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Promising practices for building a college-going culture for LatinX students: a case study of a large comprehensive high school

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Promising practices for building a college-going culture for LatinX students: a case study of a large comprehensive high school

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Content Running head: LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 1

PROMISING PRACTICES FOR BUILDING A COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE FOR LATINX
STUDENTS: A CASE STUDY OF A LARGE COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL

by

Salvador Torres

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Salvador Torres

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank my committee members who were more than generous with their
expertise and precious time. A special thanks to Dr. Kathy Stowe, my committee chairperson for
her countless hours of reflecting, reading, encouraging, and most of all patience throughout the
entire process. Thank you, Dr. Courtney Malloy and Professor Shafiqa Ahmadi, for agreeing to
serve on my committee.
I would like to acknowledge my thematic dissertation group- Vicki, Traci, Jeremy, Luz,
and Consuelo. A special feeling of gratitude to Luz and Consuelo whose words of
encouragement and motivation will remain in me forever.
I would like to acknowledge my family. First of all, I thank my loving wife Yadira for
her patience and support during this challenging journey. She encouraged me to embark on this
journey and has been with me every step of the way. Thanks to my sons Jacob, Joshua, Jonathan
and my daughters Yadira and Selina who have been deprived of my presence for many weekends.
Thanks to my parents Salvador Torres and Belen Alballar for being a source of inspiration.
Thanks to my Grandmother Reynalda who taught me hard work and humility. And thanks to my
Aunt Tina who was a mentor and an inspiration to my educational career.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge every mentor and role model who has shaped me to
be the educational leader I have become. My editor, Pat Stainke, who spent countless hours
perfecting this manuscript. It is my hope that the work of this dissertation will encourage others
to dedicate their lives to better educational opportunities for LatinX students.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Background of the Problem 10
Access to Higher Education 11
College Readiness 12
School Leadership 13
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 17
Research Questions 18
Significance of the Study 18
Limitations, Delimitations, And Assumptions 19
Glossary of Terms 20
Organization of the Study 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
Social Networks as a Form of Social Capital 22
Financial Aid Information as a Form of Social Capital 24
College Knowledge as Form of Social Capital 25
School Counseling as a Form of Social Capital 26
Mentorship and Relational Trust 28
Access to Testing and Curriculum as a Form of Social Capital 28
College Talks as a Form of Social Capital 29
College-Going Principles Promoting College Access for LatinX Students 30
College Preparation Courses 30
Family Engagement 31
Higher Education Connections 32
High Academic Expectations 33
Faculty Involvement and Participation 35
School Leaders’ Role in Building a College-Going Culture 36
The Principal 36
School Counselor 38
College Counselors 38
Summary 39
Chapter Three: Methodology 41
Research Questions 41
Research Design 42
Sample and Population 43
Overview of the Organization 44
Theoretical Framework 44
Microsystem 45
Mesosystem 45
Exosystem 46
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 4
Macrosystem 46
Conceptual Framework 47
Data Collection 49
Instrumentation 51
Data Analysis 52
Ethical Considerations 54
Summary 54
Chapter Four: Results 55
Overview of the Participants 55
Overview of the Organization 59
Data Findings 60
Research Question 1: Strategies School Leaders Use to Promote a College-Going
Culture 60
Discussion of Research Question 1 79
Research Question 2: Challenges of School Leaders in Sustaining a College-going
Culture? 81
Discussion for Research Question 2 88
Summary 90
Chapter Five: Summary 92
Purpose of the Study 92
Summary of the Findings 93
Implications for Practice and Policy 99
Recommendation for Future Studies 100
Conclusion 102
References 103
Appendix A: Letter to Participants 111
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 112
Appendix C: Observation Data Template 114

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 5
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Study Participants 50
Table 2: Research Questions 52
Table 3: Participants Characteristics 58

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory. 45
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework 48
Figure 3: Creswell’s six steps for qualitative data analysis. 53

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 7
ABSTRACT
This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1977), focusing on the ways in
which certain microsystems impact college preparedness for LatinX students. These
microsystems included school leaders, resources, families, and the school environment. The
purpose of this study was to identify the promising practices which school leaders utilized to
build and sustain a college-going culture at a large urban high school. In addition, perceived
challenges school leaders encountered were identified. Data was collected through semi-
structured interviews of ten school leaders, along with observations made by the researcher at the
college center and college night events, and document analysis. Creswell’s (2014) Data Analysis
Model was used to analyze data collected. Findings from this study demonstrated that school
leaders increased college preparedness for LatinX students by establishing high academic
expectations, building social capital to increase college knowledge, and collaborating to create
college outreach programs. Further, school leaders faced challenges in sustaining a college-going
culture such as increasing teacher self-efficacy, augmenting school financial resources, and
increasing parental involvement as a way to increase social capital. This study contributes to the
understanding of promising practices school leaders used to develop and sustain a college-going
culture focused on preparing LatinX students for post-secondary education.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
As the US economy recovers from the economic depression of 2007, the new jobs which
have been created differ from those which once defined our economy in the past. The new
economy is hiring technically adept workers who have a post-secondary education. By 2020, 65%
of all jobs will require some type of post-secondary degree. (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2013).
Educational leaders and educational policy-makers are calling for an increase in the number of
high school students who pursue post-secondary education and who attain college degrees
(Balfanz, Bridgeland, Bruce, & Fox, 2012). An educated workforce has proven to be more
resilient to recessions since the economy has shifted and focuses more on product development
which requires skilled work (Danziger & Ratner, 2010). Overall, degree attainment has
increased nationwide. Yet, the divide between socio-economic groups and racial/ethnic groups
still exists (Perna, 2006).
A significant challenge faced by educators nationwide is the lack of research in the area
of successful practices which promote a college-going culture for LatinX students. LatinX
students must overcome obstacles in order to narrow the college degree attainment gap
(Rodriguez, Rhodes, & Aguirre, 2015). While the literature clearly defines potential pathways
for US high schools to improve college attendance rates for all students, there is a need for more
research which focuses on the practices of school leaders who aim to improve the odds for
LatinX college attendance and degree attainment (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2009).
LatinX population in the United States has increased significantly in recent years, making
LatinX the largest minority group in the United States. From 2004 to 2015 the LatinX
population increased from 13 to 17 percent of the total population (Snyder & Dillow, 2015). K-
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 9
12 enrollment for LatinXs has increased from 17 to 24 percent from 2004 to 2015 (Snyder &
Dillow, 2015).
Traditionally LatinXs have had lower levels of education than other groups. In 2013, 22
percent of LatinX adults had earned an associate’s degree as compared with 60 percent of Asians,
46 percent of Whites, and 31 percent of African Americans (US Census Bureau, 2013). Even
though LatinXs currently earn more college degrees than they did in the past, they still trail other
groups in the completion of bachelor’s degrees. Fifteen percent of LatinX students have a
bachelor’s degree or higher as compared with 63 percent of Asians, 41 percent of Whites and 22
percent of African Americans (Pew Research Center, 2014). The documentation concerning
these statistics suggests three main reasons which underlie the fact that the LatinX population has
trailed other demographic groups in this area: 1) lack of college information, 2) poor financial
planning and 3) lack of overall guidance (Rodriguez et al., 2015).
Current trends among researchers who study the inequities which exist in schools indicate
a significant interest in the cultivation of a college-going culture. A college-going culture is
defined as a “school that cultivates aspirations and behaviors conducive to preparing for,
applying to, and enrolling in college” (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). In this type of culture, parents,
teachers, counselors, administrators, and students expect students to have all the experiences
necessary to prepare for college and to achieve once they attend. The adults in these groups
present the students with whom they work with high expectations. In the process, they create a
forward-looking narrative which sends the message that college preparation is a normal part of
life. As they hold a hard line, they provide relevant information, stage interventions at critical
intervals, eliminate all the students’ excuses, and continually challenge them to put in the
necessary effort and persistence to build a successful educational career. Once the students
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 10
identify with this mindset, they begin to believe that college acceptance is something to which
they can realistically aspire and no longer reserved for exceptional students (Oakes, 2014).
Extensive research points to that which is needed in schools to promote college
awareness and preparation, but very little research is available in the area of the leadership
attributes needed to support a college-going culture in schools.
Background of the Problem
Among the challenges which LatinX students face in post-secondary education is the lack
of academic preparation. There are major differences between White students and LatinX
students in regards to their academic preparation for college. Those differences include high
school curricula, the number of remedial courses taken, enrollment in advanced placement
courses, and the number of students who test for college placement (Nora & Crisp, 2009). Forty-
five percent of LatinX students enroll in remediation courses nationwide compared with 35% of
White students (Jimenez, Sargrad, Morales, & Thompson, 2016). High schools whose
demographic is primarily LatinX offer fewer A-G courses—those courses which are required for
admission into UC universities (Rogers, Fanelli, Medina, Zhu, Freelon, Bertrand & Del Razo,
2009). With less access to advanced placement courses, LatinX students comprised only 40%
of California’s AP test takers in 2016 (Kena et al., 2016). Twenty-five percent of LatinX student
who took the ACT met three or more benchmarks compared to 50% of White student and 59%
of Asian students. (ACT, 2016).
It is clear that the LatinX student population continues to grow. It is also clear that the
future workforce of America must be prepared to face the challenges of the 21
st
century.
Therefore, this lack of academic preparation among these students must be addressed.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 11
Access to Higher Education
Statistics show that LatinX students and their parents do not always have access to timely
and accurate financial aid information and that this lack of information from school personnel
has a direct impact on the students’ decisions to apply for college (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).
For this reason, it is imperative that leaders take the initiative to increase college readiness for
LatinX students by providing students and their parents with the resources and support necessary
to manage the college application and the financial aid process effectively (Roderick, Nagaoka,
& Coca, 2009). When parents and students do not have adequate access to this information, they
might forgo applying to a particular college because they believe they cannot afford the cost of
tuition. In some cases, they receive the information much too late to consider attending college
(Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). In addition, these students and their families are not always aware of
the deadlines to file for grants and loans through such programs as the Free Application for
Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). As a result, they are more likely than other students to file their
applications after the deadline has passed.
As a related issue, LatinX students enroll at two-year institutions at higher rates than
four-year universities because of the difference in the cost of college tuition.
It is worth noting that the amount of financial aid that LatinX students receive has
remained steady since 1995, and the amount that they receive is the lowest amount as compared
with other groups. The average total aid award for all students was $6,890. Asian students
received a total aid award for $7,620 and LatinX students received $6,220 (Nora & Crisp, 2009).
The lack of financial aid information predisposes LatinX students to enroll in institutions with
more affordable tuition. This perpetuates the problem of LatinX students who lack the
confidence to enroll in four-year institutions (Roderick et al., 2009).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 12
If students are to have access to a college education, they must be fully informed about
the college planning process. Among other things, they must learn how to apply for college and
where to obtain support while they are enrolled (Bryan, Farmer-Hinton, Rawls, & Woods, 2017).
To a great extent, this information comes through social networks which are an essential
component to building social capital. A social network is a structure that fosters personalized
relationships between students and staff so that academic advising and the sharing of resources
can take place (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). In schools where a college-going culture is
well established, students have access to multiple social networks and benefit from this kind of
exchange of information.
The research on social capital demonstrates that school-level relationships are linked to
positive academic outcomes for all students (McKillip, Rawls, & Barry, 2012). This research
also establishes that schools which convey information and expectations about what it means to
be college-going are better prepared to send their graduating seniors to college (Bryan et al.,
2017).
Unfortunately, LatinX students typically lack access to social networks in school. For
this reason, school leaders must take responsibility for creating structures in schools which
position school counselors, teachers, and administrators to engage in college talks with their
LatinX students (Bryan et al., 2017). These college talks will present the kind of expectations
which are the foundation of a strong college-going culture and set their feet on a path to being
better prepared for the journey ahead.
College Readiness
College readiness for LatinX students is a challenge. Among other statistics, it is
important to note that nationally, almost two-thirds of all college freshman are prepared for
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 13
college-level math. Twenty-eight percent of LatinX students are prepared for college-level math
compared to 35% of White students (Strayhorn, 2014). As LatinX students continue to fall
behind in their preparation for college readiness, leaders must create school environments which
foster educational achievement.
Student attributes which define college readiness are varied and include both cognitive
and non-cognitive skills (Tierney & Duncheon, 2015). Two elements which are critical to
developing a college-going mindset are personal resolve and being prepared to learn.
Increasing college readiness is fundamentally an instructional challenge that will require
school leadership to develop classroom environments which build knowledge and skills while
engaging students in critical thinking—all necessary if they are to gain access to and succeed in
college (Roderick et al., 2009). In 2007, Conley discussed in great detail the elements which
college professors agree constitute the patterns of intellectual behavior which undergird college
readiness. He argues that students must develop intellectual openness and inquisitiveness as well
as skills in reasoning, analysis, interpretation, argumentation, problem-solving, proof, precision,
and accuracy (Conley, 2007).
In addition to academic preparedness, there are certain non-cognitive attributes which
constitute each student’s personal resolve. These include self-motivation, goal-setting,
conscientiousness, determination to perform, and the ability to manage one’s own efforts
(Kyllonen, 2012). In a related study, researchers noted a set of crucial non-cognitive skills which
included self-regulation, agency/motivation, persistence/diligence and executive functioning
(Moore, Lippman, & Ryberg, 2015).
School Leadership
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 14
School leadership takes many forms in public schools. Teachers, counselors,
administrators, and principals are the leaders in the school community. It has been well
documented in the research that school leaders play an important role in improving the odds for
students to attend college after high school (Alvoid, & Black Jr, 2014; Gewertz, 2009; Blase &
Blase, 2000; Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). The research conducted on the barriers for
accessing college which most commonly impact LatinX students found the most impactful
barrier is not having college knowledge. For LatinX students, the amount of access they have to
counselors and effective teachers plays a critical role in their decision to attend college (Nora &
Crisp, 2009). School personnel can create environments where students can succeed by
implementing research-based strategies in their schools. All stakeholders have the responsibility
to provide adequate resources and support the students’ need for post-secondary education
(Oakes, 2014; Schneider, 2007), but those in school leadership bear the primary responsibility to
encourage students in college talks (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). School personnel can
create environments where students can succeed by implementing research-based strategies in
their schools. Among the many different strategies that school leaders can implement to
influence college attendance are the following: 1) the proliferation of information about college
on campus, 2) setting high expectations and 3) collaboration among the school staff (Strayhorn,
2014).
Statement of the Problem
One of the most important obligations of any society is to prepare its young people to
lead prosperous and productive lives as adults. Yet as we near the end of the second decade of
the 21
st
century, the US has fallen behind many other nations in educational attainment and
achievement (Symonds, Schwartz, & Ferguson, 2011). According to the National Assessment of
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 15
Educational Progress, only 37 percent of 12
th
grade students scored proficient or above in
reading and only 25

percent scored proficient or above in mathematics in 2016 (Kena, Hussar,
McFarland, de Brey, Musu-Gillette, Wang, ... & Barmer, 2018). Twenty-five percent of high
school graduates met the college readiness benchmark as measured by the ACT in 2016 (ACT,
2016). In looking at SAT data, only 43 percent of all test takers met the college and career
readiness standard in the same year (SAT, 2016). The percentages are even more dismal for
minority groups and underrepresented students.
These statistics suggest a grim future for an economy that requires a more educated
workforce. The job growth for those occupations which require a post-secondary degree has
grown to 63 percent of all jobs in 2018 (Carnevale et al., 2013).
The vitality of this nation depends on its ability to produce the number of college
graduates that the economy requires (Carnevale et al., 2013). For this reason, the United States
launched an initiative in 2011 to increase degree attainment nationwide. The goal is to have the
largest percentage of college graduates in the world by 2020 (Symonds et al., 2011). This
presents unique challenges when one considers that LatinX are the fastest growing minority
group in the United States and the one with the lowest rates of educational enrollment and
completion. LatinX students enroll in college at a rate of 79 percent as compared with 83
percent of African American students and 86 percent of White students. Twenty-one percent of
LatinX students acquire a bachelor’s degree as compared with 32 percent of African Americans
and 45 percent of White students. The overall percentage of LatinX students who receive some
type of post-secondary education is 45 percent as compared with 66 percent of African
Americans and 74 percent of White students (Carnevale & Fasules, 2017). If our nation is to
reach the goal of having the largest percentage of college graduates in the world by 2020, school
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 16
leaders must uphold certain expectations in order to ensure that all students—regardless of their
background—are connected to resources and information which prepare them for the challenges
of a post-secondary education (Welton & Williams, 2015).
If our students are to succeed, they will not be able to do it without sufficient support,
especially from those in school leadership. School leadership bears the responsibility of
preparing students for the challenges of post-secondary education. The research identifies school
leaders as those who are in a position to be agents of change to impact student achievement by
creating an organization that believes in all students and by implementing a vision of high
expectations for post-secondary studies (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009; Gewertz, 2009;
Welton, & Williams, 2015). As these school leaders foster personalized relationships with
students and staff so that frequent communication takes place, they create a dynamic of social
support which will undergird the success of their students. Relationships which are built within
the school play a significant role in empowering students to apply for college admission.
Furthermore, those in school leadership who believe in the potential of LatinX students have an
obligation to create programs which impart the school’s vision and support the students’
opportunities to prepare for college admission. In a successful school, administrators have
college talks with all students in high school. School leaders promote and support students in
preparation to take the PSAT and SAT. Advisory teachers support the work of academic
counselors and college counselors by engaging students in the college planning process in their
classes (Gewertz, 2009). When these relationships are personalized and successful programs are
implemented, students are engaged and committed to achieving their academic goals (Holland &
Farmer-Hinton, 2009).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 17
Purpose of the Study
School leaders are responsible for creating a school environment in which students can
thrive and prepare for the challenges of a post-secondary education. When a high school context
includes and promotes college information, college talks, social networks and the forging of
relationships with staff, the opportunities for students to access higher education is dramatically
increased (Robinson & Roksa, 2016). While the research supports the finding that a college-
going culture in schools is effective at promoting college attendance for all students, more
research is needed to understand the effectiveness of leadership as they seek to create and sustain
a college-going culture (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Oakes, 2014). Additional research is also
needed to measure their rates of success as they purpose to prepare LatinX students for higher
education. As we attempt to close the achievement gap and to approach the national goal to
graduate more students by the year 2020, it would be beneficial to learn from those school
leaders on the field who are the most effective in influencing LatinX students to prepare for
college admission and to succeed during the years of college attendance which follow.
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived promising practices of school
leaders at Main City High School in implementing and sustaining a college-going culture to
increase college preparation for LatinX students. The study analyzed practices in a large urban
high school where a large percentage of LatinX students have high rates in both graduation and
college acceptance. In particular, the study sought to understand the practices which school
leadership currently implements as they promote rigorous coursework, develop college readiness,
and prepare their students to take and pass college entrance exams.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 18
Research Questions
This study sought to explore those promising practices which school leaders employ as
they form and sustain a college-going culture. The research questions used to guide this study
were developed collaboratively by six members of the thematic group in the USC Doctoral
program to understand further the leadership components which contribute to the successful
implementation of a college-going culture. This research project was designed to answer the
following questions:
1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Main City High School employ to promote
a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
2. What are the perceived challenges of school leaders at Main City High School in
sustaining a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
Significance of the Study
In 2010, President Obama declared his decision to make college readiness a national
priority. He petitioned Congress for more than 100 million dollars for that purpose (Strayhorn,
2014). Despite efforts such as these, national data suggest that on average, high school graduates
are not college ready (Strayhorn, 2014). It is the responsibility of school leaders to create
structures which will enable students to prepare for college successfully and will increase degree
attainment for all students.
The low educational attainment for LatinX students signals the need for educational
leaders to re-invent the way LatinX students are educated. Research has demonstrated that
LatinX students face unique challenges which prevent them from enrolling and completing
college degrees (Rodriguez et al., 2015; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2009). As a rule,
LatinX students do not initially enroll in a four-year university (Arbona & Nora, 2007; Gandara
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 19
& Contreras, 2009). A number of factors constitute barriers which currently prevent LatinXs
from enrolling in a four-year university. These factors include a lack of parental involvement, a
lack of access to cultural and social capital, and a lack of access to high-quality schools (Nuñez
& Kim, 2012). Research has identified each of these components as present in those schools
which have an established college-going culture (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). In schools
where this culture is active and thriving, there is a high percentage of students who are college-
ready at graduation. It is necessary to examine the literature to better understand the ways in
which school leaders contribute to the creation of school environments which address the needs
of LatinX students.
This study sought to better understand the promising practices which successful school
leaders have developed, implemented, and which have proven to be successful as they continue
to create and sustain a college-going culture where LatinX students thrive and successfully attain
college degrees. These practices hold great promise for new teams of school leaders who intend
to adopt and implement them with their students and will undoubtedly serve as a roadmap for
educational leaders who seek to close the achievement gap.
Limitations, Delimitations, And Assumptions
The limitations of the study are those factors which impact the end results but are beyond
the control of the researcher. There are several limitations to this study. The first limitation is
that the parameters of the doctoral dissertation process only allow for data collection to occur
over a period of 3 months (maximum). Another limitation of the study is that this qualitative
study uses interviews with voluntary participants. The quality of the responses is dependent
upon the structure of the interview and the comfort level of the individual. Another limitation is
researcher bias; the researcher may bring his biases and pre-conceived notions when collecting
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 20
data. To counteract the biases, triangulation is used to increase the probability of validity and
reliability (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
The delimitations of the study are those which are under the control of the researcher. In
this study, the delimitations are the criteria used to select the unit of analysis for the study. For
the purpose of this study, it was decided to select a Title I school whose graduation rates are at
90 percent or higher. The majority of the school’s population must be LatinX students.
Glossary of Terms
Many terms were used along the way to inform this case study. These terms include:
1. College attainment gap Also known as the educational gap, this is the gap that exists
between White students and underrepresented minorities in the attainment of college
degrees.
2. UC/CSU University of California/California State University
3. A-G A set of 15 courses approved by the University of California designed to maximize
college readiness and are required for acceptance into their system.
4. College-going Culture A college-going culture facilitates student learning, college
readiness, and college matriculation for all of its students (Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
5. LatinX Those who are of Hispanic descent and/or foreign-born.
Organization of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the perceived strategies which school leaders
implement to promote a college-going culture at a high school with a high percentage of
LatinX students. In addition, the study sought to explore the perceived challenges school
leaders face in sustaining a college-going culture. Chapter One addresses the problems with
public education, the components of a college-going culture in schools, and the role of those
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 21
who are in school leadership in establishing a college-going culture. Chapter Two outlines
the factors that are included in a college-going culture. In Chapter Two, areas that will be
discussed include: school environment, school resources, family engagement, school leaders,
and the theoretical framework. Chapter Three describes the methodology and the conceptual
framework to be used during this study. Chapter Four discusses the data collected in
reference to the research questions and reports on the findings as the data were analyzed and
interpreted. Chapter Five gives an analysis of the findings and offers suggestions for future
research.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
School leadership plays an invaluable role in creating and sustaining a college-going
culture in urban schools (Perna et al., 2008). To better understand the role of school leaders in
creating and sustaining a college-going culture in schools, this literature review will begin by
exploring the factors which impact the access which LatinX students have to higher education.
This review will further study the aspects of school context which promote a college-going
culture, as well as the school resources that enable building knowledge about college. In addition,
family engagement will be explored in the literature. Finally, the theoretical framework for this
study is presented following a review of the literature. This chapter concludes with a summary of
the main points from the literature review and provides a connection with the study.
Impact of Social Capital on College Access
Social capital may be defined as the amount of support, information, and resources
available to the individual (Schwartz et al., 2018). All students need to build their social capital
to be successful in college. However, because LatinX and underrepresented students typically
do not have enough social capital to be able to access relevant information about college (Perna
et al., 2008), one vital service which counselors can provide is to establish social networks so
that their students have the means to build social capital.
Social Networks as a Form of Social Capital
One of the few core elements in successful schools with an established college-going
culture is social networks. A social network is a structure that fosters personalized relationships
between students and staff and one which facilitates academic advising and the sharing of
resources (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). Social networks are the essential components to
build social capital. Social capital is built on the interactions between students and college-
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 23
educated staff. The research on social capital demonstrates that school-level relationships are
linked to positive academic outcomes for all students (McKillip et al., 2012). Students develop a
sense of responsibility and a commitment to meet their academic goals when they have a strong
connection with an adult at school (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009).
In schools where a college-going culture is well established, students have access to
multiple social networks and benefit from the exchange of information. Information from these
social networks ranges from how to apply for college to how to get support while enrolled in
college (Bryan et al., 2017).
Social capital may be defined as the manner in which social networks allow for the
interactions of staff and students to establish high expectations while providing opportunities for
the exchange of information about college (Bryan et al., 2017). Social capital allows access to
informal social networks needed to engage in seeking and acquiring the necessary college-related
information that could make college application process attainable (Nora & Crisp, 2009). The
relationships which are forged between staff and students in the process are particularly
important to LatinX students who come from socially disadvantaged backgrounds and who have
had academic difficulties in the past (McKillip et al., 2012).
Schools disseminate college information in various ways. In schools with a college-going
culture, students have the option of going to the college center to obtain relevant information
about college entrance requirements and the application process. In addition to resources made
available through the college center, students can have access to college information through
social networks.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 24
Financial Aid Information as a Form of Social Capital
A comprehensive approach to promoting a college-going culture includes information
about how to finance a college degree (Crellin, Kelly, & Prince, 2012). Historically, LatinX
students have relied heavily on support from the federal government to meet the costs of tuition,
books, and housing. Zarate & Burciaga (2010) were able to find a link between financial aid
made available to parents and an expanded set of college choices. For this reason, financial aid
information is critical for LatinX students and their families.
However, the American Council on Education estimates that one in five low-income
students who are enrolled in college and who most likely would qualify for federal Pell grants
never filed an application for a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA; Roderick et
al., 2009). A closer look at college financing reveals that LatinX students who apply for FAFSA
apply late (after April 1)—a factor which reduces their eligibility for state and institutional aid
(Roderick et al., 2009). Why is this the case? Unfortunately, LatinX parents and students lack
significant information about financing college and often receive information much too late to be
able to consider attending college (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). A related growing concern is that
the complexity of the federal financial aid application creates barriers for students.
At a time when federal subsidies are decreasing, and the cost of the family contribution is
rising, the underutilization of federal financing opportunities among LatinX students means that
is it more important than ever that access to financial aid be demystified. This reality puts this the
financial aid factor on a par with the importance of increasing access to college (Zarate &
Burciaga, 2010).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 25
LatinX families and students rely on financial aid information being provided by the
school in a timely manner. School leaders can change the trend for LatinX families by providing
timely and pertinent financial aid information.
College Knowledge as Form of Social Capital
Apart from earning the required academic qualifications in high school, students’ college
readiness will be impacted by whether the student has the information, resources, and skills
necessary to navigate the college enrollment process effectively.
Unfortunately, students with college aspirations in urban schools often lack information
about the various factors involved in the college application process and have a difficult time
taking the correct steps needed to apply (Roderick et al., 2009).
A full array of topics covered in a school with an established college-going culture include:
• admissions requirements for a four year versus a two-year institution
• admissions requirements among four-year universities
• the student’s potential for being accepted to a university
• the ACT/SAT scores required for acceptance into a desired university
• how to pay for college, and
• personal readiness for college-level work (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009).
Although college knowledge is not traditionally discussed as a component of college
readiness, it is important to note that this factor alone can create disparities among racial groups.
The fact that LatinX students are more likely to apply to 2-year institutions than affluent White
students (Roderick et al., 2009) suggests that LatinX students face barriers well beyond their
academic qualifications for college access. They must also understand the college application
process, the financial aid system, and the range of course choices within the post-secondary
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 26
system. In addition, they must learn how to navigate these complex systems (Roderick et al.,
2009).
Without a doubt, inequities in these and other dimensions of college knowledge compromise
the college aspirations of students who are first in their families to attend college (Strayhorn,
2014). For this reason, school leaders must distribute knowledge on these and other college-
ready topics equitably.
School Counseling as a Form of Social Capital
For those students who may not have the college knowledge or social capital, and those who
lack family support, counselors play a major role in the dissemination of information about
college entrance requirements and the application process (Oakes, 2014).
Counselors and staff are the primary sources for college knowledge for LatinX families.
They are especially valuable to students whose parents are not familiar with the complicated
process of enrolling and applying for college (Perna et al., 2008). Access to guidance counselors
has been found to play a critical role when LatinX students are making college attendance
decisions (Nora & Crisp, 2009).
Schools which offer advanced courses realize that students should not only be challenged
with rigorous courses and a motivation for learning but they should also have some support
networks which make it possible for them to succeed and difficult to fail (Oakes, 2014). With
this in mind, in addition to sharing information about college readiness and the application
process, counselors create networks of support for LatinX students seeking college information
and strategies for academic success and access to college (Oakes, 2014). These networks enable
students to rely on each other and receive support in their academic programs (Oakes, 2014).
Perhaps the most valuable aspect of these social networks which counselors establish with other
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 27
students and college-graduated staff is that it provides a form of support which may be lacking in
the students’ families and their communities (Oakes, 2014).
Students look to their counselors for a mentoring relationship which will provide them
with college knowledge and equip them to take the right path toward their goals. College
counselors are uniquely positioned to assist students and parents by providing a rich source of
college knowledge. This involves conducting seminars and workshops about financial aid
information and the financing of a college education. They also plan and coordinate college field
trips and/or college visits. College information can take many different forms ranging from
course-taking patterns to college entrance requirements (Kimura-Walsh, Yamamura, Griffin, &
Allen, 2009). When college counselors establish hubs of information which enable all students to
help each other, the students are better equipped to navigate the complex processes of preparing
for college and navigating the college application process (Savitz-Romer, 2012).
In the process of developing college knowledge for their students, counselors start by
providing a form of mentorship which builds relational trust. They create avenues to develop
social capital, give information about college requirements, direct students as to which courses
they should take, and give students tools to find the college which best fits their potential, their
interests, and their needs. They inform students as to which tests they will need to take and give
the opportunities to prepare for those tests. In their roles as mentors, they walk the students
through vital information in the application process (Perna et al., 2008), and provide live
connections to those colleges which are of interest to them.
Mentorship and Relational Trust

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 28
Mentorship and Relational Trust
As many LatinX and underrepresented students do not have the college information
resources available to them at home, students need mentors in the school. Counselors have an
opportunity to fill this gap by creating a connection between home and school, often playing the
role of parents (Rodriguez et al., 2015). For this reason, many LatinX students rely on their
school counselors to provide them with accurate and relevant college information. This being
the case, the relational trust which is built between counselors and students is important.
Research indicates that a student’s relationship with counselors—and the quality of his
interactions with those counselors—directly impacts his motivation and desire to pursue post-
secondary education (McKillip et al., 2013).
Access to Testing and Curriculum as a Form of Social Capital
The ACT, the SAT, and AP tests are possibly the ones which universities most
commonly used to make admissions decisions. Schools which are successful in creating a
college-going culture prepare students for the rigors of college by offering college standardized
tests and advanced placement courses.
The ACT is a battery of tests which measures content knowledge in the core areas: Mathematics,
English, Science, and Reading. The maximum score in each content area is 36. As colleges
compare student profiles, they consider this single standardized test score along with the students’
GPAs and teacher recommendations to inform their decisions (Allen & Sconing, 2005).
The SAT works in a similar fashion in that it provides colleges with a single data point to
compare students. This test is composed of two sections: 1) evidence-based reading and writing
and 2) mathematics. The total score possible for the two sections is 1600. Similar to the ACT, the
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 29
SAT is used by admission officers to inform decisions about students (Marchant, Paulson, &
Rothlisberg, 2001).
In addition to referring to standardized test results (ACT and SAT), universities consider
other indicators to predict the level of success which students will have in their freshman year of
college. These additional indicators include each student’s pattern of taking AP courses, his AP
test results, and his GPA.
AP testing demonstrates college potential because it reflects the success which a student
has achieved in the rigorous sequence of courses which he has taken (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013).
AP courses are traditionally known to be challenging because they demand higher order critical
thinking skills (Baum et al., 2010). Students who understand the level of competition will look to
go above a 4.0 GPA by enrolling and succeeding in AP courses. AP courses have the added
benefit of adding an extra point to your GPA. The added point in a student’s GPA offers an
advantage over other students who are under consideration.
College counselors know that for students to stay competitive when applying to popular
universities, they must enroll and have success in AP courses (Perna et al., 2008).
Successful schools with an established college-going culture offer multiple pathways for student
access to college-level courses and prepare students all year long for the ACT and SAT. In some
schools, their preparation extends to creating benchmark exams that match both the SAT and the
ACT. This emphasis on testing combined with a focus on a highly rigorous curriculum prepares
students for the challenges of post-secondary education (Contreras, 2005).
College Talks as a Form of Social Capital
Successful high schools with an effective college-going culture utilize school personnel
to build human capital in students. According to research, when a school staff gives their
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 30
students access to pertinent information about college entrance requirements and the application
process, they can have a significant impact on the college attendance rates. College
conversations with school counselors, teachers and coaches are a great opportunity to work with
students to set realistic goals and plans. As they support students with the skills needed to
achieve those goals, the result is a student body who is more highly motivated to apply to college
(McKillip et al., 2013).
Counselors have different ways to motivate students to attend college. Some counselors
talk to students about the financial advantages that a college degree can bring to them. One
counselor told students that they could make a million dollars in the span of their lifetime if they
had a college degree (Tieken, 2016). Other counselors emphasized the freedom to move within a
company or to be able to move from one company to another.
College-Going Principles Promoting College Access for LatinX Students
College Preparation Courses
Students need access to a college prep curriculum in order to meet college entrance
requirements. A rigorous high school academic curriculum, particularly one which includes
higher level mathematics, is one of several determinants of college enrollment (Nuñez & Kim,
2012). Higher levels of math course enrollment have been found to correlate with college
enrollment (Nuñez & Kim, 2012). For this reason, a higher-level performance in mathematics
has a strong effect on the academic culture and human capital of the school. Mathematical skills
associated with college enrollment are typically taught in a rigorous course sequence including
Algebra I, Geometry, Algebra II and any other course including Data and Probability and
Statistics (Cohen, 2008). Another set of courses which are required by universities are Advanced
Placement courses. Students learn more in advanced courses with a rigorous curriculum (Oakes,
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 31
2014). Besides mathematical skills and course-taking patterns which lead to AP courses, there
are other non-cognitive skills that define student preparedness for the challenges of post-
secondary education that can only be acquired school with a rich college-going culture.
There are several cognitive and non-cognitive skills which students acquire in high
school which determine their college readiness (Conley, 2007). In addition to acquiring basic
skills, core academic skills, and content knowledge, students must balance these with non-
cognitive skills and college knowledge (Roderick et al., 2009). Content knowledge and basic
skills are essential to the understanding of content-specific knowledge. Core academic skills such
as writing and critical thinking are not subject specific. These allow students to engage in work
which spans a variety of disciplines (Roderick et al., 2009). Non-cognitive skills which students
need include study skills, work habits, time management, help-seeking behavior and social
problem-solving skills (Roderick et al., 2009).
Family Engagement
Schools which promote college readiness also highlight the inclusion of community
resources. As support and encouragement come from different sources such as parents, teachers,
counselors, and administrators, families are given access to the necessary information about
college resources, the application process, and financial aid (Oakes, 2014). When strong
connections exist between families and schools, schools build on the parents’ strengths and
regard them as a valuable resource for students. Successful schools who view parents as
educational partners understand the importance of recruiting parents to become strong advocates
and effective supporters of students (Oakes, 2014). These schools transmit as much information
as possible, engaging the parents in seminars, workshops, and other outreach efforts to provide
them with knowledge about how the educational system works (Oakes, 2014).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 32
Furthermore, Oakes (2014) insists that school leaders go beyond sharing information
about facts and procedures; they engage the parents in accessing tools which enable them to
become effective advocates for their children. Widely adopted in many schools, this strategy has
proven especially useful in schools where LatinX students attend because parents tend to be less
informed about college entrance requirements and application process. Once they become well-
informed, parents become an important asset for their children. They encourage them to enroll
in highly rigorous courses, to register and prepare for important college assessments (Perna et al.,
2008), and assist them in navigating the complicated college application process.
The literature makes it clear that when parental support is paired with staff support, the
combination creates a support system which has a powerful impact on student persistence.
Higher Education Connections
When higher education institutions partner with high schools, they are better positioned
to understand the educational needs of first-generation students. These institutions can provide
support networks for students to connect with and learn from peers about how to navigate the
institution and college life (Tinto, 2006). Considering the challenges that exist for LatinX and
underrepresented students, colleges can offer academic advising, personal and career counseling
and mentoring programs.
One very important partnership between a group of high schools and the University of
California (UC) has already been well implemented and is demonstrating immediate success for
the students involved (Cohen, 2008). Students who are currently registered in high school are
exposed to the A-G curriculum: a program which is designed to propel students into the UC
system by first preparing them for the challenges of post-secondary academic work. Students
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 33
who embark on this program must receive a C or better in each of the courses to meet the
minimum requirements.
LatinX and underrepresented students need additional support to ensure success in
college. This type of support can take many forms: developmental coursework, tutor labs, and
peer-assisted academic support (Tinto, 2006). Another approach is to enroll cohorts of students
in two or more classes together, which promotes both faculty and peer networks of support. The
benefits of the A-G curriculum are far-reaching and especially beneficial for students who
traditionally are excluded from post-secondary educational opportunities (Lin, 2006). First, it
consists of 15 courses ranging from social studies to college electives and constitutes the
minimum requirements for acceptance in the university system (Lin, 2006). This provides a
roadmap and equitable access for all students.
High Academic Expectations
Conley (2007) explains that a school staff builds college knowledge by holding high
expectations for their students. For this reason, a staff which sets clear expectations for their
students is a critically important component of a college-going culture. This type of staff
encourages students to formulate and voice their aspirations, to set realistic goals, and to make
plans based on those goals. In this environment, all students believe that college is within their
reach and not just for a select few.
LatinX students who attend schools where a coach, a teacher, or a counselor expresses a
desire for them to go to college have a higher probability of attending college after high school.
Forty-eight percent of students in 10
th
grade and 64% of students in 12
th
grade have reported
that they perceived a high degree of college expectations from a coach, a teacher or a counselor.
In other words, these students felt that at least three staff members in school expected them to
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 34
attend college (Bryan et al., 2017). When the expectations as voiced by teachers and counselors
are clear, and when they are paired with organizational structures which support student goals,
the result is students who plan their futures with confidence (Bryan et al., 2017).
Students in schools with an established college-going culture have an opportunity to build
their self-efficacy. Staff members encourage students to pursue highly rigorous courses and
motivate them to exert the effort necessary to succeed in those courses. In addition to high
expectations which these students hear voiced by the counselors and coaches in the school
administration, the high expectations which are set for them in the classroom translate into
students believing that college is not out of reach (Ayala & Chalupa, 2016).
If students feel that their teachers harbor low expectations of their abilities, the result is
students who struggle to believe in themselves, and their efforts suffer. On the other hand, when
teachers believe in their students’ abilities, they play an especially vital role in building
confidence and character in their students as they promote a clear set of expectations for them
(Rodriguez et al., 2015). When students are confident that the teacher wants them to be better,
they exert more effort into their studies, receive better marks, and rise to the expectations that
have been set for them.
LatinX and underrepresented students need teachers who can build their self-efficacy.
Even if a student has experienced years of inequities and poor quality instruction, one year spent
with a good quality teacher—one who believes in his abilities—can erase the harmful effects
which have caused him to be an underachiever in the past.
It is clear that when high expectations are coupled with intervention and support, students
emerge believing that a college degree is something they are capable of attaining (Oakes, 2014).

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 35
Faculty Involvement and Participation
Collaboration among stakeholders is often cited in the research as one important factor in
a student’s ability to obtain important information about college. In schools with an established
college-going culture, counselors, staff, and teachers work together to disseminate information
about college entrance requirements and the application process (Perna et al., 2008). Teachers
and staff explain the norms and communicate the level of expectations for all students (Savitz-
Romer, 2012). They also play a vital role in the implementation of a highly rigorous curriculum
and the preparation for college assessments. As students prepare for college assessments,
advisory teachers serve as leaders and advisors. They provide important information, monitor
student grades, and hold them accountable for registering for college information workshops.
In addition to setting clear expectations, those who teach in schools with an established
college-going culture further empower students by creating social networks which enable
students to access important college information through an exchange with other students. They
then serve as facilitators of networks which share important college information (Savitz-Romer,
2012). The networks themselves facilitate meaningful interactions with students and inform
students about college preparatory skills. The networks become an even more powerful tool as
students who are more adept at using them to find information share these resources with other
students.
Collaboration among all stakeholders is essential for creating an environment that sets
high expectations and provides the resources to meet those expectations (Oakes, 2014). All
efforts are coordinated to inspire student aspirations and to close the goal-achievement gap.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 36
It is the responsibility of school leaders to ensure that all students have access to a highly
rigorous curriculum and that they receive the support necessary for college preparation and
success (Oakes, 2014).
School Leaders’ Role in Building a College-Going Culture
School culture is created and maintained by all stakeholders, but school leaders must
nurture it so that it continues to grow (Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018). A pre-condition for
the establishment of a college-going culture is the readiness and expertise of school leaders
(Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018). They are the ones responsible for creating networks of
support for students who are taking highly rigorous courses. These leaders communicate high
expectations, hold students accountable, and require enrollment in rich academic courses
(Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018).
Another vital function of school leaders is to create and support social networks. These
networks serve to build social capital in students who otherwise would not have access to college
information. These networks must be maintained by those who understand that the purpose of
the networks is not only to disseminate information, but also to build support and community–
also known as social capital—among the students who otherwise would not have access to
college information.
The Principal
Principals play an important role in building a college-going culture. The position of a
principal in any school is deemed as the source of inspiration and wisdom. Principals should
take advantage of the level of influence that the position carries to establish a culture of high
expectations and a belief that all students can succeed in post-secondary education (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 37
Principals who want to make a difference in their schools begin by building a relationship
of trust among their students. They then hold students accountable for their actions as they
navigate the rigor of the curriculum that will prepare them for college. The relationship trust
should extend to the families so that parents can become allies and provide additional support to
the students and the school (Saunders & Serna, 2004).
Principals of schools with an established college-going culture support teachers who
express a desire to invest in their professional development by learning about college-related
topics and who then share what they have learned with students and families. They work with
teachers and staff to display college materials on every wall of the school (Saunders & Serna,
2004). Strong principals understand that quality interactions between counselors and students
will increase students’ knowledge about college information (Perna et al., 2008). They insist that
counselors spend a significant amount of time working with students to inform them about
college entrance requirements and the application process.
Principals in successful schools who understand the importance of a college-going
culture also invest in a comprehensive counseling program and establish partnerships with higher
education institutions. The benefits of establishing partnerships with nearby universities include
the alignment of curriculum, the source of information for parents and students, and the
preparation for college assessments (Saunders & Serna, 2004). School leaders are always
looking for ways to partner with nearby colleges and universities because these institutions offer
summer bridge programs where students can acquire those college-level skills which are vital to
their success. Students learn the necessary reading, writing, and math skills as they work
collaboratively to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Corwin & Tierney, 2007).

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 38
School Counselor
High school counselors hold a potentially important position to help increase the number
of LatinX and underrepresented minorities who will receive post-secondary degrees. The role
which counselors play in high school is particularly key when working with LatinX and
underrepresented students because of the nature of their responsibilities. For many students,
counselors are the only source of college information. Counselors can offer important
information for students and take an active role in advising them when applying and enrolling in
college (McKillip et al., 2013). Among all students who are enrolled in a 4-year university, 32%
percent are first-generation students, i.e., those whose parents have not graduated from college.
These students often lack social capital at home because their parents do not have college
knowledge. Research shows that when counselors provide leadership to LatinX students,
promoting college application and attendance, they play a significant role which results in a high
incidence of positive outcomes among the students they serve. This research further shows that
LatinX students who felt supported by their counselors were more likely than their counterparts
to apply to a four-year university (McKillip, Rawls, & Barry, 2012).
College Counselors
The role of college counselors is to ensure that students receive the most appropriate
information according to their plans (Perna et al., 2008). They play a significant role as
promoters of a college education at schools with underrepresented students and provide vital
support to principals who are committed to creating and sustaining a college-going culture.
Parents of LatinX and underrepresented students are often not aware of how to navigate the
process of college enrollment and application. However, counselors can help to close this gap by
playing the role of the extended family at the school site (Perna et al., 2008). For this reason,
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 39
LatinX students who lack parental or community resources—especially those in urban schools—
rely heavily on their counselors to supply college information and to provide those missing links
(Savitz-Romer, 2012).
Summary
The purpose of this review was to examine the literature concerning the essential
elements found in a college-going culture. To a great extent, the review explores the promising
practices which are currently in place to encourage, equip, and otherwise enable LatinX students
to attend and succeed in college. A wide range of topics was covered ranging from the quality of
counseling programs to the intricacies of school financing and federal financial aid. The study
then discussed the components of a college-going culture by exploring the current literature
available on the topic. The study discussed nine different components of a college-going culture
ranging from college talks to connections with institutions of higher learning. The impact of
leadership and its connections to building and sustaining a college-going culture was further
explored in this review. The review described in detail the ways in which each role in school
leadership was responsible for improving students’ chances of attending and succeeding in
college.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the promising practices utilized by school
leaders as they build and sustain a college-going culture. Students who are currently in school
are still waiting for educational leaders who know how to create school systems that are
successful at transitioning students from high school into post-secondary institutions.
The process of identifying characteristics and predispositions begins as the need for more
students to attain post-secondary degrees increases. Very little research was found in this review
about the role of the principal and leadership staff in revamping high school programs which are
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 40
more effective at meeting the needs of LatinX students. Because the US labor force requires that
current students prepare for success in post-secondary institutions, and because the socio-
economic divide exists among ethnic groups, it is necessary to investigate further the role of
school leaders in preparing LatinX and underrepresented students for college degree attainment.
The intent of this study to contribute to the body of knowledge in these areas by exploring and
expanding on the promising practices of leaders who have proven to be successful at building
and sustaining a college-going culture in their schools

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study explored how effective school leadership can create a college-going culture by
implementing the promising practices which were highlighted in the research. The purpose of
this study was to examine the promising practices which school leaders employ to promote and
sustain a college-going culture for LatinX students. The study also examined the challenges
faced by school leaders when creating and sustaining a college-going culture. The practices
related to creating and sustaining a college-going culture were analyzed through the lens of the
Bronfenbrenner theory. The results of this qualitative study contributed to the field of education
by providing insight as to how a college-going culture can increase college preparedness for
LatinX students.
This chapter will delineate the two specific questions addressed by this study and the
research methodology employed. It will describe the sample selection process, the population,
and provide an overview of the organization examined. The chapter discusses the theoretical
framework along with the conceptual framework developed by the thematic group. Data
collection methods, instrumentation utilized, and data analysis are discussed. Finally, ethical
considerations are discussed including the confidentiality of respondent identity and data security.
Research Questions
To understand the promising practices which school leaders utilize to create and sustain a
college-going culture, this study intends to answer the following research questions developed
collaboratively by the thematic group EdD cohort 2016:
3. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Main City High School employ to promote
a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 42
4. What are the perceived challenges of school leaders at Main City High School in
sustaining a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
Research Design
The best way to understand how school leaders build and maintain a college-going
culture using a qualitative case study is to interview key school stakeholders, conduct
observations of college-going activities which are taking place, and review school documents
and reports which promote the target culture (Creswell, 2014). A qualitative case study was the
most appropriate method to utilize as the study sought to understand the promising practices that
school leaders use to create and sustain a college-going culture. A case study is limited to
interview a finite number of people, analyze a limited number of documents and reports, and
conduct a predetermined number of observations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
The researcher primarily utilized interviews as the primary source of information: 1) to
gain insight by analyzing the participants’ responses and 2) to understand the perceptions of
leaders who promote college access for LatinX students. Interviews allow for the researcher to
gain information about the perceived strategies which school leaders use to promote a college-
going culture and the challenges they face as they seek to create and sustain it. By using a semi-
structured design, the interviews in a qualitative study allow for open-ended questions poised to
elicit views and perceptions from the participants (Creswell, 2014).
Observations are used in a qualitative case study when an activity, event, or situation can
be observed first-hand. Observations allow the researcher to gather information which can
contribute to the study or which might have been left out of the interview responses. In addition,
observations are used in conjunction with interviews, documents, and reports to triangulate
findings as they emerge and to justify the findings before they are recorded in the final report. In
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 43
this study, the researcher wrote field notes on the behavior of participants and activities taking
place at the school, and his role varied from a nonparticipant to an active participant, depending
on the activity (Creswell, 2014).
In addition to interviews and observations, this study relied on documents to gain a better
understanding of the strategies that school leaders utilize to promote a college-going culture and
to understand the challenges faced by school leaders as they implement that culture. Documents
allow for the researcher to gain insight into how people at the school site describe events or
scenes in a way entirely comparable to what is seen and heard in observations and interviews
(Creswell, 2014).
Sample and Population
This study examined the practices that school leaders use to promote a school
environment where LatinX students are able to prepare and apply for college. The purposeful
sampling process will be used to select school leaders for this study to allow the researcher to
gain an understanding of the practices that promote a college-going culture. (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). The unit of study for this investigation is the school leaders within a high school who
have been successful in implementing a college-going culture and graduating LatinX students
who are prepared for the challenges of post-secondary education. For the purpose of this study,
the researcher interviewed four teachers (a representative from each core content area), four
administrators, one coordinator, and the principal. The criteria used to select the school leaders
were based on the activities they engage in to promote a culture of success in high school. The
study will attempt to uncover the specific practices and activities which school leaders engage in
which result in a high number of college applications and college acceptance rates.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 44
Overview of the Organization
The study site is a large suburban high school called Main City High School. Located in
Southern California, Main City High School serves students in grades 9-12. The student
population at Main City High School is 3771 students. The make-up of the student population is
as follows: American Indian .4%, Asian 2%, African American 3%, Hawaiian Native .3%,
Hispanic 89% and White 5%. Sixty-four percent of the student body is economically
disadvantaged. Main City High School is considered a Title I school. The graduation rate is 97
Percent. Main City High School has 146 full-time teachers, nine academic counselors, three
College and Career counselors, five Administrators and one principal.
Theoretical Framework
In the process of attempting to understand how leadership at the school site affects the
preparation and the aspirations for LatinX students to apply and succeed in post-secondary
education, the study will explore the ecological model of Bronfenbrenner. By putting the student
at the center of the model, the study will be able to explore each layer and understand how the
components in each layer interact with each other to provide the tools necessary for educational
attainment of LatinX students to increase. Each layer of the model is nested within the others,
with the one closest to the individual placed at the center.
Figure 1.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 45

Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory.
Microsystem
This is the center of the ecosystem and is nested at its core. In this layer of the system,
the interactions of the factors which are close to the individual will be studied and analyzed. The
researcher will explore the direct connections between the student and school leaders, school
resources, family, and the school context. School leaders are in direct contact with the student as
they interact with each other on a daily basis. Parents are also in direct contact with the student
and play a pivotal role in the formation of the student.
Mesosystem
In the mesosystem, the second layer of the model, the interactions which occur are
directly connected to the microsystem. For an interaction to be considered part of the
mesosystem, it has to be a direct interaction between two aspects of the microsystem which
influences the development of the individual. The interactions that exist between school leaders,
resources, family, and the school environment will be analyzed in the mesosystem.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 46
In this study, the relationship between the individual’s family and school leaders along with
resources and school environment will be further analyzed to determine how they impact college
enrollment and success. For example, social networks will be nested in this part of the
ecological model. The development of social capital and the dissemination of information that
occurs in school takes place in the context of these interactions. Relational trust that is
developed between staff and students also occurs within this layer.
Exosystem
The exosystem is the third layer of the model. In this layer, the study will analyze the
elements of the microsystem which do not impact the individual directly but may do so indirectly.
Schools which lack a college-going culture do not directly impact the individual, but indirectly,
they may have a significant impact. Students who come from LatinX homes where parents lack
the necessary resources to provide valuable information about college entrance requirements is
an example of how parents can indirectly impact individual students.
Macrosystem
The fourth and final layer of the ecological model reveals cultural and societal beliefs and
programming which influence an individual’s development. Examples of this would include
gender norms or religious influence. LatinX students and underrepresented students might face
obstacles set up by their own culture. In some studies, it was observed that students were held
back by their own beliefs about education. As families often depended on them to provide an
income, many LatinX students considered college to be a waste of time (Rodriguez et al., 2015).
LatinX students were often criticized for wanting to move away to attend college (Kimura-Walsh
et al., 2009).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 47
For this study, only the first two layers of the system will be studied and analyzed (Micro
and Meso).
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory states that the development of a person is
affected by everything in their surroundings. Bronfenbrenner divides the person’s environment
into four different levels: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.
By placing the student at the center of the circle, the researcher is able to observe how the factors
in the immediate levels of the model such as the microsystem and the mesosystem impact the
student’s preparation and success for post-secondary education. Hence, the Bronfenbrenner
Theory is best suited to assist the researcher in understanding how certain factors influence
student enrollment and success in college. The microsystem is the system closest to the person
and the one which represents direct contact with the individual. In this study, the microsystem
involves family, school leaders, school resources and the school environment. This is the most
influential level of the ecological systems theory.
In the mesosystem, the researcher will observe how the family, school leaders, school
resources and the environment interact with each other to provide the best opportunities for the
student to prepare and gain information about college entrance requirements and success in
college.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework designed by the thematic dissertation group utilizes the
themes that emerged in the literature review and how they impact student preparation and
success in college. As leadership is an important component in building and sustaining a college-
going culture, it was important to explore the emergent themes. Each theme has a direct impact
on student access to higher education within the microsystems. Teachers, counselors, and
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 48
administrators have day-to-day interactions with students that directly and indirectly affect the
way students perceive school. School resources affect the way students access college prep
materials, academic support, and college information. The school environment relates to the
level of academic rigor and to clear expectations set for students. Families remain engaged to
support students through their years in high school. School leaders mobilize resources and create
environments for students to prosper as they recruit parents to support their efforts to provide a
high-quality education. An example of how emergent themes interact with each other within the
mesosystems is given by the collaboration between families and school leaders. When parents
and school leaders work together it results in students who are prepared to face the challenges of
post-secondary education. Figure 2 below illustrates the relationships among these elements.

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 49
Data Collection
Participants in this study received a notice via email to inform them of the time
commitment, the purpose of the study, and the role they would play in contributing to the
research (Appendix A). School leaders participated in semi-structured interviews with questions
that were created in collaboration with the dissertation thematic group. The interview questions
aimed to gain an understanding of promising practices that contribute to the creation of a school
environment where LatinX students are better prepared for access to higher education. The
interview protocols were developed in collaboration with the thematic dissertation group in the
EdD cohort 2016 (Appendix B). The interviews with all participants were recorded and
transcribed for further analysis. In addition to the interviews, observations were used to add any
details that might have been left unsaid during the interviews. The observations were conducted
using an observation protocol developed by the dissertation thematic group (Appendix C). The
observations focused on classroom observations, college center dynamics, and overall staff
interactions with students. Finally, an analysis of documents aided the researcher in gaining an
in-depth knowledge of the school’s practices which otherwise would not have been gathered
from the interviews and observations. Table 1 describes the characteristics of the school leaders
being interviewed.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 50
Table 1
Study Participants
Name Role Relevant Characteristics
1. Linda Rosas Principal

Advocate for College-Going Practices
2. John Rogers Assistant Principal

Counseling Department Supervisor
3. Sarah White Assistant Principal

Builds leadership capacity with teachers
4. Virginia Solis Assistant Principal

Advocates for students with disabilities to
have access to A-G courses

5. Luis Salazar College and Career Counselor

Share college information across campus
with students and staff

6. Rafael Soto College and Career Counselor

Share college information across campus
with students and staff

7. Marisa Vera Academic Counselor

Monitor student progress in meeting the
A-G requirements for graduation

8. Blanca Pena Academic Counselor

Monitor student progress in meeting the
A-G requirements for graduation

9. Joel Trepanier Science Department Chair

Collaborates and plans with leadership
team to develop rigorous curriculum to
meet the needs of the A-G curriculum

10. Jorge Tejada English Department Chair

Collaborates and plans with leadership
team to develop rigorous curriculum to
meet the needs of the A-G curriculum

The table above lists all the participants in the study. The principal was interviewed at
greater length to ensure the researcher gathered all relevant data. The relevant characteristics of
each participant are also listed on the table.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 51
Instrumentation
In this study, the researcher utilized three different types of methods to collect data.
When conducting qualitative research, it is common to use different methods to collect
information (Maxwell, 2013). To gather pertinent data associated with the practices which school
leaders use to promote a college-going culture, the researcher used an interview protocol,
observations, and document analysis.
Semi-structured interviews were used to interview the participants. This type of
interview allowed for the flexibility needed to toggle between structured questions and those
which are non-structured and more open-ended. Appendix B outlines the questions that were
used with all participants. The less structured, open-ended questions allow flexibility to probe
and dig deeper into the subject (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The thematic dissertation group
created an interview protocol to address the research questions. All interviews were recorded
digitally and then transcribed to capture all perspectives, thoughts, and ideas from all participants.
Observations were conducted using an observation protocol developed by the thematic
dissertation group (appendix C). These observations were recorded using field notes immediately
following the observation. The observations targeted school leaders as they conducted college
activities.
The researcher examined documents that could provide insight as to the factors that
contribute to the establishment of a college-going culture. The master schedule, Single Plan for
Student Achievement (SPSA), the Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP) and minutes from
the School Site Council contain information which illustrates the beliefs and culture of the school.
The use of different methods to collect data serves different purposes according to
Maxwell (2013). The first purpose is the triangulation of data. As the field notes are combined
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 52
with interviews and documents, they assist the researcher in determining if methods with
different strengths and weaknesses support the same conclusion (Maxwell, 2013). The second
purpose is to broaden the scope of the investigation. Interviews focus on perceptions of the
participants while observations focus on the researcher’s descriptions of the settings and
behavior.
Table 2 describes the alignment between the research questions and the instrument being
used to gather data.
Table 2
Research Questions
Research Question Interviews Observations Documents
Which perceived strategies do school leaders at
Main City High School employ to promote a
college-going culture?

What are the perceived challenges of school
leaders at Main City High School in sustaining a
college-going culture?
X

X
X

X
X

Data Analysis
To fully answer the research questions, analysis of the interviews, observations, and
document data were reviewed using Creswell’s (2014) six steps for data analysis. Figure 2 is a
graphic representation of Creswell’s six steps.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 53

Figure 3. Creswell’s six steps for qualitative data analysis.
As illustrated in Creswell’s (2014) six-step model, the researcher follows these steps to
collect and analyze the data. The first step focuses on organizing and preparing the data for
analysis. During the initial stage, Creswell (2014) recommends reading the interview transcripts,
observational notes, and documents to be analyzed. The next step involves examining the data,
making sense of the overall meaning, and making notations of the initial observations, interviews,
and documents. The next step begins by coding the data collected and starting the process of
organizing data into chunks before creating categories. In the next step, the chunks and
categories are used to develop descriptions and themes. According to Creswell (2014),
connecting strategies are used to make connections among ideas that help explain the
phenomenon taking place. In step 5, the researcher determines how descriptions and themes are
presented in the narrative. The narrative of the analysis creates a holistic picture of the
connections that exist among all sources of data (Creswell, 2014). Finally, in step 6 the
researcher derives meaning from the findings and the results. In this study, the researcher made
use of the categorizing strategies and the connecting strategies to build a coherent understanding
which answered the research questions.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 54
Ethical Considerations
Throughout the study, the protection and privacy of the participants were ensured, and
procedures of ethical conduct were followed. The USC Institutional Review Board reviewed the
research proposal and gave approval for the study. Confidentiality was protected by using
pseudonyms for people, places, and organizations. The data collected was stored in a secure
location, and it will not be used for other studies. The participants will receive a copy of the
findings as reported by the researchers. Questions developed in the interview protocol were used,
and no other questions were utilized. All perspectives were reported, and no data were censored.
Summary
This chapter provided an outline of the methods that were used to perform this study. A
qualitative case study was used to analyze the promising practices that school leaders employ to
create and sustain a college-going culture. Perceptions of school leaders serving in different
capacities were explored to fully understand the factors that promote the creation of a college-
going culture in schools. The use of interviews, observations and document analysis added to the
area of research and validated the findings. Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory was used to frame
the study. The Microsystem and the Mesosystem of Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory were
used to analyze the symbiotic relationship between the student and the factors that impact college
attendance. The conceptual framework was developed by using the themes that emerged from
the literature review. In this chapter, the researcher discussed the data collection process and the
instrumentation used to address the research questions. Creswell’s (2014) model for qualitative
analysis is also described in this chapter. Chapter 4 will elaborate further on the processes of data
collection and analysis using Creswell’s (2014) model for data analysis.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 55
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
School leadership plays a vital role in creating and sustaining a college-going culture in
urban schools (Perna et al., 2008). This study sought to understand the leadership practices
which promote and sustain a college-going culture in schools. The findings of this study are
intended to provide perceived promising practices to promote a college-going culture to increase
college access for LatinX students. Additionally, this study aimed to identify challenges school
leaders at Main City High School face in sustaining a college-going culture. This chapter will
begin by describing the participants of the case study. Secondly, this chapter will provide an
overview of Main City High School. Lastly, the findings from interviews, observations and
documents will be presented. The following research questions served to frame this study:
5. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Main City High School employ to promote
a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
6. What are the perceived challenges of school leaders at Main City High School in
sustaining a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
Overview of the Participants
The unit of analysis for this study was school leaders within a large urban high school,
composed of the school principal, three assistant principals and two department chairs. Two
college counselors and two academic counselors were included as school leaders because of their
involvement in supporting and sustaining a college-going culture at Main City High School.
Linda, the principal of the high school, has 11 years of experience as a high school
principal. Prior to becoming a principal, she served as an assistant principal for six years at the
same school. Linda is an avid advocate for student opportunities, especially LatinX students.
She is a first-generation college graduate and wants to provide opportunities for students like
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 56
herself to attend college. She has routinely sought district funding to support a variety of
programs for students such as AVID and Compass, two outreach programs she fully supports. As
the principal of Main City High School, she supports a college-going culture by communicating
the vision and asking the hard questions about student achievement.
John is an assistant principal at Main City HS. He has been with the district for 20 years.
For the last five years, one of John’s primary responsibilities has been to oversee the counseling
office. The counseling office has nine academic counselors; he is responsible for supervising the
master schedule, professional development for counselors and the daily operations of the college
center. John also works in collaboration with the district to organize and coordinate a college
fair that takes place every year in the Spring. He is a school leader with a major impact on the
implementation of key strategies to promote a college-going culture in schools.
Sarah oversees the school’s professional development. In her role as an instructional
assistant principal, her responsibility is to supervise the PLC meetings, department chair
meetings and the instructional leadership team. Her role has become relevant in the maintenance
of a college-going culture because of the implications of the A-G curriculum on professional
development for teachers. As teachers prepare to increase academic rigor in their classes, Sarah
provides opportunities for teachers to learn from one another during PLC time. In addition,
Sarah is involved in the AVID program by providing leadership support to teachers and the
coordinator. She assists with the coordination and organization of AVID events throughout the
year.
Virginia is new to the position of assistant principal. She worked as an instructional
coach in another high school before coming to Main City High School this year. Her expertise is
in special education. She currently works on implementing the A-G curriculum in the special
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 57
education classes. Her leadership is relevant as she is responsible for ensuring that students with
disabilities receive access to rigorous curriculum in the general education classes. She works in
collaboration with Sarah to provide professional development to teachers.
Blanca is an academic counselor at the high school. Blanca has a caseload of 500
students. She works with parents and students to ensure A-G completion and to prepare students
in her caseload for graduation. She currently is responsible for 150 seniors. Blanca’s role is to
keep students on target towards graduation. She works in collaboration with other counselors to
conduct parent meeting and academic celebrations for students.
Marisa is also an academic counselor with a caseload of 550 students. In her role as a
counselor, she works with families and students to ensure graduation in four years. As one who
is completely dedicated to the needs of the AVID program students, Marisa works in
collaboration with the AVID program and the AVID coordinator to ensure AVID students meet
all graduation requirements and apply to college.
Luis is one of two college counselors at Main City High. He has worked together with
Rafael, who is another college counselor, to build the college center. Luis has brought a lively
personality to the college center. He relates well with students and students come to see him to
talk about colleges. Luis works with school leaders to support school initiatives that promote a
college-going culture. He collaborates with the AVID team and supports the Compass program.
Rafael coordinates college and FAFSA night. He works in collaboration with the Parent
Partnership Academy to provide college information to parents. The Parent Teacher Association
works with Rafael to ensure that parents are kept informed of college opportunities for their
students.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 58
Joel has taught science at the school for more than 23 years. He teaches a variety of
courses ranging from freshman biology to Advanced Placement physiology. He is a member of
the leadership team currently designing an implementation plan for the A-G curriculum. Joel is
the department chair in the science department. He collaborates with other teachers in the
department to develop and update AP curriculum in science. He believes that AP students should
walk on to a college campus prepared with cognitive skills to be successful.
Jorge is an English teacher who is well-liked by students. He opens his door during
lunch for students to come and eat together. He also serves on the leadership team, in his role as
department chair for the English department, which is planning the implementation of the A-G
curriculum at the Main City High School. He teaches English classes for juniors and seniors. He
is an AP teacher for English Literature and English Language. Jorge transmits the value of a
college education to his students. He talks to his students about the importance of learning
critical thinking skills and writing skills in his English classes.
Table 3 provides a brief overview of the participants, including their role and other
relevant characteristics.
Table 3
Participants Characteristics
Name Role Ethnicity Years at School Years in District
Linda Principal Latina 23 23
John Assistant Principal White 20 20
Sarah Assistant Principal White 10 15
Virginia Assistant Principal Latina 1 15
Luis College Counselor Latino 4 4
Rafael College Counselor Latino 4 4
Marisa Academic Counselor White 5 10

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 59
Table 3, continued
Name Role Ethnicity Years at School Years in District
Blanca Academic Counselor Latina 8 11
Joel Science Department
Chair
White 23 23
Jorge English Department
Chair
White 10 10

Table 3 presented participants’ name and years of service. In addition, the table provided
relevant characteristics that assisted the researcher in selecting the participants for the study.
In addition to interviews of 10 participants, the researcher observed one college night and
two college center activities. The researcher also analyzed school documents such as the WASC
Report (2018), LCAP district document, California Dashboard and Main City High School’s
website to inform the research questions to increase triangulation and to validate the study’s
findings. As stated previously in chapter three, participants’ true identities are being protected by
the use of pseudonyms.
Overview of the Organization
The site for the study is a large urban high school in Southern California. Main City High
School serves a student population of 3771 students who range from grade 9 to grade 12. The
LatinX student population at Main City High School is 89.2 percent. LatinX student graduation
rate in 2018 was 97.6 percent as compared to 81 percent from the state. The college eligibility
for LatinX students has remained steady for the last two years at 51 percent as reported by
California Dashboard. Because the intent of the study is to examine perceived strategies which
school leaders employ to promote and sustain a college-going culture in an urban high school
with LatinX students, the site was appropriate due to the student population, criteria met by
Latino population, and the listed stakeholders who are school leaders.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 60
Data Findings
Research Question 1: Strategies School Leaders Use to Promote a College-Going Culture
The first research question sought to understand the strategies school leaders use to build
and sustain a college-going culture in their schools. The research available has highlighted the
influence that school leadership plays in building a college-going culture in schools (Convertino
& Graboski-Bauer, 2018; Oakes, 2014, Corwin & Tierney, 2007). There is a need to examine
further the strategies which school leaders utilize to create and sustain a college-going culture in
urban schools with LatinX students.
As the data were analyzed for this research question, three themes emerged. First, a
vison of high expectations shapes a school culture where teachers and students become life-long
learners. School leaders use programs and initiatives to prepare teachers and subsequently
students to apply and succeed in college. Second, building social capital is possible when
multiple opportunities for students and parents to have access to college information and
workshops exist. College and academic counselors create social networks that provide college
information for students and parents. Third, when school leaders work together to implement a
vision, it translates into academic programs that encourage collaboration and support among
stakeholders. When this level of collaboration is in place, school leaders, counselors, teachers,
and staff work towards two common goals: to increase knowledge about college for both
students and their parents, and to prepare students to be college-eligible, regardless of their post-
secondary plans.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 61
School leaders establish a culture of high academic expectations. Conley (2007)
describes how school leaders build college knowledge by holding high expectations for students
with a focus on setting realistic goals and having college aspirations. The district’s vision
published in its website says, “All students graduate with a 21st Century education that
ensures they are college and career ready, globally competitive and citizens of strong
character.” School leaders at Main City High School have implemented practices that have
resulted in students’ high academic expectations such as: providing professional development
for teachers through Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), keeping students on target
towards graduation through the work of counselors, and communicating expectations to all
parents, teachers and students.
Professional development. Main City High School leaders analyzed data and discovered
that students’ A-G completion rate was at 54 percent. While the graduation rate exceeds 97
percent for LatinX students, there is a need to increase the percentage of students who are A-G
eligible. School leadership is committed to addressing professional development through PLC
work as evident in their Western Association of Schools and Colleges, (WASC) report. The
report indicates, “through collaborative practices and a focus on results, we promote a culture of
continuous improvement.” The PLC work focuses on building the capacity of their teachers.
Utilizing PLCs engages teachers in the work of raising students’ academic expectations.
Furthermore, the design of PLCs allows teachers to develop best instructional and relational
practices to meet the needs of their students.
Teachers at Main City High School meet in PLCs to develop a strong understanding of
the content. Virginia indicates, “although teachers had a sense of insecurity when facing the new
A-G requirements, they have begun to feel confident once again thanks to the professional
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 62
development efforts by staff.” In addition to PLCs, another promising practice school leaders
engage in to assist teachers with improving pedagogical knowledge is through instructional
walkthroughs. School administrators work with PLC leads to determine the area of focus for
facilitating professional development and conducting instructional walkthroughs. According to
Virginia, “Linda has a lot of PD going on for our PLC leads and [the collaborative support
ensures we have instructional walkthroughs on a monthly basis].” Participation in instructional
walkthroughs allows teachers to learn best practices for instruction and building relationships
with our students.
Professional development focuses on supporting teachers with preparing students for
college success. According to Linda,
“The way we engage teachers is through our professional development. We talk about
how we prepare kids. For example, we implement ERWC. So, we work with the CSUs to
make sure that our teachers in English are working to prepare kids for college-entry
writing.”
It is evident in the PLC work of English teachers that they are collaborating on strategies to
ensure students are successful in the English Readiness Writing Course (ERWC). Embedding
promising instructional practices promotes students’ success in this course and college
attainment.
The findings revealed that the need to improve student outcomes in A-G data goes
beyond instruction and it is also about student-teacher relationships. Hence, strategies for
building student-teacher relationships are embedded in the professional development for teachers.
Several school leaders shared, “Our professional development plan is focusing on building
relationships between teachers and students. When teachers can connect with students, they will
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 63
respond better to feedback and in turn learn.” Sarah recognizes the importance of teacher-
student relationships in getting students engaged in the learning process, “We've got to help our
teachers reach more students and connect with them if they're going to bring them through this
really difficult process of meeting the A through G requirements.”
Keeping students on target using graduation plans. In an effort to increase student
expectations at Main City High School, school leaders created a four-year graduation plan. Linda
felt that without a graduation plan, students were not held accountable for their learning.
According to Sarah, the school needed a starting point to move towards holding students
accountable for meeting A-G requirements, “We made it a school-wide goal to come up with a
four-year project that would ensure students are being exposed to the college-going activities.”
According to Linda this will be the first “year that we're actually breaking it down by grade level.
We're hoping to have a finished product by the end of it, because it still bothers me that I cannot
ensure every kid got the message.”
Linda began thinking about the idea of a four-year plan early in the year, "this year we're
tossing around that idea of the four-year plan for kids, so that as part of your graduation
requirement, you had to complete all these activities in the 9th, and 10th, and 11th, and 12th
grade.” Students will be expected to reach certain milestones specific to their grade level.
Blanca and Marisa meet individually with students to review transcripts and graduation
progress. In their one to one meetings, they discuss expectations with students and stress the
importance of meeting the A-G requirements for graduation, Blanca stated, “the philosophy is A-
G for all and starting to plant that seed now so that we can start to see our students attain that
goal and it becomes an opportunity for all, not specific students.” Students in the 9
th
grade will
be expected to pass all A-G courses with a C or better to receive a diploma.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 64
Academic counselors also address credit recovery when a student receives a grade lower
than a C in an A-G course. Blanca explains how students provide opportunities to repair grades,
where “It's not just about recovery, but it's actually, let's repair those Ds, let's fix them and that
gets you back on A-G track.” Repairing those grades allow students to stay on track to meet
graduation requirements. Marisa explains the message that she tells her students who improve
failing grades: "So just encouraging them to leave all their doors open, Don't shut any of them by
not repairing a grade or not doing well, not getting to that GPA that's going to make them
eligible.”
As Linda thinks about next year, she plans to learn from practices implemented this year
about keeping students informed about their graduation progress. She states, “if we're talking
about my move for next year, it’s that it's going to be integrated in to their annual checks towards
graduation and they have to have completed certain things.”
Communicating expectations to parents, teachers and students. School leaders at
Main City High School adopted new graduation requirements to establish a culture of high
expectations. Beginning with the class of 2024 students must pass the A-G course sequence with
a grade of C or better to receive a diploma. This will ensure that students graduating from Main
City High School are UC and CSU eligible. The implications of this decision impacted the
communication structure at Main City High School. According to Linda the message of high
expectations is clear:
“Our graduation requirements have just recently changed, and our graduation
requirements now encompass the A-G requirements. So, in order for a kid to get a
diploma from our school, they're going to have to complete the A-G. So, if that doesn't
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 65
say and communicate the expectation to the teachers, to the parents, and to the students,
then that is it. We're saying it very loud and clear with our requirements.”
As Main City High School prepared to communicate these expectations, they developed a plan to
include all stakeholders. It is important that parents, teachers and students understand the
implications of the new graduation requirements.
Sarah has been involved with the leadership committee tasked with communicating the
new expectations for parents, teachers, and students:
We currently have a committee that's focused on parent and student role in the new
graduation requirements like how are we communicating with them. We have a group of
about 12 administrators, counselors, and teachers working specifically on that piece to get
the word out to make sure they understand what that means in terms of their diploma.
The committee meets once a month and it has already begun to formulate ideas to inform parents,
provide training for teachers and provide support for students.
Parents have begun receiving information about the new graduation requirements since
Fall 2018. College and academic counselors have been targeting parents during parent
conferences, back to school night and other parent meetings. Jorge mentioned that informational
meetings with parents are taking place, “We had our first meeting with the parents after back to
school night. They had a one after to explain all the new requirements for the A through G.” The
district is also reaching out to parents in support of the school and providing information to
parents. Virginia describes the district efforts:
The district has had parent meetings to inform them of the new graduation requirements.
For example, those that have now been changed to meeting the A through G criteria for
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 66
the class of 2024. So, not only do you have to meet the A through G entry level criteria, it
has to be with a C or better just to earn your high school diploma.
Teachers also needed to be informed of changes in graduation requirements and how it
would impact their approach to teaching. Some teachers struggled with the idea that all students
will be expected to meet the new graduation requirements. According to Sarah, teachers did not
believe in themselves and their ability to reach all students. John explains the conversations
exchanged with teachers:
Explaining to them that the idea that, again, not every kid's going to go to college but we
need to prepare them for that. I think that we had to have those conversations to make
sense of why we had the change go to the A-G requirements.
The old belief that college was only for the few had to be challenged. Main City High School
leaders have had courageous conversations with teachers about their underlying beliefs.
Lastly, students had to know what the new graduation requirements would mean for their
future. College and academic counselors took on this responsibility and collaborated with
classroom teachers to ensure that all students learned about the A-G. Every classroom door had a
big letter hanging on it to describe the type of class the students were taking. For example, a
history class would have a letter A in big font and bright colors outside the door. Luis explains
this in more detail:
So that's something that's kind of getting into the student's mind, “Okay, this is what an
A-G class looks like.” You'll know if you're in an A-G class because it'll be labeled
outside of the classroom door or in the classroom letting you know which A-G class
you're in.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 67
Counselors are visiting classes and talking to students about the changes and implications
for graduation. Jorge says counselors have also been meeting with students out of class:
The counselors have gone into the classes and talked to the students. I know they talked
to a lot of 11
th
…I know they pulled 11th grade out. I don't know what other classes; they
also meet all the kids individually in their office at some point during the year to
disseminate that information.
Main City High School leaders will continue to provide support for students and teachers as they
adapt to the new challenges of the A-G requirements. Communication of the expectations will
continue every year as new incoming students emerge from the middle school to face new
challenging graduation requirements.
A culture of high expectations in schools provides a roadmap for students’ success in
post-secondary education. Main City high school leaders have created an environment where all
stakeholders work together to provide students with a unique opportunity for success. A culture
of high academic expectations at Main City high school include providing professional
development for teachers, keeping students on target through graduation checks, and
communicating expectations to parents, teachers and students.
School leaders build social capital. According to the research on social capital, school-
level relationships are linked to positive academic outcomes for all students (McKillip et al.,
2013). The College Center at Main City High School is a hub of college information and a
welcoming environment for all students. Luis and Rafael were hired four years ago with the
intent to revitalize the College Center. They are now part of the team that is working to increase
college informational opportunities for students. By creating social linkages, students can
connect with staff they trust or students they know and get access to college information via a
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 68
personal connection. School leaders are engaging students in these practices by offering social
support in the college center, building relational trust and providing college information to
parents.
Social support in the college center. The college center focuses on providing students
with the tools they need to make informed decisions about college. One way college counselors
provide social support is by providing college information and keeping contact with students.
Many school leaders agree that Luis and Rafael provide valuable college information to students
and keep them informed of upcoming deadlines. Luis and Rafael create the conditions for
students to use the resources available for them at school. Luis states:
So, I just want to add that I think our philosophy also involves just ensuring that everyone
is aware of college…and receives the attention, the support they need to apply to college,
to have different options. That way students are very well-informed and hopefully make a
better decision as to where they want to apply.
Luis and Rafael provide multiple opportunities for students to receive different perspectives on
college selection. The importance of listening to a different perspective is that students can
compare and analyze what colleges offer, according to their interests. Virginia states:
We have the College Center that plays a big part here on campus. So, they constantly
promote different colleges. And it doesn't have to be a university; it could be trade
schools, it could be local community colleges.
Students at Main City High School like to spend time in the college center. The researcher had
the opportunity to observe interactions between students and college counselors. Lunch is a
popular time for students to come to the college center. Luis and Rafael welcome everyone to
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 69
come and socialize with students who share similar interests. John has made his expectations
clear to them as a team:
I told them, "You don't take your lunch when kids are taking their lunch. You've gotta
take it after." And "So eat a big snack or whatever you need to do." But I want them to be
accessible.
During lunch the college center is full of students who are comfortable with each other. Part of
building social capital involves creating the conditions for peers to assist each other on their path
to college. Another important aspect of the work that Luis and Rafael do is open lines of
communication with students. They have created a Remind app that keeps student in direct
contact with them. Students can receive immediate responses to their questions. School leaders
are surprised how the college center reaches thousands of students with the push of a button.
This communication is bidirectional, meaning students can ask questions in the app and get
immediate responses. Blanca states,
We always also share the College and Career Center's Remind app, because if they're on
their Remind app, they're getting specific information as to upcoming workshops like,
“UCLA is going to do a talk on this” or “We're going to have the local community
college talk about FAFSA.”
Luis and Rafael stay in contact with students through the use of the app. In addition to the app,
they also use mail, email, phone and other modes of communication.
Relational trust. Luis and Rafael also understand how relational trust plays an important
role in the job they do. Just as the research has indicated, students, teachers and school leaders
must develop trust in order for school initiatives to function (Englund, Kuo, Puig, & Collins,
2011). Once trust is achieved, students are more likely to engage in productive conversations.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 70
As Luis and Rafael understand the value of forming relationships with students, they want
students to feel comfortable about stopping by the College Center. They are confident that as
they are making the center a welcoming environment, they are setting the stage for students to
come and interact with college staff and establish working relationships. Their goal is to create
an atmosphere where the students will see the center as a resource for networking opportunities.
Luis and Rafael share about the type of environment they want to create for students:
I think we always try to have that kind of a laid-back culture in our center, where it's not
too formal because that could be a turn-off for students. So you want to be very inviting.
We use a lot of our humor even in our style when we communicate with students, so they
could feel comfortable and start having those conversations about college without it
feeling like an interview, without feeling like we're interrogating them.
Luis and Rafael understand the power of forming relationships. As they work with
students, they have been building a reputation as being approachable and knowledgeable.
Students are recommending them to their friends. During an observation, students kept coming
in and out of the college center. The relationship building that they engage in pays off because
students will start to come in to the college center more often:
At that point, it just starts to become a word of mouth thing where students start talking
about our resources and how it's not as intimidating as it would seem for them to come in
here and ask for help because there have been times in which I've had students in here
who, two friends come in and one's nudging the other, “Go ahead, ask them, ask them.”
But they're too scared and too intimidated and usually when we see that, we try to break
the ice and let them know that, “Hey, you know what, we're not going to bite. We're not
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 71
going to chastise you or say, hey, what's going on, how come it's taking you this long?”
for whatever they came to see us about.
Luis and Rafael have created an environment where students feel welcome in the college center.
Moreover, students come looking for them. During an interview, interruptions were natural as
students wanted to speak to their favorite college counselor.
Social supports for parents. According to the research in family involvement, school
leaders must move beyond sharing college information with parents and begin equipping them
with tools to become effective advocates for their students (Oakes, 2014). The College Center
works in collaboration with counselors to stage a special college night for the parents. Many
topics are presented and discussed during college night. Perhaps the most important is how to
interpret the results of the PSAT and how to use them to prepare for the SAT during their junior
year of high school. Luis and Rafael play a big role and informing parents about college.
There is a good turnout during college night, and we want to keep growing that. They
break down what's needed for college: everything from the A through G requirements to
the GPA, PSAT, SAT, and ACT.
As the College Center understands that assessment without reflection is not effective, it offers
opportunities for students and parents to understand the results of the PSAT. Linda, the principal,
believes that students and parents must understand and reflect on their results to prepare
themselves for the SAT in their junior year. She speaks about this in her interview:
I talked about how taking and reflecting on the PSAT workshops are geared for kids and
for parents. So we will do an informational night when the kids are taking their PSAT.
We invite them and their parents to come in with their scores and we go over what that
means, what it is for, and talk to them about it.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 72
In these college workshops, parents have the opportunity to get to know other parents who have
the same concerns about college. They exchange contact information and stay connected as their
children navigate the challenges of getting into a college of their choice.
Another way school leaders provide parents with valuable tools is through college
workshops. Luis explains that among other platforms, the counseling office has partnered with
the PTA to create a Parent Partnership Academy (PPA): “We also have what's called the Parent
Partnership Academy, the PPA, that's organized through the guidance office.” In their efforts to
keep parents informed of what is important in preparation for college at every grade level,
counselors and PTA members brainstorm about which college-related topics will most benefit
parents. Counselors Marisa and Blanca highlight the purpose of the PPA:
We currently have a Parent Partnership Academy that we have for every grade level
where we invite our parents to be a part of workshops where we not just expose them to
the information of the changes on campus, but also empower them with the things that
their students are going to be experiencing during each grade level: as they’re in the ninth
grade, as they're in the tenth grade, and at the end, it culminates with going to college.
As counselors are the school leaders who have the primary responsibility for keeping parents
informed about college requirements, they reach out through the PPA. Each grade level receives
information related to that phase in their student’s educational process.
Another source of information for parents is the Senior College Night. This event is
organized and coordinated by the College Center in collaboration with the counseling office and
is offered in English and Spanish. The event itself is a team effort where all counselors and
administrators come together to offer pertinent information to families about the road to college.
During this event, which is very well attended, parents and students are provided with a timeline
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 73
to meet all college deadlines—one which extends through acceptance dates and graduation. One
of the counselors, Ms. White, explained in detail the important dates for seniors. On October 24,
2018, I had the opportunity to observe how a college information night was conducted and the
topics that were covered. As the first presenter, Ms. White explained the different types of
financial aid—ranging from Cal grants to Pell grants—and the importance of filling out the
FAFSA. She also explained the difference between financial aid and scholarships. Other
counselors discussed topics such as the deadlines for UC, private universities and CSU
applications, and the importance of SAT and ACT for private universities and UC systems.
They pointed out the importance of responding to UCs personal questions, adding that it is also
important to have a teacher review the responses before submitting them to the universities.
Students learned that college applications are like contracts and any changes in their grades need
to be reported to the schools where they have applied. Parents and students also heard about the
benefits of partnerships with community colleges.
In anticipation of college information night, the College Center collaborates with other
school leaders to offer parents and students the latest information about colleges as soon as the
year begins. Luis and Rafael mention the importance of keeping everyone informed as they
prepare for college application season:
Senior Info Night is a night where we go over with students and parents their senior year.
We go over a month-by-month play as to what they should be working on, what they
should be expecting to do. That way they're not lost. That way they know, “Okay,
October comes around; it's Cal State, UC season. I should be starting FAFSA, DREAM
Act now.” When they should be hearing back from universities in the Spring. When they
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 74
should be trained in certain things like their portals and checking their to-do lists. When
they should be signing up and taking the SATs, ACTs—that sort of thing.
This event shares valuable information with parents and students. Families who take advantage
of this opportunity can promote a college-going culture in their homes. The students and parents
who attended that night were very fortunate to receive information that will prepare them to
navigate the challenges of applying and attending college.
School Leaders Participate and Collaborate to Establish a College-Going Culture.
According to Oakes (2014 school leaders must collaborate to create an environment of high
expectations and support students’ aspirations. As the principal at Main City High School, Linda
has been able to secure and allocate resources to create an environment where students and
families have opportunities to prepare for college. Through close collaboration, teachers and
staff have created and supported programs at the school which promote a college-going culture
on campus.
Engaging students through school initiatives. School leaders, in particular teachers,
have joined forces to create an environment of quality interactions between teachers and students.
As the research indicates, the quality of teacher interactions has a positive impact on students’
aspirations for college attendance (Collins, 2011). Teacher collaboration has resulted in school
initiatives that support students’ academic preparation. School leaders support Advancement Via
Individual Determination (AVID) and writing support for seniors. These are two initiatives
created to assist students in preparing for college by engaging them in college-going activities
such as college field trips, curriculum and writing support.
School leaders supporting AVID. The AVID program supports students by creating a
college-going culture where students receive assistance from teachers and staff. Leaders at Main
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 75
City high have allocated resources to support the program because it creates an equitable
environment for participating students. Ninety-seven percent of AVID graduates are accepted
into a four-year college. In addition, ninety-eight percent of AVID graduates meet the A-G
requirements. Linda is very supportive of the program and wishes to continue expanding: “It's
one of our top initiatives which really embraces that college-going culture for our
underrepresented students.” With 26 sections of AVID, Main City high school has one of the
highest numbers of sections in the district.
The AVID program is run and operated by teachers. AVID Teachers meet once a month
and are directly involved in college activities. According to Sarah, teachers in the AVID program
are the best in the school. Luis adds that “We have amazing teachers; AVID's just been doing a
phenomenal job.” College counselors receive support from AVID teachers in preparing their
students for college. AVID teachers are very involved with their students because the philosophy
of the AVID program is to prepare all students for college success. Rafael shares that AVID
students are fortunate to have this level of support:
I would say that the teachers, they're very hands-on, and a lot of students that we have
summoned recently, and we ask them, “Okay, have you started on your application?”
And they say, “Yeah.” They already have like a group of people helping them besides us,
they have one or two teachers helping them after school and that's actually, it's motivating
because we know that if we ever need any help, we can also go to the teachers and ask
them, “Hey, you know what, can you help me with this student?” or “What do you think?”
Students who are enrolled in AVID participate in a college fieldtrip to Northern
California. With assistance from AVID teachers, Sarah coordinates the AVID yearly trip. The
budget allocates for a total of ninety juniors to participate in the college field trip. This college
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 76
trip is an opportunity for students to explore colleges outside of their community. For some
families, this was the first time their child had been away from home. Luis adds:
We went to a variety of UCs and Cal States—obviously in California—and it was great
for students, juniors in AVID to be able to see different campuses and explore them and
then your senior year come and have better options, right? Maybe they didn't consider
certain schools; they had never been to Berkeley.
According to Linda, this college trip opens up the possibility for students to consider leaving
home to attend college. Linda is using the AVID program as a jumping board to launch
additional college initiatives at Main City High School. She has seen the success of the program
reflected in the students’ accomplishments and wants to expand it schoolwide. The AVID team
is working with Linda to brainstorm ideas that will work schoolwide. One of the new ideas Linda
is discussing with the AVID team is the idea of a four-year project for students. Students can
work on a single project that begins in their freshmen year and concludes in their senior year. In
addition to the senior project, school leaders are exploring the Writing, Inquiry, Collaboration,
Organization and Reading (WICOR) strategies to implement school-wide. Virginia states,
“We're trying to embed as many of the AVID strategies across the board as well so that they're
supported, even if they're not in the AVID program.”
An additional benefit to AVID students that Linda would like to expand to all students is
a SAT prep curriculum. Linda feels that this resource must be available to all students,
In AVID, we work with an organization, they're the Elite Group, and they come in and do
free SAT prep for AVID kids. My goal is to get free SAT prep for all of my kids, but
we're slowly building to that whole school-wide culture.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 77
The AVID program is designed to prepare students for college through course sequencing
that begins in the 9
th
grade year. Advanced Placement courses start in the 9
th
grade year and build
up every year. A senior in AVID can end up taking up to four AP course in their senior year. The
AVID program prepares students for college and career by providing students access to rigorous
academic courses, rigorous writing curriculum, AVID tutorials twice a week and the expectation
that all courses must be passed with a C or better.
Teachers supporting writing. In building a culture of high expectations, students must
feel supported by school leaders. One way Main City high school is supporting its students is by
providing them with a writing advisor to work on their personal statements. Linda feels that
many of her students are at a disadvantage because they lack the social networks to help them
with the intricacies of college applications such as good writing. John noticed that as students
wrote their statements, many of them were not capitalizing on the powerful stories they had or
the obstacles they had to overcome:
Students just think that their story is normal, that that's how every other kid grew up—
when they had to overcome these massive challenges to be successful. And then when
they talk to an advisor, and the advisor is saying, "Oh my gosh, you have to highlight that.
Colleges will eat that up!"
School leaders at Main City High School saw the need to help students with writing
college essays. This is the first year that Main City High School is paying teachers to work with
students in developing their writing skills. This new college initiative is called Compass.
Linda hired a teacher to coordinate the writing support center and it has expanded from
afterschool to weekends and during the day. Several English teachers now support the program.
Luis and Rafael often refer students to the program for assistance:
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 78
Compass is more like a resource where students have to go through certain workshops.
It's led by a few English teachers, and they're basically taught how to write and respond
to the personal insight questions.
School leaders engaged in collaboration. Collaboration has emerged as a strategy that
school leaders at Main City High School use to create and sustain a college-going culture. School
leaders are working together to face the challenges of preparing students for post-secondary
education. Since the implementation of the A-G curriculum as a graduation requirement, all
stakeholders are working together to speak to all students. Virginia feels that this challenge has
brought everyone together as a team: “I think it’s really bringing the school together and making
us feel like a much tighter community where everybody has a voice, and opportunities to
contribute.”
It is evident that collaboration occurs naturally at the school. During my observations, I
noticed that teachers and staff came together during their lunch period to discuss successful
practices in their PLCs. As I walked from one classroom to another I observed a group of
counselors and administrators coming together for a lunch meeting. Counselors have their own
PLCs and collaborate with teachers when they need the perspective of a classroom teacher. As
the principal, Linda encourages teachers and staff to join forces and help each other out in
achieving their goals. Linda also allocates one hour a week on Monday mornings for the PLCs
to meet. Blanca speaks about collaboration in this manner:
Everybody is working together in their own way that's obviously relevant to their
department, but I think having that support from leadership to give us that time to work
together, for us, I know that that one hour is not just “Good morning”, it's like, “Let's plan
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 79
out our month.” It's some organization fitting into our calendar. Really respecting that
time that we allocate for our visits for our PLC time, for our counselor meetings.
It is apparent from the manner in which school leaders speak about their colleagues that
collaboration plays a major role in their work. Working with a student population of 3,700
students require that many stakeholders get involved. Rafael mentions that they began working
with counselors and teachers to ensure that information was being shared with all students:
I believe that one of our goals since we started has always been to make sure that we're
always working as a team here in the center, but also working as a team with everyone
else—all the stakeholders here on campus.
Collaboration among all stakeholders ensures that students receive a coherent message from all
stakeholders at the school.
Discussion of Research Question 1
The three themes that emerged from the data from research question 1 reveal practices
that school leaders employ to create and sustain a college going-culture in schools. The results of
the study align with the theoretical framework that was used to analyze the work done by school
leaders at their sites when promoting a college-going culture. Families, school resources, school
leaders and the school environment combine to produce high-quality students who are prepared
to succeed in college. School leaders at Main City High School created a culture of high
expectations by preparing teachers, keeping students on target and engaged, and communicating
expectations for all. In addition, school leaders built social capital by sharing college information
through a collaborative effort with teachers, counselors and administrators during college night
and informational sessions. School leaders created an environment where collaboration enables
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 80
stakeholders to get involved and participate in school initiatives. Successful programs are created
and sustained by teachers.
School leaders at Main City high school have taken recommendations from the WASC
committee and used the new A-G requirements to create a sense of urgency among stakeholders.
They have revisited their vision and mission statements to reflect upon their purpose. School
leaders are working together through the collaborative initiative to re-invent the school. The
school leadership is creating an environment where students are held to high expectations from
all. When all stakeholders working with students hold the students accountable for high
expectations, students develop confidence in themselves. Consistent with the research on high
expectations, teachers and staff voice the expectations and provide structures for success,
students plan their future with confidence.
The college center at Main City high school built social capital by providing students and
parents with college information. In collaboration with academic counselors and teachers,
college counselors are able to provide parents with financial aid information as well as the
requirements for college applications and deadlines. Families benefit from the Parent Partnership
Association workshops by gaining college information. Consistent with research, first-generation
students and families who have access to college information are more likely to apply and be
accepted to college. Parents are recruited as partners to facilitate discussions with students. The
research supports the findings that there exists a strong correlation between student success and
parental involvement in schools. The findings revealed that parents who are strongly connected
to the school become strong advocates and supporters of students. Although the college center
targets parents for informational meetings, they also work directly with students and collaborate
with teachers so that college information flows from different platforms.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 81
School leaders at Main City high school work with teachers to establish high-quality
programs and assist in disseminating college information to students. Collaboration and
teamwork drives college-going efforts at school. The leadership team relies on teachers to
support and promote successful programs. Teachers are tasked with creating social networks that
enable students to share resources. Consistent with the research, schools with an established
college-going culture use teachers to disseminate information and to create social networks. Two
programs that are successfully supported by teachers at Main City high school are Compass and
AVID.
School leaders, district resources, families and the school environment work in
conjunction with each other to establish and support a college-going culture at Main City High
School.
Research Question 2: Challenges of School Leaders in Sustaining a College-going Culture?
The second research question sought to understand the perceived challenges of school
leaders as they establish a college-going culture in their school. When analyzing interview data,
all participants had their own point of view of the challenges as it pertained to their role. They
expressed challenges that were close to them. The researcher looked for commonalities around
all different perspectives. As the data were being analyzed, three themes emerged in the
interviews and evidence from other sources supported the conclusions. First, Main City High
School expressed frustration with the lack of a self-efficacy among teachers. Second, high school
leaders agreed that the lack of resources was a challenge to maintaining a college-going culture.
Last, school leaders felt that parent involvement was lacking in the school
Teacher self-efficacy. Sustaining a culture of high expectations is a challenge for
teachers. Teachers feel inadequately prepared to adapt their curriculum and be inclusive of all
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 82
students’ needs. Teachers are skeptical of the belief that all students can succeed in college.
Sarah states:
I'd say the biggest challenge is the adult mindset. What teachers believe about themselves
and about students. Really examining that and finding ways to support teachers. 100%
the kids will do, they'll reach the bar if you set it. You set it low, that's what we're going
to get. You set it high, they're going to reach it. It's really about the biggest challenge
head-on is the adult mindset. They can blame it on the parents and the attendance and the
students, but it's the adults and what they believe.
Linda has begun working with the leadership team to provide training for teachers and address
their concerns. She agrees with Sarah that adult mindset is a prevalent challenge at Main City
High School:
As much as I want all my teachers to believe that every kid can go to college, it is still a
challenge with the mindset of a lot of the adults: Trying to shift people around to believe
that, that we can get every kid there.
Since the onset of high expectations at Main City high school, Linda has implemented a
leadership coalition which is changing people’s beliefs about their students. She works with her
leadership team to provide training which will influence teachers to believe that if we hold
students to high expectations, the students will rise to those expectations. She faces a difficult
challenge, but the leadership team supports the vision:
So that's a huge struggle that we're still navigating, I think we've hit a tipping point where
more of the adults have bought into this idea that “I work for all kids, not just the kids
who want to be here.” And trying to get some of those other teachers that don't believe to
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 83
either retire, leave the profession, or go somewhere else. But it is, it's a huge, huge
challenge.
Linda believes that with time, all teachers will embrace the challenge and the school will
advance toward the goal of preparing all students for college. Collective teacher efficacy is an
influence that has positive outcomes in students and it comes directly from believing in students’
potential—regardless of socio- economic status or student aptitude. Virginia, an assistant
principal who oversees special education, has faced this challenge head-on as she prepares
teachers to teach students with learning disabilities. Teachers struggle to understand that no
matter who the student is, they still need access to rigorous curriculum. However, the leadership
team recognizes this challenge, and they address it by providing both an outlet to voice concerns
and professional development to develop capabilities which will influence teachers to become
believers. The collective self-perception of teachers has a direct correlation to student
achievement according to the research (Hattie, 2012).
Teacher self-efficacy is evident in the interviews with teachers. As teachers talked about
the new graduation requirements they expressed their apprehension with the A-G requirements.
Jorge talks about how his role as an English teacher has been expanded to that of a college
counselor. He feels he does too much as an English teacher and as a department chair, to add
more responsibilities. He states:
I probably don't listen enough to what's going on. When they make the announcements ...
We get emails from the college and career center, I just bypass them because I have so
much to do myself and so much stuff. To add another, job description, right now—
“We're going to get kids ready for college by talking to them about college and giving
them this information and targeting five minutes of each day” —I just can't.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 84
He continues to add, “I'm just not knowledgeable about what's in college stuff. I'm going to have
to be because I've got kids getting ready to go, but I'm just not a very knowledgeable person
about it.” Another example of lack of self-efficacy comes from Joe, the science department chair.
Joe also feels like Jorge. Joe states:
I can't make students go to college. So, if the graduation requirement equals college
entrance minimum, what happens to a student's free will when they have decided 'I don't
want to? It's very hard to convince somebody who's fourteen, fifteen, that your life may
change in three years—and that's been put onto our shoulders as teachers from leadership
to us. We've been asked to figure it out when for, forever, we are part of the process, not
the pushers.
Joe and Jorge are two of the many teachers who feel that the task of promoting and enforcing the
A-G requirement is a difficult process. They lack self-efficacy to embark on this task.
Lack of resources: School funding. In order for school leaders to run successful
programs, money must be allocated to support college initiatives. College and career counselors
need additional space and computers for their students. One challenge which Luis encounters
when working with students is that he often does not have enough computers to accommodate all
those who need technology: “We need more computers in here because sometimes we have a lot
of students come in and they need to use the computers for their work—and we only have like
six. Also, a bigger room.” Aside from the need for more computer equipment, Linda has been
trying to level the playing field for her students by allocating money to support several programs.
As resources are limited, she goes beyond advocating for her students at the district level and
reaches out to the community for support. She explains how her students can benefit from the
financial support of all stakeholders:
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 85
There's never enough money to do all the things that I want to do for my kids, and
supporting them to do that. Because I'm trying to give our kids what other people can pay
for because I don't want that to be the thing that keeps them from going.
She fears a time when the district might pull the funding which supports the AVID program and
the Compass program. For many years, both programs have been a very helpful resource for
students as they prepare for college. The district supports the college trip for students who
participate in AVID.
John also speaks about the Compass program and the support it receives from the district.
These programs are assisting students in preparing for college acceptance. He states, “So I do
think that there are things we need to do that cost money.” He worries that the district will stop
funding for those programs when there are reductions in the budget. The district also supports the
fee waivers for PSAT, ACT and SAT low-income students. The financial stability of the district
is important if they are to sustain these college initiatives.
Lack of resources: Counselor caseload. One of the challenges which compounds the
problem of students not getting into college is the ratio of academic counselors to students.
Although Main city high school has allocated resources to lower the counselor-to-student ratio, it
is still high compared to desired ratios. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA)
recommends a ratio of 250 students to one counselor. At Main City High School the ratio is at
419 students per counselor. If you are LatinX student living in a home environment where your
parents speak a foreign language and the student-to-counselor ratio is high, your chances of
attending college are dismal. At Main City high school the majority of the student population are
LatinX and come from homes where parents’ knowledge about college is limited. The need for
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 86
additional counselors is greater when you take into account the socio-economic status of the
student population.
Luis and Rafael are two of the three college counselors who support a group of 900
seniors. They believe that if the district were to hire more personnel to work with students
during their senior year, the number of students who apply to and get into college would increase.
Rafael mentions that another factor which compounds the problem is that they are also providing
services to the rest of the student population:
I think it is the ratio of students to us. There are only three of us in here, and there are
over 900 seniors at least. But we are open and available to all students, which is almost
4,000 students. So I think that would be the biggest challenge: that there are not enough
of us.
Luis confirms this when he speaks about the difficulty they face as they try to reach every
student. He feels that they have to prioritize their time so that the students who are college-going
will not go without getting the necessary college information. Furthermore, the high ratio of
students often results in many students not receiving the attention they deserve: “We have so
many students who come in and need the help, and there are only three of us, and like Rafael was
saying, there are about 4,000 students, 900 plus seniors.” There is a great need for students to be
informed of college opportunities, but many of them are at risk of not receiving the necessary
information to apply and attend college because there are not enough personnel to reach them.
Lack of parent involvement. In alignment with research on parent involvement, parental
support paired with school support results in students’ persistence in college aspirations (Perna et
al., 2008). A challenge found to be prevalent among the majority of school leaders was the lack
of parent involvement in school. John explains, “I think getting the parents more actively
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 87
involved in the college-going process is the biggest support that we need.” One of the WASC
committee recommendation is to increase parent involvement and communication. There are
many factors that contribute to the lack of parental involvement in high school for LatinX
students.
School leaders are concerned that as students reach high school, parents are less visible in
school functions. Teachers need parents to stay informed and involved. Jorge adds, “All teachers
complain about it, not just about college, but just in general, is getting the parents informed.
Getting the parents involved.” John talks about a student who had received the millennium
scholarship in his senior year and showed up to the awards ceremony by himself. It broke his
heart to see a young man without a unit of support. High school students still need the support of
parents. As much as school leaders try to fill the void, parents’ involvement is essential for
student development. John adds,
At the end of the day, your parents, your family, they’re the number one voice in your life.
They’re the people you spend the most amount of time with and they shape your values
and those kinds of things. And so it’s hard, we need them as a support system. And we
need them as a partner. I think that's probably our biggest challenge.
In some instances, there are students with unique home situations where parent involvement
might not be possible. Counselors are faced with challenging home situations as Blanca explains:
My biggest challenges are interactions with parents. Home situations. Lack of support
and it's for many reasons, not necessarily because the parent doesn't want to be supportive,
but the parent can't be supportive, they're working three jobs, they're never home, they
don't have the tools to support their child, so a lot of the times, we are acting as the sane
voice for this kid when the parent's absent.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 88
Another factor that inhibits parent participation in school activities is that parents feel
disconnected from school. Most of the language used to communicate with parents is
predominantly in English. The researcher had the opportunity to observe a college night that was
conducted primarily in English. All materials shared with parents were in English. Some parents
brought their sons and daughters to translate for them.
In addition, there are parents whose job schedules prevent them from being involved at
school. There are many parents in the community that work long hours. Most council meetings
occur in the morning making it impossible for a working parent to participate in important school
activities.
The research on parent involvement supports the notion that parental involvement is
important for students preparing for college. The significance of parental involvement in college
aspirations has been examined throughout this study.
Discussion for Research Question 2
As the results of research question two were analyzed, a pattern emerged concerning the
role of school environment. The theoretical framework that was used to analyze this study has
four components that influence student outcomes. In the theoretical framework, families, school
leaders, resources and school environment are all factors that affect students’ aspirations to
attend college. The three challenges that emerged in research question two were the following:
First, lack of self-efficacy from teachers. Self-perception of teachers has a direct correlation to
student outcomes. Second, lack of adequate resources to address the needs of the student
population. College and academic counselors agreed that their caseload was too high to have an
impact on student outcomes. Last, lack of parental involvement was detrimental to students’
college aspirations.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 89
It is the perception of school staff that teachers lack self-efficacy. Teachers question their
ability to increase rigor in their curriculum and keep student engagement high. As principal,
Linda has taken steps to counteract this challenge by creating a leadership coalition focused on
professional development for teachers as they adapt their curriculum to include rigor. Linda is
trying to establish a culture of high expectations that will enable teachers to believe in
themselves. Consistent with research on high expectations Linda is using her level of influence
to establish a culture of high expectations and to influence others to believe that students can
succeed. Collective teacher efficacy has positive impact on student achievement. Consistent with
the research on teacher self-efficacy, teachers who believe in themselves have a greater effect on
student achievement than parental involvement or any other factors.
Another perception among the school staff is that the school lacks the adequate resources
to meet the needs of students. School leaders describe the student-to-counselor ratios as being
high when compared to the ratios recommended by ASCA. Another area of concern is the lack
of technology for nearly 900 seniors. LatinX students lack access to technology at home and rely
on the school to provide those resources. The principal has been able to fund several programs
that focus on college knowledge. In the research, we learn that successful principals build
collaborative teams to implement successful programs such as developing personalization. Linda
is working on increasing the amount of personal time academic counselors spend in college talks
with students. In alignment with the research, the findings reveal that an increase in the number
of quality interactions between students and counselors will result in an increase in students’
knowledge about college.
Another perception from school leaders is that parents are not involved in their children’s
education. Consistent with the research on parental involvement, the findings reveal that parent
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 90
involvement results in students’ academic success. In particular, family is one of the factors that
influence college aspirations in LatinX students as identified in the conceptual framework for
this study. When parental involvement is paired with support from school leaders the students’
likelihood of college success is significantly increased.
Summary
The chapter provided a roadmap as we aimed to understand the strategies utilized by
school leaders to implement and sustain a college-going culture. The chapter addressed both the
strategies utilized by school leaders to build and sustain a college-going culture as well as the
challenges that school leaders face when maintaining it. School leaders set high expectations for
students and staff by establishing achievement goals measured by college enrollment rates. High
expectations resulted in quality programs that enabled academic counselors, college counselors,
teachers and staff to create meaningful relationships with students. The College Center served as
a resource for stakeholders to build social capital. Academic counselors developed relational
trust with students and college counselors created social networks to share college information.
They collaborated to share information with parents through the Parent Partnership Association
and college nights. Teachers supported Compass, a program designed to improve college essay
writing in students. Teachers learned AVID methodology to increase rigor in academic classes.
The chapter also addressed the challenges faced by school leaders as they aimed to
establish and maintain a college-going culture. The perception of school leaders is that some
teachers have low self-efficacy. Most teachers will benefit from additional professional
development in the area of rigor. Another perception school leaders have is that there are not
enough resources to meet the needs of LatinX students. College and academic counselors
complain of high ratios of students to counselors. The college center is ill-equipped with
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 91
technology to match the demand. In schools where the majority of student rely on school
resources for success, the allocation of limited resources must be adequate. A challenge
perceived by most school leaders is the lack of parental involvement.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 92
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY
Degree attainment is important for young people to lead prosperous and productive lives
as adults and to maintain the vitality of this nation (Danziger & Ratner, 2010). Although degree
attainment has increased overall, LatinX students are the largest subgroup with the lowest
percentage of baccalaureate degrees (Ryan & Bauman, 2016). Hence, the work of current school
leaders is critical in developing a college-gong culture to increase college attainment for LatinX
students. In a college-going culture, school leaders provide opportunities for students to forge
relationships, receive college information and engage in college talks (Robinson & Roksa, 2016).
It has been documented in the research that school leaders improve the odds for LatinX students
to attend college after high school (Alvoid & Black, 2014; Blase & Blase, 2000; Gewertz, 2009;
Holland, & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). School leaders play a significant role in creating a school
environment which sets high expectations, disseminates college information and promotes and
facilitates staff collaboration.
Purpose of the Study
The 21
st
-century economy requires a workforce that has post-secondary degrees. The
research demonstrates that the United States needs schools whose college-going culture prepares
students for the challenges of post-secondary education. For this reason, the United States is
urging school leaders to close the achievement gap by increasing the number of graduates who
are prepared for college by 2020 (Symonds et al., 2011). As educators attempt to conform to this
goal, it would be beneficial to learn from school leaders who are successfully creating a college-
going culture in their schools.
The purpose of the study is to examine the perceived strategies school leaders implement
to promote a college-going culture at a high school with a high percentage of LatinX students. In
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 93
addition, the study sought to explore the perceived challenges school leaders face in sustaining a
college-going culture. The research questions that framed the study are:
1. What perceived strategies do school leaders at Main City High School employ to promote
a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
2. What are the perceived challenges of school leaders at Main City High School in
sustaining a college-going culture in urban high schools with LatinX students?
Summary of the Findings
The findings of this study demonstrate that when school leaders maintain a vision of high
expectations, it impacts students’ college aspirations. The research on school leadership thus far
demonstrates a strong level of influence in building a college-going culture (Convertino &
Graboski-Bauer, 2018; Oakes, 2014; Tierney, 2007). High expectations from school leaders
resulted in quality professional development for teachers, rigorous graduation plans and
communication of expectations for stakeholders. School leaders built social capital using the
college center, built relational trust with students and provided college information to parents.
Additionally, school leaders collaborated with stakeholders to support school initiatives. The
findings of this study further identified challenges faced by school leaders such as lack of teacher
self-efficacy, lack of resources and lack of parental involvement.
School leadership is responsible for developing a vision of high expectations—one which
is to be communicated to all stakeholders for implementation. Conley (2007) describes how
leaders build college knowledge by holding high expectations for students as they focus on
setting realistic goals for college aspirations. To increase high academic expectations for students,
school leaders at Main City High School provided professional development for teachers through
professional learning communities with a focus on increasing academic rigor in their classes.
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According to the research on professional learning communities (PLCs), stable settings are
crucial for professional development to be effective (Dufour, 2004). The work of professional
learning communities (PLCs) also included building positive teacher-student relationships. The
development of PLCs helped teachers regain self-efficacy and believe that all students can learn.
School leaders dedicated one hour a week for teachers to collaborate and learn from one another.
In addition, teachers participated in educational walkthroughs with school leaders to increase
their pedagogical knowledge.
To further increase academic expectations for students, school leaders implemented a
new four-year graduation plan. Academic counselors now meet with students one-on-one to
review graduation plans. According to research on academic counselors, quality interactions
with counselors will ensure that students pursue college aspirations (McKillip et al., 2013).
Counselors establish safeguards for students to stay on track and provide credit recovery when
necessary. Counselors also guide students to follow an academic course sequence most
beneficial to their goals and college aspirations. Rigorous course sequences will result in college
success (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). School leaders set a goal to increase A-G completion rates
by10 percent each year by implementing frequent graduation checks.
High expectations for students include meeting the A-G requirements for graduation.
Based on the A-G data, school leaders identified a need to inform parents, students and teachers
about the new graduation requirements. Teachers and staff create the norms and communicate
the levels of expectations for student achievement (Savitz-Romer, 2012). Academic and college
counselors reach out to parents during back to school night, parent conferences and school
councils. Academic counselors communicate new graduation requirements to families through
the Parent Partnership Academy (PPA). School leaders collaborate with teachers during PLC
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 95
meetings to adjust courses to meet the rigorous expectations as demanded by A-G courses during
PLC meetings. Students receive information about A-G and graduation requirements from
teachers during advisory classes. Teachers place a letter on their door which labels the type of
class the student is taking. For example, a history class will display a large letter A on their door.
When the expectations as voiced by school leaders are clear and, and when they are supported by
organizational structures, this results in students who have a high degree of self-confidence
(Bryan et al., 2017). Further, high expectations established in the classroom translate into
students who believe that college is within their reach (Ayala & Chalupa, 2016).
School leaders identified a need to build social capital among LatinX students. The
research indicates that school level relationships result in improved academic outcomes for
students (McKillip et al., 2013). To build social capital, school leaders utilized the college center
as a student resource. The college center provides multiple perspectives about colleges so that
students can decide what is best for them and their families. Every month the college center
invites colleges and universities to present to students. College counselors at Main City High
School create social networks for students to come and share college information with one
another. LatinX students lack this type of college information and benefit from participating in
social networks where students and professionals interact with each other to build college
knowledge (Oakes, 2014). The college center keeps the lines of communication open with
students so that students receive pertinent information about college.
In addition to utilizing the college center as a resource, school leaders at Main City High
School also use it to develop relationships with students. Access to guidance counselors has been
found to be critical for LatinX students when making decisions about college decisions (Nora &
Crisp, 2009). The college center is the perfect place to develop relationships. The college center
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 96
offers an environment where students can visit and gain college information from other students
and staff. LatinX students rely on college counselors to provide college information since they
lack social capital at home (Perna et al., 2008). College counselors establish relationships with
students to ease them into asking questions and engaging in college aspirations.
To further build social capital with parents, school leaders provide college informational
workshops once a month. College information can take many forms ranging from course-taking
patterns to college entrance requirements (Kimura-Walsh et al., 2009). The research suggests
that parents and students who have access to adequate college information are more likely to
apply (Strayhorn, 2014; Roderick et al., 2009). During college night events parents receive
training in understanding the results of the PSAT and how to use the results to prepare for the
SAT. The Parent Partnership Academy (PPA) is a joint venture with the school’s PTA. The PPA
in collaboration with academic counselors offers monthly meetings for parents to present college
information pertinent to each year of high school. In addition, the counseling office in
collaboration with the college center provides families with senior college nights where they
share information such as the application process, financial aid and college requirements.
The last perceived practice identified in this study was the school leaders’ participation
and collaboration in establishing a college-going culture. According to research, school leaders
must collaborate with each other to build a school environment that supports students’ college
aspirations (Oakes, 2014). Though collaboration, school leaders are able to create school
initiatives that are supported by teachers. Collaboration promotes the creation of social networks
which benefits students by the interaction among professionals (Savitz-Romer, 2012). Teachers
coordinate and support the AVID program. Geared to promote a college-going culture for
average students, the AVID is financed by school leaders and coordinated by teachers. The
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AVID program prepares students for college through a rigorous AVID curriculum and case
management by teachers and coordinator. In addition to rigorous course sequences, the AVID
program provide college field trips for students.
Another added benefit of collaboration among staff is the creation of a writing program
called Compass. When school leaders identified a need to help seniors with their college
statements, they supported the establishment of a college class afterschool to support writing.
Compass is an initiative designed by an English teacher with the goal of improving writing in
students who aspire to attend college. This program employs teachers to work with student to
improve their college essays.
Through collaboration, academic and college counselors have designed an elaborate plan
for college and academic counseling that promotes a college-going culture. College and
academic counselors partner up to deliver a comprehensive message of college information.
College conversations with counselors, coaches and teachers gives students an opportunity to
access important information about college entrance requirements and result in increased college
attendance rates (McKillip et al., 2013). College counselors partner up with teachers to engage
in college talks during advisory. School leaders have allocated time during the week schedule to
allow for collaboration time. During PLC time, teachers and counselors engage in collaboration
beneficial to their practice.
A challenge which school leaders face in sustaining a college-going culture is lack of
teacher self-efficacy. According to research, the effect of teacher efficacy doubles the effect of
prior achievement and it triples the effect of the home environment and parent involvement
(Hattie, 2012).
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 98
The literature on this topic ascertains that teacher self-efficacy is directly correlated to
student outcomes (Hattie, 2016). The implementation of the new A-G requirements brought of
the teachers’ fears to the surface. Teachers felt that not all students could meet the A-G
requirements. Linda, the school principal created a leadership coalition to address the concerns
that teachers, counselors, students and their families expressed. The goal of the leadership
coalition is to build self-efficacy in teachers.
Another challenge which school leaders encounter in sustaining a college-going culture is
the lack of resources. The student-counselor ratio exceeds the recommendation of ASCA of 250
students per counselor. Research indicates the importance of college counselors in schools
(McKillip et al., 2013; Perna et al., 2008; Savitz-Romer, 2012). Currently, there are three
college counselors to serve a student population of nearly four thousand students. College
counselors are also concerned about the lack of student computers in their center. The college
center serves a large population of students who need access to technology as they apply to
college and submit college essays and transcripts. Yet, there are only six computers in the
college center.
Finally, another challenge faced by school leaders is the lack of parental involvement.
Research demonstrates that parental involvement in schools is a strong determinant in student
success and that there is a strong link between parental involvement and college attainment rates
(Oakes, 2014). Furthermore, the research indicates that when parental support is paired with
school supports, the result is heightened college aspirations among students (Perna et al., 2008).
Unfortunately, the lack of parental involvement appears to be rooted in a disconnect between
parents and school. As an example, in a school where the majority of parents speak Spanish,
materials at meetings should be provided in the predominant language. And parents who have
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 99
jobs often find that school meetings are scheduled at times when it is impossible for them to
attend
The findings of this study demonstrated the impact school leaders have on the creation
and sustainability of a college-going culture. The conceptual framework for this study supports
the notion that school leaders increase opportunities for LatinX students to succeed in college.
Implications for Practice and Policy
The findings demonstrate that when school leaders establish and communicate high
expectations, build social capital and collaborate to create school initiatives, LatinX students are
better prepared to apply and succeed in college. Consequently, school leaders can consider
utilizing the strategies outlined in this study to increase college degree attainment among LatinX
students.
The results of the case study revealed that school practices and policies created at the
school site positively affect college preparation among LatinX students. The establishment of
these policies has implications for the work of school leaders. The first implication for policy and
practice is the implementation of an A-G curriculum. School leaders have the responsibility to
ensure college preparation among LatinX students. Findings from the study revealed that school
leaders aligned college entrance requirements with graduation requirements. The implementation
of the A-G curriculum as a graduation requirement increased the likelihood that all students
would graduate college prepared.
The second implication for school leaders is the implementation of Professional Learning
Communities (PLC). High academic expectations in the classroom result in students believing
that college is a reality (Ayala & Chalupa, 2016). The structure of the professional learning
communities allowed for teacher collaboration. During PLC time, teachers created common
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 100
formative assessments and developed rigorous lessons. Observational data revealed that teachers
engaged in academic conversations to improve their curriculum. As the results of this study have
demonstrated, PLC work has resulted in an increase in teachers’ pedagogical knowledge that
positively impacts students’ college preparedness. Other schools may benefit from engaging in
similar practices to further prepare students for college success.
A third implication for practice is the importance of having a college center. The college
center at Main City High School offered students a place to visit and receive assistance with
college applications and afforded access to computers and printers. Additionally, the college
center partners with higher education institutions regularly to provide college workshops. The
benefits of the college center have been documented in this case study. As such, other schools
may consider implementing a college center to increase LatinX students’ college knowledge.
The final implication for the work of school leaders is the adoption of college outreach
programs that promote a college-going culture in school. The AVID program is one of many
outreach programs that promote such culture. The AVID program serves as a model for
preparing students for college as teachers act as college counselors. Students benefit from the
individualized attention they receive from advisory teachers when applying for college. The
college center uses them as role models for other teachers. AVID teachers are involved in college
fieldtrips as well. The AVID program has a ninety-seven percent graduation rate as well as a
ninety-eight percent A-G completion rate. Schools looking to increase college preparedness and
success for college will benefit from starting a college outreach program on their campus.
Recommendation for Future Studies
This study contributes to the understanding of promising practices which school leaders
utilize to build and sustain a college-going culture to increase college preparedness for LatinX
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 101
students. In addition, challenges were identified that impeded school leaders’ ability to sustain a
college-going culture. Although the investigation is comprehensive and the results provide
insight for other school leaders to learn from and use in their own school, it is limited. As the
data were collected, several questions emerged for future study. In this section the researcher
will highlight three recommendations for future studies.
Findings in the study suggest that district leadership had a significant impact on
developing a vision for building a college-going culture. The limitations of the study restricted
the investigation to one high school in the district. It will be advantageous to study the actions of
district leadership in creating and sustaining a college-going culture among all schools, including
middle schools and elementary schools. The results of this examination will assist in
understanding how district leadership sets the tone for the rest of the school community.
Second, it will be beneficial to examine the success of LatinX students from Main City
High School once they graduate from high school. Due to the time limitations of this study, it
was difficult to verify whether LatinX students who graduate from high school after four years
are successful in college. As such, it will be beneficial for future research to follow a cohort of
students from 9
th
grade through their first year of college to examine the impact which promising
leadership practices had on their preparation for college.
Lastly, the role of the college counselor is critical to building a college-going culture in
schools. The role of the college counselor emerged as an important catalyst in the work that
occurs in high school. A study of the role of the college counselor would provide insight for
colleges and universities whose program prepare future generations of counselors. It would be
beneficial to understand the type of work graduate students pursue in their training to become a
college counselor.
LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 102
Conclusion
This study sought to understand the perceived promising practices utilized by school
leaders to promote and sustain a college-going culture in schools to increase LatinX students
access to college. the findings suggest that school leaders at Main City High School adopted a
heightened vision of high student expectations, built social capital for students and collaborated
with staff to implement school initiatives aimed at increasing college access for LatinX students.
As a result of the practices identified in this study, LatinX students will have access to college
and narrow the college degree attainment that exists.
In addition to promising practices, this study also revealed the challenges school leaders
face when sustaining a college-going culture. The challenges that emerged are low teacher self-
efficacy, lack of school resources and low parental involvement. These challenges exist and
school leaders will look for creative solutions to overcome them and sustain a college-going
culture for all students.
The body of research documenting the challenges that LatinX students face as they
prepare for college is abundant. However, limited qualitative research exists on the promising
practices employed by school leaders to promote and sustain a college going-culture to increase
college access for LatinX students. Hence, this study focused on the promising practices utilized
by school leaders to increase college access for LatinX students. As school leadership is one of
the most influential factors in schools to build and sustain a college-going culture, the sharing of
promising practices will result in a new generation of LatinX students in other schools who will
be prepared to meet the challenges of the 21
st
century in other schools.

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 103
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LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 111
APPENDIX A: LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
Date_____

Dear _____,
I am interested in finding out more about how school leaders in your community build a college-
going culture. By college-going culture I mean a culture where students find encouragement and
help from multiple sources to prepare them with the knowledge needed for college success; a
college-going culture facilitates student learning, college readiness and matriculation for all
students. Given your role as a ___I thought you might be a good person to talk to. This request
for an interview is for a dissertation on promising practices in building a college-going culture. I
am hoping that in connecting with you I can gain greater insight. This interview should take us
about 45 minutes. Everything you share with me will remain completely anonymous. I will be
discussing the findings from your interview anonymously in the dissertation and please rest
assured that I will not disclose your name at any point. Please feel free to contact me at 323-810-
5552 to confirm a date and time that work best for you.
Looking forward to meeting with you.
Respectfully,
Salvador Torres

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 112
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
INTERVIEW: #____

Interview Protocol

Date:

Location: Start Time: End Time:
Interviewer:

Interviewee:
Introduction:
I am interested in finding out more about how school leaders in your community build a college-
going culture. By college-going culture I mean a culture where students find encouragement and
help from multiple sources to prepare them with the knowledge needed for college success; a
college-going culture facilitates student learning, college readiness and matriculation for all
students. Given your role as a ...I thought you might be a good person to talk to. This interview is
for a dissertation on promising practices in building a college-going culture. I am hoping that in
connecting with you I can gain greater insight. This interview should take us about 45 minutes.
Consent:
I want to ensure that I capture your insights fully, If it’s okay with you I’d like to record our
conversation. At any point, if you would like me to stop recording please feel free to let me
know. Is recording okay with you?
Confidentiality:
Everything you share with me will remain completely anonymous, I will be discussing the
findings anonymously with classmates, and please rest assured that I will not disclose your name
at any point.
Transition:
I am going to start off by asking some questions about your role as …
How long have you been in your position?
What made you decide to pursue a career in this area?
Can you explain a little more about what responsibilities you have in this role?

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 113
RQ 2: What are the perceived challenges of Hope High school leaders in sustaining a
college-going culture?
RQ
1
RQ
2
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is your organizations philosophy about going to college?
2. How do you communicate this philosophy to parents, students, teachers?

3. How do you communicate this philosophy to parents, students, teachers?

4. Do you feel your role supports this college going philosophy? Can you
elaborate on this?

5. In your opinion, how does the school leaders influence and support the
college-going philosophy?

6. How do you in your role engage students in the college-going process?
7. What kind of activities do you have on your campus that support a college-
going philosophy? Who are these activities geared for (Parents, teachers, families?

8. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about the
college-going process? Do you have a center or specific location that students can
go to?

9. Tell me how you are involving parents in this college-going process?

10. Are there practices unique to your school being a continuation school that
you believe contribute to a college-going philosophy?

11. What are the challenges that you face in your role supporting students in the
college-going process?

12. How do the school leaders work together to support students in the college-
going process?
13. What types of resources and supports do school leaders need to help
students towards college attainment?

14. How do you as a school leader ensure that the college-going practices are
being sustained?

15. How do you assess whether the college-going practices are producing the
desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-attainment)?

LATINX STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 114
APPENDIX C: OBSERVATION DATA TEMPLATE

Observational Tool

Purpose:

Date: Duration: Location:

Participants: Students School Leaders Parents
Environment: Micro Meso
Other:

Time Descriptive Detail

Summary

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1977), focusing on the ways in which certain microsystems impact college preparedness for LatinX students. These microsystems included school leaders, resources, families, and the school environment. The purpose of this study was to identify the promising practices which school leaders utilized to build and sustain a college-going culture at a large urban high school. In addition, perceived challenges school leaders encountered were identified. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews of ten school leaders, along with observations made by the researcher at the college center and college night events, and document analysis. Creswell’s (2014) Data Analysis Model was used to analyze data collected. Findings from this study demonstrated that school leaders increased college preparedness for LatinX students by establishing high academic expectations, building social capital to increase college knowledge, and collaborating to create college outreach programs. Further, school leaders faced challenges in sustaining a college-going culture such as increasing teacher self-efficacy, augmenting school financial resources, and increasing parental involvement as a way to increase social capital. This study contributes to the understanding of promising practices school leaders used to develop and sustain a college-going culture focused on preparing LatinX students for post-secondary education.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Torres, Salvador (author)

Core Title Promising practices for building a college-going culture for LatinX students: a case study of a large comprehensive high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/17/2019

Defense Date 03/20/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college-going practices,education,educational practices,High School,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email saltorres.torres@gmail.com,tsalvado@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-176160

Unique identifier UC11660739

Identifier etd-TorresSalv-7496.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-176160 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-TorresSalv-7496.pdf

Dmrecord 176160

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Torres, Salvador

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA