional School Leader Standards 32
Developing Aspiring School Leaders to Address Issues of Race and Equity 34
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework 37
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of the Stakeholders’ Knowledge and 56
Motivation and the Organizational Context
Conclusion 60
Chapter 3: Methods 61
Participating Stakeholders 61
Data Collection and Instrumentation 66
Credibility and Trustworthiness 71
Role of Investigator 72
Ethics 73
Limitations and Delimitations 74
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results 76
Participating Stakeholders 76
Results and Findings 79
Summary 113
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Chapter 5: Discussion and Recommendations 116
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 116
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 134
Future Research 150
Conclusion 152
References 154
Appendices 163
Appendix A: Survey Protocol 163
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 167
Appendix C: Informed Consent 169
Appendix D: Recruitment Email 172
Appendix E: Survey Results 173
Appendix F: Aspiring Leaders Institute Mid-Summer Evaluation 179
Appendix G: Aspiring Leaders Institute End of Summer Evaluation 180
Appendix H: ALI Facilitator/Apprentice Visit #1 181
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 16
Table 2. Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment 44
Table 3. Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessments 50
Table 4. Organizational Influences and Organizational Influence Assessments 55
Table 5. Interview Participants Organized by Year of ALI Graduation 79
Table 6. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 117
Table 7. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 124
Table 8. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 129
Table 9. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 136
Table 10. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 138
Table 11. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 139
Table 12. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 143
Table 13. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 145
Table 14. Dashboard 148
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Interaction of stakeholder knowledge and motivation within organizational 58
culture
Figure 2. Alumni in survey organized by total years of GHSD experience 77
Figure 3. Alumni in survey organized by current position 78
Figure 4. Alumni agreeing or declining option to interview 78
Figure 5. Alumni believe they are responsible for diminishing racial inequity in schools 82
Figure 6. Alumni agreeing they learned how to utililze the courageous conversations 83
protocol in ALI
Figure 7. Alumni perceived readiness to initiate conversations 84
Figure 8. Alumni recognizing racial inequity in schools 89
Figure 9. Alumni learning about CRT during ALI 90
Figure 10. Alumni learning about cultural proficiency in ALI 91
Figure 11. Alumni seeking new ways to address racial inequity in schools 94
Figure 12. Alumni understanding of cultural proficiency continuum application 101
Figure 13. Alumni able to recognize equity in classroom 104
Figure 14. Alumni able to recognize inequity in classrooms 105
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ABSTRACT
This study utilized a mixed methods approach to evaluate the Aspiring Leaders Institute (ALI)
leadership development program in the Great Harbor School District. ALI alumni theoretical
and practical application when addressing issues of race and equity were examined. School
leaders from a large urban school district in the Northeast responded to an electronic survey and
subsequent interview opportunity. Individual interviews followed survey submissions and
focused on alumni content knowledge and use of strategies around addressing issues of race and
equity in their schools. Member checking and distribution of surveys for feedback to the current
ALI cohort were provided to triangulate study findings. The Gap Analysis Framework from
Clark and Estes (2008) was employed to determine and assess the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on ALI alumni practical applications of strategies to address issues of
race and equity in their schools. Findings of this research study concluded ALI alumni and
subsequent aspiring leaders in the GHSD are not being sufficiently prepared to address the
diverse racial equity needs of their students. Alumni appeared to have the required content
knowledge and declared willingness to move forward, they were confronted with organizational
barriers to meet the goal of addressing issues of race and equity in their schools. Responses
indicated that alumni felt responsible for diminishing racial inequity and also understood how to
identify racial inequity across classrooms. Yet, they were met with considerable obstacles from
the GHSD in terms of lack of training and professional resources to draw upon while addressing
these challenges. The findings revealed a need for more cohesive and robust training whereby
aspiring leaders learn to isolate, communicate, and overcome issues of racial inequity in their
schools. The design and facilitation of an effective training plan would address these barriers.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
School leadership development has increasingly become a priority for states and school
districts across the country. However, there are currently limited resources or research available
as to how such programs and support models are integrating racial and equity based content to
support principals in addressing such issues and challenges across school communities and
districts (Boske, 2015; Carpenter & Diem, 2015). This absence of resources has confounded
other developmental challenges such as the lack of training, development, and support for school
leaders to implement equity based practices across schools and districts (Martinez, 2015).
Failure to prepare aspiring school leaders with skills to initiate conversations around race and
equity in their school buildings reinforces the unequal outcomes that persist today for
marginalized populations. Research concludes that equity work must involve the entirety of the
school community; the alternative of isolated equity work fails to address perpetual racism in
schools today (Capper, 2015). Therefore, school leaders are best positioned as agents of change
to mobilize school communities in addressing the needs of all students.
In a 2008 qualitative study, Blaisdell (2016) observed four elementary school teachers in
North Carolina schools engage in practices that ensure equal access to learning and curricula for
minority students. Blaisdell (2016) concluded that unless teachers are supported by school
leadership in using equity based pedagogical practices, both Latino and Black students will
continue to experience disparity in access to curriculum and rigorous learning experiences.
Blaisdell (2016) stated that classrooms are racial spaces, “a social reality created by and
experienced through patterns of mobility and immobility that have been organized around the
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logic and historical practices of White supremacy” (p. 249). When teachers and school leaders
begin to recognize classrooms and schools as racial spaces they are able to build their racial
literacy that can lead to increased equitable practices across communities in the school. Without
recognizing inequitable structures as racial spaces or developing racial literacy that impacts
pedagogy, principals and teachers will continue to practice in a color-blind manner; treating
everyone ‘equal’ regardless of race, ethnicity or culture (Capper, 2015). Quality of life for
students of color will be greatly diminished as a result of the schools’ inability to confront issues
of inequity across the city that are not a priority in education today (Ladson-Billings, 1998).
Organizational Context and Mission
The Leadership Development Office (LDO)
1
is a subdivision that is part of the larger
Great Harbor School District (GHSD). LDO is responsible for pre-service and established career
leadership development and support for all school leaders within GHSD. Leadership
development and support is delivered in job embedded, on-site, off-site, and satellite services
that target the needs of teacher leaders, school teams, new principals, established principals, and
the pre-service training for aspiring school leaders. The mission of the LDO is to build and
sustain a leadership pipeline that yields high quality leaders at all levels of the system including
teacher leaders, assistant principals, principals and senior system level leaders. LDO, located in
the Great Harbor School District, was established in 2010 as an outgrowth of the larger Division
of Academics, in an effort to increase the band-with of development and support for system
leaders while diminishing the reliance on contracted vendors. LDO strongly believes that if they
strategically engage key stakeholders around the recruitment and selection of candidates for the

1
The Leadership Development Office and the Great Harbor School District are pseudonyms to protect the
identity of the organization being studied.
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programs, and align all of the work to the Great Schools Framework, the District School
Improvement Principles, and a robust set of leadership standards, then they will (1) admit cohorts
that are more diverse and include more qualified candidates, (2) place more program graduates in
appropriate “next step” positions, and (3) support novice leaders in being successful in their new
roles.
LDO’s potential leadership candidates and program participants range in early career
stage, five years of teaching experience to mid and late career stages of up to 20 years of
teaching experience and/or five to 15 years of school leadership experience. As of 2016, 93% of
LDO program graduates lead schools as either assistant principals or principals in the GHSD.
Additionally, the LDO serves school communities ranging in size from 150 students to 4,000
students within a range of socioeconomic levels, neighborhoods and demographics. While LDO
serves the most segregated school system in the country, each school community ranges in race
and ethnicity as well as second language learners and students with disabilities. LDO presently
has 106 staff members led by a White female senior executive director; 47 males, 59 females, 33
African American, 56 White/Non-Hispanic, 3 Asian, and 14 LatinX (Anonymous, personal
communication, February, 2017). There are six sub-teams within LDO: aspiring principals’
development, new principal support, advanced leadership for assistant principals, superintendent
and senior leadership development, leadership for school improvement, and leadership pipeline
strategy.
Organizational Goal
Principal preparation program curriculum and standards that guide the content of
preparation programs and evaluate school leader effectiveness have historically neglected to
sufficiently address race and equity as guiding principles of school leadership (Davis, Gooden, &
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Micheaux, 2015; Gooden & Dantley, 2012). The Leadership Development Office (LDO) of the
Great Harbor School District has addressed issues of race and equity through the theme of
cultural proficiency while also providing aspiring leaders concentrated learning experiences
exploring their cultural identities through program delivery. LDO will extend its work on
building the capacity of aspiring and new leaders to address racial equity issues by expanding
upon and deepening the ways it engages participants in all of its programs around issues of racial
equity in all of the GHSD schools. At a minimum, participants in every program receive
approximately eight to 10 learning experiences and reflective exercises focused around
identifying and disrupting institutional racism in their schools. For the 2017–2018 school year,
the organizational goal of the Leadership Development Office was to continue to build the
capacity of school and central leaders to identify and address racial inequities in their schools,
districts and central offices. Specifically, for LDO programs and the Aspiring Leaders Institute
2

(ALI), LDO will strengthen the program curricula on racial equity and develop skills and tools to
coach individual leaders around issues of racial equity.
Related Literature
Over the past 10 years there has been an increased application of Critical Race Theory as
it relates to educational equity (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). As scholars and practitioners
explore the absence of equitable practice in school communities, examples of both structural and
institutional racism begin to emerge through disparate educational experiences for minority
students (Blaisdell, 2016). Existing literature suggests school leaders struggle to respond to
issues of race and equity across school communities (Carpenter & Diem, 2013; Castagno, 2008;
Martin, Yoon, & Fluckiger, 2016). Furthermore, equal access to learning experiences,

2
The Aspiring Leaders Institute is a pseudonym to protect the identity of the organization being studied.
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pedagogy, and curriculum is substantially fragmented for students of color compared to their
White peers (Darling-Hammond, 2004). The significant achievement gap between Black and
Latino students compared to their White peers is only exacerbated through inequitable structures
rooted in institutional racism that have prevailed in education and memorialized by Brown vs. the
Board of Education (Singleton, 2015). Through the development of equity minded, racially
literate aspiring school leaders, access disparities based on race can be addressed and overcome
through structural and institutional changes that begin in the classroom. However, research
suggests that there is a lack of training to address racial inequity for aspiring leaders; it begins
with the absence of such language in national standards for school leader development
(Carpenter & Diem, 2013; Davis et al., 2015).
Research indicates that there is an urgent need to address race and equity issues in both
pre-service leadership development and continued support of school principals (Galloway &
Ishimaru, 2015; Gooden & O’Doherty, 2015). Current leadership preparation programs face the
following challenges: neglecting to address race in leadership standards, the lack of a clear
philosophical approach to andragogy in pre-service programs, and the inability of school leaders
to address racialized experiences in their communities. Preparation programs demonstrate a
disservice to children and families as a result of the limited race and equity training and
development of pre-service principals (Carpenter & Diem, 2015). This dissertation study
explored the gap in content, context, development of, and practice by school leader preparation
programs through the lens of equity and culturally responsive leadership as well as determining
the impact of addressing race and equity in classrooms and schools. Through the analysis of
critical race theory, a body of research suggests an absence in equity and race in leadership
development (Khalifa, Dunbar, & Douglas, 2013). Additionally, a lack of clarity around the
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requirement of culturally responsive leadership oriented towards social justice and equity, as
well as the need to reshape belief systems, serve as needs to refine the role of school leader
through a lens of equity for all.
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate the Aspiring Leaders Institute program’s effectiveness in
developing school leaders who can identify school based racial inequity in order to address the
prevalence of school failure for students of color (Vaught & Castagno, 2008). If school leaders
are unable to identify and address the various systematic racial inequities in their schools, the
achievement gap will continue to grow and students of color will continue to have limited and
unequal access to opportunities that have lifelong impact (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015). Leaders
who take color-blind approaches to addressing diverse student needs fail to confront the
inequities, privilege, and institutional racism that is perpetuated in schools today (Davis et al.,
2015). Race is often ignored in school communities due to its complexity and implications of
the relationship between education and access for students of color. Ultimately, leaders must
understand how institutional racism exists in their schools and utilize tools for dismantling
widely accepted racist practices that result in equalizing learning opportunities for students of
color (Gooden, 2012).
The Great Harbor School District is a highly segregated organization with a myriad of
institutional and systemic inequities that reinforce the achievement gap between White students
and students of color. The GHSD has highly selective schools that serve gifted and talented
students, accept approximately 90% White and Asian students, and historically admit less than
10% of students of color. Schools in specific sub-districts across the city are highly segregated
based on geographic location. A large portion of schools in one distinct neighborhood serve
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predominantly students of color while also having the lowest achievement scores for the entire
GHSD. Initiatives such as STEM for All, Algebra for All, and Computer Science for All fail to
address the achievement gaps in their schools due to the negligence of recognizing already
established racist practices (Capper, 2015). The urgency to address racist and discriminatory
practices in schools can start with school leaders, who are positioned to change the mindsets,
belief systems, and instructional practices of school communities (Gooden, 2012). School
leaders must learn to critique educational practice and policies that suggest racial equity, but may
perpetuate institutional racism through their mandate and implementation (Capper, 2015). By
failing to develop a school leader’s ability to address racial equity, the system will continue to
perpetuate color-blind practices and decrease the quality of life for children across the Great
Harbor School District.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Stakeholders involved and impacted by the leadership development programs for the
GHSD range from students, superintendents, teachers, parents, community stakeholders, and
school principals. Mentor principals of program participants are one of the stakeholders who
directly influence and observe the aspiring leaders’ progress and skill set of addressing issues of
racial inequity in the school community. Mentor principals are an integral part of the Aspiring
Leaders Institute due to their role in designing, shaping, and presumably allowing ALI
participants’ opportunities to practice leadership skills in a day-to-day school environment. The
ALI faculty members are an additional stakeholder group associated with the current study. ALI
faculty members design, facilitate, and evaluate the readiness and leadership capacities of
Aspiring Leader Institute participants. Additionally, ALI faculty members directly observe,
coach, and support ALI participants at their schools through bi-monthly visits, and thereby
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evaluate their readiness when practicing leadership dispositions taught throughout the program.
While the faculty and mentor principals are instrumental in the development of aspiring leaders,
this evaluation study focused on the primary stakeholders — alumni of the Aspiring Leaders
Institute program. ALI program alumni are the primary stakeholders of this study because they
are the catalysts for change when developing a culture to address issues of race and equity in
their schools. It is the expectation of the ALI program that alumni have become practitioners of
the leadership mindsets, skills, and dispositions learned throughout their time in the ALI program
and are now confronting issues of race and equity in their schools, as a result.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1 provides an explanation of the organizational mission, performance goal and
specific stakeholder goals for this dissertation.

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the LDO is to build and sustain a leadership pipeline that yields high quality leaders at all
levels of the system including teacher leaders, assistant principals, principals and senior system level
leaders.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2019, The Leadership Development Office will build the capacity of school and central leaders to
identify and address racial inequities in their schools, districts and central offices.
Aspiring Leaders Institute Alumni Mentor Principals ALI Faculty
By May 2019, 100% of the
Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni
will demonstrate the knowledge,
skills, and mindsets required to
identify and address racial
inequities in their schools as a
result of the Aspiring Leadership
Institute.
By May 2019, 100% of mentor
principals, supporting ASL, will
provide them with two distinct
opportunities to practice using
tools or strategies to address
issues of racial equity in the
school community.
By May 2019, ASL Curriculum
will demonstrate 6-8 learning
experiences and reflective
exercises focused around
aspiring school leaders’ capacity
to identify and disrupting racial
inequity in their schools.
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Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholder group selected for this study are the Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni.
This stakeholder group is important to the LDO’s organizational mission of developing high
quality leaders to engage practice(s) to address racial equity as future school leaders for the Great
Harbor School District. The stakeholder goal was created by senior leadership for the aspiring
school leaders program following the completion of root-cause analysis and driver diagram to
determine where to first target aspiring leaders’ capacity of addressing racial inequities in school
communities. As Martinez (2015) stated, engaging aspiring leaders in reflective exercises
increases their racial identity awareness and therefore expands their ability to engage with tools
that address race in schools. Therefore, by May 2019, 100% of the Aspiring Leaders Institute
alumni will demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and mindsets required to identify and address
racial inequities in their schools.
Program
The Aspiring Leaders Institute uses problem-based and action research learning
methodologies to simulate the role of the principal. Problem-based learning has been used in
medical and administrative training to foster effective collaboration and critical reasoning in
order to tackle complex problems. Through problem-based learning, the acquisition of
knowledge is directed and driven by specific problems or scenarios. The program is grounded in
three critical components to the aspiring leaders learning: summer intensive, school year
residency, and on the job, immersion based support from their mentor principals.
Beginning in summer intensive, five weeks from July to August, aspiring leaders work in
pre-arranged project teams within their strand cohort on a comprehensive, interactive, simulated
school that reflects the realities of the schools they are likely to lead. The composition of each
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project team maximizes the diversity of experiences, opinions, perspectives, personality types
and learning styles within a group. The program maintains the composition of the groups
throughout the duration of the summer intensive phase and places purposeful pressure on the
groups as a mechanism to understand group dynamics, develop interpersonal skills and learn
interdependency. An important component of the summer program is the development of the
skills necessary to work with individuals that the leader did not choose. The final essential
component to this program model is that it provides a platform for aspiring leaders to share
common experiences in the program and build a significant mentoring relationship with their
ALI faculty member.
The ALI residency phase combines two types of leadership development experiences:
school-based job-embedded work to be completed at the aspiring leaders’ school as practical
learning experiences; and weekly evening sessions with ALI Faculty. Following the summer
intensive phase, aspiring leaders return to their schools in late August and engage in job-
embedded leadership experiences at their home schools while remaining in their current roles.
This work strives to give ALI aspiring leaders a significant foundation in school transformation
practices grounded in culturally responsive practices, exposure to all functional areas of a school,
instructional leadership, engaging in group and organizational politics, community leadership,
and exploring systems and strategies related to school improvement.
All aspiring leaders will, at minimum:
1. Lead teacher teams and professional learning (grade, department or inquiry) which
will provide an opportunity to work with a team of teachers to deeply analyze data,
identify trends and challenges, and create and implement action plans to address those
challenges.
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2. Regularly observe and provide feedback to at least two teachers at different career
stages and levels of effectiveness.
3. Publicly communicate with members of the school community and actively engage
with parents and families.
4. Engage the school community in courageous conversations about race and equity.
5. Initiate and engage in continuous collaboration and mentorship with school staff
around school improvement efforts.
6. Engage in leadership experiences grounded in addressing racial inequity while
utilizing the Courageous Conversations About Race Protocol (Singleton, 2015).
The final critical component to the ALI program is the support of the mentor principals.
Mentor principals are a key component of ALI and have been identified as confident and
reflective leaders, willing to expose, share, and think through both what does and does not work
in their schools. Mentor principals take pride in their work and aim for continually improved
practice on the part of themselves, their staffs, their students and their ALI aspiring leader.
Mentor principals meet regularly with their aspiring leader following the formal introduction of
the leader and the ALI Program to the school community. Mentor principals support their
aspiring leaders in observing and participating in conversations with teachers, parents, students
and other community members, debrief their interactions after the meetings and make room for
their aspiring leader to practice engaging in conversations in the school. Mentor principals are
continually encouraging aspiring leaders to move from the known to the unknown. In so doing,
the mentor principal creates the conditions for the ALI aspiring leader to have additional task-
oriented participation in the school. The residency program duration is from September through
June, concluding on the last day of the school year and graduation from the ALI Program.
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Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which LDO is meeting its goal of
developing high quality leaders to engage in practice(s) to address racial equity. The analysis
focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the
organizational goals. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders,
for practical purposes the Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni were the focus of the current study.
Questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. What is the interaction between Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni knowledge and
motivational expectations to address racial equity in their schools as it relates to the
organizational culture and context of the Aspiring Leaders Institute?
2. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework: The Clark and Estes (2008)
Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide an analytical framework designed to systematically
organize stakeholder goals as well as ways to isolate performance gaps within the organization
by analyzing knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting both individual
stakeholders and the organization at large. Through extensive literary research and personal
knowledge, the assumed motivational, organizational, and knowledge influences that impact the
Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni ability to achieve the organizational goal were addressed. The
gap analysis method provided a process for the researcher to systematically identify gaps in the
stakeholders’ knowledge base, any factors that may influence their motivation to meet the stated
goal, and any distinctive organizational barriers that may be challenging stakeholders. The
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KMO model allows researchers to determine gaps through the analysis of both quantitative and
qualitative data sources. For this study, the gap analysis framework was used to evaluate the
effectiveness of a leadership development program by identifying knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences and barriers while also considering how they may have evolved or
diminished over time.
Definitions of Terms
The following definitions are provided to safeguard coherence of the terms used
throughout the study.
Alumni. Graduates of a program or school (“Alumni,” 2016). For the purpose of this
study, alumni will refer to graduates of the ALI program.
Aspiring leader
3
. For the purpose of this study, an aspiring leader in the Great Harbor
School District is a teacher, guidance counselor, social work, or assistant principal seeking to
become a school leader, principal or assistant principal.
Color-blind. Color-blind practices, beliefs, and dispositions refer to the practice of
refusing to acknowledge race exists (Davis et al., 2015).
Courageous Conversations. A conversation which engages those who won’t normally
talk, a conversation that is sustained through discomfort, and a conversation that deepens
authentic understanding and mobilizes action (Singleton, 2015).
Critical Friends Triad. The Critical Friends Triad is a collaborative learning program for
school leaders in the Great Harbor School District. One school leader acts as a host and mentor

3
This information came from the Great Harbor School District. These selective high schools are nationally
recognized and known, therefore no reference is cited to protect the identity of the organization.
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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to two additional partner school leaders seeking to improve their practice around a particular
problem of practice.
Star Power. Star Power is a game that simulates the concepts of leadership, power, and
abuse amongst society for participants.
Equity. Equal access to the exact same learning opportunities, curriculum materials,
quality of pedagogy and educational outcomes that is free of bias (“Equity,” 2016).
Marginalized populations. For the purpose of this study, marginalized populations may
be students with disabilities, English language learners, and Hispanic or African American
students (Gooden, 2012).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. This first chapter introduced the reader
to the problem of practice and conceptions and language found in discussing school leaders’
abilities and willingness to address issues of race and equity in their schools. The organization’s
mission, goals, and stakeholders and the framework for this study were also presented in
Chapter 1. Chapter 2 provides a review of current literature surrounding the scope of the study.
Historical presence of theories inclusive of critical race theory and social justice leadership
theory, the presence of race and equity language in national educational leadership program
standards, and a review of how educational leadership programs are currently training aspiring
leaders to address issues of race and equity are addressed in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 presents the
knowledge, motivation and organizational elements examined, as well as methodology when it
comes to choice of participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter 4, the data and results
are assessed and analyzed. Chapter 5 provides solutions based on data and literature for closing
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the perceived gaps, as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for
the solutions.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The current literature review outlines the perceived state of school leadership practices
regarding racial equity, structural racism, and institutional racism that are addressed or neglected
in pre-service leadership development programs. The first section focuses on the historical
perspective of the presence of analyzing educational equity through critical race theory and
social justice theory. The second section addresses how race and equity are addressed in
standards that guide education leadership development programs across the nation. Additionally,
an analysis of programs that develop aspiring leaders through the lens of racial equity and social
justice is presented, followed by the lens of learning and motivation literature using the gap
analysis dimensions of knowledge, motivation and organizational influences. The literature
reviewed is inclusive of knowledge and skills required to both recognize and address school-
based inequities in an effort to cultivate a socially just, culturally responsive learning
environment through equity-based leadership. Finally, the chapter closes with an explanation of
the conceptual framework used for the study.
Historical Presence of Cultural Theories in Education
Beginning in the early ‘90s, the presence of cultural theories to further explore the
growing inequities and outcomes for students of color in education expanded as possible
frameworks to determine dispositions to overcome the racial achievement gap in public schools
(Brown, 2006; Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). As a pioneer of applying critical race theory (CRT)
to public education, Gloria Ladson-Billings (1998) challenged the presence of racism in public
education whereby students of color remained at polar opposite to their White peers in benefiting
from public education. Brown (2006) continued to raise the issue of significant educational
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disparities for students of color and their White counterparts though the exploration of social
justice theory, by applying the Freiren positionality that public schooling is the venue to
diminish inequities for marginalized people through equal access to curriculum and learning
experiences. When applied to public education, both critical race theory and social justice theory
present arguments which exemplify the presence of racism and oppression in public education
for students of color, while also providing considerations that can equalize access to which all
students are entitled. Understanding and using critical race theory and social justice theory to
analyze education policy and practice allows leaders to determine the presence of racism, and the
role which race has in education (Brown, 2006; Dixson & Rousseau, 2005).
Presence of Critical Race Theory when Analyzing Educational Equity
Critical race theory has emerged as a lens in which education scholars analyze the
presence of inequity in school leadership practices and policy that persists within present day
classrooms and schools. CRT offers school leaders a framework in which to examine racially
inequitable practices in their schools while ameliorating unjust practices and dismantling racism
for all students (Capper, 2015). Critical race theory employs the following themes to critique
relationships of power and race in areas such as law and education: the presence of Whiteness as
property, racism as a normalized and accepted practice in the United States, storytelling and
counter storytelling, color-blindness, and interest convergence must be identified in all policies
and practices that address issues of power and race (Capper, 2015).
As a primary tenet of critical race theory, Whiteness as property posits that White people
are provided rights and access to all things offered by a community beyond physical property.
Whiteness provides privilege based on the color of one’s skin and access to opportunities not
afforded to people of color (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). White privilege in education is evident
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in the inequitable distribution of resources in suburban vs. urban school districts, selection and
enrollment in successful schools and institutions of higher education, the resistance to address
other races in curriculum, and the consistently growing achievement gap that only exists between
White students and students of color (Khalifa et al., 2013). Furthermore, in his ethnographic
study of a Detroit area school, Khalifa (2018) stated that, “Leaders who are not critically self-
aware or knowledgeable about racism and other histories of oppression, and who do not embrace
anti-oppression and social justice, will reproduce racism and other forms of systemic oppression
in their schools” (p. 24).
Racism as a normalized and widely accepted practice in the United States is revealed in
hiring practices, housing practices, educational achievement, basic treatment of non-White
people through day-to-day experience, slavery, the Civil Rights Movement, and most recently,
the Black Lives Matter movement. The last of these is often met with resistance, persisting that
instead “all lives matter.” This intentional insertion of Whiteness reinforces the systematic need
to elevate Whiteness and examine the presence of White supremacy in schools and work places
(Capper, 2015). Institutional racism presents itself in ways that may appear to promote
integration and diversity, while the underlying effects continue to condone racism on other
levels. Simply because people of color are afforded positions of power, we are not living a post-
racial existence (Ladson-Billings, 1998). For instance, having an African American president
does not mean we now live in an anti-racist society. Sixteen out of the 500 CEOs in this country
are people of color (Singleton, 2015). Inherent to the presence of racism in society is the belief
and legitimacy of meritocracy; if one tries hard enough, they can accomplish anything
(Singleton, 2015). This widely held belief is disproven by structural racism throughout society
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and oppressive practices that disallow marginalized populations and non-White citizens to
accomplish anything due to the color of their skin (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005).
Storytelling, another tenet of critical race theory, serves as a mobilizing force to confront
racial inequity. Counter narratives, how this storytelling is characterized, are used to challenge
the dominant, usually White story, aiding to identify inequitable practice (Horsford, 2014). In
school leadership, these stories can act in a way to counter color-blind practices while also
allowing marginalized students to speak their truth that is often narrated for them by a
misrepresented society (Khalifa et al., 2013). Theoharis (2008) reinforces this belief, stating that
school leaders should use storytelling as a practice of social justice in their school communities
to engage parents and students of color by validating and commemorating their voices. More so,
Theoharis (2008) found that school leaders that ground their management and vision in social
justice oriented practices utilize storytelling to lift their communities and commit to engage staff
in equitable practices.
Color-blindness and interest convergence act as two tenets of critical race theory that are
widely practiced in intraracial and interracial communities (Singleton, 2015). Color-blindness is
the practice of purposely not acknowledging the race of another person. In education color-
blindness presents itself as teachers and school leaders failing to acknowledge the differences of
achievement, access and outcomes of students of color and their non-White peers, therefore
proclaiming equity and equality are present in school communities. If White is considered
normal, then anything non-White is different and not normal. This perception and belief
perpetuates color-blind practices in education (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). Interest convergence
suggests that all efforts to diminish inequity and provide equal rights to persons of color or
marginalized populations are done so when and if there is a greater benefit to the White
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population. For instance, Khalifa et al. (2013) declares that in the instance of Brown vs. Board of
Education, the U.S. engaged in the practice of desegregation due to how it looked on the global
arena. Concerned about how it would be viewed by other countries, Khalifa et al. (2013)
asserted that such allowances like desegregation of schools are inspired by the self-interests and
preservation of White people and not necessarily about diminishing racist practices.
Utilizing the Chicago school system as a backdrop, David Stovall (2013) evaluated parts
of Chicago’s educational reform through the application of critical race theory; something being
done more frequently today by critical race theory scholars. Stovall asserted that through interest
convergence and liberal legislation, both of which are tenets of critical race theory, education
systems in Chicago — similar to the GHSD — position access to education as being deceptively
available for all citizens by way of such reforms as No Child Left Behind or Race to the Top. As
a reinforcement of these reforms neglecting students of color while appearing to benefit them
with liberal legislation, as interest convergence does, the achievement gap for marginalized
populations was still significantly wider than White peers as recently as 201l (Singleton, 2015).
In 2011 and 2014, comparing White students coming from households that make above
$200,000 to African American and Hispanic students coming from the same socioeconomic
background, White students still outperformed their peers of color by more than 200 points on
the SAT (Singleton, 2015). As scores increased for students of color amongst themselves over
that period of time, education reformers and politicians cited the legislative policies as
responsible parties for diminishing the achievement gap, among students of color, not amongst
their White peers (Singleton, 2015). Celebrating an inequitable outcome rooted in liberal
legislation and the interest of the White norms that drive reform, scholars reinforce a greater
need to reexamine the current educational platform through the critical race theory framework to
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reveal the deceptive and illusive nature of education for students of color (Howard & Navarro,
2016; Stovall, 2013).
Critical race theory requires scholars and practitioners, such as school leaders, to
reconsider the presence of race in education practices in their schools (Khalifa et al., 2013).
School curriculums are a practice that school leaders must reexamine in order to develop
culturally relevant and racially equitable classroom practice (Hammond, 2015). School curricula
includes all materials, resources, texts, topics, and exploratory content used to assist students in
skills acquisition and meeting both state and national standards. How well students learn the
school curriculum and standards based content, both White and non-White, and how the content
is delivered, account for the achievement gap in the United States (Capper, 2015). At present,
the majority of school curricula is representative of the dominant race, White, which neglects to
characterize students of color through counter-narratives and storytelling, as well neglecting to
provide opportunities for students to reflect on the role of race in their learning (Ladson-Billings,
1998). Furthermore, scholars urge school leaders to use critical race theory as an analytical tool
to identify racially inequitable practices in such things as curriculum that perpetuate institutional
racism. It is through curriculum choice, when wholly representing the dominant race that
requires leaders to critique liberalist policies in such things as the content presented and taught to
students (Khalifa et al., 2013). Failure to define equity and equality perpetuates the cycle of
disparate outcomes for students of color being accepted due to the “equal” instruction they
receive in classrooms.
The way by which students are categorized and tracked also demonstrates inequity and
institutional racism in the public school system; a cultural component that school leaders can
address by analyzing this practice through critical race theory (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Critical
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race theory requires school leaders to examine educational policies that perpetuate systemic
racism such as how children are identified for and diagnosed with educational disabilities. When
curriculum and instruction fail to provide access and entry points for all students, students of
color and other marginalized populations play academic catch up to their White peers (Khalifa et
al., 2013). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2016), as of the
2015–2016 school year, 13% of all enrolled public school students ages three to 21 are diagnosed
with a disability. Of the 13% of disabled students across the country, 14% of students are White
and 76% are students of color ranging from Black, Hispanic, Asian, American Indian/Alaskan
Native or those identified as two or more races. Specifically, Black and Hispanic represent 28%
of all public school students diagnosed with a disability (NCES, 2016). The overrepresentation
of students of color identified as disabled and enrolled in special education classes and programs
(programs that rely on federal funding) are examples, CRT argues, of a clear representation of
systematic racism in schools and districts across the nation as well as a social justice issue for
students today (Ladson-Billings, 1998).
Presence of Social Justice Leadership when Addressing Educational Equity
The use of social justice theory to inform school leadership development demonstrates an
increased commitment to provide aspiring leaders the knowledge and skills necessary to address
educational inequity and institutional racism. Social justice theory calls for school leaders to
examine practices and issues concerning race, equity and privilege while reframing roles in the
school to improve student learning through shared accountability amongst all stakeholders
(Hernandez & Marshall, 2017). Related, Theoharis (2007) described social justice leadership as
a philosophy that seeks to transform the pedagogy and culture for marginalized populations with
varied diverse backgrounds that lead to equity in schools. Social justice leaders address the
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needs of all learners through empathy, care, and respect while seeking to maximize educational
opportunities for students of color as well as other marginalized populations. Addressing student
need through a social justice lens supports the dismantling of inequitable practices in schools,
thereby working towards dismantling systemic racism (Theoharis, 2007). Key to enacting social
justice as a leadership stance are the practices of resilience in creating and maintaining a social
justice agenda to transform school cultures and the perseverance to enact practices that disrupt
racism against students of color (Hernandez & Marshall, 2017).
The foundation of social justice leadership lies in the beliefs that everyone has equal
rights to access to social, economic and educational opportunities, and the socialized structures
that determine that access can be rearranged to benefit those who need it most; in education that
is marginalized populations such as students of color (Turhan, 2010). By confronting such
socialized structures and policies that marginalize students of color, social justice leaders are able
to aggressively work towards ensuring high quality educational opportunities are present for all
students (Kemp-Graham, 2015). School leaders are best positioned to enact a social justice
agenda that equalizes opportunities for students when they have been prepared to do so through
critical reflection of the intersection of race and power in schools in their preparation programs
(Hernandez & Marshall, 2017). Through introspection and reflection around race and power,
school leaders of social justice are able to reexamine the pedagogy and curriculum that result in
the achievement gap between White students and their non-White peers and begin to diminish
such practices. Finally, in order for school leaders to adequately identify and address the racial
inequities that characterize school communities today, leadership preparation programs must
reframe their objectives and content so that aspiring leaders develop a deeper understanding of
ways to ensure equity and access for all students (Kemp-Graham, 2015).
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Race and Equity in Professional School Leader Standards
As demand increases for principal preparation programs to develop leaders equipped to
address the current needs of schools and the student populations, establishing standards to align
program content and measure pre-service principal readiness continues to evolve. There have
been various iterations of education leader standards over the past 20 years, all of which share
the same theme — little to no mention of how leaders should be addressing issues of race,
equity, diversity, culture or disproportionality in schools (Gooden & Dantley, 2012). The
following discussion presents research addressing the need to reframe language in national
leadership standards and ways that preparation programs are managing the integration of race
language while developing race and equity minded leaders through new leadership standards.
Synthesizing Race and Equity Language in Leadership Standards
Historically, national standards for developing education leaders have failed to include
specific race and equity based language, thereby excluding isolated practices that ensure
educational equity in schools today. Davis et al. (2015) completed a side-by-side analysis of
national leadership standards, the ISLLC and ELCC (which inform a majority of educational
leadership development [credentialing] programs across the country) and how they consider
equity-framed vocabulary through the lens of critical race theory. Furthermore, by neglecting to
isolate race and equity in leadership standards discourse, aspiring leaders fail to learn strategies
that will optimize learning for students of color. Davis et al. (2015) described the standards as
“side-stepping” race and equity and replacing the language with words such as “culture, climate,
diversity, and school culture” along a limited approach to an inclusion of social justice theory (p.
351). In doing so, preparation programs push race aside as well as the role of race and color in
public education today. Scholars agree that preparation programs must reconsider how school
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leaders are being prepared to either perpetuate the status quo or change the system (Galloway &
Ishimaru, 2015; Santamaria, 2014).
Carpenter and Diem (2015) reinforced Davis et al.’s (2015) findings through a critical
analysis of the ISLLC and ELCC standards and the Obama-era Blueprint for school
improvement, which awarded school improvement grants (SIG) to districts based on an
application process. Carpenter and Diem (2015) surmised that the standards not only neglected
to use the race-based vocabulary, but used code words to describe marginalized populations: at
risk, high need, low performing, diverse, disadvantaged, and urban to name a few. The use of
“diverse” and “equity” occurred most often in the standards and blueprint in the context of
celebrating diversity or using diverse resources to engage communities in school improvement.
Most often, the language of diverse needs and meeting the needs of students with diverse
backgrounds was presented in the context of students with disabilities and English language
learners (Carpenter & Diem, 2015). While the word race appeared four times throughout the
Blueprint document, it never appeared in the ISLLC or ELCC standards, further demonstrating
the gap in both discourse and content present in leadership preparation programs at the present
time (Carpenter & Diem, 2015). The absence of race-based language confounded by the use of
code words throughout the leadership standards reinforce the need for an evolution and
reconsideration of how preparation programs develop aspiring school leaders.
Call for Change of National Standards to Address Equity and Race
Leveraging school leadership development to address racial inequity increases
opportunities for school leaders to diminish institutional racism and academic disparities for
students of color. Building off of the work of Davis et al. (2015), Galloway and Ishimaru (2015)
completed the ISLCC and ELCC standards analysis by comparing both to the December 2015
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released Professional Standards for Educational Leaders (PSEL). Unlike the previous standards,
the PSEL dedicate two distinct standards of ten, to address equity and culturally responsive
leadership practices. Furthermore, the inclusion of race and marginalized students in the PSEL
standards represent an improvement in the national expectations for school leadership (Galloway
& Ishimaru, 2017). While states are continuing to adopt the new PSEL, programmatic changes
to the design and delivery of preparation programs must be reconsidered and “radically re-
centered” (p. 378) to address systemic inequities and institutional racism encountered by students
of color on a day-to-day basis (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015).
As practitioners grapple with how best to dismantle racial inequity in schools, preparation
programs must realign equity- and race-based practices to those of student learning, thereby
creating a holistic model of instruction instead of the predominant models that address issues of
equity outside of the pedagogy (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015). Gooden and Dantley (2012) offer
diversity responsive leadership as a new framework to address the current education and
economic inequities students of color encounter today. Diversity responsive leadership requires
preparation programs to offer multiple diversity driven courses while also developing leaders to
have a “prophetic voice” that will acknowledge the role of race in the American education
system (Gooden & Dantley, 2012). By recentering and reframing preparation programs to
interrogate the presence of race in schools, aspiring leaders will develop the required skills and
capacities to disrupt the status quo of the widely accepted racial achievement gap (Galloway &
Ishimaru, 2015).
Developing Aspiring School Leaders to Address Issues of Race and Equity
Training pre-service leaders to identify and utilize strategies of social justice
accompanied by disrupting institutional racism and advocating for K-12 students in marginalized
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populations, preparation programs move closer to developing leaders that are able to recognize
and diminish disproportionality as it relates to race and equity in schools (Gooden & O’Doherty,
2015). By including learning experiences and content grounded in social justice and culturally
responsive practices that address the presence of race and inequity in schools, aspiring leaders
are fortified with tools to develop equitable practices in their communities (Martinez, 2015).
Exercise in reflective practice, identifying institutional and systemic racism in schools, and
deepening aspiring leaders’ knowledge of both critical race and social justice theories increases
the capacity of leaders to use their personal belief systems and professional practices to target
issues of race and equity in schools (Theoharis, 2007).
Reflective Ways that Programs are Currently Developing Aspiring Leaders
Integration of critical race theory and social justice theory into the curriculum of school
leader preparation programs results in these programs embedding content grounded in equity,
race, and social justice delivering content for aspiring leaders (Martinez, 2015). The learning
includes reflective experiences which force aspiring leaders to examine their own belief systems
and confront inequitable practice in their school, explore and localize the role of race in their
schools, and develop a racial literacy to unpack their own racial identities will establish a
practice of isolating inequitable practice for students of color (Brown, 2006; Singleton, 2015).
Horsford (2014) stated that one way preparation programs can develop leaders to dismantle
racial inequity is by ensuring aspiring leaders develop an understanding of racial literacy and
recognize that race is everywhere in schools. Deepening racial consciousness and establishing a
racial literacy will diminish the cycle of color-blind practices and deficit thinking that have
become paramount in perpetuating racism and discrimination in schools (Horsford, 2014). The
researcher contends that color-blind practice and discourse preserve racist practices and policies
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by failing to acknowledge the presence of race in the classroom. By developing racial literacy,
teachers and leaders acknowledge race and racism’s presence, disrupt the presence of racism in
practices such as segregation and deficit thinking, and recognize the achievement gap as a
product of systematic racism (Sealey-Ruiz, 2011). Leaders will be prepared to transform the
ways that they and their constituents think about race and bias as it unfolds in the school
(Horsford, 2014).
Since 1975, as reported by NCES (2013), White students have outperformed their
Hispanic and African American peers in both math and reading on standardized tests. Therefore,
principals’ greatest leadership challenge is to address the increasing and continuous disparity in
achievement for students of color, most notably through recognizing the present of race and its
impact on learning (Raskin, Krull, & Thatcher, 2015). Researchers emphasized the impact of
engaging aspiring leaders in daily interactions that led to reflection and confrontation of beliefs,
bias, race, and inequitable outcomes for students of color (Martinez, 2015; Raskin et al., 2015).
Following a qualitative study of 32 Minnesota school principals in a two-year leadership
institute, participants reported a 70% increase in Understanding Leadership for Race and Equity,
supporting the belief that having an established racial consciousness will lead to addressing
academic disparity in schools. The researchers also concurred that by developing racial
identities in preparation programs, schools are better positioned to address the instructional and
curricular inequities that perpetuate the racial achievement gap in schools (Raskin et al., 2015).
Leadership preparation programs play an essential role in developing school leaders that
are able to recognize and diminish institutional racism while sustaining cultures that challenge
and remove racist practices and experiences from school communities (Galloway & Ishimaru,
2017). Leadership standards that guide programs to align curriculum and content delivery and
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cultivate anti-racist practices leverage school leaders to create equitable spaces for all children to
learn. Gooden and Dantley (2012) surmise that preparation programs encourage leaders to
confront the presence of racism in schools through the use of critical race theory and social
justice theory as conceptual frameworks. These theoretical foundations inform aspiring leaders’
understanding of how institutional and systemic racism manifest themselves in school
communities. By establishing a productive focus on race, equity, and culturally responsive
leadership practices, aspiring leaders are able to reflect on the presence of race, increase their
racial identities, and establish school-based practices that disrupt inequity resulting in positive
outcomes for students of color and other marginalized populations (Gooden & Dantley, 2012).
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide an analytical framework designed to systematically
organize stakeholder goals as well as ways to isolate performance gaps within the organization
by analyzing knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting both individual
stakeholders and the organization at large. To specifically address the learning and motivational
needs of individuals in an organization, Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) further refined
knowledge to specify four distinct types: factual, perceptual, procedural, and metacognitive.
Clark and Estes (2008) characterized motivation as the “thing that gets us going and keeps us
moving” (p. 80), and that motivation is the sum of people and the environment, professional or
personal. Motivational influences stem from the fundamental components of motivation: active
choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Mayer (2011) described motivation
as internal momentum that can be captured through observable effort, and that the drive a person
commits to a goal or task through goal directed behavior that activates the work, is personal, and
energized through completion of a goal or task. Additionally, motivational influences such as
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attribution and expectancy value in a given task impact a stakeholder’s abilities and desire to
engage with the work (Culatta, 2013). Finally, Clark and Estes (2008) identified organizational
influences as those which largely impact goals and stakeholders through space, time, resources,
information or processes and the overall climate and culture of the organizational community.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The current study examined knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
through Clark and Estes’ (2008) analytical model. Influences driving performance gaps were
addressed through ALI alumni knowledge and skills acquired through the ALI program.
Specifically, examples of conceptual knowledge required to understand and identify institutional
and systemic inequities in school-based practices, and procedural based strategies used to
become practitioners of equity based leadership. Assumed motivational influences that impact a
school leader’s willingness to address issues of race and equity and factors that impact lack of
willingness to engage in practices of racial equity leadership were further explored. This study
used the gap analysis by examining organizational influences inclusive of both cultural models
and cultural settings that promote or impede a school leader’s ability to address issues of race
and equity.
Knowledge and skills. The LDO provides leadership development for a wide variety of
school leader candidates at every level of the school system, starting with teachers and moving
through school leadership onto central and superintendent leadership pipeline programs. One of
the primary school leader development programs of the LDO is the Aspiring Leaders Institute.
This program recruits experienced teachers and assistant principals to serve as principals for the
Great Harbor School District upon completion of the program. One of the primary goals of ALI
is to develop equity minded school leaders that will be agents of change in culturally responsive
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learning environments. LDO and the ALI faculty must develop a particular set of knowledge
and skills within each aspiring leader in order to meet this goal. In particular, aspiring school
leaders must develop skills and dispositions that will enable them to recognize, address and shift
systematic, and pedagogical inequities across school communities. Aspiring leaders will need to
know how to address such inequities through conversations and organizational analysis practices.
To determine the current knowledge and skills that aspiring leaders have when
recognizing and addressing inequity, the current study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008)
framework. The framework ascertained the disparities in knowledge and skills through
diagnosis and identification by way of a gap analysis related to the school leaders’ ability and
practice when addressing issues of race and equity in schools. This study also utilized a
modified knowledge, motivation and organizational influence gap analysis for evaluating
progress towards LDO’s goal. By examining the knowledge and skills required by school
leaders that influence their ability to engage in anti-racist practices, practitioners will be able to
isolate and cultivate these skills across preparation programs.
Knowledge influences. Similar to Bloom’s Taxonomy of knowledge and acquisition,
Krathwohl (2002) also captures ways of knowing and learning through four types of knowledge
that classify, assess the needs of learning, knowledge acquisition, and application of individuals
and organizations. In order to specifically address the learning and motivational needs of
individuals in an organization, Rueda (2011) categorized knowledge to specify four distinct
types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. According to Rueda (2011), factual
knowledge addresses basic skills and knowledge; the specific facts and knowledge sets about a
content area or specific subject matter required in order to perform a task. Conceptual
knowledge captures theories, classifications, structures and models related to a specific content
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or subject area. Procedural knowledge is specific to a refined set of skills, methods or
techniques; the ‘how to’ required to solve a problem or complete a task. Finally, metacognitive
knowledge refers to behavior and understanding how and why one completes a task in the
manner to which they choose. ALI aspiring leaders will need factual knowledge of cultural
theories, procedural knowledge in a specific protocol and cultural theories and the metacognitive
understanding of racial identities to engage with the work of equity minded leadership.
Literature supporting the required factual, conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge will be
presented in the following section.
Researchers agree that aspiring school leaders require pre-service experiences that
cultivate their abilities to engage in racial equity discourse (Brown, 2006; Davis et al., 2015).
Gooden and O’Doherty (2015) argued that pre-service school leaders require a specific mindset
to address issues of inequity across school communities. School leaders should adopt a mindset
of anti-racist leadership. Curriculum and pedagogy in pre-service programs should engage
participants in reflections of racial identity while also exploring inequities around them.
Furthermore, in order to deeply understand this mindset shift, aspiring leaders must also
recognize the culture of racism that exists within organized systems such as school communities
and districts and how their actions and beliefs either perpetuate or disrupt this culture (Gooden &
O’Doherty, 2015).
Applying critical race theory and social justice theory. As programs make considerations
to the learning process and ways in which new information must connect to previously learned
information and experiences, aspiring leaders must dedicate significant learning to adopting new
practices that contradict the historical view of school leadership (Brown, 2006). According to
information processing theory, Schraw and McCrudden (2006) stated new information must be
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chunked in order to fit into working memory, encoded or synthesized and then transferred to
long term memory, where application can be activated. For example, learning and applying the
foundational knowledge of both critical race theory and social justice theory are imperative due
to the varied racial experiences that aspiring leaders will bring to the position of school principal.
More so, school leaders are tasked with adopting culturally responsive practices as student
populations in schools grow increasingly diverse over the next 10 years (Kemp-Graham, 2015).
Aligning the principle of information processing theory to the required knowledge of
aspiring leaders, leadership development programs, such as ALI, must consider how to design
and execute learning experiences. These particular learning experiences need to assist aspiring
leaders in creating evolved racial identities that are grounded in their current knowledge and
experiences (Gooden & O’Doherty, 2015). Allowing aspiring leaders to build new reflective
knowledge leads to practical opportunities to organize, infer and elaborate on their new units of
information related to identifying inequity across their schools (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Therefore, in order for aspiring leaders to understand the concept of systemic inequity, structural
and institutional racism, and develop a deep understanding of both critical race theory and social
justice theory, aspiring leaders must develop equity minded leadership (Davis et al., 2015).
Understanding racial identity. Individuals who know how they learn, the ways in which
they think and an awareness over which thinking strategies to deploy at particular times are
known to employ metacognition (Mayer, 2011). Additionally, metacognition requires an
individual to apply and shift cognitive strategies as needed to make sense of new knowledge and
experiences, and transfer them to the vast storage of long-term memory (Mayer, 2011). As ALI
considers the knowledge and skill needs of program participants, scholars recognize that pre-
service leaders must be able to understand how their racial identities influence their perceptions
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of race and equity in their school communities, and how they are able to shift their own
perspectives and thinking to meet the needs of the diverse school community through equity
based practices (Brown, 2006). In a quasi-experimental two-year qualitative study, Brown
(2006) asked professors from a two-year education administration master’s degree program to
adjust their pedagogical strategies for the 40 graduate students across two cohorts. Professors
were tasked with adjusting their program design for greater inclusion of andragogical strategies
that required graduate students to deeply examine their personal beliefs and how they related
those beliefs to classism, racism and sexism, in the cultural context of schooling. Through pre-
and post-Likert scale surveys, students then measured their own reflective practice and
awareness of issues of diversity in their personal lives and communities. Data analyzed from
journals and other academic artifacts revealed that the graduate students’ awareness and
academic application to issues of race and equity increased, leading Brown (2006) to determine
that pre-service leaders must engage with experiences that investigate and examine issues of
diversity, social justice, and equity across school communities.
Practicing critical reflection and examining the ways in which individual experiences
with race and diversity influence leadership, aspiring leaders must learn strategies of
metacognition as they are related to applying their own racial identities when engaging with
stakeholders to transform school communities. Martinez (2015) believed that one way to
establish the racial identities of school leaders is by engaging them in exercises of reflection and
self-exploration of their own racial identities and privilege. By requiring aspiring leaders to
complete racial autobiographies, the color mute practices are diminished and race is surfaced
across the school community (Castagno, 2008). As principal preparation programs engage
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aspiring leaders in practices that address race relations in schools, aspiring leaders begin to
engage in new ways of thinking and being through the lens of equity (Carpenter & Diem, 2013).
Courageous conversations. Research reveals that specific language of race, equity,
diversity, and social justice are minimally included in the requisite content for principal
preparation standards (Carpenter & Diem, 2015). According to Brown (2006), the absence of
specific race and equity related language in standards breeds the absence of race and equity
related content in pre-service programs. Therefore aspiring leaders need to be equipped with the
procedural knowledge and skills that enable them to engage in racial discourse. One way in
which school leaders can begin to address issues of systematic and racial inequity is by initiating
conversations and discourse around these topics. Singleton (2015) has created a procedure or
strategy through the use of protocol for courageous conversations. By adhering a set of specific
communicative norms and framing the discourse through the lens of specific conditions,
Singleton (2015) asserted that the tools will help anyone who is interested in addressing the
achievement gap and other issues of institutional racism in schools today. Table 2 shows the
three knowledge influences and assessments as identified in this literature review.

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Table 2
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment
Organizational Mission
The mission of the LDO is to build and sustain a leadership pipeline that yields high quality
leaders at all levels of the system including teacher leaders, assistant principals, principals
and senior system level leaders.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2019, The Leadership Development Office will build the capacity of school and
central leaders to identify and address racial inequities in their schools, districts and central
offices.
Knowledge Influence
Knowledge
Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Alumni need to know how to engage
staff in race based conversations.
Procedural Alumni will be asked if they feel
prepared to have conversations
around race in equity in their
schools.
Alumni need to know principles of
critical race theory (CRT) and how
this theory can inform their practice.
Declarative Alumni will be asked when they
have identified racial inequity in
their schools and strategies used to
address inequities.
Alumni will need to understand how
their racial identities influence their
perceptions of race and equity in their
school communities.
Metacognitive Alumni will be asked how their
racial identities inform their
leadership practices.
Alumni will be asked how have
their personal experiences with
race influenced your leadership?

Motivation. Clark and Estes (2008) characterized motivation as “the sum of people and
your environment, professional or personal” (p. 80). Coupled with current research about the
absence of concepts around race and equity in educational leadership preparation programs, one
may infer that this field lacks the additional three critical components of motivation: active
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choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gooden & Dantley, 2012). Active
choice pertains to choosing to begin a task, goal or action beyond simply intending to do so.
Persistence is the grit and perseverance demonstrated despite environmental barriers or
distractions; one continues to engage with the task. Mental effort addresses the strategy and
thoughtfulness one demonstrates when completing the task; working smarter and not harder
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Mayer (2011) described motivation as internal momentum that can be
captured through observable effort and the drive a person commits to a goal or task through goal
directed behavior that activates the work, is personal, and energized through completion of a goal
or task.
Through the ALI recruitment and selection process, LDO staff and faculty believe that
program participants are initially motivated to engage with this line of work due to the basic
desire of candidates to apply and endure the robust admissions process. This motivation and
readiness either evolve or remain stagnant once ALI alumni become school leaders. Therefore,
motivation is more than just expressing a desire in a subject or task as may have been
demonstrated in the program and diminished upon program completion or when alumni enter
into the school leadership role. Motivational attributes of active choice, mental effort, and
persistence may extinguish as alumni engage in the day-to-day work of school leadership. There
are two specific factors that influence alumni motivation to address issues of race and equity in
their schools, attributions and value. This section will present evidence of how both expectancy
value theory and attribution theory impact the motivation of aspiring leaders to address systemic
and institutional inequity across their school communities.
Schraw and Lehman (2001) stated that interest presents itself in two different forms in
order for a person to learn new information and skill development: situational interest and
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personal interest. Personal interest would be the ideal interest type aspiring leaders take in
learning how to address issues of equity and race due the fact that personal interest further
cultivates the way a person will process new information and later connect it to past experience
(Schraw & Lehman, 2001). Should aspiring leaders engage with this topic due to isolated
situational reasons such as job responsibility, there is a risk that they will fail to authentically
identify and problem solve around resolving systemic inequity across their communities.
Preparation programs are theoretically positioned to cultivate personal interest in aspiring leaders
by having them explore the presence of race and equity in their lives and isolate those
experiences to inform their leadership practices.
Expectancy value theory. Will I be successful and will I be effective? These are two
questions one may ask themselves as they endeavor to perform a new task or job (Clark & Estes,
2008). In addition to these questions, knowing that the task or job holds some sort of intrinsic or
extrinsic value greatly determines whether or not someone will complete a task or learn new
information (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). When one does not want to engage in a task, they resist.
In particular, when individuals choose not to engage in conversations around race, resistance
comes in a few distinct forms of intense emotions, opposition, and distancing themselves from
the conversation or exercise (Martinez, 2015). Resistance can often be inferred as devaluing an
experience or skill set. In order to decrease resistance and increase motivation, aspiring leaders
must see great value in the goal of addressing issues of race and equity in their communities
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Factors that influence whether or not one values a task largely
depend on the impact it will have on their personal or professional lives and if the task will help
them meet stated or desired goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
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Critical components of the expectancy value theory are the different ways in which
participants can find value in a task or goal (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). These components
emerge through the goals set by the ALI faculty in aiding aspiring leaders to find value in one of
the following areas in order to further motivate them to use the strategies that will facilitate
conversations around equity and race: intrinsic value, attainment value, utility value and cost of
completing the task or meeting the goal (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
Aspiring leaders need to see value in addressing issues of equity in schools. Whether or
not aspiring leaders engage in examining and confronting institutional inequities and issues of
race in their schools wholly depends on their personal desire and interest to do so; their own
reasons and if they see value in the process. Researchers propose that applying theories such as
socio-cultural and critical race to the practice of education leadership can reframe perspectives
and create a new model of value-added leadership. It is suggested that realizing the multi-
cultural perspectives of culturally and linguistically diverse leaders (CLD), and merging those
with social justice and equity based pedagogy may counteract deficit thinking and institutional
racism (Raskin et al., 2015; Santamaria, 2014). By cultivating a value-added model of culturally
responsive leadership in pre-service programs such as ALI, aspiring leaders will demonstrate
motivation in addressing inequity in their communities.
According to Eccles and Wigfield (2002), expectancy value theory also relates to one’s
identity and one’s preferences and ways in which one socializes to develop personal values.
Personal values and identity directly relate to aspiring leaders’ motivation to engage in
addressing and confronting issues of inequity largely in part to their life experiences with equity
and race. Equally important is the intent to address these issues and actually starting to enter
conversations and identify inequities; one does not demonstrate active choice until they begin the
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task (Rueda, 2011). Connecting this back to aspiring leaders’ capacities to engage in the work of
confronting inequity and racism, they must practice and utilize the tools provided through ALI.
The practice of intent versus action is similar to recognizing inequitable and racist behavior.
Derman-Sparks and Phillips (1997) are very precise in their distinction of acts of racism: “racist
behavior is measured by its outcomes for people of color, rather than its intentions” (p. 22).
Considering the personal identity of pre-service educational leaders, as described by expectancy
value theory, and ways in which they have or have not experienced systemic or institutional
inequity, coupled with how they attribute those experiences, each will aid in defining the gaps in
motivational influences through Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework.
Attribution theory. Attribution theory is a motivational theory that is applied to a
person’s belief system(s); how people interpret their environments, and possible causes of their
life experiences. The main premise of attribution theory is that prior knowledge and the
environment deeply affect a person’s belief system (Culatta, 2013). When considering whether
or not to engage in a task, attribution theory states that past experience with the same or similar
task will determine a person’s motivation to try it again. Culatta (2013) further explained in
attribution theory research, there are three specific domains that characterize the attributions:
controllability, locus, and stability. Determining the internal or external cause of the event refers
to locus. If the event that transpired varies in stability from situation to situation, this is
considered the stable dimension. Controllability plainly refers to events and causes that are
either in a person’s control or not.
In the research, the explanation that emotional response is paramount and varies across
locus, controllability, and stability is of particular importance to this dissertation study. Culatta
(2013) calls attention to the findings about how previous experiences can be a strong predictor of
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behavioral consequences, as the past greatly impacts the choices made in the future according to
attribution theory. Revisiting the process of how one’s personal values, beliefs and identity are
framed by experiences and environment. Attribution theory helps to determine the motivations
for aspiring leaders to choose whether or not to addresses issues of equity and race in their
schools. Martinez (2015) discussed this lack of motivation in the form of resistance either
through opposition, distancing, and intense emotions. As a result of this lack of motivation,
demonstrated through resistance, aspiring leaders fail to acknowledge their own actions and
experiences that may contribute to school inequities (Martinez, 2015).
Aspiring leaders need to understand addressing inequity is their responsibility. A
primary function of school leadership is to shape and cultivate a culture of care and community
for all stakeholders across the school. In doing so, school leaders must have the dispositions and
self-awareness that they are capable and responsible for systematically addressing inequity
instead of allowing the culture to remain status quo. In such cultural settings, meritocracy
prevails or leaders engage in color-blind practices of attributing the inequity by failing to
acknowledge the role of race in the classroom and school. Santamaria’s (2014) study on school
leaders of color’s use of their identities to engage communities in courageous conversations
determined that pre-service leaders must demonstrate willingness to engage in this discourse
across settings even when it is the unpopular or resisted topic. Furthermore, Santamaria (2014)
found that when leaders are armed with data that demonstrates equitable or inequitable practice,
they are more motivated to initiate conversations due to the ability to ground them in data versus
life experience.
A school leader’s ability to communicate with various stakeholders, based on the shifting
attributions across space and time, is critical to gaining buy-in and building community (Culatta,
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50
2013). Carpenter and Diem (2013) state pre-service leadership programs are failing to address
aspiring leaders’ ability to engage their communities in addressing issues of equity and race,
which will require the leaders to gain buy-in and a call to action from their school communities.
In fact, Carpenter and Diem (2013) further declared that a focus in pre-service programs on
social justice curriculum is being served as an offensive substitute for antiracist pedagogy. An
absence of content in pre-service training programs only further discourages aspiring leaders
from realizing their responsibility to address such issues in their school communities. Similar to
the knowledge influences, Table 3 shows the motivational influences and motivational influence
assessments identified in this literature review.

Table 3
Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessments
Organizational Mission
The mission of the LDO is to build and sustain a leadership pipeline that yields high quality leaders at all
levels of the system including teacher leaders, assistant principals, principals and senior system level
leaders.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2019, The Leadership Development Office will build the capacity of school and central leaders to
identify and address racial inequities in their schools, districts and central offices.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Alumni need to see value in addressing issues of racial
equity, inequity, systemic inequity and systematic
racism in order to fully engage in using the strategies to
address these issues in their communities.
Interview Question: Alumni will be asked if
they use the tools and strategies learned in the
ALI program to teach their staff and peers
about racial inequity in schools.
Alumni need to realize that changing the culture of a
school community lies within their ability and
responsibility.
Interview Question: Alumni will be asked if
they believe it is their responsibility, as the
school leader, to recognize and diminish racial
inequity in my school.

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Organization influences. Organizations are characterized by their cultural models and
cultural settings (Clark & Estes, 2008). Cultural models are those unspoken norms, values,
belief systems, and ways of knowing that members of the organization demonstrate but are not
discussed or identified in an explicit manner (Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings are the physical
environments and varying contexts whereby the actions, beliefs, processes, and policies are
enacted within an organization that can shift and change based on the context of the work in the
organization (Rueda, 2011). Through both stability and tension, organizations can sustain
change to their cultural models and settings when the members understand the need for the
change and are amply prepared for the change (Clark & Estes, 2008). When these settings and
models are investigated, and analyzed for effectiveness or harm, the organization determines
their impact on performance and the need for change.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that when leaders focus on the needs of their members by
addressing their knowledge and motivational needs, change will occur in a manner that is
effective and sustainable. When organizations initially address stakeholder needs they are able
to pinpoint performance gaps. In doing so, leaders can then design interventions that can address
said gaps and increase organizational performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). However, identified
gaps and solutions fail to be sustainable when the organizational culture’s models or settings
work in a counter-productive manner to the desired change. Only by addressing the cultural
deficits of an organization, are leaders truly able to move their members and their vision forward
(Rueda, 2011).
Cultural models. In the Great Harbor School District (GHSD), the cultural models of the
organization can be characterized as conflict avoidant and resistant to change. There are many
initiatives in the GHSD that brand “equity” as the focus, i.e. Equity for All, Algebra for All,
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Computer Science for All. Each of these initiatives fails to address the systematic and school
based culture of inequity for students of color. Research found that by leveraging school
leadership (development), leaders can address racial inequity that lead to increased opportunities
to diminish institutional racism and academic disparities for students of color (Galloway &
Ishimaru, 2015; Gooden & Dantley, 2012). To build school leader capacity in such a way that
will increase equity for students, the organization must be willing to address this phenomenon
and confront the need for programmatic change in leadership development and practice.
Organizational cultures that are resistant to change perpetuate stagnant cultures that find ways to
avoid the needed change at all costs (Clark & Estes, 2008). Boske (2015) stated that school
leaders must first develop their critical consciousness about race to identify systematic racism
and change it. The Great Harbor School District may demonstrate a resistance to these practices
through the increased amount of “equity initiatives” that fail to address school leader needs
related to foundational identity formation around race and how this practice translates to equity
in schools.
In addition to demonstrating resistance to change, the GHSD may propagate a conflict
avoidant cultural model through the mere avoidance of declaring the need to address the various
racial inequities that take place in schools. The GHSD needs to adopt the practice of examining
race in compounded forms if it seeks to develop school leader skills to identify and confront
racial inequities in their schools. When school leaders and school communities engage in this
practice, they become accustomed to recognizing the ways inequity presents itself and begin to
equip leaders with ways to address and diminish such inequity (Gooden, 2012). DeCuir and
Dixson (2004) further explained that school leaders and organizations must deeply investigate
the role of race and racism in school communities to ensure equitable learning opportunities for
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students of color. As GHSD neglects to confront the presence of institutional racism and
continues to avoid the development of equity minded school leaders, diminished educational
opportunities will increase for students of color.
Cultural settings. When exploring the existence of cultural models including policies,
structures, and norms within an organization, leaders must examine the cultural settings to
understand the ways and possibly why such models are represented (Rueda, 2011). Specifically,
cultural settings are most helpful in an observable manner. Opportunities where the leader can
pinpoint specific behaviors and practices that need change and design interventions to address
the gap will maximize organizational performance (Rueda, 2011). Possibly confounded by
conflict avoidance and resistance to change, the possible cultural settings of GHSC could be
characterized by lacking effective role models and a lack of appropriate resources. Leveraging
effective role models and appropriate resources that contribute to the development of equity
minded leaders addresses the need for collegial support and collaboration on behalf of aspiring
leaders. Researchers have concluded that by providing stakeholders in school communities with
the time and resources to engage in personalizing race and confronting racial inequity, leaders
are more likely to diminish practices of structural racism (Hollins & Govan, 2015; Morrison,
Annamma, & Jackson, 2017). Taylor and Clark (2009) further the conversation in declaring that
failing to know how to recognize and confront institutional racism only perpetuates negative
school improvement efforts and diminished learning outcomes for students of color.
Without the appropriate training and time to practice ways to diminish institutional
racism in schools, and observe these practices from effective role models, leaders are left
sabotaging their own efforts for school improvement (Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997). Time is
a form of fixed capital for school communities. Students are present for a fixed period of time
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each day, month, and year. School leaders must maximize every instructional moment with
students to ensure educational attainment. According to Louis, Dretzke, and Wahlstrom (2010),
school leaders are the second most important factor in student achievement; second only to
classroom teachers. If this is true, providing professional learning time and resources to train
leaders in dismantling systemic inequities would positively impact learning outcomes for
students of color (Horsford, 2014).
López, Scanlan, and Gundrum (2013) stated that due to a lack of school leaders being
attuned to recognize and confront racism in day-to-day interactions, leaders miss greater
opportunities to equalize learning for students of color. Providing school leaders with peers that
are actively confronting racial inequities in their school communities and providing time for
them to learn alongside these role models will result in greater awareness and increased
outcomes for students of color (Raskin et al., 2015). Taylor and Clark (2009) recognized that
there are some districts that are working on eradicating systemic racism from their organizational
practices. However, society lacks breadth in honing the skills of leaders across school
communities to learn ways in recognizing the subtle practices of racism in embedded school
policies and structures that diminish learning for students of color. Table 4 shows the
organizational influences and organizational influences assessments identified in this literature
review.

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Table 4
Organizational Influences and Organizational Influence Assessments
Organizational Mission
The mission of the LDO is to build and sustain a leadership pipeline that yields high quality
leaders at all levels of the system including teacher leaders, assistant principals, principals
and senior system level leaders.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2019, the Leadership Development Office will build the capacity of school and
central leaders to identify and address racial inequities in their schools, districts and central
offices.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Resistance to change
The organization, GHSD, need to address
institutional and systemic racism and racial
inequities across leadership development
programs.
Survey Questions:
Do you feel comfortable discussing race and
equity in your current role? Why or why not?
In what ways, or not, does the organization
address racial inequity in school communities?
Conflict Avoidance
The organization, GHSD, needs to
communicate a shared value in equity
minded leadership development that can be
the catalyst to cultivate equity in school
communities.
Interview Questions:
In what ways does your organization address
race and equity?
To what extent do you feel you had learning
opportunities to develop the skills needed to
confront racial inequity in your school
community?
Lack of resources
GHSD needs to dedicate the time and
funding to provide professional learning
experiences and training to school leaders
in recognizing the racial inequities in
student learning.
Interview Question:
In what ways or not do you think the GHSD
addresses issues of racial inequity in school
communities?
Lack of effective role models
GHSD needs to provide school leaders
with effective role models across the city
that demonstrate the ability to identify and
address racial inequity across the
organization.
Interview Question:
When and how have you observed role models
that are addressing race in their schools?

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Summary
Principal preparation programs have historically generated school leaders that focus on
instruction, operations, safety, and other administrative duties, while neglecting culture, inequity,
disproportionality and deficit based practices that wholly impact students of color (Gooden &
Dantley, 2012). Ensuring aspiring leaders synthesize and apply theoretical knowledge around
discriminatory school based practices, and develop tools to combat such practices, has only
surfaced in school leadership training programs over the past eight to 12 years (Davis et al.,
2015). Furthermore, preparation programs are still navigating how to best equip aspiring leaders
with the knowledge, skills, and mindsets to address race and equity in schools due to the stagnant
evolution of national leadership standards. Through analysis of the knowledge, motivational,
and organization influences that either encourage or impede a school leader’s ability and desire
to confront racial inequity in the schools, the Great Harbor School District can ascertain which of
these are important to emphasize in the Aspiring Leaders Institution.
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of the Stakeholders’ Knowledge
and Motivation and the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is a visual and explanatory tool that assists readers in
understanding the beliefs, theories, assumptions, expectations, and perceived influences of a
research study (Maxwell, 2013). Conceptual frameworks also guide readers through the
researchers’ thoughts on how theory connects with organizational goals and hypotheses, while
also capturing a specific phenomenon that would be the predicted outcome of assumptions,
expectations, goals, and influences merging together (Maxwell, 2013). Each influence —
knowledge, motivation, and organizational — is identified within a conceptual framework in an
isolated manner as well as visually represented to connect with one another as they elucidate
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connections that inform the specific performance gaps of an organization (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
The conceptual framework identifies aspiring leaders as the key stakeholder impacted by
the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences as well as the primary target
group for the stakeholder goal represented in the framework. In the Great Harbor School
District, aspiring leaders are developed through the Aspiring Leaders Institute, uniquely and
individually trained to lead schools with the GHSD. School districts historically determine how
leaders are trained with programs representing the mission and goals of the district including
experiences that will prepare leaders for the unique needs of the district schools. Leaders are
trained and developed through curriculum that must meet the state or national standards for
credential requirements (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2017). Independent of meeting national
leadership standards and state requirements for credentials, leadership programs have autonomy
over curriculum and the delivery of instruction. Due to this autonomy, programs have varied
approaches for leadership development.
In Great Harbor School District, the focus on leadership development has historically
been on alignment to a school leader evaluation system and specific competencies deemed
important by the district leader. Race and equity have not been of significant importance in these
competencies, nor have they been specifically addressed in the leadership development
curriculum until 2015. Due to the emergence of addressing race and equity through leadership
practices, the Aspiring Leaders Institute has revised their curriculum and pedagogical approach
to developing leaders that address inequity in their communities.

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Figure 1. Interaction of stakeholder knowledge and motivation within organizational culture
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The conceptual framework, shown in Figure 1, represents ways in which the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences interact with one another as the ALI embarks on the
challenge of developing leaders to confront race and inequity in their schools.
Models and Settings
As represented in the conceptual framework, ALI alumni are the key stakeholders. The
knowledge and motivational influences of the aspiring leaders determine how they will engage
with race and equity in their school communities. Aspiring leaders need to understand the tenets
of both critical race theory and social justice theory while also identifying their own racial
identities and how each of these can be addressed through race based discourse (Dixson &
Rousseau, 2005; Singleton, 2015). Motivational influences represented in the conceptual
framework speak to aspiring leaders’ need to see value in addressing issues of equity and
systematic racism. Additionally, aspiring leaders must understand and accept that changing the
culture to one of equitable practices for all students lies within their power and responsibility.
The foundational theories, critical race and social justice, are represented as the
overarching guide in the conceptual framework. Great Harbor School District organizational
influences captured by settings and models are represented in the first inner circle of the
framework. The innermost circles identify aspiring leaders’ potential knowledge and motivation
acquired and cultivated in the Aspiring Leaders Institute. Represented by the outermost circle,
these knowledge and skills must be developed within an organizational culture that is presently
one characterized by resistance to change and conflict avoidant. Aspiring leaders also lack the
cultural settings to assume this work proficiently as there is a lack of resources and effective role
models, also represented as organizational influences within the framework. The arrow
emerging from these influences leads to the phenomenon in practice; if leaders are able to
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acknowledge inequity by confronting inequitable practice and institutional racism, they will be
able to create culturally responsive communities that ensure equity for students of color
(Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015). Gooden and Dantley (2012) suggested that leaders are able to
address racial equity when they are provided time and space to hone these skills and explore
strategies to do so, leading to increased academic outcomes for students of color. Through these
practices, the final arrow represents the stakeholder goal that will result in increased knowledge,
skills, and mindsets of aspiring leaders, prepared to address equity and systematic racism in their
communities.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Aspiring Leaders
Institute in developing leaders that are prepared to address issues of race and inequity in their
schools in the Great Harbor School District. The interaction between the organizational goal and
the Aspiring Leaders Institute outcomes was the focus of this evaluation. Chapter 2 discussed
the historical foundations, knowledge, motivation and organizational theory literature and related
general literature on the approach that leadership development programs take to develop leaders
that are ready to address challenges of race and equity in their schools. Chapter 2 also presented
the knowledge, motivation and organization influences of the Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni,
the key stakeholder for this evaluation study. The conceptual framework was also presented
illustrating how the knowledge, motivation and organization influences work together and
connect to the research questions.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODS
This chapter will describe the methodological approach used in this study. Sampling
strategy, criteria, instrumentation, and data collection processes will be identified. This chapter
also explains how the data collection instruments were administered followed by efforts to
safeguard validity, reliability, credibility, and trustworthiness of the researcher. The purpose of
this research study was to evaluate the extent to which the Aspiring Leaders Institute prepares
school leaders with knowledge, skills, and leadership capacity to address issues of race and
equity in their schools. Chapter 3 closes by addressing ethical considerations for participants of
the study. The purpose of collecting this data was to answer the following research questions:
1. What is the interaction between Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni knowledge and
motivational expectations to address racial equity in their schools as it relates to the
organizational culture and context of the Aspiring Leaders Institute?
2. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group of focus for this research study is alumni of the Aspiring Leaders
Institute over the 10 years of the program. These alumni were comprised of teachers, assistant
principals, principals and other education administrators that work within the Great Harbor
School District. There are approximately 577 program alumni over 10 years. This stakeholder
group is important to the LDO’s organizational mission of engaging in increasing practice(s) to
address racial equity as they are the future school leaders for the Great Harbor School District
and will be change agents in schools across the region. As Martinez (2015) stated, engaging
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aspiring leaders in reflective exercises increases their racial identity awareness and therefore
expands their ability to engage with tools that address race in schools.
As the primary stakeholders, program alumni fulfilled the following criteria through the
program application and acceptance process:
1. Currently appointed teacher in the Great Harbor School District at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels.
2. A minimum of five years of classroom teaching experience.
3. Demonstrated ability to observe and evaluate teacher practice.
4. Articulated desire and commitment to become a leader in the Great Harbor School
District following completion of the program.
5. Mix of teachers, assistant principals, principals, and other GHSD administrative staff.
6. Tenured in their position as teacher, if applicant was a teacher.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The participant must have been an alumni of the LDO’s Aspiring Leaders
Institute. Within this criterion, they must be a permanently hired pedagogue in the Great Harbor
School District. The criterion of permanently hired pedagogues indicates that the participant has
been appointed by the Great Harbor School District and is not serving in an interim or per diem
status.
Criterion 2. The survey was distributed to all program alumni that were presently
working in the Great Harbor School District. The survey gathered demographic information
about each participant as well as knowledge, perceptions, and experiences around addressing
race and equity in their schools.
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Survey Strategy and Rationale
The survey was distributed electronically to all program alumni via email invitation
during the third week of December 2018 through January 2019. Christensen, Johnson and
Turner (2015) described purposeful convenience sampling as participants that can be
conveniently located and selected whether through proximity, enrollment, and volunteering.
Through the survey, beliefs, attitudes, assumptions, and general knowledge about becoming a
racially responsive school leader were captured, therefore addressing the validity of the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences identified in the conceptual framework.
This survey sample was classified as purposefully convenient since alumni had already been
selected through the LDO leadership program. Furthermore, due to the nature of the research
study, this sample was a representation of the desired target population (Fink, 2013).
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Interview sample participants were inclusive of 10 out of the 37 alumni that
volunteered from the total 98/577 that participated in the survey. The participants represent
different school communities in varying socio-economic geographical areas of the Great Harbor
School District.
Criterion 2. The interview sample participants represented alumni across eight of the 10
cohorts of program graduates from 2008 through 2018. Through the representation of alumni
across cohorts, data was gathered regarding the evolution of program effectiveness from year 1
through year 10, developing leaders’ readiness to address issues of race and equity in their
schools.
Criterion 3. The interview sample participants represented teachers, central
administrative staff, assistant principals, and principals. The Aspiring Leaders Institute is a
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leadership development program that produces candidates that are either ready for an assistant
principal position or a principal position, however in some cases graduates accept central
administrative positions that support multiple school communities. Additionally, some alumni
remained teachers after they completed the program. All positions have the ability to address
issues of race and equity in school communities.
Criterion 4. The interview sample included an equal distribution of male and female
alumni. Interviewing a heterogeneous sample provides context around a leader’s ability and
desire to address issues of race and equity in their school and whether or not gender influences
this ability and readiness.
Criterion 5. The interview sample included an equal distribution of White and non-
White alumni. Alumni represented the following races: Black, White, Hispanic, Indian, and
Asian. Alumni interviewed represented Black, White, Hispanic, and the Afro-Hispanic race.
Singleton (2015) stated that in order to diminish disproportionality and institutional racism in
schools, White leaders as well as people of color must engage in the work.
Criterion 6. The interview sample included alumni that have between five years and 25
years of experience within the GHSD and have moved into a leadership position since graduating
from ALI. Due to the program requirement of a minimum of five years teaching experience, in
addition to the first cohort established in 2007, the alumni will have served a minimum of five
years as a teacher inclusive of the tenth cohort graduating in 2018.
Interview Strategy and Rationale
The interview sampling strategy also followed purposeful convenience sampling. The
interview used 10 participants from a purposeful convenience sample, a subset from the survey
sample. Interview subjects were determined by those participants who completed the survey and
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opted in to the interview portion of the research at the end of the survey. Race of each subject
was unknown prior to conducting the interview, unless disclosed in questions 20 and 21 of the
survey. The sampling was based upon respondents that agreed to the interview, representing
alumni across the 10 years of the program. Special consideration was made to interview subjects
which the principal investigator had not directly taught throughout the program. Each alumni
responded to a question asking if they would be willing to be surveyed. From the pool of
subjects agreeing to be surveyed, a sample reflected program alumni from cohorts that were
introduced to concept of cultural proficiency, years 1 through 6 of the program yet prior to the
introduction of critical race theory, and those from cohorts 7 through 10 that completed the
program following the introduction of critical race theory and inclusive of the concept of cultural
proficiency. Throughout the interview process, the researcher used an interview script (see
Appendix B), asking both clarifying and probing questions about the participants’ experiences
with the content captured in the conceptual framework and their learning experiences within the
program (Christensen et al., 2015). Survey questions 1 through 3 asked for demographic
information about each subject. Question 4 through 17 probed ALI alumni about the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences addressed in the conceptual framework
related to addressing racial inequity as well as motivational influences related to both attribution
and expectancy value theories (Clark & Estes, 2008). The interview had a greater focus on
organizational influences than the survey did. Furthermore, the interview questions also
measured the respondents’ perceptions of organizational cultural settings lacking effective role
models and a lack of appropriate resources. The interview process directly related to the
conceptual framework of the study when determining the validity of the motivational and
organizational influences previously identified.
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Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study utilized two primary data collection methods: quantitative and qualitative —
surveys and interviews. Creswell (2014) stated that mixed methods studies allow for
examination of interrelated factors that enable researchers to analyze, compare, and synthesize
findings from various viewpoints of a stakeholder group. By using surveys and interviews the
researcher is able to generate a clear picture of foundational knowledge of a large group while
also closely monitoring the impact of distinct individual alumni experiences (Salkind, 2014;
Weiss, 1994).
Surveys were identified as the best method to gather a large amount of alumni data in a
controlled environment. Moreover, this method was ideal for the amount of time allotted for
data collection. Interviews were selected as the second method of data collection as they allow
the researcher to gain access to program alumni perspectives and overall descriptions of program
experiences that are often difficult to capture in surveys (Weiss, 1994). Interviews were utilized
to capture individual perceptions of alumni experiences related to their preparedness and current
practices in addressing race and equity in their schools. Patton (2002) suggested posing a variety
of questions ranging from feeling, knowledge, behavior, demographic, experiences, and
individual values or opinions.
By utilizing two sources of data collection in conjunction with member checking and
peer reflections, the research study triangulated testimonial and other programmatic touch points
thereby increasing credibility to the findings (Patton, 1987). A mixed methods design of both
qualitative and quantitative data were collected separately in a sequential order, quantitative
followed by qualitative procedures, analyzed separately, then synthesized together.
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Surveys
The survey designed for this research study provided a quantitative description of the
perceptions, shared experiences, and attitudes of Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni. The alumni
served as the fixed sample of the population and phenomenon being studied (Creswell, 2014).
The survey was designed to consider the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
aligned with the conceptual framework as well as answer the research questions posed in this
study.
Surveys were administered, in English, by Qualtrics through the University of Southern
California. Participants were invited to complete the survey through a link sent to all Aspiring
Leaders Institute alumni. The survey included 23 questions: three demographic based questions,
18 additional questions that address assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences that may impact the research subject’s ability to address race and equity in their
schools, and two questions regarding subjects’ willingness to be interviewed and contact
information. Questions 4 through 8 inquired about ALI alumni knowledge and motivational
influences specifically around factual knowledge related to addressing racial inequity as well as
motivational influences related to both attribution and expectancy value theories (Clark & Estes,
2008). Survey items 9 through 16 asked respondents about assumed organizational cultural
settings and models specifically related to the culture being characterized as conflict avoidant
and resistant to change. Furthermore, the questions also measured the respondents’ perceptions
of organizational cultural settings lacking effective role models and a lack of appropriate
resources. The purpose of the study and informed consent confirmation were provided
electronically through the survey invitation, electronically through the interview invitation, and
by hard copy prior to commencing the interview (Fink, 2013). The consent informed all
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participants they may opt out or cease participation at any point in the survey (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). As a final point, ordinal and nominal scales of measurement were used to
analyze all survey results (Salkind, 2014).
Interviews
The interview sampling strategy followed purposeful convenience sampling and
interviews were conducted concurrent of survey administration. Interviews were recorded to
ensure all data was accurately captured. Interview questions were designed to align to the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that contribute to the alumni’s
ability to engage in conversations about the presence of race and equity in their schools. The
interview process directly related to the conceptual framework of the study when determining the
validity of the assumed motivational and organizational influences previously identified
(Maxwell, 2013).
The sampling was based upon subjects volunteering to be interviewed at the end of the
previously administered survey and were also not alumni which the principal investigator taught.
The interview used 10 selected, volunteer participants, a subset from the purposeful convenience
survey sample. Through the interview process, in addition to the planned interview questions,
participants were asked probing questions. These additional questions, dependent upon the
subjects’ initial response, allowed the researcher to further explore the subjects’ overall
experiences related to different aspects of the program (Weiss, 1994). Probing questions were
captured in the interview transcript as well as the field journal for further analysis.
Interview protocol. The protocol used was a semi-structured interview. A script was
utilized to guide the interview (see Appendix B) with flexibility embedded as other points of
discussion as data streams emerged from the interview conversation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
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In the semi-structured protocol, both questions and expanded experiences provided by the
subject were the topic of exchange between researcher and participant (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The interview protocol included 17 questions focused on feeling, knowing, experiencing,
and the impact of experience on present day leadership practice gleaned from the ALI training
experience. These questions were sufficient to capture the assumed knowledge, motivational,
and organizational influences identified in the conceptual framework.
Interview procedures. All interviews were conducted in a one-on-one setting, in a
location that was mutually agreed upon by the participant and the researcher. Scheduling and
location flexibility was demonstrated through the use of the Doodle app so that the interview
date and location would be most convenient and comfortable for the interview subjects (Patton,
2002). Due to the geographic complexities of the Great Harbor School District, interview
locations varied. All interviews were conducted in person. Each individual interview took place
in person at a time and location determined by the participants. The interviews began with a list
of generalized open-ended questions that had the flexibility of follow-up interviews or also
discussing other marked topics as they arose. By interviewing 10 program alumni, access to a
variety of experiential perspectives about readiness perceptions after graduating from the ALI
program was established. Furthermore, through the purposeful convenience sampling method,
alumni represented each year of the program and were interviewed to gain insight into how
curricular and programmatic changes had impacted alumni readiness perceptions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Quantitative Data
Surveys were administered, in English, by Qualtrics through the University of Southern
California. Participants were invited to complete the survey through a link sent to all Aspiring
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Leaders Institute alumni (see Appendix D). The survey included 23 questions: three
demographic based questions, 18 additional questions that address assumed knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences that may impact the research subject’s ability to
address race and equity in their schools; the final two questions asked alumni for interview
permission and contact information. For analytical considerations of the survey data, ordinal and
nominal scales of measurement were used, as the questions were formed in Qualtrics, to analyze
all survey results (see Appendix E) (Salkind, 2014). Typicality emerged in interview responses
thereby establishing themes for analysis. The researcher used a journal and informal memos to
address patterns of typicality and analyzed accordingly in the findings section.
The conceptual framework, inclusive of the current study’s research questions
continuously grounded the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Specifically, as the
researcher moved through the coding process of open, axial, and conceptual themes, the
researcher returned to the conceptual framework from interview to the findings stage. The
researcher was assisted by aligning patterns revealed through the data to the assumptions made in
the conceptual framework assisted the confirmation, lack of confirmation, and responses of the
research questions through the data.
Qualitative Data
The researcher coded the qualitative data of the study, survey responses and interviews
through various methods. First, the researcher coded transcripts of the review through the use
open, axial and analytic coding. In addition, analytic tools were utilized, such as questioning and
highlighting words or phrases in order to assist in identifying response patterns and determining
common themes amongst respondents. These analytic tools were used following each interview
once the researcher had a complete transcript completed through Rev.com. Additionally, a
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journal for field notes captured observations made during the interview process, and notes
alongside transcript data to record analytic memos throughout the process supported the
researcher’s analysis. Lastly, the researcher engaged in an additional phase of analysis by
returning to interviewed participants’ initial survey responses to see if there were patterns in
responses and levels of readiness in addressing issues of race and equity in their schools.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness befall the researcher in both quantitative and qualitative
research. However, in qualitative research, efforts made by the researcher must demonstrate
compulsory measures to address credibility and trustworthiness of the research study (Maxwell,
2013). Through the use of multiple data collection methods, the process of member checking,
and utilizing peer review and feedback, credibility of the study was established as it aimed to
measure what was intended by the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) define triangulation as utilization of multiple sources,
artifacts, and perspectives to confirm and disconfirm research findings. Within this research
study, survey and interviews demonstrated that triangulation was used throughout the study.
Member checking and peer review further confirmed credibility efforts. Current ALI cohort
members completed the survey and reviewed the interview questions (not part of the interview
sample) and provided feedback on the protocols and initial results related to the interviews and
surveys (Maxwell, 2013). Additionally, ALI Faculty assisted in the peer review process by
reviewing data collected, as well as acted as critics to diminish any researcher personal bias that
may surface throughout the process. To ensure trustworthiness of the study, preservation of field
notes, survey instrument and results, and interview transcripts served as an audit trail that
supports consistency in the methodology and allows the researcher to reflect on the process in a
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continuous manner (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, credibility and trustworthiness were
continuously addressed and considered through peer feedback and review, member checking,
triangulation, and the use of an audit trail.
Role of Investigator
As a White heterosexual American female, the researcher must confront her implicit bias
in terms of the race, gender, and ethnicity of the study participants. To do so, the researcher
disclosed her race and gender to all interview subjects as well as her current role as an ALI
faculty member. ALI program alumni participated in this study on a voluntary basis. As an ALI
faculty member, the researcher ensured that all interview subjects were taught by other ALI
faculty over the course of the program. In doing so, any perceived relationship or past positional
authority between the researcher and participant was minimized (Glesne, 2011; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher has only interacted with approximately 15% of the potential
interview subjects. The researcher was not a supervisor or evaluating officer and did not
evaluate any of the interview subjects. While interview subjects were aware of the researcher’s
position within the GHSD, they confirmed that implicit or explicit supervisory authority did not
exist. In an effort to remain neutral during the interview process, the researcher refrained from
sharing facilitation experiences and resisted correcting subjects on content or learning
experiences they may have named or mentioned having throughout the program (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
The researcher had served as an ALI faculty member for five years at the time of this
study and had a significant role in designing program curriculum and content. The ALI program
had initiated considerations at the time of this study to measure program effectiveness around
learning outcomes related to addressing race inequity in schools. While the researcher explored
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ways in which program participants and alumni could demonstrate mastery of these outcomes,
such observations are absent of formal documentation. However, these past reflections and those
made throughout the research study were captured in a research journal as well as through field
notes.
Ethics
A qualitative researcher explores ways in which people make sense of a specific
phenomenon. Therefore, ethical considerations and assurances were established around
informed consent, the use of incentives, assertions that coercion is not present, confidentiality,
and the relationship between the researcher and participant to protect the well-being of subjects
(Glesne, 2011; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Validity and reliability are
further demonstrated when these considerations are present.
As a White heterosexual American female, the researcher must confront her implicit bias
in terms of the race, gender, and ethnicity of the study participants. To do so, the researcher
disclosed her race and gender to all interview subjects as well as her current role as an ALI
faculty member. ALI program alumni participated in this study on a voluntary basis. The
researcher took multiple measures to ensure that no physical, emotional, or social harm came to
the study participants. All subjects were provided informed consent prior to participating in the
study. Through informed consent, participants were informed as a volunteer, they may withdraw
from the study at any point in time (Glesne, 2011). Data collected is stored on a secure laptop
that has not been shared in order to guarantee confidentiality; access to transcripts were provided
to participants for their review in the event they requested access (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
As an ALI faculty member, the researcher ensured that all interview subjects were taught
by other ALI faculty. In doing so, any perceived relationship or past positional authority
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between the researcher and participant was minimized (Glesne, 2011; Merrriam & Tisdell,
2016). The researcher is not a supervisor or rating officer and does not evaluate any of the
interview subjects. While interview subjects were aware of the researcher’s position within the
GHSD, they confirmed that implicit or explicit supervisory authority did not exist. Incentives
were not used in this research study and subjects were not coerced into participation.
The researcher has served as an ALI faculty member for five years at the time of this
study. The researcher has only interacted with approximately 15% of the potential interview
subjects. The ALI program had initiated considerations at the time of this study to measure
program effectiveness around learning outcomes related to addressing race and equity in schools.
While the researcher explored ways in which program participants and alumni could demonstrate
mastery of these outcomes, such observations are absent of formal documentation. However,
these past reflections and those made throughout the research study were captured in a research
journal as well as through field notes. The researcher also utilized peer feedback as an additional
provision in maintaining awareness around ethical issues to sustain trustworthiness of the
research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Limitations and Delimitations
This research study aligned with a mixed methods approach and involved the use of
survey data, interviews, and document analysis. The study focused critical investigation and
evaluation of school leader readiness and ability to address issues of race and equity in their
schools. Limitations of the study were considerable yet not within the researcher’s control.
Limitations included alumni responding in a way they perceive the researcher wanted to hear and
the variation of truthfulness in how they engaged with their schools and staff. Additionally, this
study had time constraints in the data collection timeframe. Finally, this research study was
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limited to the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences identified in the
conceptual framework. Delimitations to the study included the survey design, survey constructs,
scales of measurement, interview questions posed, and artifacts analyzed. The synthesis of
results was limited to the perceptions, experiences, and views of the limited number of alumni
interviewed. While the results have informed the design and delivery of the Aspiring Leaders
Institute in the Great Harbor School District, the results cannot be generalized to a larger
population due to the qualitative approach of the research study.
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CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Aspiring Leaders Institute in the Great
Harbor School District to develop aspiring school leaders who were racially responsive, ready,
and able to address issues of race and inequity in their school communities. The analysis
focused on the assumed knowledge, motivational and organizational influences determined to act
as barriers in school leaders’ ability to address race and inequity in classrooms, across school
communities, and within the Great Harbor School District. A comprehensive study would focus
on all stakeholders across the Leadership Development Office and senior leadership of the Great
Harbor School District, however this evaluation concentrated on alumni of the Aspiring Leaders
Institute for reasonable purposes.
The questions that directed this evaluation were:
1. What is the interaction between Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni knowledge and
motivational expectations to address racial equity in their schools as it relates to the
organizational culture and context of the Aspiring Leaders Institute?
2. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
In order to answer these questions the data was collected from interviews and surveys.
Research-based recommendations are offered and evaluated in a broad manner in Chapter 5.
Participating Stakeholders
The sample for the survey was the entire Aspiring Leaders Institute program alumni, 576
school leaders, central staff members, and teachers. Ninety-seven alumni completed the survey
(16.8%). Alumni who completed the survey represented school leaders, educational
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administrators in central staff roles, as well as alumni who have remained as teachers after
program completion. The breakdown of the 97 participants by current position is displayed in
Figure 3, while Figure 2 identifies the years of experience alumni have in the Great Harbor
School District. Only 76 of the 97 alumni answered the interview question. The interview
breakdown is represented in Figure 4. While 36 alumni agreed to a follow-up one-on-one
interview, approximately 20 of those alumni who volunteered were former students of the
principal investigator and therefore not applicable to the interview process per the selection
criteria. The 16 alumni who met the criteria to be interviewed were a combination of principals,
assistant principals, teachers, and central administrators. Of the 16 available, 10 alumni
responded to the follow-up invitation for the interview and provided dates, times, and locations
that were agreeable to the data collection time period. Table 5 identifies the 10 subjects.

Figure 2. Alumni in survey organized by total years of GHSD experience

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Figure 3. Alumni in survey organized by current position

Figure 4. Alumni agreeing or declining option to interview

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Table 5
Interview Participants Organized by Year of ALI Graduation
Graduation
Year From
ALI Pseudonym
Current Position in the
Great Harbor School
District Gender and Race
Number of
Years in GHSD
2008 Mary Principal Female/Black 20 years
2008 Joan Education Administrator
(Central Staff)
Female/Afro-
Latina
20 years
2010 John Principal Male/Black 20 years
2012 Sally Assistant Principal Female/Afro-
Latina
15 years
2012 Chris Principal Male/White 13 years
2013 Tim Principal Male/White 17 years
2015 Karen Assistant Principal Female/Latina 17 years
2016 Joe Education Administrator
(Central Staff)
Male/White 13 years
2017 Mark Principal Male/White 10 years
2018 Jenny Teacher Female/Black 18 years

Results and Findings
Emergent themes from both quantitative and qualitative data analysis are summarized in
this section using the KMO assumed influences identified in the conceptual framework.
Findings for research question 1 addressed the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences through the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework as each related to the
organizational goal. Research question 2 focused on the recommendations for organizational
practice within the Great Harbor School District, which is presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 4
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concludes with data synthesis and summary of the findings while also addressing the
significance of the research.
Research Question 1
Research question 1 of this study asked to what extent are there interactions between
Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni knowledge and motivational expectations to address racial
equity in their schools as it relates to the organizational culture and context of the Aspiring
Leaders Institute? Data was analyzed for research question 1 and the following three themes
were identified and are discussed. The three themes are ways in which ALI alumni address
racial inequity in their schools, organizational barriers alumni face in the effort to address racial
inequity, and alumni program experiences in readiness to discuss the racial inequity in schools as
it relates to the ALI curriculum. The section concludes with a synthesis of the outcomes for
research question 1.
Addressing racial inequity in schools. The Great Harbor School District set forth an
organizational goal in March 2018 that all school leaders will take steps to address issues of race
and equity in their schools, while the Leadership Development Office set forth a divisional goal
to build the capacity of school and central leaders to identify and address racial inequities in their
schools, districts and central offices by June 2019. Both goals are dependent upon school leaders
retaining the knowledge and skills to address such inequities and the motivation to implement
these skills in their school communities. Addressing racial inequity in schools is the precursor
for diminishing racial inequity. First and foremost, alumni must know what constitutes racial
inequity as per the GHSD, how to identify racial inequity, and subsequently how to diminish
racial inequity. When surveyed, 100% (97/97) of alumni surveyed agreed that it was their
responsibility as school leaders to diminish racial inequity in their schools. Furthermore, 85%
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(79/92) of ALI alumni stated that they felt more prepared to meet these organizational goals
upon graduating from ALI. Yet, approximately 20% (18/92) of respondents stated they did not
feel prepared to initiate conversations with staff around issues of racial equity as a result of what
they learned in ALI; this being semi-contradictory to the initial claim of being more prepared.
This section explores two subthemes: alumni use of declarative and procedural knowledge about
ways to engage staff in addressing racial inequity and their motivation and readiness to enact
strategies or knowledge to do so.
As alumni increase their skill set and knowledge base of identifying racial inequity, it is
the expectation of both ALI and the GHSD that alumni are using this knowledge and skill set to
identify racial inequity in their schools. Furthermore, upon learning how to identify racial
inequity as it presents itself in schools, alumni are expected to train staff to use culturally
responsive teaching strategies that diminish racial inequity in classrooms. The second subtheme
that emerged was alumni’s stated readiness and willingness to enact their knowledge about ways
to identify, address, and diminish racial inequity in their schools. Knowing how to challenge
inequitable practice does not mean that alumni will choose to acknowledge inequitable practices
they encounter in their school communities. As the survey data was further analyzed alongside
interview responses, outcomes suggested that while alumni indicated having the knowledge and
skill set to identify and address racial inequity, organizational barriers presented too many
challenges for them to effectively implement this knowledge. Figures 6 and 7 capture ALI
alumni responses that partially demonstrate their willingness and readiness to enact knowledge
that would address the organizational goal set forth by the GHSD and the Leadership
Development Office.
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In order to begin measuring alumni’s motivation to address racial inequity in their
schools, they were first asked if they believe it is their responsibility. Alumni espousing the
belief in this duty correlates with what they value as a school leader. Therefore 100% (97/97) of
alumni indicating agreement that they are responsible for diminishing racial inequity
demonstrates a value to do so, and aligns with the organizational expectation of school leaders.
Determining a person’s willingness to engage in a difficult task is a preliminary step to expecting
them to enact the required knowledge and skill set to engage in the task. A person’s willingness
or motivation, coupled with their capacity, are required conditions for alumni to enact change in
their schools (Senge, 1999). This demonstration of willingness increases when alumni are
equipped with the appropriate tools and strategies to identify and address racial inequity in the
schools and individual classrooms.

Figure 5. Alumni believe they are responsible for diminishing racial inequity in schools

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Senge (1999) identified leaders who use their knowledge to enact change as “walking the
talk” (p. 214). In terms of alumni, in order to meet the organizational goal of addressing racial
inequity through their leadership, they not only demonstrate the willingness but also the
knowledge base to do so. In an effort to measure alumni knowledge base, the survey asked a
series of questions about whether or not they acquired specific skill sets in ALI and if they knew
how to apply those skills in their schools. One specific piece of procedural knowledge is being
ready and able to initiate conversations about race that may lead to addressing racial inequity.
ALI characterized these conversations as courageous conversations (Singleton, 2015). When
surveyed, 60% (51/84) of alumni stated they learned how to have these conversations in ALI,
therefore demonstrating the knowledge required to meet the organizational goal, while 80%
(74/92) of alumni agreed they felt ready to initiate these conversations. This finding is
compounded by the 77% (69/89) of alumni that reported ALI provided them with the tools to use
in their schools to initiate race based conversations. Figures 5, 6 and 7 illustrate these findings.

Figure 6. Alumni agreeing they learned how to utililze the courageous conversations protocol in
ALI

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Figure 7. Alumni perceived readiness to initiate conversations

Alumni use of declarative and procedural knowledge about ways to engage staff in
addressing issues of race and equity. ALI alumni placed significant importance on diminishing
racial equity in their schools, yet those interviewed identified multiple organizational barriers
which prevented them from implementing this goal. According to Martinez (2015), knowing the
principles of cultural proficiency and the tenets of critical race theory are vital to understanding
how to engage in conversations about race. In the survey, 77% (69/89) of respondents agreed
that ALI provided them with tools to use to initiate race based conversations. However, when
asked if they learned about critical race theory, 39% (35/89) of alumni disagreed. When
surveyed if they learned about cultural proficiency in ALI, 32% (27/84) of alumni disagreed.
When interviewed, Tim reinforced this absence of learning by stating, “Not a ton, in my
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memory. We talked about race explicitly and played the STAR POWER game, but that wasn’t
really rooted in race as much as it was about power, access and socioeconomic status.” Tim
drew upon a larger program in the GHSD where schools partner with one another in triads to
study a problem of practice called the Critical Leadership Triad (CLT). Tim along with four
others interviewed all identified this program as the single resource for building new knowledge
and finding ways to address issues of race and equity in their schools. Chris echoed this
sentiment during the interview:
One thing that has come up in our CLT is what happens if we are having these
courageous conversations with staff and someone says something overtly racist? The
whole purpose of this practice [courageous conversations] is to open up dialogue. But
now I gotta use this CLT and report that person to OEO or the Office of Investigations. I
don’t think there are many tools provided for that kind of thing.
Alumni testimonials referred to a lack of supports or models available to build the procedural
knowledge required to address issues of race and equity in their schools. These testimonials
demonstrated that the school leaders had been trained in certain practices but unable to fully
understand implementation or what that looks like in their school communities. What became
challenging for these school leaders was transferring their declarative knowledge into practical
application.
Alumni motivation and readiness to enact strategies or knowledge to address race and
equity in their schools. As previously illustrated, alumni reported that they were provided tools
and strategies to address racial equity in their schools or to initiate courageous conversations
about race and equity (see Figure 7). Ninety-nine percent of respondents agreed that it is their
responsibility to recognize racial inequity in their schools while 28% (26/92) of respondents
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stated they do not use strategies learned in ALI to teach staff about racial inequity in schools.
Finally, while 77% (74/92) of respondents believe they are prepared to initiate race based
conversations in their schools, 23% (20/89) of respondents do not believe that ALI provided
them with tools to engage in such conversations. This finding relates closely to the 20% (18/92)
alumni that did not feel prepared for race based conversations upon graduating from ALI (see
Figure 7).
Within the survey responses, alumni listed examples of identified issues of racial inequity
within their schools, but not how they addressed these issues. Some responses to the question
“Please list three instances in which you have identified racial inequity in your school or
community since graduating from ALI” were, “I can’t list three, we don’t do this.” Survey
respondent A stated, “Conversations do not touch the complex nature of my school.” This
sentiment was repeatedly echoed by survey respondent B: “There are expectations to have race
based conversations after two trainings but no one is there to coach me,” and “Geography of
lower socioeconomic schools not getting resources to train staff.” Survey respondent C
described grappling with their own identity and how this impacts their willingness and ability to
do the work: “I’m facing my own racial inequality as a leader and not being supported by the
system.” These responses, and many others that closely relate, are significant because they begin
to demonstrate the organizational barriers school leaders face despite wanting to and valuing the
charge that they are responsible for diminishing racial inequity in their schools.
During an interview with Sally, who works in a school where 47 different languages are
spoken and 75% of the student population are Black or of Asian descent and newly arrived
immigrants, when asked “How do you feel about engaging in conversations about race and the
role of race in your school?” she responded, “It’s personal and uncomfortable for me. I haven’t
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really addressed race in my school.” While Sally acknowledged learning about cultural
proficiency while in ALI, she stated that her principal or the community has not made it a
priority to use such practices: “we haven’t created or seen a platform for that yet.” Alumni
surveyed and interviewed intimated common challenges to using the knowledge they learned in
ALI through implementation of practices on the school level. Such challenges included: not
having a coach to guide them through application of knowledge and skills in an effective
manner, lacking time to train staff when they have only received one or two trainings themselves
since ALI, or feeling that having conversations, learned in ALI, was just a superficial step to
addressing race inequity in their schools. Through testimonials and reported instances, alumni
appear to share the sentiment that having the declarative and procedural knowledge to have the
conversations and address racial inequity does not mean they necessarily felt ready or compelled
to engage their staff or peers in addressing race and equity at school.
Diminishing racial inequity while facing organizational barriers. The LDO
organizational goal of building the capacity of school and central leaders to identify and address
racial inequities in their schools, districts and central offices relies largely on ensuring school and
central leaders have the required knowledge and appropriate tools to engage their communities in
that work. Through survey responses and interview testimonials ALI alumni revealed having the
required declarative knowledge, either acquired through ALI or after the program, they often
declined to enact knowledge or skills due to perceived organizational barriers. Through the
study data, this section explores the two knowledge influences alumni acquired in the ALI
program and the challenges through the organizational barriers that may devalue school leaders’
ability to diminish racial inequity in their schools.
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Alumni acquiring required declarative knowledge. Research states that in the work of
developing racially responsive school leaders, knowledge of ways in which critical race theory
applies to education, as well becoming culturally proficient leaders, is a minimum requirement to
ensure racial inequity is addressed in schools (Khalifa et al., 2013; Singleton, 2015). Through
survey responses and interviews, the findings of this study suggested that having this knowledge
does not necessarily transfer to using the knowledge. Eighty six percent (79/92) of survey
respondents reported feeling more prepared to address school based inequities after ALI.
Figure 8 demonstrates that 100% of survey responses reported being able to recognize racial
inequity in their school community, yet 20% (18/92) of respondents reported not feeling
prepared to initiate conversations around race and equity at their school (see Figure 7). To
continue demonstrating the gap between having knowledge and using the knowledge, 39%
(35/89) of survey respondents reported not learning about critical race theory in ALI and 32%
(27/84) of survey respondents reported not learning about cultural proficiency (see Figures 9 and
10). This data point is significant because the principles of cultural proficiency have been
included within the ALI curriculum since the inception of the program. Yet, 100% (10/10) of
interview respondents reported learning about culturally responsive teaching and leadership,
learning principles of critical race theory and cultural proficiency both in and out of ALI, but
reported not fully translating this knowledge to practice.

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Figure 8. Alumni recognizing racial inequity in schools

John stated during an interview when responding to the question “In what ways if any did you
learn about cultural proficiency or critical race theory in the ALI program?”:
Not in ALI. After, my superintendent pushed us into it . . . racial inequity, inequality and
that whole conversation . . . . I address it by remembering we are not a monolithic
community even though my students are all Pan-Caribbean. In my math team we had the
conversation on Whiteness and trying to divorce Whiteness from just White people.
However, when asked further how the he practices cultural proficiency in his school community
or currently engages staff in learning around about the tenets of critical race theory in their
teaching, he stated:
I did a couple of PDs a few years ago when I saw my superintendent was pushing the
conversation. We spoke about the Post-Traumatic Slave Disorder and all those other
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theories . . . . And my White staff, how do they see themselves in that whole dynamic?
What does it look like?
With this second response, it can be inferred that this alumni is not engaging his school staff in
conversations about race and equity, or using knowledge he has to change practice within the
school community. Yet, as he stated, he acquired the knowledge post-ALI participation although
the majority of alumni surveyed reported gaining knowledge in both areas, critical race theory
and cultural proficiency during ALI. Howard and Navarro (2016) asserted that an explicit
knowledge base and working practice of critical race theory are necessary in order to increase
academic outcomes and amplify access to high quality learning experiences for marginalized
students. The researchers further emphasize the need for school leaders to be culturally
proficient by citing the absence of culturally relevant and responsive instruction in schools
thereby compounding the reasons for performance disparity.

Figure 9. Alumni learning about CRT during ALI

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Figure 10. Alumni learning about cultural proficiency in ALI

Organizational barriers that may challenge a school leader’s ability to diminish racial
inequity in their schools. The Great Harbor School District has taken a variety of steps in the
last nine months to prioritize addressing racial inequity across its geographic districts. School
leaders have been directed to attend professional learning sessions on implicit bias training and
anti-racism. Financial resources have begun to be redirected to schools with greater needs, and
given professional readings such as Courageous Conversations, Race Talk, and Solving
Disproportionality While Achieving Equity. However, attending conferences and reading books
does not ready entire communities to set aside privilege and bias for the sake of equity for the
most marginalized students. Surveyed respondents and interviewed alumni shared similar
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thoughts on the call to diminish inequity in their schools and the lack of support or barriers they
experience while attempting to accomplish this goal.
Surveyed alumni identified various systemic and organizational barriers; respondents felt
these barriers hindered their ability to engage with their staff to diminish racial inequity in their
schools. Alumni were also asked to list ways in which they have identified racial inequity in
their schools and responses mirrored barriers previously described. Not only did ALI alumni
report lack of support to engage their schools in practices that diminish disproportionality and
inequity, they further reported feeling that the GHSD perpetuated inequity in their schools
through the following systems:
• Disproportionate representation in advanced placement courses;
• Disproportional suspension rates for Black and Hispanic males;
• Promotion in doubt lists are mostly Hispanic students;
• Unconscious bias in disciplinary referrals and hiring practices;
• Family engagement expectations are different based on the schools’ geographic
location; and
• Inequity in the way schools distribute awards for students’ academic
accomplishments.
When asked “Where do you go for examples or models of school leadership that address
equity in classrooms,” Chris stated, “I don’t think there are a lot . . . I think within the GHSD I
don’t know a lot of people I can point to and say are really moving these conversations to truly
address it.” Karen agreed with the assertion that there are minimal role models:
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My biggest example comes from my old school . . . that was my best model. I was there
for over 10 years. Other than that I do look, I go to conferences . . . . I completed a
micro-credentialing course online through Teaching Matters on cultural proficiency.
Likewise, Jenny offered, “Maybe museums and reading books . . . . I don’t think they [GHSD]
do anything at all to provide models.” Through the survey question, “I continue to seek new
ways to address racial inequities in my school,” 93% of respondents agreed they did so, however
when further asked in what ways they do this, written responses varied in actions other than
reading books or engaging with their Critical Leadership Triad, of which only a small portion of
the GHSD schools participate. During the interview, Tim stated that it was a challenge to
identify supports and opportunities to find new ways to address these inequities. He noted the
following:
I don’t think schools do this very well . . . . I think schools reflect society. I don’t think
society does very well. I think there’s one of two things that I see schools typically
doing. Ignoring it or just maintain it. We are a segregated school system and a
segregated society. So schools just reflect society.
Figure 11 illustrates alumni responses.
When considering resources by way of support or technical innovations that will diminish
disproportionality in schools, Stovall (2013) contends that the hope of racial equity being
realized in schools requires material resources that benefit those specifically engaged with
struggle. Based on the testimonies of the alumni through survey and interviews, the sense of
hope is present, however the reality of resources and support are minimal. Furthermore, alumni
were able to identify specific organizational barriers within the GHSD that contradict the call to
utilize their vast knowledge of engaging communities in culturally proficient practices and
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reducing disproportionality. Discussion during interviews resonated with the sense from alumni
that charging school leaders to attend implicit bias trainings and explore the principle of White
privilege does little to develop racially responsive leadership with the appropriate organizational
supports in place.

Figure 11. Alumni seeking new ways to address racial inequity in schools

ALI alumni readiness and ALI program curriculum. The final theme and likely the
most significant is alumni’s espoused knowledge base around cultural proficiency, courageous
conversations, and critical race theory and where or how they acquired such knowledge.
Horsford (2014) stated that aspiring leader program participants must develop racial literacy in
addition to learning strategies that deepen their own racial consciousness; having conversations
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about race is one way to achieve this goal. In the ALI program, curriculum from 2008 through
2015 solely developed participants’ cultural awareness by introducing the principles of cultural
proficiency and exploring White privilege through readings and simulated exercises. Post 2015,
the ALI program curriculum continued to teach principles of cultural proficiency and deepened
the content of establishing participants’ racial literacy and White privilege by introducing and
studying the tenets of critical race theory. This section will explore the relationship between ALI
alumni espoused knowledge and ways in which they acquired this knowledge using data from
this study.
Alumni report not learning about critical race theory or how to have courageous
conversations while in the ALI program. An expectation of the LDO divisional goal of
preparing leaders to identify and address racial inequities in their schools is grounded in the
assumption that leaders will have a working knowledge and toolbox to do so. ALI has
historically addressed content to support racially responsive leaders by teaching the principles
and practices of the culturally proficiency continuum, and then later introducing strategies to
have conversations about race and the tenets of critical race theory. While 80% of ALI alumni
surveyed reported that they felt more prepared to initiate conversations about race upon
graduating from ALI, 39% (35/89) of alumni stated that did not learn about critical race theory
while in ALI (see Figure 9) and 39% (33/84) of alumni surveyed stated they did not learn about
how to use the courageous conversations about race protocol while in ALI, as demonstrated by
Figure 6. However, 80% (74/92) of survey respondents felt prepared to engage in conversations
about race and racial equity with school staff as a result of what they learned in ALI (see
Figure 7).
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Experiences that provide aspiring leaders opportunities to explore their racial
consciousness and racial identity and apply those to engage in conversations about race are
critical forms of knowledge required to address the racially diverse needs in schools (Horsford,
2014). Conversely, during an interview Mary stated the following when responding to the
question, “In what ways did you learn about cultural proficiency or critical race theory while in
the ALI program”:
We spent four weeks on cultural proficiencies. We talked about race. We were
challenged to push our thinking about race. We were challenged to look at how our
expectations for the level we wanted students to be on. Those weeks were like an
opening for me because you are not aware of how much race plays in education until it’s
unpacked for you
Tim also recalled, “They [ALI] really put you on the spot and challenge your beliefs. In ALI, I
think first you self-assess, really, to try and figure out where you are on that [culturally
proficiency] continuum, and then build a lot of stamina.” Joe agreed with Tim’s sentiment:
We learned to take stock in our personal identities and thinking about how that influences
your actions maybe first and foremost and addressing your own biases . . . . It was both
internal thinking about how it has impacted our lives and could influence our decision
making.
Critics of leadership development programs assert that participants are not provided the
knowledge or learning experiences required to become racially responsive school leaders
(Gooden & Dantley, 2012; Martinez, 2015). This disparity in reported learning experiences
through both survey response and interviews would suggest a deficiency in the expectations of
learning for ALI participants and the outcomes of learning for ALI graduates.
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Research Question 1 Findings Synthesis
This study revealed that ALI alumni had inconsistent learning experiences throughout the
Aspiring Leaders Institute resulting in disproportionate knowledge and skills acquisition in
relation to addressing racial inequity in their school communities. While alumni
overwhelmingly stated they felt responsible to address race and equity in both classrooms and
schools, alumni struggled with executing strategies and practices to successfully do so.
Recognizing racial inequity and feeling prepared to initiate conversations about race did not
transfer into all alumni articulating how they do so in their schools. More so, alumni repeated
organizational barriers that hindered them from fully addressing racial inequities and challenges
to engaging their staff in this work beyond reading texts or scholarly articles. Additionally,
alumni consistently referred to the Critical Leaders Triad as an isolated resource to learn how to
identify and address racial inequities in their schools, although unable to identify other
organizational resources that support them fully implementing anti-racist, culturally proficient
practices among their school communities. Considering the vast size of the GHSD and the
historically geographic segregation amongst schools across the sub-districts, the challenge to
effectively address racial inequities is understandable, as bandwidth to support over 500 schools
does not presently exist in the District. Such fragmentation in experiences and supports suggest
a problematic result considering the student population of the GHSD is majority of students of
color that are succeeding at far reduced rates than their White counterparts.
With the Great Harbor School District mandating all leaders to ensure equity and access
for all students, alumni imagined a myriad of supports would follow for effective implementation
and practice of this mandate. While alumni reported that they seek new ways to address racial
inequity in their schools, many failed to identify how they did so beyond reading new texts and
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attending an implicit bias training without other staff members. Additionally, alumni were
unable to ascertain peers or mentors they know that effectively engage in diminishing racial
inequity in their schools or even where to begin to observe models of this practice other than a
brief mention of a school district in Portland, Oregon. Survey and interview responses lacked
suggestions as to when, where, or how the GHSD may be able to support school based practices
aside from criticizing the implicit bias trainings attended with frustration that the system is not
moving beyond a conversation. The absence of recommendations for organizational
improvements suggests a lack of motivation from alumni to begin or engage in work required to
diminish racial inequity in their schools. By creating a general mandate to address issues of race
and equity in all schools, yet failing to consider the appropriate support all schools would need to
effectively attend to this mandate, the Great Harbor School District failed to provide structures
and systems conducive to school leaders meeting this goal.
Research Question 2
The second research question in this study explored recommendations for the GHSD and
the Leadership Development Office in reference to organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources. All knowledge influences and one of the
motivational influences were validated by the data in the findings of research question 1,
specifically gaps in knowledge acquisition and application as well as a lack of motivation in the
belief they [alumni] have the ability to address issues of race and equity in their schools. Two of
the organizational influences were validated while two others were not supported by the data.
The organizational findings were aligned to the GHSD failing to provide model school leaders
and communities that are fully engaged in the work of addressing issues of race and equity in
their schools, and the assumed influence that the GHSD has not provided adequate resources in
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terms of experts, time, and professional learning for school leaders to meet this goal. In an effort
to address the organizational goal from both the GHSD and sub-division of the LDO, the Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework provided significant guidance when isolating
organizational influences to analyze the results of the goal. The following section categorizes
the findings specifically related to the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to this study.
Knowledge influences on addressing issues of race and equity. As previously
discussed in the findings of research question 1, ALI alumni reported possessing the required
declarative knowledge to address issues of race and equity in their schools along with mixed
response to having procedural knowledge, albeit not always acquired through the ALI program.
One additional knowledge influence was also validated through the data. While alumni
understood the declarative and procedural knowledge required to address issues of race and
equity in their schools, they were also able to acknowledge how their own racial identities
influenced their perceptions of race and equity issues in their schools. This final knowledge
influence will be discussed in the following section.
Understanding how racial identities influence perceptions of race and equity in school
communities. Boske (2015) stated that aspiring leaders required learning opportunities that
helped them explore and unpack their racial identities to become more racially responsive
leaders. Alumni survey and interview responses support the previous research assertion that
when school leaders are able to identify the ways in which they believe their racial identities
influence how they see issues of race and equity in their schools, they are better positioned to
address those issues through their leadership (Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997). When asked
how their racial identity influences their leadership approach, 100% (10/10) of interview
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respondents stated the awareness of their racial identity drives them to have high expectations for
students. Mary reported, “It allows me to connect to a lot of the work . . . having an awareness
or a level of expectations for myself and my students . . . . I use it to drive everything.” Another
alumni, Mark, stated, “Just being mindful of the history of this neighborhood . . . ensuring I
check my bias and am aware of my blind spots . . . it’s just making sure we are providing
equitable experiences for all the kids.” A third alumni, Tim, responded with the following:
As a White male that definitely influences hiring practices and expectations . . . because
we have such a diverse student population, I felt like it was really important to try to have
as many people on staff that represent those cultures and backgrounds because mine
doesn’t represent any of my students’ at all.
Seventy-two percent of survey respondents agreed that they knew how to align practices with the
cultural proficiency continuum in their schools, as illustrated in Figure 12. By understanding
how to apply the cultural proficiency continuum, alumni must first be able to analyze the
continuum and identify their own level of cultural proficiency and racial identity. Levels of
cultural proficiency are as follows: culturally destructive, cultural blindness, cultural
incompetence, cultural pre-competence, and cultural competence (Love, 2008). When asked to
describe a learning experience in ALI that assisted in understanding of race and equity, Sally
responded:
My experience allowed me to be more reflective of my own cultural proficiency and
identity. I feel like our work just began to prepare me to lead conversations about racial
inequity and would have benefited from more conversations, role playing, and practice
with protocols.
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Similarly, Karen replied, “The process allowed exploration, self-reflection and opportunities to
unpack biases and personal thoughts and beliefs. The experience was impacting and has been
used as a basis for my work as an educator,” followed by Joe echoing similar experiences:
ALI forced us to challenge our beliefs and face our implicit bias. We confronted the
uncomfortable reality of inequity in our schools and the role we play. We identified
where we were on the cultural proficiency continuum and were provided supports in
order to raise our proficiency level with the goal of implementing equitable practice at
our schools.

Figure 12. Alumni understanding of cultural proficiency continuum application

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As demonstrated in these testimonials, survey responses, and anecdotal reports, ALI
alumni understand the influence of racial identity on their leadership stance and decisions,
thereby validating the assumed knowledge influence that their own racial identities inform how
they perceive issues of race and equity in schools.
Motivational influences on addressing issues of race and equity. At the beginning of
this study, there were two assumed motivational influences. The first motivational influence
details the ALI alumni need to see value in addressing issues of racial equity, inequity,
systematic inequity and systematic racism in order to fully engage in using the strategies to
address these issues in their communities. The findings revealed mixed response from both
surveyed and interviewed alumni in seeing value in using strategies to address issues of racial
inequity. The second motivational influence explains that alumni need to realize that changing
the culture of a school community lies within their ability and responsibility. The research data
revealed that alumni do realize that addressing and diminishing issues of race and equity is their
responsibility, however there was limited data that revealed they associated this responsibility to
cultural change. Both influences are discussed in the following sections.
Alumni see value in using the strategies to address issues of racial inequity. Eighty
percent of interviewed (8/10) alumni reported various ways of how they utilize knowledge and
skills learned in the program to address issues of race and equity in their current schools. The
remaining 20% (2/10) cited a lack of readiness by their school communities or lack of positional
power to use learned strategies to address inequity in their schools, which is further discussed in
organizational influences. Alumni that did discuss using strategies to address issues of racial
inequity have similar comments. John stated, “We speak about post traumatic slave disorder and
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talk to my White staff about how they see themselves in that whole dynamic . . . . I did a couple
of PDs two years ago.” Tim replied:
Two years ago we started the S.E.E.D. team, seeking educational equity and diversity.
We look at curriculum with intentionality, what are we doing around CRP? What are our
goals? How do we know if we are meeting these goals? So we decided to have some
outside PD and set some internal expectations around work we do with CRP and our
curriculum, and our interactions with students and our physical space.
To further demonstrate validation of the motivational influence, believing in the value of using
acquired strategies to address issue of race and equity, interviewed alumni discussed their
experiences if any with talking about race with family or peer groups. In response to the
question “What is your experience with talking about race and equity with friends, family or
peers?” Joe affirmed: “Quite a bit. I have a Black friend that is an engineer and he and I talk
about race pretty frequently . . . how we have different experiences based solely on the color of
our skin.” Mary responded:
I am very candid about it . . . . A lot of times people believe that in order for us to have a
conversation . . . we have to start with the negative portions of it . . . we need to
understand more how to be then focusing children on how not to be.
Chris responded that he used the following strategies: “Just musings from the courageous
conversations framework to begin forming a way for us as staff to start thinking about these
conversations . . . . We’ve done curriculum audits and we use the compass with kids in
advisory.” Tim also reinforced the use of conducting curriculum audits, a strategy learned in
ALI, to address issues of race and equity. Tim also included culturally responsive pedagogy as a
strategy used. Overall, few interviewed alumni were able to articulate specific strategies used to
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address racial inequities. They struggled to identify those learned during or after ALI. Isolating
strategies they were actively employing to address issues of racial inequity in their schools
centered around having conversations. This finding suggested while they understood how to
identify these issues in and out of the classroom (see Figure 13 and Figure 14), they were not
demonstrating value in using acquired strategies to address such issues.

Figure 13. Alumni able to recognize equity in classrooms

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Figure 14. Alumni able to recognize inequity in classrooms

Alumni realize that changing the culture of a school community is their responsibility.
The findings of this research study illustrated that 100% of ALI alumni understand that they are
responsible for diminishing racial inequities in their schools (see Figure 6). Interview data
revealed that since they were able to discuss the conversations they are having with staff, they
have the ability to identify issues as well as have conversations with their colleagues and other
school leaders. However, there is minimal data from both interviews and surveys that can
demonstrate alumni are making cultural changes towards diminishing issues of race and equity in
their schools. Ninety-three percent (86/92) of surveyed alumni attested to seeking new ways to
address racial inequity in their schools (see Figure 13), yet 100% of interviewed alumni failed to
identify how they sought new ways other than those participating in the Critical Leaders Triads.
Additionally, when asked, “To what extent do you feel like you have learning opportunities to
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develop skills needed to confront racial inequity in your school community?”, alumni responded
with the following: Tim uttered, “To no extent,” and Chris pondered, “I think I’ve had more than
many. When I talk to other leaders and I’ve mentioned that it’s like, ‘Oh that would’ve been
nice because we got nothing.’” Jenny and Mary similarly replied, “Life experience and ALI, I
have to put it all on the ALI program.” Finally, Joan affirmed, “This program I lead, the Critical
Leaders Triad. It’s really the only one that’s been doing this. But now we have the Office of
Equity that is doing some trainings.”
4

The lack of supports or further learning opportunities expressed by the alumni was
consistent with the research that purports leaders and aspiring leaders are not being provided
with the most effective and targeted learning opportunities to diminish racial inequity in their
schools (Khalifa et al., 2013). Howard and Navarro (2016) further this conclusion by stating
there are institutional practices complicit in perpetuating unfavorable learning conditions for
students of color, that not only includes the lack of inclusivity and curriculum and access
incongruence, but also how leaders are developed and trained for these communities. The
alumni’s interview responses suggest that due to the lack of opportunities to develop additional
skills enabling them to diminish racial inequity, they are limited in their ability to shift the
culture of their school communities. This outcome is further discussed in the organizational
influences.
Organizational influences on addressing issues of race and equity. This study
examined four assumed organizational influences which school leaders experience, hindering
them from addressing issues of race and equity in their schools. Two of the influences

4
The Office of Equity has trained approximately 700 Great Harbor School District Central staff and leaders
to date. The Great Harbor School District employs over 80,000 individuals.
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investigated were cultural models, and two influences were classified as cultural settings. The
first cultural model influence assumed that ALI alumni experienced resistance to change from
the greater GHSD, which became an organizational barrier to achieving the larger organizational
goal. The second cultural model influence held that ALI alumni were settled into a conflict
avoidant organization in that the GHSD needed to share an equity minded frame of leadership
across the organization for schools to see this as a catalyst to engage in the work. The initial
cultural setting influence suggests that ALI alumni and GHSD experience a lack of resources and
supports by way of professional learning and application opportunities. The second cultural
setting influence assumed that GHSD leaders lacked role models that were demonstrating the
ability to successfully identify and overcome issues of race and equity in their schools. Each of
these influences will be discussed in this section as they were all validated by the findings in this
research study.
ALI alumni experienced resistance to change from the Great Harbor School District.
By revisiting the findings of the first research question, alumni reported a variety of ways in
which they had identified instances of racial inequity upon graduating from ALI. However, there
were limited responses by both surveyed and interviewed alumni in terms of how they addressed
or overcame such instances. Furthermore, some interviewed alumni asserted that more has not
been done for students of color in the GHSD because the organization is resistant to changes that
would diminish racial inequity. For instance, during the interview Tim stated:
I think some people are inclined not to do the work because they don’t believe the work,
and no one is pushing. People are not willing to be vulnerable and you are asking them
to desegregate a system with over 300,000 students.
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This opinion was echoed by another alumni, Chris: “There’s a lot of questions that come up in
these dialogues for school leaders that the GHSD has not either decided to answer or seems to
not care to answer.” Finally, John provided a specific example of resistance:
Our [Magnet School]
5
programs are highly selective. The enrollment for these programs
is dependent upon minimal factors that appear to historically exclude students of color.
This has never been challenged to the point of changing the criteria.
Interviewed alumni revealed another example of resistance to change as they described
their comfort and willingness to engage in conversations about race in their current roles. Thirty
percent of alumni reported not feeling comfortable discussing race as an assistant principal,
central administrator, and teacher due to the culture of their school community or team. Sally
revealed, “I think there isn’t a platform for it. I haven’t made it a priority to engage teachers in
that conversation or administrative team.” Interviewed alumni overwhelmingly suggested that
the GHSD is also neglectful as an organization in addressing issues of race and equity. For
example, Joan, who leads the Critical Leaders Triad, stated, “I know what we are doing here . . .
I would say across the whole system that is happening. It seems like there are a lot of
unknowns.” Another alumni shared a similar sentiment: “There are conversations . . . people are
really uncomfortable with the conversations so while it’s being talked about more and more,
people don’t even know how to define the terms race and equity properly.” During the end of
the interview, Chris did acknowledge the organizational efforts of the GHSD: “I think the GHSD
has done a good job of forcing people to talk about it . . . but I don’t know if will actually
produce the results people think it’s going to produce.” These responses aligned with previous

5
Magnet School Programs is a pseudonym. Naming the specific program would reveal the subject of the
research study.
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research that asserted organizations often remain color-blind instead of attempting such a
massive undertaking as dismantling institutional racism. Choi (2008) referred to such
organizations that perpetuate color-blind practices and disproportionate outcomes that ignore the
authority, culture, power, and position that is associated with educators and school leadership.
ALI alumni experience conflict avoidance from the Great Harbor School District.
Historically, the Great Harbor School District has not acknowledged issues of race and inequity
across the more than 500 schools. Words such as diverse, diversity, inclusive, culturally
responsive, and multicultural were used to describe initiatives intended to catapult education
reform on school communities. In April of 2018, the new head of schools began describing the
GHSD as segregated and biased towards White and Asian students. These two words have been
received with mixed regard by parents, teachers, students, and school leaders. ALI alumni have
described the time prior to April 2018 and somewhat now as avoidant of addressing the real
challenges that are needed to overcome issues of racial inequity in GHSD. When asked to list
three instances in which they have identified racial inequity in their school or community, the
following responses were reoccurring themes in alumni short responses:
• Race is not a conversation in the school community;
• Staff being biased towards an individual based on their race;
• 50.9% graduation rate for students of color;
• Pre-Black and judgment of an individual due to their race;
• Black and brown boys cutting walking in hall and actions not being addressed;
• All White people in paid leadership and administrative positions;
• Black history month is either a show, dance, singing or acting of some historical
moment yet no intellectual conversations with political figures or scholars;
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• Black boys and girls disciplined more harshly;
• Disproportionate opportunities in AP classes for BIPOC;
• Inequity in scheduling for students in rigorous courses;
• Unconscious bias in disciplinary referrals, racial achievement gaps, and hiring
practices.
While these findings are summarized from anecdotal responses, it is still significant
because it aligns to the research of Brown (2006) whereby the public school system has
historically ignored the disproportionate outcomes of students of color. This assertion is
emphasized only by the instance of interest convergence, when an equalizing initiative or reform
may be introduced on behalf of people of color that accordingly benefits the liberal White-centric
system (Ladson-Billings, 1998). In the GHSD, this interest convergence may appear as
mandating all school leaders address issues of race and equity, yet seemingly failing to provide
adequate structures to support district wide implementation.
ALI alumni were not provided with adequate professional learning or organizational
supports to effectively address issues of race and equity in schools. The third assumed
organization influence that addresses the cultural setting of the Great Harbor School District is
that the GHSD must dedicate the time and funding to provide professional learning experiences
and training to school leaders in recognizing the racial inequities in student learning. Eighty
percent of interviewed alumni (8/10) reported that they were not provided with any sort of
professional learning experiences or dedicated training to address issues of race and equity in
their schools. Gooden (2012) associated this failure to address race in compounded forms and
train leaders in doing so further disservices students of color and neglects to confront the role of
race in education.
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Derman-Sparks and Phillips (1997) reinforced that in the absence of training that assists
school leaders in dismantling racism in schools, they, the school leaders and system, will end up
doing more harm to students and communities than good. When asked, “In what ways do you
think the GHSD has addressed racial inequity in school communities?”, Chris and Tim both
responded, “The GHSD has done a good job of forcing everybody to talk about it.” Karen
asserted that, “We’re [GHSD] not thoughtful enough about the way we’re doing it and I think in
that kind of environment . . . is it for political points or is this actually a belief that this needs to
change.” ALI alumni appear to have an adequate amount of knowledge and willingness to
address issues of race and equity, as demonstrated in Figures 5 through 14. However, the
recurring theme is that GHSD leaders and ALI alumni have been handed an order without the
appropriate tools to ensure effective execution.
ALI alumni lacked efficient role models to demonstrate application of strategies that
identify and diminish issues in schools. While 100% of interviewed alumni attested that a
common resource of observing or connecting with efficient role models were not available to
demonstrate application, a few did cite the Critical Leaders Triad and advanced leadership
program for assistant principals, both as resources to hear from others that are also grappling
with diminishing issues of race and equity in their schools. When asked the question, “Where
would you tell school leaders to go if they needed to observe role models that are doing this work
in schools?”, Tim responded, “I observe people that think they are, how about that? No I don’t
have a role model who I think really is. That is because our system mimics our world.” Chris
similarly articulated, “I just don’t hear a lot from others. Sure our superintendents talk . . . . I
often feel like I am the only one having these conversations.” Twenty percent (2/10) of
interviewed alumni voiced an advanced development program for assistant principals as a
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resource, only to disclose the facilitators as models due to the stories they tell of when they were
principals in their former schools. Similarly, Joe stated, “Some of the facilitators for the race and
equity work that have been done here in the office are good models. I think they demonstrate
quite well how to think about doing this work.” Referring to Rueda (2011), leaders must have
opportunities within a cultural setting to observe a desired behavior. These opportunities that are
modeled in the cultural setting, here a school community, should provide other school leaders
with observable, actionable, replicated moments that can apply to their own practice; only then
are they able to address gaps in their schools. These alumni spoke of mentors, former principals,
and colleagues; however none were able to isolate an observable resource to help them diminish
issues of race and equity in their schools.
A secondary theme that occurred from the interviewed alumni about the presence of role
models for them was the sense that more work needed to be done on the systemic level before
school leaders would be prepared or enabled to become role models for others. Tim specified,
“At least they [head of schools] are putting it out there. They are trying to frame this problem
that society needs to address. I guess that’s more than anyone else here has done.” This
sentiment was further echoed by Mary when she stated, “We’ve come a long way . . . . I think
they [other school leaders] are just waiting for that one person to say, ‘this is what I am doing’
and everyone else can roll along with it.” Tim also declared:
The work has to be done. I’m not waiting for someone to support me in it because it’s a
sense of urgency . . . it’s a stand that has to happen and I’m a firm believer in it only takes
one to stand and others will follow.
Finally, this emotion was summarized by Chris: “The injustice is people say they know what the
answers are but they really don’t. I hope that my children can do better.”
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Research Question 2 Finding Synthesis
Similar to the findings of research question 1, the interview data confirmed that the
GHSD lacks efficient role models for school leaders to access when attempting to meet the
organizational goal of identifying and diminishing issues of racial inequity in schools. Where
schools became most challenged, according to the findings, was when they needed to see how
others were implementing strategies and skills that successfully addressed the issue of racial
inequity in school communities. Principals, assistant principals, teachers, and central
administrators found themselves working within the Great Harbor School District with an
adequate amount of knowledge, however they were unable to apply or implement said
knowledge and skills in a manner that benefits students of color and addresses the organizational
gap in achievement. The emphasis on the GSHD providing knowledge based trainings and
initiating conversations with school leaders superseded the needs of school leaders to learn how
to apply the knowledge alongside role models throughout the system. Furthermore, many
alumni, both interviewed and surveyed, intimated that the GHSD was stuck on asking people to
have conversations about race, however neglected other approaches to bring staff on board and
begin to identify issues of racial inequity. In order for school leaders to overcome this sense of
neglect, avoidance, and limitations, the GHSD needs to provide real time models of school
leadership successfully engaged in the work of diminishing racial inequity in their school
communities.
Summary
The findings for the analysis of alumni survey results and individual interviews revealed
that school leaders are not prepared to practice the acquired knowledge and skills in order to
adequately identify and diminish racial inequities in their schools. Therefore, they have not been
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sufficiently trained to meet this organizational goal. This study revealed that alumni felt
responsible and had the knowledge to identify issues of race and equity, but were obstructed
from acting on this due to GHSD organizational barriers. Two reasons transpired in the study as
to why alumni were unable to address racial inequity in their school communities. First, alumni
felt knowledgeable about addressing school culture but did not feel prepared to address specific
issues of race and equity, although many revealed they were comfortable with discussing race in
their roles. Alumni overwhelmingly asserted they felt responsible for identifying and
diminishing issues of racial inequity in their schools. Survey responses identified these issue of
racial inequity, however alumni provided limited response about ways in which they address
these issues other than reading books or articles on race. Second, alumni revealed a lack of
support and resources as a barrier to addressing issues of race and equity in their schools. While
ALI alumni were provided with opportunities to attend training about having courageous
conversations and implicit bias, they shared the opinion that the GHSD not only failed to provide
examples of application to strategies and protocols shared, they had minimal belief that the
organization was equipped to successfully do so.
Diminishing racial inequity and addressing disproportionality are critical duties for
school leaders in the GHSD, yet only recently mandated for all leaders. Alumni have received
this mandate and hold the declarative and some procedural knowledge to begin identifying issues
in their schools. However, alumni do not feel supported or that the GHSD shares their same
sense of urgency as they wait for models of practice and supports to initiate change in their
communities. Due to a lack of organized structures for systemic support to identify and address
issues of race and equity, alumni and GSHD school leaders are left to determine the best
approach to diminishing these issues or left to do nothing about these issues. Neglecting to
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acknowledge that leaders require more concentrated supports results in the increase of
disproportionality for students of color as well as a heightened manifestation of racial inequity in
schools. These issues will be discussed in Chapter 5 with recommendations to overcome the
organizational barriers previously discussed in order to best support aspiring leaders
development in being prepared to successfully manage the diverse racial equity needs in their
schools.
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In Chapter 4, the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were
discussed and partially validated through quantitative and qualitative data analysis further
organized by these assumed challenges. Chapter 5 will review the significance of these findings
with regard to scholarly principles and recommendations that address the gap analysis and
provide suggestions for improvement. Similar to Chapter 4, the recommendations are structured
by the validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational assumed influences. Research
based, context-specific recommendations are provided to support the probability of successful
implementation. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) will be
used to implement the recommendations and evaluate the impact. The model’s four levels will
be utilized in the following order: results, behavior, learning, reaction.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Rueda (2011) contends factual and procedural knowledge, both
declarative in nature, are prerequisites to further synthesis and application to current practice.
Similar to Bloom’s Taxonomy of knowledge and acquisition, Krathwohl (2002) also captures
ways of knowing and learning through four types of knowledge that classify, assess the needs of
learning, knowledge acquisition, and application of individuals and organizations. The assumed
influences, represented in Table 6, include procedural knowledge about how to engage in
conversations about race placed as a high priority with a high probability of being validated.
Factual knowledge includes the theoretical nature and application of both critical race theory and
social justice theory; again, highly prioritized with a high probability of being validated. Finally,
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the last assumed knowledge influence is metacognitive in nature in that alumni must be able to
understand and identify ways in which their racial identities influence their perceptions of race
and equity in their school communities. This following discussion around knowledge influences
and recommendations will follow Krathwohl’s (2002) framework related to ways of knowing
and learning. These organizational influences were validated as a high priority for achieving the
stakeholders’ goal. Table 6 also shows the recommendations for these highly probable
influences based on theoretical principles.

Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence:
Cause, Need, or
Asset*
Validated,
Not
Validated
or Partially
Validated Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Alumni need to
know how to
engage staff in
race based
conversations.
(P)
Validated Information Processing Theory:
Information learned meaningfully and
connected with prior knowledge is
stored more quickly and remembered
more accurately because it is
elaborated with prior learning
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
To develop mastery, individuals must
acquire component skills, practice
integrating them, and know when to
apply what they have learned (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).
Targeting training and instruction
between the individual’s independent
performance level and their level of
assisted performance promotes
optimal learning (Scott & Palincsar,
2006).
Provide “Beyond
Diversity” training during
the first week of summer
intensive, specifically
training/demonstrating
program participants on
protocols and glossaries
on how to engage in race
based conversations.
Provide alumni
opportunities to practice
how to have conversations
and to receive feedback
from peers and ALI
Faculty members.
Provide guidance and
coaching while connecting
the new learning to
previous experiences.

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Table 6, continued
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated,
Not
Validated
or Partially
Validated Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Alumni need to
know principles of
critical race theory
(CRT) and social
justice theory and
how these theories
can inform their
practice. (D)
Partially
Validated
Continued practice promotes
automaticity and takes less
capacity in working memory
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Increasing germane cognitive
load by engaging the learner in
meaningful learning and
schema construction facilitates
effective learning (Kirschner,
Sweller, & Clark, 2006).
Introduce both theories
during summer intensive
and integrate application of
theories during school year
residency in weekly evening
sessions and project based
learning tasks. Directly
teach theories; provide
concrete examples and case
studies (Aguinis & Kraiger,
2009).
Provide adequate guidance
via scaffolding and
modeling (Kirschner et al.,
2006).
Alumni will need to
understand how
their racial
identities influence
their perceptions of
race and equity in
their school
communities. (M)
Partially
Validated
The use of metacognition
strategies facilitate learning
(Fink, 2013).
Learning tasks that are similar
to those that are common to the
individual’s familiar cultural
settings will promote learning
and transfer (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001).
Targeting training and
instruction between the
individual’s independent
performance level and their
level of assisted performance
promotes optimal learning
(Scott & Palincsar, 2006).
Introduce a Job-Aid —
completing a racial
autobiography; Job Aid —
checklist of Critical Race
Theory tenets and how to
identify bias and stereotype
in school community.
Alumni will complete racial
autobiographies and practice
using checklist in their
schools followed by
reflective exercises in
weekly evening classes.
* (D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive.

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Procedural knowledge solutions. Aspiring Leaders Institute graduates needed to know
how to engage staff in race based conversations. In the absence of procedural knowledge on
how to engage in such conversations, issues of race and equity that adversely impact student
learning are neglected and overlooked. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) stated that through
information processing theory, connecting new information with prior knowledge will lead to
more meaningful learning that is remembered and stored more quickly due to the elaboration
with prior learning experiences and foundational knowledge. Procedural knowledge therefore,
such as knowing how to engage in race based conversations, is specific to a refined skill set,
required to fill the gap of missing knowledge required to address race based issues in schools. In
order for this new knowledge and skill set to be effectively utilized, alumni and aspiring leaders
must be provided guidance and coaching while connecting the new learning to previous
experiences (Mayer, 2011). Furthermore, Schraw and McCrudden (2006) conveyed that learners
must have time to practice and apply new skills, while following various models of application in
order to develop mastery and integration. Utilizing various models would suggest that teaching
ALI program participants a protocol to engage in race based conversations and providing them
reflective experiences while receiving on-going feedback will allow them to remember and use
the protocol more efficiently. Through these structured learning experiences, ALI is able to
utilize social interactions within the in-school residency to inform the construction of new
knowledge developed from such interactions (Scott & Palincsar, 2006). Furthermore, the
researchers found that providing learners feedback and guidance throughout their instructional
and independent phases of performance optimizes their mastery as well as the learning
environment.
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Brown (2006) and Davis et al. (2015) agree that aspiring school leaders require pre-
service experiences that cultivate their abilities to engage in racial equity discourse. Gooden and
O’Doherty (2015) argued that pre-service school leaders require a specific mindset to address
issues of inequity across school communities, one which they found absent from their research of
both leadership standards and traditional educational leadership programs. Experiences such as
learning a specific protocol with a scaffolding script when learning how to have a race based
conversation can account for the reported absence of specific race and equity related language in
standards and breeds the absence of race and equity related content in pre-service programs
(Brown, 2006). Clark and Estes (2008) reinforce that by providing learners with the procedural
knowledge and “how to” of application, learners will have greater opportunities to master the
skills through practice and feedback cycles. Therefore aspiring leaders need to be equipped with
the procedural knowledge and skills that enable to them to engage in racial discourse. One way
in which school leaders can begin to address issues of systematic and racial inequity while also
bridging the gap in the absence of using race based language in leadership practice is by
initiating conversations and discourse around these topics. Singleton (2015) has created a
procedure or strategy through the use of protocol for courageous conversations.
Declarative knowledge solutions. Aspiring Leaders Institute graduates needed to know
the principles of critical race theory and social justice theory and how to apply such theories to
their leadership practice. According to Schraw and McCrudden (2006), individuals must be
allowed to practice, develop mastery, and practice integrating new knowledge by applying what
they’ve learned in order to promote automaticity. In order for ALI alumni to gain the declarative
knowledge of understanding and applying both social justice theory and critical race theory, the
ALI program faculty should introduce both theories and integrate the application of theories
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during the school year through program experiences, simulations, assignments and reflective
exercises. Additionally, curriculum will provide concrete examples and case studies and
adequate guidance via scaffolding and modeling as aspiring leaders are constructing new
knowledge and moving into the application stage (Kirschner et al., 2006).
Through multiple entry points and providing both school based and isolated opportunities
to apply the theories, alumni are better positioned to utilize the knowledge of both critical race
theory and social justice theory in their day-to-day leadership practices; thereby engaging in
frequent practice to apply the new learning (Mayer, 2011). Learning and applying the
foundational knowledge of both critical race theory and social justice theory are imperative due
to the varied racial experiences that aspiring leaders will bring to the position of school principal.
Aligning the principle of information processing theory to the required knowledge of aspiring
leaders, leadership development programs such as ALI must consider how to design and execute
learning experiences. According to information processing theory, Schraw and McCrudden
(2006) explained new information must be chunked in order to fit into working memory,
encoded or synthesized and then transferred to long term memory, where application can be
activated. These particular learning experiences reinforce the need to assist aspiring leaders in
creating an evolved foundational knowledge base for addressing issues of equity that are
grounded in their current knowledge and experiences within their school communities (Gooden
& O’Doherty, 2015).
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. ALI alumni needed to understand how their racial
identities influence their perceptions of race and equity in their school communities. Individuals
who know how they learn, the ways in which they think and an awareness over which thinking
strategies to deploy at particular times are known to employ metacognition (Mayer, 2011).
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Additionally, metacognition requires an individual to apply and shift cognitive strategies as
needed to make sense of new knowledge and experiences and transferring them to the vast
storage of long-term memory (Mayer, 2011). Learning tasks that are similar to those of the
aspiring leader and leveraging individual cultural experiences are known to expedite the learning
and transfer of new knowledge (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Therefore, enabling alumni to
engage in exercises requiring metacognitive thinking through the use of completing a racial
autobiography or exploring their own socialized bias through familiar cultural experiences, they
are able to shift their own perspectives and thinking to meet the needs of the diverse school
community through equity based practices (Brown, 2006).
Practicing critical reflection and examining the ways in which individual experiences
with race and diversity influence leadership are two strategies which develop racially responsive
school leaders. Aspiring leaders must learn strategies of metacognition as they are related to
applying their own racial identities as they engage stakeholders to transform school
communities. Martinez (2015) believed that one way to establish the racial identities of school
leaders is by engaging them in exercises of reflection and self-exploration of their own racial
identities and privilege. By requiring aspiring leaders to complete racial autobiographies the
color mute practices are diminished and race is surfaced across the school community (Castagno,
2008). As principal preparation programs engage aspiring leaders in practices that address race
relations in schools, aspiring leaders begin to engage in new ways of thinking and being through
the lens of equity (Carpenter & Diem, 2013).
Motivational Influences
Introduction. Clark and Estes (2008) characterized motivation as the sum of people and
environment, professional or personal. There are three critical components of motivation: active
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choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Active choice pertains to choosing
to begin a task, goal or action beyond simply intending to do so. Persistence is the grit and
perseverance demonstrated when, despite environmental barriers or distractions, one continues to
engage with the task. Mental effort addresses the strategy and thoughtfulness one demonstrates
when completing the task; working smarter and not harder (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Mayer (2011) described motivation as internal momentum that can be captured through
observable effort and the drive a person commits to a goal or task through goal directed behavior
that activates the work, is personal, and energized through completion of a goal or task. Schraw
and Lehman (2001) described interest as presenting itself in two different forms in order for a
person to learn new information and skill development: situational interest and personal interest.
Personal interest would be the ideal interest type aspiring leaders take in learning how to address
issues of equity and race, due to the fact that personal interest further cultivates the way a person
will process new information and later connect it to past experience (Schraw & Lehman, 2001).
Through the ALI recruitment and selection process, LDO staff and faculty believe that
program participants are initially motivated to engage with this line of work due to the basic
desire of candidates to apply and endure the robust admissions process. This motivation and
readiness either evolve or remain stagnant once ALI alumni become school leaders. Therefore,
motivation is more than just expressing a desire in a subject or task as may have been
demonstrated in the program and diminished upon program completion or when alumni enter
into the school leadership role. Motivational attributes of active choice, mental effort, and
persistence may extinguish as alumni engage in the day-to-day work of school leadership. There
are two specific factors that influence alumni motivation to address issues of race and equity in
their schools: attributions and value. This section will present recommendations of how both
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expectancy value theory and attribution theory impacted the motivation of aspiring leaders to
address systemic and institutional racial inequity across their school communities. Table 7
shows the recommendations for these validated influences based on theoretical principles.

Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Validated,
Not
Validated,
Partially
Validated Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Alumni need to see
value in addressing
issues of racial inequity
and systemic racism in
order to fully engage in
using the strategies to
address these issues in
their communities. (EV)
Validated Rationales that include a
discussion of the
importance and utility
value of the work or
learning can help learners
develop positive values
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002;
Pintrich, 2003).
Learning and motivation
are enhanced if the learner
values the task (Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002)
Demonstrate value of
addressing issue through
direct teaching by use of
case studies, theoretical
application. Alumni will
also complete data dives in
their school communities
that show disparities in
learning for White students
and their non-White peers.
Alumni need to realize
that changing the culture
of a school community
lies within their ability
and responsibility. (A)
Validated Adaptive attributions and
control beliefs motivate
[individuals] (Pintrich,
2003).
Alumni will examine their
school cultures, traditions
through the use of a job aid
and “archeological dig”
exercise. Alumni will also
examine actions that impact
culture on a daily basis then
goal set ways in which they
can begin to change the
culture of the school through
learned strategies and
knowledge.

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Expectancy value theory solutions. Alumni needed to see value in addressing issues of
racial inequity and systemic racism in order to fully engage in using the strategies to address
these issues in their school communities. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) and Pintrich (2003)
describe the principle of expectancy value theory as one whereby a person knows the task or job
will hold some sort of intrinsic value prior to engaging in the task. Furthermore, factors that
influence whether or not one values a task largely depend on the impact it will have on their
personal or professional lives and if the task will help them meet stated or desired goals (Eccles
& Wigfield, 2002). Possible strategies used to address expectancy value include modeling
values, enthusiasm and interest in the task, and the materials and activities provided should be
relevant and useful to the learners, connected to their interests, and based on real-world tasks
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Pintrich, 2003).
Critical components of the expectancy value theory are the different ways in which
participants can find value in a task or goal (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Varying the ways in
which ALI participants and alumni learn how to identify racial inequity through the use of case
studies and analyzing school-based data will increase their expectancy value related to this
influence. As Eccles and Wigfield (2002) and Pintrich (2003) recommend, facilitating
conversations around the value tasks can bring will increase a learner’s intrinsic motivation to
complete the task. The recommendation is for the organization to provide direct teaching and
learning opportunities for discussions about how racial inequity diminishes school based
performance for students of color, role plays, and models whereby alumni and participants can
observe school leaders addressing racial inequity in their schools.
Components of expectancy value theory emerge through the goals set by the ALI faculty
in aiding aspiring leaders to find value in one of the following areas in order to further motivate
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them to use the strategies that will facilitate conversations around equity and race: intrinsic
value, attainment value, utility value and cost of completing the task or meeting the goal (Eccles
& Wigfield, 2002). According to Eccles and Wigfield (2002), expectancy value theory also
relates to one’s identity and his/her preferences and ways in which he/she socializes to develop
personal values. Connecting this back to aspiring leaders’ capacities to engage in the work of
confronting racial inequity, they must practice and utilize the tools provided through ALI. More
so, finding value in both the tools and in the conversations will increase aspiring leaders’
motivation to engage in the conversations (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The practice of intent
versus action is similar to recognizing inequitable and racist behavior. Derman-Sparks and
Phillips (1997) were very precise in their distinction of acts of racism: “racist behavior is
measured by its outcomes for people of color, rather than its intentions” (p. 22). Personal
identity, as it relates to expectancy value theory, and ways in which ALI alumni have or have not
experienced systemic or institutional inequity, presumes that theoretically, increasing the
expectancy value will aid in diminishing racial inequity in their school communities.
Attribution theory solutions. Alumni need to realize that changing the culture of a
school community lies within their ability and responsibility. Attribution theory is a
motivational theory that is applied to a person’s belief system(s), how people interpret their
environments, and possible causes of their life experiences (Culatta, 2013). The main premise of
attribution theory is that prior knowledge and environment deeply affect a person’s belief system
(Culatta, 2013). Furthermore, Pintrich (2003) surmised that encouraging learners to align their
beliefs and values to their experiences will provide greater meaning and overall success to the
required task. Therefore, providing alumni with ways in which to reflect on their racial
identities, teach the skills to gather data, and educate methods to analyze their school cultures in
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ways that build supportive and caring personal relationship in their schools, will increase their
sense of success when addressing racial inequity. The recommendation is for the organization to
provide alumni with modeling and job aids allowing them to examine their school cultures,
traditions, and actions that impact culture on a daily basis.
A school leader’s ability to communicate with various stakeholders, based on the shifting
attributions across space and time, is critical to gaining buy-in and building community (Culatta,
2013). When considering whether or not to engage in a task, attribution theory states that past
experience with the same or similar task will determine a person’s motivation to try it again.
Culatta (2013) further explained in attribution theory research, there are three specific domains
that characterize the attributions: controllability, locus, and stability. Attribution theory helps to
determine the motivations for aspiring leaders to choose whether or not to addresses issues of
equity and race in their schools. Martinez (2015) discussed this lack of motivation in the form of
resistance through opposition, distancing, and intense emotions. As a result of this lack of
motivation, demonstrated through resistance, aspiring leaders fail to acknowledge their own
actions and experiences that may contribute to school-based racial inequities (Martinez, 2015).
From a theoretical perspective, it would then appear that arming leaders with data that
demonstrates equitable or inequitable practice makes them more motivated to initiate
conversations due to the ability to ground them in data versus life experience (Santamaria, 2014).
Organizational Barriers
Introduction. Organizations are characterized by their cultural models and cultural
settings (Clark & Estes, 2008). Cultural models are those unspoken norms, values, belief
systems, and ways of knowing that members of the organization demonstrate but are not
discussed or identified in an explicit manner (Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings are the physical
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environments and varying contexts whereby the actions, beliefs, processes, and policies are
enacted within an organization that can shift and change based on the context of the work in the
organization (Rueda, 2011). Through both stability and tension, organizations can sustain
change to their cultural models and settings when the members understand the need for the
change and are amply prepared for the change (Clark & Estes, 2008). When these settings and
models are investigated, and analyzed for effectiveness or harm, the organization determines
their impact on performance and the need for change.
Clark and Estes (2008) conveyed that when leaders focus on the needs of their members
by addressing their knowledge and motivational needs, change will occur in a manner that is
effective and sustainable. When organizations initially address stakeholder needs they are able
to pinpoint performance gaps. In doing so, leaders can then design interventions that can address
said gaps and increase organizational performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). However, identified
gaps and solutions fail to be sustainable when the organizational culture, either models or
settings, work in a counter-productive manner to the desired change. Only by addressing the
cultural deficits of an organization, are leaders truly able to move their members and their vision
forward (Rueda, 2011). Table 8 also shows the recommendations for these validated influences
based on theoretical principles.

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Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Validated,
Not
Validated,
Partially
Validated Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
The organization,
GHSD, need to
address institutional
and systemic racism
and racial inequities
across leadership
development
programs. (Cultural
Model; Policies)
Validated Effective leaders are aware of
biases and prejudices that
occur in the organization at
the individual and structural
levels.
They acknowledge their own
biases and prejudice and
protect the organization from
their negative impact. (They
put themselves in
uncomfortable situations that
challenge their biases). They
also recognize and address
micro-aggression and other
covert ways of expressing
bias and prejudice.
Systems of accountability
should address equity,
diversity and access in
various sectors (Lim, Haddad,
& Daugherty, 2013; Trenerry,
Franklin, & Paradies, 2012).
The organization needs to
clearly and continuously
articulate the goal of
diminishing
disproportionality by using
disaggregated data and
training school leaders to
recognize bias in ways data
is interpreted.
GHSD and LDO need to
conduct anti-bias training
for all system wide and
aspiring school leaders that
will teach them ways to
recognize how bias exists
in school communities and
ways to overcome biases.
The organization,
GHSD, need to
communicate a shared
value in equity minded
leadership
development that can
be the catalyst to
cultivate equity in
school communities.
(Cultural Model;
Policies).
Validated Effective leaders are aware of
the influence of motivation as
it relates to communication
and its role in organizational
change (Gilley, McMillan, &
Gilley, 2009).
The GHSD needs to
articulate the mission of
addressing bias, systemic
racism and segregation in
schools on a central, city-
wide level but also in all
communications to school
leaders.

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Table 8, continued
Assumed Organization
Influence
Validated,
Not
Validated,
Partially
Validated Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
GHSD needs to
dedicate the time and
funding to provide
professional learning
experiences and
training to school
leaders in recognizing
the racial inequities in
student learning.
(Cultural Setting;
Procedures)
Validated Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has
the resources (equipment,
personnel, time, etc.)
needed to do their job,
and that if there are
resource shortages, then
resources are aligned
with organizational
priorities (Clark & Estes,
2008).
GHSD will provide training to
all aspiring and appointed
school leaders on how to
recognize schools as racial
spaces as well as work with
organizations through a
consulting or coaching model
to coach school leaders in ways
to confront bias practices and
develop equitable practices in
their schools.
The Great Harbor
School District needs
to provide school
leaders with effective
role models across the
city that demonstrate
the ability to identify
and address racial
inequity across the
organization. (Cultural
Settings; Procedures)
Validated Organizational
effectiveness increases
when leaders behave with
integrity. The most
powerful teaching tool a
leader has is leading by
example, which is
occurring all the time,
whether intended or not,
conscious or not.
The more a leader acts in
a way that followers feel
is appropriate ethical
leader behavior, the more
a leader will be trusted
(van den Akker, Heres,
Lasthuizen, & Six, 2009).
Followers use attributions
of leader integrity as a
predictor for how the
leader will behave in the
future (Moorman,
Blakely, & Darnold,
2018).
Through a mentoring program,
the GHSD will provide school
leaders with model leaders and
schools that are engaged in
anti-racist leadership and
confronting inequity in their
schools.
The GHSD will also model
how to address racial inequity
as it appears in school
communities during their
leadership development
programs in the curriculum and
learning experiences through
role plays and feedback
opportunities.

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Cultural models. Great Harbor School District needed to address institutional and
systemic racism and racial inequities that occur in schools within the curriculum of their
leadership development programs. Adopting such practices would qualify as part of the cultural
model of the GHSD. This cultural model would demonstrate the organization’s belief systems
but must be discussed and identified in an explicit manner (Rueda, 2011). According to
Bensimon (2005), leadership requires one to be cognizant of personal bias, stereotype threats,
individual prejudices, and other potentially discriminatory practices that may impede the
organizational outcomes individually and globally, ensuring that their work as the leader is to
minimize and diminish the negative impact of such beliefs in every way possible. Effective
leaders also recognize and address micro-aggression and other covert ways of expressing bias
and prejudice. Possible strategies to address this need would be to communicate the importance
of equity, diversity, and inclusion while also creating and reinforcing policies that ensure biases
and prejudices are confronted and overcome. The recommendation is for the organization to
clearly and continuously articulate the goal of diminishing disproportionality by using
disaggregated data and training school leaders to recognize bias in ways data is interpreted.
Disaggregate data by race, ethnicity, gender and other subgroups to address stakeholder needs
and inform goal setting and instructional practice.
Policies. Research reveals that by leveraging school leadership (development), leaders
can address racial inequity that leads to increased opportunities to diminish institutional racism
and academic disparities for students of color (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015; Gooden & Dantley,
2012). To build school leader capacity in such a way that will increase equity for students, the
organization must be willing to address this phenomenon and confront the need for
programmatic change in leadership development and practice. Organizational cultures that are
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resistant to change perpetuate stagnant cultures that find ways to avoid the needed change at all
costs (Clark & Estes, 2008). Boske (2015) asserted that school leaders must first develop their
critical consciousness about race to identify systemic racism and change it. The Great Harbor
School District possibly demonstrates a resistance to these practices through the increased
amount of “equity initiatives” that fail to address school leader needs related to foundational
identity formation around race and how this practice translates to equity in schools. As a result of
this lack of clear communication and structures to address inequity and racism, the GHSD is
failing to develop school leaders that are able to recognize racial inequity and bias in their school
communities. From a theoretical perspective, it would suggest that clearly articulating,
publishing, and continuously sharing the goal of developing leaders who are able to engage in
equitable, diverse, and inclusive communities that will confront bias and prejudice are required
to enact systemic change across the GHSD.
Cultural settings. The Great Harbor School District needed to communicate a shared
value in equity minded leadership development that can be the catalyst to cultivate equity in
school communities. Determining and demonstrating this communication policy directly relates
to Great Harbor School District’s cultural settings whereby policies are enacted within the
organization and can shift and change based on the context of the work in the organization
(Rueda, 2011). Effective leaders utilize communication and leverage communication strategies
to enact organizational change by motivating stakeholders through various communication
venues (Gilley et al., 2009). Furthermore, effective leaders understand that by communicating
effectively and clearly, from a values-driven stance, they are able to motivate employees and
stakeholders (Lewis, 2011). Possible strategies to address this need would be that the Great
Harbor School District structures their mission in a way that values addressing bias, systemic
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racism and segregation in schools on a central, city-wide level but also in all communications to
school leaders. The recommendation is for the GHSD to design and facilitate training that
promotes anti-biased and anti-racist leadership, equipping leaders with the tools and strategies to
motivate their stakeholders to diminish inequitable practice in their schools.
Procedures. The GHSD needed to adopt the practice of examining race in compounded
forms if it seeks to develop school leader skills to identify and confront racial inequities in their
schools. When school leaders and school communities engage in this practice, they become
accustomed to recognizing the ways inequity presents itself and begin to equip leaders with ways
to address and diminish such inequity (Gooden, 2012). DeCuir and Dixson (2004) further
explained that school leaders and organizations must deeply investigate the role of race and
racism in school communities to ensure equitable learning opportunities for students of color.
Blaisdell (2016) observed four elementary school teachers in North Carolina schools engaged in
practices that ensure equal access to learning and curricula for minority students. Following
these observations, Blaisdell (2016) concluded that unless teachers are supported by school
leadership in using equity based pedagogical practices, both Latino and Black students will
continue to experience disparity in access to curriculum and rigorous learning experiences. As
GHSD neglects to confront the presence of institutional racism while also insufficiently
communicating the importance of anti-biased and anti-racist leadership, they continue to avoid
the development of equity minded school leaders, and diminished educational opportunities will
increase for students of color.
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Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model, based upon the Kirkpatrick Level Four Model of
Evaluation, was used to inform the implementation and evaluation plan (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model uses backward design to plan, implement, and evaluate training
programs and interventions. By identifying leading indicators first, the New World Kirkpatrick
Model establishes a path for the work that is tightly connected to the overarching organizational
goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). By using backward design to plan and implement the
change strategies through the Kirkpatrick Model, the organization is able to gradually establish
momentum, empower team members, and gain buy-in from all stakeholders resulting in positive
internal and external organizational outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational purpose, need, and expectations. Principal preparation program
curriculum and standards that guide the content of preparation programs and evaluate school
leader effectiveness have historically neglected to sufficiently address race and equity as guiding
principles of school leadership (Davis et al., 2015; Gooden & Dantley, 2012). The Leadership
Development Office of the Great Harbor School District has addressed issues of race and equity
through the theme of cultural proficiency while also providing aspiring leaders concentrated
learning experiences exploring their cultural identities through program delivery. LDO will
extend its work on building the capacity of aspiring and new leaders to address racial equity
issues by expanding upon and deepening the ways it engages participants in all of its programs
around issues of racial equity in all of the GHSD schools. At a minimum, participants in every
program receive approximately eight to 10 learning experiences and reflective exercises focused
around identifying and disrupting institutional racism in their schools. For the 2017–2018 school
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year, the organizational goal of the Leadership Development Office was to continue to build the
capacity of school and central leaders to identify and address racial inequities in their schools,
districts and central offices. Specifically for LDO programs and the Aspiring Leaders Institute,
LDO will strengthen the program curricula on racial equity and develop skills and tools to coach
individual leaders around issues of racial equity.
It is important to evaluate the Aspiring Leaders Institute program effectiveness in
developing school leaders that can identify school based racial inequity in order to address the
prevalence of school failure for students of color (Vaught & Castagno, 2008). If school leaders
are unable to identify and address the various systemic racial inequities in their schools, the
achievement gap will continue to grow and students of color will continue to have limited and
unequal access to opportunities that have life-long impact (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015).
Leaders who take color-blind approaches to addressing diverse student needs fail to confront the
inequities, privilege, and institutional racism that is perpetuated in schools today (Davis et al.,
2015). Race is often ignored in school communities due to its complexity and implications of
the relationship between education and access for students of color. Ultimately, leaders must
understand how institutional racism exists in their schools and utilize tools for dismantling
widely accepted racist practices that result in equalizing learning opportunities for students of
color (Gooden, 2012).
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 9 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for the Great Harbor
School District. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and
organizational support for aspiring and new school leaders, school leaders’ ability to identify,
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address, and rectify school based racial inequities to increase the external outcomes should also
be realized.

Table 9
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. A decrease in
disproportionality in academic
achievement for students of
color and their White
counterparts.
School leaders introducing culturally
responsive teaching strategies in 100%
of classroom teachers within the first 6
weeks of school.
School leaders supporting
implementation of culturally responsive
teaching practices in 100% of classrooms
within the first 10 weeks of school.
Formative and
summative school
based and state
assessments.
2. Increased number of students
of color applying and choosing
to attend specialized middle and
high schools.
20% increase of students of color
applying to attend specialized middle
and high schools.
100% of students of color accepted to a
specialized middle or high school
choosing to attend a specialized middle
or high school.
Disaggregated
admissions data.
Internal Outcomes
1. Aspiring Leaders alumni will
apply strategies in which to
engage their staff in
conversations about race and
equity.
100% of program alumni respondents
will indicate on surveys and in
interviews whether or not they engage in
conversations about race and equity in
their schools.
All aspiring leader
alumni will have
participated in Beyond
Diversity training
while in the Aspiring
Leaders Institute.
2. GHSD and the Office of
Leadership Development will
increase the number of
applicants of color and
acceptance of applicants of
color into the Aspiring
Leadership Institute.
30% increase of acceptance of non-
White applicants from 2018SY to
2019SY.
Strategic recruitment,
screening, and
selection efforts.

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the alumni of ALI. The first critical
behavior is for alumni to introduce protocols for engaging in race-based conversations with
school staff. The second critical behavior is that ALI alumni must correctly use protocols to
engage staff or peers in conversations about race and equity. The third critical behavior is that
they must identify inequitable school systems or structures. The fourth critical behavior is that
ALI alumni must identify culturally responsive teaching practices. Finally, the fifth critical
behavior is to train teachers to use culturally responsive teaching practices. The specific metrics,
methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appears in Table 10.
Required drivers. Aspiring Leaders Institute alumni require the support of the GHSD to
engage their staff in conversations and practices to address racial inequity in their schools.
Alumni require both one-on-one coaching but also modeling from other school leaders that have
been successful in this work. Furthermore, alumni require the support of the organization to
implement culturally responsive pedagogical practices in the school community and while also
training and supporting teachers to so implement these practices in their classrooms. Rewards
should be established for achievement of performance goals to enhance the organizational
support of new reviewers. Table 11 shows the recommended drivers to support critical
behaviors of new reviewers.

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Table 10
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Introduce protocols
for engaging in race-
based conversations
with school staff.
100% of staff will agree they
have been taught protocols as
indicated by follow up surveys.
Surveys and
document
review.
First week of
school
Surveys 3x per
year
2. Correctly use
protocols to engage
staff or peers in
conversations about
race and equity.
Upon observations during in-
school residency phase, 100%
of aspiring leaders will follow
protocol to engage a peer in a
conversation about race and
equity.
Observations
and survey.
First 45 days of
school
Surveys 3x per
year
Ongoing
observations
3. Identify inequitable
school systems or
structures.
Completion of two tasks that
require leaders to list
inequitable schools systems
and structures present in their
residency schools.
Document
review.
First week of
school
4. Identify culturally
responsive teaching
practices.
Aspiring leaders will facilitate
one professional learning
session introducing culturally
responsive teaching to all
teachers.
Checklist,
observation,
survey.
First 60 days of
school.
5. Train teachers to
use culturally
responsive teaching
practices.
Aspiring leaders will facilitate
two professional learning
sessions supporting
implementation of culturally
responsive teaching strategies
to all teachers.
Teacher
attendance
Teacher
Observation
Reports
Agendas
December
through May
Ongoing
monthly teacher
team meetings
Ongoing
teacher
observations.

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Table 11
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3, etc.
Reinforcing
Role playing conversations in protocol and receiving
feedback on steps.
During summer, ongoing 1, 2
Using goal setting tool with a peer or coach to address
the implementation of specific practices and reflect on
completion of goals at specific times during school year.
Ongoing 1, 2
Utilizing a job aid to scaffold support for protocol and
other strategies that can be diminished as practice
evolves through role play and feedback from peers.
During summer, ongoing 3, 4, 5
One-on-one mentoring with peer or coach. Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Encouraging
Role playing conversations with coach or mentor. Ongoing 1, 2
Receiving feedback from coach or mentor on
implementation plans.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Rewarding
Performance incentive when observable evidence of
decrease in disproportionality.
Mid-year and end-of-year
based on assessment data
and teacher observation
reports
2, 3, 4, 5
Shout-outs to teachers implementing practices,
establishing lab sites or model classrooms.
Ongoing 2, 3, 4, 5
Monitoring
Weekly check-in with aspiring leaders on protocol
progress.
During weekly evening
classes and 1:1 field visits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Direct observation of new skills. 1:1 field visits, role plays 2, 5
Co-plan professional learning sessions with aspiring
leaders or ask to review professional learning plans.
During weekly evening
classes, 1:1 field visits
1, 5
Submission of written assignments and in-class
conversations.
1:1 field visits and
weekly evening classes.
3, 4

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Organizational support. Organizational support for alumni of ALI will come from
three primary entry points. Superintendents will support school leaders through coaching
conversations and by providing a peer model group and school lab sites that will demonstrate the
desired practices. Centrally, school leaders will receive organizational support from secondary
support centers that will provide training for the school leader and the school community on
culturally responsive teaching strategies. School leaders can choose between six-week and
eight-week cycles to receive this instructional lead support from the support centers. Finally,
organizational support will come in the form of a professional library and online professional
learning hub whereby ALI alumni leading schools will have access to texts and other applicable
and relevant resources that support the increase of racial equity in their school communities.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, most notably the
Aspiring Leaders Institute, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Apply how to engage staff in race-based conversations. (P)
2. Demonstrate knowledge of principles of critical race theory and social justice theory
and how these theories can inform their practice. (D)
3. Value and apply how their racial identities influence their perceptions of race and
equity in their school communities. (M)
4. Value addressing issues of racial inequity and systemic racism in order to fully
engage in using the strategies to address these issues in their communities. (EV)
5. Show confidence that changing the culture of a school community lies within their
ability and responsibility. (A)
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Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved through the
10-month Aspiring Leaders Institute. The Aspiring Leaders Institute uses problem based and
action research learning methodologies to simulate the role of the principal. Problem-based
learning has been used in medical and administrative training to foster effective collaboration
and critical reasoning in order to tackle complex problems. Through problem-based learning, the
acquisition of knowledge is directed and driven by specific problems or scenarios. The program
is grounded in three different components, all critical to the aspiring leaders’ learning: summer
intensive, school year residency, and on the job, immersion based support from their mentor
principals.
Beginning in summer intensive, five weeks from July to August, aspiring leaders work in
prearranged project teams within their strand cohort on a comprehensive, interactive, simulated
school that reflects the realities of the schools they are likely to lead. The composition of each
project team maximizes the diversity of experiences, opinions, perspectives, personality types
and learning styles within a group. The program maintains the composition of the groups
throughout the duration of the summer intensive phase and places purposeful pressure on the
groups as a mechanism to understand group dynamics, develop interpersonal skills and learn
interdependency. An important component of the summer program is the development of the
skills necessary to work with individuals that the leader did not choose.
The ALI residency phase combines two types of leadership development experiences:
school-based job-embedded work to be completed at the aspiring leaders’ school as practical
learning experiences and weekly evening sessions with ALI Faculty. Following the summer
intensive phase, aspiring leaders will return to their schools in late August and engage in job-
embedded leadership experiences at their home schools while remaining in their current roles.
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This work strives to give ALI aspiring leaders exposure to all functional areas of a school, with
special attention paid to observing and coaching teachers, engaging in group and organizational
politics, and exploring systems and strategies related to school improvement.
Components of learning. Creating foundational awareness of specific concepts from
both declarative and procedural knowledge is required prior to learners moving into both
application and synthesis of said concepts and skills. Only through formative and summative
evaluation practices will learners be certain of their readiness to apply such knowledge to their
job performance. Complicating this process is that learners or participants are more likely to
successfully apply both declarative and procedural knowledge when they are motivated to do so
through intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Confidence in ability to perform the required task with
the new knowledge and the belief that the required task brings value to their job performance are
required for learners to succeed when applying the new learning on the job, in a consistent
predictable pattern. As such, Table 12 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these
components of learning.

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Table 12
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity Timing
Declarative Knowledge — “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using formative in class
assessments and written assignments.
Summer intensive and in-school residency.
Three unit based summative knowledge
assessments over course of year: November,
February, April.
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share” and other individual/group
activities.
Summer intensive and weekly evening classes
during in-school residency.
Video-taped performance tasks. Four times per year submissions: October,
January, March & May.
In-school residency goal setting and feedback
tool completed with mentor principal.
Set goals and benchmarks in October, review
and adjust December, January, March, and
May.
State School Building Leader Credentialing
Exam.
Aspiring leader choice — February through
June.
Procedural Skills — “I can do it right now.”
Direct observation during field visits of using
job aids to successfully engage peers in
courageous conversations.
September through May during in-school
residency. Each aspiring leader receives a
minimum of four coaching field visits by ALI
Faculty member.
In-school residency goal setting and feedback
tool completed with mentor principal.
Set goals and benchmarks in October, review
and adjust December, January, March, and
May.
Post feedback by teacher mentee during in-
school residency; teachers aspiring leaders
observe provide them feedback on the
developmental feedback the leader gave the
teacher.
Written submissions September through May.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
survey asking participants about their level of
proficiency before and after the Aspiring
Leaders Institute.
July during first week of summer intensive and
last week of May, prior to program graduation.

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Table 12, continued
Attitude — “I believe this is worthwhile.”
ALI faculty member observation of
participants’ statements and actions
demonstrating that they see the benefit of
what they are being asked to do on the job.
School year field visits and weekly evening
classes; September through May.
Discussions of the value of what they are
being asked to do on the job.
School year field visits and weekly evening
classes; September through May.
Written submissions through Race and Equity
journals.
Summer Intensive and weekly evening classes
during in-school residency; July through
August; September through May.
Pre- and post-survey responses following
Beyond Diversity Training about Courageous
Conversations about Race.
First week of Summer Intensive; Days three
and four.
In school residency goal setting and feedback
tool completed with mentor principal.
Set goals and benchmarks in October, review
and adjust December, January, March, and
May.
Confidence — “I think I can do it on the job.”
ALI faculty member observation of aspiring
leaders’ mindset evolving through surveys
and discussions.
Summer Intensive; July and August; School
year field visits and weekly evening classes;
September through May.
Quality of practicing protocols and receiving
feedback from peers, evolving and improving
as year progresses.
School year visits and weekly evening classes.
Pre- and post-survey responses. August following completion of Summer
Intensive; First weekly evening class in
September; Final weekly evening class in May.
In-school residency goal setting and feedback
tool completed with mentor principal.
Set goals and benchmarks in October, review
and adjust December, January, March, and
May.
Commitment — “I will do it on the job.”
In-school residency goal setting and feedback
tool completed with mentor principal.
Set goals and benchmarks in October, review
and adjust December, January, March, and
May.
Pre- and post-survey responses. August following completion of summer
intensive; First weekly evening class in
September; Final weekly evening class in May.
Leadership Philosophy Statement. August during final week of summer intensive,
November, March, and final revision in May.

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Level 1: Reaction
According to the New Kirkpatrick Model, Level 1 should be the easiest and least heavy
lift for the training and implementation team to address. Level 1 measures engagement,
relevance, and customer satisfaction as a result of the training or program. Each of these metrics
are addressed in Table 13.

Table 13
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation by ALI Faculty. Ongoing during summer intensive, in-
school residency, 1:1 field visits, and
weekly evening classes.
Completion of journals, teacher
observations, and written assignments.
Ongoing during summer intensive, in-
school residency, 1:1 field visits, and
weekly evening classes.
Attendance to weekly evening classes. Weekly from October through May.
Attendance to cohort leadership sessions. In-school residency sessions five times
per year.
Evaluation and Feedback forms. Following each cohort leadership session
five times per year.
Relevance
Pulse-check with aspiring leaders during
discussions and structured pauses and think
aloud during direct instruction.
Summer intensive and weekly evening
classes.
Feedback from aspiring leaders. 1:1: field visits, last 10 minutes of
weekly evening classes.
Customer Satisfaction
Feedback from aspiring leaders. 1:1: field visits, last 10 minutes of
weekly evening classes.

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Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During the summer intensive
portion of the program, apprentices will engage in a self-assessment of their growth followed by
one-on-one feedback conversations with their ALI Faculty member. Aspiring leaders will
identify their own areas of progress and growth then share this assessment with their faculty
members for feedback. This self-assessment will capture perceived learning by the aspiring
leaders while also identifying levels of engagement in the coursework for the faculty members.
For Level 1, during the summer intensive portion and during weekly evening classes, the
faculty member will use mindful inquiry and brief one-on-one check-ins with the aspiring
leaders to ensure relevancy and value with aligning the coursework to the in-school residency
work. Mid-summer and end of summer self-assessments (see Appendix F and G) will be used as
a foundation for checks for understanding of presented declarative and procedural knowledge as
well as mindsets and attitudes. These tools will also be used for group and whole class
discussions. Level 2 will include checks for understanding during one-on-one field visits (see
Appendix H) that will take place with the aspiring leaders and the ALI Faculty member at least
four times throughout the residency school year.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately three weeks
after the close of summer intensive, aspiring leaders will receive their first self-directed study.
This study, a form of formative assessment for the program, will engage program participants in
reflecting on their learning from the summer intensive phase and how they apply that learning to
the practices and procedures for beginning the school year (Level 4 and Level 3), capturing data
on outcomes as a result of summer intensive, followed by an introductory field visit (Level 3; see
Appendix H) to capture data on critical behaviors that demonstrate the expectations of an ALI
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graduate. Mid-way through the residency portion of the program, aspiring leaders will provide
feedback to ALI faculty members and mentor principals on the progress of their learning as well
as perceived gaps and needs based on their own self-assessment (Level 2 and Level 3; see
Appendix F). Finally, post-graduation from the program, aspiring leaders will receive a survey
requesting their feedback in ALI quality measurement, program satisfaction, as well as their
confidence in specific ALI leadership practices (Level 4; see Appendix G).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of graduates of the ALI Program is measured by their ability to enact
the vision of an ALI graduate by diminishing disproportionality in their schools. Each week of
the program from summer intensive through the in-school residency phases, ALI Faculty
members will track ALI program participants’ progress in demonstrating the leadership skills,
capacities, and behaviors that capture the vision of an ALI graduate. All ALI graduates must
comprehend and master the skills, knowledge, and dispositions required to address academic and
social barriers related to race and equity in their schools. Annually, the LDO tracks ALI
graduate attrition to new administrative positions, but has not tracked their progress and ability,
post-program completion to enact the skills and knowledge acquired in the program in ways
other than through conversations with the ALI alumni supervisors or ALI alumni themselves.
Progress monitoring of ALI Alumni skills will be completed on a tri-annual basis through the use
of post-program surveys (see Appendix E). Additionally, ALI Faculty will conduct check-in
visits or phone calls with cohort graduates to monitor their comfort level, confidence, and
progress towards enacting the Level 4 goal(s). Therefore, to monitor the acquisition of skills and
application related to addressing the needs of inequity in their schools, after graduating from the
ALI program, and begin to hold ALI alumni accountable to the program objectives, the
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dashboard shown in Table 14 will report the data on these measures. Dashboards will be
similarly created for Levels 1, 2, and 3.

Table 14
Dashboard
Dashboard Goal
Winter
2019
Summer
2019
Fall
2019
School leaders introducing
culturally responsive teaching
strategies in classroom teachers
the first 6 weeks of school.
100% XX XX XX
School leaders supporting
implementation of culturally
responsive teaching practices in
classrooms within the first 10
weeks of school.
100% XX XX XX
Increased number of students of
color applying and choosing to
attend specialized middle and
high schools.
20% increase of students of color
applying to attend specialized
middle and high schools.
100% of students of color
accepted to a specialized middle
or high school choosing to attend
a specialized middle or high
school.
XX XX XX
Aspiring Leaders alumni will
apply strategies by which to
engage their staff in conversations
about race and equity.
100% of program alumni
respondents will indicate on
surveys and in interviews
whether or not they engage in
conversations about race and
equity in their schools.
XX XX XX
GHSD and the Office of
Leadership Development will
increase the number of applicants
of color and acceptance of
applicants of color into the
Aspiring Leadership Institute.
20% increase of acceptance of
non-White applicants from
2018SY to 2019SY.
XX XX XX

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Summary
Training and evaluation plans are informed and better designed when using the New
World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Through the use of the model’s
four levels of training, trainers are better positioned to identify high quality relevant outcomes
that align to the trainers’ assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting the gap in knowledge, skills, and motivation. The Kirkpatrick Model provides data on
the quality of training and organizational support that can inform how the training program can
be adapted in real time resulting in a decrease of disproportionality in the Great Harbor School
District for students of color while increasing school leader capacity to confront barriers
presented by race and inequity in their communities.
Similar to a backward design instructional planning model, the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) begins with the end in mind. Outcomes, metrics and
methods to assess the training program goals are initially identified that act as Level 4 results,
followed by critical behaviors that measure the progress of program participants once they apply
the training back at work. Level 2 captures the desired learning outcomes of the training
program, and finally Level 1 addresses ways in which participant motivation, commitment,
attitude, and confidence appear during the training program. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
recommend using the questions “Does the . . . meet expectations?” “If not, why not?” and “If so,
why?” (p. 122) as guides to measure program effectiveness.
Throughout each level of the implementation evaluation program benchmarks are
established to measure effectiveness before, during, and after the training so that the organization
is able to assess the value of the training program in real time and adjust accordingly as needed
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The final step of the implementation and evaluation process
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is to share results of the overall effectiveness with the organization through a systematic
reporting process. To further engage the organization and cultivate organizational support prior
to, during, and following the training program, results and checkpoints should be categorized in
terms of credibility, compelling and relevant information, as well as the efficiency of the training
program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Future Research
There are three vital areas for future research closely aligned to the Aspiring Leaders
Institute as well as aspiring school leader preparation programs across the nation. The first area
identified for potential research could be examining the inclusion of ways in which school
leaders can use a critical race theory framework of evaluation to isolate racial inequity in their
schools. By examining ways leaders pragmatically utilize critical race theory to evaluate school
practices, investigators are able to begin observing whether or not the consideration of tenets of
critical race theory impact student learning experiences in the school community or district.
Research revealed that aspiring leader alumni had common learning experiences in terms of
specific declarative knowledge, however it was uncertain how each was enacting this knowledge.
Imposing a critical race theory framework of evaluation may also lead school leaders to mindset
changes and cultural shifts in their communities as a result of identifying inequitable learning
opportunities and pedagogy. By introducing an organizational framework, such as one grounded
in critical race theory, the organization can begin to develop an ecosystem of school leaders.
Within this ecosystem, ALI can evaluate and reflect closely at mindset changes as GHSD leaders
move through their leadership journey, enacting change, through the framework, at every level of
the organization. A critical first step in ensuring all students are provided equal access to high
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quality instruction and resources is to acknowledge the reality that equitable practices are not
taking place.
Future research focusing on ways in which aspiring leaders’ preparation programs model
racially equitable leadership practices for school leaders and provide exceptional standards of
observable culturally responsive communities allows for aspiring leaders to see a vision in
action. Such standards and observable practices act as tools to ensure growth in the newly
designed leadership ecosystem. In doing so, the standards of practice can provide a catalyst for
holding both ALI Faculty and leaders accountable to the desired and necessary culturally
responsive practices. Ways in which faculty can begin establishing accountability is in their
facilitation practices. By enacting an organizational observation and feedback cycle amongst
faculty, ALI can ensure coherence in content delivery and skill progression of aspiring leaders.
Once accountability has been established through facilitation, assessment of aspiring leader
ability to enact skills through conversations in an organizational context can be established.
As revealed from the organizational influences and barriers experienced by school
leaders in the GHSD, having accessible peers that model successful ways to address racial
inequity is a long-standing challenge. Through a mentorship program or collaboration of peers
across districts and universities, aspiring leaders would have multiple opportunities to observe
exemplary practice that impacts student outcomes first hand, in a variety of school communities.
Research examining practices in which university programs are developing, modeling, and
cultivating racially responsive leadership would allow practitioners to reflect and pivot their
approaches to expand culturally responsive pedagogy and diminish disproportionality for school
communities.
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In school districts like Great Harbor, where over 80% of the population are students of
color as well as approximately <30% being English Language Learners, school leaders are most
concerned with ensuring student achievement for all students. However, doing so in a culturally
responsive manner that allows leaders to address issues or racial inequity is a challenge due to
gaps in knowledge, skill set, and organizational barriers, as revealed in this study. If school
leaders were developed and supported to consider the student lived experience, as well as the
role of race in the classroom, disproportionality may begin to decrease in districts like Great
Harbor. Thus, it is imperative that future researchers pursue applicable systems and strategies
that seek impact to develop racially responsive leaders then measure their success in addressing
issues of racial inequity across school communities.
Conclusion
In the Great Harbor School District, as well as other large urban school districts across
the country, addressing racial inequity and examining the role of race in schools is paramount to
diminishing disproportionality for students of color. This study aimed to evaluate the success of
an aspiring leader development program in an urban school district and whether or not they were
successful in their efforts to develop racially responsive school leaders. In order to evaluate the
application of intended skills and knowledge learned in the Aspiring Leaders Institute, program
alumni were identified as the primary stakeholder. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework was then used to identify performance gaps related to identified knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that my impact ALI alumni in meeting this goal.
Applying this framework, data revealed that alumni partially possess the knowledge and
motivation required to address racial inequities in their schools, but lack the organizational
supports and models associated with successfully addressing these inequities on a daily basis.
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Recommendations to address these organizational challenges included revising curriculum
content to improve aspiring leader training and development, a method to identify models of
support, implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy that diminishes disproportionality,
and an evaluation of the recommendations to guarantee successful implementation.
This evaluation study has assisted the Great Harbor School District Aspiring Leaders
Institute reconsider curriculum and facilitation decisions to the summer intensive and residency
phase of the program. The study identified gaps in knowledge and skill set within the program
which may be considered as program design and implementation is revised. Moreover, the
results of this study could influence program design, content, and delivery of school leader
development programs across the state and nation in efforts to close the racial achievement gap
between White students and their marginalized peers. Aspiring leadership development
programs have historically neglected to isolate race and racism in program content, therefore
future implications of this study could inspire traditional and alternative programs to deeply
consider the role race plays in schools today, disrupting and diminishing the systemic and
institutional structures of racial inequity while increasing access and outcomes for marginalized
students across all communities.

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APPENDIX A
SURVEY PROTOCOL
Thank you for your participation in completing this survey. The purpose of this study is to
evaluate the degree to which Leadership Development Office is meeting its goal of developing
high quality leaders to engage practice(s) to address racial equity. This survey asks questions
about your learning experiences in the [Aspiring Leaders Institute] your perceptions of readiness
and ability to engage in conversations about the presence of race and equity in your school, and
ways in which you may engage in those conversations. All survey responses are anonymous and
anything with identifiable information will not be published. Participation is voluntary therefore
you may stop at any time. This survey should take approximately 10 minutes to complete.
Thank you for your contribution to this research study.

1. What year did you graduate from the [Aspiring Leaders Institute]? (N/A)
§ 2009
§ 2010
§ 2011
§ 2012
§ 2013
§ 2014
§ 2015
§ 2016
§ 2017
§ 2018

2. How long have you worked for the Department of Education? (N/A)
§ 0-10 years
§ 10-15 years
§ 15-20 years
§ Over 20 years

3. What is your current position? (N/A)
§ Educational Administrator (Field Based)
§ Educational Administrator (Central Office)
§ Assistant Principal
§ Principal
§ Other:

4. It is my responsibility, as the school leader, to recognize and diminish racial inequity in my
school. (Motivation — Attribution Theory)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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5. I am prepared to initiate a conversation around racial equity with my staff as a result of what
I learned in the [ALI]. (Motivation — Expectancy Value Theory)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

6. I use the tools and strategies I learned in the [ALI] program to teach my staff and peers about
racial inequity in schools. (Motivation — Expectancy Value Theory)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

7. I continue to seek new ways to address racial inequities in my school. (Motivation —
Attribution Theory)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

8. I am more prepared to identify inequitable practice in my school since graduating from the
[ALI] program. (Knowledge — Factual)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

9. I am able to recognize racial equity in classrooms. (Organizational — Cultural Settings)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

10. I am able to recognize racial inequity in classrooms. (Organizational — Cultural Settings)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

11. I am able to recognize racial equity within my school community. (Organizational —
Cultural Settings)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree
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12. I am able to recognize racial inequity within my school community. (Organizational —
Cultural Settings)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

13. I believe the [ALI] provided me with tools to use in my school to initiate race based
conversations. (Organizational — Cultural Models/Knowledge — Conceptual)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

14. I learned about critical race theory in [ALI]. (Knowledge — Declarative)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

15. I learned how to the use the courageous conversations about race protocol in [ALI].
(Knowledge — Procedural)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

16. I learned how to apply the cultural proficiency continuum in [ALI]. (Knowledge —
Procedural, Metacognitive)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

17. I understand how to align practices in my school community to the cultural proficiency
continuum. (Knowledge — Procedural, Metacognitive)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly disagree

18. I understand the tenets of critical race theory. (Knowledge — Declarative)
§ Strongly agree
§ Agree
§ Disagree
§ Strongly Disagree
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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19. Please describe your experience in [ALI] when learning about racial equity. (Organizational
— Cultural Models, Knowledge — Metacognitive)

20. Please list three instances in which you have identified racial inequity in your school or
community since graduating from [ALI]. (Knowledge — Factual)

21. Please describe two strategies you learned in [ALI] that you use on a regular basis as it
relates to confronting racial inequity in your school. (Knowledge — Conceptual)

22. Would you be willing to participate in a follow up 1:1 interview with the principal
investigator? These interviews will last approximately 45-60 minutes and be conducted at a
time and place of your convenience. If so, please indicate below.
• YES
• NO

23. Please provide your contact information if you agree to be interviewed.
• Name:
• Email Address:
• Best Contact Number:
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APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Thank you for volunteering to participate in this research study on your learning experiences in
the [Aspiring Leaders Institute] as they relate to readiness and ability to address race and equity
needs in your school. My name is Caron Martin and I will be conducting the interview today.
Your participation and feedback are pivotal to the study and will supplement the current research
on the extent to which school leadership development programs are developing school leaders to
address racial inequity in schools.

If at any time during this interview you wish to withdraw your participation, feel free to do so.
In order to accurately capture all responses, I will be recording today’s interview. The interview
will then be transcribed, redacting all identifiable information to protect your anonymity. Do
you have any questions before we begin?

1. What is your identified race and ethnicity? (N/A)

2. What was your position when you entered the [Aspiring Leaders Institute]? (N/A)

3. What is your current position? (N/A)

4. Can you describe how your racial identity influences your leadership approach?
(Motivational — Attribution Theory)

5. What is your experience with talking about race and equity with friends, family or peers?
(Motivational — Expectancy Value Theory)

6. How have your personal experiences in addressing race and equity influenced your
leadership? (Organizational — Cultural Settings)

7. How do you feel about engaging in conversations about race and the role race has in
schools? (Motivational — Expectancy Value Theory)

8. In what ways did you learn about cultural proficiency or critical race theory in the [Aspiring
Leaders Institute]? (Knowledge — Factual, Organizational – Cultural Settings)

9. In what ways have you applied what you’ve learned about cultural proficiency or critical
race theory in your school community? (Organizational — Cultural Settings,
Motivational — Expectancy Value Theory)

10. In what ways do you address race and equity as a school leader? (Organizational —
Cultural Settings)

11. Where do you go for examples or models of school leadership that addresses equity in
classrooms? (Organizational — Cultural Models)
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

168
12. To what extent do you feel you had learning opportunities to develop the skills needed to
confront racial inequity in your school community? (Organizational — Cultural Settings)

13. To what extent do you feel you are provided with tools and resources to address race and
equity in your school community? (Knowledge — Conceptual) Can you describe those
tools or resources? (Knowledge — Factual)

14. Do you feel comfortable discussing race and equity in your current role? Why or why not?
(Motivational — Attribution Theory)

15. Have you engaged colleagues in conversations about race and equity? Why or why not?
(Motivational — Expectancy Value Theory)

16. In what ways, or not, does the organization [Great Harbor School District] address racial
inequity in school communities? (Organizational — Cultural Settings)

17. When and how have you observed role models that are addressing race in their schools?
(Organizational — Cultural Models)
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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APPENDIX C
INFORMED CONSENT
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Developing Aspiring School Leaders to Address the Diverse Racial Equity Needs in School
Communities: An Evaluation Study

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Caron Martin with support from
her Faculty Advisor, Dr. Monique Datta at the University of Southern California, because you
are an alumni of the [Aspiring Leaders Institute (ALI)] program. Your participation is voluntary.
You should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand,
before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent
form. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign and return this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study seeks to understand how aspiring school leaders develop skills to address issues of
race and equity in their school communities and if such knowledge and skills are enacted after
graduating from the [ALI] program. The researcher will investigate what knowledge,
motivation, and organizational challenges may impact how well the program alumni feel and act
upon addressing issues of race and equity in their schools. Individual interviews and a survey
will be conducted with the program alumni to identify and assess the aforementioned challenges.
The overall purpose of this project is to deepen the understanding of what the [ALI] alumni and
its faculty need to do when looking to prepare racially responsive school leaders.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to:
1. Complete a 23 question survey
2. Participate in a one to one 45-60 minute audio recorded interview scheduled at a
convenient time for you, prior to February 28, 2019.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks in participating in this study.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The benefits of participating in this study as you will have direct impact on the level of support
provided to the facilitation staff of the [ALI] program in [large urban school district in
northeastern city] as well as to the larger field of principal preparation programs who are looking
to refocus their content to develop more racially responsive school leaders.

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170
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid for participating in this research study.

POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST OF THE INVESTIGATOR
As a [ALI] Faculty member, Caron Martin will ensure that all interview subjects were taught by
other [ALI] Faculty from 2007 through 2018. In doing so, any perceived relationship or past
positional authority between the researcher and participant will be minimized (Glesne, 2011;
Merrriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher is not a supervisor or rating officer and does not
evaluate any of the interview subjects.

CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

Research records will be kept in a locked file, and all electronic information will be coded and
secured using a password protected file. Only Caron Martin, the principal investigator, will have
access to audio recording. Written transcripts will be destroyed 3 years after the report has been
published. We will not include any information in any report we may publish that would make it
possible to identify you.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Caron
Martin at 718-844-6175 or caronmar@usc.edu.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT — IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

171

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

172
APPENDIX D
RECRUITMENT EMAIL
Dear ALI Alumni,

My name is Caron Martin and I am a doctoral candidate at the Rossier School of Education in
the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study to evaluate the degree to
which Leadership Development Office is meeting its goal of developing high quality leaders to
engage practice(s) to address racial equity. This survey asks questions about your learning
experiences in [ALI], your perceptions of readiness, ability to engage in conversations about the
presence of race and equity in your school, and ways in which you may engage in those
conversations. If you agree, you are invited to participate in completing a brief survey as well as
a face to face interview should you choose.

The survey is anticipated to take no more than 15 minutes to complete and the interview is
anticipated to last approximately 45-60 minutes and will be audio-taped. The recording will be
immediately uploaded to the Rev.com app via iphone for transcription, to which you may have
access to per your request.

Participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain anonymous
during and after the study for the survey component. Confidentiality will be maintained for all
interview participants and all identifiable data will be removed from responses and study results.
Pseudonyms will replace all interview participant names. All study results will be maintained on
password secured laptop of the principal investigator.

An informed consent document is attached for your records and will also be provided during the
interview portion of this study. Dissertation study informed consent.

If you have questions or would like to participate, please use the survey link below contact me at
any time via caronmar@usc.edu or via phone at 718-844-6175.

Thank you for your participation,

Caron Martin
University of Southern California
Doctoral Candidate
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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APPENDIX E
SURVEY RESULTS
Q1 — What year did you graduate from [ALI]?

# Answer % Count
1 2008 3.09% 3
2 2009 1.03% 1
3 2010 2.06% 2
4 2011 10.31% 10
5 2012 7.22% 7
6 2013 6.19% 6
7 2014 12.37% 12
8 2015 14.43% 14
9 2016 13.40% 13
10 2017 13.40% 13
11 2018 16.49% 16
Total 100% 97

Q2 — How long have you worked for the [Great Harbor School District]

# Answer % Count
1 0-10 years 22.68% 22
2 10-15 years 45.36% 44
3 15-20 years 22.68% 22
4 Over 20 years 9.28% 9
Total 100% 97

Q3 — What is your current position in the [Great Harbor School District]?

# Answer % Count
1 Education Administrator (FSC) 8.25% 8
2 Education Administrator (CENTRAL) 11.34% 11
3 Assistant Principal 37.11% 36
4 Principal 18.56% 18
5 Teacher 14.43% 14
6 Other 10.31% 10
Total 100% 97

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174
Q4 — It is my responsibility, as the school leader, to recognize racial inequity in my school.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 86.60% 84
2 Agree 12.37% 12
3 Disagree 0.00% 0
4 Strongly Disagree 1.03% 1
Total 100% 97

Q5 — It is my responsibility, as a school leader, to diminish racial inequity in my school.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 92.31% 90
4 Agree 7.69% 7
5 Disagree 0.00% 0
6 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 97

Q6 — I am prepared to initiate a conversation around racial equity with my staff as a
result of what I learned in [ALI].

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 25.00% 23
2 Agree 55.43% 51
3 Disagree 16.30% 15
4 Strongly Disagree 3.26% 3
Total 100% 92

Q7 — I use the strategies I learned in [ALI] to teach my staff and peers about racial
inequity in schools.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 18.48% 17
2 Agree 53.26% 49
3 Disagree 26.09% 24
4 Strongly Disagree 2.17% 2
Total 100% 92

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Q8 — I continue to seek new ways to address racial inequities in my school.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 54.35% 50
2 Agree 39.13% 36
3 Disagree 6.52% 6
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 92

Q9 — I am more prepared to identify inequitable practice in my school since graduating
from [ALI].

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 39.13% 36
2 Agree 46.74% 43
3 Disagree 11.96% 11
4 Strongly Disagree 2.17% 2
Total 100% 92

Q10 — I am able to recognize racial equity in classrooms.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 44.57% 41
2 Agree 53.26% 49
3 Disagree 2.17% 2
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 92

Q11 — I am able to recognize racial inequity in classrooms.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 49.44% 44
2 Agree 49.44% 44
3 Disagree 1.12% 1
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 89

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176
Q12 — I am able to recognize racial equity within my school community.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 46.07% 41
2 Agree 53.93% 48
3 Disagree 0.00% 0
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 89

Q13 — I am able to recognize racial inequity within my school community.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 44.94% 40
2 Agree 55.06% 49
3 Disagree 0.00% 0
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 89

Q14 — I believe that [ALI] provided me with tools to use in my school to initiate race based
conversations.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 19.10% 17
2 Agree 58.43% 52
3 Disagree 19.10% 17
4 Strongly Disagree 3.37% 3
Total 100% 89

Q15 — I learned about critical race theory in [ALI].

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 19.10% 17
2 Agree 41.57% 37
3 Disagree 33.71% 30
4 Strongly Disagree 5.62% 5
Total 100% 89

DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

177
Q16 — I learned how to the use the courageous conversations about race protocol in [ALI].

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 26.19% 22
2 Agree 34.52% 29
3 Disagree 30.95% 26
4 Strongly Disagree 8.33% 7
Total 100% 84

Q17 — I learned how to apply the cultural proficiency continuum in [ALI].

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 25.00% 21
2 Agree 42.86% 36
3 Disagree 28.57% 24
4 Strongly Disagree 3.57% 3
Total 100% 84

Q18 — I understand how to align practices in my school community to the cultural
proficiency continuum.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 26.19% 22
2 Agree 46.43% 39
3 Disagree 27.38% 23
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 84

Q19 — I understand the tenets of critical race theory.

# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 19.05% 16
2 Agree 59.52% 50
3 Disagree 20.24% 17
4 Strongly Disagree 1.19% 1
Total 100% 84

Q20 — Please describe your experience in [ALI] when learning about racial equity.

Q21 — Please list three instances in which you have identified racial inequity in your
school or community since graduating from [ALI].

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178
Q22 — Please indicate whether you would be willing to participate in an individual
interview below.

# Answer % Count
23 Yes 47.37% 36
24 No 52.63% 40
Total 100% 76

Q23 — If you would like to participate in an interview, please enter your name, phone
number, and email address below.

DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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APPENDIX F
ASPIRING LEADERS INSTITUTE MID-SUMMER EVALUATION
Name: _________________________________ Date: _________________________

1 thing I learned about
myself
How does this map to the
PSEL?
Low-inference
evidence
Next
Steps
1.
1 thing I feel I’m getting
better at
How does this map to the
PSEL?
Low-inference
evidence
Next
Steps
2.
1 place where I need help How does this map to the
PSEL?
Low-inference
evidence
Next
Steps
3.

DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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APPENDIX G
ASPIRING LEADERS INSTITUTE END OF SUMMER EVALUATION
Name: __________________________________ Date: ________________________

1 thing I learned about
myself
How does this map to the
PSEL?
Low-inference
evidence
Next
Steps
1.
1 thing I feel I’m getting
better at
How does this map to the
PSEL?
Low-inference
evidence
Next
Steps
2.
1 place where I need help How does this map to the
PSEL?
Low-inference
evidence
Next
Steps
3.
DEVELOPING ASPIRING SCHOOL LEADERS

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APPENDIX H
ALI FACILITATOR/APPRENTICE VISIT #1
Apprentice: __________________________

AGENDA (Approximately 2 hour visit)

Meet with ALI Apprentice (45 minutes)
• School tour
• Review end of summer reflection & Re-Entry reflection
• Teacher Observation Journal

NELP Standards and Fall Goal Setting — School Culture (35 minutes)
• PSEL review
• Goal Setting

Meet with mentor principals (40 minutes — includes 10 minute check-in with facilitator/mentor
principal)
• Review Residency Expectations
• Distribute PSEL (if needed)
• Preview Leadership Learning Series
• Approval of School Culture Goal
• Mentor principal requests for apprentice development
• Supporting mentor principal

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Asset Metadata

Creator Martin, Caron Leigh (author)

Core Title Developing aspiring school leaders to address the diverse racial equity needs in school communities: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 07/15/2019

Defense Date 04/29/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag aspiring leaders,critical race theory,critical race theory and school leadership,culturally relevant leadership,developing school leaders,implicit bias and school leadership,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,principal preparation programs,racial equity,racial inequity,racially responsive leadership,school leaders

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair)

Creator Email caronmar@usc.edu,cleigh3333@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-182758

Unique identifier UC11660709

Identifier etd-MartinCaro-7550.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-182758 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MartinCaro-7550.pdf

Dmrecord 182758

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Martin, Caron Leigh

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA