University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

“It is all about student equity”: improving teacher retention and recruitment in a large urban district

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“It is all about student equity”: improving teacher retention and recruitment in a large urban district

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Content Running head: IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 1
“IT IS ALL ABOUT STUDENT EQUITY”: IMPROVING TEACHER RETENTION
AND RECRUITMENT IN A LARGE URBAN DISTRICT
by
Cheryl Hildreth
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2019

Copyright 2019 Cheryl Hildreth
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 2
DEDICATION
This accomplishment would not have been possible without the love and support of my
parents, who instilled in me the love of education; my husband and my children, who are my
“gladiators”; and my sister and relatives, who are my cheerleaders. Their collective
encouragement as I pursued this dream of earning a doctorate and their faith in my ability made
all the difference. I love them and am forever grateful.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Participating in this research study has broadened my depth of knowledge. I would like to
thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Michael Escalante, for his consistent guidance, support, and
belief in me throughout this entire journey. I am also grateful for the feedback and insight
provided by my dissertation committee.
I thank my colleagues for being “thought partners” throughout this process. From the
beginning, we formed study groups, shared resources, and made this process a true example of
collegiality and collaboration. To my “mini-cohort” members, I am eternally grateful to both of
them. If not for their compassion, dedication, patience, and encouragement, I would not have
finished. We started together, and we were determined to finish together.
A special thank you to my friends and colleagues for their support, especially this past
year. I drew strength from them all as they kept me focused on the goal. A shout-out to the A-
Team, who made sure that everything stayed in place so that I could balance all my
responsibilities and maintain my sanity.

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 11
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations of the Study 16
Delimitations of the Study 16
Definition of Terms 17
Organization of the Dissertation 19
Chapter 2: Literature Review 20
Importance of Teacher Turnover 21
The Need for Teacher Retention 22
Teacher Quality and Effectiveness 23
Teacher Characteristics 24
Race and Ethnicity 24
Attributes of Teacher Mobility That Influence Retention 25
Retaining Effective Teachers 26
Why Teachers Leave: External Factors 27
Job Satisfaction 27
Working Conditions 28
Administrative Support 29
Appropriate Assignment of Certified Teachers 31
Professional Development 32
Online Professional Development and Microcredentialing 33
Induction Programs 34
Teacher Mentor Support 34
Teacher Collegiality and Collaboration 36
Professional Learning Communities 37
Teacher Evaluations 38
Teacher Evaluation and Ineffective Teachers 39
Areas for Focus on Recruitment 40
Location Preference 41
National Board Certified Teachers 41
Alternative Certification Programs 42
Emergency Credentials 44
Teach for America 45
Teacher Preparation Programs at HLIs 45
University Partnerships 46
Teacher Salaries 48
Financial Incentives 49
Recruitment Methods and Teacher Candidate Outreach 50
External Characteristics That Influence Retention and Recruitment 51
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 5
District Support 51
Collective Bargaining Agreements 52
Financial Impact of Teacher Recruitment 53
Theoretical Frameworks 54
Coherence Framework 54
Sociocultural Theory and Zone of Proximal Development 56
Ecological Systems Theory 57
Chapter Summary 59
Chapter 3: Methodology 61
Research Design 62
Research Team 63
Sample and Population 64
Instrumentation 64
Access/Entry 65
Data Collection 67
Data Analysis 71
Validity, Reliability, and Trustworthiness 72
Ethical Considerations 73
Chapter Summary 73
Chapter 4: Results 75
Research Design 76
Research Team 77
Sample and Population 77
Data and Analysis 78
Findings for Research Question 1 79
Theme 1: Relationships With HLIs Are Important to the Recruitment of
Teachers 80
Theme 2: Flexible Incentive Options to Meet Different Local Needs 83
Theme 3: Target Recruitment Strategies Attract Teacher Candidates 88
Findings for Research Question 2 92
Theme 1: Teachers Benefit From Mentor Support 92
Theme 2: School-Level Collaboration Is Needed to Foster Professional
Growth 96
Theme 3: Differentiated Professional Development Influences Teacher
Development 100
Results for Research Question 3 105
Theme 1: Administrator Support Is Critical to Retain Teachers 105
Theme 2: Salaries and Additional Compensation Opportunities Influence
Teacher Retention 110
Theme 3: Supportive Working Conditions at Schools Influence Teacher
Retention 113
Results for Research Question 4 116
Theme 1: PLCs Provide Support to Novice and Surplus Teachers 117
Theme 2: Differentiated Training Provides Support for Teachers 120
Theme 3: Dedicated Time for Collaboration Improves Teacher Practice
and Effectiveness 123
Chapter Summary 125
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion 129
Purpose of the Study 130
Research Questions 130
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 6
Emergent Themes 131
Discussion of Findings for Research Questions 132
Research Question 1 132
Research Question 2 135
Research Question 3 138
Research Question 4 140
Implications for Practice 143
Recommendations for Research 146
Conclusion 148
References 150
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter to Principals 165
Appendix B: Study Information Sheet 166
Appendix C: Qualitative Survey Protocol for School Administrators 168
Appendix D: Qualitative Survey Protocol for Teachers 173
Appendix E: Quantitative Data Collection 178
Appendix F: Qualitative Administrator Interview Protocol 182
Appendix G: Qualitative Teacher Interview Protocol 185
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Alignment of Qualitative Survey Protocols With Research Questions (RQs)
and Theoretical Framework 66
Table 2: Alignment of Interview Protocols With Research Questions (RQs) and
Theoretical Framework 68
Table 3: Alignment of Quantitative Protocols With Research Questions (RQs) and
Theoretical Frameworks 69
Table 4: Summary of Participants, Their Organization/Position, and Data Type(s) 79
Table 5: Research Question 1, Theme 1: Participant Responses Indicating the Impact
of Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs) in Recruitment Strategies in Hiring
Effective Teachers, by Percentages 82
Table 6: Participant Responses Indicating the Impact of District-Implemented
Recruitment Strategies in Hiring Effective Teachers, by Percentages 85
Table 7: Participant Responses Indicating the Impact of Higher Learning Institutions
(HLIs) in Recruitment Strategies in Hiring Effective Teachers, by Percentages 90
Table 8: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Personalized Support
Strategies for a Large Urban District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers
(5+ Years or Completion of Induction Process) in the System, by Percentages 94
Table 9: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Support
Strategies for a Large Urban District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers
(5+ Years or Completion of Induction Process) in the System, by Percentages 98
Table 10: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Strategies That Could/
Should Be Used to Improve the Postinduction Training of Teachers,
by Percentages 101
Table 11: Responses to a District-wide Survey Indicating the Importance of Differentiated
Assignments and Training Strategies That Could/Should Be Used to Improve
the Effectiveness of Teachers, According to Years of Classroom Experience, by
Percentages 103
Table 12: Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Importance of Strategies
for a Large Urban District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers (5+ Years
or Completion of Induction Process) in the System, by Percentages 108
Table 13: Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Frequency at Which
Administrator Support Strategies Were Implemented, According to Years of
Classroom Experience, by Percentages 109
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 8
Table 14: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Additional Compensation
Strategies for a Large Urban District to Retain Experienced Teachers (5+
Years or Completion of Induction Process) in the System, by Percentages 111
Table 15: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Support
Strategies That Impact Working Conditions for a Large Urban District to
Retain New and Experienced Teachers (5+ Years or Completion of Induction
Process) in the System, by Percentages 115
Table 16: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Strategies That Could/
Should Be Used to Improve the Effectiveness of Novice and Surplus Teachers,
by Percentages 118
Table 17: Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Frequency With Which
Collaborative Strategies Were Used in Professional Development (Training,
Grade-Level and Departmental-Level Meetings), According to Years of
Teaching Experience, by Percentages 119
Table 18: Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Support and
Training Strategies That Could/Should Be Used to Improve the Effectiveness
of Novice and Surplus Teachers, by Percentages 122
Table 19: Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Frequency With Which
Time Was Provided for Collaboration in Professional Development (Training,
Grade-Level And Departmental-Level Meetings), According to Years of
Teaching Experience, by Percentages 124
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Coherence framework of Fullan and Quinn 55
Figure 2: Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory 57
Figure 3: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework 58
Figure 4: Applied convergent parallel design 72
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 10
ABSTRACT
Effective teaching is critical to raising student achievement; however, quality teachers are
difficult to attract and retain. High rates of turnover make it difficult for schools to attract and
retain quality teachers–a situation that has caused an even greater disparity for minority students
in low-income areas who attend hard-to-staff schools in urban districts. Preventing constant
teacher turnover at schools that serve students with the greatest needs is critical if students are to
receive a high-quality education.
Urban districts face three main challenges in retaining teachers: (a) recruiting and
retaining individuals who are new to the profession, (b) retaining teachers who are the most
effective, and (c) supporting teachers who are no longer effective. This study describes the
impact of teachers’ working conditions (i.e., professional development, administrator leadership,
mentor support, collaboration, compensation, partnerships with higher learning institutions) and
the supports needed throughout the educational system to recruit new teachers and to assist
experienced teachers who are no longer effective. In addition, the perceptions of novice teachers,
National Board Certified teachers, and administrators regarding the importance and impact of
specific recruitment and retention strategies were explored.
The results of this study should contribute to the existing literature on successful
recruitment and retention policies and will help to inform large urban school districts of specific,
controlled working conditions and school and district systems needed to maintain a stable, well-
prepared teaching force who can improve student achievement outcomes for students in
underserved populations.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 11
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The education of all children is a civil right. It is the goal of the elementary and
secondary public school system to provide a high-quality education to every student. To provide
a high-quality education to students, districts must ensure that there are high-quality teachers in
every school. Unfortunately, the data reveal that schools in urban districts are challenged in
ensuring that the best teachers are working with the students with the greatest needs.
Federal efforts to promote equitable distribution of effective teachers arise from concerns
that disadvantaged students may have less access to effective teachers, thereby contributing to
sizable achievement gaps for disadvantaged students (Isenberg et al., 2013). Given the
importance of teachers in improving student achievement and concerns about unequal access to
effective teachers in hard-to-staff schools, more evidence on strategies to retain and recruit
teachers in urban school districts is needed.
Background of the Problem
Effective teaching is critical to raising student achievement; however, quality teachers are
difficult to attract and retain. Teacher retention has been a persistent problem in the United
States. It was estimated that approximately 2.4 million new teachers would be needed in the
decade between 1998 and 2008 (Darling-Hammond, 2000). The American Federation of
Teachers (2001) reported that approximately 200,000 new teachers would be hired annually.
Researchers reviewed data from the School and Staffing Survey (SASS) and the Teacher Follow-
Up Survey (TFS) and determined that the challenge facing the teaching profession is not hiring
teachers. Instead, the issue is the rate at which teachers leave the profession, which creates high
rates of turnover in school districts (Ingersoll, 2002; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). Ingersoll (2002)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 12
determined that 29% of beginning teachers leave the profession sometime during their first 3
years and as many as 40% to 50% leave after 5 years.
The overall shortage of teachers has turned from recruitment to retention because studies
reveal a “revolving door” through which large numbers of teachers leave before retirement
(Ingersoll, 2003; Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). The National Commission on Teaching and
America’s Future (NCTAF; 2003) noted that teacher turnover is most pronounced in urban
schools with larger numbers of poor and minority students. Achinstein, Ogawa, Sexton, and
Freitas (2010) declared that instructional quality, resources, stability, and curriculum coherence
of urban schools suffer because teacher turnover exacts instructional, financial, and
organizational costs on the schools and/or districts. Retaining teachers in hard-to-staff schools
leads to an additional layer of difficulty for school districts in urban areas. Ingersoll (2001b)
reported that urban districts are twice as likely to have inexperienced teachers. Although the
majority of new teachers leave after 5 years, 50% of the new teachers in urban districts leave
before Year 3 (Frankenberg, Taylor, & Merseth, 2010). Thus, the cycle of teacher turnover has a
greater impact on students in the neediest communities.
Several factors contribute to the reasons teachers leave the profession altogether or why
they leave hard-to-staff schools. Lack of support and working conditions are important factors
that teachers consider as they gain experience and begin to make career decisions about where
they will work. Teachers consider working conditions and salary levels when deciding to stay in
the profession or transfer to another school within the district. To the degree that students in low-
income areas come to school with weaker backgrounds due to limited access opportunities or
situations at home, teachers may perceive that the challenges at schools that are in high-need
areas may have harder working conditions. Thus, the teachers who were originally assigned to
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 13
these hard-to-staff schools leave to work at schools in more affluent areas. Clotfelter, Ladd,
Vigdor, and Wheeler (2007) described these actions as “trading up.” Trading up occurs when
existing teachers transfer out of the high-poverty schools and move to more advantaged schools.
Hence, district leaders should be aware of these factors as they search for new recruits and retain
the teachers who are currently in the schools.
All students deserve access to competent and qualified teachers. These teachers may be
new to the profession, veterans, or those approaching retirement. Experienced teachers have
shown that they want to work with children and provide them with an education needed to live a
productive life. Yet, teacher productivity begins to reach a plateau as a certain point. In a study
of teacher development, A. Jacob and McGovern (2015) found that substantial improvement in
teacher performance seems especially difficult to achieve after a teacher’s first few years in the
classroom. Thus, concern about the supply, qualification, recruitment and retention of teachers is
one of the top challenges that educators face across the nation, especially in LUDs.
Recruitment and retention of teachers do not ensure that the quality of teacher
performance will remain high. The goal of school districts is not only to recruit quality teachers;
it is also to retain the quality teachers who are already employed. An additional challenge that
school administrators and districts face is how to provide support for those individuals who have
remained in the profession but are ineffective.
Statement of the Problem
Teachers have the greatest impact on student achievement outcomes. Students who have
the greatest needs, especially those in urban areas, are often taught by the least skilled teachers, a
factor that likely contributes to substantial gaps in academic achievement for low-income and
minority students (Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2005; Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2002).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 14
Historically, novice teachers are less effective than veteran teachers at increasing student
achievement rates (Frankenberg et al., 2010). Peske and Haycock (2006) contended that poor and
minority students do not get equal access to high-quality teachers. Highly qualified teachers are
more likely to leave schools that have the lowest-achieving students (Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, &
Wyckoff, 2005b).
As teacher turnover increases, the lack of teacher stability in hard-to-staff schools
continues to create disparities in education. Schools struggle to maintain teacher quality and
districts are continuously seeking ways to recruit and support new teachers and retain the most
effective teachers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is twofold. The general purpose is to examine how urban
districts and hard-to-staff schools can increase retention rates of novice teachers who are most
likely to leave the profession after the first 5 years, support veteran teachers who are no longer
effective, and retain effective veteran teachers who are most likely to leave hard-to-staff schools.
The purpose is also to identify factors that affect retention of teachers and that can be changed by
implementation of specific recruitment strategies that districts and schools should consider to
attract, support, and retain teachers.
To address the purpose of the study, the following research questions will be
investigated:
1. What recruitment strategies are used by large urban districts (LUDs) that result in the
most effective hiring?
2. How can LUDs improve their postinduction training to retain the highest number of
highly qualified teachers?
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 15
3. What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers (5+ years or completion
of induction process) in the system?
4. What strategies could/should be used to improve effectiveness of veteran teachers?
Past research has generally focused on teacher characteristics and school demographics
as determinants of teacher retention. Yet, more information is needed to understand how teachers
interact in their work environment to contribute to recruitment and retention and what
organizational factors can be implemented to enhance recruitment strategies. This study utilized
three theoretical frameworks: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory, and Fullan and Quinn’s coherence framework. Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological
theory framework provided context on the interconnectedness of individuals and organizations.
Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory emphasized the importance of individual growth through
interaction with more knowledgeable peers. Fullan and Quinn (2016) provided a framework of
coherence to understand how districts and schools improve recruitment and retention of teachers
by focusing on four specific drivers. The study examined factors that influence retention and
recruitment, including school location, working conditions such as administrator support, teacher
collaboration, professional development, mentor support, higher learning institutions (HLIs),
salary levels, financial incentives, teacher certification, and staffing rules.
Significance of the Study
Nationally, an ongoing conversation in education is focused on recruiting, supporting,
and retaining high-quality teachers. Teacher quality is one of the most important influences on
student achievement. It is the responsibility of educators to provide students with an education
that will lead to successful life outcomes; this goal can be achieved with proper recruitment and
retention of teachers.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 16
Effective strategies for attracting high-quality teachers and keeping them in the
profession is an area that should be explored (Hare & Heap, 2001). Educators and policymakers
are constantly seeking guidance on how to attract and retain high-quality teachers; more
information is needed. Adequately addressing this problem requires that urban districts and
schools adopt strategies that work. The research presented in this study is an attempt to provide
more information on this topic.
Limitations of the Study
This study is limited to data collected from three of six regions in a large urban school
district. The results of this study are specifically focused on providing information for school and
district leaders in hard-to-staff schools. Administrators and district leaders in suburban schools or
schools in more affluent areas in an urban district may find that the information regarding the
factors that affect recruitment and lead to retention are not the same factors that affect teacher
career decisions in non-hard-to-staff schools.
The research team will utilize a mixed-methods approach and conduct interviews and
surveys to identify strategies that are most impactful in recruiting and retaining high-quality
teachers. An additional limitation may be that the study includes data that are self-reported by
teachers and administrators. As a result of a self-reporting process, respondents may not respond
with their true feelings. Also, there may be other factors not included in the survey or questions
asked during the interviews that may contribute to the retention and recruitment issue.
Delimitations of the Study
The scope of this study focused on interviews with respondents who work at hard-to-staff
schools in specific geographic locations. The data were collected via a survey designed
specifically for qualitative data collection and the researcher used data from a district-wide
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 17
school experience survey to provide quantitative data from more than 300 respondents. The
study also collected qualitative data from interviews with novice teachers, National Board
Certified teachers, and administrators. The study did not exclude teachers based on ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, or school grade level.
Definition of Terms
Administrative support: The extent to which school leaders provide feedback on
instruction, create an orderly and safe instructional environment, and address teachers’ concerns
about issues in the school (S. M. Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2011).
Alternative certification programs: Routes to certification that typically allow teachers to
enter the classroom by postponing or bypassing criteria required by traditional teacher
preparation programs (Boyd, Goldhaber, Lankford, & Wyckoff, 2007).
Collaboration: The extent to which teachers are recognized as educational experts and
are given the flexibility to make professional decisions about instruction (S. M. Johnson et al.,
2011).
Hard-to-staff school: A school that serves poor, minority, and lower-achieving children,
housing a significant proportion of inexperienced, underprepared teachers and experiencing high
attrition rates (Berry, 2004).
Induction programs: Support, guidance, and orientation programs, collectively known as
induction, for beginning elementary and secondary teachers during the transition to their first
teaching jobs (Ingersoll & Smith, 2004).
Mentor programs: Personal guidance provided, usually by seasoned veterans, to
beginning teachers in schools. Programs vary according to their purpose. Some, for instance, are
primarily developmental and designed to foster growth on the part of newcomers. Others are
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 18
designed to assess, and perhaps weed out, those who are deemed ill suited for the job (Ingersoll
& Smith, 2004).
School culture: The extent to which the school environment is characterized by mutual
trust, respect, openness, and commitment to student achievement (S. M. Johnson et al., 2011).
Surplus teachers: A phenomenon unique to districts who employ teachers who have not
received appropriate assistance and guidance to improve their support of student instruction. In
most cases, the teachers have either moved to other sites or are moved by the school district, thus
hampering receipt of effective support and appropriate evaluations to support improvement and
accountability.
Teacher attrition: In education, the result of teachers leaving the occupation (Ingersoll,
2001a).
Teacher effectiveness: The degree to which teachers impact student learning and have
higher-than-predicted increases in student achievement (Goe & Stickler, 2008).
Teacher quality: The credentials, knowledge, attitudes, attributes, classroom practices,
value-added impact on student achievement, and experiences that teachers bring when they enter
the classroom (Goe & Stickler, 2008).
Teacher retention: The number of teachers who remain in a district from one year to the
next (S. M. Johnson, 2006).
Urban school district: A district that has high shares of poor and minority students as
identified by the number of students who qualify for free and reduced-price lunch programs and
qualify to receive services under Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
(B. A. Jacob, 2007).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 19
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation consists of five chapters. The first chapter has introduced the study,
included an overview of the study, identified the statement of the problem and purpose of the
study, presented the four research questions and importance of the study, and defined the key
terms of the study. Chapter 2 presents a review of the relevant literature on the topics of teacher
turnover, retention, working conditions, professional development, mentor support, teacher
certification, and district support to improve recruitment. Chapter 3 describes the mixed-
methods, predominantly qualitative methodology that will be used in the conduct of the study;
the research team; the techniques used for data collection, organization, and analysis; and the
study sample, population, and instrumentation. Chapter 4 presents the research findings based on
the collected data, identified themes related to the research questions, and an analysis of the data
and theoretical frameworks. Chapter 5 summarizes the findings of the study and presents
recommendations for further research.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 20
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this literature review is to examine factors that directly influence teacher
retention in a large urban school district and lead to staffing barriers that have the greatest impact
on students in schools in high-poverty areas. Initially, the review provides an overview of the
problem of teacher turnover. This problem has led to many hard-to-staff schools that are staffed
with novice teachers or a surplus of ineffective teachers. The first section provides an
understanding of the challenges of teacher turnover and the impact on recruitment of novice
teachers. The second section identifies the factors, training, and support needed for hard-to-staff
schools to provide stable teaching environments with the highest-quality teachers assigned to
these schools. The third section examines teacher credentialing programs and working conditions
that contribute to the retention of teachers. The fourth section explores district barriers and
support needed to recruit the best teachers and to retain them beyond the first 5 years in the
profession.
Urban school districts are finding it increasingly difficult to recruit new, well-qualified
teachers. Industrial-era recruitment and replacement practices are no longer educationally sound
nor economically practical. Teacher attrition affects all schools but is concentrated in chronically
underperforming schools serving low-income students. The study by NCTAF (2010) noted that
hard-to-staff schools rarely close the student achievement gap because they never close the
teaching quality gap as they are constantly rebuilding their staff.
Research has shown that, in the distribution of the best teachers, poor and minority
students do not get equitable access (Peske & Haycock, 2006). There is ample evidence that new
teachers are not as effective as they will eventually become after being in the profession for a
number of years. A. Jacob and McGovern (2015) surveyed 10,000 teachers and 500 school
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 21
leaders and interviewed 100 staff members involved in teacher development and determined that
teachers in their first 5 years grew at least 2.5 to 5 times faster than all other teachers across the
districts that they studied. Teachers’ experience levels also matter, especially the steep gain in
effectiveness that typically occurs after the first few years of teaching (Darling-Hammond,
2003). Students in high-poverty and high-minority schools are disproportionately assigned to
teachers who are new to the profession (Peske & Haycock, 2006). Students in urban districts are
further disadvantaged by having a disproportionately high number of ineffective teachers who
have low performance outcomes. Researchers have reviewed evidence that suggested that the
magnitude of variation in teacher effects is driven by real differences in teacher quality (Staiger
& Rockoff, 2010).
Importance of Teacher Turnover
High rates of turnover make it difficult for schools to attract and retain quality teachers,
which has caused an even greater disparity for minority students in low-income areas who attend
hard-to-staff schools. Preventing the constant churn of teachers at high-poverty schools is critical
if students are to receive a high-quality education (Ronfeldt, Loeb, & Wycoff, 2013). Low-
performing schools rarely close the student achievement gap because they do not close the
teaching quality gap; they are constantly rebuilding staff. An inordinate amount of capital, both
human and financial, is consumed by the constant process of hiring and replacing beginning
teachers who leave before they have mastered the ability to create a successful learning culture
for their students (Barnes, Crowe, & Schaefer, 2007). Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, and Wyckoff
(2005b) found that first job placements that match less-qualified teachers with lower-performing
schools are often more important than the effects of teachers who quit or transfer.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 22
A continuous cycle of teacher turnover creates problems for several reasons. Schools
with high rates of turnover have a disproportionate proportion of novice teachers (Clotfeldter et
al., 2007; Grissom, 2011). Urban schools not only employ more teacher with less than 5 years of
experience; they also employ the most first-year teachers and the highest percentage of
noncertified staff (Allensworth, Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009; B. A. Jacob, 2007). Researchers
have demonstrated that teacher turnover has a significant and negative effect on student
achievement in English and mathematics. Teacher turnover is also particularly harmful to
students in schools with large populations of low-performing and Black students (Achinstein et
al., 2010).
Repeated turnover prevents schools from developing strong school cultures. In a study of
teacher turnover, Ronfeldt et al. (2013) suggested that an unstable teaching culture may account
for the “disruptional effects” that turnover has on all students at high-turnover schools, including
the students of teachers who remain. The authors explained that turnover negatively affects
collegiality or relational trust among faculty and perhaps results in loss of institutional
knowledge among faculty that is critical for supporting all students.
The Need for Teacher Retention
Teachers who are considering whether to stay in the teaching profession make ongoing
assessments of the attractiveness of teaching relative to alternative occupations or activities that
they might pursue. New teachers are more likely than more experienced teachers to leave the
profession. This might be because teaching is more difficult than many new teachers expect,
which causes them to leave soon after starting their teaching careers (Loeb & Reininger, 2004).
New teachers are more likely than more experienced teachers to leave the profession. Retaining
teachers would be beneficial if high-quality teachers were the ones retained; however, existing
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 23
data on teacher labor markets do not indicate that this would be the case (Hanushek, Kain, &
Rivkin, 2004).
Much of the difference in the qualifications of teachers across schools is not due to
differential quit rates but to differences in the characteristics of the teachers who are initially
brought into the schools. A teacher who seeks a position in a particular school district considers
school and student factors in making the decision to work in a certain area or to stay in the
profession altogether. Clotfelter, Ladd, Vigdor, and Aliaga Diaz (2004) stated that, given the
institutional fact that a single salary schedule is likely to apply to all teachers in the district, a
teacher with a specific level of experience and educational qualifications would earn the same
salary regardless of the school in which he/she teaches. While some teachers may prefer to teach
students who present serious educational challenges, the majority are likely to prefer assignment
to “easy-to-reach” students (Clotfelter et al., 2004).
Teacher Quality and Effectiveness
Students benefit from high-quality instruction that comes from effective, high-quality
teachers in every classroom. Teacher effectiveness matters so much that low-income students
who are fortunate enough to have three very good teachers in succession in elementary school
earn test scores that, on average, are similar to those of middle-class children (Wilson, 2009).
Conversely, almost all children, regardless of their socioeconomic status, are harmed
educationally when they have ineffective teachers for 3 consecutive years. According to
Wilson (2009), nearly 3.8 million teachers work in schools in the United States but there are
not enough good ones, especially in the schools and districts that serve high-poverty minority
student populations.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 24
Teacher Characteristics
Teachers influence students’ learning more than any other factor affecting student
achievement (B. A. Jacob, 2007; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005). Allensworth et al. (2009)
stated that those who are most effective are likely to leave the schools that need them most.
Teachers with strong academic backgrounds who remain in the profession tend to move to
higher-income schools with better student achievement (Boyd et al., 2005b). S. M. Johnson
(2006) stated that, since 2000, the least experienced teachers have been especially likely to leave.
Typically, these novices are replaced by even newer teachers (Hanushek et al., 2004; Marinell &
Coca, 2013).
Race and Ethnicity
The racial/ethnic composition of the teacher workforce is different from that of the
student population in most LUDs. Minority enrollment has increased dramatically in recent years
(Guarino, Santibanez, & Daley, 2006). The number of non-White teachers is much smaller than
the number of non-White students. Some evidence suggests that same-race teachers can be more
effective for improving student outcomes, although race is clearly not the only characteristic of
teachers that is important (Loeb & Reininger, 2004). Ingersoll and May (2011) noted that White
females still dominated the workforce and minorities faced barriers to teacher entry.
Minority teachers are willing to work in hard-to-staff schools, yet the working conditions
become barriers to retention. Ingersoll and May (2011) noted that minority teachers are 2 to 3
times more likely to work in an urban, hard-to-staff school districts. However, minority teachers
also leave hard-to-staff schools at higher rates than schools in more affluent areas. Minority
teachers have cited that salary, professional development opportunities, and lack of resources are
deterrents to remaining in the profession, especially at hard-to-staff schools.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 25
Attributes of Teacher Mobility That Influence Retention
Researchers have examined why teachers leave the profession and/or schools in high-
poverty areas. The findings show that teacher turnover occurs due to retirement. Turnover also
occurs due to attrition or migration. Ingersoll (2001a) defined attrition as leaving the occupation
of teacher altogether, whereas migration refers to those who transfer or move to different
teaching jobs in other school. The most often cited reasons for attrition or migration are job
satisfaction, salaries, working conditions, administrative support, induction and mentor support,
teacher collegiality, and professional development. The organizational barriers must also be
examined.
Research shows that the highest attrition rates for teachers occur during the first 5 years
in the profession, at rates nearly one third higher in urban districts (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; S.
M. Johnson, 2006). Researchers have identified the seriousness of the teacher attrition rate in
urban schools. Frankenberg et al. (2010) stated that 50% of new teachers in urban districts leave
before Year 3. In analyzing teacher employment patterns, research has shown that persistent
staffing problems result not from a shortage of qualified teachers but from the fact that many
new teacher recruits leave their schools and teaching a short time after they enter (Ingersoll,
2001b). Turnover rates in teaching are much higher than in most high-status, high-paying
professions (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2010).
Teacher turnover, including both “movers,” who leave one school or district for another;
and “leavers,” who exit the profession temporarily or permanently, is 50% higher in high-
poverty schools than in low-poverty schools (Ingersoll, 2001b). “Stayers” are teachers who
remain in the profession. Teachers who start their careers in hard-to-staff schools and choose to
stay in the profession tend to transfer to schools in more affluent areas. Simon and Johnson
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 26
(2015) stated that teachers usually either exit the profession or transfer to schools that have better
academic records and serve Whiter, wealthier students.
Researchers have reviewed various studies to determine the patterns of teachers who
leave or remain in the profession. Shen (1997) analyzed data from the 1990-1991 SASS and the
1991-1992 TFS to determine whether there were differences among those who stayed (stayers),
those who moved (movers), and those who left altogether (leavers) by analyzing personal
characteristics, school characteristics, and teacher perceptions. One significant school
characteristic was that those who remained taught longer and had higher salaries than movers.
Another significant school characteristic was that movers and leavers were frequently employed
in a school with teachers with less than 3 years of teaching experience and a higher percentage of
minority and economically disadvantaged students. The movement of experienced teachers
between schools and districts tends to worsen inequities, as the more qualified teachers are more
likely to leave poor urban schools to teach in higher-performing, more affluent schools
(Goldhaber, 2006).
Retaining Effective Teachers
Teachers who should be retained are those who are effective and have the greatest impact
on student outcomes. A. Jacob, Vigdayrthi, and Carroll (2012) conducted a study of 90,000
teachers across four large urban school districts and examined the impact of the top 20% teachers
based on the academic performance data of their students. The authors used the term
irreplaceables to describe teachers who are so successful they are nearly impossible to replace
but who often vanish from schools as the result of neglect and inattention. The evidence showed
that, on average, each year, this subset of teachers help students learn two to three additional
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 27
months’ worth of mathematics and reading compared with average teachers and five to six
months more compared to low-performing teachers.
Urban districts face three main challenges in retaining teachers: (a) retaining individuals
who are new to the profession, (2) retaining teachers who are the most effective, and (3)
supporting teachers who are no longer effective. A. Jacob et al. (2012) found that the nation’s
urban school districts are losing their most and least successful teachers at strikingly similar
rates. When an irreplaceable leaves a low-performing school, it can take 11 hires to find one
teacher of comparable quality. This group of teachers leaves for reasons that can be controlled:
poor working conditions, lack of administrative support, professional growth opportunities, and
professional development. A. Jacob et al. (2012) highlighted retention strategies that would keep
irreplaceables in the system. Top teachers who experience two or more retention strategies plan
to keep teaching at their schools for nearly twice as long (2 to 6 more years).
Why Teachers Leave: External Factors
Job Satisfaction
Retirement is a relatively minor factor when compared with factors that contribute to
attrition and migration, such as job satisfaction. Schools that are organized to support teachers’
efforts to be successful with students report greater teacher satisfaction (S. M. Johnson &
Birkeland, 2003; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011). Many teachers are attracted to the profession by
intrinsic or extrinsic motivations. Green and Munoz (2016) reported that some teachers continue
to work under poor conditions due to a high level of loyalty to students and a dedication to
service.
Stress leads to job dissatisfaction, which leads to burnout. Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011)
noted that stress is caused by the individual’s perception of workplace demands and the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 28
individual’s personal abilities to achieve the goals set by the workplace. The need to balance
family responsibilities with job responsibilities creates a daily struggle. The result of this
balancing act is academic and personal burnout and, thus, early departure from the teaching
profession. S. M. Johnson and Birkeland (2003) found that teachers who left the profession
within 3 years expressed a feeling of frustration or a sense of failure.
Working Conditions
Supportive working conditions can enable teachers to teach more effectively. They can
enhance teacher quality and improve retention (S. M. Johnson, 2006). Researchers found that,
once teachers are in the classroom, they are more likely to report that they would leave teaching
because of poor working conditions than because of low pay (S. M. Johnson, 2006). Teachers at
low-achieving schools are much less satisfied with working conditions than their colleagues at
high-achieving schools. A. Jacob et al. (2012) reported that only 32% to 45% of teachers at low-
achieving schools said that their school was a “good place to teach and learn,” as compared to
70% to 82% of teachers at high-achieving schools.
The conditions in which teachers work matter a great deal to them and, ultimately, to
their students. Teachers are more satisfied and plan to stay longer in schools that have a
positive work context, independent of the school’s student demographic characteristics (S. M.
Johnson et al., 2011). Furthermore, although a wide range of working conditions matters to
teachers, the specific elements of the work environment that matter the most to teachers are
not narrowly conceived working conditions such as clean and well-maintained facilities or
access to modern instructional technology. Instead, social conditions—the school‘s culture,
the principal‘s leadership, and relationships among colleagues—predominate in predicting
teachers’ job satisfaction and career plans (S. M. Johnson et al., 2011). More important,
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 29
providing a supportive context in which teachers work can lead to improved student
achievement (S. M. Johnson et al., 2011). Evidence shows that favorable work conditions
predict higher rates of student academic growth.
California teachers reported three major reasons for leaving teaching: an inadequate
system, bureaucratic impediments, and lack of collegial support (Berry, 2007). An inadequate
system has been described as one in which there is poor professional development, a lack of
textbooks, and too little time to plan lessons (Berry, 2007). Teachers wanted more collegial
support at their school sites, which would involve teacher collaboration and trust and respect
among staff members (Berry, 2007).
School culture and working conditions are especially large problems at struggling
schools. Teachers at low-achieving schools are much less satisfied with working conditions than
their colleagues at high-achieving schools (A. Jacob et al., 2012). The high attrition of teachers
from schools serving lower-income or lower-achieving students appears to be substantially
influenced by the poorer working conditions that are typically found in schools serving less
disadvantaged students (Darling-Hammond, 2003).
Administrative Support
Administrative support emerges as a particularly important factor in retention decisions
for teachers. Recent studies have shown principals’ organizational management skills, including
teacher hiring, to be more predictive of student outcomes than other areas of principal leadership
and responsibility (Grissom, 2011). The most important thing an administrator at the school or
district level can do to improve student achievement is to attract, retain, and support the
continued learning of well-prepared and committed teachers. The impact of principal skills on
teachers is an important consideration, both because the teacher is a central stakeholder in
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 30
schools and because teacher satisfaction and turnover have been linked to lower student
performance (Rivkin et al., 2005). Findings from the Center for Teaching Quality’s research on
working conditions (Hirsch & Emerick, 2007) included a survey of teachers in Alabama. When
the teachers were asked to identify the most important factor in retaining teachers in the
classroom, supportive school leadership was ranked higher than salary and benefits. Teachers
who were unwilling to teach in a high-needs school were far more likely to believe that their
school leaders would not support them, overall working conditions would not allow them to be
successful, and they were not sufficiently prepared to teach student in these challenging schools.
Principals provide a positive learning environment for students and teachers. Simon and
Johnson (2015) noted that principals can set a positive, professional tone by building trust,
rewarding collaboration, and developing opportunities for differentiated roles for teachers. The
authors reviewed literature from the results of the SASS and determined that the consensus was
that principal leadership and influence had strong associations with school climate, teacher
satisfaction, teacher commitment, and teacher retention.
Creating a professional environment where the best teachers are excited to work makes a
big difference. Teachers want to be a part of a school community in which the principal provides
opportunities for teachers to have leadership roles. Principals who create supportive school
cultures where teachers feel supportive are more likely to retain their teachers (A. Jacob et al.,
2012). Teachers want to work in schools where principals strategically hire the right people and
actively retain them (A. Jacob et al., 2012). Too often, high-poverty schools lose teachers when
the teachers are assigned large classes, classes that are outside of their field, or assignments that
span multiple subjects or grade levels (Simon & Johnson, 2015).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 31
Effective school principals provide school environments that are more conducive to
learning and may be more successful than their less effective peers in attracting, supporting, and
retaining high-quality teachers (Clotfelter et al., 2007). Grissom (2011) suggested that principals
may be even more critical in high-poverty schools than in wealthier schools, which is especially
problematic since, on average, high-poverty schools are led by inexperienced, weaker-than-
average principals. Grissom (2011) analyzed SASS data and found that teachers working in a
high-poverty school led by an effective principal were generally more satisfied than teachers in a
“nondisadvantaged school” who worked under an equally effective principal.
Appropriate Assignment of Certified Teachers
Teacher quality affects student achievement. A main indicator of teacher quality is
teacher certification (Laczko-Kerr & Berliner, 2002). Out-of-field teachers are those who are
less than fully certified or who have no certification (Darling-Hammond, Berry, & Thoreson,
2001; Ingersoll, 2003). However, SASS data reveal that out-of-field teachers are typically
experienced and qualified persons who have been assigned to teach in fields that do not match
their training or education (Ingersoll, 2003). In most fields, especially mathematics and
science, teachers in high-poverty schools were more likely to be out of field than teachers in
more affluent schools (Peske & Haycock, 2006).
Out-of-field teaching assignments are primarily a consequence of decisions by
principals. The selection and hiring of teachers and the allocation of teachers to course and
program assignments are primarily the responsibility and prerogative of principals and other
school administrators (Ingersoll, 2003). Principals may make the decision to hire out-of-field
teachers as a way to save time and money for the school; however, these decisions negatively
affect student achievement.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 32
Professional Development
Teacher support in the form of professional development is critical to retain teachers in
the profession. The support is even more important for new teachers. The ability of teachers’
workplaces to support ongoing professional development will determine the future quality of
education in schools (Weiss, 1999). In a study of 150,000 teachers in North Carolina, 47% who
had left the position cited the lack of effective professional development that provided them with
the knowledge and skills needed to teach effectively (Markow, Macia, & Lee, 2013). In the Met
Life Study of the American Teacher, Markow et al. (2013) cited statistics that less satisfied
teachers were more likely to be located in schools that had declines in professional development
(21% vs. 14%) and in time for collaboration with other teachers (29% vs. 16%) in the previous
12 months (Markow et al., 2013).
Professional development for teachers has long had a poor reputation for providing
information that teachers view as beneficial. Although districts are investing in helping teachers
to improve, teachers seem skeptical about the usefulness of this support. A. Jacob and McGovern
(2015) found that only 40% of the teachers whom they surveyed stated that the majority of the
professional development that they received was a good use of their time. Only half stated that
most of the development activities provided to them with new skills and led to lasting
improvement in their instruction (A. Jacob & McGovern, 2015).
Teachers need opportunities to renew, educate, and energize through meaningful
professional staff development. Whitaker, Whitaker, and Lumpa (2009) noted that, when
teachers learned and enjoyed learning opportunities, they were more willing to try something
new in the classroom and to explore possibilities to future teaching success. S. M. Johnson
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 33
(2006) stated that, when teachers found that professional development focuses on instruction and
the needs of their students, they were more likely to welcome than to resist assistance.
Impactful professional development is important to both veteran and novice teachers.
Guskey (2003) asserted that teachers were more likely to consider teaching as a long-term career
when schools provided opportunities for professional growth beyond the classroom. To meet the
needs of veteran teachers, A. Jacob et al. (2012) suggested that administrators and school
systems provide recognition, relevant staff development, and continuous learning opportunities.
Online Professional Development and Microcredentialing
A lack of meaningful professional development is often cited by teachers as one of the
working conditions that factor into their decision to remain in the profession. Online professional
development in the form of microcredentials is a relatively new concept that provides
personalized learning opportunities needed to meet diverse workplace needs. Microcredentials,
also known as digital badges, are online representations of learning experiences and activities
that tell a story about the learner’s education and skills (Gamrat, Zimmerman, Dudek, & Peck,
2014). This method of professional development has become popular both to incentivize learning
and to tie performance and achievement to observable tasks, activities, and skills. The use of
online professional development allows teachers to personalize their learning needs by working
individually or in teams (Gamrat et al., 2014). A microcredentialing system can reveal gaps in
the workforce, allowing for targeted recruitment (Berry, 2017). Administrators can utilize
microcredential data to plan professional development that is based on the skills, interests, and
capacity of teachers in the system. District leaders can analyze the data to optimize investments
in professional learning.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 34
Induction Programs
The first few years of teaching can be a very difficult time, even under the best of
circumstances. Most teachers labor in isolation from colleagues. New teachers are often
assigned to some of the most challenging courses and classrooms, sometimes outside their
area of training. The combination of these challenges often drives new teachers
disproportionately from the profession.
Over the years, there has been growth in support, guidance, and orientation programs
(collectively known as induction) for beginning elementary and secondary teachers during the
transition to their first teaching jobs (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). In theory, induction programs
are not additional training per se but are designed for those who have already completed basic
training (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). Hence, these programs are viewed as support for student
teachers from those who are already in the profession.
Formal induction and mentoring programs for new teachers also provide social capital
and a potential policy lever for lowering attrition in the profession (Achinstein et al., 2010).
Borman and Dowling (2008) reported that greater participation in early-career mentoring
programs reduced the likelihood of teachers leaving the profession. District support for
teachers beyond the training that they received in their induction programs is needed to
increase the number of teachers who remain. Darling-Hammond (2003) declared that
commitment effects of strong initial preparation are enhanced by equally strong induction and
mentoring in the first years of teaching.
Teacher Mentor Support
New teachers can benefit from additional support from a teacher colleague who can
serve as a mentor. Mentoring programs have become the dominant form of teacher induction
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 35
(Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). Researchers have demonstrated a connection between mentoring
programs and teacher practice, teacher retention, and student achievement (Ingersoll & Strong,
2011).
Mentoring programs vary based on the needs of the mentees. Some mentoring
programs are primarily developmental and designed to foster growth on the part of newcomers
(Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). Other mentoring programs are also designed to assess and perhaps
weed out those who are deemed ill suited for the job (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). In a study
conducted by Ingersoll and Smith (2003), data showed that the turnover of first-year, newly
hired, inexperienced teachers who did not participate in any induction and mentoring
programs was 40%. Teachers who had a mentor from their same field, had common planning
time or regularly scheduled collaboration with other teachers in their field, had regular and
supportive communication with their principal, and worked with other beginning teachers left
at a rate of 27% (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003).
Mentor-mentee relationships not only develop the skills of new teachers; mentors can
also increase their own professional skill set (S. M. Johnson, 2006; Wilson, Darling-
Hammond, & Berry, 2001). In a study of successful teaching practices in Connecticut, the
district ensured that all new teachers received a mentor. In their research, Wilson et al. (2001)
reported that in follow-up studies mentors improved their own teaching from their work with
novices. Many veteran teachers realize that mentoring and coaching other teachers creates an
incentive for them to remain in teaching as they gain from both learning from and sharing with
colleagues (Darling- Hammond, 2003). S. M. Johnson (2006) found that, in an analysis of
more than 3,000 responses by new teachers in the SASS conducted by Ingersoll and Smith
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 36
(2003), mentoring had a positive effect on new teacher retention so long as the mentor was
teaching in the same field as the novice.
Well-designed support programs can improve retention rates for new teachers by
improving their attitudes, feelings of efficacy, and instructional skills. Districts in Cincinnati,
Columbus, and Toledo, Ohio, and Rochester, New York, have reduced attrition rates of
beginning teachers by more than two thirds by providing expert mentors with release time to
coach beginners in their first year on the job (Barnes et al., 2007). With district support, young
teachers not only stay in the profession at higher rates but become competent more quickly
than those who must learn by trial and error (Darling-Hammond, 2003).
Teacher Collegiality and Collaboration
Teachers are more likely to stay in schools where they have positive interactions, plan
together, make decisions about the schools, and have trusting working relationships with each
other (Allensworth et al., 2009; Weiss, 1999). Successful experiences of new teachers depend at
least in part on an environment that responds to their needs (Weiss, 1999). Collegial and
supportive social organizational conditions can encourage teachers to work together, to support
each other, and to use and develop a common knowledge base (Weiss, 1999).
Allensworth et al. (2009) characterized positive, trusting, working relationships as ones in
which teachers feel comfortable in talking with others about their struggles and in seeking advice
from others. In surveys conducted by the National Education Association for decades, teachers
have identified having cooperative/competent colleagues/mentors as one of the top six factors
that help them to teach; since the 1990s, this factor has consistently been ranked most important
(S. M. Johnson, 2006). The research suggests that principals can enable and facilitate collegial
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 37
relationships, but productive collaboration requires teachers’ investment, as well (Allensworth et
al., 2009).
Preparing teachers as classroom researchers and expert collaborators who can learn from
one another is essential when the range of knowledge for teaching has grown so expansive that it
cannot be mastered by any individual (Darling-Hammond, 2006). In their study of professional
culture, S. M. Johnson, Kardos, Kauffman, Liu, and Donaldson (2004) considered how norms of
collaboration might influence teacher satisfaction and retention. In schools with an “integrated
professional culture” (p. 250), teachers’ work responsibilities were “deliberately arranged to
intersect” (p. 277) through exchanges that drew on both the new ideas of novices and the wisdom
of veterans. Consequently, teachers viewed themselves as part of a collective with joint
responsibility for each other, their students, and the school community. Teachers benefiting from
an integrated professional culture reported greater satisfaction with their schools than did
teachers in schools where the professional culture was exclusively oriented toward concerns of
novices or veterans.
Professional Learning Communities
Teacher support is widely considered most effective when it is situated in everyday
experiences, such as in classroom settings, and teachers become empowered by teaching,
learning from, and supporting one another during their school day (Fullan & Stiegelbauer,
1991; Hall & Davis, 1995). Professional learning communities (PLCs) are designed to support
teacher collaboration instead of teacher isolation. DuFour and Eaker (2009) defined PLCs as
educators committed to working collaboratively in ongoing processes of collective inquiry and
action research in order to achieve better results for their students. PLCs differ from traditional
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 38
professional development in that the intent is to build teacher knowledge collaboratively
versus building knowledge of individual teachers who try to apply skills in isolation.
Professional communities in schools also contribute to teachers’ ongoing development
and satisfaction. McLaughlin and Talbert (2001) detailed the benefits to teachers working
jointly to generate new knowledge of practice and to support each other’s professional growth.
“Teachers in these schools experience professional growth because they work together to
become better teachers and to become a better school” (p. 90). McLaughlin and Talbert (2001)
concluded that PLCs achieved “extraordinary success in nurturing successful careers” (p. 91),
which they found in few workplaces in the schools that they studied.
Teacher Evaluations
Teachers want to receive feedback and support from their supervisors (A. Jacob et al.,
2012). New teachers need feedback to continue to develop their knowledge and skills. High-
quality teachers want feedback that will enable them to continue to grow professionally. Yet,
consistent feedback and fair evaluations are not provided consistently to teachers. Administrators
can strengthen teacher retention by providing fair evaluations. Darling-Hammond, Amrein-
Beardsley, Haertel, and Rothstein (2012) suggested that evaluations can become a useful part of
a productive teaching and learning system, supporting accurate information about teachers,
helpful feedback, and well-grounded personnel decisions.
Teacher Evaluation and Ineffective Teachers
Teacher evaluation and feedback are required to support novice and quality teachers
and ensure that ineffective teachers are not retained in the profession. Hanushek (2009)
reviewed policies found in high-performing school systems around the world and found that
the best school systems did not allow ineffective teachers to remain in the classroom for long.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 39
Today, if performance is not effectively evaluated, teachers and principals give little attention
to the usefulness or quality of any professional development programs and the result appears
to be little average gains from the existing professional development (Hanushek, 2009).
Ideally, school leaders would know how effective each teacher is, provide support to help the
teacher in the weakest areas, and retain only teachers who most benefit students (Wilson,
2009).
B. A. Jacob (2007) reported that, in urban districts in 2003-04, the share of teachers
dismissed or not renewed was 1.4%, a figure that likely overstates the share of teachers
dismissed for cause, since poor performance is only one of many factors that can lead to
nonrenewal. Principals have the responsibility to evaluate teachers but research findings show
that principals rarely counsel teachers out, pursue formal dismissal, or even tell them that they
are low performing, despite the fact that they rarely improve (Jacob et al., 2012).
Administrators have many responsibilities, but replacing an ineffective teacher should
be the priority due to the impact that a teacher has on student success. Researchers have found
that a teacher who performs poorly in the first 2 years is unlikely to undergo a radical
transformation in Year 3. Jacob et al. (2012) reviewed teacher survey data in one district and
noted that teachers whose principals encouraged them to leave, by informing them that they
were low performing, explicitly suggesting that they leave, or giving them a low performance
evaluation rating, were nearly three times more likely to plan to leave. Gordon, Kane and
Staiger (2006) suggested that denying tenure to the bottom quarter of new teachers would
substantially improve student achievement. Substantial evidence shows that replacing an
ineffective teacher with the average new teacher will almost certainly be a net gain for a
school (B. A. Jacob, 2007; A. Jacob et al., 2012).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 40
Areas for Focus on Recruitment
State and school policies have attempted to solve school staffing issues by increasing the
number of teachers supplied through various recruitment strategies. In many states, there is an
abundant supply of teachers; however, in California, there continues to be a teacher shortage.
After many years of ongoing budget cuts, the financial revenues in the state began to stabilize in
2013. Districts began to focus on replacing positions that they had lost by increasing the hiring of
new teachers. In a recent survey of college-bound students, only 5% were interested in pursuing
a career in education, a decrease of 16% from 2010 to 2014 (Darling-Hammond, Furger, &
Shields, & Sutcher, 2016).
In fall 2000, Hare and Heap (2001) surveyed more than 3,000 superintendents in the
seven contiguous Midwest states that are served by the U.S. Department of Education’s North
Central Regional Educational Laboratory to compile their input on effective recruitment and
retention strategies. Superintendents were asked specifically about how successful these
approaches have been at attracting and retaining high-quality teachers. The recruitment strategies
surveyed were offering signing bonuses; giving salary schedule credit for relevant nonteaching
experience; providing retraining of current staff in high-needs areas; training paraprofessionals;
recruiting candidates from alternative preparation programs; aggressively recruiting from
teacher-preparation programs; establishing school-university partnerships; offering support to
beginning teachers; hiring new teachers under temporary, emergency, or provisional licenses;
offering salary schedule credit for higher education experience; and placing high-demand
teachers above entry level on the salary scale.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 41
Location Preference
A focus on recruiting teachers based on their location preference is a strategy used in
many districts. Urban districts have greater difficulty attracting new teachers to work in their
schools; thus, they must seek candidates who are interested in working in hard-to-staff schools.
Most teachers are choosing to teach in schools near where they were raised or attended college
(Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2005a; Clotfelter et al., 2007). Many times, teachers feel
connected to their communities and want to stay close to home. Choosing a career as a teacher is
based on a personal experience or connection with one’s own teacher or a desire to support the
community where they attended school.
Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, Ronfeldt, and Wyckoff (2011) claimed that targeting the “home-
grown” subgroup from either a minority or from a high-poverty, high-minority community is
productive because of the tendency of teachers to apply for positions in schools where the
student demographics match their own. “Home-grown” is a concept introduced in a study by
Pagano, Weiner, Obi, and Swearingen (1995) in which they reported that teachers raised in urban
communities were more likely to choose positions in urban school districts. Ronfeldt, Reininger,
& Kwok (2013) asserted that African American and Hispanic teachers displayed stronger
preferences to teach in high-poverty, high-minority schools.
National Board Certified Teachers
In an attempt to strengthen the teacher candidate pool in the past several years, state
legislatures have adopted a rigorous process for certification and implemented teacher
assessment systems designed to measure content knowledge. Many states are part of a national
movement to have teachers certified by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards
(NBPTS; Clotfelter et al., 2007). NBPTS was created, at least in part, as a means of identifying
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 42
and rewarding effective teachers (Goldhaber, 2006). Teachers who complete the process to
become National Board Certified teachers (NBCTs) complete exercises and activities designed
to test their knowledge of material for their particular field. The process requires more than a
year (Clotfelter et al., 2007). In a study of teachers in North Carolina, Goldhaber (2006) found
that teachers who received National Board certification were more effective at raising student
achievement, outside of the year of application, than both average teachers in the state and
teachers who applied to NBPTS but failed to obtain certification. If school officials were to know
nothing about a particular teacher candidate except National Board Certification status, the
NBCT label alone would significantly improve the odds of guessing correctly whether that
candidate would have above- or below-average teacher impacts (Goldhaber, 2006).
Unfortunately, the matching of teacher qualifications and student needs is not always
distributed equally. Several research studies have shown that few NBCTs teach in high-needs
schools (Berry, 2007). Clotfelter et al. (2007) conducted a study of teachers in high-poverty
schools in North Carolina and found that only 3.9% of the teachers in high-poverty schools were
NBTPS certified, while more than double that percentage were NBPTS-certified in the schools
serving the most advantaged students. NBCTs tend to teach in schools where students achieve
high academic performance on mathematics and reading tests, where there few students are
eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, and where there are few minority students (Goldhaber,
2006).
Alternative Certification Programs
The traditional route to certification can be defined as one that requires candidates to
complete all requirements for certification, including education coursework and supervised
student teaching before beginning their first teaching job (Clark, McConnell, Constantine, &
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 43
Chiang, 2013). Unlike traditional routes to certification, alternative routes allow teachers to
complete some certification requirements while teaching. Few alternative and traditional
certification programs have been documented to prepare teachers for the challenges that they
face in hard-to-staff schools in urban and rural areas (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2002).
Schools that serve low-income students struggle to attract effective teachers, particularly in
science and mathematics. In response to staffing difficulties, many districts have tried to remove
barriers to becoming a teacher by establishing alternative routes to certification (Clark et al.,
2013).
Despite a growing need for districts to hire teachers via alternative routes, this type of
certification can be controversial. Clark et al. (2013) stated that proponents of alternative
certification highlight that this route increases the number of effective teachers by reducing the
time and expense required to become a teacher and eliminates the time needed to complete
teacher coursework. Conversely, critics have raised concerns that teachers from alternative
routes are not as well prepared for the classroom as teachers who followed the traditional route
(Clark et al., 2013). Alternative certification programs have been successful in attracting
candidates to the teaching profession; however, the candidates are not necessarily the “best and
the brightest,” they leave the profession earlier, and they may not have had high test scores in
college or on standardized tests (Wilson et al., 2001).
Teachers, generally, and teachers of color, specifically, are more likely to leave the
profession if they have completed alternative certification programs (Achinstein et al., 2010).
Teachers who enter the profession through an alternative certification route have difficulty in
adapting to the needs of the students (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1999). Researchers have
conducted studies that showed that underprepared teachers who lack teacher education or who
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 44
enter the field through short-term, alternative routes featuring only a few weeks of training
were less likely to understand student learning styles and differences, to anticipate students’
knowledge and potential difficulties, or to plan instruction to meet students’ needs (Darling-
Hammond & Berry, 1999). Laczko-Kerr and Berliner (2002) asserted that staffing classrooms
with undercertified teachers is harmful educational policy because students who start with
academic difficulties are handicapped by 20% more each year when taught by these teachers.
These teachers are also less likely to see it as their job to meet students’ needs and often resort
to blaming the students if their teaching is not successful (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1999).
Emergency Credentials
As teacher demand has increased and funding inequities have grown in the past 15
years, many urban districts have hired a growing number of teachers on emergency permits or
waivers because they lack formal preparation for teaching (Darling-Hammond, Holtzman,
Gatlin, & Heilig, 2005). Emergency certified teachers are more likely to be hired in already
low-performing schools, schools that serve low-income students in inner cities and for
positions that are difficult to fill (Ingersoll, 2001b).
Research has shown that attrition is unusually high for those who lack initial
preparation (Darling-Hammond, 2003). Hiring under temporary licenses is often viewed as a
proxy for teacher shortages and teacher quality in a state. It is typically assumed that teachers
who are hired under a temporary license are less effective than teachers who are fully certified
or licensed to teach and that, if a fully qualified individual were available, he or she would
have been hired instead. Although research indicates that unqualified teachers are less
effective in the classroom (Darling-Hammond, 2000), a variety of factors may lead a district
to fill an open position using temporary licensure or an alternative certification pathway.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 45
Teach for America
The most familiar of the alternative certification programs are Teach for America
(TFA) and the Teaching Fellows program. TFA asks candidates for a 2-year commitment,
whereas Teaching Fellows seeks candidates who are likely to continue teaching long term.
Most TFA and Teaching Fellows recruits have not had education-related majors in college.
Despite TFA’s rapid expansion, there is little evidence to determine whether teachers with
strong academic backgrounds but limited exposure to teaching practice can be effective
(Glazerman, Mayer, & Decker, 2006).
The findings on these highly selective recruitment programs vary. After controlling for
teacher experience and school classroom demographics, one study found that TFA recruits in
Houston were about as effective as other inexperienced teachers in schools and classrooms
serving high percentages of minority and low-income students, which is where most
underqualified teachers in the district are placed (Raymond, Fletcher, & Luque, 2001).
Conversely, Laczko-Kerr and Berliner (2002) reviewed research on TFA and found that the
level of performance of the students of TFA teachers was lower than that of the students
taught by equally inexperienced but fully certified teachers.
Teacher Preparation Programs at HLIs
The shift of American education to outcomes assessment indicates the need for teacher
education to place a higher emphasis on the effect of preservice teachers on student learning
Teacher recruitment starts with teachers who have received the pretraining that is necessary to
be successful teachers. Schaffer, Gleick-Bope, and Copich (2014) stated that preservice
programs must prepare teachers for a classroom that may be far different from the one that
they experienced in their own personal K–12 journeys. Teacher preparation programs are
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 46
beginning to recognize the need to prepare preservice teachers to work in urban schools
(Schaffer et al., 2014). Partnerships between university teacher preparation programs and
school districts have been created as a means to recruit new teachers into high-need districts
and schools (Allen, 2003). Those with more training in teaching methods and pedagogy—
especially practice teaching, observation of other classroom teaching and feedback on their
own teaching—are far less likely to leave teaching (Ingersoll & May, 2011).
As districts and schools enter into partnerships with local colleges and universities to
recruit teachers in preservice programs, a concerted effort is needed to recruit teachers into
hard-to-staff schools. Morgan and Kritsonis (2008) asserted that, too often, college graduates
become disenchanted with the public school system when their first teaching assignment bears
no resemblance to their student teaching experience. It is necessary for new teachers to have a
more accurate depiction of hard-to-staff schools so they will know the challenges that await
them and be willing to face them (Morgan & Kritsonis, 2008). Painter, Haladyna, and Hurwitz
(2007) conducted research on the factors that might influence teacher candidates to enter the
profession. The results of that study highlighted the need for understanding the value that
preservice teachers, at the conclusion of their student teaching, place on various aspects of a
school or district would enhance school districts’ abilities to recruit applicants for teaching
vacancies, thereby beginning the selection process with the largest possible applicant pool.
University Partnerships
University teacher education programs must engage ever more closely with schools in a
mutual transformation agenda (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Johnston & Wetherill, 2002). Johnston
et al. (2002) found that, in the traditional student teaching model, many of the reform efforts and
professional standards that were being promoted in preservice teacher preparation at the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 47
university level were inconsistent with what students were experiencing in practice. The result
was that many novice teachers felt that their undergraduate education had not prepared them for
the real world of school.
Beck and Kosnik (2002) studied school-university partnerships and found that, through
purposeful involvement, the partnerships were strengthened and campus programs were
enhanced. As university faculty interact directly with schools, they gain familiarity with the
nature of schooling to understand the challenges that preservice and inservice teachers face
(Beck & Kosnik, 2002). In addition, university faculty improve their approach to the practicum
and their teaching practice as the collaboration engenders more awareness of the educational
process, particularly as difficulties and successes in schooling are encountered (Beck & Kosnik
2002).
Successful partnerships engender better articulation between university courses and field
placements (Burton & Greher, 2007). Morgan and Kritsonis (2008) stated that, in partnering with
local colleges and universities, hard-to-staff schools must make the case to the universities to
expose preservice teachers not only to high-performing, exemplary schools, but also to low-
socioeconomic schools, as well. Too often, college graduates become disenchanted with the
public school system when their first teaching assignment bears no resemblance to their student
teaching experience (Morgan & Kritsonis, 2008). When possible, districts and principals in hard-
to-staff schools should solicit the cooperation of local colleges and universities to engage in early
on-campus recruitment of prospective teachers (Morgan & Kritsonis, 2008).
Once teachers are well prepared at the university level, it is important that they be able to
find their way to available jobs. In New York City, the public school system achieved success in
hiring qualified teachers by aggressively recruiting well-prepared teachers through partnerships
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 48
with local universities (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1999). The critical components of New
York City’s success were efforts that brought recruiters directly to teacher candidates in local
university-based preparation programs each spring. These recruiters worked closely with
universities and local districts to bring well-trained prospective teachers into hard-to-staff
schools as student teachers, interns, and visitors (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1999).
Teacher Salaries
A barrier to teacher recruitment is the low salary level compared to the starting salary
level for other professions (Berry, 2004; Loeb & Reininger, 2004). The decline in the relative
earnings of teachers has likely led to a fall in average teacher quality during this period
(Hanushek et al., 2004). To attract its share of the nation’s college-educated talent and to offer
sufficient incentives for professional preparation, the teaching occupation must be competitive in
terms of wages and working conditions (Darling-Hammond, 2003). Berry (2004) declared that it
is fairly well accepted that teacher salaries remain too low to attract and retain enough talented
and well-trained teachers. Loeb and Reininger (2004) reviewed research that showed that
teachers were at least as responsive to wages in their decision to enter teaching as were workers
in other occupations.
There is ample research regarding the low salary levels for teachers that influence choices
of recent college graduates who have options to enter other professional fields. In a study of
beginning teachers in Wisconsin, the data suggested that, if policymakers were to increase the
level of wages, the number of beginning teachers who leave the profession would decrease
(Imazeki, 2005). In a review of a 5-year longitudinal study, Gray and Taie (2015) reported that
the percentage of beginning teachers who continued to teach after the first year varied by first-
year salary level. For example, 97% of beginning teachers whose first-year base salary was
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 49
$40,000 or more were teaching in 2008-2009, whereas 87% of those with a first-year salary less
than $40,000 were teaching in 2008-2009. Also, 89% of beginning teachers whose first-year base
salary was $40,000 or more were teaching in 2011-2012, whereas 80% of those with a first-year
salary less than $40,000 were teaching in 2011-2012.
Financial Incentives
Economic incentives for teachers are a frequently cited human resource management
strategy for addressing teacher staffing challenges (Berry, 2008; Prince, 2003). Kolbe and
Strunk (2012) stated that such strategies differentiate teacher compensation in an effort to
attract qualified individuals to the teaching profession, recruit and retain teachers, and
strategically allocate teachers to classrooms where they are most needed. Incentives such as
student loan forgiveness programs, tuition assistance, retirement waivers, and in-kind benefits
such as housing and transportation assistance also add to teachers’ compensation and are
intended to influence teachers’ decisions (Kolbe & Strunk, 2012).
Targeted financial incentives are a popular policy strategy for attracting talented
professionals to public service jobs. Student loan forgiveness programs and service scholarships
can help to recruit and retain high-quality teachers into fields and schools where they are needed
most (Sutcher, Carver-Thomas, & Darling-Hammond, 2018). Targeted incentives are also
popular in the teaching profession to counter the pervasive pattern that poor, minority, and low-
achieving students are disproportionately taught by teachers with weak academic backgrounds
and little experience and training (Clotfelter et al., 2005; Lankford et al., 2002). College students
choose their professions based in part on whether their potential salaries can offset the higher
education debt that they will accumulate. Service scholarships and forgivable loan programs
have been found to be highly effective in recruiting teachers and directing them to fields and
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 50
locations with the highest need. As of 2004, twenty-five states were implementing loan
forgiveness or scholarship programs aimed at staffing shortage subject areas and 12 states were
managing loan forgiveness or scholarship programs designed to attract teachers to hard-to-staff
schools (J. Johnson, 2005).
Recruitment Methods and Teacher Candidate Outreach
To attract the best candidates, district administrators participate in area job fairs, take
advantage of college recruiting opportunities, and advertise for teaching positions as far in
advance of the school year as possible. The goal of teacher recruitment is to increase the number
of high-quality applicants to the district. Traditional methods of recruiting have focused on
increasing the number of applicants from the local pool of teachers, using basic methods such as
advertising locally via newspaper and radio advertisements, use of the Internet, hiring fairs, and
partnerships with local colleges (Balter & Duncombe, 2005).
Balter and Duncombe (2005) studied the strategies used in New York school districts and
highlighted the effectiveness of a variety of commonly used methods. They found that traditional
advertising in newspapers or on radio was a simple, passive strategy used in most small districts.
High-need urban districts are less apt than other districts to use newspaper advertising. Districts
that are seeking to recruit teacher candidates usually post job notices at universities, colleges, and
community colleges. Another common approach to teacher recruitment is for district personnel
to be present at education job fairs and to host district-led job fairs (Balter & Duncombe, 2005).
The use of the Internet has increased as a strategy for teacher recruitment (Balter &
Duncombe, 2005). The strategy has been shown to be effective due to its low cost. Districts can
post notices on school and district websites, which can lead to access to a national market of
teachers. Teacher candidates can communicate with districts online and submit applications
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 51
online, which taps into the local pool of candidates and broadens outreach to other communities
and states (Balter & Duncombe, 2005).
External Characteristics That Influence Retention and Recruitment
External characteristics of schools and districts affect recruitment and retention (Guarino
et al., 2006). These characteristics are not generally within a teacher’s control but are instead
based on the demographics of the population that they serve. Examples of these external
characteristics are wealth, urban status, and minority status. Ingersoll and Smith (2003) reviewed
data from the 1990-2000 SASS and the TFS and found that public school teachers in high-
poverty schools were more likely than their counterparts in medium-poverty schools to leave
(16% versus 9%) and less likely to move (13% versus 19%). In looking at the type of school in
New York, Lankford et al. (2002) found that teacher turnover rates tended to be higher in urban
schools, with 28% still in the same school 5 years later, as compared to 46% in suburban schools.
Thus, these studies reveal that more difficult working conditions in hard-to-staff schools
decrease their relative attractiveness (Guarino et al., 2006).
District Support
Scholars who study staffing in education consider human capital management to be
strategic when it involves recruiting, developing, and retaining effective teachers (those who
make a positive contribution to student learning; Heneman & Milanowski, 2004). These authors
posited that an aligned and comprehensive plan from human resources with regard to
recruitment, selection, and employment decisions is an important component of district-level
efforts to improve teacher quality (Engel & Curran, 2016). Districts leaders should consider the
ways in which they communicate district goals and objectives with regard to teacher hiring and
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 52
the degree to which district structures support strategic hiring practices among principals (Engel
& Curran, 2016).
Several structural barriers lead to low teacher quality and the lack of support needed to
keep novice teachers in hard-to-staff schools. District hiring and placement policies, including
seniority-based staffing decisions and forced placement of teachers and the lack of ability to hire
candidates from outside of the school district, often inhibit principals’ efforts to improve teacher
quality (Miller & Lee, 2014). In addition, many low-performing schools are in districts with
inefficient and rushed hiring processes that start in the summer, when the strongest teacher
candidates have already accepted offers from other schools (Levin & Quinn, 2003).
Levin and Quinn (2003) reviewed a study by The New Teacher Project in which urban
district hiring practices were examined in terms of their effect on applicant attrition and teacher
quality in four hard-to-staff urban districts. The data revealed that, by implementing targeted,
high impact recruitment strategies, the districts received many more applicants than they needed
to fill existing vacancies. Although the candidate pool was large, the districts were not able to
hire the best candidates. The districts failed to make job offers until mid- to late summer. Hence,
applicants had accepted offers with districts that had made offers earlier. The strongest applicants
were the ones most likely to abandon hard-to-staff districts, which left weaker candidates in the
applicant pool (Levin & Quinn, 2003). The New Teacher Project also observed hiring policies
that caused barriers to strong recruitment practices. The vacancy notification requirements were
late, which allowed resigning teachers to provide late notice of their intent to depart.
Collective Bargaining Agreements
Staffing rules are an additional barrier for schools in areas of high poverty (Boyd,
Lankford, Loeb, Ronfeldt, et al., 2011). Layoffs are currently determined by some version of
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 53
teacher seniority. In many urban school districts, newly-hired teachers represent roughly 5% of
the workforce; a seniority-based layoff that targets less than 10% of teachers would eliminate
teachers with 2 or fewer years of experience, typically those teachers who are least effective on
average (Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, Ronfeldt, et al., 2011). However, teachers typically improve in
their first 2 years. The result of these staffing rules is that, in many districts, novice teachers, who
are concentrated in hard-to-staff schools, continue to be disproportionately affected by layoffs,
which ultimately affects the students in these high-poverty schools.
Financial Impact of Teacher Recruitment
A high level of teacher turnover leads districts to incur additional costs (Darling-
Hammond, 2003; Grissom, 2011). Large urban school districts that have high rates of turnover
must continue to spend resources to recruit and hire new teachers. Such schools must continually
pour money into recruitment efforts and professional support for new teachers, many of them
untrained, without reaping dividends from these investments (Darling-Hammond, 2003). If the
level of turnover were lower, districts would be able to invest more money into teacher
development, which would support teachers and increase the number of teachers who could be
retained. Student achievement suffers and high turnover schools are also extremely costly to
operate. Schools that become trapped in a chronic cycle of teacher hiring and replacement drain
their districts of much-needed dollars that could be better spent to improve teaching quality and
student achievement (Barnes et al., 2007).
Large concentrations of new teachers create a drain on a school’s finances, as well as on
district finances. Schools that are staffed by new, uncertified teachers or long-term substitutes
must continually allocate funds for recruitment efforts and professional support for new teachers
without reaping dividends from these investments (Loeb & Reininger, 2004).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 54
Theoretical Frameworks
The conceptual model of teacher retention and recruitment used in this research is based
on the common characteristics that cause teachers in LUDs to leave the profession. The
theoretical frameworks for this research were based on an integration of three concepts: (a)
Fullan and Quinn’s (2016) coherence model, (b) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, and (c)
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. The ecological system theory was the lens
through which the study was viewed. The data was analyzed through the sociocultural lens. The
coherence model was used to demonstrate that to recruit and retain teachers, a district must focus
on whole systemness and create a culture of support at all levels of school system.
Coherence Framework
The first theoretical framework developed for this study was derived from the coherence
framework of Fullan and Quinn (2016). Coherence is the shared depth of understanding about
the nature of the work (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). The authors explained that to create high
functioning school districts, coherence must be attained at the school level and district level.
The researchers contended that for a district to achieve coherence, there must be an
intersection of four drivers: focusing direction, cultivating collaborative cultures, deepening
learning and securing accountability (Figure 1).
Coherence component 1 is focusing direction. The first component of the coherence
framework builds collective purpose. In this study, the concept of focusing direction was
viewed through the lens of the role of districts and administrators in recruiting quality teacher
candidates.
Coherence component 2 is cultivating collaborative cultures. The second component of
coherence is defined as a working environment in which administrators set the conditions for
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 55

Figure 1. Coherence framework of Fullan and Quinn. Based on Coherence: The Right
Drivers in Action for Schools, Districts, and Systems, by M. Fullan and J. Quinn, 2016,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

teachers to cultivate the expertise of everyone in the school. Schools that have a collaborative
culture are those where teachers learn together. This component examined the extent to which
mentors and teacher collaboration contributed to a school culture that affected teacher
retention.
Coherence component 3 is deepening learning. This component signifies how schools
and districts create systems that influence student learning, in particular teaching and learning,
including learning where digital access provides an accelerating platform. The data analyzed
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 56
in the study highlighted the importance of professional development to meet teacher needs,
which contributed to effective teacher hiring and retention.
Coherence component 4 is securing accountability. The fourth component highlights
the need to focus on internal accountability as the lead into external accountability. Internal
accountability occurs when the group takes self and collective responsibility for its
performance which lessens the need for external accountability.
This model is grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological theory, which suggests
that people are affected by systems in their immediate surrounding and the contexts in which
they work. Bronfenbrenner developed his ecological systems theory in an attempt to define and
understand human development within the context of the system of relationships that form the
person’s environment (E. S. Johnson, 2008).
Sociocultural Theory and Zone of Proximal Development
The second theoretical framework developed for this study was derived from
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). This theory is
based on the concept that human development takes place in a social setting (John-Steiner &
Mahn, 1996). The sociocultural theory is a psychological theory that explores the relationships
between external and internal processes. According to sociocultural theory, human activity
such as learning and behavior are influenced by individual, social, and contextual issues. This
study builds on the sociocultural theory by examining the relationships between teachers and
administrators and how these relationships affect teachers’ decisions to enter and remain in the
profession (Figure 2).
Vygotsky (1978) developed the concept of the ZPD, which he defined as “the distance
between the actual development level as determined through independent problem solving and
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 57

Figure 2. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. Source: Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Functions, by L. S. Vygotsky, 1978, Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance
or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). Central to this theory is that an individual’s
immediate potential for cognitive growth is limited on the lower end by what he or she can
accomplish independently and on the upper end by what he or she can accomplish with the help
of a more knowledgeable peer (Doolittle, 1997). The sociocultural lens was the foundation for
this research to determine how teacher retention and recruitment can be improved by increasing
the support that teachers receive individually and through interactions with colleagues and
administrators.
Ecological Systems Theory
According to Bronfenbrenner’s initial theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1989), the environment is
comprised of four layers of systems that interact in complex ways and that can both affect and be
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 58
affected by the person’s development. This theory can be extended to model the development of
an organization as well, and is particularly appropriate for describing the complex systems of a
school district and conditions needed to retain and recruit teachers at the school and district
levels. The Bronfenbrenner model organizes contexts of development into four levels of external
influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. This theory can be extended
to model development of an organization as well, and is particularly appropriate for describing
the complex systems of a school district or an individual school (E. S. Johnson, 2008). The
model is also appropriate to describe how the experiences of teachers in urban districts are
influenced by various types of environmental systems (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework. Based on “Ecological Models of Human
Development,” by U. Bronfenbrenner, 1994, International Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), 37-
43.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 59
This study builds on the levels of Brofenbrenner’s work. The microsystem is defined as
the pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relationships experienced by a developing
person in a particular setting containing other persons (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Teachers are
based in the microsystem and are influenced by the experiences and relationships with
administrators and teachers at their school sites (internal influence). The mesosystem comprises
the linkages among microsystems (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). The mesosystem involves the
relationships among the microsystems. Positive interactions can affect a teacher’s experience and
negative interactions can shape the teacher’s experience, as well. School personnel (teachers and
principals) represent the mesosystem (external influence). The exosystem represents the larger
system over which the developing person has no influence (E. S. Johnson, 2008). The school
district represents this layer of influence (external influence). The macrosystem can be thought of
as the “social blueprint” of a given culture. It embodies the social and economic culture of the
local community and that of the nation as a whole (E. S. Johnson, 2008). The challenges
associated with hard-to-staff schools being located in high poverty areas encompass the
macrosystem of an urban district (external influence).
Chapter Summary
Teaching is an occupation that loses many of its newly trained members very early in
their careers (Ingersoll, 2007). Many factors affect retention, such as working conditions, teacher
salaries, professional development, mentoring, administrative support, teacher collaboration,
career growth opportunities, and teacher preparation and certification (Achinstein et al., 2010).
Data indicate that as many as half of those trained to be teachers never enter teaching and that
40% to 50% of those who enter teaching leave the occupation altogether in the first 5 years on
the job (Ingersoll, 2007). While some amount of teacher turnover can be considered to be
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 60
constructive, too much turnover causes instructional, financial, and organizational issues that
ultimately affect student success.
Teacher retention beyond the induction year is critical because experience is a key
characteristic of developing skills to increase teacher effectiveness. It is also critical for
ineffective teachers who remain in the profession to receive additional training and support to
improve their teaching ability. Ingersoll (2007) asserted that recruiting more teachers will not
solve the teacher crisis if large number of those teachers then leave. Thus, the intent of this
research is to examine the recruitment strategies that are needed to recruit and retain effective
teachers who can be successful when working in hard-to-staff schools in a LUD.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 61
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Effective teaching is critical to raising student achievement; however, quality teachers are
difficult to attract and retain. Teacher retention has been a persistent problem in the United
States. It was estimated in 2000 that approximately 2.4 million new teachers would be needed in
the decade 1998 to 2008 (Darling-Hammond, 2000).
Ingersoll and Smith (2003) reported that, after 5 years of teaching, 40% to 50% of
beginning teachers leave the profession. It was predicted in 2005 that 50% of teachers in urban
districts would exit early in their careers (Bradley & Loadman, 2005). Ingersoll (2001a) reported
that urban districts were twice as likely to have inexperienced teachers. Thus, students in high-
poverty areas are more likely to be taught by the most inexperienced teachers or those who are
no longer effective in helping to improve student achievement (Ingersoll, 2001a; A. Jacob et al.,
2012). These statistics highlight the importance of school districts retaining teachers who are
currently employed and continuing to recruit new and high-quality talent into the profession.
The purpose of this study was to analyze the strategies that a large urban school district
can implement to increase the ability to recruit and retain quality teachers for more than 5 years.
By understanding the perceptions and experiences of teachers and administrators related to
working conditions, professional development, mentor support, and teacher collaboration, this
study identified strategies that could directly affect teacher recruitment and retention in urban
districts and hard-to-staff schools. By analyzing these data, the research team added to the
literature to provide district and school leaders in urban areas with strategies that will attract new
teacher candidates, retain quality teachers, and provide a path out of the profession for teachers
who are not effective in helping students.
To address the purpose of the study, the following research questions were developed:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 62
1. What recruitment strategies are used by LUDs that result in the most effective hiring?
2. How can LUDs improve their postinduction training to retain the highest number of
highly qualified teachers?
3. What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers (5+ years or completion
of induction process) in the system?
4. What strategies could/should be used to improve effectiveness of veteran teachers?
Research Design
In conducting a research study, six explicit steps were identified by Creswell and
Creswell (2018): (a) identification of a research problem, (b) review of the current literature, (c)
having a purpose for the research, (d) collection of data, (e) analysis of data, and (f) reporting the
evaluation of the research. The present study was constructed following these six steps.
The intended outcome of this study was to determine the strategies that will strengthen
the ability of an urban district to retain and recruit quality teachers. To deepen an understanding
of the factors that will contribute to improving teacher retention and recruitment, the research
team needed information that could be examined in more than one way. A mixed-methods
approach allows a researcher to develop context-specific instruments (quantitative tools) and
instruments that help to explain results (qualitative tools; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A mixed-
methods approach involves collecting, analyzing, and mixing qualitative and quantitative
approaches in a single study or series of studies (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Specifically, a
convergent parallel mixed-methods approach was the basis of this research study.
In convergent parallel design studies, researchers collect both qualitative and quantitative
data simultaneously, analyze the data strands separately, and then mix the databases by merging
the data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). This method is most effective when the goal of the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 63
study is to bring together the strengths of both data strands to compare results or to validate,
confirm, or corroborate quantitative results with qualitative findings (Harrison, 2013). By using a
mixed-methods design, the research team obtained a range of perspectives from novice teachers,
NBCTs, and administrators in a LUD and gathered specific data from these groups at selected
school sites (hard-to-staff schools).
The purpose of utilizing a qualitative data component was to understand how people
make sense of their lives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative research was developed from
the social science fields to observe, collect, and analyze data on behavior (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). Qualitative data were gathered via interviews with randomly selected administrators,
novice teachers, and NBCTs to interpret their experiences. The research team analyzed the
interview data to determine whether the recruitment strategies that were currently used in an
urban district had helped or hindered retention of teachers.
Research Team
This study was conducted under the guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante, professor at the
Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. The research team consisted of
three doctoral students studying the most effective strategies for recruiting and retaining teachers
beyond 5 years in a LUD. The team met on a bi-monthly basis to collaborate, design research
questions, review literature, share research, and identify frameworks that would contribute to the
study. The study instruments provided a basis for the team to understand the perceptions and
experiences of administrators and teachers regarding how urban districts with hard-to-staff
schools recruit, retain, and support teachers. The themed group approach revealed similarities
among the content; however, each researcher’s study was unique and reflected his or her
interpretation of the data.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 64
Sample and Population
The units of analysis in this study were novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators in
hard-to-staff elementary schools. The research team examined the perceptions and experiences of
this group of educators as they pertained to recruitment strategies and support structures that
increase the retention of teachers beyond 5 years. Purposive sampling was used to recruit
participants. This method allowed the researchers to discover, understand, and gain insight from
participants who work in a LUD, specifically those who work in hard-to-staff schools.
Convenience sampling allows researchers to select a sample based on time, money, location, and
availability of sites or respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research team had familiarity
with potential participants; thus, convenience sampling increased the efficiency of time, location,
and identification of participants. The data were gathered from teachers and administrators in a
LUD; however, the sample was not representative of all schools in the district. A total of 45
surveys were administered and 15 interviews were conducted. The data were collected in three
geographical areas of a LUD. Fifteen surveys (quantitative) were administered and five
interviews (qualitative) were conducted in each of three local areas.
Maxwell (2013) identified five goals for purposeful selection of participants. One of the
most relevant goals that pertained to this study was to illuminate the reasons for differences
among settings or individuals. Selecting respondents who shared their perspectives and
experiences of working in school settings, specifically hard-to-staff schools in a LUD,
contributed to the research and the researcher’s understanding of what was studied.
Instrumentation
The instruments used to gather data included survey and interview protocols. The
researchers were the primary instruments for data collection during the interview process
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 65
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The qualitative interviews allowed the researchers to listen, record,
and present a particular group’s perceptions in their own words (Table 1). This study also used a
survey to measure quantitatively the factors that teachers and administrators considered
important when recruiting teachers and the factors that were considered important to retain
teachers beyond 5 years (Table 2). Also, a district-wide survey regarding school satisfaction was
used to collect quantitative data on training strategies, participation in professional development
communities, and support of mentor teachers (Table 3).
The research questions aligned to Fullan and Quinn’s coherence theory,
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, and Vygotsky’s social cognition theory, which emphasize
the importance of relationships and support systems as determinants in recruiting and retaining
teachers.
To ensure that all ethical considerations were addressed, the research team submitted a
request for approval by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Southern
California. IRB approval allowed the research team to move forward with data collection.
Access/Entry
The research team gained access to participants by completing an IRB request with the
school district. The timeline for study approval was expedited due to the anonymous labeling of
the school district. Since the researchers were the primary instruments for data collection, it was
important to have relationships that allowed the team to gain information ethically to address the
research questions (Maxwell, 2013). The research team contacted supervisors of administrators
and teachers to request approval to contact specific school personnel regarding participation in
the study. The letter that was sent to administrators and teachers to request their participation is
shown in Appendix A. The consent form is shown in Appendix B.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 66
Table 1

Alignment of Qualitative Survey Protocols With Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical
Framework

Fullan/Quinn Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 (2016)
a
(1978)
b
(1994)
c

Section I
1 X ● ●
2 X ● ●
3 X ● ●
4 X ● ●
5 X ● ●
6 X ● ●
7 X ● ●
8 X ● ●
9 X ● ●
10 X ● ●
11 X ● ●
12 X ● ●

Section II
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●
4 X ● ● ●
5 X ● ● ●
6 X ● ● ●
7 X ● ● ●
8 X ● ● ●
9 X ● ● ●
10 X ● ● ●
11 X ● ● ●

Section III
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●
4 X ● ● ●
5 X ● ● ●
6 X ● ● ●
7 X ● ● ●
8 X ● ● ●
9 X ● ● ●
10 X ● ● ●
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 67
Table 1 (continued)

Fullan/Quinn Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 (2016)
a
(1978)
b
(1994)
c

11 X ● ● ●
12 X ● ● ●
13 X ● ● ●

Section IV
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●
4 X ● ● ●
5 X ● ● ●
6 X ● ● ●
7 X ● ● ●
8 X ● ● ●
9 X ● ● ●
10 X ● ● ●
11 X ● ● ●

a
Coherence: The Right Drivers in Action for Schools, Districts, and Systems, by M. Fullan & J.
Quinn, 2016, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
b
Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Foundations, by L. S. Vygotsky, 1978, Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.
c
“Ecological Models of Human Development,” by U. Bronfenbrenner, 1994, International
Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), 37-43.

Data Collection
The purpose of this data collection process was to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data, using the same concepts. The study began with a survey to generalize results to
a population; in the second phase, the focus was on qualitative interviews designed to collect
detailed views from participants to explain the information compiled from the quantitative
survey (Appendices C, D, and E; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Participants included
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 68
Table 2

Alignment of Interview Protocols With Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical Framework

Fullan/Quinn Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 (2016)
a
(1978)
b
(1994)
c

Section I
1 X ● ●
2 X ● ●
3 X ● ●
4 X ● ●
5 X ● ●

Section II
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●
4 X ● ● ●
5 X ● ● ●
6 X ● ● ●
7 X ● ● ●

Section III
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●
4 X ● ● ●
5 X ● ● ●
6 X ● ● ●
7 X ● ● ●
8 X ● ● ●

Section IV
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●
4 X ● ● ●
5 X ● ● ●
6 X ● ● ●
7 X ● ● ●
8 X ● ● ●
9 X ● ●

a
Coherence: The Right Drivers in Cction for Schools, Districts, and Systems, by M. Fullan & J.
Quinn, 2016, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
b
Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Foundations, by L. S. Vygotsky, 1978, Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.
c
“Ecological Models of Human Development,” by U. Bronfenbrenner, 1994, International
Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), 37-43.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 69
Table 3

Alignment of Quantitative Protocols With Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical
Frameworks

Fullan/Quinn Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 (2016)
a
(1978)
b
(1994)
c

Section I
1 X ● ●
2 X ● ●
3 X ● ●
4 X ● ●
5 X ● ●

Section II
1 X ● ● ●
2 X ● ● ●
3 X ● ● ●

Section IV
1 X ● ● ●

Section V
1 X ● ●

Section VI
1 X ● ●
2 X ● ●

Section VII
1 X ● ●
2 X ● ●

a
Coherence: The Right Drivers in Action for Schools, Districts, and Systems, by M. Fullan & J.
Quinn, 2016, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
b
Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Functions, by L. S. Vygotsky, 1978, Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.
c
“Ecological Models of Human Development, by U. Bronfenbrenner, 1994, International
Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), 37-43.

administrators, novice teachers, and NBCTs at schools in a LUD, including hard-to-staff
elementary schools. The data were collected during a 2-week time frame in November-
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 70
December 2018. The interviews took place at school sites in three local areas of the district. The
ability to collect data in the participants’ natural location is an advantage of using qualitative
methods in research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
A letter was sent to principals requesting permission to recruit participants
(administrators and teachers) for the study at schools where there were novice teachers and
NBCTs. Administrators and teachers were interviewed for approximately 45 minutes each.
Participants were given the option of having the interview audiotaped. In conducting the
interviews, the research team deployed the standardized open-ended interview approach (Patton,
2002) and administered a set list of questions that were asked of each interviewee (Appendices F
and G). The rationale for the use of this interview approach was to ask the same questions of
each participant to identify the differences in perceptions that occurred within the three local
areas. The interviews were conducted at school sites to create a comfort level for participants in
their natural setting (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
Quantitative data were gathered in the form of surveys distributed to administrators,
novice teachers, and NBC teachers in three local areas of a LUD (Appendices C and D).
Additional data were gathered from quantitative surveys distributed to teachers throughout the
LUD. The surveys included differentiated questions specific to teachers and did not identify data
from NBC teachers (Appendix E).
Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
The surveys were self-administered. The items were formatted using a Likert-type scale to
measures attitudes by asking respondents to indicate the extent of their agreement to a series of
statements. Survey responses for administrators were categorized as follows: Strongly Disagree,
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 71
Disagree, Neither Disagree nor Agree, Agree, and Strongly Agree. Survey responses for teachers
were categorized as follows: Weekly, Monthly, Rarely, and Never. The survey items were aligned
with the four research questions, with specific questions in each of the surveys. The researchers
used the information from the survey to analyze the perceptions of administrators and teachers
regarding practices implemented by districts and schools that affect recruitment and retention.
The qualitative data were less extensive than the quantitative data because the intent of
collecting the qualitative data was to obtain information from a small sample that could be used
to gather more extensive information (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A larger sample is needed for
the quantitative research in order to infer meaningful statistical results (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
As part of this mixed-methods data collection, the data were triangulated to determine
whether the methods with different strengths and limitations supported a single conclusion
(Maxwell, 2013). Using triangulation, the researchers reduced the risk that the conclusions
gathered from participants would reflect only the biases of either the qualitative or quantitative
data.
Data Analysis
Data analysis involves working with the data, organizing them, breaking them into
manageable units, coding them, synthesizing them, and searching for patterns (Bogdan & Biklen,
2007). Data analysis in a convergent design consists of three phases (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). First, the qualitative data were analyzed by coding the data and collapsing the codes into
broad themes. Second, the quantitative data were analyzed to generate statistical results. Third,
the data were merged and presented in a manner to display the results from both the surveys and
the interviews. According to Corbin and Strauss (2008), data analysis is a process of analyzing
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 72
data using a mixed-methods approach in order to allow the research team to have a more
complete understanding of the research problem by being able to compare different perspectives
drawn from both qualitative and quantitative data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
As data were analyzed, patterns, themes, and categories were documented via inductive
analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. Comparisons of common themes were made
regarding recruitment strategies and teacher collaboration methods to increase teacher retention
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Validity, Reliability, and Trustworthiness
To ensure validity and credibility of the data in this study, attention was focused on
analysis and interpretation of the data collected from the surveys and interviews. Triangulation is
a process to give credence to evidence from multiple sources collected by various methods to
ensure validity (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Figure 4 illustrates the process of triangulation.

Figure 4. Applied convergent parallel design. Source: Designing and Conducting Mixed
Methods Research, by J. W. Creswell & V. L. Plano Clark, p. 56, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Merriam (2009) stated that qualitative research can never capture an objective truth but
suggested strategies that a researcher can use to increase the credibility of the findings. In
addition to triangulation, the study used member checks and reflexivity. Member checks allowed
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 73
the researchers to solicit feedback on the emergent findings from some of the interviewees
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Peer review was used as interpretations and findings were shared
with other research team members to assess whether the findings were plausible (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Ethical Considerations
Patton (2015) identified the credibility of the researcher and rigorous methods as essential
components to ensure credibility of qualitative research. “Ultimately for better or worse, the
trustworthiness of the data is tied directly to the trustworthiness of those who collect and analyze
the data and their demonstrated competence” (p. 706). All research team members completed the
Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) in August 2018. IRB approval to conduct
the study in a LUD was obtained under the guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante.
Creswell and Creswell (2018) identified issues that should anticipated when collecting
and analyzing data. Researchers should respect the site and make certain that all participants
receive the same treatment, particularly avoiding siding with participants. Precautions were taken
to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of participants, and information was stored on a
secured, password-protected computer. All participants were informed of their choice to
withdraw from the study at any time.
Chapter Summary
This chapter outlines the mixed-methods research design that will be used to collect data
from novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators to determine their perceptions and understand
their experiences related to recruitment and retention strategies in a LUD. The data collection,
instrumentation, and procedures for conducting the study are the focus of this chapter. This
information will represent the divergent viewpoints of the study participants and the research
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 74
team will triangulate the data to confirm, crossvalidate, and corroborate findings (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 75
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
This study examined how urban districts and hard-to-staff schools can increase retention
rates of novice teachers who are most likely to leave the profession after the first 5 years, support
veteran teachers who are no longer effective, and retain effective veteran teachers who are most
likely to leave hard-to-staff schools. The study also identified factors that affect retention of
teachers and that can be changed by implementation of specific recruitment strategies that
districts and schools should consider to attract, support, and retain teachers. The study was
conducted as a collaborative enterprise by three researchers who formulated their research study
proposal together, thus explaining similarities among the problem, purpose, and research
questions of the study, literature review, and research methodology presented in Chapters 1, 2,
and 3. Each researcher conducted his or her particular data collection from a purposefully
selected geographic area in a large urban school district through use of surveys and interviews of
participants: novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators. Data analysis, findings, and
conclusions were individual efforts by each researcher.
This study was designed to address the research questions using qualitative and
quantitative approaches that would elicit feedback from educators in a large urban school district.
By using the researcher as the primary instrument in data collection and analysis, an inductive
investigation was employed to gather a comprehensive description of the events and actors in the
setting (Merriam, 2009).
The issue addressed in the research questions was to find solutions to problems and fill in
gaps in academic knowledge based on a review of related research literature (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 76
Research Design
In conducting a research study, six explicit steps were identified by Creswell and
Creswell (2018): (a) identification of a research problem, (b) review of the current literature, (c)
having a purpose for the research, (d) collection of data, (e) analysis of data, and (f) reporting the
evaluation of the research. This study was constructed following these six steps.
The intended outcome of this study was to identify strategies that would strengthen the
ability of an urban district to retain and recruit quality teachers. To deepen an understanding of
the factors that contribute to improving teacher retention and recruitment, the research team
needed information that could be examined in more than one way. A mixed-methods approach
allowed the researchers to develop context-specific instruments (quantitative tools) and
instruments to explain results (qualitative tools; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A mixed-methods
approach involves collecting, analyzing, and mixing qualitative and quantitative approaches in a
single study or series of studies (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Specifically, a convergent
parallel mixed-methods approach was used in this research study.
In convergent parallel design studies, researchers collect both qualitative and quantitative
data simultaneously, analyze the data strands separately, and then mix the databases by merging
the data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). This method is most effective when the goal of the
study is to bring together the strengths of both data strands to compare results or to validate,
confirm, or corroborate quantitative results with qualitative findings (Harrison, 2013). The
purpose of utilizing a qualitative data component was to understand how people make sense of
their lives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The purpose of utilizing a quantitative data component
was to identify the causes that determine effects of outcomes (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). By
using a mixed-methods design, the research team obtained a range of perspectives from novice
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 77
teachers, NBCTs, and administrators in a large urban school district and gathered specific data
from these groups at selected school sites (hard-to-staff schools).
Research Team
The research team for this study was comprised of three doctoral students under the
guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante. The research team studied the most effective strategies for
recruiting and retaining teachers beyond 5 years in a LUD. The team met on a bi-monthly basis
to collaborate, design research questions, review literature, share research, and identify
frameworks that would contribute to the study. The study instruments provided a basis for the
team to understand the perceptions and experiences of administrators and teachers regarding how
urban districts with hard-to-staff schools recruit, retain, and support teachers. The themed group
approach revealed similarities in content; however, each researcher’s study was unique and
reflected his or her interpretation of the data.
Sample and Population
The units of analysis in this study were novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators in
hard-to-staff schools. The research team examined the perceptions and experiences of this group
of educators as they pertained to recruitment strategies and support structures that would increase
retention of teachers beyond 5 years. Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants. This
method allowed the researchers to identify, understand, and gain insight from participants who
work in a LUD, specifically those who work in hard- to-staff schools. Convenience sampling
allowed the researchers to select a sample based on time, money, location, and availability of
sites or respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research team had familiarity with potential
participants; thus, convenience sampling increased the efficiency of time, location, and
identification of participants. The data were gathered from teachers and administrators in a LUD;
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 78
however, the sample was not representative of all schools in the district. The data were collected
in three geographical areas of a LUD. Fifteen surveys (quantitative) were administered and five
interviews (qualitative) were conducted in each of three local areas. Thus, a total of 45 surveys
were administered and 45 interviews were conducted.
Maxwell (2013) identified five goals for purposeful selection of participants. One of the
most relevant goals for this study was to illuminate the reasons for differences among settings or
individuals. Selecting respondents who shared their perspectives and experiences of working in
school settings, specifically hard-to-staff schools in a LUD, contributed to the research and the
researchers’ understanding of the topic. Table 4 provides a summary of participants involved in
surveys and interviews.
Data and Analysis
Data to address the study’s four research questions were gathered using two research
instruments: surveys and interviews. The data were analyzed using a deductive approach by
coding the transcripts from the interviews and the responses to the survey. Common themes
and findings resulted from analysis of the raw data collected during the interviews and from a
review of the responses to the survey. The qualitative interviews were conducted with 45
randomly selected school administrators, 15 novice teachers, and 15 NBCTs; 45 quantitative
surveys were distribute to randomly selected school administrators, novice teachers, and
NBCTs across three geographic areas of a LUD. The results provided the research team with
information to determine how their perceptions of strategies aligned to recruitment, retention,
training, and improvement practices. Also, quantitative survey results from a district-wide
school experience survey were examined and data were gathered from 4,275 teachers with 5
or fewer years of experience and 16,864 teachers with 6 or more years of experience.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 79
Table 4

Summary of Participants, Their Organization/Position, and Data Type(s)

Participants Organizations/positions Data type(s)

New teachers
15 LUD teachers interview
15 LUD teachers survey

National Board Certificated teachers
15 LUD teachers interview
15 LUD teachers survey

Administrators
15 principals LUD principals interview
15 principals LUD principals survey

Teachers
842 LUD, less than 1 year survey
1,042 LUD, 1–2 years survey
2,391 LUD, 3–4 years survey
2,390 LUD, 6–10 years survey
14,474 LUD, over 10 years survey

Note. LUD = large urban district, pseudonym for district studied.

The research team analyzed the results on training strategies, professional development, PLCs,
and support of mentor teachers.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What are the recruitment strategies used by LUDs that
result in the most effective hiring?” Three themes emerged in response to this question. The
objective of this question was to understand how specific recruitment methods used by
districts and schools influence the pool of teacher candidates and result in attracting quality
candidates to select to work in schools in LUDs.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 80
Theme 1: Relationships With HLIs Are Important to the Recruitment of Teachers
According to Fullan and Quinn (2016), to develop high-functioning school districts,
coherence must be attained at the school level and the district level. Coherence is the shared
depth of understanding about the nature of the work (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). The first
component of creating coherence is focused direction, which includes setting directional vision
that emerges from working in partnership to develop a shared purpose by engaging in continuous
collaborative conversation that builds a shared language (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). Darling-
Hammond (2006) contended that university teacher education programs must engage closely
with schools in a mutual transformation agenda. When possible, districts and principals in hard-
to-staff schools should solicit cooperation by local colleges and universities to engage in early
on-campus recruitment of prospective teachers (Morgan & Kritsonis, 2008).
Review of the literature suggested that teacher preparation programs are beginning to
recognize the need to improve preparation of preservice teachers to work in urban schools
(Schaffer et al., 2014). Partnerships between university teacher preparation programs and school
districts have been created as a means for recruiting new teachers into high-need districts and
schools (Allen, 2003). Darling-Hammond (2010) noted that it is critical for all universities to
model what some have pioneered by creating relationships with schools that are working
explicitly on a quality and equity agenda.
Themes emerged from the data collected in the study that addressed the study’s research
questions. One such theme involved the impact and importance of school and district
relationships with HLIs. In order to examine the importance of teacher preparation programs at
HLIs and linking teacher candidates with schools, data were collected through a survey and
interviews. Survey responses supported the concept that the relationships that schools and
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 81
districts develop in working with teacher candidates at HLIs is an important recruitment strategy.
Table 5 summarizes the survey data supporting the finding that recruitment at universities is
important and that the challenge of recruiting teachers to work at hard-to-staff schools has
increased the need for personalized interactions with teacher candidates and school site
administrators. Survey data revealed that the majority of novice teachers, NBCTs, and
administrators strongly agreed or agreed that recruiting teacher candidates through teacher
preparation programs at HLIs is important and an effective way for the organization (school or
district) to increase the supply of effective teacher candidates.
Interviews were used to triangulate the survey findings. All participants who were
interviewed expressed the importance of working with universities to recruit effective teachers.
One novice teacher noted the impact of the HLI that she had attended in matching her to
the district and school where she started her teaching career: “Just speaking from my own
experience going to the training program at the university is really why I’m here. I think that they
kind of fed me into this community school.”
A NBCT noted that the HLI that she had attended had prepared her to work at a hard-to-
staff school:
The program I attended was definitely intended for teachers whose goal is to fill a gap, so
to speak. The goal of that program was to have teachers seek, get employment and stay at
schools which are the schools with large numbers of title one eligible students who are
historically disenfranchised, students who might not have access to college or to other
types of resources, and whose schools are under resourced or understaffed. (interview,
December 10, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 82
Table 5

Research Question 1, Theme 1: Participant Responses Indicating the Impact of Higher Learning
Institutions (HLIs) in Recruitment Strategies in Hiring Effective Teachers, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

HLIs result in hiring effective teachers to improve student
achievement and graduation rates.
Strongly Agree 73.33 73.33 66.67
Agree 26.67 26.67 20.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 13.33
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Recruitment staff at universities result in hiring effective
teachers to improve student achievement and graduation
rates.
Strongly Agree 86.67 66.67 73.33
Agree 13.33 26.67 26.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 6.67 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

Administrators also responded favorably regarding HLIs as effective places for
recruitment of teachers. One administrator stated: “I have been working with our local university
to recruit teachers for a couple of years. The number of candidates that I have interviewed and
hired has increased since I now work directly with the school of education to interview teachers”
(interview, November 27, 2018).
The highest-ranked recruitment strategy by both teachers and administrators was
placement of district recruitment staff at universities. This was the only recruitment strategy in
which all teachers and administrators, with the exception of two respondents, agreed or strongly
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 83
agreed on the importance of the strategy as having an impact on the effective hiring of teachers.
One novice teacher described the impact of having recruitment staff at universities:
It is so important to have district staff on university campuses. It’s like a set person that
can guide you through and help you. It’s like a manager in a way. They tell you what you
need to do, what deadlines are coming up and which schools might be a good match for
the teacher to go and interview. (interview, December 11, 2018)
An administrator at a school that has had ongoing challenges in recruiting teachers due to
its location shared her perspective:
I think one of the issues we have seen at the school site level with recruitment is the fact
that the universities really don’t have communication with the school sites. Historically,
universities have been in communication with school district staff. In the past couple of
years, I have intentionally partnered with the district recruiter for schools in my area. A
middle school administrator noted: I have seen the benefit of this strategy. The local
district recruiter at the university has sent seven students from our local university to my
school. I have been able to connect with the teacher candidates and they are more willing
to come to my school as a cohort from the same university. This has been a plus for
filling my teacher vacancies. (interview, December 4, 2018)
The survey and interview results showed that an effective approach to recruiting new teachers is
to work with the colleges that produce them.
Theme 2: Flexible Incentive Options to Meet Different Local Needs
Fullan and Quinn (2016) stated that focusing direction in an organization operationalized
the systemness dynamic vis-à-vis ad hoc policies. Economic incentives for teachers is a
frequently cited human resource management strategy for addressing teacher staffing challenges
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 84
(Berry, 2008; Prince, 2003). Such strategies differentiate teacher compensation in an effort to
attract qualified individuals to the teaching profession, recruit and retain teachers, and
strategically allocate teachers to classrooms where they are most needed (Kolbe & Strunk, 2012).
Incentives such as student loan forgiveness programs, tuition assistance, retirement waivers, and
in-kind benefits such as housing and transportation assistance add to teachers’ compensation and
are intended to influence teachers’ decision making (Kolbe & Strunk, 2012).
Data collected in this study revealed that financial incentives other than salary were
effective as a recruitment strategy. The majority of novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators
responded agree or strongly agree regarding contract incentives and loan forgiveness. There was
greater support for loan forgiveness programs than for other types of contract incentives.
Survey data showed that novice teachers felt strongly about loan forgiveness as a viable
option to attract more teacher candidates to LUDs. Administrators and NBCTs agreed or
strongly agreed with the use of loan forgiveness as a recruitment strategy (a minority of
responses were in the neutral category). Table 6 summarizes survey data that reflected the high
level of agreement among the three stakeholder groups in their responses supporting the use of
loan forgiveness as a recruitment strategy to increase the number of teacher candidates as LUDs
seek to generate a larger pool of candidates.
Interview responses reflected data collected via the survey in support of loan forgiveness
as a recruitment strategy. A novice teacher stated the importance of this particular strategy: “I
think loan forgiveness is important because if you know your life outside of school is going to be
at least mostly handled, then you can focus on the incredibly challenging job of teaching.”
A NBCT provided her perspective of loan forgiveness as a means to support teacher
candidates:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 85
Table 6

Participant Responses Indicating the Impact of District-Implemented Recruitment Strategies in
Hiring Effective Teachers, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Offering immediate loan forgiveness programs results in
hiring effective teachers to improve student achievement
and graduation rates.
Strongly Agree 66.67 80.00 80.00
Agree 33.33 13.33 20.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 6.67 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Contract incentives result in hiring effective teachers to
improve student achievement and graduation rates.
Strongly Agree 60.00 80.00 73.33
Agree 40.00 20.00 26.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

I think the idea of loan forgiveness is a really good one. I think it would help schools that
are in low socioeconomic areas attract more teacher candidates. If this had been an option
when I started my career, it would have made me more interested in looking at specific
schools within the district instead of being focused on just trying to find a job at any
school. (interview, December 4, 2018)
Administrators expressed high levels of support for utilizing loan forgiveness as a
strategy to attract teacher candidates to LUDs. They indicated that they are interested in having
districts incorporate financial incentives. One administrator stated: “I think loan forgiveness is a
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 86
positive recruitment strategy. Any opportunities to decrease the financial burden for new
teachers is good way to get more college students to explore teaching as a career choice”
(interview, November 27, 2018).
The results of the use of contract incentives as a recruitment strategy for urban districts
garnered mixed results from participants in the study. Novice teachers, NBCTs, and
administrators who were surveyed agreed or strongly agreed with the concept of contract
incentives as a recruitment strategy. Table 6 summarizes the responses of the three stakeholder
groups.
Survey data were triangulated with results of interviews with novice teachers, NBCTs,
and administrators. Some of the perspectives of interview participants differed from the
responses by survey respondents. The point of view expressed by a novice teacher at a hard-to-
staff school highlighted a concern:
I can see contract incentives being really appealing to people who are going through it
and trying to look for a job. However, I’m glad I came to this school and took a look for
myself and saw where I was going to be before I agreed to anything because it is
important to know where you would end up. If I didn’t like where I was going to teach, I
don’t believe a contract incentive would have made that much of a difference. (interview,
December 11, 2018)
A second-year novice teacher noted:
I don’t think contact incentives are impactful for long term recruitment, at least not where
I’m coming from. The people who are going to stick through with teaching are not the
people who are in it for the money, or who are there for short term incentives. (interview,
December 11, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 87
A 10-year NBC teacher noted that
our union has a fairly decent starting salary, but I know other places don't as much. I
think you've got to talk about that. Plus, take into consideration the cost of living, and the
cost to commute. You've got to think about cost of living as opposed to just your base
salary. I know some districts have started programs to supplement housing for teachers.
So, I think additional incentives offered to get candidates to sign a contract with a
particular district is effective. At least it’s a great one to start with, especially if you want
to bring in teacher candidates who might be considering a career change. (interview,
December 6, 2018)
Interview responses from administrators supported contract incentives as a recruitment
strategy that could result in effective hiring for LUDs. One elementary administrator remarked
that
contract incentives are a good way to recruit teachers into the profession. However, even
if incentives are provided, it’s the reputation of the school that makes it difficult for
leaders to recruit teachers to work at hard-to-staff schools. (interview, November 27,
2018)
A 7-year administrator provided her perspective on the impact of contract incentives as a
recruitment strategy:
If our district were to use contract incentives such as providing housing assistance or
compensation to work in hard-to-staff schools, we might have a better chance of
attracting the best candidates, and that would benefit all of our schools. (interview,
November 29, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 88
An administrator at a school that historically has had several teacher vacancies
throughout the school year stated that
teachers here come and go yearly. I think incentives would help teachers to choose to
come to my school. We definitely have a tougher population to deal with and so the
teachers have a lot more stresses that they deal with so I think an incentive, especially for
the first few years would be helpful. It would be helpful especially for the first few years
because we know that’s where teachers struggle the most and need ongoing
encouragement. Some incentives to keep going and to keep support going is needed and
it doesn’t always have to be about money. (interview, November 29, 2018)
Theme 3: Target Recruitment Strategies Attract Teacher Candidates
In the review of literature, Bronfenbrenner (1994) contended that people are dynamic
entities that are influenced by the environments with which they interact. Urban school districts
face greater challenges when hiring teaching candidates due to the challenges associated with
working at hard-to-staff schools. Most districts continue to use fairly traditional methods to
recruit teachers by posting teacher vacancies at local colleges and universities. Districts use the
Internet to post job notices on school and district websites and other educational job websites.
Urban districts are more apt to use a variety of strategies to increase the local supply of teachers
and to use several recruiting incentives (Balter & Duncombe, 2005). While advertising may be a
successful strategy for experienced teachers, a more effective approach for new teachers may be
to work with the colleges that are producing the candidates. Another common approach to
teacher recruitment is for districts to attend or host hiring fairs (Balter & Duncombe, 2005).
Although several strategies are used to recruit, Bland, Church and Luo (2016) found that the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 89
ones that are more personalized and require one-to-one outreach had a greater probability of
recruiting teachers to hard-to-staff schools.
Effective recruiting starts with a great reputation that includes not only the reputation of
the district but also the reputation of the schools within the district (Bland et al., 2016). Teacher
candidates need to have a clear understanding of the schools where they plan to apply.
Prospective teachers should be encouraged to meet administrators and visit schools. These
interactions can serve as a reality check for prospective teachers against misconceptions that they
may have formed initially about the school and the neighborhood (Bland et al., 2016).
Table 7 reports the perceptions of novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators related to
the effectiveness of hiring fairs as a recruitment strategy that can result in hiring quality teacher
candidates, indicated by the strongly agree responses. More than 90% of the three stakeholder
groups responded agree or strongly agree that hiring fairs at HLIs are effective. Novice teachers,
NBCTs, and administrators expressed support for advertising positions on websites and the
Internet and 70% agreed or strongly agreed with this recruitment method. The strategy that
resonated least favorably with the stakeholder groups was the use of radio announcements.
Novice teachers indicated in their interviews that specific recruitment strategies are
impactful and attract teacher candidates to the district and to hard-to-staff schools. Evidence of
this opinion is shown in the teachers’ statements. One first-year teacher shared:
I attended the district hiring fair based on the recommendation of the director of the
program at my university. She suggested I seek out schools in low socioeconomic areas
of the city since my teacher program was social justice oriented. It worked for me
because I was hired at this school which is in the community where I want to be.
(interview, December 11, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 90

Table 7

Participant Responses Indicating the Impact of Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs) in
Recruitment Strategies in Hiring Effective Teachers, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Hiring fairs for recruitment at HLIs result in hiring effective
teachers to improve student achievement and graduation rates.
Strongly Agree 60.00 80.00 60.00
Agree 33.33 20.00 33.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 6.67 0.00 6.67
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Job posting websites result in hiring effective teachers and
improving student achievement and graduation rates.
Strongly Agree 33.33 20.00 13.33
Agree 26.67 60.00 66.676
Neither Disagree nor Agree 40.00 20.00 20.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Social media/Internet recruitment results in hiring effective
teachers and improving student achievement and graduation
rates.
Strongly Agree 20.00 13.33 33.33
Agree 40.00 73.33 40.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 40.00 6.67 6.67
Disagree 0.00 0.00 13.33
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Radio ads result in hiring effective teachers and improving
student achievement and graduation rates.
Strongly Agree 0.00 0.00 13.33
Agree 13.33 40.00 40.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 40.00 46.67 13.33
Disagree 33.33 13.33 33.33
Strongly Disagree 13.33 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 91
A second-year teacher commented: “I didn’t really use social media to search for job
openings. I found openings by looking at postings at my school [university] and going to hiring
fairs hosted by the school district” (interview, December 10, 2018)
NBCTs viewed hiring fairs as an effective recruitment strategy; all strongly agreed or
agreed with this strategy. One NBCT noted:
I remember when I got my credential, I saw a posting for a hiring fair at my school
[college]. The district was recruiting at the hiring fair that I had attended. I went and
interviewed with an awesome principal who invited me to visit the school had said “I’m
not going to that district” because I had heard not such good things about it. I did and
ended up accepting the job. (interview, December 4, 2018)
In interviews with administrators, recruitment of teachers was one of their most important
roles. One middle school administrator worked closely with her local district human resource
specialist to ensure that she meets with several candidates at district hiring fares: “I appreciate
the hiring fairs that I’ve attended. This type of recruitment strategy has allowed me to interact
with new teacher candidates who may not otherwise have known about my school” (interview,
November 29, 2018).
An elementary administrator expressed a preference for interviewing candidates who
applied to the school based on job postings:Most of the candidates I have hired learned of
vacancies either from district websites or from job postings at the university. The teachers who
applied based on the job postings are knowledgeable about our school demographics and
performance levels because they did their homework before the interview. These are the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 92
candidates that I prefer because they are not put off by the location or the reputation of
the school. (interview, November 29, 2018)
The importance of identifying the recruitment strategies that result in hiring effective
teachers was verified through survey and interview data collected from novice teachers, NBCTs,
and administrators in the geographic areas that were included in the study parameters.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How can LUDs improve their post induction training to
retain the highest number of qualified teachers?” The objective of this question was to examine
the level of support and the school site conditions needed to retain teachers after their first 5
years in the profession and to assist teachers who need additional training to increase their
effectiveness. Three themes emerged from the analysis of data collected through a survey and
interviews. The themes reflected the personal beliefs and experiences of the participants.
Theme 1: Teachers Benefit From Mentor Support
The first few years of teaching can be a very difficult time, even under the best of
circumstances. Most teachers labor in isolation from colleagues. According to Vygotsky’s Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD), an individual’s immediate potential for cognitive growth is
limited on the lower end by what he or she can accomplish independently and on the upper end
by what he or she can accomplish with the help of a more knowledgeable peer (Doolittle, 1997).
Fullan and Quinn (2016) contended that leaders at district and school levels should influence the
culture and processes that support learning and working together in purposeful ways at every
level of the organization if they are to produce greater learning in students. The training that
teachers receive at the school level is an important component of teacher training for all teachers.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 93
In theory, induction programs are not additional training per se but are designed for those
who have completed basic training (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). High-quality induction will not
only increase novices’ retention and effectiveness but will also act as a catalyst in establishing a
professional community among beginning and veteran teachers (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).
Researchers have demonstrated connections among mentoring programs and teacher practice,
teacher retention, and student achievement (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011).
Some mentor support is primarily developmental and designed to foster growth by
newcomers. Other mentoring support is designed to assess and perhaps weed out those who are
deemed ill suited for the job (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). Zuckerman (2001) noted great potential
for professional development of veteran teachers through mentoring relationships. Accordingly,
veteran teachers who mentor and those who are mentored can emerge from the mentoring
experience transformed, with an enhanced sense of professional worth and perhaps new
directions for professional growth, as well (Zuckerman, 2001).
Smith and Ingersoll (2004) found that the impact of mentoring support post induction led
to teachers who were twice as likely to remain in teaching than teachers who did not participate
in this type of support. Table 8 summarizes the survey data supporting the activities that novice
teachers considered to be important to receive from a teacher mentor. Correspondingly, survey
data revealed that all NBCTs and administrators strongly agreed or agreed that mentor support
in the form of feedback, classroom observations, and weekly meetings is an effective strategy to
provide training and to retain teachers.
Interviews were conducted to triangulate the survey findings. All interviewees expressed
the importance of having mentors to support novice teachers. The interviews were reviewed
through the lenses of novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators. A second-year teacher at a
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 94
Table 8

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Personalized Support Strategies for a Large
Urban District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers (5+ Years or Completion of Induction
Process) in the System, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Item: Identify how much impact each of the following
investments or additional supports has had to support your
ability to improve student achievement and graduation rates.

District support (e.g., demonstration lessons, gallery walks, co-
teaching) leads to higher retention of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 66.67 73.33 73.33
Agree 33.33 26.67 26.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Conducting a demonstration lesson with mentor feedback
improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 66.67 80.00 86.67
Agree 33.33 20.00 13.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Weekly support from mentors and administrators
improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 73.33 80.00 86.67
Agree 26.67 20.00 13.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

hard-to-staff school commented: “I think the importance of having a mentor is huge. Having a
mentor to guide you and give you advice that you feel is relevant to your situation is critical”
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 95
(interview, December 10, 2018). This concept was further discussed by a first-year teacher who
noted the importance of having a mentor at the same school site:
I believe having a mentor is essential. You need to talk to someone who has done this job
before and who has experience. Setting up mentorship programs within your school site
is really important because every school context is different. I am fortunate that my
mentor works at my school. I have friends who have mentors, but they do not work at the
same school which it makes it hard to get the immediate support that new teachers really
need. (interview, December 4, 2018)
One of the main responsibilities of NBCTs in a LUD studied is to serve as mentors to
novice teachers. A NBCT who served as a mentor at her school for 5 years said:
I think having a mentor is important because I know when I first started teaching, I didn’t
have a mentor and I felt like I was drowning with no life preserver. Since getting my
national board certification I’ve been able to mentor several teachers and they’ve told me
that it made a huge impact on them. They felt more comfortable having someone to talk
to or having someone come in and observe them teaching. (interview, December 4, 2018)
Veteran teachers who need additional support benefit from assistance and targeted
support provided by a mentor teacher. A 7-year NBCT shared her experience in assisting a
teacher who was no longer effective:
I just think mentors are really important. I mentored a teacher who had been teaching for
30 years and then another teacher who had been teacher for 25 years. The principal said,
“Please help them.” They were my grade level partners so I would prepare lessons for all
of our classes together and have them watch me teach the lesson before trying it on their
own. The skills didn’t necessarily transfer immediately, but little by little she got better
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 96
and eventually was able to teach the lesson on her own. I know my assistance helped her
and the principal felt better having students receive improved instruction from their
teacher. (interview, December 4, 2018)
Administrators noted in their interviews the value of mentors. A principal who had been
at his site for 8 years remarked:
It is difficult to recruit teachers to come to my site so I focus on supporting them when
they start by providing every new teacher with two mentors. One mentor is the academic
mentor who focus\ on curriculum and instruction. The other mentor is the person who
will give them emotional support and guide them by giving encouragement. This
combination of targeted support has increased the number of teachers who choose to stay
at my school. (interview, November 27, 2018)
Theme 2: School-Level Collaboration Is Needed to Foster Professional Growth
Teachers are more likely to stay in schools where they have positive interactions, plan
together, make decisions about the schools, and have trusting working relationships with each
other (Allensworth et al., 2009; Weiss, 1999). Successful experiences of new teachers depend at
least in part on an environment that responds to their needs (Weiss, 1999). Collegial and
supportive social organizational conditions can encourage teachers to work together, to support
each other, and to use and develop a common knowledge base (Weiss, 1999). Fullan and Quinn
(2016) contended that, to achieve coherence in an organization, a collaborative culture is the
dynamic force that uses relationships and shared expertise to create a focused, coherent force for
change.
The research on teacher collaboration corresponded to the work by Bronfenbrenner
(1994) in which he stated that the interconnectedness of ecological systems on human
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 97
development requires one to look beyond single settings to the relationships between them.
Teachers are a part of the microsystem of schools and are impacted by the mesosystem and the
relationships among teacher colleagues.
Preparing teachers as classroom researchers and expert collaborators who can learn from
one another is essential when the range of knowledge for teaching has grown so expansive that it
cannot be mastered by any individual (Darling-Hammond, 2006). The results of surveys and
interviews of novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators demonstrated strong support for
increasing training for teachers by increasing collaboration at schools. Table 9 summarizes the
results of the perspectives of teachers, NBCTs, and administrators on the importance of
collaboration in the form of demonstration lessons, peer observations, stipends to participate in
collaboration activities, and district and school support to provide substitute teachers to allow
teachers time to collaborate.
Whether and how school principals provide opportunities for collaborative work with
other teachers and for engagement in curriculum building strongly determines whether beginning
teachers plan to remain in the profession (Darling-Hammond, 2003). In interviews with novice
teachers, the importance of collaborating with other teachers was a consistent message. One
novice teacher stated, “The only way I’m going to get better is if I am able to collaborate with
my peers” (interview, December 10, 2018). A second-year teacher commented on the benefit of
collaborating with her peers:
I would be lost without having time to meet with the other teachers in my grade level. All
teachers have formal meeting time every Tuesday after school, but it is the informal
meetings that make a difference. Our grade level meets three times a week either during
our lunch period or during our conference periods. During this time, we plan lessons and
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 98
Table 9

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Support Strategies for a
Large Urban District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers (5+ Years or Completion of
Induction Process) in the System, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Item: Identify how much impact each of the following
investments or additional supports has had to support your
ability to improve student achievement and graduation rates.

Observing fellow teachers improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 33.33 57.14 66.67
Agree 53.33 37.51 33.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 13.33 7.14 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Observing fellow teachers and receiving peer feedback
improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 46.67 73.33 73.33
Agree 53.33 26.67 26.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Nonpermanent teachers receiving release time for mentors
and administrators improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 26.67 46.67 53.33
Agree 46.67 46.67 33.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 26.67 6.67 13.33
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

our lunch period or during our conference periods. During this time, we plan lessons and
talk about ways to reteach certain things that our students aren’t getting. As a new
teacher, this type of interaction has definitely increased my confidence because although
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 99
I’m new, I hear that my peers who have been teaching a long time have challenges, too.
(interview, December 11, 2018)
NBCTs similarly remarked on the benefits of teacher collaboration as an effective
method of postinduction training for novice teachers and other teachers who need additional
support. A NBCT at a middle school stated: “Without collaborating with other teachers, the
practice of teaching is a lonely job” (interview, December 6, 2018). A NBCT who has mentored
teachers for several years noted that
collaboration helps everyone improve. We come together as a department after we have
observed a lesson in someone’s class. During the lesson debrief, we don’t ever talk about
the teacher. We are looking at the strategy and how the students responded to the lesson.
This way the new teachers and the veteran teachers learn together and the focus can be on
the needs of the students instead of on a teacher who may feel attacked if a lesson didn’t
go well. (interview, December 4, 2018)
In interviews with administrators, all acknowledged the benefits of teachers collaborating
with one another. An elementary administrator commented, “I’ve seen the difference in the
quality of lessons when two teachers have planned it together. The quality of the lesson is better”
(interview, November 27, 2018). An administrator at a hard-to-staff middle school shared his
perspective:
When I ask my teachers what do they need, their response is we need time to plan, We
need time to collaborate. I feel my role is to provide the space and the structured time for
teachers to come together to plan lessons, review student work and discuss how to
support students who have not mastered certain standards. (interview, November 27,
2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 100
Survey results and interviews demonstrated that LUDs can retain a higher number of quality
teachers by providing training that includes regularly scheduled ongoing opportunities for
teachers to collaborate with colleagues.
Theme 3: Differentiated Professional Development Influences Teacher Development
Teacher support in the form of professional development is critical to retain teachers in
the profession. Professional development is often cited by teachers as one of the working
conditions that factors into their decision to remain in the profession. Teachers need
opportunities to renew, educate, and energize through meaningful professional staff
development. Whitaker et al. (2009) noted that, when teachers learned and enjoyed learning
opportunities, they were more willing to try something new in the classroom and to explore
possibilities for future teaching success. S. M. Johnson (2006) stated that, when teachers found
that professional development focused on instruction and the needs of their students, they were
more likely to welcome rather than resist assistance.
Impactful professional development is important to both veteran and novice teachers. A.
Jacob et al. (2012) suggested that, to meet the needs of veteran teachers, administrators and
school systems should provide relevant staff development and continuous learning opportunities.
The use of online professional development allows teachers to personalize their learning needs
by working individually or in teams (Gamrat et al., 2014).
Survey findings from novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators demonstrated that
meaningful, differentiated professional development is an effective postinduction strategy to
retain qualified teachers. Table 10 summarizes the survey data findings.
Survey data revealed that a majority of novice teachers and administrators agreed or
strongly agreed that identifying professional development options annually is beneficial. This
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 101
Table 10

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Strategies That Could/Should Be Used to
Improve the Postinduction Training of Teachers, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Online professional development (on demand) improves
the postinduction training of teachers.
Strongly Agree 73.33 26.67 40.00
Agree 20.00 46.67 46.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 26.67 13.33
Disagree 6.67 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Teachers completing an annual survey to identify their training
needs improves the postinduction training of teachers.
Strongly Agree 26.67 53.33 26.67
Agree 40.00 33.33 40.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 33.33 13.33 26.67
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Substitute days to support professional development
improves the postinduction training of teachers.
Strongly Agree 53.33 40.00 57.14
Agree 26.67 40.00 42.86
Neither Disagree nor Agree 13.33 20.00 0.00
Disagree 6.67 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

strategy was rated more favorably by NBCTs, as 80% agreed or strongly agreed that identifying
professional development needs by surveying teacher needs on a yearly basis was an effective
strategy to support teachers post induction.
Survey data supported the finding that online professional development is an effective
postinduction training method to retain qualified teachers, as 93% of novice teachers agreed or
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 102
strongly agreed that online professional development is a postinduction strategy to be
implemented in LUDs. NBCTs agreed or strongly agreed to the correlation between online
professional development and postinduction training for teachers, although the responses were
slightly lower than those for novice teachers. Administrators’ survey responses were closely
aligned with those of novice teachers.
Survey data revealed that the majority of novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators
agreed or strongly agreed that providing substitute days to allow teachers to attend professional
development opportunities is important and an effective strategy to support the training of
teachers in a LUD.
Teachers throughout the LUD participated in a district-wide survey regarding the
importance of professional development. The results revealed that teachers received more
professional development during the early years in the profession. Table 11 summarizes findings
from a district-wide survey regarding professional development experiences of teachers based on
years of teaching experience.
Interviews with novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators showed agreement that
differentiated professional development is a postinduction strategy that can lead to an increase in
the retention of teachers. A first-year teacher commented: “I think that professional development
needs to be a priority in our training, and our learning” (interview, December 10, 2018). A
second-year teacher shared her perspective on the importance of professional development:
The best professional development happens when I get a release time and the principal
provides a substitute to cover my class. I have a longer block of time to meet with the
teachers in my grade level and plan lessons or look at student work to help us all
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 103
Table 11

Responses to a District-wide Survey Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Assignments
and Training Strategies That Could/Should Be Used to Improve the Effectiveness of Teachers,
According to Years of Classroom Experience, by Percentages

Years of teaching experience

< 1 year 1-2 years 3-5 years 6-10 years 10+ years
Survey item and response categories (n = 842) (n = 1,042) (n = 2,391) (n = 2,390) (n = 14,474)

The professional development at this
school is differentiated for my level
of teaching experience.
Strongly Agree 31.5 31.8 29.1 27.3 25.7
Agree 48.3 48.9 50.1 49.7 51.9
Disagree 16.9 15.6 16.6 17.2 17.5
Strongly Disagree 3.3 3.6 4.1 5.7 4.9

What I learn in our school professional
development meetings addresses my
students’ needs.
Strongly Agree 32.7 28.9 25.7 23.7 25.3
Agree 53.1 53.7 52.5 52.8 52.9
Disagree 11.8 12.8 16.6 17.8 16.5
Strongly Disagree 2.4 4.6 5.2 5.7 5.3

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

determine what we’re doing that is working or not working. (interview, December 4,
2018)
A 10-year NBCT commented on the benefit of differentiated professional development
and the effectiveness of online professional development.
I think some PDs [professional development activities] have been beneficial, but every
teacher is different and has different needs. I recently started taking a series of online PDs
[professional developments) to receive a microcredential in STEM. It’s been great. I can
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 104
take the course on my own timeline and I can try out the suggested strategies at my own
pace. The courses are interesting and I’m learning a lot. (interview, December 4, 2018)
A NBCT at an elementary school commented that
the newer teachers are open to attending PD and trying out strategies. The veteran
teachers do not always value the PD that is being presented unless it’s led by a colleague
and deals with a topic that he/she is interested in. For the past few years, we have sent out
a survey to find out what topics teachers are interested in. The results have helped us
create a PD plan that is aligned to both student needs and teacher needs. (interview,
December 4, 2018)
Interviews with administrators revealed sentiments that underscored the need for
differentiated professional development options. A middle school administrator noted that “we
do a lot of one on one PD [professional development], especially for our most senior teachers
who are really having a difficult time” (interview, November 27, 2018). An elementary
administrator expressed the need for professional development that is not a one-size-fits-all
model:
We distribute a survey at the beginning of each year to select topics based on student data
results. We set aside funds in our budget to provide substitute days for release time. This
year we have added training on how to use the new learning management system where
teachers can receive professional development online. This option is interesting because
it provides flexibility for topics and time to do the professional development. (interview,
November 28, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 105
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers
(5+ years or completion of induction process) in the system?” The objective of this question was
to examine the strategies and the impact of investments and additional support that could assist
teachers to improve student achievement and graduation rates. Three themes emerged from the
analysis of data collected through a survey and interviews of novice teachers, NBCTs, and
administrators. The themes reflected the personal beliefs and experiences of the participants.
Theme 1: Administrator Support Is Critical to Retain Teachers
Administrative support emerges as a particularly important factor in retention decisions
by teachers. Teachers who were unwilling to teach in a high-needs school were far more likely to
believe that their school leaders would not support them, overall working conditions would not
allow them to be successful, and they were not sufficiently prepared to teach student in these
challenging schools (Hirsch & Emerick, 2007). Simon and Johnson (2015) reviewed literature
from the results of the SASS and determined that the consensus was that principal leadership and
influence had strong associations with school climate, teacher satisfaction, teacher commitment,
and teacher retention.
S. M. Johnson et al. (2011) noted that, if teachers are to achieve success with their
students (particularly low-income and high-minority students who rely most on the school for
their learning), they must be able to count on their colleagues, their principal, and the
organizational culture of the school to make success possible. The research aligned with the
work by Bronfenbrenner (1979) and emphasized the importance of the exosystem (administrator)
and macrosystem (district) in the development of teachers.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 106
Research from The New Teacher Project suggested that teachers would like to receive
more observation and feedback from administrators (A. Jacob et al., 2012). Table 12 shows that
survey results for teachers highlighted the importance of administrators providing structures for
teachers to receive support. All novice teachers agreed or strongly agreed on the importance of
having weekly support from administrators. NBCTs and administrators unanimously agreed or
strongly agreed that weekly support from administrators is an impactful strategy to increase
teacher retention. All participants agreed or strongly agreed on the benefits to teacher retention
when administrators provide opportunities for teachers to engage in demonstration lessons and
co-teaching.
A. Jacob et al. (2012) identified feedback and development as important strategies to
retain teachers and to provide a path to improvement for less effective teachers, based on
responses to a district-wide survey of novice and veteran teachers. The survey revealed that new
teachers received more support than veteran teachers (Table 13). First- and second-year teachers
responded at higher rates when asked, “How often does school leadership visit your classroom to
observe your teaching?” The level of administrator support was also higher for newer teachers
when teachers responded to the question, “How often does school leadership provide useful
feedback to you based on their observations?”
Interviews were conducted to triangulate the survey data. A first-year teacher emphasized
the importance of administrator support: “I think that administrator support at an under resourced
school is very important. My administrator regularly checks in on me. She observes my lessons
and gives me feedback that is practical” (interview, December 10, 2018). Another novice teacher
provided her perspective on the importance of administrator support:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 107
My mentor is one of my administrators. She meets with the new teachers once a week
after school. We discuss classroom management and instructional strategies to try. Now
that I’m in my second year of teaching, I feel like I’ve got my feet on the ground and the
advice my administrator gives me continues to help me grow and become a better
teacher. (interview, December 10, 2018)
Interview data were used to analyze the survey results among NBCTs. A 7-year NBCT
expressed the importance of the role of the administrator in cultivating a positive school culture
to retain quality teachers and improve student achievement: “I think the principal’s role is keep
everyone focused on the school goals. When the administrators visit classes and provide time for
teachers to collaborate, the message is reinforced that our work is important” (interview,
December 4, 2018). A NBCT at a hard-to-staff school for 7 years remarked on the importance of
administrator support to retain quality teachers:
First of all, the principals need to be able to guide teachers and provide support. I view
support as having a principal who provides time for me to collaborate with my colleagues
and having a principal who visits my classroom and provides timely, meaningful
feedback. (interview, December 6, 2018)
Administrators agreed that the support provided to teachers by school leaders is a
determining factor in retaining the highest-quality teachers in hard-to-staff schools. One
administrator explained that “as a school leader, I know that I impact student achievement by
prioritizing my time and scheduling time to observe classes and provide actionable feedback to
my new teachers” (interview, November 27, 2018). A middle school administrator noted the
importance of creating time and structures for teachers to work together and learn from one
another:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 108

Table 12

Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Importance of Strategies for a Large Urban
District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers (5+ Years or Completion of Induction
Process) in the System, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Admin support (e.g., coordinating demonstration lessons,
gallery walks, co-teaching) lead to higher retention of
highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 66.67 73.33 73.33
Agree 33.33 26.67 26.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Weekly support from administrators improves effectiveness
and leads to higher retention of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 73.33 80.00 86.67
Agree 26.67 20.00 13.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 109
Table 13

Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Frequency at Which Administrator Support
Strategies Were Implemented, According to Years of Classroom Experience, by Percentages

Years of teaching experience

< 1 year 1-2 years 3-5 years 6-10 years 10+ years
Survey item and response categories (n = 842) (n = 1,042) (n = 2,391) (n = 2,390) (n = 14,474)

Administrators visit your classroom
to observe your teaching.
Weekly 19.2 14.1 13.1 13.7 14.8
Twice a month 19.0 20.1 18.5 18.7 18.0
Monthly 27.2 27.1 24.3 23.8 23.2
A few times per year 24.3 29.7 30.9 30.9 30.3
Hardly ever 6.8 7.0 10.1 9.8 10.2
Never 3.4 2.1 3.1 4.0 3.5

Administrators provide useful feedback
to you based on their observations.
Always 29.2 26.6 21.1 20.2 22.4
Often 30.4 33.9 31.1 29.3 28.0
Sometimes 25.8 27.9 29.7 28.8 29.8
Rarely 9.6 8.4 13.0 15.0 13.6
Never 5.0 3.2 5.1 6.7 6.1

The students at this school have many challenges that effect their achievement level, so I
feel it’s my job to ensure they have the very best teachers. I do this by observing lessons
and giving feedback to teachers on a daily basis. I visit all classes; however, I spend more
time in the classes of the teachers who I believe are ineffective. It’s hard to do the visits
and write memos, but I know if I don’t do it, my students will continue to perform below
grade level. (interview, November 27, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 110
Theme 2: Salaries and Additional Compensation Opportunities Influence Teacher
Retention
A review of the literature revealed that a barrier to teacher recruitment is the low salary
level compared to the starting salary level for other professions (Berry, 2004; Loeb & Reininger,
2004). The decline in the relative earnings of teachers has likely led to reduction in average
teacher quality over time (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2004). To attract its share of the nation’s college-
educated talent and to offer sufficient incentives for professional preparation, the teaching
occupation must be competitive in terms of wages and working conditions (Darling-Hammond,
2003). Berry (2004) declared that it is fairly well accepted that teacher salaries remain too low to
attract and retain enough talented and well-trained teachers.
Economic incentives for teachers are a frequently cited human resource management
strategy for addressing teacher staffing challenges (Berry, 2008; Prince, 2003). Kolbe and Strunk
(2012) stated that a variety of strategies is needed to differentiate teacher compensation in an
effort to attract qualified individuals to the teaching profession, recruit and retain teachers, and
strategically allocate teachers to classrooms where they are most needed.
In response to the survey item that asked participants to identify the strategies that LUDs
could use to retain experienced teachers, respondents showed support for increased
compensation. All participants responded agreed or strongly agreed that improved salaries and
stipends for participation in training are effective in increasing retention of quality teachers.
Table 14 shows the perceptions of novice teachers, NBCTs, and principals on a variety of
strategies that LUDs could consider to increase retention of teachers.
Interviews with novice teachers and NBCTs supported the survey findings. Novice
teachers shared their perspectives on increased compensation. A first-year novice teacher
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 111
Table 14

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Additional Compensation Strategies for a
Large Urban District to Retain Experienced Teachers (5+ Years or Completion of Induction
Process) in the System, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Stipends to participate in professional development lead
to higher retention of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 66.67 46.67 53.33
Agree 26.67 53.33 40.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 6.67 0.00 6.67
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Improved compensation in the form of higher salaries leads
to higher retention of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 53.33 71.43 40.00
Agree 46.67 21.43 53.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 6.67
Disagree 0.00 7.14 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Salary increases for the completion of a designated number
of professional development hours lead to higher retention
of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 80.00 46.67 40.00
Agree 20.00 33.33 53.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 20.00 6.67
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

commented: “I have several friends who considered becoming teachers, but they said the salaries
are too low” (interview, December 11, 2018). A second-year novice teacher reflected:
As a math teacher, I had the opportunity to accept jobs in other fields that had higher
starting salaries. I chose to become a teacher because I wanted to give back to my
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 112
community. However, I think more college students who major in math would consider
teaching as a profession if the starting salary were higher. (interview, December 11,
2018)
The remarks by NBCTs highlighted the benefits of improved compensation. A 7-year
NBCT noted that
teaching is not a profession that is known for having high salaries. However, I am able to
receive additional compensation by attending school or district trainings. I also can
increase my salary by attending specific PDs [professional development sessions] and
receive salary points upon completion. The accumulation of salary points provides a way
to move up on the salary scale and increase my overall salary. (interview, December 4,
2018)
Another NBCT remarked:
If the district really wants to retain more teachers, it should consider paying more to
teachers who work at schools that have the most challenges. I have spoken with
colleagues both new and veteran who have left our school because they state they can
make the same salary working at a school that has a higher performing student population
or is located in a less impoverished area. (interview, December 4, 2018)
Interviews with administrators showed a high level of agreement that improved
compensation and financial incentives would keep more teachers at hard-to-staff schools. An
elementary administrator stated: “I set aside funding in my budget to provide additional
compensation to teachers for training. It is my way of letting my teachers know I appreciate the
hard work they put in to support our students” (interview, November 28, 2018). A middle school
administrator declared:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 113
I believe the work that needs to be done to support our kids requires an additional
commitment from the teachers. If I want them to stay at the school, I’ve found that
providing additional compensation for training or for collaborating with their peers after
school is beneficial. (interview, December 11, 2018)
Theme 3: Supportive Working Conditions at Schools Influence Teacher Retention
Supportive working conditions can enable teachers to teach more effectively. They can
enhance teacher quality and improve retention (S. M. Johnson, 2006). By 2003, teacher retention
had replaced teacher recruitment as the major staffing challenge that schools and districts faced.
Researchers found that, once teachers were in the classroom, they were more likely to report that
they would leave teaching because of poor working conditions than because of low pay (S. M.
Johnson, 2006). Teachers at low-achieving schools were much less satisfied with working
conditions than their colleagues at high-achieving schools.
School culture and working conditions are especially challenging problems at struggling
schools. Teachers at low-achieving schools are much less satisfied with working conditions than
their colleagues at high-achieving schools (A. Jacob et al., 2012). The high attrition of teachers
from schools serving lower-income or lower-achieving students appears to be substantially
influenced by the poorer working conditions that are typically found in schools serving less
disadvantaged students (Darling-Hammond, 2003).
The conditions in which teachers work matter a great deal to them and, ultimately, to
their students. Teachers are more satisfied and plan to stay longer in schools that have a positive
work context, independent of the school’s student demographic characteristics (S. M. Johnson et
al., 2011). Furthermore, although a wide range of working conditions matters to teachers, the
specific elements of the work environment that matter most to teachers are not narrowly
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 114
conceived working conditions such as clean and well-maintained facilities or access to modern
instructional technology. Instead, social conditions—the school’s culture, the principal’s
leadership, and relationships among colleagues—predominate in predicting teachers’ job
satisfaction and career plans (S. M. Johnson et al., 2011). More important, providing a supportive
context in which teachers work can lead to improved student achievement (S. M. Johnson et al.,
2011). Evidence shows that favorable work conditions predict higher rates of student academic
growth.
A review of the survey data supported the finding that a large urban school district can
improve working conditions at hard-to-staff schools and retain experienced teachers by
providing additional investments. The survey results in Table 15 show that the majority of
novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators were in agreement that effective strategies to retain
teachers at hard-to-staff schools include additional time during the day for new teachers,
designated personnel to support the social-emotional needs of students, and mentor assistance.
Interview data were used to triangulate the survey findings. One novice teacher shared
the following:
My job is more difficult because my students have experienced a lot of trauma in their
lives. Fortunately, I have good relationships with them and they come to me for advice,
but I believe they would be better served if they had access to more counseling support.
(interview, December 10, 2018)
A second-year teacher noted that
my school receives additional funding from the district to support new teacher
development. The funding allows me to have an additional conference period which I use
to plan and meet with my mentor. Other teachers in my new teacher training program
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 115
Table 15

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Support Strategies That
Impact Working Conditions for a Large Urban District to Retain New and Experienced Teachers
(5+ Years or Completion of Induction Process) in the System, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Extra conference period/planning time for nonpermanent
teachers leads to higher retention of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 46.67 46.67 40.00
Agree 40.00 33.33 33.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 13.33 20.00 13.33
Disagree 0.00 0.00 13.33
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Additional counselors (Secondary/Pupil Services &
Administration/Psychiatric Social Worker/nurses lead
to higher retention of highly qualified teachers.
Strongly Agree 33.33 33.33 46.67
Agree 26.67 46.67 20.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 13.33 13.33
Disagree 40.00 6.67 20.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Weekly support from mentors and administrators
improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 73.33 80.00 86.67
Agree 26.67 20.00 13.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

who work at schools in more affluent areas of the district do not receive these type of
supports. (interview, December 11, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 116
NBCTs similarly remarked on the importance of personnel support as one of the working
conditions that support retention. One NBCT shared her perspective on the importance of being a
NBCT at a hard-to-staff school:
In my experience, a lot of teachers work in isolation. The lack of support from others is
one reason why teachers leave hard-to-staff schools. Since I have become a NBC teacher,
I have been able to make a difference by providing support to my colleagues. I think the
district should encourage more teachers to apply to become National Board Certified
teachers. An increase in the supply of NBC teachers would increase the pipeline of
mentor teachers available to support new teachers and my veteran colleagues who would
benefit from additional help. (interview, December 6, 2018)
Administrators influence the working conditions at schools. One administrator
commented on the importance of having additional staff to support both students and teachers:
Although my school may be classified as a hard-to-staff school, the teachers appreciate
the additional resources we provide by hiring additional counselors to focus on
attendance and mental health. Teachers have stated they appreciate the additional support
for students because our students have lots of needs that the classroom teacher is not
equipped to handle. I believe it would be more difficult to retain the teachers if we didn’t
have out of classroom personnel to assist our students and NBC teachers here to assist
other teachers. (interview, November 27, 2018)
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “What strategies could or should be used to improve the
effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers?” The objective of this question was to examine the
impact of retraining strategies to improve student achievement and graduation rates. Three themes
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 117
emerged from the analysis of data collected via a survey and interviews of novice teachers,
NBCTs, and administrators. The themes reflected the personal beliefs and experiences of the
respondents.
Theme 1: PLCs Provide Support to Novice and Surplus Teachers
The literature showed that teacher support is widely considered most effective when it is
situated in everyday experiences, such as in classroom settings, and teachers become empowered
by teaching, learning from, and supporting one another during their school day (Fullan &
Stiegelbauer, 1991; Hall & Davis, 1995). PLCs are designed to support teacher collaboration
instead of teacher isolation. Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory states that the behaviors of
people and how they learn are based on their surroundings as they develop and grow. The tenets
of sociocultural theory are supported by the concept of PLCs. PLCs differ from traditional
professional development in that the intent is to build teacher knowledge collaboratively versus
building knowledge of individual teachers who try to apply skills in isolation (DuFour & Eaker,
2009).
Novice teachers are commonly assigned to work at hard-to-staff schools; they require
additional support in the form of working with colleagues to learn from others with more
experience (Berry, 2007). Teachers who are ineffective and do not increase student achievement
levels require additional training and feedback from administrators and teacher leaders (A. Jacob
et al., 2012). Collaboration in the form of PLCs provides opportunities for novice teachers and
surplus teachers to interact with and learn from their more knowledgeable peers. Responses to
multiple survey items supported the concept that collaboration with peers in a PLC is an
effective strategy to support student achievement. More than 90% of novice teachers, NBCTs,
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 118
and administrators agreed that working with peers on a weekly basis and having dedicated time
for PLCs improves effectiveness (Table 16).

Table 16

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Strategies That Could/Should Be Used to
Improve the Effectiveness of Novice and Surplus Teachers, by Percentages.

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Dedicated time for PLCs improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 80.00 60.00 80.00
Agree 13.33 40.00 20.00
Neither Disagree nor Agree 6.67 0.00 0.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers; PLC = professional learning community.

Data from the district-wide survey revealed that the frequency with which PLC strategies
were implemented at schools throughout the district varied depending on how long a teacher had
worked in the school district (Table 17). Novice teachers consistently received more
opportunities to collaborate with teachers to examine student performance data and discuss
instructional issues when compared with teachers in the profession for more than 6 years.
Interviews were conducted to triangulate the survey findings. All participants who were
interviewed expressed the importance of PLCs as a strategy to improve the effectiveness of
novice and surplus teachers. A second-year teacher expressed her support for PLCs:
We have department meetings and common planning time. I get a lot of advice from my
colleagues during these meetings. It is really helpful to learn from more experienced
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 119
Table 17

Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Frequency With Which Collaborative
Strategies Were Used in Professional Development (Training, Grade-Level and Departmental-
Level Meetings), According to Years of Teaching Experience, by Percentages

Years of teaching experience

< 1 year 1-2 years 3-5 years 6-10 years 10+ years
Survey item and response categories (n = 842) (n = 1,042) (n = 2,391) (n = 2,390) (n = 14,474)

Teachers collaborate with one another
by department, professional learning
community, or grade level about
curricular or instructional issues.
Weekly 49.2 46.9 43.0 39.5 42.2
Monthly 41.3 45.2 46.4 47.6 46.4
Rarely 7.9 6.6 9.8 11.8 10.1
Never 1.6 1.2 0.9 1.1 1.3

Teachers meet to examine student
performance data.
Weekly 28.4 25.1 22.8 20.5 19.2
Monthly 51.6 55.3 54.9 55.6 56.7
Rarely 17.0 17.9 20.5 22.2 22.1
Never 2.9 1.8 1.9 1.7 2.1

teachers, especially when I hear that they have challenges too and what they have done to
improve their teaching techniques. (interview, December 11, 2018)
A novice teacher shared her experience of being a part of a PLC: “I have benefitted not only
from having a PLC structure at my school, but I am also part of a professional learning
community that is online” (interview, December 10, 2018)
The concept of PLCs as a method to improve effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers
was discussed with NBCTs. One stated:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 120
Our school has a lot of teacher movement each year. However, there are veteran teachers
here that definitely need support as well. They are kind of stuck in their way and no
matter how much you help them one on one, they still don’t want to change. One way
that we have been able to provide direct support is by having all grade levels work in a
PLC structure where we plan lessons together and I will go and conduct a demonstration
lesson or co-teach with a teacher. (interview, December 6, 2018)
Administrators viewed PLCs as important to the development of novice teachers and the
growth of surplus teachers. One administrator explained the importance of PLCs at his school:
“When our teachers complete the needs assessment for school needs, the number one item on
their list is common planning time so they can extend the PLC time beyond our weekly PD
times” (interview, November 27, 2018). A middle school administrator remarked:
I use the PLC structure to support my new teachers and my veteran teachers. I know I
need to observe classes and give feedback, but due to the time demands of a principal, I
have to provide other ways to support my teachers. Frankly, many times the veterans
need more support than the new teachers. I have the teachers work together to discuss
curriculum and instructional strategies. I believe that the learning together model will
influence teacher practice throughout the school. (interview, November 29, 2018)
Theme 2: Differentiated Training Provides Support for Teachers
In a review of the literature, A. Jacob et al. (2012) contended that retention of the weakest
and strongest teachers alike exacerbates problems for student achievement outcomes. The
nation’s urban school districts are losing their most and least successful teachers at strikingly
similar rates. The authors posed that the solution to improved retention is to keep the highest-
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 121
quality teachers, raise expectations for teachers, and retain fewer of those who consistently
perform poorly.
Replacing a teacher who struggles to help students can be an uncomfortable decision for
an administrator to make; however, the alternative creates greater risks for students and their
achievement levels (A. Jacob et al., 2012). Principals who are less likely to tolerate ineffective
teaching were able to create strong instructional cultures where teachers work in an atmosphere
of mutual respect and trust, where school leaders take action with teachers who perform poorly,
and where great teaching is the top priority (A. Jacob et al., 2012). For principals to build this
type of culture, they must provide assistance and guidance to both new teachers and ineffective
teachers.
In an analysis of the data, novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators responded
favorably to strategies designed to provide personalized support to ineffective teachers. A
minimum of 70% of novice teachers and administrators agreed or strongly agreed that strategies
to co-teach with mentors and support from NBCTs were important strategies that could be used
to improve the effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers. The majority of responses indicated
that novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators agreed or strongly agreed that novice teachers
or surplus teachers should be placed at historically underperforming schools (Table 18).
Interviews with study participants corroborated the survey findings that differentiated
support benefits surplus and novice teachers. A novice teacher in her second-year stated:
I think a NBC teacher is needed at every site to help new teachers or less effective
teachers. I know the NBC teachers here have been very helpful to me and I’m sure they
help other teachers who are having difficulties, even if they are not new. (interview,
December 10, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 122
Table 18

Participant Responses Indicating the Importance of Differentiated Support and Training
Strategies That Could/Should Be Used to Improve the Effectiveness of Novice and Surplus
Teachers, by Percentages

New
Survey item and response categories teachers NBCTs Principals

Support from National Board Certified teachers
improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 46.67 33.33 6.67
Agree 26.67 33.33 73.33
Neither Disagree nor Agree 20.00 33.33 13.33
Disagree 6.67 0.00 6.67
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Surplus teachers receiving co-teaching support from
mentor teachers improves effectiveness.
Strongly Agree 33.33 33.33 13.33
Agree 66.67 33.33 66.67
Neither Disagree nor Agree 0.00 33.33 20.00
Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00
Strongly Disagree 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NBCTs = National Board Certificated teachers.

A middle school administrator noted:
I know my job is to be an instructional leader which means visiting classrooms,
observing lessons and providing feedback. I make administrative decisions to try to get
the right players in each classroom. I may not get to every teacher as much as I want to,
but I prioritize my time and visit the least effective teachers and the new teachers at least
once a week. (interview, November 27, 2018)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 123
Theme 3: Dedicated Time for Collaboration Improves Teacher Practice and Effectiveness
Impactful professional development is important to both veteran and novice teachers.
Guskey (2003) asserted that teachers were more likely to consider teaching as a long-term career
when schools provided opportunities for professional growth. Effective professional
development requires considerable time, and that time must be well organized, carefully
structured, purposefully directed, and focused on content or pedagogy or both (Guskey & Yoon,
2009). Frequently, when teachers do not value professional development, the result is that they
assimilate teaching strategies into their current repertoire with little substantive change or they
reject those suggested changes altogether.
Professional development that is of longer duration is more likely to contain the kinds of
learning opportunities that are necessary for teachers to integrate new knowledge into practice
(Brown, 2004). Professional development that is stretched across longer periods of time, such
that it is sequenced to align closely with enactment, is also likely to require close coordination
with classroom teachers at the site and thus to require more reform-oriented professional
development activities (Borko, 2004).
Survey data collected in this study revealed a correlation between the literature and the
time that teachers spend in professional development beyond the 5th year of teaching. Results
from a district-wide survey of teachers showed that novice teachers received more time for
professional development and collaboration than veteran teachers (Table 19).
The literature review and analysis of data suggested that ineffective teachers in hard-to-
staff schools did not receive as much time to collaborate with their peers as compared to novice
teachers. A first-year teacher shared the benefits of having time to collaborate with peers:
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 124
Table 19

Responses to a District-Wide Survey Indicating the Frequency With Which Time Was Provided
for Collaboration in Professional Development (Training, Grade-Level And Departmental-Level
Meetings), According to Years of Teaching Experience, by Percentages

Years of teaching experience

< 1 year 1-2 years 3-5 years 6-10 years 10+ years
Survey item and response categories (n = 842) (n = 1,042) (n = 2,391) (n = 2,390) (n = 14,474)

Teachers have common planning time in
teams to discuss instruction and academic
ideas for my own instruction.
Weekly 15.7 13.4 10.6 9.0 7.8
Twice a month 8.7 8.3 6.9 5.5 4.7
Monthly 12.8 13.1 10.6 11.4 9.0
Hardly ever 17.1 21.3 23.1 23.0 26.5
Never 21.4 18.9 20.2 22.1 24.9

With my colleagues, I examined evidence
of students’ understanding/mastery (e.g., test
data, student work) to improve my instruction.
Weekly 23.4 21.3 19.2 17.2 16.2
Twice a month 15.1 16.3 15.1 14.9 15.4
Monthly 21.4 23.0 24.6 23.0 24.1
Hardly ever 10.2 9.6 9.5 10.8 10.1
Never 9.5 5.2 4.3 5.3 4.8

I have a common conference period with the other members of my grade level team. We
use the time to plan lessons and discuss student work. However, there is a teacher on the
team who is not that good, and he consistently misses our meetings. It’s annoying.
(interview, December 11, 2018)
A NBCT at an elementary school noted that she has tried to assist her colleagues: “I am always
willing to help. Unfortunately, the teachers who need the most help are not willing to invest the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 125
time to participate in professional development activities in a meaningful way” (interview,
December 6, 2018).
A middle school administrator expressed frustration when discussing the lack of
willingness of some teachers to engage in professional growth opportunities:
I am evaluating one of my veteran teachers who has a below standard performance. I
know that the time we set aside for professional development is not enough to change the
teaching strategies of one of my ineffective teachers, so I have provide funding for
release time for him to observe one of his peers who is teaching the same standard.
(interview, November 29, 2018)
Chapter Summary
Based on the analysis of data from the survey results and interviews, the findings in this
study revealed that recruiting and retaining teachers to work at hard-to-staff schools in LUDs is a
challenge. However, the data also revealed that when targeted strategies are implemented, the
pool of effective teachers increases, which improves student achievement and graduation rates
by underserved students in high-needs schools. The data analysis included a review of the
literature, survey responses, and interview responses. The data were analyzed and aligned with
the research questions; the frameworks of Bronfrenbrenner (1994), Fullan and Quinn (2016), and
Vygotsky (1978) were used to analyze and understand effective strategies and systems to be used
by LUDs to increase the recruitment and retention of quality teachers.
Data related to Research Question 1 produced three themes. The first theme posited that
relationships with HLIs are important to the recruitment of teachers. New teachers, NBCTs, and
administrators identified district and school partnerships with HLIs as strategies that positively
impact effective recruitment of teachers. Studies have shown the positive effects on recruitment
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 126
when district recruiters work closely with universities to bring well-trained prospective teachers
into hard-to-staff schools as student teachers (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1999). In this study,
there was strong evidence that placement of district staff at universities could yield improved
matching of new teachers to hard-to-staff schools. The second theme indicated flexible incentive
options to meet different local needs. An analysis of the data showed that novice teachers,
NBCTs, and administrators demonstrated a strong preference for the use of financial incentives
such as loan forgiveness and contract incentives as a recruitment strategy to attract teacher
candidates to hard-to-staff schools; however, some new teachers and administrators stated
concerns that contract incentives would be a short-term solution to teacher retention. The third
theme addressed specific recruitment strategies to attract teacher candidates. All respondents
revealed strong support for hiring fairs as an impactful recruitment strategy. Job postings and the
use of social media were ranked as being more effective recruitment strategies compared to the
use of radio ads.
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 2 produced three themes. The first
theme indicated that teachers benefit from mentor support. There was strong agreement that
teacher retention is increased when novice teachers and teachers who are experiencing difficulty
in delivering effective instruction have a peer colleague to provide assistance. In addition to
mentor support, the second theme indicated that school-level collaboration is required to foster
professional growth. The findings demonstrated that study participants agreed or strongly agreed
that teacher effectiveness is improved when teachers engage in collaboration activities that
include observation and feedback from administrators and teacher peers, as well as additional
planning time for new teachers. Survey results and interviews demonstrated that LUDs can retain
a higher number of quality teachers by providing training that includes regularly scheduled
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 127
ongoing opportunities for teachers to collaborate with colleagues. The survey and interview
results related to the third theme identified the importance of providing differentiated
professional development as a strategy that influences teacher development. Novice teachers,
NBCTs, and administrators indicated the importance of personalizing professional development.
Analysis of the data to Research Question 3 produced three themes. The first theme
showed that administrator support is critical to retain teachers. There was unanimous agreement
that administrative support in the form of providing systems and structures for collaboration
creates an environment that will increase retention of high-quality teachers. The second theme
indicated strong support that salaries and additional compensation opportunities influence
teacher retention. An analysis of the survey and interview data revealed that districts and schools
can increase teacher retention by offering higher salaries and additional compensation for
training to teachers at hard-to-staff schools. The third theme highlighted the importance of
supportive working conditions at schools to influence teacher retention. The survey and
interview data revealed agreement among all respondents that additional planning time and
weekly support from administrators and mentors impact teacher retention. In contrast, there was
less agreement that teacher retention is impacted by the assignment of additional support
personnel at hard-to-staff schools.
Analysis of the survey and interview data related to Research Question 4 produced three
themes. The first theme indicated that PLCs are an impactful strategy to improve the
effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers. The second theme revealed high levels of
agreement among the three participant groups that teacher effectiveness is improved when
differentiated training and support is provided and matched to the experience levels of teachers.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 128
The third theme indicated agreement that teachers need dedicated time to work with colleagues
to improve practice and increase effectiveness.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 129
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Effective teaching is critical to raising student achievement; however, quality teachers are
difficult to attract and retain. Teachers have the greatest impact on student achievement
outcomes. Students who have the greatest needs, especially those in urban areas, are often taught
by the least-skilled teachers, a factor that likely contributes to substantial gaps in academic
achievement for low-income and minority students (Clotfelter et al., 2005; Lankford et al.,
2002). Ingersoll (2001b) reported that urban districts were twice as likely to have inexperienced
teachers. Although the majority of new teachers leave after 5 years, 50% of the new teachers in
urban districts leave before Year 3 (Frankenberg et al., 2010).
One of the main issues in education is the rate at which teachers leave the profession,
which creates high rates of turnover in school districts (Ingersoll, 2002; Ingersoll & Smith,
2003). As teacher turnover increases, the lack of teacher stability in hard-to-staff schools
continues to create disparities in education. Schools struggle to maintain teacher quality and
districts are continuously seeking ways to recruit and support new teachers and retain the most
effective teachers.
Urban school districts are finding it increasingly difficult to recruit and retain new, well-
qualified teachers. Urban districts face three main challenges in retaining teachers: (a) retaining
teachers who are new to the profession, (b) retaining teachers who are the most effective, and (c)
supporting teachers who are no longer effective. A. Jacob et al. (2012) found that the nation’s
urban school districts were losing their most and least successful teachers at strikingly similar
rates.
Chapter 1 provided an introduction, overview of the study, statement of the problem,
purpose of the study, research questions, limitations of the study, definition of key terms, and the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 130
organization of the dissertation. Chapter 2 presented a review of the literature related to effective
recruitment and retention strategies of teachers that should/could be implemented to attract and
retain the best teachers. This chapter also highlighted the challenge of maintaining ineffective
teachers in large urban school districts beyond the 5th year in the profession and the theoretical
frameworks used in the study.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was twofold. The general purpose was to examine how urban
districts and hard-to-staff schools can increase retention rates of novice teachers who are most
likely to leave the profession after the first 5 years, support veteran teachers who are no longer
effective, and retain effective veteran teachers who are most likely to leave hard-to-staff schools.
The purpose was also to identify factors that affect retention of teachers and that can be changed
by implementation of specific recruitment strategies that districts and schools should consider to
attract, support, and retain teachers.
Research Questions
Four research questions were developed by the research team to measure the importance
and impact of recruitment and retention strategies to keep effective teachers at hard-to-staff
schools beyond 5+ years.
1. What recruitment strategies are used by LUDs that result in the most effective hiring?
2. How can LUDs improve their postinduction training to retain the highest number of
qualified teachers?
3. What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers (5+ years or completion
of induction process) in the system?
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 131
4. What strategies could/should be used to improve effectiveness of novice and surplus
teachers?
The study was framed by work by Fullan and Quinn (2016) on coherence in school
systems, Vygotsky (1978) on understanding the development of a teacher as he/she learns from
more knowledgeable peers, and Bronfenbrenner (1994) on the interconnectedness of the
relationships in an educational setting that ultimately impacts the teacher’s overall development.
These three frames guided the process of addressing the four research questions.
Emergent Themes
In the analysis of data from surveys and interviews, 12 themes emerged as common in
response to the research questions across all transcripts: (a) Relationships with HLIs are
important to the recruitment of teachers, (b) flexible incentive options can meet various local
needs, (c) targeted recruitment strategies attract teacher candidates, (d) teachers benefit from
mentor support, (e) school-level collaboration is needed to foster professional growth, (f)
differentiated professional development influences teacher development, (g) administrator
support is critical to retain teachers, (h) salaries and additional compensation opportunities
influence teacher retention, (i) supportive working conditions at schools influence teacher
retention, (j) PLCs provide support to novice and surplus teachers, (k) differentiated training
provides support for teachers, (l) dedicated time for improving teacher practice improves
effectiveness.
The frameworks for this study were contextualized through the lenses of
Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological theory, which describes the environmental connectedness of
the teacher, school, district and universities and the impacts of these environments on the growth
of a teacher. Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory aligned to the ecological theory and the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 132
impact of the school environment on the individual teacher’s growth in relation to administrative
and mentor support and the help from more knowledgeable peers. The coherence framework by
Fullan and Quinn (2016) provided a practitioner level component to the framework, as
recruitment and retention were examined in terms of the need for whole systemness to create the
conditions for impactful training and teacher collaboration needed to engage teachers and leaders
in the work of retaining effective peers by implementing strategies to avoid high mobility and
noncollaborative working conditions.
Discussion of Findings for Research Questions
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What recruitment strategies are used by LUDs that result in
the most effective hiring?” In analysis of the data, three themes emerged: (a) Relationships with
HLIs are important to the recruitment of teachers, (b) flexible incentive options can meet various
local needs, and (c) targeted recruitment strategies attract teacher candidates. The study relied on
the first three of four ecological systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (i.e.,
microsystem-teachers, mesosystem-teachers and administrators, exosystem-school districts,
HLIs). Universities are part of the exosystem as described in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory
framework. The entities in microsystem and the mesosystem are influenced by the exosystem.
The study results demonstrated the importance of HLIs working closely with districts and
schools to recruit teachers.
Teacher recruitment starts with teachers who have received the pretraining needed to be
successful teachers. According to Darling-Hammond (2006), university teacher education
programs must engage more closely with schools in a mutual transformation agenda. Morgan
and Kritsonis (2008) contended that, as districts and schools enter into partnerships with local
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 133
colleges and universities to recruit teachers in preservice programs, a concerted effort is needed
to recruit teachers into hard-to-staff schools. The importance of school and districts working with
universities to recruit candidates who have received training for success in working at hard-to-
staff schools was evident from all participant groups. In analyzing the results of the survey,
100% of novice teachers and NBC teachers agreed or strongly agreed that, when districts work
with HLIs, more effective teachers are hired, which leads to improved student achievement.
Furthermore, 87% of administrators surveyed strongly agreed or agreed regarding the
importance of partnerships with HLIs. In interviews, the participants noted the importance of the
relationships that districts and schools have with universities and how these partnerships affect
the recruitment of teachers to work at a hard-to-staff school.
Linked with the effectiveness of university and school/district partnerships was the need
for flexible incentives to attract candidates to hard-to-staff schools. Large urban school districts
with many schools with high-minority populations in low-income areas must incorporate
recruitment strategies to attract the best candidates to the district. Economic incentives for
teachers are a frequently cited human resource management strategy for addressing teacher
staffing challenges (Berry, 2008; Prince, 2003). Kolbe and Strunk (2012) stated that such
strategies differentiate teacher compensation in an effort to attract qualified teachers to the
teaching profession, recruit and retain teachers, and strategically allocate teachers to classrooms
where they are most needed. Incentives such as student loan forgiveness programs, tuition
assistance, retirement waivers, and in-kind benefits such as housing and transportation assistance
add to teachers’ compensation and are intended to influence teachers’ decisions (Kolbe &
Strunk, 2012).
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 134
Novice teachers and administrators who were surveyed demonstrated strong support for
implementation of financial incentives such as loan forgiveness programs or contract incentives
as strategies to attract teachers to urban districts. All novice teachers and administrators strongly
agreed or agreed that loan forgiveness programs and contract incentives are effective strategies
to attract teachers to LUDs. Similarly, 93% of NBCTs who were surveyed expressed support for
loan forgiveness programs as contract incentives.
Although survey respondents from all participant groups concurred supported the use of
financial incentives for recruitment of effective teachers to LUDs, there was some deviation in
support of these strategies in participant interviews. One second-year teacher expressed concern
about the use contract incentives:
I’m not sure if contract incentives are impactful for recruiting because where I work, the
people who are going to stick through teaching are not the people who are there for the
money, or who are there for some type of short term incentive. (interview, December 10,
2018)
The theme of targeted recruitment strategies as a method that LUDs should use to attract
teacher candidates was prevalent across survey responses and interview transcripts. Respondents
expressed the highest levels of support for the use of hiring fairs. More than 90% of all
participants agreed or strongly agreed that hiring fairs are an impactful strategy. The participants
also viewed job postings as an impactful recruitment strategy. Surprisingly, the use of social
media was not rated as a recruitment strategy that would have a great impact on recruitment.
Similarly, the respondents did not rate the use of radio advertisements as an effective hiring
strategy for a LUD seeking teacher candidates for hard-to-staff schools.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 135
School and district relationships with higher institutions of learning are effective for
LUDs that seek ways to strengthen recruitment of teachers to work in hard-to-staff schools in
three ways that were identified through this study. When possible, districts and principals in
hard-to-staff schools should solicit cooperation by local colleges and universities to engage in
early on-campus recruitment of prospective teachers (Morgan & Kritsonis, 2008). The second
emergent theme highlighted the need for LUDs to incorporate alternative recruitment strategies
in the form of targeted financial incentives. The third theme was that, to ensure that districts and
schools are reaching the best teacher candidates, LUDs should utilize recruitment methods that
provide opportunities for candidates to meet district and school administrators.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How can LUDs improve their postinduction training to
retain the highest number of qualified teachers?” In analysis of the data, three themes emerged:
(a) Teachers benefit from mentor support, (b) school-level collaboration is needed to foster
professional growth, and (c) differentiated professional development influences teacher
development. The data analysis revealed that postinduction training improves when mentoring
support, collaboration, and targeted professional development are incorporated. Vygotsky’s
sociocultural theory is aligned with the results of this data analysis. The work by Vygotsky
highlights the process of social interactions to build development of knowledge in an individual.
In the review of literature, Borman and Dowling (2008) reported that greater participation
in early-career mentoring programs reduced the likelihood of teachers leaving the profession.
Some mentoring programs are primarily developmental and designed to foster growth on the part
of newcomers (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). Other mentoring programs are designed to assess and
perhaps weed out teachers who are deemed ill suited for the job (Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004). The
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 136
data analysis revealed that postinduction training improves when mentoring support,
collaboration, and targeted professional development are incorporated. Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory is aligned with the results of this data analysis. The work by Vygotsky highlights the
process of social interactions to build development of knowledge in an individual.
An analysis of the survey data related to the first theme showed that all participants
agreed or strongly agreed that mentor support benefits both novice teachers and teachers who
are ineffective. Interviews corroborated the finding that teachers benefit from having support
from a mentor teacher. Novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators who were interviewed
commented on the importance of mentor teachers to support new teachers and ineffective
teachers.
The second theme related to Research Question 2 was that collaboration by peers
promotes growth for all teachers. This theme is aligned with the work by Fullan and Quinn
(2016). Those authors posited that collaboration is not just about creating a place where people
feel good but rather about cultivating the expertise of everyone to be focused on a collective
purpose. The survey responses revealed that more than 90% of novice teachers, NBCTs, and
administrators recognized the importance of collaboration with peers as an effective training
strategy to support the growth of all teachers. All participants strongly agreed or agreed that
collaboration that included feedback as part of a peer observation structure was an effective
strategy to provide job-embedded training and to retain teachers. Participants who were
interviewed expressed a strong belief that collaboration with peers is a useful and meaningful
form of job-embedded training that can improve teacher learning, which affects student
achievement and graduation rates. Allensworth et al. (2009) stated that teachers are more likely
to stay in schools where they have positive interactions, plan together, make decisions about the
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 137
school, and have trusting working relationships with each other. The survey findings and
interview transcripts emphasized the importance of collaboration to improve postinduction
training.
The third theme related to Research Question 2 focused on the impact of differentiated
professional development. In the literature review, the importance of meaningful professional
development was cited frequently as an aspect of the job that is important to teachers and one of
the factors that affects teacher retention. A lack of meaningful professional development is often
cited by teachers as one of the working conditions that factor into their decision to remain in the
profession. S. M. Johnson (2006) stated that, when teachers found that professional development
focused on instruction and the needs of their students, they were more likely to welcome than to
resist assistance.
Survey data were analyzed and indicated that professional development offered in
various forms was supported by novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators. A large majority of
novice teachers strongly agreed or agreed that having the option of participating in online
professional development positively addressed the training needs of teachers. NBCTs showed a
high priority for planning professional development based on input from teachers. The responses
from administrators reflected the need to provide structure to support teacher training. All
administrators strongly agreed or agreed that teachers benefitted from having substitutes cover
their classes to allow them to participate in targeted professional development (grade levels,
departments).
These findings demonstrate the importance of cultivating collaborative cultures to
improve teacher practice and retain teachers. The findings also suggest that incorporating mentor
support, teacher collaboration, and differentiated professional development are strategies that
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 138
enhance the skill set of new teachers and reengage teachers who are experienced but are no
longer providing effective instruction to students.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers
(5+ years or completion of induction process) in the system?” In an analysis of the data, three
themes emerged: (a) Administrator support is critical to retain teachers, (b) salaries and
additional compensation opportunities influence teacher retention, and (c) supportive working
conditions at schools influence teacher retention. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory reflected
the interconnectedness of the school support needed to promote teacher development and
increase the number of teachers retained in urban school settings. The work by Fullan and Quinn
(2016) also emphasized the importance of district and school leaders working together to ensure
that the whole system is designed to support teachers to increase retention of the best teachers.
Fullan and Quinn (2016) stated that one of the features of a coherent organization is to
ensure focused direction that influences the entire system. Support for teachers starts with
support from administrators. Simon and Johnson (2015) reviewed the results of the SASS and
determined that the consensus was that principal leadership and influence had strong associations
with school climate, teacher satisfaction, teacher commitment, and teacher retention. Survey data
revealed that teachers and administrators understood the importance of the role of the
administrator in retaining teachers. All participants strongly agreed or agreed that administrator
support is a critical factor in the decisions of teachers to remain in the profession. The data also
revealed that administrators provide more consistent support for novice teachers. All participants
agreed that an impactful retention strategy is one in which administrators provide support for
teachers to collaborate.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 139
The interview data were triangulated with survey data. Novice teachers noted the positive
impact that support from their administrators had on their growth and commitment to become
better teachers. NBCTs and administrators commented that principal support includes providing
feedback, allowing time to collaborate, and assigning a peer to support teachers who are
struggling, both novices and veterans.
The second theme related to Research Question 3 was that teacher salaries and
opportunities to earn more are effective strategies that urban districts can implement to retain
teachers. In the literature review, Darling-Hammond (2003) noted that, to attract its share of the
nation’s college-educated talent and to offer sufficient incentives for professional preparation,
the teaching occupation must be competitive in terms of wages and working conditions. In a
study of beginning teachers in Wisconsin, the data suggested that, if policymakers were to
increase the level of wages, the number of beginning teachers who leave the profession would
decrease (Imazeki, 2005).
Survey data revealed that participant responses were aligned with the research curated
from the literature; 95% of all respondents strongly agreed or agreed that improved
compensation in the form of higher salaries can lead to higher retention of highly qualified
teachers. Training stipends and salary increases for teachers who complete a designated number
of professional development hours were also strategies with which all participants strongly
agreed or agreed. All interviewees shared the sentiment that providing additional compensation
would make it easier for LUDs to attract teachers to hard-to-staff schools and keep highly
qualified teachers in the district.
The third theme highlighted the impact of working conditions on teachers’ decisions to
remain at a school site or in a school district. Administrative support, mentor support,
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 140
collaboration, and professional development are working conditions that influence the
recruitment and retention of teachers. Survey data revealed additional forms of support that
affect working conditions and factor into the decisions that teachers make to stay at a particular
school site or in a particular district. Novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators strongly
agreed or agreed that novice teachers would benefit from having an extra conference period to
plan lessons and receive mentor and administrator support. The interview data were triangulated
with survey data and revealed that respondents were in agreement that having additional
personnel (e.g., attendance counselors, psychiatric social workers, nurses) to support the social-
emotional needs of students is important and can lead to higher retention rates.
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “What strategies could/should be used to improve
effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers?” In an analysis of the data, three themes emerged:
(a) PLCs provide support to novice and surplus teachers, (b) differentiated training provides
support for teachers, (c) dedicated time for collaboration improves teacher practice and
effectiveness.
In the literature review, DuFour and Eaker (2009) defined PLCs as educators committed
to working collaboratively in ongoing processes of collective inquiry and action research in order
to achieve better results for the students whom they serve. PLCs differ from traditional
professional development in that the intent is to build teacher knowledge collaboratively versus
building knowledge of individual teachers who try to apply skills in isolation. The research is
related to the work by Vygotsky that describes the growth of teachers in the ZPD. Central to the
theory is that an individual’s immediate potential for cognitive growth is limited on the lower
end by what he or she can accomplish independently and on the upper end by what he or she can
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 141
accomplish with the help of a more knowledgeable peer (Doolittle, 1997). PLCs provide the
structure for both new teachers and ineffective teachers to improve their skill set by collaborating
with peers.
The first theme related to Research Question 4 was that teachers benefit from
participating in PLCs. All NBCTs and administrators strongly agreed or agreed that PLCs
improve the effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers. The majority of novice teachers
responded favorably to having a PLC structure to improve teacher effectiveness. Interview data
demonstrated that all participants acknowledged the benefits of PLCs as a way to support teacher
practice. A NBCT commented, “PLCs need to be supported at the district level because it is a
way to promote teacher dialogue and collegiality.” An administrator remarked, “PLCs are
successful when teachers work together to determine the best methods to improve student
outcomes. I’ve found that by implementing PLCs teachers have begun to take greater ownership
of the work.”
Chapter 2 provided evidence from the literature that differentiated support is needed for
novice teachers and ineffective teachers. A. Jacob et al. (2012) contended that retention of the
weakest and strongest teachers alike exacerbates problems for student achievement outcomes.
New teachers are open to learning new information and getting feedback from administrators. In
contrast, ineffective teachers are resistant to change. Teachers want to receive feedback and
support from their supervisors (A. Jacob et al., 2012). New teachers need feedback to continue to
develop their knowledge and skills. High-quality teachers want feedback that will enable them to
continue to grow professionally. Survey results revealed that administrators should provide
targeted support to novice teachers and ineffective teachers. The targeted support to improve
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 142
effectiveness included mentor support from the most qualified teachers (NBCTs) and
strategically providing mentor support for ineffective teachers.
The interview data were aligned to the survey responses. Principals who are less likely to
tolerate ineffective teaching were able to create strong instructional cultures where teachers work
in an atmosphere of mutual respect and trust, where school leaders take action with teachers who
perform poorly, and where great teaching is the top priority (A. Jacob et al., 2012). A middle
school administrator reflected on the support that he provides to ineffective teachers at his
school: “I make administrative decisions to try to get the right players in each classroom. I may
not get to every teacher as much as I want to, but I prioritize my time and visit the least effective
teachers and the new teachers at least once a week” (interview, November 27, 2018).
The third theme related to Research Question 4 was that dedicated time for teachers to
hone their craft is needed to improve the effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers. The
responses from a district-wide survey showed that teachers who had been teaching for more than
6 years had fewer opportunities to discuss instruction and academic needs for their own
advancement. District-wide survey data also revealed that teachers who had taught for more than
6 years did not spend as much time in examining student work as did teachers who had 5 or
fewer years experience.
The review of literature highlighted the importance of this strategy. Borko (2004) posited
that professional development that is of longer duration is more likely to contain the kinds of
learning opportunities that are necessary for teachers to integrate new knowledge into practice.
The interview data revealed that teachers and administrators were aware that time to work with
colleagues and receive feedback from administrators is an effective method to improve the
abilities of novice and ineffective teachers. The participants expressed frustration that their
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 143
experiences in working with ineffective teachers showed a lack of willingness on the part of
those teachers to perfect their craft. A novice teacher shared,
I have a common conference period with the other members of my grade level team. We
use the time to plan lessons and discuss student work. However, there is a teacher on the
team who is not that good, and he consistently misses our meetings. It’s annoying.
(interview, December 11, 2018)
These findings present evidence that effective support for recruitment and retention of
teachers with 5 or more years experience can be implemented at hard-to-staff schools in a LUD.
Implications for Practice
This study examined the challenges of a LUD to recruit and retain teachers in the
profession beyond 5 years. Effective teaching is critical to raising student achievement; however,
quality teachers are difficult to attract and retain. The NCTAF (2003) noted that teacher turnover
is most pronounced in urban schools with larger numbers of poor and minority students
(Achinstein et al., 2010).
In contrast to a one-size-fits-all approach to recruitment and retention, districts with large
numbers of hard-to-staff schools should provide strategic and targeted support in order to recruit
high-quality new teachers to the district. Urban districts must also accelerate the pace of
removing ineffective teachers from the classroom where students are being harmed by not
having high-quality teachers. The smarter approach to teacher retention could improve the
quality of teaching at almost any school quickly, and it has the potential to boost student learning
substantially (A. Jacob et al., 2012).
The first implication for practice as revealed in the study is that teacher training programs
at HLIs must improve the support provided for new teachers by providing more student teaching
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 144
experiences in hard-to-staff schools, which would allow the teachers to understand the
complexities of working with students in high-poverty/low-income areas. As districts and
schools participate in partnerships with local colleges and universities to recruit teachers in
preservice programs, a concerted effort is needed to recruit teachers into hard-to-staff schools.
Morgan and Kritsonis (2008) asserted that, too often, college graduates become disenchanted
with the public school system when their first teaching assignment bears no resemblance to their
student teaching experience. District staff should enter into partnerships with universities to
interact with teacher candidates and build relationships. Districts should increase the support that
they provide to student teachers to ensure that they receive support in pedagogy, culturally
responsive teaching practices, classroom management, and the culture of school communities
that are affected by societal issues that influence student achievement.
The second implication of the study findings is that training at hard-to-staff schools must
include opportunities for collaboration and consistent support in the form of observation and
feedback. Novice teachers need opportunities to interact with peers who can be role models.
Administrators should provide structures for teachers to collaborate and mentors to guide and
assist.
Teachers who are ineffective need the same if not more attention from administrators.
School-wide systems that include peer observations and extended time for planning lessons and
examining student work can be integrated into the school culture as a way to prevent ineffective
teachers from feeling targeted. An increase in the use of online professional development is a
strategy for administrators to consider when offering assistance and guidance to ineffective
teachers. Online professional development provides an option for teachers to receive
personalized training and allows administrators to ensure that the differentiated training needs of
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 145
teachers are being met, especially if the needs of the ineffective teacher are in an area that is not
the focus of the professional development sessions at the school site.
The third implication of the findings is that, without proper support, new teachers may
become discouraged in their first few years of teaching at a hard-to-staff school and leave the
profession or seek to transfer to a school in a more affluent area. Ineffective teachers will
continue to exert an adverse impact on student achievement if administrators are not willing to
provide consistent, timely, actionable observations and feedback. Districts and school leaders can
increase the level of support by providing more feedback to assist teachers in their professional
growth. Currently, research and feedback from teachers provide evidence that novice teachers
are not getting the support that they need, which contributes to the reasons teachers leave the
profession (A. Jacob et al., 2012).
The fourth implication of the findings highlights the importance of the role of the
administrator in providing working conditions that are effective in recruiting and retaining
teachers at hard-to-staff schools and encouraging them to remain at the school beyond the
probationary period. The study highlighted the support that is needed at the district level. All
participants agreed that financial incentives may produce a larger pool of teacher candidates and
encourage effective teachers to remain at hard-to-staff schools. Increased district and school
support with universities may also garner better results for recruitment and retention.
Administrators have many responsibilities, but replacing an ineffective teacher should be
the priority due to the impact that a teacher has on student success. Research has shown that a
teacher who performs poorly in the first 2 years is unlikely to undergo a radical transformation in
Year 3. A. Jacob et al. (2012) reviewed teacher survey data in one district and noted that teachers
whose principals encouraged them to leave, by informing them that they were low performing,
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 146
explicitly suggesting that they leave, or giving them a low performance evaluation rating, were
nearly three times more likely to plan to leave. Gordon et al. (2006) suggested that denying
tenure to the bottom quarter of new teachers would substantially improve student achievement.
Substantial evidence shows that replacing an ineffective teacher with the average new teacher
will almost certainly be a net gain for a school (A. Jacob et al., 2012; B. A. Jacob, 2007). The
results of this research showed that administrators must be persistent in documenting poor
performance by teachers and must be willing to have courageous conversations with new
teachers who do not have the skills to be effective and veteran teachers who are no longer
effective in producing positive academic outcomes for students.
Recommendations for Research
The quality of the classroom teacher is the most significant school-based determinant of
the academic growth of students at hard-to-staff schools. The results of this study indicated that
teachers who are willing to work in hard-to-staff schools exhibited a preference for better
working conditions, including more opportunities for collaboration in PLCs, mentor support,
administrator support, professional development options, and financial incentives.
This research was conducted at schools in three geographic areas of a large urban school
district. By design, all participants worked at schools that were historically underperforming and
had larger numbers of novice teachers compared to schools in more affluent areas of the district.
Due to the size of the district, the results are not generalizable. However, the commonalities
across the schools in the district suggest common themes related to recruiting and retaining
effective teachers and removing ineffective teachers from continuing to work with the neediest
student populations. Thus, it would be valuable to conduct a study of hard-to-staff schools
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 147
throughout the district to determine whether the themes that emerged in this study could be
validated with a larger population of novice teachers, NBCTs, and administrators.
Further research is needed on the most effective ways to prepare and support teachers for
the challenges that are associated with working in high-needs schools. A future study could
include teacher education programs that require at least one field experience at a high-needs
school. The study would compare teacher effectiveness and retention of teachers who had a field
experience in a hard-to-staff school to those of teachers who were placed at a hard-to-staff school
without having had prior support in working with a high-needs student population.
Another area worthy of additional research is the impact of dedicated mentor teacher
support for novice and ineffective teachers. Research is available that shows the impact of
mentor support on new teachers but few studies have focused on the impact of mentor support
for ineffective teachers. Such a study might start with teachers who are categorized as ineffective
or those who are not showing a growth in academic achievement by their students who would
volunteer to work with a mentor. However, a challenge to consider in this area is that it might be
difficult to convince veteran teachers to work with a mentor, especially teachers who do not
agree that their practice is lacking.
The district could conduct a study to determine whether providing financial incentives for
new candidates to work in hard-to-staff schools increased the number of candidates who were
willing to accept assignments at these types of schools. The district could conduct a study to
determine whether more NBCTs would be willing to transfer to hard-to-staff schools if a variety
of incentives was offered, such as bonus pay, additional time during the day to observe teachers.
and direct support in the classroom.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 148
It would be beneficial to conduct a case study in each of the geographic areas to examine
the leadership actions of principals at hard-to-staff schools who have been successful in
recruiting and retaining teachers over an extended period of time. It would be most informative
to study one or more principals at each level (elementary, middle, and high school) to determine
whether the attributes of success differ depending on the school level. An additional component
of this type of study would be to determine the time that principals at hard-to-staff schools spend
in providing assistance and guidance to ineffective teachers.
Conclusion
The education of children is a civil right; unfortunately, students in high-minority/high-
poverty schools are not receiving a quality education. The data in this study revealed that, rather
than organizing the educational system to ensure that students in underserved communities have
expert teachers, these students are typically in the classrooms of teachers with less experience
and fewer skills than the teachers who work with students in neighborhoods that do not have
similar challenges. In order to change the trajectory of lower academic achievement and
mediocrity in the classroom, large urban school districts must be willing to reset the bar for
school staffing and assign staff to schools based on equity. Teachers are more likely to stay in
schools where they feel they can succeed. In this regard, research has stressed the importance of
professional support and redesigned schools to build stronger teacher-student relationships.
If schools are to attract and retain the best possible teachers to work with the students
who need them most, those schools cannot be workplaces of deprivation, disorder, and isolation,
for neither teachers nor students will succeed there. Teachers become acutely sensitive to their
work environment when schools cannot provide minimally acceptable working conditions. Thus,
schools must become increasingly creative in developing practices and policies to attract and
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 149
support teachers in every phase of their careers. Providing appropriate resources for a school
with student equity in mind encompasses the findings from the survey and interviews that were
conducted in this study. Positive and supportive working conditions are a key factor in student
success. Administrators must provide a school culture that is supportive of teachers and sets high
expectations. Teachers, both novice and veteran, who are unable to improve must be counseled
and given support, both orally and in writing. Districts must set aside additional dollars for
salaries for ineffective teachers who do not have permanent assignments at school sites and are
placed in the substitute pool. As fiscal stewards of taxpayer dollars, it is the responsibility of
every school leader to provide the best learning environment possible for all students.
Building a system that can supply skilled teachers to every classroom and develop the
schools and professional training that are needed to support effective instruction is a problem in
LUDs. The information produced in this study provides school and district-level practitioners
information related to strategies that can positively affect recruitment and retention efforts in
hard-to-staff schools.
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 150
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descriptive analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(1), 37-62.
doi:10.3102/01623737024001037
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urban classrooms. Brooklyn, NY: TNTP.
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IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 165
APPENDIX A
RECRUITMENT LETTER TO PRINCIPALS

Dear [CONTACT NAME],
My name is [USC STUDENT’S NAME], and I am currently [USC STUDENT’S TITLE/POSITION],
located in the United States. I am also a doctoral student at the University of Southern California (USC),
and in September 2018 I will conduct research, along with two other doctoral students from USC, as part
of a research team led by Dr. Michael Escalante.
Recently, a member of our research team contacted you or a representative at your school to request your
participation in a 1-day study. On September 14, 2018, another doctoral student and I hope to visit
[NAME OF SCHOOL/INSTITUTION] to talk with you and survey willing teachers and administrators.
This study’s ultimate goal is to understand how school districts can improve the recruitment, retention,
and training of teachers to build effectiveness and reduce attrition. We are interested in the impact of
professional development, mentor teachers, National Board Certified teachers, and professional learning
communities on building teacher self-efficacy and improving the ability to raise academic achievement in
students. Furthermore, we aim to understand how the support system at schools reduces teacher attrition
by creating collaborative cultures that promote conditions for success.
The following questions will guide our research:
1. What are the recruitment strategies used by large urban districts that result in the most effective
hiring?
2. How can large urban districts improve their post-induction training to retain the highest number of
qualified teachers?
3. What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers (5+ years or completion of induction
process) in the system?
4. What strategies could or should be used to improve the effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers?
Thank you for considering my request and taking your valuable time to read this correspondence. Without
your help, this study would not be possible.
May I request that you reply at your convenience via email to [USC STUDENT’S EMAIL] to provide a
contact number and preferred time for me to call you to discuss details about my visit to [NAME OF
SCHOOL/INSTITUTION].
Sincerely,
[USC STUDENT’S NAME]
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 166
APPENDIX B
STUDY INFORMATION SHEET

INFORMATION/FACT SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

“IT IS ALL ABOUT STUDENT EQUITY”: IMPROVING TEACHER RETENTION
AND RECRUITMENT IN A LARGE URBAN DISTRICT

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to examine how large urban school districts can increase efficiency
and effectiveness to recruit and retain quality teachers in the system beyond 5 years. This study
takes a comprehensive look at (a) the training needed to build teacher self-efficacy and the
effects of traditional and online professional development, and (b) the newly created micro-
credentials and how these modes of training affect both novice and experienced teachers’ ability
to provide instruction that improves student academic achievement. The study also examines
how districts should implement support systems for teacher improvement, including the use of
and impact of professional learning communities (PLC), induction programs, establishment of
peer/mentor support, and effective use of National Board Certified teachers.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey
and/or a 45-minute audiotaped interview. You do not have to answer any questions that you do
not want to answer; if you do not want to be taped, you can still participate in the study.

You may elect to participate in the interview process and not be audio recorded. You may elect
not to participate at all. Your relationship with your school/employer will not be affected by
whether or not you participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
No identifiable information will be obtained in connection with this study. Your name, address,
or other identifiable information will not be collected. The members of the research team and the
University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the
data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 167
research subjects. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California, mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Christopher Downing, Superintendent, Anaheim Elementary School District, cdowning@usc.edu
Vivian Ekchian, Deputy Superintendent, Los Angeles Unified School District, vekchian@usc.edu
Cheryl Hildreth, Local District Superintendent, Los Angeles Unified School District,
childret@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 168
APPENDIX C
QUALITATIVE SURVEY PROTOCOL FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS

Date: Location of Survey:

Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions.
Once you have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–11 and record your
opinion next to each statement.

Highly qualified: Teachers who help students to learn 2–3 additional months of mathematics
and reading compared to an average teacher.

Professional development: Training that supports development of effective teachers and
improvement in student achievement.

Professional growth: Improvement in teacher practice demonstrated by growth in the ability to
engage students and to provide student-centered instruction that yields higher-than-predicted
increases in student achievement.

Teacher effectiveness: The degree to which teachers affect student learning and demonstrate
higher-than-predicted increases in student achievement.

Post-induction: Access to external training and National Board Certification support provided to
teachers after their 5th year of service (e.g., peer mentors, professional learning communities
[PLCs], teacher support).

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 169
RESEARCH QUESTION 1: What are the recruitment strategies used by large urban districts
that result in the most effective hiring?

Identify how much impact each of the following recruitment strategies has in hiring effective
teachers and improving student achievement and graduation rates:

Recruitment Strategies
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree nor
agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Higher Learning Institutes
(HLIs)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Hiring Fairs ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Contract Incentives ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Increased Advertising of
Benefits Package via District TV
Station’s Job Search Ads
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Radio Ads ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Social Media ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Job Posting Websites ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to Train Existing Staff
to Meet Teaching Qualifications
of Nonpermanent Teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Recruitment Staff at Universities ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Increased Partnerships with
HLIs to Host Student Teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Offering Immediate Loan
Forgiveness Programs
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Recruiting Content Specialists
(e.g., Engineers, Biologists)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 170
RESEARCH QUESTION 2: How can large urban districts improve their post-induction
training to retain the highest number of qualified teachers?
Identify how much impact each of the following training strategies has had on your ability to
improve student achievement and graduation rates:

Training Strategies
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree
nor
agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Conducting a demonstration lesson
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Weekly support from mentors and
administrators
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Observing fellow teachers and providing
peer feedback
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Annual training to address cultural
diversity and awareness
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional compensation for micro-
certifications in content area
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
School site retention plan for new
teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Nonpermanent teachers teaching fewer
periods than permanent teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to train existing staff to meet
teaching qualifications of nonpermanent
teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teachers completing an annual survey to
identify their training needs
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Requirement to commit to a historically
underperforming school for a minimum
of 4 years
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to develop parent engagement
strategies
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 171
RESEARCH QUESTION 3: What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers (5+
years or completion of induction process) in the system?
Identify how much impact each of the following investments or additional supports has had on
your ability to improve student achievement and graduation rates:

Investment and additional
support
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree nor
agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Training Stipends ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional A-Basis Assistant
Principal
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teacher Retention Incentive
Pay
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional Counselors
(Secondary/Pupil Services &
Attendance/Psychiatric
Social Worker)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Special Education Support
Provider
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to Identify
Teachers as Mentors
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Professional Development
Salary Points
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Extra Conference Period for
Nonpermanent Teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Substitute Days (25/35/45) ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Extended Assignment
Substitute Teacher
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
District Staffing Support ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Improved Compensation ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ fv¡
Loan Forgiveness Programs ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 172
RESEARCH QUESTION 4: What strategies could or should be used to improve the
effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers?

Identify how much impact each of the following retraining strategies improve student
achievement and graduation rates:

Retraining Strategies
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree
nor agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Conducting demonstration lessons
with mentor feedback
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Weekly support from mentors and
administrators
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Observations of fellow teachers
and receipt of peer feedback
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Annual training to address cultural
diversity and awareness
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional compensation for
microcertifications in content area
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Surplus teachers receive co-
teaching assignments with mentor
teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Surplus teachers teaching fewer
periods than permanent teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to retrain surplus
teachers on best practices
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teachers completing an annual
survey to identify their training
needs
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Surplus teachers not being placed
at historically underperforming
schools
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to develop parent
engagement strategies
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 173
APPENDIX D
QUALITATIVE SURVEY PROTOCOL FOR TEACHERS

Date: Location of Survey:

Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions.
Once you have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–11 and record your
opinion next to each statement.

Highly qualified: Teachers who help students learn 2–3 additional months of mathematics and
reading compared to an average teacher.

Professional development: Training that supports development of effective teachers and
improving student achievement.

Professional growth: Improvement in teacher practice demonstrated by growth in the ability to
engage students and to provide student-centered instruction that yields higher-than-predicted
increases in student achievement.

Teacher effectiveness: The degree to which teachers impact student learning and have higher-
than-predicted increases in student achievement.

Post-induction: Access to external training and National Board Certification support provided to
teachers after their 5th year of service (e.g., peer mentors, professional learning communities
[PLCs], teacher support).

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 174
RESEARCH QUESTION 1: What are the recruitment strategies used by large urban districts
that result in the most effective hiring?

Identify how much impact each of the following recruitment strategies has in hiring effective
teachers and improves student achievement and graduation rates:

Recruitment Strategies
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree nor
agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Higher Learning Institutes
(HLIs)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Hiring Fairs ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Contract Incentives ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Increased Advertising of
Benefits Package via District TV
Station’s Job Search Ads
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Radio Ads ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Social Media ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Job Posting Websites ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to Train Existing Staff
to Meet Teaching Qualifications
of Nonpermanent Teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Recruitment Staff at Universities ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Increased Partnerships with
HLIs to Host Student Teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Offering Immediate Loan
Forgiveness Programs
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Recruiting Content Specialists
(e.g., Engineers, Biologists)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 175
RESEARCH QUESTION 2: How can large urban districts improve their post-induction
training to retain the highest number of qualified teachers?

Identify how much impact each of the following training strategies has had on your ability to
improve student achievement and graduation rates

Training Strategies
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree
nor
agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Conducting a demonstration lesson
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Weekly support from mentors and
administrators
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Observing fellow teachers and providing
peer feedback
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Annual training to address cultural
diversity and awareness
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional compensation for micro-
certifications in content area
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
School site retention plan for new
teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Nonpermanent teachers teaching fewer
periods than permanent teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to train existing staff to meet
teaching qualifications of nonpermanent
teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teachers completing an annual survey to
identify their training needs
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Requirement to commit to a historically
underperforming school for a minimum
of 4 years
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to develop parent engagement
strategies
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 176
RESEARCH QUESTION 3: What strategies could be used to retain experienced teachers (5+
years or completion of induction process) in the system?
Identify how much impact each of the following investments or additional supports has had on
your ability to improve student achievement and graduation rates:

Investment and additional
support
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree nor
agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Training Stipends ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional A-Basis Assistant
Principal
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teacher Retention Incentive
Pay
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional Counselors
(Secondary/Pupil Services &
Attendance/Psychiatric
Social Worker)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Special Education Support
Provider
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to Identify
Teachers as Mentors
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Professional Development
Salary Points
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Extra Conference Period for
Nonpermanent Teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Substitute Days (25/35/45) ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Extended Assignment
Substitute Teacher
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
District Staffing Support ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Improved Compensation ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ fv¡
Loan Forgiveness Programs ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 177
RESEARCH QUESTION 4: What strategies could or should be used to improve the
effectiveness of novice and surplus teachers?

Identify how much impact each of the following retraining strategies improve student
achievement and graduation rates:

Retraining Strategies
Strongly
disagree Disagree
Neither
disagree
nor agree Agree
Strongly
agree
Conducting demonstration lessons
with mentor feedback
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Weekly support from mentors and
administrators
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Observations of fellow teachers
and receipt of peer feedback
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Annual training to address cultural
diversity and awareness
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Additional compensation for
microcertifications in content area
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Surplus teachers receive co-
teaching assignments with mentor
teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Surplus teachers teaching fewer
periods than permanent teachers
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to retrain surplus
teachers on best practices
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teachers completing an annual
survey to identify their training
needs
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Surplus teachers not being placed
at historically underperforming
schools
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Programs to develop parent
engagement strategies
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 178
APPENDIX E
QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
How many years have you worked at any school in your current position (teacher)?

( ) Less than 1 year
( ) 1 to 2 years
( ) 3 to 5 years
( ) 6 to 10 years
( ) Over 10 years

Section I:

How strongly do you agree or disagree with each statement about your experience teaching at
this school this year?

Statement Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
I feel confident integrating
technology into my instruction.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
I feel confident using digital
tools to personalize learning
activities.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
I have sufficient autonomy to
implement an instructional
program that meets the needs of
my students.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
The professional development at
this school is differentiated for
my level of teaching experience.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
What I learn in our school’s
professional development
meetings addresses my students’
needs.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
The Educator Development and
Support process for teachers
helps me to improve my
teaching and learning.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 179
Section II:

In your professional development (training, grade-level and departmental-level meetings, etc.),
about how often did you do the following this year?

Activity Weekly
Twice a
month Monthly
A few
times a
year
Hardly
ever Never
I observed instruction by my
colleagues to get ideas for
my own instruction.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
With my colleagues, I
examined evidence of student
understanding/ mastery (e.g.,
test data, student work) to
improve my instruction.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
I worked in grade-level or
department-level teams to
review and align grading
practices.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Section III:

How often does school leadership do the following?

Activity Weekly
Twice a
month Monthly
A few
times a
year
Hardly
ever Never
Visit your classroom to
observe you teach
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 180
Section IV:

How often does school leadership provide useful feedback to you based on their observations?

( ) Always
( ) Often
( ) Sometimes
( ) Rarely
( ) Never

Section V:

To what extent is teaching social and emotional skills happening in classrooms at your
school?

( ) Not really taught in my school
( ) In some teachers’ curricula but not in others
( ) Happening on a programmatic basis schoolwide
( ) Not sure

Section VI:

How often do teachers do the following at your school?

Activity Weekly Monthly Rarely Never
Teachers meet to examine student
performance data.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Teachers collaborate with one another
by department, SLC, or grade level
about curricular or instructional issues.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 181
Section VII:

Do teachers have common planning time in teams to discuss instruction and academic
supports for students?

( ) Yes
( ) No
( ) Don’t know

About how often do teachers in your school participate in common planning
related to instruction and academic supports?

( ) Less than once a month
( ) About once a month
( ) Two to three times per month

Source: 2017-18 School Experience Survey (Teachers)
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 182
APPENDIX F
QUALITATIVE ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your perceptions
of how recruitment, retention, training, and improvement strategies contribute to teacher
effectiveness. Your responses should be based on your own experiences and your observations of
peers who meet the quality of effectiveness regarding the degree to which those teachers affect
student learning and have higher-than-predicted increases in student achievement.
We are requesting to use the tape recorder to capture your responses accurately. We will compile
the data from this study into a report that will include your direct quotes; however, none of the
responses will be attributed to you. We will create a pseudonym for you and your school to
maintain your confidentiality.

If you remember, we shared a Study Information Sheet with you at the time that you agreed to
participate in the study. As it outlined, we will maintain data from this study in a password-
protected computer for 3 years, at which time the data will be destroyed. Do we have your
consent to record?

This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Recruitment Strategies on Teacher Shortages
1. What is your opinion of the importance of Higher Learning Institutes in recruiting teachers to
districts and hard-to-staff schools?

2. What is your opinion of contract incentives to fill teacher vacancies at hard-to-staff low-
performing schools?

3. Would implementation of immediate loan forgiveness programs increase recruitment of
teachers and reduce teacher attrition from the district?

4. What is the importance of teacher training programs in preparing future recruits to become
effective teachers?

5. How do programs such as Teach for America, which recruit candidates to remain in teaching
for short-term periods, affect student achievement?
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 183
II. Influence of Retention Strategies on Retaining Highly Effectives Teachers in School
Districts

1. What is your opinion of mentors to improve teacher competency and reduce attrition?

2. What is the impact of ineffective administrators of fostering satisfactory working conditions
to retain effective teachers in the district?

3. How do mindsets impact teacher perceptions about their job?

4. How do administrators retain effective teachers at higher rates than ineffective teachers?

5. How do inter-district teacher mobility rates impact the attrition rate of districts by providing
teachers with the ability to transfer schools?

6. What is the importance of effective teacher skillsets in preparing teachers to be successful
and remain in the district?

7. What is the more important teacher quality, mindset or skillset?

III. Strategies to Implement Effective Teacher Training
1. What is the role of the school to provide PLCs to promote teacher discussion and focus on
commonly identified student needs?

2. What is the value of a PLC to improve teacher practice?

3. What is the role of universities and teacher training programs to provide ongoing training
support for teachers once they work for a district?

4. What is the role of the district in providing effective training to build teacher knowledge and
practice?

5. What are the characteristics of an effective teacher induction program?

6. What is the role of National Board Certified teachers in improving the skills of novice and
less effective teachers?

7. How can the district improve the use of mentors to work with novice and less effective
teachers?

8. How should districts and universities work together to create teacher training programs and
support teacher development?

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 184
IV. Strategies to Implement Teacher Effectiveness
1. What characteristics are evident in an effective teacher?

2. Do effective teachers have natural abilities that other less talented teachers do not?

3. Do “bright people” have the ability to figure out teaching as they experience it.

4. Do “bright people” make better teachers?

5. Do effective teachers have specific professional knowledge that is improved through
interactions with other teachers?

6. What is the role of mentors in helping to share practices of effectiveness?

7. What is your opinion on all effective teachers being good mentors?

8. What can districts do to make sure that PLCs are implemented to promote teacher discussion
and collaboration?

9. What is your opinion on the characteristics of PLCs that improve teacher effectiveness?

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 185
APPENDIX G
QUALITATIVE TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your perceptions
of how recruitment, retention, training and improvement strategies contribute to teacher
effectiveness. Your responses should be based on your own experiences and your observations
on peers that meet the quality of effectiveness including the degree to which teachers impact
student learning and have higher-than-predicted increases in student achievement.
We are requesting to use the tape recorder to help accurately capture all your responses. We will
compile the data from this study into a report that will include your direct quotes; however, none
of the responses will be attributed to you. We will create a pseudonym for you and your school
to maintain your confidentiality.

If you remember, we shared a Study Information Sheet with you at the time you agreed to
participate in the study. As it outlined, we will maintain data from this study in a password
protected computer, for three years, at which time it will be destroyed. Do we have your consent
to record?

This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Recruitment Strategies on Teacher Shortages
1. What is your opinion of the importance of Higher Learning Institutes in recruiting teachers to
districts and hard-to-staff schools?

2. What is your opinion of contract incentives to fill teacher vacancies at hard-to-staff low
performing schools?

3. Would the implementation of immediate loan forgiveness programs increase the recruitment
of teachers and reduce teacher attrition from the district?

4. What is the importance of teacher training programs in preparing future recruitments that
become effective teachers?

5. How do programs like Teach for America that recruit candidates to remain in teaching for
short-term periods impact student achievement?
IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 186
II. Influence of Retention Strategies on Retaining Highly Effectives Teachers in School
Districts
1. What is your opinion of mentors to improve teacher competency and reduce attrition?

2. What is the impact of ineffective administrators of fostering satisfactory working conditions
to retain effective teachers in the district?

3. How do mindsets impact teacher perceptions about their job?

4. How do teachers retain effective teachers at higher rates than ineffective teachers?

5. How do inter-district teacher mobility rates impact the attrition rate of districts by providing
teachers with the ability to transfer schools?

6. What is the importance of effective teacher skillsets in preparing teachers to be successful
and remain in the district?

7. What is the more important teacher quality, mindset or skillset?

III. Strategies to Implement Effective Teacher Training
1. What is the role of the school to provide PLCs to promote teacher discussion and focus on a
commonly identified student needs?

2. What is the value of a PLC to improve teacher practice?

3. What is the role of universities and teacher training programs to provide ongoing training
support for teachers once they work for a district?

4. What is the role of the district in providing effective training to build teacher knowledge and
practice?

5. What are the characteristics of an effective teacher induction program?

6. What is the role of National Board Certified teachers in improving the skills of novice and
less effective teachers?

7. How can the district improve the use of mentors to work with novice and less effective
teachers?

8. How should districts and universities work together to create teacher training programs and
support teacher development?

IMPROVING URBAN TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION 187
IV. Strategies to Implement Teacher Effectiveness
1. What characteristics are evident in an effective teacher?

2. Do effective teachers have natural abilities that less talented teachers do not have?

3. Do “bright people” have the ability to figure out teaching as they experience it?

4. Do “bright people” make better teachers?

5. Do effective teachers have specific professional knowledge that is improved through
interactions with other teachers?

6. What is the role of mentors in helping to share practices of effectiveness?

7. What is your opinion on all effective teachers being good mentors?

8. What can districts do to make sure that PLCs are implemented to promote teacher discussion
and collaboration?

9. What is your opinion on the characteristics of PLCs that improve teacher effectiveness?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Effective teaching is critical to raising student achievement

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hildreth, Cheryl (author)

Core Title “It is all about student equity”: improving teacher retention and recruitment in a large urban district

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/01/2019

Defense Date 03/11/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag hard-to-staff schools,large urban district,OAI-PMH Harvest,teacher recruitment,teacher retention

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Torres, Erika (committee member)

Creator Email childret@usc.edu,childreth3334@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-165209

Unique identifier UC11660714

Identifier etd-HildrethCh-7387.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-165209 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HildrethCh-7387.pdf

Dmrecord 165209

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Hildreth, Cheryl

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA