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Promising practices: promoting and sustaining a college-going culture

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Promising practices: promoting and sustaining a college-going culture

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Content Running head: COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 1

PROMISING PRACTICES: PROMOTING AND SUSTAINING
A COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
by

Jeremy Knight Spurley

______________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Jeremy Knight Spurley
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 2
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge those individuals who have provided me the support needed
to make this dissertation possible. First, an enormous amount of gratitude is extended to my
committee chair, Dr. Kathy Stowe. With Dr. Stowe’s guidance and constant encouragement, the
completion of this dissertation was made possible. Additionally, I would like to extend a great
amount of appreciation to Dr. Courtney Malloy and Professor Shafiqa Ahmadi for their guidance
and support throughout the dissertation process.
I would like to acknowledge my thematic dissertation group- Vicki, Traci, Salvador, Luz,
and Consuelo. Thank you for the feedback, late night calls, and all of your inspiration
throughout this process. Without each of you, this dissertation would not have been possible.
I would like to thank my family and friends for all of their support throughout this
journey. A special thank you to my loving wife Regina, who inspired me to begin the doctoral
degree in the first place and was my support throughout. Also, to my son Nicholas, who was
born during the dissertation process, and hopefully one day will be inspired to accomplish his
own dissertation.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge every student whom I have taught and every
colleague who I have had the pleasure to work with who have served as a constant reminder for
why I am committed to the field of education. It is my sincere hope that the findings of this
dissertation will inspire countless individuals to access college.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 3
Table of Contents
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
College-Going Culture 9
Background of the Problem 10
Academic Achievement 10
School Accountability 10
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Limitations 15
Delimitations 15
Glossary of Terms 16
Organization of the Study 16
Chapter Two: Literature Review 18
Accessing Higher Education 19
Impact of Social Capital on College Access 19
College Knowledge as Form of Social Capital 20
College Counselors’ Impact on College Access as a Form of Social
Capital 22
Access to Financial Aid as a Form of Social Capital 24
Social Capital Building College Aspirations to Increase College
Access 26
Outreach Programs Influencing College Access 28
College-Going Culture Principals Promoting College Access 30
Establishing High Expectations 31
Faculty Involvement 33
College-Preparation Courses 35
College Partnerships 37
School Leaders’ Role in Cultivating Cultural Change 38
Summary 39
Chapter Three: Methodology 41
Research Questions 42
Research Design and Methods 42
Sample and Population 43
Overview of the Organization 44
Theoretical Framework 44
Conceptual Framework 46
Data Collection Approach 48
Instrumentation 50
Data Analysis 51
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 4
Ethical Considerations 52
Summary 53
Chapter Four: Results 54
Overview of the Participants 54
Overview of the Organizations 59
Data Findings 61
Research Question 1 61
School Leaders Establish High Academic Expectations and
Increase Rigor 61
Professional Learning Communities and Seven-Period Day 62
No “D” Policy 64
Increased Rigor 66
Academically Rigorous Courses 66
AVID Strategies 68
Leaders Use College Talk and Resources to Increase College
Knowledge 70
College Talk 71
College Center 72
Student Access to Counselors 74
School Leaders Establish Encouraging Relationships to
Increase College Aspirations 75
Teacher-Student Relationships 75
Counselor-Student Relationships 77
Discussion of Research Question One 79
Research Question 2 81
Parental Involvement 81
College under Matching 83
Hiring and Training School Counselors 85
Discussion of Research Question 2 87
Summary 88
Chapter Five: Summary 90
Purpose of the Study 90
Summary of the Findings 91
Implications for Policy and Practice 95
Recommendation for Future Studies 98
Conclusion 99
References 101
Appendix A: Interview Participant Introductory Letter 118
Appendix B: Interview Protocol: Administrator 119
Appendix C: Interview Protocol: Teacher and Counselor 121
Appendix D: Matrix of Interview Protocol Questions Aligned to Research
Questions 123
Appendix E: Observation Protocol 124
Appendix F: LCAP Priorities 125
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Study Interview Respondents 49
Table 2: Research Questions Aligned to the Data Collection Instrumentation 50
Table 3: Participant Descriptions 57
Table 4: ABC Student Demographic Data 60
Table 5: ABC High School Graduation Rates 66

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 6
List of Figures
Figure A: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Model (1977) 45
Figure B: Conceptual Framework, Ed.D. Thematic Group 2019 47
Figure C: Creswell’s Data Analysis Model, Ed.D. Thematic Group 2019 51

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 7
Abstract
This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) Ecological Systems Theory, focused on
microsystems including school leaders, resources, families, and the school environment impact
on low-SES students’ college access. The purpose of this study was to identify promising
practices school leaders employed to promote and sustain a college-going culture at a
comprehensive high school. Further, challenges school leaders encountered were identified.
Data was collected through interviews of twelve school leaders, along with observations of
classrooms and the college center, and document analysis. Creswell’s (2014) Data Analysis
Model was used to analyze data collected. Findings from this study showed that school leaders
increased low-SES students’ college access by establishing high academic expectations and
rigor, used college talk and resources to increase college knowledge, and built encouraging
student relationships to promote college aspirations. Further, school leaders were challenged to
increase parental involvement in the academic setting, limit college under matching, and hire and
train more school counselors to sustain a college-going culture. This study furthered
understanding of promising practices school leaders used to develop a college-going culture
focused on promoting low-SES students’ college access.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
With the growing demand for college-educated workers, attaining a college degree is
significant for an individual to become economically competitive and increase their
socioeconomic status (Perna, 2015). According to the PEW Research Center (2014) individuals
with a college degree earn twice as much income per year. Additionally, individuals with a
college degree are less likely to live in poverty (3.8% vs. 12.2%), compared with individuals
without a degree (PEW Research Center, 2014). The benefits of college extend beyond the
financial gains. College graduates are more likely to be married, find more career satisfaction,
and are in better health (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013; PEW Research Center, 2014).
Educational leaders are focused on increasing college access for low-socioeconomic
status (SES) students (Aldana, 2014; McKillip, Godfrey, & Rawls, 2012). Significant college
access gaps exist for low-SES students compared with students who identify as high-SES (Aud
et al., 2011; Perna, 2015). Nationally, 58.4% of low-SES students enroll in higher education
(Wyatt & Mattern, 2011). The percentage of children who identify as low-SES in California is
46% (National Center for Children in Poverty, 2017). In California public universities (UC and
Cal State), the gap between low-SES and high-SES college attainment has increased since the
1990s, with 25% of low-SES students enrolling in a four-year university compared with 75% of
high-SES students (Public Policy Institute of California, PPIC, 2016).
Effective school leaders impact student achievement and access to college (Fullan, 2017).
As a result, studies discussed the need for K-12 school leaders to develop a college-going culture
(Aldana, 2014; Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McKillip et al., 2012; Perna, 2015). Accordingly, this
study sought to examine promising practices school leaders used to promote and sustain a
college-going culture for low-SES students at a California high school.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 9
College-Going Culture
According to Corwin and Tierney (2007), a college-going culture facilitates student
learning, college readiness, and college matriculation for all students. Data suggests students
who attend a high school that has established a college-going culture are more likely to
matriculate into college and persist to graduation (Terenzini, Rendon, Upcraft, Millar, Allison,
Gregg, & Jalomo, 1996; Hooker & Brand, 2010). A college-going culture includes a rigorous
curriculum and knowledge of academic skills (e.g. study skills and time management) needed for
college success (Adelman, 2006; Conley, 2008; Engberg & Wolniak, 2010).
A college-going culture is focused on more than preparing students for academic success
in college. A college-going culture is focused on the social and emotional well-being of students
(Engberg & Wolniak, 2010). Further, increasing students’ self-efficacy, which refers to a belief
in one’s ability to be academically successful, is an objective of a college-going culture (Usher &
Pajares, 2008). In addition, when students feel connected to school it leads to an increase in
student achievement (Ascher & Maguire, 2007; Engberg & Wolniak, 2010; Hill, 2008).
Therefore, a college-going culture is focused on assisting students in a holistic approach by
maximizing student achievement, the social and emotional well-being of students, and
encouraging students to become more connected to school.
College-going and college-ready are often used interchangeably, however, they refer to
two distinct meanings. College-ready refers to the knowledge and skills necessary to enter into
college (e.g. rigorous courses, A-G requirements), whereas, college-going refers to the culture
that a school site establishes promoting and preparing students to enter college (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007; Hooker & Brand, 2010). For the purpose of this study, the researcher examined
how school leaders promote and sustain a college-going culture.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 10
Background of the Problem
Academic Achievement
Since the 1980s, the attainment of a college degree has decreased as has the inequality of
preparing low-SES students for the demands of college (Carnevale & Strohl, 2010). In a study
conducted by Sirin (2005), the researcher found that the SES status of a student had a strong
correlation with students’ academic achievement. Low-SES students exhibit lower grade point
averages (GPA), and lower scores on standardized tests. Recent data has shown that low-SES
students enter high school five years behind high-SES students in literacy and math (Doerschuk,
Bahrim, Daniel, Kruger, Mann, & Martin, 2016; Reardon, Valentino, Kalogrides, Shores, &
Greenberg, 2013). To rectify, school leaders implement college-preparation courses to maximize
low-SES student academic achievement (Aldana, 2014; Bosworth, Convertino, & Hurwitz, 2014;
Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty, McDonough, & Nunez, 2002).
School Accountability
For K-12 institutions to better prepare all students to become college and career ready,
the federal and state governments have enacted legislation to increase school accountability. The
purpose of school accountability is to provide incentives for schools to generate higher
performance in academic subjects (Figlio & Loeb, 2011). In 2001, the Congress passed the No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002). The expectation of the law was, by 2014, all students
would be proficient in reading and mathematics as evident by standardized test scores (NCLB,
2002). Detractors of the legislation argued that NCLB established unrealistic goals, harsh
penalties, and limited funding to improve schools (Figlio & Loeb, 2011). In addition, NCLB
shifted the focus towards “high stakes” standardized testing, which became the sole indicator to
measure a school’s success (Figlio & Loeb, 20111). In reaction, states adopted common
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 11
standards, focused on developing the skills necessary (e.g. collaboration, creativity,
communication, and critical thinking) to be productive in the 21st century. These standards
became known as the “Common Core State Standards.” A motivating factor for the creation of
the “Common Core Standards” was to prepare students for the rigor of college (Bosworth et al.,
2014; Porter et al., 2011).
As states adopted the “Common Core,” in 2016, Congress authorized the Every Student
Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015). The objective of the law was to ensure that all students are
equipped with the academic skills needed to be successful in college and in the workforce.
Specifically, the law mandates that local education agencies focus resources on closing
achievement gaps (Cushing, Therriault, & English, 2017). In contrast to NCLB (2002), ESSA
(2015) called for the development of an accountability system which reports on multiple
measures including graduation rates and college- and career-readiness (Cushing et al., 2017). To
comply with ESSA, California developed the “California School Dashboard” allowing
stakeholders to view a schools’ performance status based on various measures (e.g. graduation
rate).
Despite accountability measures, increased education funding, and data on the benefits of
attaining a college degree, only 67% of low-SES students enroll in college (National Center for
Education Statistics, NCES, 2017). Yet to be adequately understood are how the promising
practices used by school leaders in high schools to promote and sustain a college-going culture
influence the college attainment rate of low-SES students.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 12
Statement of the Problem
A College matriculation gap exists between high and low-SES students (Bosworth et al.,
2014; McKillip et al., 2012; NCES, 2017). The college enrollment rate for low-SES students is
67%, compared with 83% of high-SES students (NCES, 2017). Fostering a college-going
culture becomes important to improve the college matriculation rates amongst low-SES students.
For low-SES students, school is a place where the student will have exposure to the concept of
going to college and its benefits (Conley & McGaughy, 2009). The reach of higher educational
institutions impact on encouraging students to attend college is limited because they do not have
daily access to students in K-12 institutions (Tierney, Colyar, & Corwin, 2003). Accordingly,
fostering a college-going culture, in large part, is reliant on K-12 school leadership (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007). Examining best practices that school leaders are implementing to promote a
college-going culture for low-SES students at the K-12 level will help provide a pathway for
other schools to follow to reverse the trend research has indicated.
The benefits of attending college are well known. According to the Economic Policy
Institute (2016), Americans with four year degrees made 98% more an hour than peers without a
degree. Further, the median income for students with a bachelor’s degree is $65,000, while
individuals with a high school diploma averaged $36,000 annual income (United States Census
Bureau, 2016). Current educational research has shown that students from the highest income
families are 30% more likely to enroll in college (Perna, 2015). Concomitantly, 9% of students
from the lowest-income families receive a college degree (Perna, 2015). Low-SES students face
challenges that their more privileged peers may never experience such as living in impoverished
communities, experiencing limited familial support, and diminished access to educational
resources (Kumanyika & Grier, 2006). School leaders must be intentional in establishing a
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 13
college-going culture due to the fact that low-SES students are often shaped by poor educational
experiences and low familial expectations (Weinstein & Savitz-Romer, 2009). The expectation
of a college-going culture is that all students, including low-SES students, will access college
(Avilés-Reyes, 2011).
The necessity of attaining a college degree is evident by the increasing need of highly-
skilled individuals to fill jobs in the market place. According to Carnevale, Smith, and Strohl
(2013), by 2018, 63% of all jobs will require a postsecondary degree. Yet, by the year 2025,
projections indicated that the workforce in California will have a shortage of one-million college
graduates (Johnson & Segupta, 2009). K-12 leaders, therefore, have the moral imperative to
prepare millions of students for advancement into higher education institutions whereby they can
receive the necessary training to be successful in the 21st century workforce.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived promising practices that school
leaders of ABC High School employed to promote a college-going culture for low-SES students.
Further, this study examined the perceived challenges ABC High School leaders encountered to
sustain a college-going culture.
While studies have focused on the barriers low-SES students encountered hindering
access to college (Kumanyika & Grier, 2006; Perna, 2015; Weinstein & Savitz-Romer, 2009),
limited research has examined the role of school leaders in developing and sustaining a college-
going culture for K-12 institutions that have a high percentage of low-SES students.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 14
Research Questions
This study sought to examine the perceived promising practices that school leaders used
at ABC High School to promote a college-going culture for low-SES students. The following
research questions were developed collaboratively by the six members of a University of
Southern California Ed.D. thematic dissertation group.
1. What perceived strategies does ABC High School employ to promote a college-going
culture for low-SES students?
2. What are the perceived challenges at ABC High School in sustaining a college-going
culture?
Significance of the Study
The attainment of a college degree directly impacts the individual student and the greater
community at large (Barnes, Slate, & Rojas-LeBouef, 2010). Individuals who do not graduate
with a college degree are at a disadvantage to be competitive in the job market. In 1973, 28% of
jobs required a college degree, in contrast, 65% of jobs will require a college degree by 2020
(Carnevale et al., 2013). These statistics disproportionally affect low-SES students, as a
significant college access gap exists between low-SES and high-SES individuals.
By evaluating how a college-going culture increases access to college, the greatest
benefactor of the results of this study were low-SES students. A college-going culture provides
students with college knowledge, access to college counselors, and rigorous courses to prepare
students to meet admission requirements and persist to college degree completion, which is
especially impactful on low-SES students (Athanases, Achinstein, Curry, & Ogawa, 2016;
Bosworth et al., 2014; Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002).
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 15
Schools develop a college-going culture on account of school leadership (Bosworth et al.,
2014). Fullan (2017) advocated that school leaders are essential to instituting cultural change.
Without effective school leadership, cultivating a cultural change focused on increasing student
access to college would be unsuccessful (Fullan, 2017). Consequently, this study provided
school leaders with practices effective school leaders implemented to promote and sustain a
college-going culture to increase college access for low-SES students.
Finally, to date, qualitative research on college-going culture practices is minimal. This
study added to the literature empirical evidence ascribing promising practices school leaders
implemented to promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-SES students.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
Limitations
There were several limitations of this study which included the time constraints of the
USC Ed.D program allowing three months for data collection. Further, the respondents of this
study were limited to those individuals who agree to participate voluntarily. Additionally, a
limitation of this study was the researcher’s bias. The data collected was subject to the
interpretation of the researcher.
Delimitations
Delimitations are the factors within the researcher’s control. The following criteria is
developed in collaboration with the USC Ed.D thematic group members. The school site
selected will have at minimum a 90% graduation rate. The school site will have 70% low-SES
students. Further, perceived promising practices of a college-going culture were evident at the
school site.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 16
Lastly, due to the nature of a qualitative study and the limitations, generalization of the
findings is not applicable. The sample size was limited to one school site, and the respondent’s
experiences may be unique to the respondent’s individual institution.
Glossary of Terms
This study used many terms that are referenced to inform the research. For the purpose
of this study, the following terms are defined as follows:
a) College-going culture- According to Corwin and Tierney (2007), a college-going culture
facilitates student learning, college readiness, and college matriculation for all students.
b) College knowledge- Is defined as the information and skills which allow students to
navigate the complex college admissions and financial aid processes, as well as develop
an understanding of college norms and culture (Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009).
c) Socioeconomic status (SES)- A status that encompasses not just income but also
educational attainment, financial security, and subjective perceptions of social status and
social class (American Psychological Association, 2017)
d) School leader- For the purpose of this study, school leaders shall include school
administrators (e.g. principal, assistant principal), counselors, and teachers.
Organization of the Study
This study explored the promising practices school leaders used to promote and sustain a
college-going culture for low-SES students. Chapter One provided an overview of the problem
of practice that a college attainment gap exists for low-SES students. Additionally, the
importance of a college-going culture was discussed. Chapter Two described the skills needed
for students to be successful in college. Next, the principles of a college-going culture and the
significance school leaders have on promoting and sustaining a college-going culture were
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 17
discussed. In addition, the theoretical framework for this study was provided. Chapter Three
outlined the qualitative methodology that was utilized to gather and analyze data collected. A
conceptual framework was illustrated in Chapter Three. Chapter Four included a report of the
findings from the data collected in response to the research questions. Chapter Five analyzed the
findings and implications for practice. Lastly, proposed suggestions for future research were
provided

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Increasing college access promotes upward social and economic mobility (PPIC, 2016).
The benefits of attaining a college degree are numerous. College graduates are more likely to
have better health, experience increased civic engagement, report better relationships with
friends and family, and earn increased wages (Bosworth et al., 2014; Perna, 2015; Trostel, 2015).
Further, a college education cultivates creativity, innovation, inclusivity, and diversity
(Nussbaum, 2007; Trostel, 2015). Despite these known benefits of a college degree, an equity
gap remains with fewer low-SES students accessing and graduating college, compared with
high-SES peers (PPIC, 2016). Consequentially, school leaders are tasked with the challenge to
increase the likelihood that low-SES students attend college by creating meaningful
opportunities for college access (Bosworth et al., 2014; PPIC, 2016).
College access is affected by multiple factors, one of which is school leadership. School
leadership positively impacts academic achievement and college access by providing students
with requisite knowledge to access college such as college eligibility requirements, information
regarding ways to afford college, opportunities to take rigorous courses, and increased access to
college counselors (Bosworth et al., 2014; Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Fullan, 2017; Marzano,
Waters, & McNulty, 2005; McClafferty et al., 2002). Research indicated in order to improve
college access for low-SES individuals, school leaders implement a college-going culture (Perna
& Jones, 2013). A college-going culture promotes all students are academically prepared for the
rigors of college, and have the knowledge required to navigate the complexities of accessing
higher educational institutions (Perna, 2015).
This chapter will begin by exploring emergent themes from the literature used to
influence access to higher education for low-SES students. Second, the principles of a college-
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 19
going culture, based on the seminal work of McClafferty et al. (2002), will be examined. Lastly,
school leaders’ role on promoting organizational cultural change will be discussed.
Accessing Higher Education
High-SES students are more likely to attend college, compared with low-SES peers
(McKillip et al., 2012; NCES, 2017; Perna, 2015). Reasons for the gap include limited
information about the college-going process, knowledge about financial assistance, and
diminished access to educational resources (Kumanyika & Grier, 2006; Weinstein & Savitz-
Romer, 2009). School leaders have improved low-SES students’ access to college by building
college-going practices which consider the following: the impact of social capital on increasing
college knowledge, financial aid assistance, and access to college counselors, all of which have
been shown to impact low-SES students’ aspirations to access college (Corwin & Tierney, 2007;
Moschetti & Hudley, 2014; Perna & Steele, 2011; Roderick et al., 2009). Further, this section
examines the impact of college outreach programs as a resource to increase academic
achievement and college access (Goodwin, Li, Broda, Johnson, & Schneider, 2016).
Impact of Social Capital on College Access
College access is influenced by students’ attainment of social capital. Social capital is
the network of relationships students develop that can enable them to acquire information,
guidance, and support relevant to achieving a goal (Moschetti & Hudley, 2014; Stanton-Salazar,
2001). By developing social networks students can access valuable college resources and
supports to promote college access and enrollment (Belasco, 2013; Moschetti & Hudley, 2014;
Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004; Roderick et al., 2009). Supports include
increasing knowledge regarding college admission requirements and financial aid, and having
access to college counselors (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Roderick et al., 2009). For instance,
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 20
Salloum, Goddard, and Larsen (2017), examined whether social capital impacted students’
access to college. The study used data collected from 96 low-SES and low academically
performing high schools across the Midwest. The findings indicated that social capital is a
positive predictor to academic success and increased college access (Salloum et al., 2017). In
addition, the difference in social capital acquisition was significantly related to students who had
access to college-oriented resources such as college counselors and rigorous courses, especially
in low-SES schools. As a result, the researchers recommended that school leaders invest in
social capital as a means to impact students’ access to college by using interventions focused on
strengthening access to college-related resources (Salloum et al., 2017).
Students receive social capital from multiple sources including family and school leaders
(Bosworth et al., 2014). In the school context, social capital refers to the manner in which school
leaders assist students to academically succeed and access college (Welton & Martinez, 2014).
Social capital is cultivated in part by school leaders providing college knowledge and access to
financial aid, and building students’ educational aspirations (Roderick et al., 2009).
College knowledge as form of social capital. Successfully navigating the complexities
of preparing for and applying to college is impacted by attaining forms of college-related social
capital including the acquisition of college knowledge from school leaders (Roderick, Nagaoka,
Coca, & Moeller, 2008; Tierney, Bailey, Constantine, Finkelstein, & Hurd, 2009). Roderick et
al. (2009) defined college knowledge as the “information and skills that allow students to
successfully navigate the complex college admissions and financial aid processes, as well as
develop an understanding of college norms and culture” (p. 190).
Hooker and Brand (2010) discussed the importance of providing opportunities for
students to develop college knowledge as a form of social capital because it impacts college
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 21
access. Hooker and Brand concluded that students who had access to college knowledge were
more likely to attend college. According to the researchers, the attainment of these skills can be
accomplished through providing students with programs which provide access to college classes
and other expanded learning opportunities as a means to help students gain college knowledge
(Hooker & Brand, 2010).
Similarly, Okpych and Courtney (2017) examined 712 adolescent youth to determine if
college-related social capital resources (e.g. college knowledge) impacted college access.
According to this study, students who received knowledge about college admission
requirements, financial aid, and received encouragement from school leaders to attend college
led to an increase in college matriculation rates (Okpych & Courtney, 2017).
Students seeking access to college engage in a college-choice process which involves
developing a plan to attend college, raising their own awareness of the different college options,
and ultimately choosing the best college option (Hossler, Schmidt, & Vesper, 1999). College
knowledge during this college-choice process is essential if the student is to make an informed
decision about college (Hossler et al., 1999; McClafferty et al., 2002). To make the most
informed college decision, college knowledge can be derived from an understanding of the
various types of colleges, college admission requirements, and the cost of attending college
(McClafferty et al., 2002).
Low-SES students often have less knowledge about college costs, college admission
requirements, and the differences amongst the various types of colleges (Grodsky & Jones, 2007;
Krist & Venezia, 2004). Consequently, low-SES students rely on school leaders to provide them
with the college knowledge needed to access college.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 22
In a school with a college-going culture, school leaders provide students with information
pertaining to college eligibility and financial aid (Bosworth et al., 2014; Corwin & Tierney,
2007; McClafferty et al., 2002). In addition, college resources are shared with students and
parents at every opportunity to ensure that all students receive the same opportunity to access
college (McClafferty et al., 2002). For example, school administrators hold workshops for
students and parents focused on the college eligibility requirements (e.g. A-G requirements)
needed to be accomplished during the high school years (McClafferty et al., 2002). Having
college-related information readily available to students can increase the likelihood students will
access college (Bosworth et al., 2014; Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
College counselors ’ impact on college access as a form of social capital. Awareness
of collegiate academic, social, and cultural expectations, in conjunction with knowledge of the
entrance requirements, is a key component of school leaders increasing students’ college
preparation and access (Conley, 2007). College counselors serve as a resource to help students
navigate the college-going process, positively influencing college enrollment (Horn, Chen, &
Chapman, 2003). This process includes advising students on which courses to enroll in, holding
workshops on college entrance requirements and financial aid, and coordinating college visits
(American School Counselor Association, ASCA, 2012; Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty
et al., 2002).
Arguably the highest priority for college counselors is to establish college-preparatory
schedules for students to meet the eligibility requirements of entry into college (Cooney, 2016).
Counselors guide students in choosing the correct courses to take in high school, as enrollment in
higher level courses is a strong predictor of college access (Riegle-Crumb, 2006), and assist
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 23
students in overcoming the stresses that are attendant to pursuing college eligibility (McClafferty
et al., 2002).
The relationships built between counselors and students is a significant predictor of
college access (McKillip et al., 2012). When students receive quality interactions from
counselors that offer access to information about college, students demonstrate higher academic
achievement and are more likely to access college (Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Kimura-Walsh,
Yamamura, Griffin, & Allen, 2008). Counselors are pivotal to providing critical college
information needed to navigate the complexities of college going such as college eligibility
requirements (Deil-Amen & Tevis, 2010; Roderick et al., 2008). Few studies have asked
students directly about what the student knows or needs to know regarding accessing college. In
a case study conducted by Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, and Davis (2006), 222 students
were surveyed to determine what knowledge they had about the college-choice process. Based
on the data collected, students responded that they need more accurate information regarding
both the college enrollment requirements and financial aid opportunities (Gibbons et al., 2006).
The results illustrated the need for more counselor-student relationships to increase college
knowledge, access to financial aid, and promote college access.
Due to the lack of low-SES students’ social capital (e.g. college knowledge and
resources), the role of the counselor is even more significant. Counselors can provide low-SES
students with reasons why college is important (e.g. college knowledge), advise low-SES
students on appropriate courses to take, and assist low-SES students in selecting an appropriate
college (ASCA, 2012; McClafferty et al., 2002). In this way, college counselors reduce under
matching, which occurs when a student attends a college for which the student is over-qualified
(Cooney, 2016). Approximately, 53% of low-SES students apply to colleges for which they are
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 24
over-qualified based on median SAT scores of students enrolled (Hoxby & Avery, 2012).
According to Cooney (2016), the cost of college and the lack of knowledge about the various
types of college leads to low-SES students’ under matching. College counselors limit under
matching by increasing college knowledge about the college options available and assist students
with applying for financial aid to help offset costs.
Access to financial aid as a form of social capital. Schools can increase college-related
social capital by providing financial aid assistance which can impact college access by providing
knowledge to students about the affordability of college (Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulous, &
Sanbonmatsu, 2009). For the better part of the last quarter century, the cost of higher education
has been steadily increasing. In a recent study released by Baum (2016), the average price for
attending college in the United States is $24,000. In California, the average tuition rose from
$4,000 to $9,000 (Baum, 2016). The cost of college extends beyond tuition. Students also need
to account for housing (whether on or off campus), textbooks, materials, and transportation costs.
Therefore, the average “full tuition” (tuition plus other expenses) is approximately $12,000 per
semester in California (Baum, 2016). The increase in costs has led students to either refuse to
attend college or to mortgage their financial future by borrowing thousands of dollars in student
loans.
Financial aid is critical for increasing college access, choice, and attainment (Perna &
Steele, 2011). In a comprehensive study conducted by Perna and Steele (2011), the expectations
of receiving financial aid result in three college-related outcomes. First, students were more
motivated to excel academically in order to attain a “scholarship” to help pay for the expenses of
college. Second, schools which have a high percentage of students in need of financial aid
focused on improving academic readiness of students to ensure students would be eligible for
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 25
financial aid. Lastly, financial aid awards impacted the choice of college that students chose to
attend. The more aid a student received the more choices for college the student and their family
would have (Perna & Steele, 2011).
College-going culture schools use financial aid assistance as a strategy to promote college
access (Goodwin et al., 2016). This includes providing students with information regarding
college costs, assisting students in completing financial aid documents (e.g. FAFSA), and
providing support for students to complete scholarship applications (Bettinger, Long,
Oreopoulos, & Sanbonmatsu, 2012; Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
Financial aid assistance is especially necessary for low-SES students. Research
suggested that low-SES students are less aware of college costs and available financial aid
(Avery & Hoxby, 2004; Bettinger et al., 2012; Heller, 2006). Although financial aid is critical to
increasing college access, low-SES students encounter a financial aid process that is complex.
The Advisory Committee on Student Financial Aid (2005) found that low-SES students are
overwhelmed by the intricacies of the financial aid process, and the process can serve to
discourage college access. The complexities of the financial aid system have led to more than
10% of the neediest students failing to complete necessary financial aid documents (Goodwin et
al., 2016). To reverse this trend, schools which provide students with information about
financial aid can increase student access to college. Bettinger et al. (2012) found providing low-
SES students with financial aid information and assistance with completing financial aid
documents increased the college-going rate by 8%.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 26
Social capital building college aspirations to increase college access. The acquisition
of social capital has been linked to an increase in students’ educational aspirations to attend
college, and can be shaped by school leaders (Moschetti & Hudley, 2014; Shahidul, Zehadul-
Karim, & Mustari, 2015). Reynolds and Pemberton (2001) conceptualized educational
aspirations as the level of education a student would like to achieve. Educational aspirations are
important to examine because students’ educational aspirations are linked to college access
(Moschetti & Hudley, 2014). Shahidul et al. (2015) collected data from approximately 600
students and 225 teachers to estimate the influence of social capital acquired from school leaders
as it relates to students’ college aspirations. The results indicated that social capital increased the
likelihood that students’ aspired to attend college. However, the researchers mentioned that
further research is needed to determine why social capital acquired from school leaders affected
students’ educational aspirations to attend college slightly less than social capital acquired from
parents (Shahidul et al., 2015).
Further research has examined the impact of school leaders on building students’
aspirations to attend college. Archer et al. (2012) conducted a mixed-methods longitudinal study
surveying 9,000 students and interviewing 160 students over a four year span to examine the
impact of social capital on increasing educational aspirations. The data found that approximately
half of the students’ educational aspirations were developed through interests at school (Archer
et al., 2012). For example, students who aspired to attend college to garner a career in the
sciences, noted that their educational aspirations were positively impacted by conversations with
teachers (Archer et al., 2012).
Similarly, Johnson et al. (2009) examined the role and impact of teachers on students’
college aspirations. The findings were based on 108 teacher interviews across 17 schools.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 27
Findings included that teachers view encouraging progression and aspirations as one aspect of
their job responsibilities (Johnson et al., 2009). Additionally, teachers encourage college
aspirations by exposing students to new experiences in order to build confidence; and providing
guidance, advice, and college knowledge to students about ways to afford college; and the long-
term benefits of accessing college (Johnson et al., 2009).
Socioeconomic status has been shown to be a predictor of low-SES students’ aspirations
to attend college. Ninety percent (90%) of high-SES students aspire to attend college, compared
with 76% of low-SES peers (Polidano, Broadway, & Buddelmeyer, 2012). Reasons for the
college-aspirations gap have been discussed previously in this chapter, including the lack of
college knowledge and a belief that college is unaffordable (Polidano et al., 2012). Of note, this
study found that a significant factor that impacted low-SES students’ aspirations to attend
college were teachers who were highly motivated to bridge student-teacher relationships built on
encouraging students to attend college (Polidano et al., 2012).
Literature has examined the role educational aspirations has on impacting low-SES
students’ academic achievement, which has been identified as a predictor to students’ aspiring to
attend college (Khattab, 2015). Khattab (2015) studied how low-SES students having high
educational aspirations can increase academic achievement. The sample included 15,770
students from 647 different schools. The results indicated that the disparity in socioeconomic
status affects educational aspirations, with high-SES students reaching their educational goals at
an increased rate due to higher academic achievement, compared with their low-SES
counterparts (Khattab, 2015). Consequently, complete alignment between high achievement and
high aspirations is a significant predictor for low-SES students aspiring to attend college
(Khattab, 2015).
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 28
Outreach Programs Influencing College Access
Low-SES students are more likely to enter high school academically behind their peers
and are less likely to enroll in college preparatory courses required to access college due to not
having attained the academic skills necessary to complete the courses (Caro, 2009;
Schoenberger, 2012). To reverse the trend of low-SES students not meeting the requirements for
college access, educators have identified resources that in turn impacts the likelihood students
access college, one example of which is access to outreach programs
Outreach programs focus on improving academic skills including study and test taking
skills, improving academic persistence, along with instructional support in mathematics, science,
and language arts (Educational Policy Institute, 2012; Tierney, Bailey, Constantine, Finkelstein,
& Hurd, 2009). In addition, outreach programs provide information to students and parents
about college preparation and enrollment (Educational Policy Institute, 2012). This information
is vital in helping low-SES families, who face college informational barriers, make appropriate
decisions about preparing for, attending, and financing college (Tierney et al., 2009).
Outreach programs increase low-SES students’ access to college (Goodwin et al., 2016).
With outreach programs, the percentage of low-SES students who attend college increased from
18 to 38% (Goodwin et al., 2016). Myers, Olsen, Seftor, Young, and Tuttle (2004) examined
data from national surveys of approximately 3,000 students who participated in an outreach
program. The results indicated that each year a student participated in an outreach program
correlated with a 9% increase in college enrollment. In addition, the overall college enrollment
rate for any student in an outreach program increased by 17% (Myers et al., 2004). Although the
college enrollment rate increased, more data is needed to determine the impact of outreach
programs on student academic success (Myers et al., 2004).
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 29
In a separate study, St. John, Musoba, Simmons, and Chung (2002) gathered data from
approximately 15,000 students enrolled in an outreach program. The sample consisted of 55%
low-SES student population with low educational aspirations and who performed poorly in the
previous academic year. The researchers found that all students who participated in an outreach
program attended college and persisted to college degree attainment at a higher rate than students
who did not have access to an outreach program.
There are over 1,000 outreach programs supporting students by offering rigorous courses
to boost academic preparation for college, tutoring services, parent education courses, and
professional development for teachers on how to increase rigor in the classroom (Gandera, 2002;
United States Department of Education, 2018). In addition, outreach programs offer scholarship
opportunities for students to access college (United States Department of Education, 2018).
Nationally, more than 10% of all low-SES students in public schools participate in an outreach
program (Domina, 2009). Examples in the literature of outreach programs include “AVID,”
“Upward Bound,” and “GEAR UP.”
Each component of outreach programs targets a predictor of college access. For
example, academic enrichment addresses inadequate academic preparation, while counseling and
tutoring services can minimize the lack of social capital (Gandera, 2002). Although, limited
empirical evidence on which component of an outreach program is most beneficial to increasing
low-SES student’ college access exists, the literature demonstrated that the use of outreach
program strategies increases college readiness and enrollment (Tierney et al., 2003).
Outreach programs effectiveness to increase students’ access to college is dependent on
specific elements. First, the impact of an outreach program on increasing students’ access to
college is dependent on how the outreach program collaborates with school leaders to align the
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 30
program with school curricula and schedules (Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002). Outreach programs
which collaborate with school leaders have been shown to be more stable and effective at
increasing academic achievement and building educational aspirations, along with raising the
level of program accountability and responsibility to the mission of the program (Tierney &
Hagedorn, 2002).
Secondly, successful outreach programs utilize proven instructional practices focused on
improving students’ academic skills (Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002; Tierney et al., 2009; Perna,
2002). The instructional practices used should be based on the needs of the students. Further,
the practices used should align to the mission of the program, be research-based, and rely on
standardized curricula (Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002). In addition, mirroring the importance of
technology within society, using technology to develop the technological capacity along with
instructional strategies to increase knowledge acquisition is a goal of an effective outreach
program (Adelman, 1999; Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002; Perna, 2002).
Thirdly, Levine and Nidiffer (1996) recommended that outreach programs identify
students in need of support early in the students’ academic career. In a review of longitudinal
data examining scores on standardized tests, Nettles and Perna (1997) found that inadequate
academic preparation exists as early as fourth grade. Accordingly, to increase effectiveness,
access to interventions and academic skill development (e.g. study skills) that outreach programs
provide must begin earlier than high school (Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002).
College-Going Culture Principles Promoting College Access
A college-going culture facilitates student learning, college readiness, and college
matriculation for all students (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Extensive empirical evidence exists on
how school culture influences students’ college access and preparation (Aldana, 2014; Athaneses
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 31
et al., 2016; Avilés-Reyes, 2011; Bryan, Farmer-Hinton, Rawls, & Woods, 2018; Corwin &
Tierney, 2007, McClafferty et al., 2002; McKillip et al., 2012). The courses offered to students,
the expectations of school faculty, and the resources devoted to college preparation all contribute
to determine if students view themselves as college bound (Coleman, 1987; Dean & Levine,
2007; McDonough, 1997; Powell, 1996). According to Yonezawa, Stuart-Wells, and Serna
(2002), if the culture is transformed to the point that all students view college as an option, and
the students are provided with opportunities to be prepared for the rigor of college, then the
impact of the culture will be much more profound.
The following section examines the principles of a college-going culture based on the
seminal work of McClafferty et al. (2002). In that study, the researchers gathered data over a
four-year period during a collaboration between a research institution and a cluster of urban,
middle, and high schools. The schools identified in the study have a significant percentage of
underserved students (e.g. low-SES). McClafferty et al.’s (2002) study identified nine principles
conducive to implementing a college-going culture, among which are establishing high
expectations, faculty involvement, college-preparation courses, and cultivating college
partnerships. Each of the principles are interrelated and not meant to be mutually exclusive.
Establishing High Expectations
Establishing high expectations that students graduate ready for the rigor of college is
essential to building a college-going culture (Athaneses et al., 2016; Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
School leaders high academic expectations impacts students’ decisions as to whether the student
will attend college (Bryan et al., 2018; McDonough, 2005). Schools with high expectations
maintain that all students will gain admission to and be prepared for the rigor of college
(Athaneses et al., 2016). The assumption behind establishing high expectations is that students
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 32
will work hard to meet the goal, and counter the historical trend that college is out of reach for
traditionally underrepresented students (Athaneses et al., 2016).
To establish high college-going expectations, schools create a college-going oriented
mission statement, a counseling plan that enables students to take college-preparatory courses,
and an expectation that school leaders will engage in college talk (McClafferty et al., 2002).
Corwin and Tierney (2007) proposed that leaders involve all stakeholders (e.g.
administrators, teachers, counselors, students, and parents) in the creation of a college-going
mission statement. The mission statement includes the belief that all students are expected to be
prepared for college, the benchmarks measuring college-readiness, and an action plan to
implement the mission statement.
The benchmarks measure college-readiness of all students. School leaders verify that all
students are on track to meet the requirements for college, ensure that all students apply for
college, assist students in completing any relevant financial aid forms, and set a goal for a higher
college matriculation rate for the following school year (Corwin & Tierney, 2007).
A case study conducted by Bryan et al. (2018) determined that school leaders are
instrumental to establishing high college-going expectations. Students rely on school leaders to
promote and reinforce the expectation that all students will attend college, and offer the
resources needed to navigate the complexities of accessing college (Bryan et al., 2018; Holland,
2015; Hugo, 2004; McClafferty et al., 2002). The impact of establishing high college-going
expectations is evident by the increased student matriculation rate into college. Students who
experienced high college-going expectations in the 12th grade, were 18% more likely to
matriculate into college (Bryan et al., 2018).

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 33
Faculty Involvement
In a college-going culture, counselors are not the sole individuals students interact with
about college. Much of the time students spend on campus is in the classroom with teachers.
Hence, if students are to receive the college knowledge they require to make informed decisions
about college, faculty must be an integral part of a college-going culture (McClafferty et al.,
2002). Faculty members are tasked with providing students a rigorous curriculum, engage in
college talk with students, and are involved in developing clear expectations for the school
(Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002).
With respect to college talk, this method incorporates the verbal and non-verbal forms of
communication between school faculty and students regarding the benefits and requirements of
college (McClafferty et al., 2002). The purpose of college talk is for students to understand what
is required and expected of them if they choose to pursue college (McDonough, 2002).
Engaging in college talk also allows school leaders to share insights regarding their own
experiences with preparing for and succeeding in college (McDonough, 2002).
Researchers have conducted a longitudinal study of over 16,000 students examining if
college talk from counselors, teachers, coaches, and administrators impacted the students
decision to attend college (Bryan et al., 2018). The findings concluded that college talk,
specifically in the 12th grade, was a significant factor that led students to attend college (Bryan
et al., 2018). The findings further suggested that college talk should not occur only from
students’ interactions with counselors, rather, the more that students hear college talk from
several faculty members (e.g. teachers, coaches, and administrators), the more likely the student
is to attend college (Bryan et al., 2018). In fact, if students experienced college talk in the 12th
grade from three different individuals, the student has a 34% greater chance of attending college
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 34
(Bryan et al., 2018). The data indicated that when faculty engage students in college talk, the
likelihood of the student attending college increases significantly.
Examples of college talk include decorating classrooms with college memorabilia,
wearing college apparel to school, collaborating with counselors to remain up-to-date with the
college admission requirements, and adapting lesson plans to incorporate a college message each
day (College Board, 2006; McClafferty et al., 2002).
The faculty-student relationship is the foundation of a college-going culture (McKillip et
al., 2012). Faculty involvement includes building relationships with students to establish a
positive and supportive classroom environment and to increase student engagement, which are
conducive to increasing student achievement (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Hattie, 2015;
McClafferty et al., 2002; McKillip et al., 2012). Gillespie (2002) found that positive student-
teacher relationships, one built on caring, trust, and respect, resulted in students performing
better academically. Further, positive student-teacher relationships have shown that students
were more willing to challenge themselves academically and increase student resiliency (Ewing
& Taylor, 2009; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Rudasill, Reio, Stipanovic, & Taylor, 2010).
Positive teacher-student relationships impacts student college access (Alcott, 2017;
Martin & Dowson, 2009). Alcott (2017) investigated teacher-student relationships impact on
students’ college enrollment and persistence to college-degree completion. The sample consisted
of longitudinal data collected from surveys of 647 students from schools with high percentages
of low-SES students (Alcott, 2017). For school leaders, the implications of this research are
significant. The findings suggested teacher relationships positively impact both college
matriculation and persistence in college (Alcott, 2017). Specifically, the findings illuminated
that teachers’ encouragement of students to progress to college has an observable impact on
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 35
whether students access college, especially for low-SES students (Alcott, 2017). Further, the
researchers argued that pedagogical practices along with establishing positive teacher-student
relationships is more impactful to increase students’ access to college than pedagogical practices
alone (Alcott, 2017).
College-Preparation Courses
College-preparation courses consist of high school courses designed to be more rigorous
to prepare students for the demands of college (Bromberg & Theokas, 2016). Students who
complete a rigorous college-preparation course sequence are more likely to succeed in college
(Bromberg & Theokas, 2016). However, more than half of all students are taking courses which
do not prepare the student for college (Bromberg & Theokas, 2016). Nationally, 47% of low-
SES students have taken a college-preparatory course, compared with 56% of high income
students (Bromberg & Theokas, 2016). Further, low-SES students often have less rigorous
courses offered to them at their high school (Adelman, 2006; Bosworth et al., 2014). For
example, approximately 64% of low-SES students attended a high school which offered
trigonometry, compared with 83% of high-SES students (Adelman, 2006).
Adelman (2006) found that rigorous college-preparatory course work helps prepare
students for college-level work which is one of the best predictors of college access and success.
Adelman (2006) reported the bachelor’s degree completion rate for low-SES students rose from
40% to 59% if the student took a rigorous mathematics course in high school. As an example,
83% of 12th graders who complete a calculus course (college-preparation course) graduated with
a bachelor’s degree.
College-going culture high school leaders ensured that all students have the option to
enroll in college-preparatory courses (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Such high schools
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 36
communicated to all incoming freshman students the requirements needed to be eligible for
college, and develop a four-year college-preparation course sequence for students to follow to
meet all college expectations (Adelman, 2006; Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Additionally, students
are given the opportunity to enroll in advanced placement (AP) courses to attain college credit
while in high school.
In Adelman’s (2006) study, low-SES students who took AP exams in high school were
64% more likely to attend a four-year institution. Taking AP courses also positively affected
low-SES students’ academic achievement while in college, as the average grade point average
(GPA) for low-SES students who passed an AP exam was approximately 3.0, compared with 2.4
for low-SES students who did not take an AP course (Adelman, 2006). The reason for the
increase is due to the rigor of an AP course (e.g. increasing student critical-thinking skills),
which better prepares students for the rigor of college (Adelman, 2006). Consequently, the data
supported the need for rigorous college-preparatory course offerings including more AP courses.
College-going culture high schools further offer SAT and ACT preparation courses for all
students (Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Passing the SAT or ACT is an eligibility requirement for
many four-year colleges. Horn and Nunez (2000) found that high-SES students are more likely
to attempt the SAT or ACT than low-SES students. By choosing not to take the standardized
test, low-SES students are not eligible for many four-year colleges. The literature provided
examples of how high schools have attempted to increase student participation in taking and
passing the SAT or ACT. McClafferty et al. (2002) described one high school that engaged in a
day themed “TestFest,” where all students take the practice-SAT (PSAT). More recently,
districts are offering SAT and ACT preparation courses, and some districts are requiring all
students to take the PSAT in the 10th grade to better prepare students for the SAT.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 37
College Partnerships
A college-going culture promotes developing relationships with local colleges and
universities. The objective of college partnerships is to provide students with the opportunity to
visualize what college life is like, familiarize students with college resources, improve the rate of
college matriculation, and offer opportunities for students to receive college credit while in high
school (Hanover Research, 2014; Hill, 2008; McClafferty et al., 2002). College partnerships
targeted 86% of underserved students and 56% of low-achieving students (Perna, 2002). College
partnerships fostered college related activities (e.g. college field trips, college fairs), and allowed
for the enactment of college enrichment programs which increase students’ educational
aspirations (McClafferty et al., 2002).
The literature identified various models that high schools and local colleges can use to
establish partnerships. The most commonly used model is known as the concurrent enrollment
college partnerships model (Hanover Research, 2014). Concurrent college enrollment offers the
opportunity for students to earn college credit for courses taken at the student’s high school.
Concurrent enrollment college partnerships provide academic, social, and financial benefits to
students (Hanover Research, 2014). According to a 2012 report from the Community College
Research Center (CCRC), concurrent enrollment college partnerships prepare students for
college rigor, while also increasing the likelihood that low-SES students will attend college. The
added benefit of taking college credit courses in high school with no cost reduces the financial
burden low-SES students’ encounter as a hindrance to accessing college (CCRC, 2012).
Students who participate in concurrent enrollment college partnerships excel
academically in college. The CCRC (2012) published a study that followed nine concurrent
enrollment college partnerships to assess the feasibility of the impact of concurrent enrollment
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 38
college partnerships on low-SES students’ high school and college completion rate. The study
concluded that low-SES students were more likely to graduate from high school, transition to
college, persist to college degree completion, accumulate a higher college GPA, and less likely
to require remedial courses.
School Leader ’s Role in Cultivating Cultural Change
School leaders are empowered with the responsibility of bringing about a cultural change
that will prepare students academically, socially, and emotionally for the rigor of college
(Robledo-Montecel, 2010). Effective school leaders impact student achievement and access to
college by providing students with the knowledge and resources needed including college
eligibility requirements, access to financial aid assistance, more rigorous college-preparatory
courses, establishing partnerships with colleges and pre-collegiate outreach programs, increased
relationships with college counselors, and engaging in college talk (Bosworth et al., 2014;
Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Okpych & Courtney, 2017; Perna & Steele, 2011). Martorell, Heaton,
Gates, and Hamilton (2010) conducted a study examining students in grades three through nine
in four large metropolitan cities. Martorell et al. (2010) analyzed students’ standardized test
scores and course grades to determine the effectiveness of school leaders on academic
achievement and college matriculation rates. The data concluded that schools with an effective
school leader resulted in a 25% increase in students’ academic achievement and college
enrollment rates.
Effective school leaders are essential to cultivating cultural change by anticipating
change and developing a plan to manage change (Fullan, 2017). All of the principles addressed
in this chapter could not be implemented without school leaders’ commitment to cultivating
cultural change. Creating a college-going culture is a complex process involving multiple school
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 39
leaders to ensure that the school is focused on improving college access for students. Various
school leaders (e.g. administrators, counselors, and teachers) are involved in promoting and
sustaining a college-going culture (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Hugo, 2004; McClafferty et al.,
2002). As discussed in previous sections of this chapter, school administrators are responsible
for establishing high expectations involving articulating a college-going mission, and cultivating
college partnerships (Avilés-Reyes, 2011; Corwin & Tierney, 2007). The faculty is responsible
to prepare students for the academic rigor of college and build educational aspirations (Corwin &
Tierney, 2007; Hugo, 2004). Specifically for low-SES students, faculty has the important task of
motivating low-SES students to attend college, and reducing the fears of college affordability
(Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Hugo, 2004). School counselors provide college knowledge, advise
students on which courses to enroll in, and hold workshops on college entrance requirements and
financial aid (ASCA, 2012; Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002).
Summary
Chapter Two began by exploring emergent themes identified in the literature which has
been shown to increase low-SES students’ access to college: social and cultural capital, outreach
programs, impact of college counselors, and access to financial aid. In addition, principles of a
college-going culture (e.g. faculty involvement, high expectations) based on the sentinel work of
McClafferty et al. (2002) were examined.
The school leaders’ role in cultivating cultural change was discussed. School leaders are
essential for cultivating cultural change (Fullan, 2017). Yet to be adequately understood are how
the promising practices used by school leaders in high schools to promote and sustain a college-
going culture influence college access for low-SES students. Therefore, the intent of this study
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 40
was to determine what strategies school leaders use to prepare low-SES students to be college
eligible and increase the rate of college access.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
A college degree assists individuals to become economically competitive and increase
their socioeconomic status (Perna, 2015). The purpose of this study was to examine promising
practices school leaders employed to promote and sustain a college-going culture to increase
low-SES students’ college access. The literature review discussed how social and cultural
capital, outreach programs, college counselors, and access to financial aid increased low-SES
students’ access to college. In addition, the principles of a college-going culture (e.g. high
expectations, faculty involvement) were explored. The implications derived from this study
contributed to the understanding of how a college-going culture increases college access for low-
SES students.
Chapter Three will begin by providing the research questions of the study and elaborate
on why a qualitative case study is appropriate to understand the promising practices school
leaders used to promote and sustain a college-going culture at ABC High School. Secondly, the
sample of this study and the overview of the organization will be provided. Thirdly,
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) “Ecological Systems Theory” will be discussed, and the conceptual
framework created in collaboration with the thematic dissertation group will be illustrated.
Further sections of this chapter will includes a discussion of the data collection methods,
instrumentation, and Creswell’s (2014) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis. The chapter will
conclude by addressing the ethical considerations taken into account for the participants in this
study.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 42
Research Questions
This study examined the promising practices ABC High School leaders used to promote a
college-going culture for low-SES students. The following research questions were developed
collaboratively by the six members of a University of Southern California Ed.D. thematic
dissertation group.
1. What perceived strategies does ABC High School employ to promote a college-going
culture for low-SES students?
2. What are the perceived challenges at ABC High School in sustaining a college-going
culture?
Research Design and Methods
Case studies offer a rich, holistic account to better understand the phenomenon that is
being studied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Utilizing qualitative data collection methods including
interviewing school leaders, observing perceived college-going promising practices school
leaders implement based on the emergent themes identified in the review of literature (e.g.
college talk, faculty involvement), and analyzing relevant documents will provide rich data
demonstrating how school leaders promoted and sustained a college-going culture.
This study primarily used interviews as the primary source of data collection. The
purpose of interviews is to obtain information from the respondent which cannot be directly
observed (Patton, 2015). The most utilized type of interviews are semi structured interviews.
Semi structured interviews use an interview guide, and flexibility exists to ask probing questions
of the interviewee to ascertain a deeper understanding of the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The two other forms of data collection methods used were observations and document
analysis. Observations offer a “firsthand account of the situation under study, and allows for a
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 43
holistic interpretation of the phenomenon being investigated” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 161).
The researcher, for example, observed the “college center” on campus over the course of several
days and at various times of the day to gather relevant data regarding how ABC High School
leaders promoted a college-going culture. Document analysis allows the researcher to collect
data that is a natural part of the setting and does not “intrude upon or alter the setting in the ways
that the presence of the investigator might when conducting interviews or observations”
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 162). Examples of documents analyzed included the LCAP Plan,
CA Dashboard data, and ABC High School’s website. By analyzing documents, the researcher
increased triangulation and validity of the study (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Sample and Population
The purpose of sampling was to study characteristics of a small portion of the population
in order to understand the characteristics of the larger population (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
The sampling strategy used by qualitative researchers is purposeful sampling. Purposeful
sampling occurs when the researcher identifies the criterion of the population to be sampled and
then finds those individuals (Johnson & Christensen, 2015; Patton, 1987).
The unit of analysis for this case study was a purposive sample of school leaders at ABC
High School. The researcher interviewed the principal, both assistant principals, and the dean.
Additionally, three counselors and five teachers were interviewed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In
total, 12 participants were interviewed to collect rich data about the promising practices school
leaders used to promote and sustain a college-going culture.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 44
Overview of the Organization
ABC High School is a comprehensive high school located in a suburb in southern
California. The following data is based on the latest data from the California Department of
Education Dashboard released in the fall of 2018. ABC High School has 1,217 students, with
70.2% of students identifying as low-SES. Certificated staff are comprised of the principal, two
assistant principals, dean, three counselors, and approximately 50 teachers. The high school
belongs to a unified district serving approximately 70% low-SES students. The Local Control
Accountability Plan (LCAP) for the district established as its first priority preparing all students
to be college eligible. The unit of analysis is selected because of the commitment of the school
to implement a college-going culture along with high graduation rates of low-SES students.
Accordingly, ABC High School was an appropriate school to study in order to identify the
promising practices school leaders implemented to promote and sustain a college-going culture
to increase low-SES students’ college access.
Theoretical Framework
To study how school leaders promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-SES
students, it is necessary to frame the research around theory. As explored in the review of
literature, the school environment, resources, school leaders, and family affect students’ access to
college. For this reason Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) “Ecological Systems Theory” is an applicable
theoretical framework.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) “Ecological Systems Theory” explored how the inherent
qualities of an individual and the environment around them interact to influence how the
individual will become. The theory stressed the importance of evaluating the individual in
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 45
multiple environments (ecological systems) to better understand the individuals’ development
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977).
The theory is illustrated utilizing the following model (Figure A), divided into five levels
of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
This study will examine the micro and mesosystems.

Source: Bronfenbrenner & Morris (1998)
Figure A: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Model
The microsystem is comprised of the immediate environment to the individual including
the home, school, and peer environments. The mesosystem encompasses the interactions
between microsystems. Accordingly, to study promising practices school leaders used to
promote and sustain a college-going culture, Bronfenbrenner’s Theory (1977) will be
operationalized to understand how the most immediate external influences interact with the
student to increase the likelihood that the student will access college. Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
is expansive and will allow the researcher to study the complex layers of school and family
relationships and how these relationships influence low-SES students’ attainment to college.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 46
This study examined how the microsystems, especially school leaders, implemented
strategies to increase low-SES student matriculation into college. Low-SES students rely on
school leaders to provide college knowledge needed to access college (Roderick et al., 2009).
Further, the review of literature explored how college-going culture schools provide outreach
programs and access to financial aid to increase the likelihood low-SES students’ access college
(Tierney et al., 2009). Various school leaders have been identified in the literature who provided
students with college knowledge and help build educational aspirations (Corwin & Tierney,
2007; Hugo, 2004). By studying how the school setting impacts low-SES college attainment
from a socio-cultural perspective, insights will be illuminated about how various microsystems
around the low-SES student influence college attainment.
In addition, the mesosystem will be examined by studying how the various microsystems
interact with one another. As an example, the review of literature has identified the importance
of increasing parental involvement (Hill & Craft, 2003; McClafferty et al., 2002). As part of a
college-going culture, schools encourage parents to attend school functions, participate in parent
groups, and join school committees (College Board, 2006).
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework was developed by the dissertation thematic group based on
the emergent themes from the review of literature (Figure B). This study was framed by the
school leaders’ role in building and sustaining a college-going culture. School leadership is
essential to cultivating cultural change in an organization (Fullan, 2017). Accordingly, to
examine perceived promising practices school leaders implement to build and sustain a college-
going culture, it was necessary to explore the emergent themes identified in the literature review
including the significance of school leaders, the school environment, resources, and families had
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 47
on increasing low-SES students’ access to college (microsystems). One example discussed in
the literature review details how school leaders promote college access through building
students’ educational aspirations (Moschetti & Hudley, 2014). Further, the relationship between
each microsystem (mesosystem) was examined. An example included school leaders
purposefully engaging with parents to develop a college-going culture mission statement
(Corwin & Tierney, 2007). Through this conceptual framework, the various systems that
influence low-SES student access to college could be operationalized to provide implications for
practice.

Figure B. Conceptual Framework, Ed.D. Thematic Group 2019

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 48
Data Collection Approach
Firstly, the participants received an introductory letter detailing the studies purpose, the
data collection methods, and steps the researcher will take to maintain confidentiality including
using pseudonyms in lieu of participants names (Appendix A).
The researcher conducted semi structured interviews with the principal, both assistant
principals, dean, three counselors, and five teachers. By using semi structured interviews, the
researcher was able to adapt to the emerging views of the respondents and to new ideas revolving
around the implementation of strategies of a college-going culture. Each respondent answered
approximately 15 questions, and interviews took 30-40 minutes to complete.
The most common and desirable way to conduct an interview is through audio recording,
because the data collected is preserved for analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Accordingly, the
researcher audio recorded all interviews. After completion of the interviews, each interview was
transcribed to provide a database for analysis.
Throughout each interview, various types of questions were asked based on the six types
of questions as explained by Patton (2015). Specifically, questions that ascertain what
respondents do, opinion and value questions, and knowledge questions were asked (Patton,
2015). Seidman (2013) called for further “exploration” to elicit additional information or
elaboration from the respondent by asking probing questions. Therefore, probing questions were
included in the interview guide.
Interviews, observations, and document analysis served as the methods to collect data.
Interview questions addressed the research questions and were developed in collaboration with
the thematic dissertation group (see Appendix B and C). Prior to the interviews taking place, the
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 49
interview protocols were piloted to ensure that the questions developed did in fact answer the
research questions (Creswell, 2014).
Table 1 describes the role of each respondent and the approximate time allotted for each
interview.
Table 1
Study Interview Respondents
Name of Respondent Role of the Respondent Years of Service to School
John

Mike

Tony

Mary

Regina

Richard

Joe

Tori

Debbie

Frank

Susie

Bill

Principal of ABC High School

Assistant Principal- Student
Services

Assistant Principal-
Instruction, Former
Instructional Coach

Dean, Former Head Counselor

Head Counselor

Counselor

Counselor

English Teacher, Chair

Science Teacher, Chair

Social Studies Teacher, Chair

Math Teacher, Chair

AVID Coordinator, Math
Teacher
4

2

3

3

12

12

4

5

25

18

9

24

Table 1 listed the respondents interviewed along with their job responsibility and years of
service at ABC High School.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 50
Instrumentation
Semi-structured interviews are best used when the researcher will not have additional
opportunities to interview the respondents (Bernard, 1988). Further, semi-structured interviews
provide reliable and comparable qualitative data. Accordingly, the researcher used semi-
structured interviews to elicit individualized responses. To ensure that the interview protocols
addressed the research questions, the dissertation thematic group developed a matrix aligning the
interview protocols to each research question (see Appendix D).
Observations were conducted using the observation protocol developed by the
dissertation thematic group (see Appendix E). The observation protocol allowed the researcher
to record significant findings during observations and summarize the findings to identify
emergent themes. Further, the LCAP, ABC High School Dashboard data, and ABC High
School’s website were analyzed to triangulate the data collected and increase validity of the
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Table 2 aligns each research question to the data collection instrument.
Table 2
Research Questions Aligned to the Data Collection Instrumentation

Research Question

Interview

Observation
Document
Analysis
1. What perceived strategies
does ABC High School
employ to promote a
college-going culture for
low-SES students?

2. What are the perceived
challenges at ABC High
School in sustaining a
college-going culture?

X

X

X

X

X

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 51
Table 2 illustrated interviews were used to gather data regarding the perceived strategies
school leaders used to promote a college-going culture along with the perceived challenges that
school leaders encountered in sustaining such a culture. Interviews allowed the researcher to
gather data from the respondents that is not observable in the research setting (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Observations were used to gather data regarding both research questions and
provide a first-hand account of the perceived strategies school leaders are utilizing to promote
and sustain a college-going culture. Document analysis sought to provide a third data point to
triangulate data gathered through interviews and observations.
Data Analysis
The data analysis procedure for this case study was based on Creswell’s (2014) “Data
Analysis Model.” Figure C is a graphic representation of Creswell’s (2014) model designed
collaboratively by the thematic dissertation group.

STEP 1
Collect raw
data
STEP 2
Organize
data and
prepare for
analysis
STEP 3
Read
through all
of the data
STEP 4
Code the
data
STEP 5
Determine
themes and
descriptions
presented
by the data
STEP 6
Interpret
the meaning
of the
themes and
descriptions

Figure C: Creswell’s Data Analysis Model, Ed.D. Thematic Group (2019)

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 52
The researcher first collected data through analyzing interviews, observations, and
documents about promising practices school leaders at ABC High School implement to promote
and sustain a college-going culture. Second, the data was organized and prepared for analysis by
transcribing audio recordings from interviews, written notes from observations, and relevant
documents (e.g. SPSA, counseling plan). Third, the researcher began to read the data collected
and engaged in a process known as “winnowing” the data, whereby relevant data regarding
promising practices school leaders employ to promote and sustain a college-going culture will be
focused on and the rest is disregarded (Guest, MacQueen, & Namey, 2012). Fourth, the data was
coded to determine emergent themes relevant to college-going culture strategies (Rossman &
Rallis, 2012). Step five included developing a description of the information gathered from the
respondents. The narrative elaborated on the major themes gathered during the data collection
process. Lastly, the researcher analyzed and interpreted the data collected in order to determine
implications for practice.
Validity refers to checking the accuracy of the findings, while reliability indicated that
the approach is consistent across different projects (Gibbs, 2007). To increase the validity of the
study, the researcher, used a rich description to describe the findings, and clarified any biases
that existed (Creswell, 2014). To check for reliability, the researcher utilized an external auditor
to check transcriptions for error (Creswell, 2014). Further, standardized interview protocols
were used for each respondent to ensure reliability and credibility of the data collected.
Ethical Considerations
To produce a credible, reliant, and trustworthy study, the researcher completed the
following tasks based on Patton’s (2015) “Ethical Issues Checklist”. The researcher explained to
each respondent the purpose of the study and the methods which will be used to collect data,
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 53
informed consent was given prior to any interview or observation taking place, and
confidentiality of each respondent and the school site was maintained utilizing pseudonyms.
Upon completion of this study, all records of data were discarded in a secure manner. Lastly,
prior to beginning this case study, the University of Southern California Institutional Review
Board examined the research proposal and gave approval for this study.
Summary
Chapter Three outlined the methods used to conduct research for this case study. A
qualitative case study explored the perceived promising practices school leaders at ABC High
School implemented to promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-SES students. In-
depth analysis of interviews, observations, and documents were used to gain a deeper
understanding of the research questions and to increase validity of the study. Serving as the
theoretical framework for this study was Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) “Ecological Systems Theory.”
Further, a conceptual framework was collaboratively developed and illustrated based on the
emergent themes from existing literature. This chapter included a discussion of the data
collection procedures and instruments that were utilized to collect data for this study. The
chapter concluded with a description of Creswell’s (2014) “Qualitative Data Analysis Model”
and a discussion of ethical considerations. Chapter Four includes the results of this case study
based on the data collected utilizing the methods outlined in Chapter Three.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 54
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Effective school leadership increases low-SES students’ college access (Fullan, 2017;
Robledo-Montecel, 2010). Based on the conceptual framework of this study, results from this
study aimed to provide perceived promising practices school leaders used to promote a college-
going culture to increase low-SES students’ college access. Accordingly, this study sought to
illuminate the promising practices ABC High School leaders implemented to build and sustain a
college-going culture. Additionally, this study sought to identify challenges school leaders at
ABC High School encountered which inhibit the sustainment of a college-going culture. This
chapter will begin by further elaborating on the participants of the study. Second, an overview of
ABC High School will be provided. Lastly, the findings from interviews, observations, and
document analysis will be presented. The following research questions served to frame this
study:
1. What perceived strategies does ABC High School employ to promote a college-going
culture for low-SES students?
2. What are the perceived challenges at ABC High School in sustaining a college-going
culture?
Overview of the Participants
Twelve leaders at ABC High School were interviewed: the ABC High School principal,
two assistant principals, dean, three school counselors, and five teachers.
The principal of ABC High School, John
1
, has served in the role for two years, plus four
years as an assistant principal. In total, John has been with the district for 15 years, which
allowed John to gain significant insight into how best to serve the diverse population of ABC

1
Pseudonyms for all participants were used to ensure anonymity
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 55
High School. Although John has been at ABC High School for a relatively short amount of time,
John was instrumental in developing a robust college-going culture. During John’s tenure, ABC
High School enhanced academic rigor and established high academic expectations for students.
Further, John has been instrumental in encouraging a more comprehensive counseling model, has
been an advocate for more school counselors resulting in an additional counselor this school
year, added more advanced placement courses, and supports the efforts of the college center on
campus.
The two assistant principals, Mike and Tony, have been at ABC High School for the past
two and three years respectfully. Mike oversees student services, including the counseling team,
student discipline, and helps coordinate student athletics. Prior to coming to ABC High School,
Mike served as an assistant principal at another site in the district. Mike’s experience at multiple
sites in the district provides the leadership team with great insight on how to enhance the
programing at ABC High School. Tony, is the assistant principal who oversees instruction.
Tony plans professional development and manages the master schedule. Prior to ABC High
School, Tony served as an instructional coach in a different district.
The dean of students, Mary, works directly with students to ensure that students are
attending class on time and following all school rules and procedures. Prior to becoming dean,
Mary served as a school counselor for one year at ABC High School. Mary’s insights as a
school counselor provided this study with a unique perspective about how ABC High School has
promoted a college-going culture for students.
The counseling department consisting of one head counselor and two additional
counselors were interviewed. Each counselor is assigned a portion of the student body based on
last name, and additionally oversees a specific unduplicated student group (i.e. English learners).
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 56
Regina is the head counselor and has been an employee at ABC High School for 12
years, including four years as a counselor. Regina started as an administrative secretary and
library clerk before becoming a counselor. Richard and Joe have been counselors at ABC High
School for 12 and four years respectfully. Richard began his career in education as a campus
supervisor and then as a substitute teacher. Joe taught high school English for 10 years prior to
becoming a counselor at a large, low-SES high school. Joe stated that his experience in the
classroom “helps me better understand what students are experiencing in the classroom.”
Together, the counseling department has been instrumental in promoting and sustaining a
college-going culture which will be discussed in detail throughout this chapter.
In addition to the counseling and administrative team, the researcher interviewed five
teachers. A quality teacher in the classroom has been shown to be a significant factor in
increasing academic achievement and college aspirations (Marzano et al., 2005). To gain a
better understanding of how teacher leaders have promoted and sustained a college-going culture
and to discover what challenges teachers experience in sustaining such a culture, the researcher
purposefully interviewed the department head of each of the four department core content areas
(i.e. English, math, science, history). Additionally, the researcher interviewed the coordinator of
ABC High School’s Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID, 2018) program.
Tori is the English department chair. Tori has taught at ABC High School for five years,
and 20 years in total. Debbie is the science department chair and has been at ABC High School
for 25 years teaching biology, physics, and AP environmental science. Debbie’s time of service
provided profound insights into the evolution of the college-going culture at ABC High School.
Frank has been at ABC High School for 18 years and teaches economics and psychology. Along
with the science classes, Frank also teaches a senior AVID course. Observing Frank’s AVID
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 57
class provided the researcher with data regarding how ABC High School effectively promotes a
college-going culture. Susie is the math department chair and has been at ABC High School for
nine years. Susie teaches mostly junior and senior level mathematics courses including calculus.
Bill teaches English and is the AVID coordinator. Bill has served ABC High School for 24
years.
Table three provides the name and years of service for each participant, along with
describing distinct characteristics.
Table 3
Participant Descriptions
Name of Participant Distinct Characteristics Years of Service
John  Principal of ABC High School
 Strong believer in college-
going culture.
 Oversees implementation of
promising practices (i.e. no
“D” policy).

4 years
Mike  Assistant principal - student
services.
 Oversees counselors
 Brings experience from other
comprehensive high schools in
the district.

2 years
Tony  Assistant principal - instruction
 Former instructional coach
 Coordinates professional
development for faculty.

3 years
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 58
Table 3 (Cont’d.)
Name of Participant Distinct Characteristics Years of Service
Mary  Dean
 Former head counselor
 Oversees student attendance
and discipline.

3 years
Regina

 Head Counselor
 Developed new A-G student
presentation.
 Represents counselors on
instructional leadership team.

12 years
Richard

 Counselor.
 Former classroom teacher.
 Brings perspective of
counseling students from
another school district.

12 years

Joe  Counselor.
 Began as instructional aide, but
wanted to make more of an
impact.

4 years
Tori  English teacher
 Chair of department
 Helped develop CSU senior
English course.

5 years
Debbie  Science teacher
 Chair of department
 Teaches senior AVID course
 Helped implement no “D”
policy.

25 years
Frank  Social Studies teacher
 Chair of department
 One of the longest tenured
teachers at site.

18 years

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 59
Table 3 (Cont’d.)
Name of Participant Distinct Characteristics Years of Service
Susie

 Math teacher
 Chair of department
 Serves on district LCAP

9 years

Bill

 AVID coordinator
 Math Teacher
 Became a teacher to impact
low-SES students.
24 years

Table 3 illustrated the name and years of service for each respondent. Further, the table
provided a description of relevant distinct characteristics that led to the purposeful selection of
each respondent.
In addition to the interviews of 12 participants, the researcher observed three classrooms
and the college center to acquire a holistic interpretation of how ABC High School leaders
promote and sustain a college-going culture. Further, relevant documents including the LCAP
(CDE, 2019), California Dashboard (CDE, 2018) data, and ABC High School’s
2
website were
analyzed to increase triangulation of data and increase validity of the findings of this study.
Overview of the Organization
Low-SES students comprised 70.2% of ABC High School’s student population, while
Latinx students made up 78.1% of the student body (CDE, 2018). As such, ABC High School
was an appropriate school to study how school leaders increased college access for low-SES
students. Data collected for this study showed in 2018, 97.4% of low-SES students graduated,
which is 17% higher than the State of California’s graduation rate for low-SES students (CDE,
2018). Further, the rate of ABC High School’s low-SES student college eligibility has been

2
Additional information withheld for confidentiality
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 60
increasing over the past several years from 35% in 2013, to the current rate of 47% (CDE, 2018).
Table 4 provides ABC High School’s student demographic information.
Table 4
ABC Student Demographic Data

Student Group
Total Number
of Students

Percentage
English Learners 37 3
Foster Youth 12 1
Homeless 82 6.7
Low-SES 854 70.2
Students with Disabilities 164 13.5
African-American 28 2.3
American Indian 3 .2
Asian 80 6.6
Filipino 31 2.5
Hispanic 950 78.1
Two or More Races 9 .7
Pacific Islander 2 .2
White 108 8.9

Table 4 illustrated ABC High School students’ demographic information. Pertinent to
this study is the significant percentage of low-SES students which stands at 70.2%.
ABC High School has revised the mission statement in recent years to the following,
“ABC High School is a community inspiring passionate, innovative, and life-long learners.”
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 61
The mission statement was developed through a collaborative process involving administrators,
teachers, students, and parents.
Data Findings
Research Question 1: Promising Practices to Promote and Sustain a College-Going Culture
College access is affected by multiple factors, one of which is school leadership
(Robledo-Montecel, 2010). Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to better understand how
school leaders promoted and sustained a college-going culture to increase low-SES students’
access to college.
The data collected through interviews, observations, and document analysis led to the
emergence of three themes, demonstrating how ABC High School leaders increase low-SES
students’ college access. First, school leaders established high academic expectations and
increased academic rigor by providing advanced courses and improving teaching to promote
student knowledge and academic success. Second, school leaders used college talk and
resources to increase college knowledge. Third, school leaders established encouraging
relationships with students to increase college aspirations.
School Leaders Establish High Academic Expectations and Increase Rigor
ABC High School leaders implemented promising practices and policies that led to an
increase in students’ academic expectations and academic rigor in the classroom including the
use of professional learning committees (PLCs) together with the implementation of a seven-
period day, the development of a no “D” policy, and the impact of an outreach program on
increasing academic rigor.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 62
Professional learning communities and seven-period day. ABC High School leaders
examined student data and determined that students were scoring below proficiency in language
arts and math on standardized tests. Additionally, according to John, approximately 35% of
students were A-G eligible, which is the minimum standard needed to be eligible for a four-year
university in California. Consequently, the instructional leadership team, comprised of teachers,
counselors, and administrators, implemented professional learning communities. Characteristics
of professional learning communities include having a shared vision, time allotted for
collaboration, and the teachers are focused on results (DuFour & Eaker, 1998).
Based on interview data collected, implementation of professional learning communities
(PLCs) led to teachers being more willing to engage in conversations regarding student data and
teaching practices than before. According to Debbie, “PLCs, I think are really beneficial
because I think they are discussions of, ‘What are we doing and how can we improve it and did it
work?’” The culture of being fearful to have open conversations has dissolved into a culture that
embraces innovative ideas of how to increase students’ academic success. ABC High School’s
instructional culture is one that, as Susie alluded to, “teachers set high expectations because
students can meet the expectations.”
To have a positive impact on students’ academic success, teachers required ample
collaboration time to examine student data and develop rigorous lessons. According to Debbie,
“At the beginning we just were not seeing results. We didn’t have enough time to really dig
deep into data.” Therefore, school leaders at ABC High School collaborated to develop a seven-
period day, allocating one period each day for professional learning communities to collaborate
together. Frank has witnessed the transition from a six-period to seven-period day. According to
Frank, once the school shifted to a seven-period day, teachers took advantage of the opportunity
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 63
to delve deeper into practices that work and to develop common units and assessments that are
aligned to the standards. Susie concurred, teachers have bought in to the belief that “all students,
and I mean all students, will be successful. That is our mission.” Student data reflected the
impact professional learning communities has had on student achievement. According to Joe,
since implementation, student scores on standardized tests have increased.
Observation data demonstrated teachers are discussing promising instructional strategies
to implement to increase academic rigor and expectations. The researcher observed a PLC
meeting of the math department. During the meeting, math teachers examined the results of a
common assessment that students took. Students were first given a pre-test at the beginning of
the unit to provide feedback to the teacher as to what knowledge of the content the students
possessed before instruction. Three weeks had passed since the pre-test to the aforementioned
post-test. Based on the pre-test results, the teachers had set a goal that 60% of students would
improve. Post-test results showed, 55% of students had improved, nearly reaching the stated
goal. During the PLC meeting, teachers shared practices that had helped students’ improve.
Further, the teachers discussed next steps of how to assist students who have not yet mastered the
skills assessed.
Implementing professional learning communities along with a seven-period day
increased academic expectations evident by students’ academic success. According to the latest
statistics from the California Department of Education (2018), ABC High School students are
exhibiting scores above standard in English for two consecutive years, with low-SES students
slightly below standard (4.3 points), yet well above the state average of 34.7 points below
standard (CDE, 2018). Although the results in English are impressive, more work is needed in
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 64
the area of math. Low-SES students scored 83 points below standard in math, compared with the
state average of 67 points below standard (CDE, 2018).
To further increase access to college, the seven-period day allows flexibility for students
to take college-preparatory electives and more advanced courses to prepare students for the rigor
of college. Bill, the AVID coordinator, noted that students who opted to take another elective
rather than a college-preparatory course like AVID, now have the ability to take AVID along
with another elective course. Additionally, more rigorous advanced courses have been added to
the master schedule. With the addition of a seventh period, Tony explained students can now
enroll in more advanced placement (AP) courses including: AP calculus, European history,
comparative government and politics, and English literature.
As is evident by the data elaborated on in this section, ABC High School leaders’
decision to adopt professional learning communities and shift to a seven-period schedule has
allowed for a college-going culture to flourish. Interview data demonstrated teachers are able to
allocate daily time to develop rigorous lessons, and students now have the opportunity to take
more college-preparatory courses, which together will help prepare students for the rigor of
college.
No “D ” policy. In an effort to increase academic expectations of students at ABC High
School, school leaders collaborated to develop an innovative no “D” policy for all core courses.
Four years ago, according to Principal John, ABC High School had less than 35% of students A-
G eligible. The percentage has now nearly doubled. Mike stated, “In 2013 to ‘14 we’re at 35%
A-G graduation. Last year we’re at a 69%.” Students are now required to pass core classes (i.e.
English, history, science, math) with a letter grade of “C” or higher.
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The development of the no “D” policy began as a movement from a select group of
teachers and administrators. According to Susie, teachers were concerned that students were not
putting forth their best effort because all that was required to pass a class for high school
graduation requirements was a “D.” Susie stated “five years ago, my students in senior math
were just doing the minimum to get a “D”, there was no motivation to get a higher grade.”
School administrators were also concerned. Debbie recalls sitting with a previous principal, and
the principal would ask why there is such a high “D” and “F” rate, and what the teacher was
going to do to fix it? According to Debbie this is when the paradigm shifted. Teachers began to
be aware of how students were performing academically and conversations began in professional
learning communities around strategies teachers could implement to decrease the “F” and “D”
ratio.
The instructional leadership team decided that school faculty needed to set higher
academic expectations for students to increase students’ access to college. As John recalled,
The no-D policy was put into effect four years ago. We talked a lot about it as a district.
Nobody had the guts to do it. This school had the guts to do it. What did the no-D policy
do? It forced kids to be A-G eligible, and that’s the reason we did it. We set up a school-
wide system that’s going to force the graduation requirement to be you got to meet the A-
G standards. That simple policy took us 35% A-G completion to 70% A-G completion.
Further, according to Tori, “I really think our no-D policy helps, too, because it keeps
kids from being in that, ‘Well, I passed it but I didn’t really earn the A-G.’ It makes sure that
they have to pass it.”
Data from the California Department of Education demonstrates that since the no “D”
policy has been in effect, graduation rates have been high. The following table illustrates the
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graduation rate for ABC High School since 2014-2015 when the no “D” policy was
implemented.
Table 5
ABC High School Graduation Rates
Year Graduation Rate
2015 98.7%
2016 96.7%
2017 96.7%
2018 96.6%
*Data from school SARC Report and CA Dashboard
The above table illustrated the high graduation rate for students at ABC High School
since the no “D” policy was instituted. To compare, the state graduation rate for 2015 was 82%,
and in 2018 the graduation rate stands at 83.5%. Consequently, ABC High School is graduating
approximately 15% more students than the average high school in California.
Increased rigor. To address concerns that low-SES students were not meeting high
academic expectations (i.e. 35% A-G completion rate), school leaders understood that rigor had
to be increased in the classroom. Accordingly, school leaders offered more rigorous courses and
partnered with an outreach program named AVID to implement research-based instructional
strategies to increase academic rigor, targeting low-SES students, to ensure that low-SES
students are academically prepared for college.
Academically rigorous courses. College access is positively impacted by the rigorous
courses students take in high school. School leaders shifted to a seven-period day in order to
increase opportunities for students to take more rigorous courses. Tony explained that ABC
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High School now offers more sections of advanced math and science courses. Further, Tony
stated, “Here we believe that all students who want to enroll in AP courses can. There are no
prerequisites.” This policy impact, according to John, has allowed more students to take
advanced courses and the AP completion rate has increased.
An example of ABC High School leaders’ innovative strategies to increase college access
is the development of a California State University approved senior English course. Students
who complete the course meet the requirements to bypass the English entrance exam for
California State Universities and are automatically eligible for college freshman English.
Richard described the course in detail,
The senior year English class that they are teaching here is a Cal-state approved. One of
the things that gets you through that process is if you take a senior high school class
that’s catered to their curriculum, which is what we do here. All our students take the
senior English class and need a C both semesters, and they are done with the English
requirement. They don’t have to take any extra test, they don’t have to prove themselves
with an SAT score. If they pass our senior English class with C or better and get into a
Cal-state, they automatically are placed in the freshman level English class.
ABC High School has offered additional rigorous courses, including hiring additional
mathematics teachers to provide more sections of advanced mathematics such as trigonometry
and calculus. Offering more advanced mathematic courses as students who complete an
advanced math course are 83% more likely to access and succeed in college (Adelman, 2006).
Simply offering more rigorous courses is not enough to increase access to college.
Additionally, teachers at ABC High School use research-based instructional strategies to increase
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 68
rigor and the academic expectations in the classroom. Specifically, ABC High School has
partnered with AVID to support teachers to increase access to college for low-SES students.
AVID strategies. Nearly a decade ago, school leaders at ABC High School implemented
AVID as part of the academic culture. As Bill described,
Our school and district basically wanted to create more of a college-going culture and
AVID was an established program nationwide. We went to an informational session and
we thought that it would be a great fit here at ABC High. We had a strong population
that fit a lot of what they were looking for students that have low socioeconomic status,
that were first generation college-going students, so a lot of things that AVID had
targeted, we had here at ABC High School already.
Richard concurred stating that,
The emergence of AVID is having a big impact for kids, that information gets spread and
disseminated throughout. So that program has done a huge amount to push the college-
going culture.
Each year, the focus of learning promotes college access. For example, in 11th grade,
students explore different types of colleges (i.e. public vs. private) and begin to complete college
applications. In 12th grade, students submit college applications and complete financial aid
documents. Throughout all four years, students in AVID have the opportunity to visit colleges,
meet with college recruiters, work on college personal statements, learn college-oriented skills
(i.e. organization, time management, study skills), and receive academic tutoring.
During an observation of a senior level AVID class, two activities were taking place.
Students who had not yet completed financial aid documents were working on laptops to
complete the required documents. A school counselor, who had experience working with
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financial aid documents, was present to answer questions. The remaining students participated
in tutorials. To tutor high school students, ABC High School partners with local universities
who send college tutors (many of whom are AVID alumni). Twice a week, students have the
opportunity to receive free tutoring services from these college tutors.
According to Bill, what makes the AVID program at ABC High School unique is that
students who do not take the AVID elective are still receiving AVID strategies in classes campus
wide. Bill continued,
AVID strategies have definitely gone school wide here. Ninety percent of the teachers
use Cornell notes. Every student on campus is familiar with Cornell notes. A lot of
teachers have taken on the agenda and binder strategy, notebook being organized, many
of our teachers, probably about 80% of our teachers have been AVID trained, so they
have implemented AVID strategies.
A majority of students (70%) at ABC High School identify as low-SES (CDE, 2018).
School leaders knew creative strategies had to be instituted to increase academic expectations for
low-SES students. Accordingly, teachers became AVID trained, and teachers began to
incorporate AVID strategies in the classroom. Interviews and observations demonstrate teachers
have bought into AVID strategies and the philosophy that all students, including low-SES
students, have the capacity to meet high academic expectations.
During an observation of an English class AVID strategies were evident. Students were
collaborating together to answer questions from a non-fiction text. Each student had a laptop and
filled out their focused notes page (AVID strategy) with the answers the students had
collaboratively identified. It was evident throughout the observation that WICOR (writing,
inquiry, collaboration, organization, and reading) strategies had assisted students with gaining a
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better understanding of the content the students were learning about. In the classroom the
WICOR strategy poster was posted and the teacher alluded to the strategies during the activity.
To check for understanding, the teacher had students submit the focused notes.
Elevating academic expectations through the use of an outreach program such as AVID
has increased college access. Bill stated, “We have a 90% A through G completion rate just out
of our AVID graduates. It’s higher than the school average.” Further, incorporating AVID
schoolwide has led to enhancing the college-going culture at ABC High School for all students.
According to Bill,
I think it has something to do with the kids that are college bound and other students not
in AVID but they see their peers with these new goals and they talk about college and
they visit colleges. So, it is a mindset and it is a culture that I’ve seen develop here
definitely since AVID began.
An added benefit of AVID is students who participated in the program received college
knowledge in the form of better understanding of college admissions requirements, college
deadlines for submitting forms, and financial aid assistance. According to Frank, “I think we do
a good job of talking about when the deadlines are, and what scholarships are available.” The
following section will explore how ABC High School leaders increased low-SES students’
college knowledge.
Leaders Use College Talk and Resources to Increase College Knowledge
ABC High School leaders have identified that many low-SES students are limited in
college knowledge needed to matriculate to college. Frank stated,
The challenge is all the different things you have to do in order to turn in these
applications. I mean, between linking ambiance to your common app, from that to
knowing which schools are the common app to answering, writing essays for the
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common app versus the Cal. States that don’t require an essay versus UC’s that require
personal statement questions. I mean, they just go, “I quit.” And that’s a thing.
To increase college access for low-SES students, ABC High School leaders provided
college knowledge through strategies and resources including using college talk, establishing a
college center, and providing access to college counselors.
College talk. Leaders at ABC High School engaged in college talk which is evident
across the campus. In observing classrooms, the researcher witnessed college talk. For example,
every classroom had a poster of the A-G letter the class represents (i.e. “A” represents the history
requirement). Further, teachers developed college boards where college admission requirements
were posted. In Bill’s classroom, various college pennants were displayed, and Bill has the wall
filled with previous student’s photos wearing a shirt of the university the student was accepted
to.
Arguably, the most important form of college talk occurs in the classroom through
teachers communicating college expectations to students. During an interview, Tori alluded that
college discussions are occurring in class throughout the year. As an example, Tori teaches a
guided study class for freshman who did not perform well in middle school. The following is an
example how Tori incorporated college talk,
In my guided study class, these are kids who didn’t pass middle school but got socially
promoted. The point of the class is to teach them how to be students, because if they fail
freshman year, they’re likely to drop out. They’re definitely not thinking of themselves
as college students, but we still talk to them as if they’re going. We do a career unit. I
call it a reality check. Trying to encourage them that the more education you have, the
more money you could make. Just trying to put that little fire under them.
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Other examples of college talk that occur in classrooms include senior English classes
which had students complete college essays as a required assignment. Additionally, the AVID
elective classes assist students with college applications and financial aid resources. Further, to
promote college going, ABC High School offered a “SAT day,” where all juniors took the SAT
free of charge.
Leaders at ABC High School understand the power of symbolism in increasing college
knowledge and students’ aspirations to attend college. According to Tony, “The main thing is
the senior award night where we invite families and friends and provide certificates of their
success and where they will be attending college.” Joe described a creative activity known as
“Got College.” “Kids will get a T-shirt, a banner, decorate the walls in the College Center with a
picture of themselves with their acceptance letter.” Additionally, students who are accepted into
college are recognized by the Board of Education, and at graduation the name of the student is
read along with the name of the university the student will be attending.
College center. To increase college knowledge, ABC High school leaders created a
college center. According to the school website, the college center mission is to,
Provide all students with the opportunity to gather information on colleges, majors,
technical schools, scholarships, careers, community service opportunities, work permits,
seek information on the FAFSA, military opportunities, and participate in college fairs.
The center is directed by a college center technician, and is open during school hours.
Occasionally, the center will host evening activities covering topics ranging from financial aid to
providing meet and greet opportunities with college representatives. Further, the center is
decorated with college posters and pennants, and college brochures and informational flyers are
available for students to pick up. Computers are available for students to complete college
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applications and financial aid documents. Additionally, the technician will be invited by
teachers to conduct college presentations in the classroom. Lastly, the center partners with
various local colleges. For example, one local college has a “connect” program, where students
interested in attending the college will meet with college admission officials who will help
interested students complete application documents.
The researcher observed the college center over the course of three days and at different
times of the school day. On one occasion, senior AVID students were listening to a college
admissions presentation from a local four-year university. The presenter outlined the
university’s requirements along with the university’s culture. Students also had the opportunity
to ask questions regarding the admissions requirements.
On a second occasion, one student was meeting with the college center technician. The
junior student expressed confusion regarding which college to apply to due to low finances. The
technician walked the student through the differences between public and private institutions
along with trade and community colleges. The technician provided financial aid resources to the
student including brochures on FAFSA and a large list of available grants and scholarships the
student could apply for.
Several nights throughout the year, the college center holds family events where parents
hear from college admission experts regarding topics ranging from A-G requirements to the
numerous benefits of accessing college. A challenge school leaders encountered in sustaining a
college-going culture is informing parents, many of whom never attended college, about the
benefits college afford to their children. Through holding family college nights, the college
center attempts to increase access to college by providing college knowledge for parents and
students alike.
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The college center provides low-SES students with the necessary college knowledge
students require to navigate the complexities of the college admissions process. According to
John, the college center has assisted countless students better understand college requirements,
financial aid resources, and provide an opportunity for low-SES students to have access to the
same college information.
Student access to counselors. Counselors are pivotal to providing low-SES students
with college knowledge regarding the various types of colleges, benefits of college, financial aid
resources, and assist low-SES students with selecting the proper college to meet the needs of the
individual student (ACSA, 2012; Cooney, 2016).
According to Regina, a high percentage of ABC High School low-SES students will
become first-generation college students. A challenge for the counseling staff is to be able to
provide students with the relevant knowledge and resources to make an informed decision about
college upon graduation. To this end, Regina described the interactions the counseling
department has with seniors to best prepare students for college matriculation,
“In our senior class visits, we have the kids do a Google form letting us know what their
interests are, and college plans. We have PowerPoint presentations on our school website
about Cal State, UC, and Common Application, along with timeline for filling out
FAFSA. For the students that are low-SES or maybe first-generation college students,
we help them through step by step.”
The college-going culture is communicated to incoming freshman where school
counselors stress the importance of college. According to Mary, counselors will go to the feeder
middle school and conduct a presentation about college admission requirements and what classes
to take beginning in ninth grade.
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School counselors developed resources for students and parents to view in order to help
increase college knowledge. As an example, the counselling department tab on the school
website is filled with college-oriented resources including A-G requirements, information about
the various types of colleges, financial aid documents, and resources on best ways to study for
the SAT or ACT.
ABC High School counselors often are the ones students have college conversations with
the most. Concomitantly, counselors are pivotal in ensuring students have the most accurate
information about what students will need to do to access college. Accordingly, counselors at
ABC High School do more than complete student schedules; counselors provide students with
college knowledge and serve as a reputable source for what students will need to accomplish to
access college.
School Leaders Establish Encouraging Relationships to Increase College Aspirations
The conceptual framework, developed by the thematic group, illustrated the importance
of school leaders establishing encouraging relationships with students to increase students’
access to college. Accordingly, ABC High School leaders are committed to establishing
relationships with students focused on encouraging students to access college. This section will
elaborate on how teachers and counselors at ABC High School build encouraging relationships
with students.
Teacher-student relationships. Teachers are pivotal in building college aspirations. An
essential component to establishing encouraging teacher-student relationships is through
personal discourse in the classroom, where teachers share with students personal stories
regarding the teacher’s own experiences in how the teacher accessed college. In an observation
of an AVID class, the researcher observed the following: Students were working on college
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essays and applications. The teacher was going over components to include in the college essay.
One suggestion included writing about a challenge that occurred and how the student overcame
the situation. The teacher then told the students about a challenge which the teacher experienced
growing up. The teacher came from modest roots with divorced parents. Mom had abandoned
the family and the teacher was raised by a single father who had never completed high school.
The teacher described to the students that it was a math teacher in the 10th grade that encouraged
the teacher to do well academically and be eligible for college. This mentor kept inspiring the
teacher to be successful, and eventually the teacher did attend college and became a math
teacher, just like the mentor. The teacher shared this story to illustrate that all students can
accomplish stated goals, despite life’s challenges.
Establishing encouraging student-teacher relationships was evident in all of the teacher
interviews. Frank stressed that teachers at ABC High School prioritize relationships with
students because the teachers are aware that if students know that teachers care for them the
more students are willing to strive for higher academic success. Frank stated, “You know, I
think the big thing is one, let them know you care, but two is letting them know that you’re an
open ear anytime.” Additionally, the encouraging environment teachers establish for students is
evident in that students are motivated to attend ABC High School. To illustrate, Debbie shared a
story of a student,
Well, ABC High is a family. And it’s really interesting because somebody walks on this
campus and there’s automatically this instant feeling of, they’re welcome. We had a kid
who graduated last year who was a foster kid. And he fought to stay on this campus.
And they moved his foster parents. And he looked at his foster parents and they had to
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 77
move hell and high water to get him back here. But he was absolutely bound and
determined that he was gonna graduate from this high school.
With the recent addition of campus climate as an indicator for which schools are assessed
on the California Dashboard, school administrators have been providing teachers with strategies
to increase student-teacher relationships. Tori described one such strategy used by teachers at
ABC High School to establish encouraging relationships with students.
The power of greeting a kid at the door, looking them in the eye, “How are you doing?”
And getting a sense of where they are at that moment so you know how to best deal with
them on their level is phenomenal. It is genius. This needs to be taught in every new
teacher program ever.
Building encouraging teacher-student relationships is a priority for school leaders at ABC
High School to increase access to college. According to John, “Our teachers really do spend
time creating relationships with our kids; this has made a difference in setting the tone that
students see themselves going to college after high school.” The findings described in this
section demonstrated the commitment teachers have for establishing encouraging relationships
with students.
Counselor-student relationships. As was discussed throughout this study, the
relationship counselors have with students is pivotal to increasing students’ academic success
and college aspirations. ABC High School counselors take pride in establishing encouraging
relationships with students. Richard stated, “I knew I got into this profession to work with kids,
this is what I love to do, to help them out.” Joe shared a similar sentiment stating, “Counseling
kids to be better and to end up in college is what keeps me coming back every day.”
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ABC High School counselors are aware that the encouraging relationships school
counselors establish with students increases the likelihood the students will access college. As a
result, to establish encouraging relationships with students, school counselors identify students
who may require assistance with applying to college. Regina stated, “We as a department have
done more presentations for parents so that has led to more kids coming in and talking about
college and how much it will cost.” Further, according to Regina, once the counselors conduct
college presentations, many students will seek out assistance from a counselor regarding college.
Additionally, to provide college knowledge regarding the benefits of college, ABC High School
counselors collaborate with the college center coordinator to offer evening college informational
sessions for families and students.
ABC High School counselors have prioritized conducting talks at the middle school
feeder campus both to provide information regarding high school and college requirements, as
well as to begin establishing relationships with students and families alike. The researcher
observed a session themed “Meet the Colts.” The event was open to all incoming 9th graders
and parents. Tony stated, “It’s a worthwhile event because we get the kids thinking about
college early and are able to meet families which is so important if the kid will be successful at
our school.” At the session, school counselors discussed topics ranging from A-G requirements
to what campus life will be like once the students are in high school. After the session, school
counselors were available to meet with students and parents to acquire more information.

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Discussion of Research Question One
The conceptual framework of this study identified microsystems influencing low-SES
students’ college access including school leaders, school resources, and the school environment.
Accordingly, data collected for this study determined school leaders increased educational
expectations and academic rigor, used college talk and resources to build students’ college
knowledge, and established encouraging relationships with students to increase college
aspirations.
Schools with high expectations and rigor maintain that students will access and be
successful in college (Athaneses et al., 2016). Congruently, ABC High School leaders raised
educational expectations and rigor, leading to an increased graduation and A-G completion rate.
Increasing expectations have been established by an innovative practice of implementing a
seven-period day allowing for more teacher collaboration time to develop rigorous units and
additional advanced courses offered to students. Taking advanced courses is supported by
research showing that students whom complete advanced courses in high school are 83% more
likely to access and succeed in college (Adelman, 2006). Findings illustrated in Chapter Four
demonstrated that ABC High School low-SES students worked hard to meet the high academic
expectations set by school leaders and graduate ready to access college.
Few studies have examined the impact aligning high school graduation requirements with
college admissions standards could have on increasing college access and graduation rates.
Based on the findings of this study, since the no “D” policy has been enacted, 70% of students
have now completed the A-G requirements and the graduation rate is impressively 15% above
the state average (CDE, 2018). These findings are significant as more students who have
completed A-G requirements are able to access college. Accordingly, school leaders can
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consider altering graduation requirements to better align with college admissions standards to
increase students’ college access.
To further increase low-SES students’ academic expectations, school leaders collaborated
with an outreach program called AVID. Teaming with AVID is significant as findings from this
study showed that since AVID has been implemented, 90% of students who participate in AVID
have completed the A-G requirements. Accordingly, to increase access to college, school leaders
should consider collaborating with outreach programs focused on increasing access to college for
low-SES students.
Bryan et al. (2018) conducted a study which showed that students who experienced
college talk were 34% more likely to attend college. Accordingly, leaders at ABC High School
used college talk to increase college knowledge for students, especially low-SES students.
Further, a unique resource ABC High School provided to students was access to a college center
on campus. The findings from this study showed that school leaders identified that low-SES
students’ would positively be impacted by having a central location students could inquire about
college.
This case study found ABC High School leaders were committed to establishing
encouraging relationships to increase low-SES students’ college aspirations. As John states,
“Going to college, that’s the norm. That’s what’s expected.” Building encouraging relationships
with students is essential as research has shown that teacher-student relationships, in particular,
have a significant impact on students’ educational aspirations to access college (Hattie, 2012).

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Research Question 2: Challenges Promoting a College-Going Culture
The second research question sought to identify the challenges that school leaders at
ABC High School encountered in promoting a college-going culture. Despite the impact of the
promising practices identified in this study on low-SES students’ college access, findings
indicated school leaders encountered several challenges in sustaining a college-going culture.
Based on interviews and observations, the following challenges were a priority for school leaders
to address. First, limited parental involvement in the academic setting; second, low-SES
students’ college under matching; third, a lack of commitment from the district to hire and train
school counselors.
Parental Involvement
The researcher found a significant challenge ABC High School leaders had in fostering a
college-going culture was limited parental involvement in the academic setting. ABC High
School leaders understood the importance of parental involvement and recognized that parental
involvement was an area that requires improvement. In fact, according to John, “One of the
WASC team’s recommendations for us, one of our four recommendations was to increase parent
involvement on our campus to best allow students to prosper.”
One reason for limited parental involvement, especially with low-SES parents, was the
language barrier which exists between school personnel and parents. ABC High School has a
significant Latinx population. As a result, many parents speak primarily Spanish. However, the
faculty demographics do not represent the student population. As an example, only two of the
administrative and counseling team members speak Spanish. Mike stated,
“I think the biggest struggle with our school, is just that language. I think there’s the fact
that a lot of our parents within our community, it’s interesting because even a lot of our
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 82
staff that comes in contact with our parents, don’t necessarily speak the other language.
Here we have majority Spanish speaking.”
In addition to the language barrier, another area of concern with respect to limited
parental involvement was the increased likelihood that the student would not attend college
altogether. Despite the efforts of school counselors and the college center, parents have a
misconception as to the benefits of college and believe that college is too costly. As John stated,
When parents hear college today, they think one thing, dollar signs. They don’t see the
investment. That mentality is very real. People that don’t understand the financial aid
system completely discredit probably up to 80% of post-secondary institutions before
they even understand why.
Bill concurred with John stating,
Something I see that just breaks my heart is I see a kid graduate with a 3.8, 3.9 GPA, one
of the brightest kids we have in our program, and get accepted to four years, but well they
can’t afford it and the parent does not want them to go.
To increase college knowledge, parental involvement with school counselors is
instrumental. However, the interview data from this study, showed a decrease in parents’ desire
to meet with school counselors to discuss college opportunities. Regina stated, “I used to get
calls every day from parents, now I’m lucky to get a couple a week.” Richard described, “I think
one of the issues is, somehow we’ve got to figure out, brainstorm a better way of, letting our
parents know that there are resources out there that we’re providing.” School counselors are a
resource to communicate the benefits of college and resources available, and without school
counselors’ guidance, parents and students are at a disadvantage.
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According to John, as a means to rectify the trend of limited parental involvement, ABC
High School leaders are in the process of developing parental courses to help better educate
parents on the benefits of college and provide the college knowledge needed to assist their child
in the college admissions process. The courses will be offered in English and Spanish. Further,
the college center and school counselors will hold more evening sessions on college topics. John
described that one month discussions will focus around financial aid, while another month will
cover A-G requirements. The goal for school leaders are that the efforts described will increase
parental involvement in the academic setting.
College under Matching
School leaders met with students and analyzed student exit surveys and identified that the
cost of college and limited knowledge of financial aid has led to students choosing to attend a
community college or not attend college, even when accepted to a four-year university.
Therefore, ABC High School leaders were challenged to reduce the stigma of college costs and
limited college knowledge to reduce under matching. John described that many students believe
that universities are too expensive; therefore, the student attends a local community college
because it is cheaper. Earlier in this chapter, Bill gave an example of one student who was
accepted and did not attend because of financial reasons. Mary concurred that students and
parents alike limit college choices because of the financial cost or limited understanding of
resources available,
One challenge is, I think they’re still a little fearful of what they think that they can
afford, when it comes to college. So, that affordability piece is very scary for our parents.
They’re almost like, “Oh we don’t even want to, we’d rather just let them go to
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community college, then we try to figure out my finances, and if I can make it work, then
send them to a university.”
Further, in one observation of the college center, the researcher witnessed a conversation
between one student and the college admissions presenter for one of the largest four-year
universities in Los Angeles County. The presenter was describing the benefits and opportunities
that the university offers, and students seemed highly intrigued. Then the presenter outlined the
cost to attend the university per year. This specific university costs approximately $4,500 per
semester. With the high cost of attending the university, students began to inquire about the
decision of wanting to attend and pay for college. One student asked, “Why would I attend your
college which is so expensive when I could save my money and go to community college?”
ABC High School students’ believe that attending a community college is the best
choice, despite being accepted into a four-year university. According to Joe, “We have so many
students that I see that are eligible to attend a top university, that choose to stay local and go to
community college because they don’t want to spend that money.” The challenge for ABC High
School leaders was to reverse this thinking. With 70% of students meeting the A-G
requirements, a majority of students could be accessing four-year universities. Attending a four-
year university upon high school graduation is significant as, 74% of students who matriculate
into a four-year university graduate with a bachelor’s degree, compared with 16% who begin at a
community college (National Student Clearinghouse Research Center, 2017).
To limit under matching, ABC High School leaders provided more information to
students and families about the benefits of college through the college center and school
counselors. In addition, counselors assisted students in the AVID elective classes with financial
aid documents. Going forward, the challenge remains for school leaders to change the
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 85
perceptions of low-SES students who are weighing whether to attend a four-year university,
attend a local community college, or not attend college despite being eligible to attend.
Hiring and Training School Counselors
With a significant portion of ABC High School’s student population identifying as low-
SES, access to school counselors significantly impacts students’ academic success and
matriculation into college. ABC High School has three counselors for 1,200 students. All three
counselors noted that there was not enough time to meet with students about college. The head
counselor, Regina, stated, “For so many students who are first-generation college candidates,
school counselors are the individuals’ students and parents count on to gain all the knowledge
about the college admissions process, and I can’t meet with all of them. It’s frustrating.”
Additionally, as discussed above, counselors are pivotal to decreasing college under matching.
Due to having a limited number of counselors, low-SES students are not acquiring college
knowledge which they would have received otherwise if more counselors were available.
Since the district prioritized in the LCAP (2019) that all students will graduate eligible
for college (Appendix F), principals have been lobbying for more counselors, yet the district has
not committed to hiring more counselors who could assist in increasing students’ access to
college. In contrast, John described a high school John visited on an accreditation visitation.
The school has 1,200 kids, just like us. They got 10-12 counselors, we have three.
That’s different. When you got 1,200 kids, you’re meeting with every family every year.
I can’t ask for our counselors that have a 400-kid caseload that you’re going to meet and
get to know every family.
The challenge is not simply hiring more counselors, but also shifting the district’s
mindset on what the role of a school counselor is. Only recently has the district begun to utilize
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 86
counselors in a more comprehensive counseling model, rather than focusing solely on creating
students’ schedules. Richard stated, “When I first came to this school, all I did was put kids in
class, I never talked to them about their futures or anything like that.” John agreed with
Richard’s sentiments, “I’ll be honest. We haven’t utilized counselors like that in the past. We
utilized counselors for master schedule, scheduling, as a layer of social emotional support for the
kids, not necessarily 100% on board with the college-going process.”
In interviewing Richard and Joe, both stressed the importance of attending trainings to
learn the latest about college admissions and financial aid to better support students who come
seeking college advice. Further, being up to date with college requirements will help counselors
provide professional development to teachers who may be limited on college knowledge.
According to Mary, “I think our teachers have a good idea of what they need to do, but
sometimes there’s some misinformation that gets out to students from the teachers about college
and what they need to do.” Being able to provide accurate college knowledge to teachers will
only benefit the many students that are relying on school leaders for information about college
access.
Throughout this study, the significance of the role school counselors have on increasing
college knowledge and educational aspirations have been examined. As a significant source to
receive college knowledge needed for college matriculation for students and parents alike, more
counselors would prove useful to assist students at ABC High School access college.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 87
Discussion of Research Question 2
ABC High School leaders faced several challenges inhibiting the sustainment of a
college-going culture. Based on interview and observation data collected, three emergent themes
were apparent. First, parental involvement was limited in the academic setting. Second, many
students who are accepted into a university choose not to attend because of limited college
knowledge or financial barriers, thus increasing under matching. Third, the district has not
committed to hiring and training school counselors.
The literature discussed the importance of parental involvement as a means to increase
students’ academic success (Bosworth et al., 2014; Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Hill & Tyson, 2009;
McClafferty et al., 2002). In particular, the conceptual framework for this study identified
parents and school leaders as two microsystems which influenced low-SES students’ choice to
attend college. Further, the relationship between parents and school leaders (mesosystem)
impacted student college matriculation, which is aligned to a study by Dyce, Albold, and Long
(2013), who found that the parent-school relationship is a significant factor influencing students’
choices to matriculate into college.
According to the respondents interviewed, many students choose to attend a community
college or no college at all because of the cost of college. Further, low-SES families had limited
college knowledge regarding the college admissions and financial aid process. This results in
under matching. Under matching is increasingly an issue of concern for educational leaders
because community colleges are overcrowded, inhibiting students from completing community
college and transferring in a timely manner. With approximately 70% of students at ABC High
School completing the A-G requirements, more students are eligible for entering a four-year
university directly. Accordingly, school leaders are challenged with reducing under matching by
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 88
increasing college knowledge for parents and students and assisting students in applying for
financial aid to offset the cost of college.
Literature has demonstrated that access to school counselors increased academic success
and the college matriculation rate, specifically for low-SES students (Deil-Amen & Tevis, 2010;
Roderick et al., 2008). Yet, despite this data, ABC High School counselors have overburdened
caseloads which make it impractical to meet with every student who requires assistance. A
challenge for school leaders was determining other means of assistance to ensure that students
who require assistance accessing college are receiving the knowledge needed to matriculate into
college.
Summary
Chapter Four explored the study’s findings by research question, identifying the
perceived promising practices that school leaders at ABC High School implemented to promote
and sustain a college-going culture along with discussing the challenges encountered by school
leaders which inhibited the sustainability of a college-going culture.
By analyzing interviews, observations, and documents, the researcher identified three
emergent themes demonstrating ways in which school leaders promoted and sustained a college-
going culture. First, school leaders established high academic expectations and increased rigor
in the classroom through implementing a seven-period day to allow teachers more time to
collaborate in PLC’s, incorporated a no “D” policy in all core classes, and increased rigor by
providing more rigorous college preparatory courses and through utilization of AVID strategies
schoolwide. Second, school leaders increased access to college for low-SES students by
increasing college knowledge through college talk and resources available on campus. Further, a
college center served as a location for students to acquire college admissions and financial aid
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 89
information, and students had access to school counselors. The third emergent theme identified
was school leaders established encouraging relationships with students to increase students’
college aspirations.
The data analyzed identified challenges school leaders encountered which inhibited the
sustainability of a college-going culture at ABC High School. Leaders were challenged with
increasing parental involvement in the academic setting. A second challenge was students’
college under matching. Lastly, ABC High School leaders were challenged to increase college
knowledge for students and parents despite the district not committing to hire and train more
school counselors.
Chapter Five will restate the purpose of the study. Additionally, the findings of the study
will be summarized to determine the implications for practice and policy. Lastly,
recommendations for future study will be provided.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 90
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY
College degree attainment is pivotal to become economically competitive and increase
social mobility (PPIC, 2016). College graduates earn twice as much per year as non-graduates,
and the benefits of college include: better health, improved personal relationships, and increased
civic involvement (Bosworth et al., 2014; Perna, 2015). Despite the known benefits of a college
degree, there remains a college access gap between low- and high-SES peers. Accordingly,
school leaders are focused on increasing low-SES students’ access to college.
School leaders are empowered to bring about cultural change focused on preparing low-
SES students academically and emotionally for college access (Fullan, 2017). College access is
positively impacted by school leaders implementing a college-going culture (Perna & Jones,
2013). In a college-going culture, school leaders establish high academic expectations, build
college aspirations, and provide college knowledge.
Limited qualitative research exists examining how school leaders employ a college-going
culture. If the indications of implementing a college-going culture has on increasing college
access is correct, it would be imperative to examine the promising practices developed by school
leaders to promote a college-going culture for low-SES students.
Purpose of the Study
The necessity for a college degree is highlighted by the increasing need for highly skilled
individuals in the workplace. Accordingly, it is imperative that school leaders prepare low-SES
students for college.
Studies have examined the challenges low-SES students encounter serving as barriers to
accessing college, yet limited research has examined how school leaders promote and sustain a
college-going culture to increase college access for low-SES students. Accordingly, the purpose
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 91
of this study was to examine perceived strategies school leaders implemented to promote a
college-going culture at a high school with a high percentage of low-SES students. Further,
challenges school leaders encountered to sustain a college-going culture were explored. The
following research questions framed this study:
1. What perceived strategies does ABC High School employ to promote a college-going
culture for low-SES students?
2. What are the perceived challenges at ABC High School in sustaining a college-going
culture?
Summary of the Findings
Results from this study illustrated that ABC High School leaders established high
expectations and increased academic rigor, elevated low-SES students’ college knowledge, and
established encouraging relationships to increase college aspirations. The findings of this study
further identified challenges encountered by school leaders including limited parental
involvement in the academic setting, a high rate of under matching, and a lack of commitment
from the district to hire and train more school counselors.
ABC High School leaders were committed to establishing high academic expectations for
students to increase college access. The purpose of elevating academic expectations is to
increase the likelihood students will be prepared for the rigor of college (Athaneses et al., 2016).
Bryan et al. (2018) found students who experienced high academic expectations were 18% more
likely to matriculate into college. To increase academic expectations, ABC High School leaders
implemented professional learning communities providing teachers the opportunity to analyze
student data to determine best practices to increase students’ academic achievement.
Additionally, DuFour (2004) found professional learning communities are more effective when
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 92
teachers have time allotted to collaborate. Accordingly, school leaders incorporated additional
collaboration time for teachers to develop rigorous lessons and common assessments through the
implementation of a seven-period day.
To further increase academic expectations, school leaders implemented a no “D” policy.
All core classes at ABC High School have eliminated the “D” grade, requiring students to pass
the class with a “C” or higher. The policy positively impacted both high school graduation and
A-G completion rates at ABC High School. In fact, according to student data, since the no “D”
policy has been enacted, the A-G completion rate has nearly doubled from 35-70%.
Based on student data, school leaders identified that more was needed to prepare low-
SES students for matriculation to college. Accordingly, ABC High School leaders collaborated
with AVID to provide research-based strategies proven to increase college access. Low-SES
students who participated in an outreach program were more likely to matriculate into college
compared with low-SES students whom did not (Goodwin et al., 2016). Outreach programs
increase access to college by improving academic skills, improving academic persistence, and
providing instructional support in mathematics, science, and language arts (Educational Policy
Institute, 2012; Tierney et al., 2009). The results of this study are congruent to the research with,
according to Bill, 90% of students participating in AVID graduate having completed the A-G
requirements (AVID, 2018).
ABC High School leaders identified that low-SES students required more college
knowledge regarding college admissions and financial aid requirements. Studies have
demonstrated college knowledge as a form of social capital is critical to increase college access,
especially for low-SES students (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; Hooker & Brand, 2010; Okpych &
Courtney, 2017). To increase college knowledge, ABC High School leaders used college talk.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 93
Tori described how teachers lead class discussions focused on the importance of college. This
finding is especially significant, as the conceptual framework of this study identified the
importance of relationships built between school leaders (e.g. teachers) and students as critical to
increasing low-SES students’ college access. Further, every classroom observed displayed a
college wall showcasing local universities along with admissions requirements. Additionally,
Joe elaborated on the unique activity “Got College” day, where students who have been accepted
to college take a picture with the shirt of the university which accepted the student.
In addition to college talk, ABC High School established a college center on campus.
According to the literature, establishing a college center is beneficial to enhancing a college-
going culture and will assist students, especially low-SES students, in gaining the college
knowledge necessary to access college (Corwin & Tierney, 2007; McClafferty et al., 2002).
The college center further partners with local universities to provide informational sessions for
prospective students and families to better understand admission requirements. The benefits of
college partnerships include familiarizing students with college resources, provide students with
the opportunity to receive college credit while in high school, and increase college matriculation
rates (Hanover, 2014; Hill, 2008).
As was examined in Chapter Two, school counselors are instrumental in providing
college knowledge to students leading to greater academic achievement and college access (Deil-
Amen & Tevis, 2010; Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Horn et al., 2003; Roderick et al., 2008). Findings
from this study demonstrated that school counselors at ABC High School prioritized preparing
students for college. School counselors met with all seniors to ensure that students are A-G
eligible upon graduation. Further, ABC High School counselors held informational sessions for
incoming ninth-grade students providing information about the courses needed to be completed
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 94
to be eligible for college. Students in high school engage in a college-choice process whereby
students develop a plan to attend college and seek out financial aid resources to offset the cost of
college (Hossler et al., 1999). Accordingly, the acquisition of college knowledge during this
process through college talk, establishing a college center, and access to school counselors are
pivotal to increasing low-SES students’ college access.
The last perceived promising practice identified in this study was school leaders
established encouraging relationships with students to increase college aspirations. Establishing
encouraging relationships with students is a significant finding. School leaders must be
intentional in building college aspirations, as research has shown that low-SES students’ college
aspirations are lower compared with high-SES peers (Polidano et al., 2012). Further, Johnson et
al. (2009), found that school leaders are pivotal in elevating students’ college aspirations. School
leaders increase low-SES students’ college aspirations by building confidence; and providing
guidance, advice, and college knowledge (Johnson et al., 2009).
A challenge ABC High School leaders encountered to sustaining a college-going culture
was limited parental involvement in the academic setting. John referenced that a priority for
ABC High School leaders was to increase parental involvement. One reason identified for
limited parental involvement is the language barrier which exists between parents and school
leaders. The lack of parental involvement is a significant challenge as college access is greatly
influenced by parents. This study’s conceptual framework illustrated the importance of the
parent-school relationship as a predictor for college access, especially for low-SES students.
Further, Dyce et al. (2013) found building social capital for students through parent-school
relationships has been shown to increase college access.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 95
ABC High School leaders are faced with the challenge of college under matching.
Literature has identified that under matching significantly affects low-SES students, with 53% of
low-SES students matriculating into a college for which the student is overqualified (Cooney,
2016). Results of this study corroborated findings that show limited college knowledge and the
financial costs of college are reasons for which under matching occurs (Cooney, 2016). To
rectify, ABC High School leaders increased students’ college knowledge through the college
center and providing access to school counselors. Bettinger et al. (2009) found school leaders
can increase low-SES students’ social capital and college access by providing financial aid
resources. Yet, the challenge remains for school leaders to alter students’ and families’
perceptions about the benefits of college despite the financial burden.
Lastly, findings identified that the district has not prioritized hiring and training more
school counselors. Positive relationships students have with counselors is a strong predictor of
students’ college access (McKillip, 2012). As Gibbons et al. (2006) found, to increase college
access, school counselors are critical to ensuring that low-SES students have the requisite college
knowledge required to successfully navigate the complexities of the college admissions process.
The findings of this study illustrated the impact school leaders have on increasing college access
for low-SES students, which is aligned to the conceptual framework of this study.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Findings from this case study demonstrated when school leaders establish academic
expectations and academic rigor, increase college knowledge, and build encouraging
relationships, low-SES students’ college access rises. Accordingly, school leaders could
consider implementing the strategies outlined in this study to further promote low-SES students’
college access.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 96
The findings of this case study revealed that creating school specific policies to foster
academic expectations proved to increase the likelihood students would access college.
Analyzing the policies identified, several implications emerged. The first implication for policy
and practice was school leaders were challenged with ensuring low-SES students graduate high
school eligible to access college. Findings from this study demonstrated how ABC High School
leaders aligned high school graduation requirements with college admissions expectations to
enable more low-SES students to access college. One strategy this study identified to achieve
the parallel between graduation requirements and college admissions was to implement a no “D”
policy. School data showed that in the four years since increasing academic expectations with the
no “D” policy, the A-G completion percentage nearly doubled from 35-70%.
Second, the impact of professional learning communities on increasing academic
expectations was a significant finding of this study and has implications for school leaders.
Low-SES students who are subject to high academic expectations are more likely to access
college (Bryan et al., 2018). To increase academic expectations, school leaders implemented
professional learning communities. Student data determined that prior to implementing
professional learning communities, students were performing below proficiency on standardized
assessments. Since implementation, student data showed an increase in student achievement as
evidenced by students’ scores in English increasing the past three years (CA Dashboard, 2018).
Interview and observational data determined that teachers used daily PLC meetings to
collaborate together in order to analyze student data to inform instructional practices and develop
rigorous lessons.
Third, the findings from this study have implications for schools to consider partnering
with outreach programs focused on increasing low-SES students’ access to college. Data
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 97
emphasized the criticalness of AVID on increasing academic rigor, and developing a culture
where there exists an expectation that all students will access college. Despite the known
benefits of outreach programs, limited research has examined the impact using outreach program
strategies school-wide had on increasing college access. The results from this study indicated
that after ABC High School faculty started using AVID strategies school-wide, more students
enrolled in AP courses, the A-G completion rate increased, and the graduation rate is
approximately 15% higher than the State average.
Fourth, providing college knowledge to low-SES students is imperative to increase
college access. ABC High School leaders discussed in interviews the importance of creating a
central location for students to access college admissions and financial aid resources.
Accordingly, school leaders established a college center on campus. Through partnerships with
local universities, the college center staff host informational sessions for prospective students
and families. As the results from this case study have demonstrated the benefits of establishing a
central location for students to access college knowledge, other schools may consider developing
college centers to further increase low-SES students’ college knowledge.
Fifth, establishing encouraging relationships with students to increase college aspirations
was a significant finding through interview and observational data in this case study. College
aspirations are important as they are linked to increased college access (Moschetti & Hudley,
2014). Further, findings from this study are aligned to studies that have expressed the
importance of school leader-student relationships on increasing college aspirations for low-SES
students (Hattie, 2012). Encouraging relationships increase students’ social capital, which has
been shown to increase college aspirations. The social networks that students establish will
assist low-SES students to access college resources and supports.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 98
Lastly, college under matching remains a challenge for school leaders. Not surprisingly,
53% of low-SES students matriculate into a college for which they are overqualified (Cooney,
2016). Results from this case study identified the high cost of college as a significant factor
causing under matching. Therefore, school leaders were challenged with identifying students
who require financial aid assistance and providing these students with resources to decrease the
financial burden of college for low-SES students.
Recommendation for Future Studies
This case study examined the perceived promising practices school leaders employed to
promote and sustain a college-going culture to increase low-SES students’ college access.
Further, challenges school leaders encountered hindering the sustainment of a college-going
culture were identified. Although, attempts were made to answer each research question
thoroughly, additional questions emerged during data collection. This section will identify
recommendations for future study.
First, this study emphasized the critical role leadership has on increasing low-SES
students’ college access. There exists various leadership characteristics shown to positively
impact cultural change including empathy, listening, communication, connectedness, and
collaboration (Rath, 2007; Spears, 2010). This case study was not focused on the impact of
specific leadership characteristics on establishing a college-going culture. As leadership has a
profound impact on students’ college access, it would be worthwhile to explore which type of
leadership characteristics, if any, are more successful in promoting and sustaining a college-
going culture.
Second, although this study comprehensively examined the perceived promising practices
school leaders employed to promote and sustain a college-going culture at a high school with a
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 99
significant percentage of low-SES students, the reach of this study was limited to one school site.
The promising practices identified demonstrated a significant increase of students at ABC High
School prepared to access college. What is not known is whether the promising practices
outlined in this study would be effective at another school site. Accordingly, conducting a study
at another school with similar demographics, while implementing the promising practices, would
provide more convincing evidence that the practices identified in this case study are reliable and
valid.
Third, due to time limitations of this study, it was not feasible to ascertain whether low-
SES students who graduate from ABC High School access college. In order to validate the
promising practices identified in this study, it would be imperative to identify how many low-
SES students accessed college and attained a college degree. Therefore, a recommendation for
future studies would be to conduct a longitudinal study following a cohort of ABC High School
low-SES students from 9th grade until college degree completion, to determine whether the
practices identified in this study positively impacted low-SES students’ college access and
acquisition of a college degree.
Conclusion
This study sought to identify the perceived promising practices employed by school
leaders to promote and sustain a college-going culture to increase low-SES students’ college
access. The findings suggested school leaders increased academic expectations and academic
rigor, provided college knowledge, and developed encouraging relationships with students to
build college aspirations. It is anticipated that the practices identified in this case study would
prove to be instrumental in increasing low-SES students’ college access, thus increasing the
social and financial upward mobility of low-SES individuals.
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 100
In addition to promising practices, this study identified challenges school leaders
encountered hindering the sustainment of a college-going culture. The challenges identified
were limited parental involvement in the academic setting, college under matching, and the lack
of district commitment to hire and train more school counselors. It remains a priority for school
leaders to develop innovative strategies to tackle these challenges to sustain a college-going
culture for low-SES students.
There exists a significant body of research examining the challenges low-SES students
encounter hindering college access. In contrast, minimal qualitative research existed examining
promising practices school leaders employed to build and sustain a college-going culture to
increase low-SES students’ access to college. Accordingly, this case study identified perceived
practices school leaders implemented to significantly increase college access at a high school
with a significant percentage of low-SES students. As a result, school leaders at similar high
schools should consider implementing these practices to increase low-SES students’ college
access.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 101
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Appendix A
Interview Participant Introductory Letter

To Whom It May Concern:
The purpose of this case study is to explore the perceived promising practices implemented at
ABC High School which promote and sustain a college-going culture for low-SES students. As
a participant in this study, your contributions will provide significant data to individuals
interested in establishing a college-going culture for low-SES students.

The following research questions will guide the data collection for this study:

1. What perceived strategies do ABC High School employ to promote a college-going
culture for low-SES students?

2. What are the perceived challenges at ABC High School in sustaining a college-going
culture?

The methods chosen to collect relevant data for this study will be primarily interviews conducted
with school leaders at your school site. As a school leader, your insights into strategies
implemented to promote and sustain a college-going culture are significant in order to determine
implications for practice.

Your participation in this study will take place over approximately 30-40 minutes at a time and
place of your choosing, and will consist of one interview and a possible follow-up observation.

The interview will be audio recorded, with your consent, to maintain accuracy of your responses.

Further, all information gathered in this interview will be confidential and a pseudonym will be
utilized in the final study analysis in order to maintain confidentiality.

Thank you in advance for your participation in this study.

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Appendix B
Interview Protocol: Administrator

Date: Location: Start Time: End Time:
Interviewer: Interviewee:

I will meet with the interviewee in a location the respondent is comfortable with.
I will communicate with the respondent that the interview will be recorded, with their consent,
for the purpose of accuracy in their responses to the interview questions.
I will inform the respondent that all information gathered in this interview will be confidential
and that a pseudonym will be utilized in the final study analysis in order to maintain
confidentiality.
I will inform the respondent that the interview will be approximately 14 questions, and will last
approximately 30-40 minutes.

Discussion Guidelines
Please respond directly to the question being asked. If you do not understand the question, feel
free to ask for clarification. If more information is needed, I will ask follow-up questions to gain
as much understanding about your perceptions as possible. If you require a break at any time,
please let me know.

Interview Questionnaire
Transition: We will now begin the interview questions. Let me begin by asking you some
background information questions.
Questions:
1. What is your current job title and responsibilities?
2. How long have you been at this school?
3. What made you decide to pursue a career in this area?
Transition: Now I will ask you a series of questions regarding the college-going culture at your
school site.
1. What are the strengths of this school?
2. What is your organizations philosophy about going to college?
A) How did your school site develop this organizational philosophy?
3. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents, students, and teachers?
4. Describe the practices and policies that you believe contribute to your school’s college-
going culture?
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5. What are the three most effective things you have done over the last 3-5 years to build a
college going culture?
Probe: How did you prioritize these actions?
6. What other activities do you have on your campus that support a college-going
philosophy for students?
Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
7. In what ways do you support teachers in building a college-going culture?
Probe: What types of professional development do you offer to teachers on
building a college-going culture?
8. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building a college-going culture?
9. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about the college-going
process?
10. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
11. How do you address these challenges?
12. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going practices are producing the
desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-attainment)?
Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
13. What do you do when students are successful in meeting college attainment goals? What
do you do when students aren’t?
14. Is there anything else that you want to share?
Closing
I want to thank you for your time in participating in this interview and for your thoughtful
responses. I want to reiterate that I will be utilizing a pseudonym in my study for you in order to
keep your identity confidential.

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Appendix C
Interview Protocol: Teacher and Counselor

Date: Location: Start Time: End Time:
Interviewer: Interviewee:

I will meet with the interviewee in a location the respondent is comfortable with.
I will communicate with the respondent that the interview will be recorded, with their consent,
for the purpose of accuracy in their responses to the interview questions.
I will inform the respondent that all information gathered in this interview will be confidential
and that a pseudonym will be utilized in the final study analysis in order to maintain
confidentiality.
I will inform the respondent that the interview will be approximately 14 questions, and will last
approximately 30-40 minutes.

Discussion Guidelines
Please respond directly to the question being asked. If you do not understand the question, feel
free to ask for clarification. If more information is needed, I will ask follow-up questions to gain
as much understanding about your perceptions as possible. If you require a break at any time
please let me know.

Interview Questionnaire
Transition: We will now begin the interview questions. Let me begin by asking you some
background information questions.
Questions:
1. What is your current job title and responsibilities?
2. How long have you been at this school?
3. What made you decide to pursue a career in this area?
Transition: Now I will ask you a series of questions regarding the college-going culture at your
school site.
1. What are the strengths of this school?
2. What is your organizations philosophy about going to college?
B) Were you involved in developing this organizational philosophy? If so, how
so?
3. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents and students?
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 122
4. Describe the practices and policies that you believe contribute to your school’s college-
going culture?
5. What are the three most effective things you have done over the last 3-5 years to build a
college-going culture?
Probe: How did you prioritize these actions?
6. What other activities do you have on your campus that support a college-going
philosophy for students?
Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
7. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building a college-going culture?
8. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about the college-going
process?
9. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a college-going culture?
10. How do you address these challenges?
11. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going practices are producing the
desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-attainment)?
Probe: Can you provide specific examples?
12. What do you do when students are successful in meeting college attainment goals? What
do you do when students aren’t?
13. Is there anything else that you want to share?
Closing
I want to thank you for your time in participating in this interview and for your thoughtful
responses. I want to reiterate that I will be utilizing a pseudonym in my study for you in order to
keep your identity confidential.

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 123
Appendix D
Matrix of Interview Protocol Questions Aligned to Research Questions
RQ2: What are the perceived challenges at ABC High School in sustaining a college-going culture?
RQ 1 RQ 2 Interview Questions
X 1. What are the strengths of this school?
X 2. What is your organizations philosophy about going to college?
X 3. Describe how this philosophy is communicated to parents, students,
and teachers?
X 4. Describe the practices and policies that you believe contribute to
your school’s college-going culture?
X 5. What are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to build a college-going culture?
X 6. What other activities do you have on your campus that support a
college-going philosophy for students?
X 7. In what ways do you support teachers in building a college-going
culture?
X 8. In what ways, do you engage parents/families in building a college-
going culture?
X 9. How do you ensure that students have access to knowledge about the
college-going process? Do you have a center or specific location that
students can go to?
X 10. Describe the challenges that you encounter in sustaining a college-
going culture?
X 11. How do you address these challenges?
X 12. How do you monitor and assess whether the college-going practices
are producing the desired outcomes for students (i.e. college-
attainment)?
X 13. What do you do when students are successful in meeting college
attainment goals? What do you do when students aren’t?
X X 14. Is there anything else that you want to share?
COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 124
Appendix E
Observation Protocol

Observational Tool
Purpose:

Date: Start Time End Time Type of Observation
(Meeting, Classroom, Workshop, etc.)

Observer (s):
Participant(s):

Descriptive Detail

Summary:

COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE 125
Appendix F
LCAP Priorities

Integral feedback was provided from stakeholder groups throughout the year and resulted in the
continued focused commitment to the on-going implementation of LCAP goals:

1. Guarantee all students are eligible and ready for college and career upon graduation.
2. Implement innovative, research-based programs and practices to insure the highest level
of achievement for all students.
3. Create a school-wide program of engagement that fosters innovative, positive
environments within and outside of the classroom to connect students to school and
learning.

The first LCAP goal, “Guarantee all students are eligible and ready for college and career upon
graduation,” includes District’s annual College Fair, the administration of the PSAT 8/9, PSAT,
and SAT to all high school students and middle school AVID students, and parent and student
counseling on the results of the PSAT/SAT. A strong emphasis is on accessibility for all
students, academic intervention, social and mental health services, college readiness and career
technical education, technology integration, transferability of technology skills, and accessibility
for all students. Specific actions included: continue building capacity and increase enrollment of
the Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) Program; expanding Computer Science
pathways at the middle and high school sites; expanding the Cisco Networking Academy at all
high schools; developing a partnership with Cal Poly Pomona State University in increasing
math and computer science offerings; and continuation of GenTech (a digital survey course that
is designed to help students develop the knowledge, skills, values, and experience that will help
them succeed in an increasingly digital world) to the middle schools. The implementation for a
dual enrollment program partnered with Mt. San Antonio College will be initiated beginning
2018-2019. Increased college- and career-counseling services for students and their parents
continues to be a high priority for all stakeholders. A full-time dean will be added to the
continuation high school to address the needs of our most “at-risk” youth. There are guaranteed
instructional minutes across the district at all grade levels above the state requirement which will
continue for the next three years. All secondary schools will continue to have a “seven-period”
day schedule to allow students to take additional courses to meet their college and career goals.
An increase in Career and Technical Education (CTE) pathways at each of the high schools will
provide career training for students grades 9-12. For example, the Administrative Justice
program will be led by Sergeant Peterson who will also serve as a consult for school safety.
Naviance online was renewed to help all students and parents grades 6-12 track course progress
and research careers and colleges.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) Ecological Systems Theory, focused on microsystems including school leaders, resources, families, and the school environment impact on low-SES students’ college access. The purpose of this study was to identify promising practices school leaders employed to promote and sustain a college-going culture at a comprehensive high school. Further, challenges school leaders encountered were identified. Data was collected through interviews of twelve school leaders, along with observations of classrooms and the college center, and document analysis. Creswell’s (2014) Data Analysis Model was used to analyze data collected. Findings from this study showed that school leaders increased low-SES students’ college access by establishing high academic expectations and rigor, used college talk and resources to increase college knowledge, and built encouraging student relationships to promote college aspirations. Further, school leaders were challenged to increase parental involvement in the academic setting, limit college under matching, and hire and train more school counselors to sustain a college-going culture. This study furthered understanding of promising practices school leaders used to develop a college-going culture focused on promoting low-SES students’ college access.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Spurley, Jeremy Knight (author)

Core Title Promising practices: promoting and sustaining a college-going culture

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/26/2019

Defense Date 03/14/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college-going culture,low-socioeconomic status,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafiqua (committee member), Malloy, Courtney L. (committee member)

Creator Email jspurley@c-vusd.org,spurley@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-147241

Unique identifier UC11660736

Identifier etd-SpurleyJer-7293.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-147241 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SpurleyJer-7293.pdf

Dmrecord 147241

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Spurley, Jeremy Knight

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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