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Influence of globalization, school leadership, and students’ participation in science competitions on 21st-century skill development, instructional practices, and female students’ interest in sci...
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Influence of globalization, school leadership, and students’ participation in science competitions on 21st-century skill development, instructional practices, and female students’ interest in sci...
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Content
Running head: INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 1
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION, SCHOOL LEADERSHIP, AND STUDENTS’
PARTICIPATION IN SCIENCE COMPETITIONS ON 21ST-CENTURY SKILL
DEVELOPMENT, INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES, AND FEMALE
STUDENTS’ INTEREST IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS COURSES IN
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN IRELAND
by
Elizabeth Eminhizer
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2019
Copyright 2019 Elizabeth Eminhizer
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family for their endless love and support:
• To my parents, John and Kathleen Hayes, who grew up in Ireland during World War II
and were unable to attend secondary school. Despite a limited education and sparse resources,
they immigrated to the United States with the dream of providing their children the opportunity
to pursue an education.
• To my siblings—Margaret Bernadette, Theresa, Mary, Timothy, Pauline, and Stephen
—who, in a house full of people, taught me to be independent and my own person.
• To Timothy Hayes, my brother, for his faith and encouragement throughout my life.
• To Samantha and Larry Davis, whose friendship and wisdom along with the occasional
barbeque helped me throughout this process.
• To Shannon and Allison Eminhizer, my daughters, for being my greatest joy and
biggest inspiration. Their passion, intelligence, and beautiful spirit has served as an inspiration to
me.
• To Marcus Eminhizer, my husband, for his endless love, unwavering support, and
encouragement. He has been my rock, my joy, and my heart, always making sure that I find
laughter and love in life. For over 25 years, he has helped me balance family, work, and school
—always making sure that I take time for myself. Without him by my side, it would not have
been possible to pursue my EdD degree.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr. Michael Escalante, my dissertation chair, for
giving me the opportunity to join the 2018 USC Executive cohort. Dr. Escalante’s vision,
wisdom, and guidance throughout this process were incredible. His experience, connections, and
expertise as an educational leader were instrumental to our success.
I would also like to thank my Superintendent, Dr. Richard M. Sheehan. As I pursued this
EdD degree, he has provided encouragement and a tremendous amount of support to me. He is
an inspirational leader, incredible mentor, and wonderful person. It is an honor and a privilege to
work for him.
I would also like to thank my dissertation committee members:
• Dr. Michele Doll, my colleague, who not only took the time to serve on my dissertation
committee but also supported me throughout the process. No matter what the issue, big or small,
Dr. Doll is always willing to jump in and support me. She is truly a joy to work with each and
every day.
• Dr. Rudy Castruita, USC professor and committee member whose guidance, insight,
and advice I treasure. He is a Renaissance man and an excellent professor who has supported my
academic and professional goals.
• Dr. John Garcia and Dr. Charles Hinman, who took time out of their extremely busy
schedules to serve on my dissertation committee.
I would also like to thank my USC colleagues and research partners for their collective
support throughout this amazing journey. In particular:
• Jonathan Blackmore, an exceptional man of character and a humble leader. He is a
colleague and friend with whom I have had the honor and privilege of working in Covina-Valley
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 4
Unified School District and in this program. Despite his incredibly busy schedule, he served as a
technology and communication leader for our cohort.
• Veronica Lizardi, for being my research partner and helping me to safely navigate the
roads in Ireland. For the past few years, without hesitation and with a beautiful smile, she has
shared a plethora of support in our program and professionally.
• My colleague, Robert McEntire, who provided a wealth of resources throughout the
entire program. He has provided a wealth of information and connections while always asking
thought-provoking questions..
• Roger Brossmer and Wayne Shannon, natural leaders who helped keep our entire
cohort on track. I am confident that the friendship we developed during this program will last a
lifetime.
• Andrea Katanic, a gifted instructional leader who has successfully raised student
achievement at the site and district levels. Her insightful leadership and laser-like focus on
student achievement provided me the freedom to pursue this EdD.
• Phillipa Kennedy, an incredibly intelligent and compassionate administrative assistant
whom I admire and respect. I would not have been able to complete this program without her
incredible organization and dedication. She is an amazing individual with a natural ability to
make everyone feel valued and a knack for seamlessly organizing my professional life.
A special thank you goes to Sheila and George Porter for their wonderful hospitality and
for sharing with us the beautiful people and country of Ireland. This research study would not
have been possible without the support and assistance of George and Sheila, who arranged
stakeholder contacts throughout Ireland.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
Abstract 11
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 13
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Research Questions 15
Significance of the Study 16
Limitations of the Study 17
Delimitations of the Study 17
Assumptions of the Study 18
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of Dissertation 20
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 22
Globalization 24
Overview and Definition 24
History of Globalization 26
Flattening Phenomenon 29
Impact of Globalization 32
Ireland 32
Economic History and Political Overview 32
Political and Economic Implications 36
FDI and MNCs 38
Education in Ireland 41
Historical Overview 41
Current Education in Ireland 43
Educational Policy 45
Twenty-First-Century Skills 47
Teacher Pedagogy 50
STEM 51
Project-Based Learning 55
Science and Technology Fairs and Competitions 58
Gender and Education 63
Gender Gap 63
Feminist Theories 64
Barriers and Potential Solutions 67
Leadership 76
Theoretical Frameworks 85
Figure 1. Diagram of the relationships among the theoretical frameworks: Leadership;
gender; and project-based learning (PBL) and science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) education 86
Chapter Summary 87
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 89
Research Design 90
Research Team 92
Population and Sample 93
Educators and Students 94
Parents 95
Business and Industry Leaders 95
Political Leaders and Educational Policy Makers 95
Instrumentation 96
Interview Protocols 96
Observation Protocols 99
Survey Protocols 101
Data Collection 102
Data Analysis 105
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness 107
Reliability 108
Ethical Considerations 108
Chapter Summary 109
Chapter Four: Results 111
Study School 113
Research Design 113
Study Participants 114
Findings for Research Question 1 115
Theme 1: Student Participation in Science Competitions Develops 21st Century
Skills That Prepare Them for STEM Subject Matter Exams on the Leaving
Certificate 117
Theme 2: School Leaders and Teachers Employ Strategies to Encourage Student
Participation in Science Competitions to Support Student Success on State
Examinations 125
Findings for Research Question 2 138
Theme 1: School Leadership Is a Positive Influence on Science Competition
Participation 139
Theme 2: School Leadership Aligns Resources to Influence Participation in
Science Competition 147
Findings for Research Question 3 153
Theme 1: Schools That Actively Recruit and Encourage Female Students to
Participate in Science Competitions Build Stem Confidence in Female
Students 154
Theme 2: STEM–PBL Science Competitions Increase Motivation in Female
Students to Pursue Senior-Level and Third-level STEM Courses 163
Findings for Research Question 4 171
Theme 1: Belief That STEM PBL Science Competitions Help to Develop 21st-
Century Skills 172
Theme 2: Belief That Participation in Science Competitions Provided Students
With Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy 180
Chapter Summary 187
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Chapter Five: Summary, Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions 190
Summary of Findings 192
Findings for Research Question 1 192
Findings for Research Question 2 194
Findings for Research Question 3 195
Findings for Research Question 4 197
Limitations 198
Practical Implications 198
Recommendations for Future Research 200
Conclusions 200
References 203
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter to Principal 227
Appendix B: Political Leader/Educational Policy Maker Interview Protocol 228
Appendix C: Business and Industry (MNCs) Interview Protocol 230
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol 232
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol 234
Appendix F: Student/Parent Interview Protocol 236
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Protocol 238
Appendix H: SciFest Observation Protocol 241
Appendix I: Survey Protocol for School Administrator or Teacher 244
Appendix J: Survey Protocol for Political Leader, Business Leader, or Policy
Maker 248
Appendix K: Survey Protocol for Parent of Second-Level Student 252
Appendix L: Survey Protocol for Student Participation in SciFest 256
Appendix M: Information/Fact Sheet for Exempt Research 260
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Alignment of Interview Protocols to Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical
Frameworks 99
Table 2: Alignment of Survey Protocols to Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical
Frameworks 103
Table 3: Summary of Participants, Their Organization/Position, and Data Types 115
Table 4: Responses Indicating Belief That Student Participation in Science Compe-
titions Develops 21st-Century Skills That Prepare Them for STEM
Subject Matter Exams on the Leaving Certificate 119
Table 5: Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That Project-Based Learning
Science Competitions Were Fundamental in Preparing Students for
High-Stakes STEM Subject Matter Exams on Leaving Certificate: St.
Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/Adminis-
trators 120
Table 6: Participants’ Responses Indicating That Project-Based Learning Science
Competitions Were Fundamental in Preparing Students for High-Stakes
STEM Subject Matter Exams on the Leaving Certificate 122
Table 7: Responses Indicating Belief That School Leaders Employed Strategies to
Encourage Students’ Participation in Science Competitions to Support
Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Students and All Students 127
Table 8: Responses Indicating Belief That Teachers Employed Strategies to
Encourage Students’ Participation in Science Competitions to Support
Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Students and All Students 128
Table 9: Responses Indicating Belief That School Leaders Employed Strategies to
Encourage Students’ Participation in Science Competitions to Support
Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Teachers and Administrators and All Teachers and Administrators 130
Table 10: Responses Indicating Belief That Teachers Employed Strategies to
Encourage Students’ Participation in Science Competitions to Support
Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Teachers and Administrators and All Teachers and Administrators 132
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Table 11: Responses Indicating Belief That School Leaders Employed Strategies to
Encourage Students’ Participation in Science Competitions to Support
Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Parents and All Parents 134
Table 12: Responses Indicating Belief That Teachers Employed Strategies to
Encourage Students’ Participation in Science Competitions to Support
Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Parents and All Parents 135
Table 13: Responses Indicating That School Leadership Was a Positive Influence on
Student Participation in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC)
and All Students 140
Table 14: Responses Indicating That School Leadership Was a Positive Influence on
Students’ Participation in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/Administrators 141
Table 15: Participants’ Responses Indicating That School Leadership Was a Positive
Influence on Students’ Participation in Science Competitions 143
Table 16: Responses Indicating That School Leadership Aligned Resources to Influence
Participation in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) and All
Students 148
Table 17: Responses Indicating That School Leadership Has Aligned Resources to
Influence Participation in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/Administrators 149
Table 18: Responses Indicating That School Leadership Aligned Resources to Influence
Participation in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) Parents and
All Parents 150
Table 19: Responses Indicating That Schools That Actively Recruit and Encourage
Female Students to Participate in Science Competitions Build STEM
Confidence in Female Students: St. Hayes College (SHC) Students and
All Students 155
Table 20: Responses Indicating That Schools That Actively and Encourage Female
Students to Participate in Science Competitions Build Their STEM
Confidence: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All
Teachers/Administrators 157
Table 21: Responses Indicating That Schools That Actively Recruit and Encourage
Female Students to Participate in Science Competitions Build Their STEM
Confidence: St. Hayes College (SHC) Parents and All Parents 159
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Table 22: Participants’ Responses Indicating That STEM–PBL Science Competitions
Increase Motivation in Female Students to Pursue Senior-Level and Third-
Level STEM Courses: St. Hayes College (SHC) Students and All Students 164
Table 23: Participants’ Responses Indicating That STEM–PBL Science Competitions
Increased Female Students’ Motivation to Pursue Senior-Level and Third-
Level STEM Courses: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators
and All Teachers/Administrators 166
Table 24: Participants’ Responses Indicating That STEM–PBL Science Competitions
Increase Motivation in Female Students Pursue Senior-Level and Third-
Level STEM Courses: St. Hayes College (SHC) Parents and All Parents 168
Table 25: Participants’ Responses Indicating the Belief That STEM–PBL Science Compe-
titions Develop 21st-Century Skills: St. Hayes College (SHC) and All
Students 173
Table 26: Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That STEM–PBL Science Competi-
tions Develop 21st-Century Skills: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/
Administrators and All Teachers/Administrators 175
Table 27: Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That STEM–PBL Science Competi-
tions Develop 21st-Century Skills 176
Table 28: Responses Indicating Belief That Participation in Science Competitions
Provides Students With Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy:
St. Hayes College (SHC) Students and All Students 182
Table 29: Responses Indicating Belief That Participation in Science Competitions
Provided Students With Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy:
St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/
Administrators 183
Table 30: Responses Indicating Belief That Participation in Science Competitions
Provides Students With the Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy 185
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 11
Abstract
Globalization and increasing foreign direct investment (FDI) by multinational corpora-
tions (MNCs) continue to generate a demand for employees who possess technical and 21st-
century skills. Ireland’s primary economic policy is designed to aggressively attract and sustain
FDI by MNCs. Advances in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields and a
demand for constant innovation have forced Ireland to transform its educational system to sustain
long-term economic growth. Educational policies, practices, and assessments are changing to
address the STEM job and gender gap. To meet the increasing demands of MNCs, the educa-
tional system is rapidly transforming and incorporating project-based learning (PBL) to create
knowledge-based workers possessing 21st-century skills. Ireland faces significant systemic
challenges, including the rote-based state examinations and lack of technology within the class-
room.
This study explored the relationship of school leaders, STEM–PBL science competitions,
development of 21st-century skills, and state examinations. The study also explored the influ-
ence of science competitions on female students’ STEM course enrollment at the secondary and
higher education levels. The purpose of this study was to understand the influence of globaliza-
tion and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills through implementation of
STEM–PBL education and student participation in the STEM–PBL science competitions.
MNC executives interviewed clearly indicated the need for students to possess STEM
skills along with soft skills, most notably communication, collaboration, and problem solving.
Data collected and analyzed in this mixed-methods study showed a positive correlation between
student participation in STEM–PBL science competitions and the development of 21st-century
skills that prepare students for STEM college majors and careers. School leadership was found to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 12
have a positive influence on student participation in STEM PBL and was influenced by the
school leaders’ alignment of limited resources. The most significant finding from this study was
that actively recruiting female students to participate in STEM PBL builds confidence and
motivation to pursue secondary and higher level STEM courses. Interview data with female
students overwhelmingly indicated that participation in STEM–PBL science competitions
developed confidence and empowered them to pursue STEM career pathways.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
The impact of globalization can be seen in some of the most deeply rooted human behav-
iors, beliefs, and interactions (Friedman, 2007). Recognizing the potential economic power of
globalization, the Republic of Ireland, with a struggling economy, minimal exports and limited
international trade, strategically capitalized on the emerging global market. Ireland adopted
economic policies advocating free trade and foreign investment that became known as “industri-
alization-by-invitation” (Andreosso-O’Callaghan, Lenihan, & McDonough, 2016 p. 322). Wage
restraints, low corporate income tax, credits for research and development, and an English-
speaking workforce were used to target foreign direct investment (FDI; O’Hagan & Newman,
2014). The focus on attracting FDI and enticing multinational corporations (MNCs) to relocate
to Ireland was placed above all other policies and issues in finances, labor, education, gover-
nance, and welfare (Andreosso-O’Callaghan et al., 2016).
The country successfully attracted FDI and MNCs and prospered economically for many
years. The economic prosperity continued and culminated in the years of 1995–2006, which
became known as the Celtic Tiger period (Dorgan, 2006). Despite the world financial crisis of
2008, attracting FDI continued to be Ireland’s primary economic strategy. Recognizing FDI and
MNCs require a highly skilled labor force the small country decisively invested in human capital
by changing educational policies, systems and structures (Ireland Department of Business, Enter-
prise, & Innovation [DBEI], 2015). Fear of losing economic competitiveness was the driving
force behind the creation of a national policy on science, technology, engineering, and mathemat-
ics (STEM) education. The primary goal of the STEM educational policy was to secure and
sustain a sufficient supply of high-quality scientists, engineers, technologists, and mathematicians
to support FDI and MNCs (Ireland Department of Education and Skills [DES], 2016). The
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 14
STEM policy proposed that implementation of a comprehensive, inquiry-based learning (IBL)
approach to engage students in authentic problem solving around real-world problems be inte-
grated into the educational fabric of the country (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Science competitions
and fairs such as SciFest were noted as examples of IBL that showcased student work and
exemplified 21st-century learning (Ireland DES, 2016).
This study examined the influences of globalization, FDI, MNCs, and educational poli-
cies on the development of 21st-century skills in Ireland’s educational system. The study also
examined how Ireland was developing human capital to meet the country’s economic goals. The
study investigated how female students’ participation in SciFest and IBL influenced participation
in STEM coursework and careers. The final component of the study examined how school
leaders have influenced students’ participation in SciFest and addressed female students’ enroll-
ment in STEM coursework as students prepared for the Leaving Certificate.
Statement of the Problem
The impact of globalization and Ireland’s aggressive approach to secure FDI and MNCs
successfully catapulted the small country to an economic powerhouse. The worldwide financial
crisis of 2008 and the collapse of Ireland’s construction and mortgage industry challenged the
country’s FDI policies. Ireland’s economy plummeted, and the country had to borrow $98 billion
in 2010 from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to stabilize
the economy (“Best Countries,” 2017). While the nation has recovered, policy makers project a
40,000-position job gap in high-level skills in the field of information and communication tech-
nology (ICT) by the year 2020 (Ireland DES, 2016). The projected job gap is compounded by the
persistence of a gender equity gap in STEM education and careers. Only 25% of Irish women are
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 15
employed in jobs requiring STEM skills, and higher education physics courses enrollment has a
3:1 ratio of males to females (Ireland DES, 2016).
To fuel sustained economic growth, the country recognized the need to develop human
capital and create equity by ensuring equal-access educational opportunities for all students
(O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Ireland must create educational systems, structures, and pathways
to support the development of a labor force equipped with 21st-century skills to meet the needs of
MNCs, which require a highly skilled workforce (Giustiniani, Klein, & Podpiera, 2017). Science
competitions such as SciFest provide opportunities for students to develop and demonstrate 21st-
century skills through a project-based learning (PBL) curriculum (Bender, 2012; Capraro,
Capraro, & Morgan, 2013; Holden, 2017).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the influence of globalization and educa-
tional policy on the development of 21st-century skills through implementation of STEM educa-
tion, instructional practices, and student participation in the SciFest science competition. The
study examined how school leadership influences student participation in SciFest while preparing
for the Leaving Certificate Exam.
Research Questions
Four research questions guided this study:
1. How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate
Examination?
2. How does school leadership influence participation in SciFest?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 16
4. What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/
university professors and MNCs have regarding the value of student participation in SciFest?
Six frameworks were used to assist in analyzing the data: (a) Acker’s (1987) feminist
theory, (b) Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four frames of leadership, (c) Friedman’s (2007) theory of
globalization, (d) the design principles for STEM and PBL developed by Slough and Milam
(2013), (e) Spring’s (2008) world culture, and (f) Wagner’s (2008a) 21st-century skills.
Significance of the Study
Globalization has enabled every phase of product development from research, design,
testing, production, marketing, sales, and servicing to be segmented and completed anywhere in
the world (Friedman, 2007). MNCs are looking to take advantage of lower labor costs, increased
telecommunications, and research and development capabilities in countries such as Ireland by
outsourcing significant research and development tasks (Friedman, 2007). The growth of MNCs
around the globe is generating a demand for knowledge-based workers and producing a global
achievement gap fueled by fundamental economic, social, political, and technological changes
that have changed what students need to know and are being taught in the 21st century (Wagner,
2008a). To support Ireland’s FDI policy, educational systems and structures were transformed to
ensure a continuous pipeline of talented, knowledge-based workers with 21st-century skills
(Ireland DES, 2016).
Recognizing that knowledge-based economies are particularly dependent on the quality
and quantity of STEM graduates, Ireland’s DES (2016) adopted a STEM policy to prepare
students for STEM careers. A critical component of the new STEM educational policy was to
address the job and gender gap by developing 21st-century skills through IBL (Ireland DES,
2016). The engagement of students in inquiry-based science competitions, such as SciFest, have
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 17
been found to increase 21st-century skills, build STEM self-efficacy, develop interest in STEM
courses, and improve student performance regardless of socioeconomic status (OECD, 2014;
STEM Policy Ireland, 2016). This study analyzed the relationship of school leaders, curriculum,
instruction, assessments, and science competitions to the development of 21st-century skills.
Furthermore, the study analyzed the influence of science competitions on female students’ STEM
course enrollment at the secondary level and higher education.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of a study include the systematic bias that the researcher could not control and
that could inappropriately affect the results (Price & Murnan, 2004). Limitations of this study
included the short time frame and geographic distance between the research team and the area of
study. The research team was based in Los Angeles, California, and traveled over 5,000 miles to
Ireland to conduct the study. The study was conducted over the course of a 10-day time period in
Ireland, thus limiting the interaction time between participants and researchers. Although the
time frame was short and the distance great, threats to the validity and reliability were addressed
by collecting rich data and triangulating data. The findings of this study we the result of an
examination of a limited population, and findings cannot be extended to wider populations with
the same degree of certainty.
Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations are characteristics that limit the scope and define the boundaries of a study
and are within the researcher’s control (Simon & Goes, 2010, 2013). Delimiting factors for this
study included the choice, selection, and location of participants. Schools, teachers, and partici-
pants were selected based on a previously established relationship with the University of South-
ern California (USC). School leaders, teachers, parents, and students were selected based on
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 18
their involvement with national science competitions. Secondary schools were selected without
demographic considerations such as gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions were made in this study:
1. That globalization and Ireland’s economic strategy focused on attracting FDI and
MNCs influence the educational system;
2. That IBL strategies, such as PBL and science competitions, with an emphasis on
STEM prepare students with 21st-century skills;
3. That Ireland has numerous informal, extracurricular STEM initiatives such as SciFest
that emphasize IBL;
4. That the interview, survey, and observation protocols will provide the research team
with accurate, reliable, and valid information about the practices and beliefs of schools and
leaders in Ireland; and
5. That a mixed-methods, predominantly qualitative approach, with some quantitative
methodology, is appropriate for this study.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are defined for application within this dissertation:
Foreign direct investment: An investment made to acquire lasting business interest and
control (10% or more, as defined by the United Nations) in another country by a business or
individual operating in another country (Blaine, 2009).
Globalization: The integration of markets, transportation systems, and communication
systems that is enabling corporations, countries, and individuals to reach one another and around
the world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before (Friedman, 2007). It is also
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 19
defined as “the process of increased interaction and integration among individuals, companies,
and governments driven by international trade and FDI” (Spring, 2015, as cited in Holton, 2017,
p. 16) and as a construct of a continuum of human desires, urges, and interactions throughout
history that impacted expanding trade, investments, and economic policies (Chanda, 2007).
Human capital: “A set of skills, knowledge, and/or experience possessed by an individual
or population and viewed in terms of their value or cost to their country” (Chanda, 2007, as cited
in Holton, 2017, p. 17).
IBL: A method of learning, also referred to as PBL, linked to the Reggio Emilia approach,
John Dewey’s theory of experiential learning, Lev Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural learning,
and Jean Piaget’s developmental theory (all as cited in Love, 2016). The primary aims are rooted
in investigations based on authentic interests of the children, peer collaboration, critical thinking,
autonomy, and documentation and communication of learned knowledge (Love, 2016). IBL is a
method of instruction that poses questions, problems, or scenarios while placing the student and
his or her interaction at the center of the learning experience (Capraro et al., 2013; Slough &
Milam, 2013).
Knowledge-based economy: A type of economy that is based on the value or cost of an
individual or group’s possession of skills to produce, distribute, and use knowledge and informa-
tion (Chanda, 2007; Holton, 2017; Sabau, 2010).
Leaving Certificate: The final examination taken at the end of postprimary education
when students are typically 17 or 18 years of age. Students are required to take at least five tests
from more than 30 subject areas. One of the tests must be Irish (Ireland DES, 2018b).
Multinational corporation: The FDI relationship of a parent enterprise and a foreign
affiliate that together form a MNC.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 20
Project-based learning: An inquiry-based approach to learning that requires students to
solve several problems or ill-defined tasks with a well-defined outcome situated within a contex-
tually rich task that showcases student mastery of several concepts of various STEM subjects
(Capraro & Slough, 2013).
Science and technology fairs: A form of PBL used to promote interest in STEM fields. In
Ireland, students may participate in fairs and competitions through SciFest and other experiences
(Capraro et al., 2013; Holton, 2017; SciFest, 2018).
SciFest: An organized system and structures for science competitions among secondary
students in Ireland that promotes PBL and 21st-century learning (Holden, 2017; SciFest, 2015).
Senior Cycle: Two years of educational study in the upper secondary level for 15- to 18-
year-old students, typically leading to the Leaving Certificate state exam. An optional third
transition year (TY) of instruction may be included (Ireland DES, 2018b).
STEM: An interdisciplinary and applied educational approach to teaching science, tech-
nology, engineering, and mathematics.
Twenty-first-century skills: The skills that students need to compete in a global workforce
and economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, the ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008a).
Organization of Dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. The first chapter has presented an over-
view of the study including the background of the problem, statement of the problem, purpose of
the study, research questions, importance of the study, limitations and delimitations, as well as
definitions of key terms used throughout the dissertation. The second chapter is a review and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 21
synthesis of literature around the major topics within the study. Major topics include globaliza-
tion, the flattening phenomenon, economy, education, STEM, gender, and leadership. Chapter
Two concludes with a summary of the literature and presentation of the six theoretical frame-
works used to assist with analyzing the data: (a) Acker’s (1987) feminist theory, (b) Bolman and
Deal’s (2013) four frames of leadership, (c) Friedman’s (2007) theory of globalization, (d) the
design principles for STEM and PBL developed by Slough and Milam (2013), (e) Spring’s
(2008) world culture, and (f) Wagner’s (2008a) 21st-century skills. Chapter Three presents an
overview of the methodology and research design used for the study. A description of the
mixed-method research approach with primarily qualitative data is included in the chapter along
with significant components of the research design including an explanation of the research team,
population and sample, instrumentation, data collection methods, data analysis methods, threats
to validity, credibility, and trustworthiness, as well as ethical considerations.
Chapter Four presents the results and findings of the study by research question and
theme. Chapter Five provides a summary of the findings, limitations, implications for practice,
and future research considerations.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 22
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The information technology (IT) revolution of the 21st century has created a new para-
digm in the global economy and in the world of work (Chu, Reynolds, Tavares, Notari, & Lee,
2017). Innovations in technology transferred how the world conducts business and have created
a demand for knowledge-based workers who were not confined to geographic boundaries. The
new economic standard has resulted in a leveling of the global competitive playing field or, as
Friedman (2007) termed it, the “flattening of the world” (p. 7). Ireland capitalized on the oppor-
tunities that the global economy provided and focused on shaping a favorable business environ-
ment by changing economic policies and offering attractive elements, such as a low corporate
income tax rate and incentives for research and development, to attract would-be (mostly U.S.)
foreign investors. Advocated changes to economic policies have included free trade, foreign
investment, productive (rather than mainly social) investment, and growth rather than fiscal
restraint as the prime objective of economic management (Dorgan, 2006). The new economic
standard transformed Ireland, a small country with limited natural resources, into a global eco-
nomic powerhouse.
As Ireland’s economy flourished, political pressure emerged, demanding that the govern-
ment develop policies to increase employment opportunities and college and career pathways for
Irish citizens. Projected job gaps in ICT and STEM, combined with a persistent STEM gender
gap, convinced the government to make a commitment to invest in education for continued
economic development and for transforming society (Clancy, 1996; Ireland DES, 1995). The
primary goals proposed in Ireland’s new educational policies were to develop human capital to
fuel economic growth and create equity by ensuring equal access and opportunities within the
system for all (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). The educational policies set the foundation for
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 23
system-wide reforms addressing programs, curriculum, pedagogy, teacher induction, teacher
certification, standards, assessment, and continuous professional development.
Expertise in STEM subjects was recognized as necessary to drive the economy, support
innovation, and provide the foundations for future prosperity (Ireland DES, 2016). Due to the
lack of a national STEM policy to provide MNCs with highly qualified scientists, engineers,
technologists, and mathematicians, there were serious concerns that Ireland might lose economic
competitiveness (Ireland DES, 2016). The educational system faced political, economic, and
social pressures to prepare students to compete in the global workforce by developing and inte-
grating 21st-century skills across the school system. Ireland’s DES (2017) proposed the imple-
mentation of a comprehensive, IBL educational approach, also known as PBL, to engage students
in authentic problem solving around real-world problems to be integrated into the educational
fabric of the country (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Science competitions and fairs such as SciFest
showcased student work and exemplify Ireland’s shift to a focus on IBL as a means to develop
21st-century skills.
The review of literature examines the influence of globalization and educational policy on
the development of 21st-century skills. This literature review begins by examining key concepts
of globalization, FDI, Ireland’s economic and political history, and Ireland’s educational system,
followed by a review of related literature about STEM education, science competitions, gender,
and leadership. The chapter concludes with a summary of the literature and the overarching
framework in which the research was framed to answer the following questions:
1. How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate
Examination?
2. How does school leadership influence participation in SciFest?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 24
3. How does participation in SciFest influence female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses?
4. What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/
university professors, and MNCs have regarding the value of student participation in SciFest?
Globalization
Overview and Definition
The term globalization first appeared in Webster’s Dictionary in 1961, the same year as
the inception of the first global human and animal rights organizations, Amnesty International
and World Wildlife Fund (Chanda, 2007). The term was initially defined by Webster as “making
worldwide in scope or application” (as cited in Chandra, 2007, p. 248). A commonly accepted
definition is difficult to find, as many theorists present differing definitions. Spooner (2015)
defined globalization as change that accelerates open-ended change and assures progress toward
a new, globally interconnected community. Friedman (2007) defined globalization as a conver-
gence of economic, political, and social ideologies resulting from technological advancements
and fueled by individual empowerment. Stromquist (2002) argued that globalization has multi-
ple dimensions—economic, technological and political—all of which spill into culture and affect
in all-encompassing ways the kinds of knowledge that are created, assigned merit, and distrib-
uted. The discourse regarding globalization has resulted in the term being applied to political and
cultural changes that affect in common ways large segments of the world’s population (Spring,
2008).
According to Spring (2008), research on globalization and education are divided into four
major theoretical perspectives: world culture, world systems, postcolonial, and culturalist. World
cultural theorists posit the existence of a world culture that “contains Western ideals of mass
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 25
schooling, which serves as a model for national school systems” (p. 344). World culturalist
theory suggests that globalization is a result of a highly internationalized economy that is influ-
enced by national policies that are critical to national economies and the companies that operate
within the nation and rather than a result of consumer spending driving the global market (Hirst
& Thompson, 2009). Scheuer and Scheuer (2008) suggested that world cultural (often termed
neo- institutionalist) theory explains globalization as a convergence and replication of Western
industrialized countries’ organizational practices and structures for business, schools, states, and
labor. Scheuer and Scheuer found that national models inspired by the outside world and eco-
nomic difficulties are continuously evolving as they undergo institutionally embedded changes.
The second theoretical approach to globalization that Spring (2008) proposed is the world
systems approach. The key framework of the world systems approach is an integrated global
economy with two major unequal zones. These core zones are the Western world (United States
and Canada) and Asia (Japan and China), which seek to legitimize power by indoctrinating their
values into periphery nations. Within the world systems approach, the capacity of a country to
grow depends on territorial success factors and the presence of FDIs (Capello & Fratesi, 2013).
Postcolonial theorists see globalization as an effort to impose on the global society
particular economic and political agendas that benefit wealthy and rich nations at the expense of
the world’s poor (Apple, 2005; Brown & Lauder, 2006; Gabbard, 2000; Olson, 2006; Spring,
2008; Weiler, 2001). The fourth theory, the culturalist theory, is an interpretative framework that
emphasizes a reciprocal sharing of educational ideas across the globe (Spring, 2008). A major
argument of the world cultural theorists is that schooling is based on Western models, structures,
and curriculum (Meyer & Kamens, 1992; Ramirez, 2003; Ramirez & Boli, 1987; Spring, 2008).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 26
Chanda (2007) proposed that globalization is a construct of a continuum of human
desires, urges, and interactions throughout history rather than solely an outcome of expanding
trade, investments, and economic policies. According to Friedman (2007), globalization has
impacted some of the most deeply rooted human behaviors, beliefs, and interactions, thereby
resulting in the creation of a new social contract. Studying the forces that created this intercon-
nected and interdependent world may provide a deeper understanding of globalization and the
influence of globalization on Ireland’s educational system (Chanda, 2007).
History of Globalization
There are several theories regarding the start of globalization. World systems theorists
see globalization as a new cycle in history (Frank, 1998; Gills, 2000; Chanda, 2007). Modern
globalization theorists propose that globalization results from more recent convergences of
technology, innovation, and communication (Friedman, 2007). World systems theorists argue
that the existence of the same world system dates back over 5,000 years (Frank 1998; Frank &
Gills 1993; Gills, 2000; O’Rourke & Williamson, 2002). Chanda (2007) argued that globaliza-
tion began with early traders, explorers, and conquerors. Several others claimed that the first
phase of globalization began with Christopher Columbus’s famous voyage opening trade
between Europe and the Americas and Vasco da Gama’s 1498 voyage around Africa that opened
the Asian spice trade routes (Bentley 1995; Friedman, 2007; O’Rourke & Williamson, 2002;
Tracy 1990). Thurow (2000) stated that the first wave of globalization began in the 1950s, with
the second phase starting in the 1980s and accelerating in the 1990s.
Early theories credit the beginning of globalization with early traders, preachers, adven-
turers, and warriors (Chanda, 2007). The driving force behind early globalization was connected
with the goal of establishing provinces and expanding military might. The Roman Empire is a
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 27
prime example of this type of globalization. As the Romans established provinces throughout
Europe and the Mediterranean, they developed routes to travel upon by constructing many roads
and bridges (Chanda, 2007). The new routes combined with the development of coinage led to a
substantial increase in trade (Chanda, 2007). The Roman Empire never invaded Ireland; how-
ever, there is evidence of Ireland trading with the Roman Empire (Killeen, 2012). Trading
occurred via the easy navigation of the Irish Sea, which enabled the flow of ideas and commodi-
ties from Roman Britain to Ireland (Killeen, 2012).
Friedman (2007) posited that the first form of globalization, which he termed Globaliza-
tion 1.0, began between 1492 and 1800 and was led by countries for nationalistic and/or religious
reasons. The era revolved around how much military and other economic resources (horsepower,
wind power, steam power) each country held and how the resources were deployed. During this
phase, global integration was driven by breaking down barriers and opening resources. Countries
struggled with their identity in the global economy as they tried to understand where they fit in
terms of global competition and opportunities (Friedman 2007).
The next era, which Friedman (2007) termed Globalization 2.0, was characterized by the
emergence of the Industrial Revolution of the 17th century and the growth of capitalism (Fried-
man, 2007; Spooner, 2015). During this era, MNCs were driving global integration as they
strove to increase market share and reduce labor costs (Friedman, 2007). Breakthroughs in
transportation (steam engines, rail systems, automobiles), energy (coal, electricity, gas) and
communication (telegraph, telephone) facilitated the movement of goods and information
between countries and continents, thereby leading to the birth of a global economy (Friedman,
2007). The global arbitrage of products and labor during this period led to questions about how
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 28
companies fit in and were able to take advantage of and collaborate with other companies in the
global economy (Friedman, 2007).
Although globalization ideology has evolved through distinct periods of time, it was not
until the 1980s when modern global theorist Theodore Levitt (1983), an American economist and
Harvard University business professor, was credited with coining the term globalization (Strom-
quist, 2002). Levitt (1983) theorized that technological advances, low transportation costs, lower
production costs, and changes in consumption were creating a demand for the globalization of
markets. Levitt warned companies to stop “marketing myopia” by focusing on satisfying custom-
ers’ needs, ignoring regional and national differences, and operating as if the entire world was
one large market.
The term globalization became commonly used during the early 1990s and coincided with
the development of the personal computer and the collapse of the Soviet Union (Spooner, 2015).
O’Rourke and Williamson (2002) argued that globalization did not actually occur until this era
that met both conditions they proposed had to be present for globalization. The first condition
was that domestic commodity pricing must change as a result of trade. The second condition
they proposed was that
the changes in domestic commodity prices must induce a reshuffling of resources between
economic activities in order for trade to influence the things that really matter, like the
scale of output, the distribution of income (e.g., land rents relative to wages), absolute
living standards or the quality of life. (p. 4).
According to O’Rourke and Williamson, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the development
of the personal computer created the conditions to meet these criteria and set the foundation for
an interconnected and interrelated global economy. The personal computer increased
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 29
telecommunications; ready access to digital content; and advancements in software, hardware,
and infrastructure; thus, the global economy was revolutionized.
Globalization has not gone uncontested. The antiglobalization movement emerged at the
World Trade Organization conference in 1999 and spread across the globe. Thought to be a
Western-driven phenomenon, the movement was characterized by five disparate forces: liberal
American guilt, socialists, anarchists aligned with trade unions, passive support from some
countries, anti-Americanism, and a coalition attempting to control how globalization should
occur (Friedman, 2007). According to Burgoon (2013), the degree to which a country’s national
economic and global policies have deep implications for wealth, peace, and justice in the world
could be perceived as a pro or con in the globalization debate. Controversial globalization
policies over the European Union (EU) trade openness and internationalism have seen increases
in “Eurosceptic” (p. 408), anti-immigration, protectionist and general anti-internationalist
positions that, combined with income inequality, can lead to antiglobalization. Britain’s decision
to exit the EU was in large part due to political discourse on globalization and free trade versus
support for the country’s domestic businesses and working-class citizens (Pabst, 2017).
Antiglobalization has been linked with income inequality and the increasing social-economic
disparities in the United States and Europe (Stiglitz, 2017).
Flattening Phenomenon
The driving force behind Globalization 3.0 shifted from companies to individuals collab-
orating and competing globally (Daughton, 2005). The development of the personal computer,
workflow software, fiber-optic cables, and technology infrastructure throughout the world
resulted in a new economic standard that leveled the global competitive playing field and led to
what Friedman (2007) called the flattening phenomena of cultural, geographical, and commercial
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 30
barriers. Friedman described 10 forces that he believed have caused this third period of global-
ization:
The first flattener was the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Symbolically and structur-
ally, the wall represented a separation of the Communist Soviet Union (or Eastern Bloc world)
and the Western world, thus making it difficult to see a global world. The fall of the wall set the
stage for the end of Communism, a system that, according to Friedman (2007) had made people
equally poor and opened the doors for global capitalism that made people unequally rich. The
collapse of the wall represented the end of the Cold War and paved the way to tap into one
another’s knowledge pool as well as to adopt common standards and enhance the free movement
of best practices. Shared economic and technological standards resulted in the EU adopting a
common currency and expanding from 15 to 25 countries (Friedman, 2007).
The second flattener was the development of Netscape and the World Wide Web, which
created a revolution in connectivity. The Internet became a tool of low-cost global connectivity
that was accessible to individuals regardless of age, demographics or location. Netscape helped
make the Internet truly interoperable (Friedman, 2007). Netscape placed communication and
knowledge in the hands of the individuals, set off an explosive demand for all things digital, and
sparked the Internet boom (Friedman, 2007).
The third flattener was the invention of workflow software that enabled machines over the
Internet to use standardized protocols with no humans involved at all (Friedman, 2007). “All of
these interoperable banking and e-commerce functions flattened the Internet marketplace so
radically that even eBay was taken by surprise” (Friedman, 2007, p. 85). The combination of the
first three flatteners set the foundation for collaboration around the globe that allowed people to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 31
plug and play, share work, exchange knowledge, start companies, and invent and sell goods and
services (Friedman, 2007).
Workflow software led to the next six flatteners: uploading, outsourcing, offshoring,
supply chaining, insourcing, and in-forming, whereby companies were able to harness the power
of communication and distribute product development, manufacturing, distribution, and shipping
to employees stationed around the globe. Search engines such as Google and Yahoo have had a
profound impact on democratizing society (Friedman, 2007). Consumers were able to find infor-
mation, products, and services faster than ever, thus creating an environment where they were
more informed, able to collaborate regardless of location, and became experts in given subjects
(Friedman, 2007). While challenges exist with each flattener, Friedman (2007) considered
uploading, the platform for blogs, open source materials, Wikipedia, and content sharing to have
the potential to be the most disruptive flattener. Friedman cited an example of the potential
disruption with the spread of misinformation and the character assassination of John Seigen-
thaler, Robert Kennedy’s administrative assistant on Wikipedia.
The onset of personal digital mobile, personal, and virtual devices was considered to be
the 10th and final flattener (Friedman, 2007). These devices served as accelerants or, as Fried-
man called them, “steroids” for this wave of globalization. The implementation of computing,
instant messaging, file sharing, phone calls via the Internet, videoconferencing, computer
graphics, and wireless devices resulted in “engines talking to computers, people talking to people,
computers talking to computers, and people talking to computers farther, faster, more cheaply,
and more easily than before (Friedman, 2007, p. 199). A convergence of the 10 flatteners oc-
curred with the expansion of the software, the Internet, and changes in political policies in
developing countries that opened their borders—thus further enhancing the global economy
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 32
(Friedman, 2007). The new flat world positioned small countries such as Ireland with limited
natural resources and global economic standing to be transformed into global economic power-
houses with the ability to compete with countries such as the United States of America.
Impact of Globalization
Globalization has enabled every phase of product development—research, design, testing,
production, marketing, sales, and servicing—to be segmented and completed anywhere in the
world. With lower labor costs and increased telecommunications, more and more American and
European companies are taking advantage of the new global economy by outsourcing significant
research and development tasks to India, Russia, and China (Friedman, 2007). Recognizing the
potential economic power of the new global marketplace, the Republic of Ireland, with a strug-
gling economy, minimal exports, and limited international trade, strategically capitalized on
globalization by adopting an economic policy advocating free trade and foreign investment that
became known as “industrialization-by-invitation” (Andreosso-O’Callaghan et al., 2016, p. 322).
The new policy changed the social construct of the Irish society by focusing on creating eco-
nomic, labor, and educational policies that encouraged global corporations to relocate to Ireland.
Ireland
Economic History and Political Overview
Ireland (Eire), with a long agricultural history dating back to 3,500 BC and limited natural
resources, struggled to find its place in the global economy (Killeen, 2012). Throughout time,
Ireland remained relatively remote and sheltered from the economic, social, and political situa-
tions of Eastern Europe (Killeen, 2012). The country has a long economic history of agriculture,
cattle raising, fishing, and mining (Hegarty, 2012). A large island located on the western-most
edge of the European continent, Ireland is separated from Great Britain and Scotland by an easily
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 33
navigable sea. Ireland’s geography is characterized by flat central plains surrounded by gradually
rising hillsides, river valleys, and a long coastline containing rocky cliffs—most famously the
Cliffs of Moher (Hegarty, 2012). Ireland’s quest to secure economic freedom in a global econ-
omy is tightly woven into the country’s history and geography.
To understand how Ireland’s current economic policies regarding MNCs and FDI, it is
necessary to examine the country’s extensive economic history. During the Mesolithic Age,
evidence exists of the first people in Ireland who used flint, a natural resource, to create weapons
and tools for hunting. The development of agriculture appears to have occurred during the
Neolithic period, when flint was used to create porcellanite axes that helped to clear the land and
create a stable food source, such as wheat and barley for settlements (Killeen, 2012). Architec-
tural structures created during the Neolithic period, such as Newgrange, are considered to be
among the world’s earliest architectural masterpieces and predate the Egyptian pyramids (Duffy,
2000). Around 200 BC, the Bronze Age brought about the first evidence of mining in Ireland.
The country’s vast deposits of copper were mined and combined with a tin additive to make tools
and jewelry. The tin, presumably imported from Cornwall, suggested evidence of early trading
across the Atlantic (Killeen, 2012). The Iron Age brought a steady influx of the Celts, who were
highly skilled in metal work and had superior military skills that they used to displace the indige-
nous people (Killeen, 2012). A new Gaelic Irish society emerged, based on a system of a highly
stratified military aristocracy bound by law. The prime focus of the economy shifted to cattle
rearing and agriculture and was conducted by some of the 27 classes of freemen and slaves for
the numerous mini-kingdoms (Killeen, 2012).
While the Roman Empire never invaded Ireland, activities such as raiding between
Ireland and Roman Britain enabled the flow of ideas and commodities. Affirming Hegarty’s
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 34
(2012) claim, the Irish Sea has long served as a highway to the outside world rather than a barrier.
During one such raid, Hegarty suggested that a young man thought by many to be St. Patrick was
captured and enslaved for 6 years in Ireland. Escaping Ireland after 6 years of slavery, St. Patrick
returned home to Britain and eventually returned to Ireland as a missionary (Hegarty, 2012). As
Christianity replaced pagan Ireland, a mixed farming economy took hold around monasteries
(Hegarty, 2012). However the heavy economic reliance on farming led to disaster when crops
failed, resulting in disease and famine. Crop failure and famine became a reoccurring challenge
in Ireland’s economic history (Hegarty, 2012; Killeen, 2012).
The beginnings of a commercial economy were rooted in the Viking invasions around the
year 795. Viking settlements in Cork and Dublin were based on merchant trade and seafaring
rather than subsisting on agriculture (Hegarty, 2012). Trading led to the evolution of a cash-
based economy in Ireland, with the first silver coin introduced in 953. The Norman colonization
brought about the development of inland towns, a general circulation of a money, and the growth
of an economy based on domestic and foreign trade (Killeen, 2012).
Subsistence farming and agriculture remained the focal point of the Irish economy from
1200 to 1500. Improved farming techniques led to a surplus of grain crops for exports, leading to
the growth of exports of cattle, animal hides, timber, and fish from Ireland to Europe. Simulta-
neously, imports of salt to preserve food and wine increased. Toward the end of the 15th century,
coastal communities were believed to have charged fees to English and Spanish fishing fleets for
the rights to commercially fish off their shores (Hegarty, 2012). The fees on commercial fishing
may have been the first glimpse of a cross-border economy in Ireland. Merchants, politicians,
and soldiers well aware of the political shifts in Europe that served as an early communication
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 35
highway (Hegarty, 2012). The Irish Church became increasingly aligned with Rome, and Euro-
pean monastic orders brought goods and ideas to Ireland (Hegarty, 2012).
English colonization of Ireland struggled throughout the years. Irish resistance and
English mismanagement and neglect contributed to the government’s brink of bankruptcy by the
early 14th century (Duffy, 2000). The English colonists’ main concerns were depletion of
resources and lack of funding and military support to fight off Irish raids. The English govern-
ment responded with the adoption of a law in 1297 that prohibited people from adopting Irish
traits, including clothing and hairstyles (Duffy, 2000).
The quest for Irish independence continued throughout the next few centuries. The period
was marked by a growing reformation movement and an internal struggle for political supremacy
among Irish lords. Irish lords such as Shane O’Neill a self-proclaimed defender of the Roman
Catholic faith, reached out to King Charles IX of France and Mary Queen of Scots and encour-
aged them to invade Ireland (Duffy, 2000). O’Neill’s nephew later joined Ulster lords such as
O’Donnell and Maguire with the Spaniards to try to oust the Protestant British rule. The conflict
persisted and eventually resulted in the Munster Uprisings and the defeat of O’Neill on Christmas
Eve, 1601, in Kisdale, County Cork (Hegarty, 2012).
The economy throughout the next few centuries was marked with religious persecution,
famine, and poverty that resulted in increasing emigration. The Great Famine of 1845 resulted in
high mortality rates, low marriage rates, and mass emigration, followed by decades of high levels
of poverty that continued into the mid 20th century (State, 2009). Throughout this period, Ireland
continued to be ruled by the British until the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, formally
called the Republic of Ireland.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 36
After gaining independence from the United Kingdom (UK) in 1922, Ireland struggled to
find economic independence. The newly recognized country focused on developing a nationalist
economic policy of enacting high tariffs and taxes for import substitutions (Dorgan, 2006). The
country continued to rely heavily on small agriculture and manufacturing industries focused
primarily on serving the needs of Ireland’s residents, with minimal exports to the United King-
dom. The result was disastrous, the population dropped at every census, and poverty increased.
By the 1950s, Ireland recognized the need to transform policies to create a stable economic
environment. The need for a change in economic development policy was clear (Dorgan, 2006).
A radical new economic policy was proposed favoring openness. The policy changes
were drawn together in The Ireland Economic Development, a paper published in 1958, and
strategically positioned the country for global success. The policy changes advocated free trade,
foreign investment, productive (rather than mainly social) investment, and growth rather than
fiscal restraint as the prime objective of economic management (Dorgan, 2006).
Political and Economic Implications
Ireland’s Industrial Development Authority (IDA), established in 1949, was primarily
responsible for implementing the state-adopted strategy of industrialization by invitation. In
1973 Ireland joined the European Economic Community (EEC), which later became the EU. By
1977 all internal trade barriers among the member countries were removed, and they shared
common external trade barriers (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Ireland focused on shaping a
favorable business environment by offering attractive elements, such as a low corporate income
tax rate and a favorable research and development policy to would-be (mostly U.S.) foreign
investors. Other policies and issues in financial, labor, education, governance, and welfare
became subordinate to the primary goal of attracting FDI and MNCs (Dorgan, 2006).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 37
Small businesses in Ireland struggled to compete under the new policies, emigration
continued, and high unemployment rates continued. Early government interventions were not
successful. The impact was a change in the ruling party in 1987 with the election of a political
sphere dominated by two largely centrist parties, the Fianna Fil and the Fine Gael (Andreosso-
O’Callaghan et al., 2016). Subsequent adoption of policies reducing government spending,
increasing wages, and promoting business investment resulted in stemming emigration and
improved economic conditions. These developments culminated in the Celtic Tiger Period
(1995–2006), when the country decisively invested in human capital by changing educational
policies and lowering taxes to encourage FDI (Dorgan, 2006).
The new Celtic Period was recognized for the country’s economic openness to global
markets, low tax rates and significant investment in education (Dorgan, 2006). No longer a
welfare state, the focus on globalization resulted in increased social issues. The increased
economic outlook led to a significant inflow of immigrants as well as policy changes in citizen-
ship, labor, and immigration (Ruhs & Quinn, 2009). The 2004 Citizenship Referendum moved
to redefine Irish citizenship (Fanning & Munck, 2016).
The economic policy was challenged again with Ireland’s recession following the U.S.
mortgage crisis in 2007 and the stock market collapse in 2008. In 2008 Ireland faced a severe
financial crisis due in part to the world financial crisis and the collapse of Ireland’s housing
market and construction industry. The country had to make substantial budget cuts; the fact that
the government was able to protect most welfare programs safeguarded social solidarity and
cohesion in the country (Giustiniani et al., 2017). As a result, Ireland developed new policies
focusing on providing long-term economic security for the country.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 38
The Irish economy is projected to continue to experience healthy growth (OECD, 2017);
however, Ireland politicians will have to successfully navigate the impact of the withdrawal of
the UK from the EU. Ireland’s traditionally strong relationships with the UK across all economic
sectors faces challenges with questions regarding trade agreements, border regulations, and the
possible return to turmoil between Ireland and Northern Ireland that will impact the economic
outlook in the upcoming years (Breslin & Kennedy, 2017). The EU was instrumental in securing
the Belfast Agreement (also known as the Good Friday Agreement) of 1998, which ended over
25 years of violent political turmoil between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland and
created open and seamless borders between the two countries (Gormley-Heenan & Aughey,
2017; Stevenson, 2017). Pressures in the labor market, inflation, and slower than projected
output combined with external uncertainty, including the Brexit negotiations, will continue to
shape and mold economic policy (OECD, 2017). Ireland may need to adjust a variety of policies
including economic policies to continue attracting new FDI and MNC.
FDI and MNCs
Ireland has an extensive history of open trade dating as far back as 1917, when Henry
Ford & Son Ltd. set up a manufacturing base in Cork, Ireland (IDA, 2015). The flow of capital,
including FDI by MNCs in Ireland, has been essential to the growth and development of Ireland’s
economy. FDI refers to the policy of inviting investors from outside of the country to acquire a
lasting interest or long-term relationship in another country in the form of direct investment
(International Monetary Fund [IMF], 2003). Ireland’s Economic Policy of 1958 was founded on
Ireland’s belief in trade liberalization and focused on attracting FDI through wage restraints to
keep industrial costs low, a 10% corporate tax rate, corporate subsidies, and tax incentives for
investing in research and development (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). The liberal financial policy
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 39
and tax rates were designed to attract FDI and encourage MNCs to relocate to Ireland. By
creating a consistent and stable focus on encouraging FDI by MNCs, Ireland developed one of the
fastest growing economies with gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 5.1% in 2016, thereby
outperforming all European countries and the United States (IMF, 2017). Examining the history,
structures, and systems that Ireland created to attract FDI provide insight on how FDI by MNCs
has influenced the educational system.
The adoption of Ireland’s Economic Development paper, published in 1958, strategically
positioned the country for global success by advocating free trade, foreign investment, productive
investment, and growth (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). It was followed by the establishment of a
network of Regional Technical Colleges (RTCs) during the 1970s with the goal of targeting high-
tech manufacturing MNCs (Clancy, 1996). The establishment of the RTCs set the foundation for
what would become Ireland’s technology hub. Ireland started promoting FDI into manufacturing
and exports. During the 1980s, the country strategically began targeting FDI and MNCs in high-
tech sectors (Buckley & Ruane, 2006). Ireland implemented structural reforms and economic
policies including lower corporate taxes and research and development investment policies that,
combined with the country’s location, infrastructure, educated workforce, and stable political
structure, led to a sharp increase in FDI in the 1990s (IMF, 2003). A shift from FDI directed at
manufacturing and natural resources occurred in the 1990s toward the service, telecommunica-
tion, and finance sectors (IMF, 2003). MNCs sought countries that had stable political structures,
favorable tax structures, available labor, and the potential to increase growth (IMF, 2003). The
strategic focus on technology sectors created an innovative environment for MNCs, complete
with the perquisite infrastructure.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 40
In 2017 over 50% of the country’s manufacturing was in the high-tech sector and the
corporate income tax was 12.5%—significantly lower than that of the United States (40%) and
Great Britain (21%; IDA Ireland, 2017). Technology manufacturing combined with a proven
track record for supporting MNCs, a talented labor pool, and one of the best corporate tax
structures in the world, provide the axis for attracting FDI and MNCs (Buckley & Ruane, 2006;
IDA Ireland, 2017). Ireland has maintained an aggressive approach to seeking FDI. The country
emphasizes the availability of a highly talented English-speaking workforce, advanced technol-
ogy, and an inviting corporate tax structure for MNCs. According to Ireland’s DBEI (2014), over
20% of all private sector employment in Ireland is estimated to be directly or indirectly related to
FDI. The benefits of FDI include employment of approximately a quarter of million people by
over 3,300 foreign-owned firms (Ireland DBEI, 2014). By 2013 foreign-owned firms accounted
for 72% of the country’s corporate tax revenues (Ireland DBEI, 2014). Over 1,000 MNC Euro-
pean headquarters are located in Ireland; these include social media, pharmaceuticals, and finance
industries such as Google, HP, Apple, IBM, Facebook, Linkedin, Twitter, Pfizer, GSK, and
Genzyme (IDA Ireland, 2017). Nine of the top 10 global ICT companies, six of the top seven
diagnostics companies, eight of the top 10 gaming companies, 15 of the top 20 medical device
companies, eight of the top 10 pharmaceutical companies, and 50% of the world’s leading
financial services firms are located in Ireland (IDA Ireland, 2017).
With most of FDI focused on areas around Dublin, the country is now focusing on
expanding FDI across regions throughout the country. Increasing inward investment in infra-
structure, energy, property, supply chains, and knowledge transfer to improve the business
environment across the country has been identified as 2020 goals (Ireland DBEI, 2014). The
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 41
2020 goals also include using FDI to resolve some of Ireland’s national challenges in healthcare,
education, and the environment (Ireland DBEI, 2014).
The FDI strategy has held up under the most recent economic crisis faced around the
world, which began in 2008 with the failure of the U.S. mortgage industry. The approach has
continued even after Ireland borrowed $98 billion in 2010 to stabilize the economy after the
world financial crisis in 2008 devastated Ireland’s construction and mortgage industry (“Best
Countries,” 2017). Despite this dramatic setback, Ireland continued to seek FDI and was ranked
first in Forbes Magazine’s “Top 10 Best Countries for Business in 2013” and has remained in the
top 10 ever since, beating countries such as the United States of America, Finland, and Germany
(“Best Countries,” 2017).
While Ireland’s recovery has been strong, the country recognizes the need to refine labor
policies and improve labor skills, which requires better aligning educational pathways with
corporate needs (Giustiniani et al., 2017). The Ireland DBEI (2014) attributed the sustained
growth in FDI to the quality of the Irish workforce and in particular workforce flexibility, adapt-
ability, and high levels of educational attainment that provide Ireland with a competitive advan-
tage in attracting FDI. These factors, combined with a pro-business environment maintained by
successive governments and the support given by governmental departments and agencies, the
perceived ease of doing business in Ireland, membership in the EU, and a consistently low corpo-
rate tax rate, have created an attractive ecosystem for winning FDI (Ireland DBEI, 2014).
Education in Ireland
Historical Overview
Despite a history of poverty, Ireland has maintained higher levels of participation in
primary education, particularly for females, compared to other nations (Raftery & Hout, 1993).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 42
A variety of factors is credited for the high primary enrollment, including the involvement of the
Catholic Church; individual religious members’ contributions; prudent operations; and a tradi-
tional, nontechnical curriculum (Raftery & Hout, 1993; Tussing, 1978). While most countries
have parallel systems of education with publicly operated nondenominational schools and private
(mostly religious) schools, Ireland has a long history of supporting private denominational
schools. Throughout modern history, the Catholic Church has had a powerful influence on the
Irish educational system. As early as 1831, Ireland resisted attempts by the British government to
implement nondenominational schools (Raftery & Hout, 1993). After gaining independence
from England in 1922, the country continued to favor public support of denominational schools.
Support for denominational schools was officially recognized in 1925, 3 years after the founding
of the Republic of Ireland, with a report that was adopted by the Department of Education that
publicly identified religion as the most important curriculum for primary education (Williams,
1999).
Educational policies developed in the 1960s set the foundation for creating systems to
support the growth of human capital. Investment in Education (1965) and the Commission on
Higher Education Report (1967) outlined educational reforms as an integral part of Ireland’s
economy and society, focusing on “restructuring, diversifying and expanding the educational
system” (Clancy, 1996, p. 355). The educational reforms changed long-held practices and
policies, including the requirement for families to pay for second-level schooling with educa-
tional reforms in 1967 (Raftery & Hout, 1993). In 1972, the focus on economic growth as a
driver for educational change resulted in the establishment of a network of higher education
RTCs (Clancy, 1996). Eleven RTCs were established; six technical colleges were expanded to
create the Dublin Institute of Technology; and two National Universities were created along with
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 43
the establishment of many private colleges (Clancy, 1996). The new educational policies created
a significant impact on the number of people enrolled in higher education, which increased annu-
ally from 8,000 students in the 1950s to 110,000 per year by the year 2000 (Childs, 2001). In
1996, Ireland removed tuition fees from higher education (McCoy, & Smyth, 2011). The results
were dramatic: Based on the school leavers’ survey data, enrollment increased from 44% in 1998
to 55% in 2004 (O’Connell, Mccoy, & Clancy, 2006).
Current Education in Ireland
The Irish education system is structured like that in most countries around the world, with
compulsory attendance from the age of 6 to 16 years old. Most children attend primary schools
between the ages of 4 and 12. Although religious orders have historically been highly involved in
education, almost all primary schools are now state run (O’Brien, 2003). Primary schools are
referred to as the first level of education. Students between the ages 12 and 18 attend a postpri-
mary school; postprimary education is also referred to as second-level education (Ireland DES,
2017). Second-level schools are either academic in nature or specialized technical schools with a
focus on general coursework combined with vocational education and require the passing of a
local entrance exam (Raftery & Hout, 1993). Specialized secondary schools have a 2-year cur-
riculum; at the end of the 2 years, most students take the state-run Group Certificate Examina-
tion. Students enrolled in academic secondary school complete a 5-year program and take two
state-run examinations, the Intermediate Certificate and Leaving Certificate Exams, at the end of
the 3rd and 5th years, respectively (Raftery & Hout, 1993). The traditional Leaving Certificate
Examination is the final examination of postprimary education and is taken when students are
typically 17 or 18 years of age. Leaving Certificate Exams or syllabi are available in more than
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 44
30 subjects; students are required to take at least five subjects, one of which must be Irish (Ireland
DES, 2018b).
There are five Leaving Certificate science subjects: biology, chemistry, physics, physics
and chemistry, and agricultural science. Each of these subjects is offered at two levels, Higher
and Ordinary. There is a strong imbalance in the numbers of students studying Leaving Certifi-
cate biology compared to the other science subjects (Ireland DES, 2016). Commencing with the
year 2020, over 40 secondary schools will be offering a computer science (CS) Leaving Certifi-
cate. Ireland’s new CS Certificate is part of the government’s overall commitment to embed
digital technology in teaching and learning. The CS Certificate is a reflection of educational
systems’ goal to prepare children to thrive in such an environment by equipping them with skills
in creativity, adaptability, and problem solving (Ireland DES, 2017).
Enrollment in higher education is primarily determined by students’ performance on the
high-stakes Leaving Certificate Examination. Based on the results of the Leaving Certificate
Exam, students have the ability to enroll in a limited number of higher education or third-level
institutions, such as academic universities and technical colleges. Despite the high-stakes exam,
enrollment in higher education increased from 5% in 1971 to 55% in 2007 and the majority of
students are female (Kenny, Larkin, Mac Sithigh, & Thijssen, 2012).
Ireland continues to develop key education and training strategies across all areas of
education. Comprehensive strategies in mathematics, technology, professional development, and
higher education have been recently published by the DES. Strategies pending publication
include an international education, foreign languages, and equity (Ireland DES, 2018b).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 45
Educational Policy
The value of education to Irish citizens was made apparent with the publication of the
Green Paper on education, Education for a Changing World (INTO Forum, 1992). According to
Coolahan (2007), “almost 1,000 written submissions were lodged with the Department of Edu-
cation in response to the Paper” (p. 11). The government responded to this interest by setting up
the National Education Convention in Dublin Castle in the autumn of 1993 (Coolahan, 2007).
The convention set the precedent for the publication of the government publication of Charting
our Education Future commonly referred to as the White Paper, in 1995 (Ireland Department of
Education and Science, 1995). The White Paper presented a commitment to investing in educa-
tion for continued economic development and transforming society (Clancy, 2006; Ireland
Department of Education and Science, 1995). The primary goals proposed in Ireland’s new
educational policy were to develop human capital to fuel economic growth and create equity by
ensuring equal access to and opportunities within the system for all citizens (O’Hagan &
Newman, 2014). The White Paper was just the beginning of educational reform; in 1998 The
Education Act passed into Irish law. This was a significant moment in the Irish education system
as it was the first education act to be passed since the formation of the Irish Republic in 1922.
Since then, there has been significant changes made to programs, curriculum, teacher induction,
certification, standards, and continuous professional development. Legislation and policies
included the Teaching Council Act in 2001 and Establishment of the Teaching Council in 2006
(Stone, 2002). The Teaching Council set forth several new policies, including the Council
Regulations (2009), Policy on the Continuum of Teacher Education (2011), and Criteria and
Guidelines for Programme Providers (2011) that centered around providing the country with
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 46
long-term economic security and stability by investing in the education of its citizenry and
developing human capital (all as cited in Stone, 2002).
Ireland’s strategy for increasing research and development through education clearly
articulates strategic plans for a sustainable economy and a better society based on renowned
talent, excellent research, and an internationally competitive research system (Interdepartmental
Committee on Science, Technology, and Innovation, 2015). Educational and economic policies
are aligned to reflect this goal. Ireland’s policy statement on FDI (Ireland DBEI, 2014) stated
that “it is important that we continue to nurture and reinforce higher-order skills and capabilities
across all levels of education, including creativity, problem-solving, design-thinking, adaptabil-
ity—traits for which people educated in Ireland have gained a strong reputation internationally”
(p. 14). The vision of Ireland’s Digital Strategy for Schools 2015–2010: Enhancing Teaching,
Learning, and Assessment (Ireland DES, 2015) recognized the potential of digital technologies to
enhance teaching, learning, and assessment to engage students in critical thinking, construct
knowledge and become global citizens. The strategy focuses on improving ICTs for primary and
secondary schools in four overarching themes: (a) Teaching, Learning, and Assessment Using
ICT; (b) Teacher Professional Learning; (c) Leadership, Research, and Policy; and (d) ICT Infra-
structure. As part of the strategy to improved ICT, Ireland began to develop a national STEM
education policy that will define the type of STEM education at the primary and postprimary
levels (Duffy, 2000; Ireland DES, 2015).
Ireland’s willingness to develop new educational policies demonstrated the belief that
schools are embedded in society and responsive to its demands (Wirt & Kirst, 1997). From a
macroeconomic perspective, investing in education facilitates the development of the human
capital that is a key component of Ireland’s economic policies. Ireland’s education system also
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 47
felt the impact of the world financial crisis of 2008. While most welfare programs in Ireland
were protected, education faced cuts to higher education and vocational and trainee grants, more
stringent grant eligibility criteria, and increases in tuition (O’Sullivan, O’Tuama, & Kenny,
2017). Even prior to the onset of these cuts, low-income and part-time students were challenged
with meeting the financial burden of higher education. Creating equity within education contin-
ues to be a goal for educational leaders in Ireland.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Technology advancements combined with globalization have resulted in the restructuring
of organizations across the world. Organizations have become increasingly more knowledge
based, geographically mobile, and collaborative in nature (Chu et al., 2017), thus prompting
employers to look for candidates that demonstrate 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). The gap is
fueled by fundamental economic, social, political, and technological changes—changing what
students need to know and are they are being taught in the 21st century (Wagner, 2008a). For
students to thrive in the new global economy, they must be able to take initiative, learn through
trial and error, collaborate, persist, understand and solve problems through interdisciplinary
approaches, and have strong moral foundations (Wagner, 2017). To address the global achieve-
ment gap, Wagner and Compton (2012) suggested the primary focus of education in the United
States needs to be on the development of creativity and innovation (also see Clapp, 2013).
While the term 21st-century skills is commonly used, there exists little agreement on the
definition. According to the Assessment of Teaching Twenty-First Century Skills (ATCS), 21st-
century skills are classified into four categories: ways of thinking, ways of working, tools for
working, and living in the world (Chu et al., 2017). The Partnership for 21st Century Learning’s
(P21; n.d.) framework includes mastery of four key areas: (a) subject areas such as global
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 48
awareness and finance, economic, business, and entrepreneurial literacy; (b) innovation skills, (c)
information, media, and technology skills, and (d) life and career skills. The Ireland DBEI’s
(2014) FDI policy identified higher order thinking skills and capabilities including creativity,
problem solving, design thinking, and adaptability across all levels of education. Appendix IV of
the report, STEM Education in the Irish School System (Ireland DES, 2016) maps 21st-century
skills, identified in Ireland by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment as being
essential for all learners to develop as they progress through the education system at each stage of
the Irish education continuum, and places them in the context of the ATCS skills categories
(Ireland DES, 2016). Wagner (2008a) identified seven skills for career, college, and citizenship:
critical thinking and problem-solving, collaboration across networks and leading by influence,
agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communica-
tion, and curiosity and imagination.
A report by the OECD (2009) suggested that Ireland believed in the importance 21st-
century skills and the development of policies to support the implementation of 21st-century
skills in education, yet Ireland was unable to clearly define those skills and competencies
(Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Despite the lack of a coherent definition of the Four Cs (i.e., critical
thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity), Ireland moved forward with adopting
policies to prepare all children for the demands of the global economy, higher education, and
employers by undertaking wide-ranging reforms of curriculum, instruction, and assessments
(Schleicher, 2012). This commitment to the implementation of the Four Cs has profound impli-
cations for the competencies that teachers themselves need to acquire to effectively teach 21st-
century skills and CS to their students (Schleicher, 2012). Schools successful in meeting these
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 49
challenges have a learning and assessment focus with a collective belief in school accountability
and teacher development as well as high levels of student engagement (Wagner, 2008a).
Wagner (2017) stated that the three main challenges facing students today are: knowledge
has become a commodity, jobs are changing rapidly and profoundly, and student engagement
drops sharply in middle school and high school. The challenge to equip students with the Four
Cs by preparing them to successfully pursue college and career pathways in a global economy
requires a significant investment in changing educational systems, including curriculum frame-
works, professional development, instructional methods, and assessment strategies (Draus et al.,
2014). Research suggests that those changes will make substantial demands on the entire educa-
tional system and require educators and policy makers at all levels to implement precisely the
sorts of skills that are considered critical for the next generation. Essential elements of the
change include a significant investment in human capital through professional development;
developing teacher collective and self-efficacy in teaching 21st-century skills; and revising
curriculum, assessments, and accountability methods aligned to the Four Cs.
Defining instruction required to teach and appropriately assess 21st-century skills, or the
Four Cs, requires an examination of what can be described as excellent instruction (Wagner,
2008b). In Rigor Redefined, Wagner (2008b) contended that the new definition is not a checklist
of teacher behaviors or a model lesson that covers content standards. The demands of 21st-
century learning necessitates that instruction include teachers working collaboratively to ensure
that all students master the knowledge and skills required to successfully pursue their college and
careers aspirations and to be productive citizens in a complex global society. After conducting
numerous interviews with recent graduates, teachers, community leaders, and business leaders,
Wagner (2008b) noted that everyone stressed the importance of students possessing skills in zed
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 50
critical thinking, communication, and collaboration, while noting that a lack of academic content
knowledge was not a problem.
Teacher Pedagogy
The new skills require a shift in teaching and learning methods. Teachers must provide
opportunities for students to develop new skills to thrive in a global knowledge economy and to
master the Socratic skills to become independent, lifelong learners who know how to access and
analyze information and are prepared to apply what they have learned to new situations and
challenges (Wagner, 2008a). What does this mean for teacher pedagogy? According to
Schleicher (2012), students need help in understanding the problem, applying the knowledge they
already have or are acquiring, evaluating their designs, explaining failures, and revising—if
necessary. Teaching the Four Cs requires that traditional pedagogical methods and assessments
be replaced with student- oriented activities that encourage discourse, collaboration, creativity,
autonomy, and problem solving, combined with real-world applications and projects. Despite
being well into the 21st century, research suggests that lectures, explicit direct instruction of
factual knowledge, instruction based solely on textbooks, and little student discourse continue to
be the dominant approach to compulsory education around the world (Schleicher, 2012). The
most challenging dilemma for educators in the 21st century is that routine, rule-based knowledge
is the easiest to teach and to test (Schleicher, 2012). This outdated teaching model places greater
emphasis on well- structured learning rather than student-oriented PBL that lends itself to student
autonomy, critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication (OECD, 2009).
Saavedra and Opfer (2012) identified nine lessons for teacher pedagogy to support student
learning of 21st-century skills:
1. Make it relevant.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 51
2. Teach through the disciplines.
3. Developing thinking skills.
4. Encourage learning transfer.
5. Teach students how to learn.
6. Address misunderstanding directly,
7. Treat teamwork as an outcome.
8. Exploit technology to support learning.
9. Foster creativity.
While the nine concepts are about student learning, they can also be used in professional develop-
ment with teachers to develop individual and collective teacher efficacy around teaching 21st-
century skills. Saavedra and Opfer (2012) noted that “if we believe 21st-century skills are the
key to solving economic, civic, and global challenges and to engaging effectively in those
spheres, then we must act upon the belief that using those skills to overhaul our education
systems is possible” (p. 12). One method that Ireland is using to address future economic secu-
rity is by restructuring new educational policies regarding teacher registration, training, and
continued professional development to prepare teachers for 21st-century learning (The Teaching
Council, 2011). Ireland’s Teaching Council policies demonstrate a commitment to overhauling
their teacher induction program to address the changes in an increasingly diverse society, and the
emergence of new societal and economic problems that are contributing to the complexity of
teaching in 21st century (The Teaching Council, 2011).
STEM
STEM education is a vital component of the economic future of many nations (Top,
Sahin, & Almus, 2015). The global economic downturn in 2008, combined with the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 52
development of new technologies, created better or cheaper goods, rendered some workers’ skills
obsolete and put them out of work, and created stresses on the Ireland’s economic and educa-
tional systems (Stone, 2002). A demand arose to address the issue of developing a globally
competent STEM workforce, and this became a national priority in Ireland and the United States
(Holbrook, 2008).
Ireland developed several strategic economic and educational policies focused on STEM.
Ireland’s economic council called for the development of a plan to be published by 2009, with the
goal of building a Knowledge Society Strategy (Government of Ireland, 2008). New policies that
focused on developing knowledge-based workers who could bring innovation and sustained
economic growth to the country and on increasing STEM skills were outlined in Building Ire-
land’s Smart Economy: A Framework for Sustainable Economic Renewal (Government of
Ireland, 2008). This new framework and additional policies targeted the development of STEM
education and capitalized upon Ireland’s MNCs and higher education institutions by incentiviz-
ing research and development.
Ireland’s 2016 STEM educational policy recognized that “expertise in STEM subjects is
necessary to drive our economic ambitions, support innovation and provide the foundations for
future prosperity” (Ireland DES, 2016, p. 3). STEM-related work is well compensated, reward-
ing, and has long-term socioeconomic implications for students (Draus et al., 2014). One of
Ireland's challenges to implementing the new STEM policy is the Leaving Certificate Exam. The
perceived difficulty of STEM subject exams serve as a disincentive for students to take higher
level STEM courses (Ireland DES, 2018b).
Building the scientific and mathematical competencies of the working population com-
bined with developing and implementing an innovative entrepreneurial culture in schools were
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 53
identified as key principles for developing a smart economy and setting Ireland up for long-term
sustainable economic success (Government of Ireland, 2008). Similarly, in the United States,
effective implementation of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) requires shifts in the
education support systems for teacher preparation and professional development, principal
support and leadership, public/private/community partnerships, formal and informal classroom
experiences that require considerable coordination among community stakeholders, technological
capabilities, network infrastructure, cyber-learning opportunities, access to digital resources,
online learning communities, and virtual laboratories (National Research Council [NRC], 2013).
The government of Ireland made a significant investment to increase STEM education and
opportunities in Ireland by implementing programs such as the Discover Science and Engineering
Programme, Project Maths, science competitions, science camps, science and mathematics
summer school, and professional development for teachers (Government of Ireland, 2008).
Stakeholders in education, including the Irish Business and Employers Confederation
(IBEC), the Higher Education Authority (HEA), the National Council for Curriculum and
Assessment (NCCA) and the Engineers Ireland have been pointing out for a number of
years the need to improve standards in mathematics and the sciences, in particular the
physical sciences, to support national economic policy, i.e., the development of a smart
economy. (Gill, O’Donoghue, Faulkner, & Hannigan, 2010, p. 337)
The 2016 STEM Education in the Irish School System cited research by the Expert Group
on Future Skills Needs that identified that over the next 6 years, Ireland would be challenged to
fill over 40,000 projected job opportunities requiring high-level skills in ICT (Government of
Ireland, 2008).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 54
The lack of qualified STEM professionals is also seen in the decline in 1st-year university
students mathematics and postprimary level 15-year-olds, and mathematics and science literacy
(Government of Ireland, 2008). Based on survey by Ní Ríordáin and Hannigan (2011), the
decline in 1st-year university and postprimary mathematics students may be attributed to the fact
that over 48% of teachers in Ireland at the junior level are not properly credentialed to teach the
subject. Additional research (Gill et al., 2010) identified many issues including government
policy as the reason that 1st-year college students in Ireland were not prepared for college-level
mathematics. Based on the results of study, a number of student learning support programs were
instituted in Ireland, including the development of a mathematics learning center (Gill et al.,
2010).
Ireland is in the process of developing a national STEM education policy that will define
the type of STEM education at the primary and postprimary levels (Duffy, 2000). The STEM
Education Review Group is focusing the policy on teacher preparation, support for current STEM
teachers through continuous professional development, introduction of new teaching methodolo-
gies, and the use of technology to enhance learning and STEM career pathways (Ireland DES,
2016). This presents a challenging dilemma for Irish educators who often implement curriculum
that is routine, rule-based knowledge, which is easiest to teach and to test; is also easiest to
digitize, automate, and outsource; and is reflected in the high-stakes Leaving Certificate Exam
(Schleicher, 2012). This outdated model places greater emphasis on well-structured learning
rather than the student-oriented PBL required for a comprehensive STEM program that lends
itself to student autonomy, critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication
(OECD, 2009). Examining coursework and pathways, perceptions, faculty and peer support may
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 55
provide insight into the implementation of policies, programs, and practices designed to increase
STEM in Ireland.
Project-Based Learning
The explosion of technology, innovation, and the global economy has created a demand to
equip students with 21st-century skills. This situation makes it critical for students to develop a
deep conceptual understanding of concepts; to apply knowledge to solve a range of complex
problems; to clearly and precisely construct viable arguments to communicate reasoning; and to
use modeling and data analysis to solve complex, real-world scenarios, solve problems to be
successful in college and careers (Conley & Barefoot, 2008). Finding ways to explicitly teach
students to develop these skills can be challenging for educators. One method for accomplishing
this task is by implementing a constructivist approach to instruction, such as PBL, where
instruction is carefully developed by dynamic collaborative teachers who are committed to
making student learning a priority (Pryor & Kang, 2013; Slavit, Nelson, & Lesseig, 2016)
Capraro and Slough (2013) defined STEM PBL as an ill-defined task within a well-
defined outcome situated with a contextually rich task requiring students to solve several prob-
lems that, when considered in their entirety, showcase student mastery of several concepts of
various STEM subjects. Capraro et al. (2013) suggested that STEM PBL is a challenging and
motivating tool that requires students to think critically and analytically and enhances higher
order thinking skills. STEM PBL is a rigorous process where self-directed learners are required
to collaborate, communicate, and problem solve (Capraro & Slough, 2013). Using the engineer-
ing design process, STEM PBL builds students’ knowledge of science, technology, and mathe-
matics with a focus on solving meaningful real- world problems (Capraro et al., 2013)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 56
The recommendations in STEM Education in Irish School System (Ireland DES, 2016)
include revising the country’s STEM curricula to include IBL. Recognizing the disconnect with
the Leaving Certificate and IBL, as well as influence assessments will have on implementation of
IBL and PBL in the classroom, a recommendation was made to develop innovative assessments
to measure students’ ability to collaborate, diagnose problems, critique experiments, plan investi-
gations, research information, construct models, debate with peers form coherent arguments and
create and co-create new content aligned to IBL (Ireland DES, 2016). The report noted that IBL
and PBL approaches encourage students to engage with and understand scientific and mathemati-
cal concepts in the context of real applications (Ireland DES, 2014). IBL and PBL require
students to use critical thinking as they analyze problems and propose solutions. IBL emphasizes
curiosity and observations, followed by problem solving and experimentation, to make meaning
out of evidence and to make sense of the world (Ireland DES, 2014). In PBL students are
presented with a problem and then seek out new knowledge and information to identify possible
solutions, evaluate options, and present conclusions (Ireland DES, 2014).
In the United States, the NRC (2013) identified PBL as a strategy to implement the
standards and support economically disadvantaged students. Strategies to make science and the
NGSS assessable to all students included the following:
(1) connecting science education to students’ sense of “place” as physical, historical, and
sociocultural dimensions; (2) applying students’ funds of knowledge and cultural prac-
tices; (3) using project-based science learning as a form of connected science; and (4)
providing school resources and funding for science instruction. (NRC, 2013, Appendix
D, p. 7)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 57
A comprehensive educational approach, PBL, engages students in authentic problem
solving around real-world problems (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Holm (2011) described PBL as
“student-centered instruction that occurs over an extended time period, during which students
select, plan, investigate and produce a product, presentation or performance that answers a real-
world question or responds to an authentic challenge” (p. 1). Fallik, Eylon, and Rosenfeld (2008)
suggested that “students who engage in PBL develop skills of independent learning (including
problem-solving) learn to be more open minded, remember what they learn longer, and perform
better on standard achievement tests than non-PBL students” (p. 567). However, the research of
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) found that PBL was not effective for novice to intermediate
learners who need direct instruction, guidance, and support to organize knowledge and concepts.
The Buck Institute (2018) suggested that “PBL is an effective and enjoyable way to learn—and
develop deeper learning competencies required for success in college, career, and civic life”
(para. 1).
A question or problem is the foundation of PBL and serves to drive the learning and
activities, leading up to a final project that addresses the question (Blumenfeld et al. 1991).
STEM–PBL instructional strategies are typically student driven and interdisciplinary in nature
where students collaborate to solve problems technology (Han, Capraro, & Capraro, 2015).
Slough and Milam (2013) suggested that PBL learning design emphasize “1) making content
accessible, 2) making thinking visible, 3) helping students learn from others, and 4) promoting
autonomy and lifelong learning” (Slough & Milam, 2013, p. 15). Research suggests that PBL
learning design must be integrated with foundations of learning sciences that emphasize “1) pre-
existing knowledge, 2) feedback, revision, and reflection, 3) teaching for understanding, and 4)
metacognition” (Slough & Milam, 2013, p. 15).
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Students engaged in PBL experience higher levels of engagement, motivation, and self-
image (Doppelt, 2003). Han et al. (2015) found that students enrolled in STEM–PBL classrooms
showed positive attitudes toward learning itself, team communication, and collaborative behav-
ior. Further research suggests that PBL students, exhibit more engagement in learning, have a
more positive attitude towards learning, are more self-reliant, and persevere more when faced
with novel situations compared to students enrolled in traditional classrooms (Thomas, 2000;
Walker & Leary, 2009).
STEM–PBL instruction does not occur solely inside the classroom. STEM PBL can be
implemented outside of the regular school day as an intervention measure in schools to assist
students with developing 21st-century skills to better prepare them for college and career readi-
ness assessments. One promising practice is after-school clubs, which have shown an increase in
female students’ participation and success in CS courses. These clubs have demonstrated
effectiveness in improving female students’ CS technical skills and confidence (Heo & Myrick,
2009).
Science and Technology Fairs and Competitions
“The proliferation of technology is making it much more difficult to engage students in
meaningful higher-order tasks students need to successfully navigate their college and career
goals” (Sheninger & Murray, 2017, p. 224). Promising models include science fairs that by
nature require students to engage in higher order thinking skills. As early as 1828, the American
Institute of Science and Technology’s Science Exhibition was held in New York and recognized
science and technology innovators with awards. Two notable winners were Samuel Morse’s
telegraph and Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone (Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999; Silverman, 1986, as
cited in Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999). The first recognized student science fair occurred in 1928 and
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was developed by the American Institute of Science and the American Natural History Museum
(Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999). Science fairs and clubs continued to grow throughout the United
States, with the first National Science Fair held in Philadelphia in 1950 (Bellipanni & Lilly,
1999). Since the 1950s, science fairs and competitions have become a tradition in countries all
across the globe (Abernathy & Vineyard, 2001; Bunderson & Anderson, 1996; Tortop, 2013).
The first International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) was held in 1964 in New
York City. Irish students began participating in the ISEF in 1993 in Biloxi, Mississippi (Belli-
panni & Lilly, 1999). MNCs such as Intel, Boston Scientific, and Abbott sponsor science compe-
titions throughout the world. In 1997 Intel began sponsoring the ISEF, which is now the world’s
largest international precollege science competition, including student participants from over 70
countries (Society for Science & the Public, 2016a). A statement by Intel Education (as cited in
Society for Science & the Public, 2016b) regarding the sponsorship of the Intel ISEF emphasized
that “today’s students are the innovators of tomorrow. We’re helping empower the next genera-
tion of scientists, engineers, and entrepreneurs by sponsoring competitions and recognizing
schools that demonstrate excellence in innovative math and science programs” (p. 1).
The value of science fairs and competitions in Ireland can be seen in the Ireland DES’s
(2016) report on STEM Education in the Irish School System. The report noted that the
“impressive aspect of STEM education in Ireland includes the informal STEM education includ-
ing initiatives such as the BT Young Scientist and Technology Exhibition (BTYSTE), SciFest,
CoderDojo, Coolest Projects, RDS STEM Learning, LearnStorm and Smart Futures” (p. 8). The
report further noted the underutilization of these STEM programs because they are not integrated
into the curriculum or assessments (Ireland DES, 2016). This problem exemplifies the challenge
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 60
of schools that are both preparing students for the Leaving Certificate and participating in
SciFest. To address this issue, a recommendation was made to
develop a means of recognizing participation in informal (extra-curricular) STEM events
and activities (e.g. Science Fairs, BTYSTE, SciFest, CoderDojo, Intel MiniScientist) into
the STEM curriculum and assessment at Primary and Post-primary levels, e.g. in an
e-portfolio of achievement. Such digital archives of learning and personal development
need to become part of the assessment for learning. The model used for the Science
Foundation Ireland Discover Primary Science and Maths programme at primary school
could be explored. (Ireland DES, 2016, p. 37)
In Ireland, SciFest was the brainchild of chief executive officer (CEO) Sheila Porter, a
former Intel educator. “The aim of the programme is to encourage a love of science, technology
and maths through active, collaborative, IBL and to provide a forum for students at local, regional
and national level to present and display their scientific investigations” (SciFest, 2017, para. 1).
With the support of MNC sponsors such as Intel and Boston Scientific, SciFest had over 4,000
students in 285 schools in Ireland participate in the SciFest competition; two students moved on
to win special awards during the Intel ISEF competition in Los Angeles, California, in May of
2017 (SciFest, 2017).
In the United States, advocates at the federal level have pushed for increasing after-school
and extracurricular science programs to support STEM. The White House (2013) STEM
advisory committee suggested that federal funds be combined with other aid to coordinate and
support high-quality STEM programs and activities beyond the school day to encourage students
to pursue STEM careers (Robelen, 2011). According to The President’s Council of Advisors on
Science and Technology, the most effective way to increase students’ interest in STEM careers is
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 61
to support the development and implementation of a wide range of high-quality, STEM-based
after-school and extended day activities, including STEM contests (The White House, 2010).
There are many benefits of science competitions for students, including increased rates of
college attendance, increased interpersonal competence or social capital, increased self-image,
and the development of 21st-century skills. Research found that participation in STEM-related
clubs in the early years of secondary education cultivates students interest in STEM and interest
in pursuing STEM fields as a profession (Sahin, 2013). Science fairs and competitions are effec-
tive for developing a variety of different skills of students (Tortop, 2013). Students who partici-
pate in after-school science fairs and competitions matriculate to postsecondary STEM majors at
a higher percentage than the national average (Sahin, 2013). A longitudinal study by Mahoney,
Cairns, and Farmer (2003) found that it was unusually common for students who were consis-
tently involved in extracurricular activities to have increased college attendance. Abernathy and
Vineyard (2001) found that students perceived participation in Science Olympiads prepared them
for their future and that they expressed enjoying being part of a team.
Research conducted with middle school students found science competitions to develop
increased science content knowledge, understanding of experimental design, and improved
verbal and written communication (Schmidt & Kelter, 2017). Cultivating 21st-century world
citizenship and increasing critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, innovation, communica-
tion, and collaboration were found to occur when students participated in science competitions
such as the International Sustainable World Energy, Engineering, and Environment Project
(I-SWEEEP) Olympiad (Top et al., 2015). By participating in school science competitions and
clubs, students learn how to communicate more effectively with their peers and teachers than in
the regular classroom (Mahoney et al., 2003).
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Although there are many educational benefits to science fairs and competitions, some
researchers feel that implemented incorrectly, the fairs can be harmful for students (Tortop,
2013). A study involving middle school students found that negative attitudes toward science
were a consequence of some students’ participation in science fairs (Schmidt & Kelter, 2017). A
study by Abernathy and Vineyard (2001) found a significant decrease in participation at the high
school level compared to the junior high school level. The National Science Teachers Associa-
tion (NSTA; 2013) recognized that science competitions have a significant impact and contribu-
tion to STEM education and that experiences for students participation should be voluntary. The
NSTA Position Statement included five recommendations:
• Student and staff participation in science competitions should be voluntary and open to
all students.
• Emphasis should be placed on the learning experience rather than on the competition.
• Science competitions should supplement and enhance other educational experiences
and be closely aligned or integrated with the curriculum.
• The emphasis should be on scientific process, content, and/or application.
• Projects and presentation should be the work of the student with proper credit to others
for their contributions.
• Scientific competitions should foster partnerships between students, the school, and
the science community. (NSTA, 2016, Declarations sections, para. 1–6)
Middle school students who expressed negative attitudes about science competitions cited
the length of time for and complexity of science projects as their main complaint regarding
participation in science competitions (Schmidt & Kelter, 2017). To maintain the positive aspects
of science competitions, Schmidt and Kelter (2017) recommended that “science fair organizers
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 63
retain student choice and opportunities for communicating their results, while making the event
more age-appropriate by allowing for shorter/smaller/more frequent projects and encouraging
students to work with a partner or small group” (p. 131). Teachers must also support student
participation in science competitions and clubs by serving as role models, advocates, and coaches
throughout the process (Blenis, 2000; LaBanca, 2008; Tortop, 2013; Van Eck, 2006).
Gender and Education
Gender Gap
“The statistics across the European Union are stark suggesting that just 6 to 7 percent of
technical careers are being filled by women” (Accenture, 2014, p. 2). Research on higher edu-
cation in Ireland found a gender gap in physics with a 3:1 ratio of males to females (Ireland DES,
2016). The gender gap within the STEM fields is generally greatest for engineering, manufactur-
ing, construction, and computing and lowest for physical sciences, mathematics, and statistics
(Van Langen, Bosker, & Dekkers, 2006). Women continue to lag behind in terms of bachelor’s
degrees awarded in the physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering. In the United States
women constitute the majority of students on college campuses and roughly 46% of the
workforce, yet represent less than 1 in 5 bachelor’s degree recipients in fields such as CS and
engineering and hold only 25% of STEM jobs (Beede et al., 2011). Female students are not
expressing interest in pursuing higher level STEM courses. In the United States, 38.4% of male
students in the class of 2013 reported interest in a STEM major or career, compared with just
14.7% of female peers (Robelen, 2013). When women do pursue higher level STEM course-
work, evidence from the NRC (1991) showed that qualified women dropped out at higher rates
than did qualified men (Lee, 2002).
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A gender gap persists in the workforce when fewer than 25% of women are in jobs that
require STEM skills (Ireland DES, 2016). According to the OECD (2014), in 2012 only 5% of
girls on average in OECD countries expected to have a career in engineering and computing,
while 18% of boys expected to find longtime employment in these fields. The STEM gender gap
has negative implications for the supply of qualified labor in science and engineering and for
closing the gender gap in earnings (Legewie & DiPrete, 2014). In Ireland, companies looking to
hire STEM graduates hail from the fastest-growing sectors of the Irish economy (Accenture,
2014). The implications for female students’ future economic outlook are startling, particularly
when examining it from the context of current MNCs in Ireland that include eight of the top 10
global ICT companies, nine of the top 10 global pharmaceutical companies, and three of the top
six global gaming companies (IDA Ireland, 2017). The STEM gender gap is not unique to
Ireland; in the United States, women have also consistently been proportionally underrepresented
in science, mathematics, and engineering educational programs and careers (Lee, 2002).
Feminist Theories
While increasing the number of women pursuing STEM careers is vital, that factor alone
will not change the narrative for women in STEM courses and careers. According to Bensimon
and Marshall (2003), the goal of feminist critical policy is not to add or increase the number of
women in a particular field or institution—rather, it is to transform institutions. Feminist theoret-
ical frameworks address how women’s subordination to men arose, how and why it is perpetu-
ated, and how it might be changed (Acker, 1987). Examining the multifaceted and complex
feminist theory frameworks regarding potential causes that contribute to the STEM gender gap
help in understanding and transforming educational programs and practices. The feminist theory
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 65
frameworks and their connection to educational objectives provide a conceptual base for devel-
oping long-term strategies for changing the narrative for female students (Acker, 1987).
According to Acker (1987), the three main feminist theories are liberal, socialist, and
radical. Liberal feminist theory focuses on three main themes: (a) equal opportunities, (b) social-
ization and sex stereotypes, and (c) sex discrimination. The primary focus of liberal feminist
theorist is the advocacy of equal opportunity for women (Acker, 1987). The main goal of liberal
feminists’ is the removal of educational barriers within the school, child, and/or policies and
practices that discriminate against female students (Acker, 1987). Liberal feminist strategies
include the removal of identified barriers, analyzing curriculum and materials for gender bias,
persuading girls’ not to drop STEM courses, teacher training, and assertiveness training (Acker,
1987). Critics of the theory primarily disagree with the focus on equal opportunity versus equal-
ity. Anther concern of critics is the focus on socialization and sex discrimination by liberal
feminist theorists, who argue that socialization of males and females begins in the home and
encourages patterns of dependency and deference for females. Critics find that the focus on
individual attitudes in the socialization approach serves as a psychological reductionism, or
blaming of the victim for her lack of perception or confidence (Acker, 1987).
Socialist feminists’ theorists, according to Acker (1987), “want to see a fundamental
change in the social structure eliminating male dominance” (p. 428). Social feminists focus on
women’s position within the family and the economy and how schools reproduce gender divi-
sions (Acker, 1987). A study within an Israeli kibbutz suggested that gender equality depends on
equal control of resources and abolition of gender segregation within the family, society, schools,
and employment (Agassi, 1989). According to social feminists, schools systematically train
women for traditional female careers, such as office work, that are low-paying and have long-
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 66
lasting impact on the future earnings of female students (Acker, 1987). Social feminist theories
and writings show an increase awareness that gender, race and class interact in complex ways to
shape girls’ lives in and out of school (Acker, 1987; Brah & Deem, 1986; Brah & Minahas,
1985). Social feminism treats gender as an environmental variable that, critics propose, blames
the victim. Critics of social feminists’ theory suggest focusing on specific identified programs
and practices that are barriers for female students in classes, programs, and local educational
agencies (Acker, 1987).
According to Spender (as cited by Acker, 1987) both social and radical feminist theorists
have concerns about the attention that teachers give boys versus girls and propose single-sex
classes as a potential solution. Radical feminism theory differs by focusing on traditional male
domination and monopolization of decisions, culture, and sexual politics in everyday life (Acker,
1987), including the ways in which boys demean girls in the classroom, on the playground, and in
the workforce. Research by Mahony (2012) suggests that girls’ responses in classroom are dis-
counted by teachers (Acker, 1987). A case study by Jones (1985, as cited by Acker, 1987) found
that high school girls were subject to verbal, visual, and sometimes physical sexual harassment at
schools by boys (Acker, 1987). Critics of this theory cite the descriptive or alarming nature and
lack of methodologies used by radical feminists. One of the primary concerns is the overarching
description that all females are faced with the most extreme biases at school versus an explana-
tion of the types of circumstances in which discrimination occurs (Acker, 1987). Regardless of
the theoretical approach, the major goal of feminist theory is to make conditions better for female
students.
Feminist theorists advocate an examination of structures, policies, and practices that are
assumed to be gender neutral but actually have negative consequences for female students
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 67
(Bensimon & Marshall, 2003). The use of cognitive frames not only provides a process for
identifying visible systems and structures that impact the gender gap but also serve as a method
for identifying potential cognitive blinders (Bensimon, 1990, 2005). The use of cognitive frames
may also be used by individuals and school leaders to analyze ways in which they understand the
gender gap and ultimately find solutions (Bensimon, 2005). Bensimon and Marshall (2003)
suggested that academic structures, structures, policies, and practices must be analyzed through a
gender-conscious lens.
Barriers and Potential Solutions
Regardless of the discourse regarding gender bias, identifying barriers and potential solu-
tions are critical to address the STEM gender gap. A study of secondary female students, teach-
ers, and parents in Ireland identified key four key barriers to female enrollment in higher level
STEM courses:
1. Negative stereotypes exist that STEM subjects and careers are more suitable for boys.
2. Lack of needed information by parents for advising their daughters on defining edu-
cational and career paths and career options.
3. Fragmented information available about STEM careers, thus making it difficult for
students and their parents to evaluate options.
4. A disconnect between industry’s skills needs and students’ subject choices for their
Leaving Certificate Examinations.
Research by Street-Caulder (2013) found a myriad of potential barriers that impact female
students’ pursuit of and persistence in STEM. Influences by teachers, parents, and other students
during the formative years; self-efficacy; family structure; social roles; occupational roles; sexu-
ality; and access to resources, autonomy, and power were identified as impacting female
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 68
students’ pursuit and persistence in STEM (Street-Caulder, 2013). Research by Hardin and
Longhurst (2016) found that STEM self-efficacy, outcome expectations, coping self-efficacy, and
contextual barriers and supports contributed to the STEM gender gap. A study of female partici-
pation in high school STEM courses found that female students experience bias in the orientation
of the curriculum and the manner of instruction (Vanderbrook, 2006). Ro and Loya (2015) found
that, in general, women assessed their engineering learning outcomes (particularly design and
fundamental skills) as lower than those of men. Additional research found the STEM gender gap
in the workforce can be traced back to various milestones in their career pathways (Ellis, Fosdick,
& Rasmussen, 2015). A recent study found that women are perceived to lack the qualities
needed to be successful scientists—a factor that may contribute to discrimination and prejudice
against female scientists (Carli, Alawa, Lee, Zhao, & Kim, 2016). Perceptions, personal relation-
ships, high school coursework, counselors, mentors, teachers, and class composition all impact
the STEM pathway choices made by women.
Sauter (2012) suggested that the decreasing number of women in the field not only con-
tributes to the overall gap in STEM careers for females but also can mean skewed understanding
of how STEM responds to the needs of businesses and society between the supply of and demand
for STEM professionals. The products and services designed by computer scientists are rapidly
changing the world. There needs to a wide range of voices at the design table to avoid design
flaws, as seen in the early development of airbags, which were designed predominantly by males
using the male body as the norm—subsequently resulting in deadly implications for women and
children (Flynn, 2002). Research has suggested that gender inequity in the STEM field has long-
term socioeconomic implications for women (Draus et al., 2014; Quesenberry & Trauth, 2012).
Nonetheless, information technology has made it easier for access to the world’s knowledge
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 69
(Spring, 2008), yet the low participation and increasingly decreasing rate of women with regard
to studying CS at the university level is recognized as a worldwide issue (Eidelman & Hazzan,
2005).
Earning a degree is more difficult for low-income, first-generation students with little
social, symbolic, or cultural capital who do not feel that their advisors believe that they should
pursue a degree in STEM fields, such as engineering (Foor, Walden, & Trytten, 2007). Even at
the community college level, limited research exists on pathways of women who successfully
complete a CS degree (Denner, Werner, O’Connor, & Glassman, 2014). There are many possible
factors contributing to the discrepancy of women and men in the STEM jobs, including a lack of
female role models, gender stereotyping, and less family friendly flexibility in the STEM fields
(Beede et al., 2011). Examining coursework and pathways, perceptions, and faculty and peer
support may provide insight into the implementation of policies, programs, and practices
designed to change the narrative of females pursuing higher education STEM degrees.
“Social-cognitive career theory has been influential in understanding why some students
choose and persist in STEM fields and others do not” (Hardin & Longhurst, 2016, p. 238).
Research suggests that when barriers such as expectations, supports, and increased self-efficacy
are addressed, female students’ interest in pursuing and persisting in STEM majors increases
(Hardin & Longhurst, 2016). Potential interventions may include focusing on developing female
students’ self-efficacy in gateway STEM courses (Hardin & Longhurst, 2016). Improving female
students’ mathematics and science competencies at the second level is another potential interven-
tion (Van Langen et al., 2006). Addressing the issues early by having elementary teachers build
STEM confidence and teaching girls to ask “why” questions to address female self-doubt in the
STEM classroom is another potential solution (Street-Caulder, 2013).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 70
The Ireland DES (2016) identified secondary-level course selection as barriers for females
interested in pursuing STEM careers. An initial study examining coursework completion in
relation to women in STEM careers showed that calculus is often a deterrent for female students
and serves to discourage girls from pursuing STEM fields, thus suggesting that calculus is an
established milestone in the STEM trajectory and contributes significantly to the STEM “gender
filter” (Ellis et al., 2015)—thus reinforcing the widely held belief that women’s underrepresenta-
tion in STEM majors is due to a lack of preparation for rigorous coursework. However, contra-
dictory research has shown that high school girls’ mathematical ability performance and course
taking is comparable to their male counter parts (Legewie & DiPrete, 2014). While male and
female ability, performance, and coursework are similar, research has found that women’s
mathematical confidence was a major factor in their decision to persist in calculus and therefore
STEM. While men and women lose confidence at similar rates during Calculus I, they come into
college calculus with different levels of mathematical confidence (Ellis et al., 2015).
Addressing the issue of mathematical confidence is only one aspect contributing to the
lack of female students earning bachelor’s degrees in STEM. Sociological and social psychologi-
cal research on the gender gap shows evidence of widely shared gender stereotypes that are
embedded in sexism, where women are seen in stereotypical roles that involve child rearing,
housework, and lower math and science ability than their male counterparts. These beliefs have
extreme implications for women’s occupational selection and career trajectories (Legewie &
DiPrete, 2014). “As a minoritized group, females negotiate and struggle to survive educational
experiences marked by invisibility, negativity, low expectations, stereotyping, hostility, and
abuse” (Chavez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999, p. 45). Achieving individual diversity can be challeng-
ing when the process of completing a STEM degree has a gendered history. The frequency of
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 71
with which semisexual double entendres and violent metaphors are used by faculty and male
students to communicate in the engineering classroom can contribute to the hostile climate in
engineering experienced by female students (Foor et al., 2007). This type of communication,
whether intended or not, contributes to the minoritization of women and ultimately impacts their
willingness to complete a degree in STEM. However, a small percentage of women do obtain
bachelor’s degrees in CS and STEM fields despite their learning environments.
Several studies have indicated that the socioemotional aspect or perceptions of female
students play a pivotal role on degree completion. One study examining predictors of college
students’ grades when majoring in CS showed a positive correlation between female students
with high grades and positive CS stereotypes, female computer instructors, interconnectedness,
and perceived lack of gender discrimination within the department (Beyer, 2008). The role of the
professor has been found to be a factor in female students’ classroom experiences with women
reporting less positive experiences with the professors in their introductory programming class
than their male counterparts (Denner, Werner, O’Connor, & Glassman 2014; Lester, 2010;
Packard, Gagnon, & Senas, 2012). Peer interaction and encouragement as well as playing
computer games are two of the strongest predictors of intentions to major in computer informa-
tion sciences (CIS) at the community college level (Denner et al., 2014). However in the same
study, female students reported significantly less encouragement from their peers to persist in CS,
and they also reported less time playing computer games. While the research focused on the
college and university level, it is evident that socioemotional interventions should be considered
to strengthen and expand secondary-level STEM programs.
School leaders can implement programs and pathways to address the issue of structural
sexism. Harvey Mudd College, in Claremont, California, implemented three innovative
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 72
strategies to address the structural sexism issue at the university in 2013, where over 85% of CS
bachelor’s degrees awarded were earned by males (Klawe, 2013). The strategies included a
multidisciplinary approach to build women’s’ confidence, a women’s STEM leadership confer-
ence and competition, and women’s STEM research opportunities. The strategies successfully
strengthened students’ knowledge, confidence, and retention in CS majors. As a result, by 2015
over 40% of the students earning bachelor’s degrees in CS at Harvey Mudd College were female
(Voosen, 2015). Carnegie Mellon University leaders followed a similar interdisciplinary
approach to increasing female students’ CS degree completion by combining a focus on a social
purpose with a multidisciplinary approach; the results were impressive, with an increase of 35%
of women entering into CS majors (Flynn, 2002).
Following the radical feminist theory, some secondary schools are looking toward imple-
menting single-sex schools and STEM classes to close the STEM gender gap. The effects of
single-sex education are hotly contested both in academic and policy circles. A recent meta-
analysis indicated that single-sex schooling is no more effective at increasing students’ academic
outcomes than coeducational schooling (Pahlke & Hyde, 2016). There exists little credible
empirical evidence of the effect of a public school’s decision to offer single-sex classrooms on
the educational outcomes of students (Strain, 2013). A study of single-sex math classes in North
Carolina for students enrolled in third through eighth grade finds evidence that the offering of
single-sex mathematics courses was associated with lower performance on end-of- grade math
exams (Strain, 2013). A 3-year study of single-sex classrooms did find that students enrolled in
all- female classes reported higher levels of perceived teacher support, computer-related confi-
dence, and academic and occupational intentions to pursue STEM majors and careers (Crombie,
Abarbanel, & Trinneer, 2002). While the academic achievement has not been demonstrated to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 73
increase, students perceive stronger socioemotional support in single-sex classes. In Ireland, over
40% of the secondary schools are single-sex schools (O’Brien, 2003).
According to Lee (2002), female students build STEM confidence by developing a
positive relationship with teachers. One promising practice for building female students’ confi-
dence, participation, and success in STEM is after-school clubs and programs. After-school
activities have proved effective in improving female students’ CS technical skills and confidence
(Heo & Myrick, 2009).
Policy makers can develop high school STEM programs that increase female students’
participation and retention by addressing the socioemotional needs of girls within the program,
thereby closing the achievement gap. Researchers have noted that it is important that high school
administrators, counselors, and teachers strike a balance between developing students’ STEM
skills and encouraging positive attitudes toward STEM-related activities (American Association
of University Women [AAUW], Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender,
and Teacher Education, 2000; Crombie et al., 2002; Woodrow, 1994). Because students with
advanced placement (AP) experience are more likely to attend and graduate from college, suc-
cessful schools implement comprehensive advanced programs targeted at the recruitment and
retention of girls within AP STEM courses. Vanderbrook (2006) suggested that to meet the
needs of girls, secondary schools must offer a challenging curriculum combined with career
counseling and emotional support.
School counselors play a pivotal role in ensuring that girls are not marginalized and
receive the assistance needed to reach their potential. Davis, Davis and Mobley (2013) suggested
that school counselors can address the equity and access gap for AP STEM courses by creating
systems and structures for collaboration, identification of female students, recruitment teams, and
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implementing a cohort model. Establishing authentic, genuine relationships with female students
combined with individual and group counseling has been successful in addressing the STEM
gender gap in AP courses (Davis et al., 2013).
Van Langen et al. (2006) suggested that the gender gap is related to the economic activity
of females within the country. Ireland’s DES (2016) identified secondary-level parents’ lack of
knowledge regarding college and career pathways as barriers for students. The science commu-
nity’s naïve acceptance of these cultural and self-fulfilling prophecies and myths contribute to the
continued sexism faced by women in STEM and perpetuate the dominant culture, the need for
capital, and dynamics of insider-outsider in the college classroom (Foor et al., 2007). Exposure
to STEM should be considered in earlier years in order to increase career opportunities, as most
high school students have already determined their college major (Heo & Myrick, 2009). Female
students who are interested in pursuing a career in STEM have to overcome the bias of the male
dominant culture that is impacting young girls’ STEM identities.
There needs to be a paradigm shift in the constraints, cognitive resources, and situational
cues with respect to women to counteract the inequity that currently exists in the STEM industry
(Cheng & Lee, 2009). Foor et al. (2007) suggested that if females are to be successful in the
engineering field, educational policies, communication in the classroom, and instructional peda-
gogy must purposefully change the narrative for women trying to complete the coursework to
become an engineer and to work in the engineering field, both of which are historically domi-
nated by middle to upper-class White males. A. G. Johnson (2006) argued that gendered styles of
talking are learned from adults in the families, media, and schools. Families, peer groups, and
schools contribute to an individual’s perception of future outcomes and opportunities. When
messages from various communities conflict with one another, the result is subtractive education
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 75
that leads to increasingly bifurcated worlds: academic versus family, culture of origin versus
culture of choice (Ginorio & Huston, 2002). Female students’ individual identities shape their
attitudes of themselves and others (Cheng & Lee, 2009). Freire (1993) suggested that leaders
must systematically change the narrative with policies and practices that create equitable career
and educational opportunities for female students who are facing an identity crisis each day as
they try to navigate a career pathway in STEM—where they are often minoritized and dehuman-
ized for their gender, abilities, or other characteristics. Too often, girls hear the phrase, “It’s a
man’s world,” an expression that points in part to the male-dominated character of society that
puts most power in the hands of men (Freire, 1993).
From a social justice perspective, Bennett (2001) suggested focusing on changing educa-
tional policies and practices that reinforce discrimination and desegregation to end sexism and
other forms of prejudice and discrimination. One of the first steps is to train STEM educators in
critical cultural theory so that they become aware that cultures, like technological artifacts, are
constructed and engineered by people (Foor et al., 2007).
The development of young girls’ identity with a focus on supporting the view of a promis-
ing career in STEM must be supported through a multimodal approach. To change the narrative,
K-12 schools must address issues of curriculum, pedagogy, and toxic stereotypes and belief
systems within the schools about which female students can (and cannot) do STEM in response
to the national educational crisis, as CS does not exist as an island unto itself (Goode & Margolis,
2011). With limited educational funding, the challenge of creating an equitable STEM system
requires innovation and creative solutions to address the current narrative within the educational
system for females. Regardless of the intervention approach. Bensimon (2005) suggested that
faculty members, counselors, and institutional leaders must become equity minded.
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Leadership
The concept of leadership is a sophisticated and complex process that includes process
and influence and occurs in groups, based on common goals (Northouse, 2013). In the early 20th
century, leadership definitions were based on centralized leadership, with the leader exerting
control or dominance over individuals (Northouse, 2013). Beginning in the 1930s, leadership
definitions began to focus on traits and degree of influence; by the 1940s, the group approach
came to the forefront with leadership by persuasion. The 1950s brought about a shift in leader-
ship theory around the emerging group theory, shared goals, and effectiveness. Leadership
scholars of the 1960s agreed on the prevalent definition of leadership as behavior that influences
people. The beginning of the technology revolution in the 1980s created an explosion of leader-
ship theories including trait theory, transformation, and influence. Northouse defined leadership
“as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal”
(Northouse, 2013, p. 5). Two common forms of leadership are assigned (i.e., based on formal
title or position) and emergent (i.e., results from what one does and how one acquires support
from followers; Northouse, 2013, p. 15).
According to Bolman and Deal (1994), “in times of crisis and rapid change, we look to
leaders, not to managers for hope inspiration, and a pathway to somewhere more desirable” (p.
77). With the rapid rate of globalization and technology innovations, traditional leadership
strategies no longer work (Belasco & Stayer, 2008). Management skills and time are no longer
sufficient to meet the escalating challenges and demands (McGowan & Miller, 2001). According
to McGowan and Miller (2001), the complexity involved in school change is inherently a leader-
ship challenge that cannot be managed; it requires a process of adaptive learning at the school,
district, state, and federal levels. McGowan and Miller argued that leaders must understand how
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to promote leadership at all levels, understand the differences between leadership and manage-
ment, and customize their leadership to meet the needs of individuals and their teams. This task
requires a new paradigm for leadership in which leaders empower every employee to become a
leader within the context of his or her role in the organization (Belasco & Stayer, 2008). The new
leadership paradigm is guided by four principles involving (a) transferring of ownership for
work; (b) creating an environment where each person, including the leader, wants to be responsi-
ble; (c) development of individual capabilities; and (d) learning (Belasco & Stayer, 2008).
Examining leadership theories and frameworks may provide insight in supporting school
leaders as they implement STEM education. According to the NRC’s (2011) report on effective
K-12 STEM education, effective schools— even those in high poverty areas—have several
common characteristics including strong leadership, professional capacity among teachers, strong
ties to parents and the community, a student- centered learning climate, and instructional guid-
ance for teachers. Research on STEM in secondary schools identified the following effective
leadership practices: the principal dedicating time for teachers to collaborate and participate in
professional development activities, facilitating teacher leadership, and providing teachers with
mentors and coaches (Scott, 2012).
“Managers and leaders require high levels of personal artistry if they are to respond to
today’s challenges, ambiguities, and paradoxes” (Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 431). Reframing
organizations, a conceptual framework for leadership by Bolman and Deal (2013), requires
leaders to develop habits of mind when examining situations. The authors suggested that organi-
zations have multiple realities and leaders who examine situations from multiple frames or
lenses, develop a more comprehensive understanding of the situation, and who are able to more
effectively implement appropriate solutions than an organization that examines an issue from a
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single perspective (Bensimon, 1989). Before leaders can make effective decisions, examining
situations through different lenses can provide a more accurate and in-depth assessment of the
organization, how decisions are made, and who if anyone will implement the decisions (Julius,
Baldridge, & Pfeffer, 1999). The four distinct frames represent equally important and powerful
aspects of leadership: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic (Bolman & Deal,
2013). Bolman and Deal (2013) posited that organizations are complex, surprising, deceptive,
and ambiguous and that leaders’ personal theories often determine what they see and do. Each of
the frames focuses on different aspects of the organizational behavior and serves as a cognitive
blinder for leaders who may have a natural tendency to view situations from one frame.
The structural frame is used to examine organizations systems and structures such as
policies, organizational charts, and division of labor and addresses barriers to change such as loss
of direction, clarity, and stability, confusion and chaos (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Leaders use the
structural frame to examine the social architecture of the organization with a focus on the alloca-
tion of resources and division of labor or the specialized roles within an organization that are
used to get the work done (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Bolman and Deal, (2013) contended that
there is no best way to organize and that by examining the organization with the structural frame
rooted in sociology, the right structure may be analyzed based on the organization’s current
context by considering organizational goals, strategies, technology, people, and environment.
With the advent of globalization, examining situations from the human resources frame
has become even more critical due to the demand for knowledge-based labor. According to
Bolman and Deal (2013), early advocates of the human resources frame, which is rooted in social
and organizational psychology, argued “that people’s skills, attitudes, energy and commitment
are vital resources that can make or break an enterprise” (p. 117). Innovations in technology and
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the explosion of MNCs has resulted in accelerated rates of change for organizations, thus creating
the need for leaders to understand and respond to the needs of both employees and customers.
Increased rates of downsizing, outsourcing, and the use of temporary and part-time employees
have created environments where leaders need to work collaboratively with people from different
cultures. This new paradigm requires leaders be able to develop and maintain relationships; to be
self-aware; and to have high levels of self-management, social awareness, and relationship
management (Bisaria, 2011). “Good leaders care deeply about their work and the people who do
it and are doggedly persistent in pushing the cause forward” (Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 348).
Both individual satisfaction and organizational effectiveness depend heavily on the quality of
interpersonal relationships (Bolman & Deal, 2013). By examining organizational goals and situ-
ations through the human resources frame, leaders are able to gain perspective on issues and
develop plans that meet the needs of the individuals and the organization. The human resources
frame aids leaders in developing human capital and affirms Bolman and Deal’s (2013) assertion
that “investing in people on the premise that a highly motivated and skilled workforce is a
powerful competitive advantage” (p. 135).
The third frame is rooted in political science and emphasizes the allocation of scarce
resources and power (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Within organizations, conflict and disempower-
ment are often barriers to change; goals, structure, and policies emerge from an ongoing process
of bargaining; and negotiation among major interest groups with respect to examining situations
from the political frame is essential. By nature, organizations are comprised of individuals and
coalitions possessing persistent differences. As they compete for scarce resources, situations
develop where power and conflict are often the center of decision making (Bolman & Deal,
2013). The dependency on resources also creates an environment where external constituents
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demands and expectations must be addressed (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Organizational dynamics
can be sordid and destructive, requiring leaders to know when to collaborate as they establish
short- and long-term goals and when to be more assertive as they set organizational agendas and
map the political terrain to create a network of support with both allies and adversaries (Bolman
and Deal, 2013). Leaders who develop enduring bonds with the organization and target the
messaging to key stakeholders exemplify the characteristics of a political leader who focus their
attention on building relationships and networks (Bolman & Deal, 2013). By examining situa-
tions through the lens of the political frame leaders are able to examine and analyze strategies the
organization implements for bargaining, negotiations and building coalitions that often reflect
behaviors around conflict, competition, and politics (Bolman & Deal, 2013). In this context,
leaders “have to consider the potential for collaboration, the importance of long-term relation-
ships, and, most important, their own and their organization’s values and ethical principles”
(Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 223).
Support, training, and a chance to participate in processes help individuals to deal with
the negative effects of including their ability to feel effective, valued, and in control. By nature,
humans seek purpose and meaning that often lead organizations to cling to past practices and
activities, thereby creating a challenge for change. Bolman and Deal’s (2013) fourth frame is
rooted in social and cultural anthropology and uses essential strategies such as “creating transi-
tion rituals, mourning the past and celebrating the future to address barriers to change” (p. 378).
Although there is research on leadership and organizational climate, a debate continues about the
contribution of organizational climate and the role of leadership in creating the desired organiza-
tional climate (Eustace & Martins, 2014). Bolman and Deal (2013) suggested that reframing
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builds on leaders’ skills, knowledge, intuition, and wisdom by creating a framework for reflection
and decision making—subsequently developing their confidence and purpose.
Leadership is the driver needed to facilitate the reform of complex and “adaptive chal-
lenges” that must be overcome to make systemic reform (Fullan, 2004). Fullan (2004) argued
that leaders need to harness organizational energy to capture the ideas and commitments of
teachers in order to effect deeper change. Successful leaders create energizing environments to
support the hard work required to change an organization. Fullan (2004) identified five central
leadership characteristics as core attributes possessed by leaders: a strong sense of moral purpose,
an understanding of the change process, well-developed relationship skills (emotional intelli-
gence), a capacity to facilitate knowledge sharing, and an ability to help the group achieve coher-
ence and connectedness (Fullan, 2004). Capacity building, pedagogy, collaboration, and
“systemness” have to be the guiding principles and foundational drivers for leaders actions
(Fullan, 2014).
Fullan (2014) suggested that the balanced leader minimizes “counterproductive actions
and specializing in the generative actions that yield positive results” (p. 21). With globalization,
the role of the principal continues to evolve and has become increasingly more complex and
constrained (Fullan, 1998). Fullan (2014) noted that the three keys for a principal to be successful
require him or her to be the lead learner, a systems player, and a change agent. As a lead learner,
the principal needs to model learning and shape conditions for learning through his or her actions
and support of data analysis, professional learning communities (PLCs), high expectations, and a
focus on student and adult learning. The principal’s role is to lead teachers’ learning (and learn
beside them) “in the process of learning to improve their teaching about what works and what
doesn’t” (Fullan, 2014, p. 55). Principals need to make learning and its impact the focus of the
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work to create shared depth and expertise through individual and collective continuous learning,
by solving problems, and constant improvement (Fullan, 2014). As lead learners, the principal
needs to set the conditions for maximizing impact by developing professional capital, expertise,
and commitments without micromanaging but scrutinizing for quality and accountability in a
transparent manner (Fullan, 2014). Principals develop human, social, and decisional capital
within the school (Fullan, 2014). As learning leaders, principals
ensure an intense instructional focus and continuous learning are the core work of the
school, and do this by being a talent scout and social engineer, building a culture for
learning, tapping others to colead, and, well, basically being a learning leader for all.
(Fullan, 2014, p. 90)
The second key to effective school leadership is principal’s “systemness,” which Fullan
(2014) defined as “one who contributes to and benefits from the increased performance of the
others schools in the district and of the system as a whole” (Fullan, 2014, p. 93). System thinking
provides a framework for seeing interrelationships and patterns (Senge, 1990). Similar points
have been made elsewhere regarding the fact that system success is essential for student success
(Elmore, 2009). “The boundary between the school and the outside is becoming more permeable.
This has opened up an exciting new (and daunting) world for principals” (Fullan, 2014, p. 97).
Principals who impact student learning and build professional capital in their schools build
networks within and outside of the school district to learn innovative ideas, programs, and
practices (Fullan, 2014).
Fullan’s (2014) final suggestion for principals to maximize their impact is to become
change agents. A principal must focus on fostering seven professional capacities for making
change happen:
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challenges the status quo, builds trust through clear communications and expectations,
creates a commonly owned plan for success, focuses on team over self, has a sense of
urgency for sustainable results, commits to continuous improvement for self, builds
external networks and partnerships. (p. 99)
Fullan (2008) posited that principals can implement change by following his theory of
action and implementing the following six “secrets” or action steps: (a) “love your employees”
(p. 11), (b) “connect peers with purpose” (p. 12), (c) “capacity building prevails” (p. 12), (d)
“learning is the work” (p. 13), (e) “transparency rules” (p. 13), and (f) “systems learn” (p. 14).
Each of the secrets is equally important and works in concert with the others to build a cultural
productivity and efficiency within the schools (Pratto & Behar-Horenstein, 2010).
According to Bambrik-Santoyo (2012), “exceptional school leaders succeed because of
how they use their time, what they do, and when they do it” (p. 2). Sheninger and Murray (2017)
posited that in order to transform learning, school leaders must intentionally design their schools
focusing on defining the what, why, and how combined with a clear metric for success.
Sheninger and Murray suggested that effective leaders use data to identify the “what” or needed
changes, build a compelling rationale for “why” the change is needed by building a broad coali-
tion of support, and create a process that involves honest feedback and building consensus
through a comprehensive leadership group that includes antagonists and supports. Munir and
Khalil (2016) found that teachers perceive the role of the principal in increasing student achieve-
ment is to build trusting relationships, create a shared vision, responsibility, commitment, and
perseverance offering support. Similar research by Sheninger and Murray found that leaders
must understand the change process and have the ability to initiate, manage, and create sustain-
able changes understanding that change is a process opposed to an event.
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DuFour and Mattos (2013) advocated that the most powerful strategy that leaders can use
for improving both teaching and learning is creating the collaborative culture and collective
responsibility of a PLC. The fundamental structure of PLCs motivates teachers by providing
opportunities for autonomy, mastery, and purpose—all critical elements for motivation, accord-
ing to Pink (2011).
Leaders and organizations who implement innovative ways to increase autonomy are
outperforming their competitors (Pink, 2011). While PLCs promote the deprivatization of
teaching practices, the collaborative nature of PLCs gives teachers autonomy to implement
strategies to address student learning and gaps in learning based upon data analysis and the
reflective dialogue. The practice of PLCs provides teachers with the opportunity to learn from
one another and to become masters in their craft.
Regardless of the form of leadership, trust is essential; without it, teamwork is all but
impossible. According to Lencioni (2006), the most important role that a leader can take to build
trust is to display vulnerability. Leaders must also promote healthy conflict, allow natural reso-
lution to occur by practicing restrain, and personally model appropriate conflict behavior. A
common challenge that school leaders face is a lack of commitment from team members; to
address this issue, Lencioni suggested that leaders must create a culture of accountability and be
willing to serve as the “ultimate arbiter of discipline when the team fails” (p. 215). Lencioni
posited that leaders must set the tone for results, “be selfless and objective, and reserve rewards
and recognitions for those who make real contributions to the achievement of group goals” (p.
220).
Courageous leadership, individually and organizationally leveraged to assure sustained
student success, is the foundation for the courageous leadership imperative, which begins with
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leaders reflecting on their core purpose, values, and intentions and aligning them to their work,
thus setting the foundation to persevere in the face of adversity (Blankstein, 2010). According to
Blankstein (2010), this mindset positions leaders to be better prepared to deal with challenges as
they implement actions to create organizational meaning, maintain constancy and clarity of
purpose, confront data, and build sustainable relationships: “When courageous leadership perme-
ates the school community, the ‘how to’ questions of school improvement become easier to
determine and implement” (p. 29).
Theoretical Frameworks
Maxwell (2013) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described a theoretical framework as the
underlying structure, scaffolding, or frame of the study. A theoretical framework consists of
concepts or theories that inform the study; is derived from the orientation or position that the
research brings to the study; and draws upon the concepts, terms, definitions, models, and
theories of the literature base and discipline (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual frame-
work or system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that support and
inform this research is framed by the work of Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal (2013), Friedman
(2007), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2008), and Wagner (2008). Figure 1 illustrates the
relationship between the frames and the overarching social constructivist lens.
The overarching context for globalization is provided by Friedman’s (2007) theory of
globalization, the increasingly interconnected world, and the impact on the global economy.
Spring’s (2008) research on the influence that globalization has on education is combined with
Wagner’s (2008) research on 21st-century skills to provide a context of the skills that students
need to be successful for college and career pathways. Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership
reframing was used to understand how school leaders influence and increase participation in
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Figure 1. Diagram of the relationships among the theoretical frameworks: leadership;
gender; and project-based learning (PBL) and science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) education
science competitions such as SciFest. Concurrently examined was how organizations close the
STEM gender gap through the feminist framework provided by Acker (1987). The background
and perspective of PBL and STEM were examined through the context of Slough and Milam’s
(2013) research.
Friedman (2007) provided the overarching context of globalization through the flattening
phenomena. Globalization and the flattening phenomena have presented new opportunities,
challenges, and partners along with new dangers. A leveling of the playing field requires the
development of new skills and knowledge-based workers (Friedman, 2007). Friedman’s flatten-
ing phenomena and their influence on education are examined through Spring’s (2008) synthesis
of research relating to varying theories and institutional players that shape the global educational
agenda. Wagner (2008) provided the research on the rigor and skills that students need for the
21st century as they master more complex academic contents, create new knowledge, and apply
what they know to new problems and situations.
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Bolman and Deal (2013) framed the context and perspective that school leaders use to
implement STEM programs and science competitions as they are faced with the challenges of
preparing students for the high-stakes Leaving Certificate. School leaders’ practices and insights
were examined using Bolman and Deal’s reframing lenses to evaluate the systemic, structural,
human resources, and political decisions that leaders make to understand how leaders create
learning environments that support STEM PBL and address the gender gap in the context of
preparing students for the Learning Certificate. Gender equity and addressing the STEM gender
gap were accomplished using Acker’s (1987) research on feminist theory and the study of gender
in education. Finally, Slough and Milam’s (2013) theory will be used to understand STEM and
PBL.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive review of the literature related to this study. Key
research by Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal (2013), Friedman (2007), Spring (2008), Slough and
Milam (2013), and Wagner (2008) provided the conceptual framework for the study. The
purpose of this study was to understand the influence of globalization and educational policy on
the development of 21st-century skills through implementation of STEM education, instructional
practices, and student participation in the SciFest science competition. The study examined how
school leadership has influenced students’ participation in SciFest while preparing them for the
Leaving Certificate Exam.
Individuals today can easily access all the tools of collaboration that empower them as
individuals to threaten the narrative and control of countries, thus creating the conditions where
the small can act very big (Friedman, 2007). Spring (2008) provided the context for how global-
ization has influenced education across the world, thereby creating a system aligned to the
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Western ideal with uniform standards, cultures, goals, and practices. Wagner’s (2008) research
on 21st-century skills provided the research, context, and 21st-century skills that are important
for students to possess, including critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. Bolman
and Deal’s (2013) research provided the structure to examine how school leaders examine deci-
sions from a reframing perspective, accounting for structural, symbolic, human resources, and
political aspects, and guided the research on identifying ways that school leaders influence
participation in SciFest and address the STEM gender gap while preparing students for the
Leaving Certificate. Feminist theory (Acker, 1987) was used to examine the influence that
SciFest has had on female participation in enrolling in second- and third-level STEM courses as
well as traditional barriers within educational systems and structures (Acker, 1987; Bensimon,
2005). Slough and Milam (2013) provided the background of STEM PBL and the need for
integrated, IBL to create the authentic experiences necessary for students to develop deep,
meaningful understanding of STEM concepts (Capraro et al., 2013)
The literature review examined globalization and the influences of FDI and MNCs on
Ireland’s economy, educational system, and 21st-century skills. Moreover, participation in IBL,
such as SciFest, was examined to better understand how school leadership influences STEM–
PBL education and female students’ enrollment in STEM second- and third-level courses through
the implementation of SciFest as students prepare for the Leaving Certificate.
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Chapter Three: Research Methodology
The unprecedented technological innovations of the 21st century transformed education
and the world of work (Chu et al., 2017). Ireland capitalized on globalization by developing
deeply ingrained policies that showcased the country’s belief in economic openness in global
markets, low tax rates and investing in education (Dorgan, 2006). The results of the new eco-
nomic policies advocating FDI and MNCs transformed Ireland from one of the poorest countries
in Western Europe to one of the most successful (Dorgan, 2006). The Ireland DBEI’s (2015)
position on the need for Ireland’s workforce to be flexible, adaptable, and to possess high levels
of educational attainment to provide Ireland with a competitive advantage in attracting FDI
makes Ireland’s educational system an ideal location for the study. The country’s policies
regarding FDI permeate throughout the educational system and are reflected in educational
policies regarding STEM, ICT, numeric literacy, teacher credentialing, and innovation. The need
for the development of 21st-century skills and IBL is found in the DBEI’s position statement: “It
is important that we continue to nurture and reinforce higher-order skills and capabilities across
all levels of education, including creativity, problem-solving, design-thinking, adaptability—
traits for which people educated in Ireland have gained a strong reputation internationally”
(Ireland DBEI, 2015, p. 19). The strategic commitment to aggressively seek FDI and MNCs
above other policies had a lasting impact on Ireland’s educational systems and policies, thus
leading the country to strictly adhere to innovative ideas, programs and practices.
The purpose of this study was to understand the influence of globalization and educa-
tional policy on the development of 21st-century skills through implementation of STEM educa-
tion, instructional practices, and student participation in the SciFest science competition. The
study examined how school leadership influences student participation in SciFest while preparing
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for the Leaving Certificate Exam. This study used a mixed-method approach that included both
qualitative and quantitative research methods to understand how IBL and school leaders have
influenced enrollment in senior- and third-level STEM courses and have addressed the STEM
gender gap while preparing for the Leaving Certificate Exam. Four research questions were
designed to guide this study:
1. How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate
Examination?
2. How does school leadership influence participation in SciFest?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses?
4. What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/uni-
versity professors and MNCs have regarding the value of student participation in SciFest?
Research Design
A mixed-method design approach that combines or integrates qualitative and quantitative
data was used in this research study (Creswell, 2014). The integration of the two forms of data
using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks are
fundamental to a mixed-method design (Creswell, 2014). “The core assumption of this form of
inquiry is the combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches provides a more complete
understanding of a research problem than either approach” (Creswell, 2014, p. 4). Although
there are three primary mixed-methods research design models (convergent parallel, explanatory
sequential, exploratory sequential), this study employed a convergent parallel model (Creswell,
2014). The convergent parallel mixed-method approach of merging quantitative and qualitative
data was implemented to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem (Creswell,
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2014). Data were integrated into the overall results or contradictions, and incongruent findings
were explained or further probed in this design (Creswell, 2014). While this mixed-methods
approach had both qualitative and quantitative components, the primary design method that was
used was qualitative interviews. Using a mixed-method approach, the researcher was able to
triangulate the components of qualitative and quantitative methods together to yield a richer
understanding of the subject under study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Due to both qualitative and quantitative methods used in this study, it was vital that the
researcher seek to find data rich in detail and embedded in context. Qualitative research is con-
ducted by employing a systematic process to learn more about people’s perceptions and actions
related to a specific topic or issue (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Maxwell (2013),
qualitative research design models include five components: goals, conceptual framework,
research questions, methods, and validity. Within the methods component, Maxwell proposed
that the researcher identify (a) the relationship between the researcher and participants; (b) the
selection of settings, participants, and time and places of data collection; (c) methods for collect-
ing data; and (d) data analysis strategies and techniques. Qualitative research is an inductive
method of research that emphasizes understanding, process, mean making, and experience, where
the researcher serves as the primary instrument in data collection and analysis (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The process of research involved the use of semistructured interviews and obser-
vations. Procedures and emerging questions were examined throughout the study. Data were
collected in the participants’ natural setting: school, SciFest, and offices (Creswell, 2014). The
procedures and protocols followed allowed the researcher the ability to explore emerging ques-
tions.
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The analysis of data in a qualitative study is inductive and comparative; findings are
richly descriptive with a focus on individual meaning and the importance of rendering the
complexity of a situation, and presented as themes or categories (Creswell, 2014; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). According to Maxwell (2013), during a “qualitative study, modifying theory,
elaborating, or refocusing the research questions, and identifying and addressing validity threats
are usually all going on more or less simultaneously each influencing the others” (p. 2).
The quantitative research methods used provided a description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population with the intent of generalizing
from a sample to a population (Creswell, 2014). A standardized instrument in the form of
surveys was used to compare the responses of individuals within similar groups (parents, teach-
ers, students, etc.). The inclusion of surveys provided information to describe, compare, and
explain the feelings, values, and perceptions of individuals and groups (Fink, 2013). The use of a
quantitative survey design method provided the researcher with the ability to generalize or draw
inferences from sample results of the population (Creswell, 2014). Surveys of students, parents,
school leaders, government officials, and businesses were used to collect a cross section of data
over the course of 2 months. Triangulation or collecting of information from a variety of sources
using a variety of methods reduced the risk that conclusions would reflect the biases of a specific
method or chance associations (Maxwell, 2013).
Research Team
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California education professor, serving as
the lead researcher and supervisor for the study. The team consisted of 13 doctoral students
guided by Dr. Escalante throughout the process. The team first assembled in September 2016
and met monthly to share research literature, develop the research questions, and to share
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instrument protocols. Research in Ireland was conducted in teams, with each researcher serving
as the primary researcher at a school and as an assistant data collector at his or her partner’s
school. Throughout the entirety of the research process, the team was utilizing a thematic group
approach, thus resulting in similarities among the dissertations. Moreover, many of the protocols
utilized were built upon and leveraged from the 2016 USC Executive Cohort that conducted
similar research in Ireland. However, the conclusions drawn from the data collected were inde-
pendent of the team and unique to each individual researcher and the data collected at his or her
particular school. The research team was granted approval by the USC Institutional Review
Board (IRB) to complete an expedited study in Ireland under the guidance of Dr. Michael
Escalante (IRB Approval #UP-18-00119).
Population and Sample
Sample selection in a qualitative study is usually nonrandom, purposeful, and small
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A purposeful sample provides the opportunity for the researcher to
discover, understand, and gain insight with respect to learning the most about the research
questions of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Considerations in determining the purposeful
sampling included the location and participants’ role. Ireland’s FDI and educational policies
supporting IBL make the country an ideal setting for this study. The purposeful sample of
participants selected for the study included school leaders, teachers, parents, policy makers, and
business officials. For the purpose of this study, a convenience sampling of people with knowl-
edge or experience with science competitions, educational policy, and FDI was implemented.
Sheila Porter, founder and CEO of SciFest, and George Porter, Chief Financial Officer (CFO) of
SciFest, aided in the sample selection by providing invaluable support via facilitating contacts
with leaders of secondary schools engaged in inquiry-based PBL in Ireland. The contacts were
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used by the researcher to create a list of interview participants from education, business and
industry, and government agencies. Follow-up solicitation was made via email (Appendix A).
The researcher’s assigned school was St. Hayes College (SHC; a pseudonym) in Arklow,
Ireland. SHC is a single-sex, voluntary Catholic secondary school for girls. The school has an
extensive history of providing education to the community, dating back to 1881. In 1903, SHC
became a boarding school for girls. The boarding school continued until the 1950s, at which time
the school began providing day education for the local population. During the 1970s, the board-
ing school was phased out and replaced with the current day school format.
SHC is under the trusteeship of Catholic Education, an Irish Schools Trust (CEIST). The
school operates within the regulations of the Ireland DES. SHC follows the DES curricular
programs as prescribed by the Education Act of 1998. Financial support for the school is pro-
vided by DES grants, teacher allocations, donations, and fundraising.
Educators and Students
The research team traveled to Ireland in April 2018 to collect data. Team members inter-
viewed and surveyed students, teachers, and school leaders based on their experience and knowl-
edge with IBL and science competitions. The researchers felt that the participants selected had
knowledge of the research problem and helped the research team to understand the research
problem and questions (Creswell, 2014). Observational data were collected at 13 secondary
schools located in and around Dublin, Ireland, as well as during a science and technology fair at
University College Cork and the Cork Institute of Technology. Observations of the classrooms
and the science competition were conducted to provide insight into the influence of globalization
and leadership on STEM, IBL, and gender in the educational system in Ireland.
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Parents
Parents of students enrolled in schools that participate in Ireland’s national science
competitions were surveyed. These surveys were used to collect data on parents’ perceptions of
globalization, the value and development of 21st-century skills, STEM education, and school
leadership. Additionally, the parent surveys provided insight into female students’ participation
and interest in second-level and higher level STEM courses.
Business and Industry Leaders
A projected shortage in qualified STEM labor is a national concern for Ireland’s long-
term economic stability and growth. MNCs seeking to hire qualified STEM labor have begun to
impact STEM educational policy in Ireland. To understand the relationship between students
who participate in STEM education, SciFest, and the MNCs who hire them, interviews were
conducted with MNC executives in Ireland. Each participant was expected to share his or her
insight on STEM, 21st-century skills, and IBL.
Political Leaders and Educational Policy Makers
Ireland’s policy makers are faced with challenges to the future direction of key policy
areas, the economy, and ongoing Brexit negotiations. Ireland’s Action Plan for Education
(Ireland DES, 2018a) was designed to support policies from a variety of agencies including the
Ireland DBEI; the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; the Department of Communications,
Climate Action, and Environment; the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; the Global
Footprint Initiative; and Education for Sustainable Development. To understand the perceived
value of policy makers on student participation in IBL, interviews were conducted with policy
makers in Dublin and Cork. Policy makers were purposefully and selected based on their knowl-
edge of science competitions. School leaders and SciFest CEO, Sheila Porter, provided valuable
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recommendations and contact information for policy makers in this study. Policymakers pro-
vided valuable information on the perceptions of IBL and the skills that students need to success-
fully pursue STEM careers.
Instrumentation
Part of the rigorous data collection includes detailed information about the actual survey
instruments to be used and their development, scales, validity, and reliability (Creswell, 2014).
Instruments used in this mixed-method study included interviews, observations, and surveys.
Five interview protocols (Appendices B-F) were developed for use with school leaders, teachers,
business and industry leaders, political and educational policymakers, students, and parents.
Observation protocols (Appendices G-H) were developed for use in classrooms and during the
SciFest competition. Survey protocols (Appendices I-L) were developed for use with school
leaders, teachers, business and industry leaders, political and educational policymakers, students,
and parents. The research team collaboratively developed research instruments based on the four
research questions. All instruments were submitted to the USC IRB for approval in February of
2018. Data from the interviews, observations, and surveys were triangulated to increase the
internal validity of the study (Merriam, 2009).
Interview Protocols
Interviewing is an efficient and valid way of understanding someone’s perspective and
gaining descriptions of actions and events that previously occurred or cannot be observed
(Maxwell, 2013). A semistructured interview approach was utilized to provide information
about the complexities of individuals’ perceptions, knowledge, feelings, judgments, and
intentions that could not directly be observed (Patton, 2002). Although an interview guide was
developed to be used during interviews, the implementation of the guide was flexible for probing
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purposes, giving the research team the opportunity to adjust the interview questions to provide
clarity or to explore significant responses in more depth (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews were guided by a predetermined list of questions aligned to the research
questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research team collaboratively designed interview
protocols for political leaders/educational policymakers, business and industry leaders, school
leaders, teachers, students, and parents aligned to the research questions and theoretical frame-
works (Appendices B-F). The protocols provided focus for the interview during the limited time
allotted, minimized variation among the interviews, allowed for easier analysis of responses, and
provided a copy of the instrument used for those who may use the findings of the study (Patton,
2002).
The interview guide was developed to include the following types of questions: experi-
ence, opinions, feelings, devil’s advocate, ideal position, interpretation, and hypothetical situa-
tions. Each question was developed to provide insight and understanding regarding the influence
of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills through the
implementation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in the
SciFest science competition. Questions also provided insight into how school leadership influ-
enced students’ participation in SciFest while preparing for the Leaving Certificate Exam.
Section I of the interview protocol, Items 1-4, aligned with Research Question 1, which addressed
how schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate Exam. All
four items aligned with Wagner’s (2008a) framework for 21st-century learning and Slough and
Milam’s (2013) framework on STEM and PBL. Items 1 and 2 also aligned with Bolman and
Deal’s (2013) leadership framework, and Items 2–4 also aligned with Spring’s (2008) globaliza-
tion of education theory.
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Section II of the interview protocols focused on how school leadership influenced partici-
pation in SciFest. All four items in Section II addressed Research Question 2 and aligned with
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership framework, Wagner’s (2008a) framework for 21st-century
learning, and Slough and Milam’s (2013) framework on STEM and PBL. Item 3 was the first
item to align with Acker’s (1987) study of gender in education. Item 4 aligned with all six
theoretical frameworks.
Section III provided insight on how participation in SciFest influenced female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level and third-level STEM courses. All four items in this section
addressed Research Question 2 and aligned with Acker’s (1987) study of gender in education.
Item 1 also aligned with Wagner’s (2008a) framework for 21st-century learning and Slough and
Milam’s (2013) framework on STEM and PBL. Item 2 provided insight on how leaders influ-
ence female students’ participation in STEM and PBL through Slough and Milam’s (2013)
framework, Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership framework, and Spring’s (2008) globalization
of education theory. Items 4 and 5 in Section III aligned with all six theoretical frameworks.
Section IV was the final section of the interview protocol. This section aligned with
Research Question 2 and focused on providing understanding of the perceptions that teachers,
principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/university professors and MNCs) had regard-
ing the value of student participation in SciFest. All Items in this section aligned with Fried-
man’s (2007) theory of globalization, the increasingly interconnected world, and the impact on
the global economy; Spring’s (2008) globalization of education theory; and Slough and Milam’s
(2013) framework on STEM and PBL. Wagner’s (2008a) framework for 21st-century learning
was aligned with Items 1–4; Items 1 and 3 aligned with Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership
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framework and Acker’s (1987) study of gender in education. The alignment of the interview
questions to the research questions is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Alignment of Interview Protocols to Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical Frameworks
Bolman/ Slough/
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 Friedman Spring Wagner Deal Acker Milam
Section I
1 X # # #
2 X # # # #
3 X # # # # #
4 X # # # # #
Section II
1 X # # #
2 X # # #
3 X # # # #
4 # # # # # #
Section III
1 X # # #
2 X # # # #
3 X # # # # # #
4 X # # # # # #
Section IV
1 X # # # # # #
2 X # # # #
3 X # # # # # #
4 X # # # #
Observation Protocols
The inclusion of observations combined with interviewing allows for a more holistic
interpretation of the phenomenon being investigated (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The purpose of
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observational data is to describe the program thoroughly and carefully, including the activities,
people, and the meaning to those people of what was observed (Patton, 2002). Another advan-
tage of collecting observational data in the context of the study is that it provides the researcher
with the opportunity to gather data that may seem routine to participants (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Following Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) research, key elements observed included the
physical setting, the participants, activities and interactions, conversations, subtle factors, as well
as the researcher’s own behavior. The inclusion of observations in conjunction with surveys and
interviews allowed the researcher to triangulate data and to increase validity of the findings.
The inclusion of observations in this research study allowed a first-hand account of
schools involved in SciFest and a SciFest competition that an interview could not provide (Mer-
riam & Tisdell, 2016). Observations provided the research team with the opportunity to observe
participants’ behaviors in a natural setting in two environments in Ireland: secondary classrooms
in schools participating in SciFest and a SciFest competition in Cork, Ireland.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) recommended the use of highly descriptive field notes that
include a reflective component to capture the observer’s commentary such as feelings, reactions,
hunches, and initial interpretations. To form the database for analysis and assist with recording
observations in as much detail as possible, the research team developed observational protocols
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) for the classroom setting (Appendix G) and the SciFest competition
(Appendix H). The first page of the protocols included a description of the setting, materials, and
a reflection on how the physical space reflects 21st-century learning. The second page of the
observational protocol listed key characteristics of 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008a) and
STEM (Slough & Milam, 2013) for the researcher to note actions, comments, and insights
observed and aligned to the research questions. The third page of the observation protocol
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included seven prompts aligned with Research Questions 1 and 3 for the researcher to answer
during the observation. The last question on page 3 was developed to note whether further
clarification was needed from the teacher based on the observation.
Survey Protocols
“A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population” (Creswell, 2014, p. 155).
Survey data are used by researchers in diverse fields including business, health, education, social
welfare, and politics as a means of getting information directly from people (Fink, 2013). The
research team designed four surveys to gain insight into the beliefs, perceptions, knowledge, and
values of the sample population. Definitions of key terms (i.e., STEM, 21st-century skills, IBL,
and MNC) were provided at the beginning of the survey to aid in the reliability and validity of the
data (Fink, 2013). The research team developed closed-question items using a 5-point Likert
scale: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Neutral (N), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD).
Standard grammar and syntax were used for survey items, and the use of double-barreled ques-
tions was avoided (Fink, 2013). Surveys were developed for the sample population of school
administrators or teachers (Appendix I); political leader, business leader, or policymaker (Appen-
dix J); parent of Senior Cycle student (Appendix K); and student participant in science competi-
tion (Appendix L).
All survey items aligned with the research questions and the overarching theoretical
frameworks. Research Question 1 related to the six theoretical frameworks and Items 1-6. The
survey items aligned with the frameworks as follows: Items 1 and 2 related to Bolman and Deal
(2013), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2008), and Wagner (2008a); Items 3 and 4 related to
Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal (2013), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2008), and Wagner
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(2008a); Item 5 related to Bolman and Deal (2013), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2008),
and Wagner (2008a); and Item 6 related to all six theoretical frameworks.
Research Question 2 aligned with the six frameworks and Items 6–11 and 13. Items 6–8
align with the six frameworks; Item 9 aligned with Bolman and Deal (2013) and Slough and
Milam (2013); Items 10, 11, and 13 aligned with Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal (2013), Slough
and Milam (2013), and Wagner (2008a).
Research Question 3 aligned with Items 12–20 and the six theoretical frameworks as
follows: Items 12 and 13 related to Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal (2013), Slough and Milam
(2013), and Wagner (2008a). Items 14 and 16 aligned with Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal
(2013), and Slough and Milam (2013). Item 15 aligned with Acker (1987), Bolman and Deal
(2013), Slough and Milam (2014), Spring (2008), and Wagner (2008a). Items 17–20 aligned
with all six frameworks.
The final survey Items 21–26 aligned with Research Question 4 and related to the follow-
ing frameworks: Acker (1987), Friedman (2007), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2008),
Wagner (2008a), and Spring (2008). Item 23 aligned with Bolman and Deal (2013) as well.
Table 2 summarizes the alignment of the survey items with the research questions and theoretical
frameworks.
Data Collection
Data collection is the procedure used to obtain research data from research participants in
a study (B. Johnson, 2014). In this mixed-method study, three major methods of data collection
were used: face-to-face interviews, observations, and surveys. Advantages of the mixed-methods
data collection approach included triangulation, providing divergent perspectives, and developing
a greater depth of understanding of the research study (Maxwell, 2013).
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Table 2
Alignment of Survey Protocols to Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical Frameworks
Bolman/ Slough/
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 Friedman Spring Wagner Deal Acker Milam
1 X # # #
2 X # # # #
3 X # # # # #
4 X # # # # #
5 X # # # #
6 X X # # # # #
7 X # # # # #
8 X # # # # #
9 X # #
10 X # # # #
11 X # # # #
12 X # # # #
13 X X # # # #
14 X # # #
15 X # # # #
16 X # # #
17 X # # # # #
18 X # # # # # #
19 X # # # # #
20 X # # # # # #
21 X # # # # #
22 X # # # # #
23 X # # # # #
24 X # # # #
25 X # # # # #
26 X # # # # #
Data in this study were collected in person, via email, and through electronic surveys
during the month of April of 2018 in Ireland. Collecting data in the participants’ natural setting
is an advantage of using qualitative methods research (Creswell, 2014). Follow-up data, if
needed, were obtained via email. Each participant was given sufficient written and verbal
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information prior to being asked for his or her informed consent to participate in this expedited
study (Appendix M; Fink, 2013).
The emergent research study design methods to be used included a semistructured inter-
view process whereby the interviews were recorded for coding purposes and fully transcribed
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Prior to conducting interviews, considerations to prepare for the
interviews included (a) ensuring that all interviews were conducted in a secure and private
location on the school campus to maintain confidentiality, (b) the benefits and complications of
tape recording, (c) transcription, (d) length of time, and (e) the number of interviews with each
participant (Weiss, 1994). The research team was divided into groups of two to interview
students, school site participants and to conduct observations. Each researcher focused on one
school as a primary study site but had access to data from all research team members. The
collective data were analyzed individually to address the research questions.
Interviews were scheduled at the convenience of the participants and lasted 30–120
minutes. To create a natural setting, interviews were conducted in person using quiet spaces
including classrooms, offices, and during the SciFest competitions. Interviews were tape re-
corded and fully transcribed to aid with coding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002; Weiss,
1994). The researchers employed note taking and probing questions to ensure that adequate
information was obtained to address the research questions during the data analysis phase of the
study (Creswell, 2014).
Observational data collection included key elements such as the physical setting, the
participants’ activities and interactions, conversations, subtle factors, as well as the researcher’s
behavior (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research team decided to implement a passive observa-
tional role to lower participants’ anxiety and to capture more natural interactions (Bogdan &
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Biklen, 2007). Observations ranged from 30 to 60 minutes. The researchers took notes during
each of the observations but decided not to tape or video record observations in order to mini-
mize distractions and to allow for a more natural interaction among participants. Notes and
photographs were used to capture the physical layout of the room, the demographic makeup of
participants, materials, and the room environment and to capture artifacts from SciFest. Cleaned-
up versions of the field notes were created after the observations.
The surveys in this study were designed to be self-administered questionnaires completed
on paper or online. Participation in the surveys served as implicit consent to participate in the
study (Fink, 2013). The primary method for obtaining survey data was via email and electronic
surveys. Because the response rate was critical to obtaining good data, surveys were also admin-
istered in person during the SciFest and at schools in Ireland (Fink, 2013).
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted to understand the influence of globalization and educational
policy on the development of 21st-century skills through implementation of STEM education,
instructional practices, and student participation in the SciFest science competition. The data
analysis was also used to examine how school leadership influenced student participation in
SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate Exam. Data collected from the
researcher’s assigned school, SHC, and the pooled data collected from the research team were
analyzed for the purpose of this study. A database was created by the research team to provide
access to the pooled data by all team members, to organize data collection, and to edit data as
appropriate. The flexible use of analytical tools gave the researcher the ability to examine data
from multiple perspectives, stimulate conceptual thinking, and develop possible meaning (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008).
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The researcher followed a series of steps recommended by Creswell (2014) for analyzing
qualitative and quantitative data, including organizing the data, reading and reflecting on the
overall meaning, coding, determining how descriptions and themes would be presented, and
making an interpretation of the data. The first step began when the research team returned to the
United States, where they organized and prepared the data for analysis. During this process, all
interviews were fully transcribed, field notes typed, and survey data sorted and arranged into
categories (Creswell, 2014).
The second step began with examining transcripts of interviews to ensure accurate tran-
scription, reviewing field notes, and examining survey data for potential response bias (Creswell,
2014; Harding, 2013). Throughout this phase the data were read and organized into categories
and emerging themes (Creswell, 2014). The next step involved coding the qualitative data based
on a table of a priori codes, which was developed by the research team and aligned with the six
conceptual frameworks. The use of a data analysis software (Atlas.ti) was agreed on by the
research team to assist with the simultaneous coding of many segments of data (Creswell, 2014).
During the data analysis process, codes were revised and emergent codes uploaded to Atlas.ti.
Throughout the coding process, a variety of analytical tools were utilized including the use of the
code table, counting, questioning the data, making comparisons among data segments, and
deriving concepts that stemmed from the data in relation to the research questions (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008).
The fourth step involved using the coding process to generate categories and themes for
analysis. To enable the development of grounded theory, the researcher followed Corbin and
Strauss’s (2008) three-phase coding model (open, axial, and selective; also see Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Open coding methods were used at the beginning of data analysis to identify any
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data that might be relevant to the study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Axial coding was then used to align categories to one another and to refine the category scheme
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, selective coding was used to
develop core categories and hypotheses (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The fifth step of data analysis involved using the grounded-theory model to determine
how to present the data analysis themes and description in the narrative (Creswell, 2014). The
final step involved the interpretation of the findings and results that are presented in Chapters
Four and Five (Creswell, 2014).
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness
The rigor and trustworthiness of qualitative research may be challenged by outsiders
(Merriam, 1995; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While there are many threats to validity in qualita-
tive research, two specific threats to this study were reactivity and researcher bias. Maxwell
(2013) described reactivity as the influence of the researcher on the setting or individuals studied.
Strategies to address reactivity included conducting observations and interviews in a natural
setting and avoiding leading questions. The acknowledgment of focus on researcher bias should
assist in minimizing its impact on the validity of the study.
Although methods and procedures do not guarantee validity, the researcher implemented
specific techniques to rule out internal threats to validity and to increase the credibility of the
study (Maxwell, 2013). These techniques included the use of rich, descriptive data;
triangulation; peer review; and reflexivity. Findings were conveyed using a detailed and rich
description, including quotes, dialogue, metaphors and analogies, and participants’ perceptions.
Data collected from interviews, observations, and surveys were triangulated to reduce the risk of
conclusions reflecting the bias of one method (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
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triangulation of data offered the opportunity to examine data from multiple perspectives for
theories and constructs to develop emerging themes, and to confirm findings (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Another technique employed to increase internal validity and credi-
bility was using peers to review the data and to assess the plausibility of the findings based on the
data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The final technique was the researcher’s critical self-reflection
of personal assumptions, biases, worldviews, and theoretical orientation that might affect the
investigation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The focus was on methodological rigor to ensure
trustworthiness (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Reliability
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), “reliability refers to the extent to which
research findings can be replicated” (p. 250). Reliability poses problems in qualitative research
due to the nonstatic nature of human behavior and the individual experiences and perceptions of
participants in the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Instead of examining qualitative research
for replicability, research results should be examined for the consistency and dependability of
findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Techniques used to ensure the consistency of findings
included triangulation and peer review. Specific reliability procedures utilized in the study
included checking transcripts for errors, constantly comparing data with codes, and regular
coordination of data analysis among members of the research team (Creswell, 2014).
Ethical Considerations
How research is conducted has to be in the interest of protecting individuals, communi-
ties, and environments (Israel & Hay, 2006). As a requirement of completing research at USC,
all 13 members of the research team led by Dr. Michael Escalante completed the IRB process for
the USC Office for the Protection of Human Subjects, which included completion of the
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Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI) Human Subject Protection Course. The online
course and assessments ensure that the researcher understands the ethical considerations associ-
ated with completing research, including the responsibility and obligation to protect human
subjects in a research study. The team was then granted IRB approval for the expedited study
(Approval #UP- 18-00119).
The protection of all participants from harm and safeguarding participants’ privacy were a
priority for the research team (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Ethical considerations addressed in this
study included informed consent, confidentiality, data collection, data analysis, data reporting,
data sharing, and storing data (Creswell, 2014). In addition to the IRB approval and training
process, every participant was presented with an informed consent statement that outlined the
purpose of the study and participants’ rights (Appendix M). Students participating in the study
were asked for their assent to participate in research. School leaders gave their permission to
conduct research at each site.
Steps were taken to preserve participants’ identity, including the use of pseudonyms and
security of the data. Participants were informed of their ability to withdraw at any time during
the study. Documents have been securely locked in a safe location. Electronic study data are
accessible only to the research study team utilizing a username and password credentials
available only after going through an encrypted network login process. Upon completion of the
data collection, all hard copies (consent documents, survey instruments, etc.) were destroyed.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has presented the methodologies to be utilized in this study, including an
explanation of the mixed-method research design, research team, population and sample, and
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instrumentation. The methods of collecting and analyzing data were described along with
validity, credibility, reliability, and ethical considerations.
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Chapter Four: Results
The rapid expansion of the global economy combined with aggressive approach to secure
FDI are the cornerstones of Ireland’s economic success. The small country capitalized on the
global market by implementing economic policies designed to entice MNCs to relocate to Ireland
(Andreosso-O’Callaghan et al., 2016). Recognizing FDI and MNCs require a highly skilled labor
force, policymakers decisively invested in human capital by changing educational policies,
systems and structures to support the demands of MNCs (DBEI, 2015).
The worldwide financial crisis of 2008 and Ireland’s subsequent economic struggles
challenged the country’s FDI policies. Although the nation has recovered, Irish policymakers
projected a 40,000-position ICT job gap by the year 2020 (Ireland DES, 2016). The projected ICT
job gap is compounded by the persistence of a gender gap in STEM education and careers.
According to Ireland’s DES (2016), only 25% of Irish women are employed in jobs requiring
STEM skills, and higher education physics courses enrollment has a 3:1 ratio of males to
females. To address the job and gender gap, a national STEM education policy was adopted in
2016 (Ireland DES, 2016).
The STEM policy was designed to secure and sustain a sufficient supply of high-quality
scientists, engineers, technologists, and mathematicians equipped with 21st-century skills (Ire-
land DES, 2016). The policy advocated the implementation of a comprehensive IBL approach to
engage students in authentic problem solving around real-world problems. Examples of IBL that
showcased student work and exemplified 21st-century learning in the policy included science
competitions and SciFest (Ireland DES, 2016). Students who participate in science competitions,
such as SciFest, have the opportunity to develop and demonstrate 21st-century skills through a
PBL curriculum (Bender, 2012; Capraro et al., 2013; Holton, 2017).
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The purpose of this study was to understand the influence of globalization and educa-
tional policy on the development of 21st-century skills through implementation of STEM educa-
tion, instructional practices, and student participation in the SciFest science competition. The
study examined how school leadership influences student participation in SciFest while preparing
for the Leaving Certificate Exam.
This chapter reports results of data collected and analyzed for the study. The study was
driven by four research questions:
1. How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate
Examination?
2. How does school leadership influence participation in SciFest?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses?
4. What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/
university professors and MNCs have regarding the value of student participation in SciFest?
Six frameworks were used to assist in analyzing the data: (a) Acker’s (1987) feminist
theory, (b) Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four frames of leadership, (c) Friedman’s (2007) theory of
globalization, (d) the design principles for STEM and PBL developed by Slough and Milam
(2013), (e) Spring’s (2008) world culture, and (f) Wagner’s (2008a) 21st-century skills.
After an overview of the study school and participants, this chapter presents the research
findings based on the data collected. In this mixed-method study, the three major methods of
data collection (surveys, interviews, and observations) were triangulated and compared to the
results from the research conducted by the research team in all other schools in the study.
Themes emerged for each research question connected to the literature review and theoretical
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 113
frameworks. The results and themes for each question are presented in this chapter. The chapter
concludes with a summary presentation of all findings.
Study School
The primary location for the study was SHC in Arklow, Ireland. SHC is a single-sex,
voluntary Catholic secondary school for girls operated under the trusteeship of CEIST. The
school operates within the regulations of the Ireland DES. Financial support for the school is
provided by DES grants, teacher allocations, donations, and fundraising. The school enrollment
for the 2017–18 school year was 597 students spanning six grades in the Junior and Senior
Cycles. Participation in SciFest occurs during the 4th year, known as the TY and is completely
voluntary. SciFest participation ranges from 20% to 25% of the TY students each year.
Research Design
The research team for this study consisted of 13 doctoral students under the direction and
guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante, the lead researcher and supervisor for this study. The team
first assembled in September 2016. During the initial phase of the study, the team met regularly
to research, discuss, and share literature, discuss potential research questions, draft a problem
statement, and identify theoretical frameworks. After finalizing the research questions and
theoretical frameworks, the team collaboratively developed all survey and interview protocols.
Research in Ireland was conducted in teams, with each researcher serving as the primary
researcher at a school and as an assistant data collector at his or her partner’s school. Sheila
Porter, founder and CEO of SciFest, and George Porter, CFO of SciFest, aided in the sample
selection by providing invaluable support via facilitating contacts with leaders of secondary
schools engaged in inquiry-based PBL in Ireland. Sheila and George Porter also assisted the
team in purposefully obtaining access to representatives from Irish MNCs, education leaders, and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 114
policymakers. Throughout the entirety of the research process, the team utilized a thematic group
approach, thus resulting in similarities among the dissertations. Moreover, many of the protocols
utilized were built upon and leveraged from the 2016 USC Executive Cohort that conducted
similar research in Ireland. However, the conclusions drawn from the data collected are inde-
pendent of the team and unique to each individual researcher and the data collected at his or her
particular school.
Study Participants
A purposeful sample provided the opportunity for the researcher to discover, understand,
and gain insight with respect to learning the most about the research questions of the study (Mer-
riam & Tisdell, 2016). The purposeful sample of participants selected for the study included
school leaders, teachers, parents, policymakers, and business officials. For the purpose of this
study, a convenience sampling of people with knowledge or experience with science competi-
tions, educational policy, and FDI in Ireland was used. Data were collected from SHC through
interviews and surveys of students, parents, teachers, and administrators as well as observations
of three classrooms. The data collected from SHC was compared to the data collected from all
13 schools in the study. Observations of SciFest at the Cork Institute of Technology and data
obtained from interviews and surveys of business and political leaders were collaboratively
coded, shared among the research team, and used to triangulate the data (Creswell, 2014). The
number of surveys reflected the total number administered; however, it is important to note that
not all participants completed all of the survey questions. Surveys were distributed electronically
through the use of email and paper over the course of 6 weeks. Although multiple attempts to
secure survey data from parents, educational policymakers, and MNC representatives were made,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 115
the sample size is relatively small and caution should be used when interpreting results (see Table
3).
Table 3
Summary of Participants, Their Organization/Position, and Data Types
Participants Organizations/positions Data type(s)
Students
6 students SHC students Interview
79 students SHC students Survey
1,303 students Students from various schools in Survey, interview
Ireland
Teachers and administrators
8 teachers/administrators SHC teachers/administrators Interview
14 teachers/administrators SHC teachers/administrators Survey
92 other teachers/adminin- Various schools in Ireland Survey, interview
istrators
Parents
2 parents SHC Interview
5 parents SHC Survey
76 other parents Various schools in Ireland Survey/interview
19 business leaders Various organizations and MNCs Survey, interview
12 educational policymakers Various organizations Survey/interview
Note. SHC = St. Hayes College, a pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school; MNC = multina-
tional corporation.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students
for the Leaving Certificate Examination?” The question was designed to examine how schools
implement PBL, such as science competitions, while preparing students for traditional state
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 116
examinations. From the literature review, it was learned that to thrive in the global economy,
students need to master academic content knowledge; learn to take initiative; learn through trial
and error; and possess essential skills such as collaboration, communication, and critical thinking
(Wagner, 2017). Traditional educational systems are faced with increasing political, social, and
economic pressures to prepare students to compete in the global workforce by teaching students
21st-century skills. Understanding how Ireland may be addressing this challenge and the impli-
cations for curriculum, instruction, and assessment is critical to the country’s goal of producing a
highly skilled STEM labor force to attract FDI.
University or third-level entrance in Ireland is highly competitive and based primarily on
the cumulative score that students earn on subject matter Leaving Certificate Exams. The per-
ceived difficulty of STEM subjects on Leaving Certificate Exams creates a disincentive for
students to take STEM subjects or to study mathematics at higher levels in secondary schools.
The traditional routine, rule-based format of the Leaving Certificate state examinations also poses
challenges for school leaders attempting to increase enrollment in higher level STEM courses and
to implement 21st-century learning through science competitions and PBL (Schleicher, 2012).
The literature review noted that one method for overcoming this challenge is by implementing an
interdisciplinary approach to learning, such as PBL (Slough & Milam, 2013). PBL emphasizes
21st-century skills and the need for students to be able to ask good questions, to engage in good
discussions, and to develop a deeper understanding of the content necessary for success both in
college and more importantly the 21st-century workforce (Wagner, 2008a).
An analysis of the research data from participants’ surveys, interviews with stakeholders,
and onsite observations examined how SHC prepares students with 21st-century learning through
PBL science competitions while preparing then for the high stakes Leaving Certificate state
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 117
examination. From the data analysis two themes emerged. The first theme indicated that student
participation in science competitions develops 21st-century skills that prepare them for STEM
subject matter exams on the Leaving Certificate. The second theme indicated that school leaders
and teachers employ strategies to encourage student participation in science competitions to
support student success on state examinations.
Theme 1: Student Participation in Science Competitions Develops 21st Century Skills That
Prepare Them for STEM Subject Matter Exams on the Leaving Certificate
The literature review indicated that IBL science competitions have been found to improve
student academic performance regardless of their socioeconomic status while developing 21st-
century skills, self-efficacy, and interest in STEM courses (Ireland DES, 2016; OECD, 2014.
Similar research indicated that students who are engaged in PBL science competitions develop
problem-solving skills, learn to be more open minded, develop a deeper conceptual understand-
ing of content, remember what they learn longer, and perform better on standard achievement
tests than non-PBL students (Fallik et al., 2008; Wagner, 2008a). In this study, an analysis of
quantitative and qualitative data from all stakeholders supported the belief that student participa-
tion in science competitions develops 21st-century skills that prepare them for STEM subject
matter exams on the Leaving Certificate.
SHC offers SciFest during the optional exploratory TY program taken after completing
the Junior Cycle and prior to enrolling in the 2-year Leaving Certificate program (Ireland DES,
2018b). Significant changes were made to the Junior Cycle certificate including the inclusion of
an IBL classroom-based assessment (Ireland DES, 2018b). Although the transition began in
2014, at the time of this study, SHC had not yet implemented the new Junior Cycle curriculum
and assessment.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 118
Despite a lack of exposure to the new classroom-based curriculum and assessments, 49%
of SHC students and 56% of all students surveyed were in agreement that school leadership
encouraged participation in SciFest to support students’ success on state exams. An additional
26% of SHC students and 23% of all students surveyed responded neutral to the survey item
regarding school leadership at their school encouraged participation in SciFest to support student
success on state exams. Data indicated that 49% of SHC students surveyed and 63% of all
students surveyed were in agreement that teachers encouraged participation in SciFest activities
to support student success on state examinations. An additional 16% of SHC students and 20%
of all other students surveyed responded they were neutral on the issue that teachers encouraged
participation in SciFest activities to support students’ success on the state examinations. Data
indicated that only 37% of SHC students and 41% of all students surveyed agreed that SciFest
prepares students to be successful on state exams. An additional 34% of SHC students and 30%
of all students responded neutral to the survey item, “Participation in SciFest prepares students to
be successful on state examinations.” This finding may be indicative of the lack of exposure to
the new Junior Cycle exams (see Table 4).
Survey data from school administrators and teachers strongly supported the belief that
student participation in science competitions developed 21st-century skills that prepared them for
STEM subject matter exams on the Leaving Certificate. At SHC 93% of teachers/administrators
surveyed agreed compared to only 79% of all teachers/administrators surveyed that school lead-
ership encouraged participation in SciFest to support students’ success on the Leaving Certifi-
cate. Data indicated that 79% of SHC teachers/administrators and 73% of all teachers/adminis-
trators surveyed agreed that participation in SciFest prepared students to be successful on the
Leaving Certificate state examination. Survey data indicated that 71% of SHC and 73% of all
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 119
Table 4
Responses Indicating Belief That Student Participation in Science Competitions Develops 21st-
Century Skills That Prepare Them for STEM Subject Matter Exams on the Leaving Certificate
Survey item and response categories SHC students All students
Participation in SciFest prepares students to be successful on
state examinations.
Strongly Agree 2 85
Agree 25 401
Neutral 25 359
Disagree 19 0
Strongly Disagree 0 267
Don’t Know 2 75
School leadership encourages participation in SciFest to
support student success on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 9 170
Agree 27 492
Neutral 19 273
Disagree 11 0
Strongly Disagree 5 157
Don’t Know 3 90
Teachers encourage participation in SciFest activities to
support student success on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 8 223
Agree 28 525
Neutral 12 243
Disagree 19 119
Strongly Disagree 3 23
Don’t Know 4 54
Note. SHC = St. Hayes College, pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school; STEM = science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics.
teachers/administrators surveyed encouraged student participation in science competitions to
support performance on state exams (see Table 5).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 120
Table 5
Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That Project-Based Learning Science Competitions
Were Fundamental in Preparing Students for High-Stakes STEM Subject Matter Exams on
Leaving Certificate: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/Admin-
istrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
Participation in SciFest prepares students to be successful
on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 4 58
Agree 7 0
Neutral 3 10
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 7
I Don’t Know 0 5
School leadership encourages participation in SciFest to
support student success on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 6 63
Agree 7 0
Neutral 1 11
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 4
I Don’t Know 0 2
Teachers encourage participation in SciFest activities to
support student success on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 3 63
Agree 7 0
Neutral 2 11
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 1 4
I Don’t Know 1 2
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
Although various methods were used to collect survey data from policymakers, business
leaders, and SHC parents, only a limited number of surveys were completed and results should be
interpreted with caution. The data indicated that 60% of SHC parents and 66% of all parents
surveyed perceived that school leadership encouraged participation in SciFest to support
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 121
students’ success on the state exams. Data from parents surveys also indicated that 40% of SHC
parents and 66% of all parents surveyed perceived that teachers encouraged participation in
SciFest to support students’ success on the state examinations. Finally, data from parents indi-
cated that only 20% of SHC parents and 61% of all other parents surveyed were in agreement that
SciFest prepared students to be successful on the state exams (see Table 6).
Qualitative research data analysis collected from students, teachers, administrators,
parents, policymakers, and MNC representatives indicated that science competitions developed
21st-century skills that prepare students for STEM subject matter exams on the Leaving Certifi-
cate. From the literature it was learned that students have to master academic content and the
habits of mind that are essential skills for work, learning, and citizenship (Wagner, 2017).
Research suggests that critical thinking, communications, collaboration, perseverance, and
problem solving are fundamental habits of mind that students must possess to successfully pursue
college and careers (Wagner, 2008a, 2017).
Interview data analysis indicated that SHC students strongly supported that participation
in science competitions developed 21st-century skills that prepared students for STEM subject
matter exams on the Leaving Certificate. Of the total of six SHC students who were interviewed,
Student 4, Student 5, and Student 6 were in their 6th year and actively preparing for the upcom-
ing Leaving Certificate Exam. Interview data collected from these students indicated that
participating in SciFest helped them to prepare for their upcoming Leaving Certificate Exam by
developing skills in communication, collaboration, creativity, critical thinking and problem
solving, and researching. The data also showed that the skills developed from participating in
SciFest not only applied to the Leaving Certificate Exam but also “apply to anything then really”
(Student 6, interview, April 17, 2018). The experience and skills learned from competing in
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 122
Table 6
Participants’ Responses Indicating That Project-Based Learning Science Competitions Were
Fundamental in Preparing Students for High-Stakes STEM Subject Matter Exams on the Leaving
Certificate
Policymakers/MNC
Survey item and response categories representatives SHC parents All parents
Participation in SciFest prepares students
to be successful on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 0 0 16
Agree 4 1 47
Neutral 0 1 21
Disagree 0 2 9
Strongly Disagree 0 0 1
I Don’t Know 1 1 10
School leadership encourages participation
in SciFest to support student success on the
state examinations.
Strongly Agree 0 0 18
Agree 1 3 49
Neutral 1 0 19
Disagree 2 1 6
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 1 10
Teachers encourage participation in
SciFest activities to support student
success on the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 0 1 23
Agree 0 1 44
Neutral 1 1 17
Disagree 3 1 0
Strongly Disagree 1 0 7
I Don’t Know 0 1 11
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; MNC = multinational
corporation; SHC = St. Hayes College, pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 123
SciFest “can now put that towards my exams” (Student 5, interview, April 17, 2018), while
Student 3 noted, “I think it gives you communication skills” (interview, April 17, 2018). Partici-
pation in SciFest “built communication” and, as a result, Student 4 was “able to get up and make
a presentation” in front of adults (interview, April 17, 2018). SciFest also “helped teach us
working with others, cooperation. Like there was two other girls in my group, and there was
times when it was hard to work with each other” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Creativity and problem solving were also seen as a benefit of participating in SciFest.
Student 5 stated that SciFest helped her to “think outside the box” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Student 1 commented that “it’s you going out of your way to be—to do your own investigation”
(interview, April 17, 2018), while Student 4 indicated that it helped her to develop “researching
skills” (interview, April 17, 2018). Finally, perseverance was another skill that students indicated
that they developed through participation in SciFest: “You kind of had that motivation and a
dedication to do something because you can’t really give up once you start a project—you have to
finish” (Student 6, interview, April 17, 2018).
Similarly, findings from interviews with SHC teachers and administrators supported the
belief that science competitions develop 21st-century skills that prepare students for STEM
subject matter exams on the Leaving Certificate. SHC school administrators’ annual parent
presentation includes information on “longitudinal studies that show” whether students partici-
pate in TY and SciFest, their “performance on the Leaving Certificate is enhanced” (SHC Princi-
pal Mackenzie, interview, April 17, 2018). According to Ms. Reid, the SHC SciFest facilitator,
students participating in SciFest have “to come up with their own ideas and to do research” that
provides them with “maturity and study which is crucial” (interview, April 17, 2018) for the
Leaving Certificate program.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 124
Ireland is in the process of transitioning to the Junior Cycle curriculum and assessments
from asking “straightforward questions” to real-world assessments similar to SciFest that is
“more an application knowledge”(Ms. Reid, interview, April 17, 2018). The new Junior Cycle
program in Ireland is making an “attempt to transition from rote learning to a more skills based,
and more kind of scientific procedure and scientific literacy. And I think our Leaving Certificate
is going to follow suit” (Teacher 3, interview, April 17, 2018). The STEM–PBL format of
SciFest provided students with “logical reasoning skills” that are “one of the most important
skills that us as educational people can provide for kids going in to adulthood” (SHC Teacher 2,
interview, April 17, 2018).
Dr. Padraig Kirk, Director of the Junior Cycle for Teachers, Ireland DES, stated that 21st-
century skills “are all the skills that are now having to be developed through JC [Junior Cycle]
science. They will all feed into that higher learning to include an extended experiment that lends
itself to Science” (interview, April 17, 2018). Dr. Kirk continued to explain that the format of the
new state Junior Cycle assessment includes “a classroom-based assessment science and society
investigation, so it’s a research task” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Interview data collected from SHC parents also supported the belief that participation in
science competitions developed 21st-century skills that prepare students for STEM subject matter
exams on the Leaving Certificate. SHC parents shared that the Leaving Certificate was very
“formulaic” and was lacking a deeper understanding of the knowledge that students gain from
participation in SciFest (SHC Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018). While “exams in Ireland have
a tendency to “be very textbook reliant with some experiments,” SciFest introduces “a sort of
practical element and application of some learning up to that point. And I think it just marries the
two” (SHC Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018). The “beauty of SciFest” is that it makes
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 125
students “question things and question, and that’s good not just for exams but for follow on for
life” (SHC Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018).
Simon Coveney, TD, Tánaiste, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, indicated that
while science competitions may not be “necessarily linked to state exams and results,” they do
get “young people thinking differently, about broader education” and “ask questions and chal-
lenging the norms” (interview, April 20, 2018).
Two of the three classrooms observed were engaged in a review of vocabulary in prepara-
tion for the upcoming Leaving Certificate Exam. The lessons in both classrooms preparing for
the Leaving Certificate Exam were very traditional in nature and did not support this theme.
Theme 2: School Leaders and Teachers Employ Strategies to Encourage Student Participa-
tion in Science Competitions to Support Student Success on State Examinations
From the research study, the second theme indicated for Research Question 1 was that
school leaders and teachers employ strategies to encourage student participation in science
competitions to support student success on state examinations. The literature review indicated
that effective K-12 STEM education schools, even those in high-poverty areas, have several
common characteristics including strong leadership, professional capacity among teachers, strong
ties to parents and the community, a student-centered learning climate, and instructional guidance
for teachers (NRC, 2011). These practices were confirmed by data collected in this research
studies findings around Research Question 1.
The student survey data indicated that 73% of SHC students and 60% of all students
agreed school leadership employed strategies to positively influence school participation in
science competitions. On the survey students were then asked to indicate “yes” or “no” if their
school leaders employed common strategies at their school. For each method surveyed, the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 126
number of students who responded “yes” is indicated on Table 7. The methods that school
leaders used to positively influence school participation in science competitions identified most
by SHC students a were use of technology (74%), instructional materials (67%), schoolwide
student recognition (67%), instructional coaches (62%), and promoting on social media (62%).
Similarly, but to a lesser extent, students in all schools identified the use of technology (73%),
instructional materials (65%), and schoolwide student recognition (61%). Students in all other
schools were less likely to identify instructional coaches (47%) and promoting on social media
(40%) as methods that school leaders employed to encourage school participation in SciFest (see
Table 7).
Likewise, the collected student data indicated that 67% of SHC and 71% of all students
surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that school leadership employed strategies to positively
influence school participation in science competitions. On the survey students were then asked to
indicate “yes” or “no” if their teachers employed several common strategies at their school. For
each method surveyed, the number of students who responded “yes” is indicated on Table 8.
SHC students were in agreement that teachers used IBL (85%), science competitions (89%),
independent studies (88%) and technology (76%) as strategies to influence student participation
in SciFest. Similar survey results were found with all students in agreement that teachers used
IBL (83%), science competitions (84%), independent studies (85%), and technology (81%) as
strategies to influence student participation in SciFest. Interestingly, only 3% of SHC students
and 12% of all other students indicated that teachers used family nights to positively influence
school participation in SciFest. Survey data indicated that only 27% of SHC students and 38% of
all students agreed that school leadership worked with teachers to align SciFest activities with the
state exams (see Table 8).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 127
Table 7
Responses Indicating Belief That School Leaders Employed Strategies to Encourage Students’
Participation in Science Competitions to Support Students’ Success on State Examinations: St.
Hayes College (SHC) Students and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
School leadership employs strategies to positively influence school
participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 14 190
Agree 40 523
Neutral 9 266
Disagree 3 80
Strongly Disagree 3 22
I Don’t Know 5 100
Strategies that school leadership has employed at your school
Student incentives 41 723
Teacher incentives 30 547
Instructional materials 48 752
Instructional coaches 44 537
Informational meetings held 43 528
SciFest promoted on social media 45 461
Family science nights 0 86
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam 11 326
Partners/sponsors recruited 19 289
Schoolwide student recognition 49 703
Schoolwide teacher recognition 40 498
Real-world applications 38 558
Use of technology to promote science learning 54 848
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 128
Table 8
Responses Indicating Belief That Teachers Employed Strategies to Encourage Students’ Partici-
pation in Science Competitions to Support Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes
College (SHC) Students and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
Teachers at my school employ strategies to positively influence school
participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 14 234
Agree 29 478
Neutral 14 154
Disagree 4 49
Strongly Disagree 0 18
I Don’t Know 3 64
Strategies that teachers at my school employ to positively influence
school participation in SciFest.
Inquiry-based learning 62 908
Before-/after-school clubs 32 668
Science competitions 66 959
Independent study 65 951
Science olympiads 15 349
Interdisciplinary teaching 35 501
Family science nights 2 136
Real-world applications 44 674
Use of technology to promote science learning 56 900
School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest activities
with the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 1 9
Agree 1 25
Neutral 5 24
Disagree 0 7
Strongly Disagree 1 6
I Don’t Know 6 9
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 129
Survey data indicated that school leaders and teachers employed strategies to encourage
student participation in science competitions to support students’ success on state examinations.
From the data, 71% of SHC and 79% of all administrators and teachers surveyed agreed that
school leadership employed strategies to positively influence school participation in SciFest.
Additional survey questions asked teachers and administrators to select “yes” or “no” if their
school leaders employed common strategies to positively influence participation in SciFest at
their school. For each method surveyed, the number of “yes” responses is indicated on Table 9.
The survey data strongly supported that school leaders and teachers employed strategies
to encourage students’ participation in science competitions to support students’ success on state
examinations. Survey data indicated that 100% of SHC teachers and administrators were in
agreement that strategies that school leaders employed to positively influence participation in
SciFest included common planning, department meetings, professional development, and the use
of technology. Survey data also indicated that SHC teachers and administrators believed strongly
that school leaders supported participation in SciFest by providing instructional materials (92%),
promoting SciFest on social media (93%), and implementing schoolwide recognition programs
(92%). Survey data from all teachers and administrators indicated school leaders employ strate-
gies to positively influence participation in SciFest to a lesser extent with teachers and adminis-
trators survey results indicating 78% agreement in the use of common planning, 91% agreement
in the use of department meetings, 91% agreement in the use of professional development, 94%
in the use of technology, 85% for instructional materials, 85% for promoting on social media, and
95% schoolwide student recognition. Only 14% of SHC teachers and administrators and 43% of
all teachers and administrators surveyed agreed that school leaders worked with teachers to align
SciFest activities with the state examinations. However, an additional 43% of SHC teachers and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 130
Table 9
Responses Indicating Belief That School Leaders Employed Strategies to Encourage Students’
Participation in Science Competitions to Support Students’ Success on State Examinations: St.
Hayes College (SHC) Teachers and Administrators and All Teachers and Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
School leadership employs strategies to positively influence
school participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 4 20
Agree 6 43
Neutral 3 11
Disagree 0 4
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 1
Strategies that school leadership employs at your school.
Common planning time 14 59
Department meetings 14 73
Professional development 14 70
Student incentives 10 50
Teacher incentives 3 35
Instructional materials 11 54
Instructional coaches 7 35
Informational meetings held 10 46
SciFest promoted on social media 13 66
Family science nights 0 4
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam 5 57
Actionable feedback to teachers to improve science
instruction 5 29
Recruitment of partners/sponsors 4 28
Schoolwide student recognition 12 74
Schoolwide teacher recognition 9 57
Real-world applications 7 51
Use of technology to promote science learning 14 73
School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest
activities with the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 1 9
Agree 1 25
Neutral 5 24
Disagree 0 7
Strongly Disagree 1 6
I Don’t Know 6 9
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 131
administrator responded that they did not know and 36% responded neutral to this question (see
Table 9).
Additional research data collected from teachers and administrators indicated that teach-
ers employed strategies to encourage students’ participation in science competitions to support
students’ success on state examinations. The data indicated that 100% of SHC teachers and
administrators and 94% of all teachers and administrators surveyed indicated that teachers
employed strategies to positively influence school participation in SciFest. Additional survey
questions asked teachers and administrators to select “yes” or “no” if teachers at their school
employed common strategies to positively influence participation in SciFest. For each method
surveyed, the number of “yes” responses is indicated on Table 10. The survey data strongly
supported the theme that school leaders and teachers employed strategies to encourage students’
participation in science competitions to support students’ success on state examinations. SHC
administrators and teachers were in 100% agreement that teachers at SHC used IBL, science
competitions, independent study, and technology as strategies to positively influence student
participation in SciFest. Similar results were found for all teachers and administrators, with 99%
in agreement on the use of IBL, 96% on science competitions, 96% on independent study, and
95% on technology as strategies to positively influence students’ participation in SciFest (see
Table 10).
The literature review indicated that parents in Ireland identified a lack of information for
advising their daughters on STEM educational and career pathways and a disconnect between
industry’s skill needs and students’ subject choices for their Leaving Certificate Examinations
(Ireland DES, 2016). Survey data collected from parents indicated that school leaders and
teachers employed strategies to encourage students’ participation in science competitions to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 132
Table 10
Responses Indicating Belief That Teachers Employed Strategies to Encourage Students’ Partici-
pation in Science Competitions to Support Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes
College (SHC) Teachers and Administrators and All Teachers and Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
Teachers at my school employs strategies to positively influ-
ence school participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 1 33
Agree 3 34
Neutral 0 2
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 1
Strategies that teachers at my school employ to positively influence
school participation in SciFest.
Inquiry-based learning 12 77
Before-/after-school clubs 8 42
Science competitions 13 74
Independent study 11 73
Science olympiads 5 40
Interdisciplinary teaching 7 47
Family science nights 0 5
Real-world applications 8 61
Use of technology to promote science learning 11 72
School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest
activities with the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 1 9
Agree 1 25
Neutral 5 24
Disagree 0 7
Strongly Disagree 1 6
I Don’t Know 6 9
support students’ success on state examinations. Although only five SHC parents completed the
survey, 80% of SHC parents and 80% of all parents surveyed were in agreement that leadership
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employed strategies to positively influence school participation in SciFest. Additional survey
questions asked parents to select “yes” or “no” if school leaders at their school employed
common strategies to positively influence participation in SciFest at their school. For each
method surveyed, the number of “yes” responses is indicated on Table 11.
Eighty percent of SHC parents and 73% of all parents surveyed were in agreement that
school leadership used instructional materials to increase participation in SciFest. Data collected
from parent surveys also indicated that 60% of SHC parents were in agreement that school
leadership used instructional coaches, informational meetings and real-world applications to
increase participation in SciFest. Survey data from all parents indicated only 48% were in
agreement that school leadership used instructional coaches; 45%, in agreement that school
leadership used informational meetings; and 53%, in agreement that school leadership used
real-world applications to increase participation in SciFest at their school. Of the SHC parents
surveyed, 25% agreed, 25% responded neutral, and 50% responded they did not know if school
leadership worked with teachers to align SciFest activities with the state examinations. Similar
results were found in data collected from all parents surveyed, indicating that 47% of all parents
agreed, 15% responded neutral, and 31% responded I don’t know whether school leadership
worked with teachers to align SciFest activities to state examinations (see Table 11).
Data indicated that 60% of SHC parents and 73% of all parents surveyed were in agree-
ment that teachers employed strategies to positively influence school participation in SciFest.
Additional survey questions asked parents to select “yes” or “no” if school teachers at their
school employed common strategies to positively influence participation in SciFest. For each
method surveyed, the number of “yes” responses is indicated in Table 12. One hundred percent
of SHC parents and 91% of all parents surveyed were in agreement that teachers used IBL to
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Table 11
Responses Indicating Belief That School Leaders Employed Strategies to Encourage Students’
Participation in Science Competitions to Support Students’ Success on State Examinations: St.
Hayes College (SHC) Parents and All Parents
SHC All
Survey item and response categories parents parents
School leadership employs strategies to positively influence school
participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 2 28
Agree 2 52
Neutral 0 8
Disagree 0 3
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 11
All strategies that school leadership employs at your school:
Student incentives 1 63
Teacher incentives 2 45
Instructional materials 4 74
Instructional coaches 3 48
Informational meetings held 3 45
SciFest promoted on social media 2 47
Family science nights 0 8
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam 1 23
Partners/sponsors recruited 1 23
Schoolwide student recognition 2 61
Schoolwide teacher recognition 1 35
Real-world applications 3 52
Use of technology to promote science learning 2 74
School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest activities with
the state examinations.
Strongly Agree 1 10
Agree 0 37
Neutral 1 16
Disagree 0 4
Strongly Disagree 0 2
I Don’t Know 2 32
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 135
Table 12
Responses Indicating Belief That Teachers Employed Strategies to Encourage Students’ Partici-
pation in Science Competitions to Support Students’ Success on State Examinations: St. Hayes
College (SHC) Parents and All Parents
SHC All
Survey item and response categories parents parents
Teachers at my school employs strategies to positively influence school
participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 2 22
Agree 1 38
Neutral 1 9
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 12
All strategies that teachers at my school employ to positively
influence school participation in SciFest:
Inquiry-based learning 4 83
Before-/after-school clubs 1 36
Science competitions 3 85
Independent study 4 80
Science olympiads 2 32
Interdisciplinary teaching 2 44
Family science nights 1 9
Real-world applications 2 55
Use of technology to promote science learning 1 76
increase participation in SciFest. Data collected from parent surveys also indicated that 100% of
SHC parents and 91% of all parents surveyed were in agreement that teachers used independent
studies to increase participation in SciFest (see Table 12).
Research on STEM in secondary schools identified that effective leadership practices
employed by school leaders included dedicating time for teachers to collaborate and participate in
professional development activities, facilitating teacher leadership, and providing teachers with
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 136
mentors and coaches (Scott, 2012). Qualitative findings from an analysis of data collected from
interviews also supported the theme that school leadership and teachers employed strategies to
encourage students’ participation in science competitions to support students’ success on state
examinations. Students recognized the “principal—he had to get permission to run the class, and
to give permission for us to do SciFest” (Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018). Now at SHC “we
have our own allocated class for what’s SciFest” (Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018). This
theme was also recognized by Student 6: “I think it was like the—you have to schedule a times-
table class, so there has to be a class for it” (interview, April 17, 2018). Despite it being embed-
ded within the school day, one student also shared that “I met up with my teacher and the other
girl I was doing my project with a number of times outside of school—I mean on holidays and
stuff, so it’s just kind of takes up a lot of their time outside of school” (Student 6, interview,
April 17, 2018). The SciFest teacher was also seen as supportive because she “kind of nurtured
us. The project work was left up to us, but her advice is invaluable” (Student 1, interview,
April 17, 2018). SciFest was part of the schoolwide culture: “There’s a teacher for the students,
who worked with on statistics” and “there were other teachers involved in the areas who stepped
up, and took leadership” (Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018).
School leadership indicated that they “would like every student to” participate in SciFest
(SHC Principal Mackenzie, interview, April 17, 2018). According to Teacher 2, at SHC there
were years when “physics was not opted for, or maybe very small numbers, as in two, three, four
students” and “chemistry classes were getting smaller” before the new principal [Mr. Mackenzie]
arrived (interview, April 17, 2018). When Principal Mackenzie started, he was able to “time-
table” a class for SciFest into the TY (Teacher 2, interview, April 17, 2018). Then he began to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 137
“promote” participation in SciFest as a way to increase “the numbers moving forward to the state
exams for science” (Teacher 3, interview, April 17, 2018).
Interviews with parents and political leaders supported the belief that school leadership
and teachers employed strategies to encourage students’ participation in science competitions to
support students’ success on state examinations. One parent shared that “there’s quite a focus on,
or an awareness of STEM in this school in particular” and “there’s a separate project-based
science class in TY” (Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018) to encourage students to participate in
science competitions and pursue STEM courses for the Leaving Certificate. Preparing students
for the state examinations and SciFest “go hand in hand because the state exams here in the
science subjects” (Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018). At SHC science had a “tendency in the
past” to “be very textbook reliant with some experiments, whereas the SciFest introduces a sort
of practical element and application of some learning up to that point” (Parent 1, interview,
April 17, 2018).
School leadership and teachers employed strategies to encourage students’ participation
in science competitions to support students’ success on state examinations. In doing so, they
were offering students “a view into the world of science and technology” (L. Hobbs, Director,
Trinity Research and Innovation, interview, April 16, 2018). Dr. Hobbs went on to explain while
there “isn’t that direct connection” between SciFest and the Leaving Certificate Exam, “there is a
very strong indirect connection” based on the essential skills that students learn from participat-
ing in science competitions (L. Hobbs, Director, Trinity Research and Innovation, interview,
April 16, 2018).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 138
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How does school leadership influence participation in
SciFest?” This question was intended to yield information on the impact that leadership has had
on STEM fairs or competitions and the use of PBL or IBL in the classroom and the implementa-
tion of 21st-century skills. The literature review indicated that effective school leaders facilitate
teacher leadership, provide teachers with instructional coaches, dedicate time for teachers to
collaborate, and provide teachers with professional development (Scott, 2012). Strong leadership
was also found to be a characteristic of effective K-12 STEM education (NRC, 2011). Collective
teacher efficacy, strong parent and community relationships, instructional guidance for teachers,
and a student-centered focus were also found to be characteristics of effective K-12 STEM edu-
cation (NRC, 2011).
According to Bolman and Deal (2013), effective leaders implement a comprehensive
approach to organizational change by examining it from structural, human resources, political,
and symbolic perspectives. Leaders who examine the alignment of organizational goals,
resources, and situations from multiple perspectives are able to better understand the needs of
students, teachers, and the school. The data analysis examined how SHC leadership influenced
and increased participation in SciFest through the lens of Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership
framework; two themes emerged. The first theme indicated that school leadership was a positive
influence on student participation in science competition participation. The second theme to
emerge indicated that school leadership aligned resources to influence participation in SciFest
science competition.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 139
Theme 1: School Leadership Is a Positive Influence on Science Competition Participation
Researchers have noted that it is important that high school administrators, counselors,
and teachers strike a balance between developing students’ STEM skills and encouraging posi-
tive attitudes toward STEM-related activities (AAUW, Educational Foundation Commission on
Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education, 2000; Crombie et al., 2002; Woodrow, 1994). The
survey data collected around this question supported the concept that school leadership is a
positive influence on student participation in science competitions. Of those surveyed, 70% of
SHC and 60% of all students were in agreement that school leadership was a positive influence
on SciFest competitions. Survey data collected indicated that 58% of SHC students compared to
44% of all students surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that school leadership has developed a
shared vision for implementing SciFest at their school. The perception that school leadership
effectively communicated a shared vision to all stakeholders was also found to be slightly higher,
with 46% of SHC students in agreement compared to 44% of all students in the study (see Table
13).
Research data indicated that SHC teachers and administrators supported the belief that
school leadership was a positive influence on student participation in SciFest. Survey data indi-
cated that 79% of SHC teachers/administrators and 83% of all teachers/administrators were in
agreement that school leadership was a positive influence on SciFest competitions. Survey data
indicated that only 43% of SHC teachers/administrators compared to 64% of all teachers/admin-
istrators surveyed agreed school that leadership developed a shared vision for implementing
SciFest. It is important to note that 50% of SHC teachers/administrators responded neutral and
that none of the SHC teachers/administrators surveyed disagreed that school leadership devel-
oped a shared vision for implementing SciFest. Additional survey data indicated that 46% of
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 140
Table 13
Responses Indicating That School Leadership Was a Positive Influence on Student Participation
in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
School leadership develops a shared vision for implementing
SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 7 114
Agree 34 449
Neutral 13 261
Disagree 8 70
Strongly Disagree 1 15
I Don’t Know 8 213
School leadership effectively communicates to all stakeholders
(students, parents, teachers, etc.) a shared vision for implementing
SciFest competitions at the school.
Strongly Agree 7 98
Agree 26 394
Neutral 8 264
Disagree 11 119
Strongly Disagree 3 33
I Don’t Know 16 214
School leadership is a positive influence on SciFest competitions
at my child’s school.
Strongly Agree 13 232
Agree 37 510
Neutral 13 189
Disagree 4 58
Strongly Disagree 0 20
I Don’t Know 4 114
SHC teachers/administrators and 49% of all teachers/administrators agreed that school leadership
effectively communicated to all stakeholders (students, parents, teachers, etc.) a shared vision for
implementing SciFest competitions at the school (see Table 14).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 141
Table 14
Responses Indicating That School Leadership Was a Positive Influence on Students’ Participa-
tion in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teach-
ers/Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
School leadership develops a shared vision for implementing
SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 2 13
Agree 4 36
Neutral 7 17
Disagree 0 3
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 1 7
School leadership effectively communicates to all stake-
holders (students, teachers, etc.) a shared vision for
implementing SciFest competitions at the school.
Strongly Agree 1 9
Agree 5 28
Neutral 3 24
Disagree 2 6
Strongly Disagree 1 3
I Don’t Know 1 6
School leadership is a positive influence on SciFest
competitions at my child’s school.
Strongly Agree 4 22
Agree 7 41
Neutral 2 8
Disagree 0 4
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 2
The belief that school leaders positively influenced participation in STEM PBL was not
as clearly supported by the survey data collected from SHC parents. Twenty-five percent of SHC
parents and 70% of all parents surveyed agreed that school leadership was a positive influence on
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 142
SciFest competitions. An additional 50% of SHC parents did not know, and 25% responded
neutral to the survey question asking whether school leadership is a positive influence on SciFest
competitions. Of those surveyed in this study, 25% of SHC parents and 60% of all parents were
in agreement that school leadership has developed a shared vision for implementing SciFest. An
additional 50% of SHC parents responded that they did not know, and 25% responded neutral to
the survey question asking whether school leadership has developed a shared vision for imple-
menting SciFest competitions. However, only 25% of SHC parents and 47% of all parents sur-
veyed were in agreement that school leadership has effectively communicated a shared vision to
all stakeholders. Of the MNCs and policy makers who completed the surveys, 80% were in
agreement that school leadership was a positive influence on SciFest competitions in schools (see
Table 15).
Both individual satisfaction and organizational effectiveness depend heavily on the
quality of interpersonal relationships (Bolman & Deal, 2013). The belief that school leadership is
a positive influence on student participation in science competitions was strongly supported with
qualitative interview data. Interview data collected from students indicated specific methods that
SHC school leadership used to positively influence student participation in PBL–STEM science
competitions. Methods identified by students included encouragement, school-based STEM
competitions, guest speakers, providing resources, and promoting SciFest on social media.
Students recognized that the SHC principal was a positive influence on SciFest. One of the first
students to participate in SciFest at SHC, stated that “the teachers and especially . . . [Ms. Reid]
and the principal, they were pushing for this to get underway for us to take part in these competi-
tions (Student 5, interview, April 17, 2018). Principal Mackenzie “had to get permission to run
the class, and to give permission for us to do SciFest. So that would play a big role in us getting
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 143
Table 15
Participants’ Responses Indicating That School Leadership Was a Positive Influence on
Students’ Participation in Science Competitions
Policymakers/MNC
Survey item and response categories representatives SHC parents All parents
School leadership develops a shared vision
for implementing SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 6 0 12
Agree 1 1 47
Neutral 3 1 13
Disagree 0 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0 1
I Don’t Know 1 2 25
School leadership effectively communicates
to all stakeholders (students, parents, teach-
ers, etc.) a shared vision for implementing
SciFest competitions at the school.
Strongly Agree 0 1 9
Agree 2 0 36
Neutral 2 0 15
Disagree 0 2 10
Strongly Disagree 0 0 2
I Don’t Know 1 1 26
School leadership is a positive influence on
SciFest at my child’s school.
Strongly Agree 0 0 19
Agree 4 1 50
Neutral 0 2 10
Disagree 0 0 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0 1
I Don’t Know 1 1 16
there at all ”(Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018). The SHC principal was “really determined
to” implement SciFest and “put all their effort into it,” stated Student 3 (interview, April 17,
2018). Throughout the process, the principal was seen by students to be “really encouraging”
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 144
(Student 6, interview, April 17, 2018). SHC school leadership influenced Student 4’s participa-
tion in SciFest because they were “so enthusiastic” and they “really, they do get you interested in
the subjects. And they make it kind of fun. So, it does want you to kind of participate and get
involved sometimes (interview, April 17, 2018).
Promoting science competitions at school was another way SHC school leadership
positively influenced participation in SciFest competitions. Student 4 stated in the past SHC was
“very enthusiastic about promoting music and didn’t promote successes in the fields of science
and SciFest” (interview, April 17, 2018). However, now SHC “has promoted it” in school and
on social media “and people are looking at it more, there’s more influence in it now” (Student 4,
interview, April 17, 2018). This was also recognized by SHC Student 1 who stated “we did our
own school day SciFest, and our own year, fourth years, came down to see us, and first and
second years” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Other students shared how the SHC Principal Mackenzie assisted students with field trips,
mentors, guest speakers, and promoting SciFest within the school and on social media. Student 6
stated the Principal helped me arrange to go “to a college to get some research from a microbiolo-
gist” (interview, April 17, 2018). Another way the principal was a positive influence was by
helping students by “getting guests in” to assist with projects (Student 6, interview, April 17,
2018). Another student shared, SHC school leadership helped connect her team with a “a local
counselor who has a chicken farm and our project was about chickens so we were able to liaise
with him” (Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018). She went on to state “the outside source really
helped and that’s what really works if the principal can help us do that” (Student 1, interview,
April 17, 2018).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 145
SHC started participating in SciFest 3 years ago when Mr. Mackenzie became the princi-
pal (Ms. Reid, interview, April 17, 2018). Mr. Mackenzie indicated that his vision was “to be
seen as a school that’s progressive and allowing girls to achieve their utmost” (interview, April
17, 2018): “This is where our future and our economy are going to be; this is where the future
jobs for the young people who are in school now are going to be and if they want to be success-
ful.” He shared how he was actively “publicizing the fact that we are very committed to STEM”
(interview, April 17, 2018).
The SHC principal’s vision for implementing STEM education and science competitions
was recognized by teachers. Ms. Reid, the SciFest facilitator, indicated that the principal “defi-
nitely saw the benefits” (interview, April 17, 2018) of SciFest for students but he also saw the
benefits of promoting SciFest for the school. Being seen as a school for “learning and develop-
ment” and promoting students in “the papers showing success” in STEM to increase enrollment
and achievement on “state exams for science” has had a positive impact on the school” (Ms.
Reid, interview, April 17, 2018). Another teacher shared that “our principal is trying to make
science a compulsory subject here. We’re waiting to get another lab, and when we do, all kids in
our school will be doing science (SHC Teacher 2, interview, April 17, 2018).
Support and encouragement for students and staff were indicated as methods that SHC
school leadership used to positively influence participation in science competitions. SHC
Teacher 2 stated that “he [the principal] is very supportive with anything that you want to do
extra with the kids, especially in science” (interview, April 17, 2018). According to the physics
teacher, the SHC principal also shared this message with students as he “encourages them
towards the sciences” (interview, April 17, 2018).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 146
Interview data collected from SHC parents also indicated that school leadership was a
positive influence on student participation in science competitions. One parent indicated that
“my own experience here has been that there’s a great enthusiasm coming from the school
leadership around participation in SciFest in particular, but in the wider STEM area” (SHC
Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018). Parents also noted that school leaders were a positive
influence on students’ participation in STEM PBL by making it “available to everybody” (SHC
Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018). SHC school leadership were seen as providing “encourage-
ment” for students’ participation (SHC Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018). SHC Parent 1 noted
that SciFest has “been promoted in a non- . . . I was gonna say not nonthreatening, but non-
compulsory way” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Finally, qualitative research data from political leaders and MNCs further supported that
school leadership was a positive influence on student participation in science competitions.
Bernard Capraro, Silicon Technology Research Manager, at Intel, Ireland, stated that the influ-
ence of the “principal or head master and what they think about it, the BT Young Scientist,
SciFest” was seen to have a “massive impact” on student participation in science competitions
(interview, April 16, 2018). A representative from Boston Scientific stated that school leaders
supported participation in SciFest by “promoting it within the school, creating a buzz around
SciFest, and publicly recognizing students” (interview, April 20, 2018).
Finally, this theme was supported by Ireland’s Tánaiste Coveney, who indicated that
school leadership’s influence on student participation in SciFest, is
very significant actually, so, you know, it’s politically correct to say you know, that power
should be from the ground up, but in truth, in these projects, the context of the atmosphere
that creates a successful project, has got to come from the top down, in my view. So you
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 147
need a principal who’s really keen on this stuff, and you need teachers then working with
that principal enthusing students. (interview, April 20, 2018)
Observational data from SHC did not support this theme.
Theme 2: School Leadership Aligns Resources to Influence Participation in Science Compe-
tition
The second theme to emerge from the research data was that school leadership has
aligned resources to influence participation in science competitions. Implementing K-12 STEM
education requires school leaders to find innovative and creative solutions to challenges that may
influence students’ participation, including limited resources. The literature review indicated that
leaders and organizations who implement innovative ways to increase autonomy are outperform-
ing their competitors (Pink, 2011). Quantitative and qualitative research data indicated that SHC
school leadership was aligning limited resources to influence participation in STEM education.
Research findings indicated that SHC students supported the belief that school leadership
has aligned resources to influence participation in science competitions. Survey data results
indicated that 51% of SHC students compared to 40% of all other students perceived that school
leadership allocated adequate financial resources to effectively implement SciFest. Student
survey data also indicated that 67% of SHC and 64% of all students in the study were in agree-
ment that school leadership provided support, including time, materials, and training, for partici-
pation in SciFest (see Table 16).
Research findings indicated that SHC teachers and administrators supported the belief
that school leadership has aligned resources to influence participation in science competitions but
to a lesser extent at SHC. Results indicated that 31% of SHC teachers/administrators compared
to 51% of all teachers/administrators surveyed perceived that school leadership allocated
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 148
Table 16
Responses Indicating That School Leadership Aligned Resources to Influence Participation in
Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
School leadership allocates adequate financial resources to effectively
implement SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 11 119
Agree 25 339
Neutral 10 251
Disagree 11 115
Strongly Disagree 4 53
I Don’t Know 10 236
School leadership provides support, including time, materials, and
training, for participation in SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 29 264
Agree 18 452
Neutral 6 156
Disagree 7 91
Strongly Disagree 4 35
I Don’t Know 6 111
adequate financial resources to effectively implement SciFest. Interestingly, an additional 62%
of SHC teachers/administrators did not know or responded neutral to the question asking
whether school leadership allocated adequate financial resources to effectively implement
SciFest. Teacher/administrator survey data also indicated that 46% of SHC students compared to
60% of all teacher and administrators in the research study were in agreement that school leader-
ship provided support, including time, materials, and training, for participation in SciFest. None
of the SHC teachers/administrators disagreed that school leadership provided support, including
time, materials, and training, for participation in SciFest (see Table 17).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 149
Table 17
Responses Indicating That School Leadership Has Aligned Resources to Influence Participation
in Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/
Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
School leadership allocates adequate financial resources
to effectively implement SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 1 16
Agree 3 23
Neutral 4 13
Disagree 1 7
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 4 17
School leadership provides support, including time,
materials, and training, for participation in SciFest at
my school.
Strongly Agree 1 8
Agree 5 37
Neutral 6 17
Disagree 0 5
Strongly Disagree 0 2
I Don’t Know 1 6
The theme was supported by quantitative and qualitative data from parents. Data indi-
cated that 75% of SHC and 76% of all parents surveyed in the study perceived that school leader-
ship allocated adequate support, including time, materials, and training, for participation in
SciFest. Findings indicated that 75% of SHC and 68% of all parents in the study were in agree-
ment that school leadership allocated adequate financial resources to effectively implement
SciFest (see Table 18).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 150
Table 18
Responses Indicating That School Leadership Aligned Resources to Influence Participation in
Science Competitions: St. Hayes College (SHC) Parents and All Parents
SHC All
Survey item and response categories parents parents
School leadership allocates adequate financial resources to effectively
implement SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 3 16
Agree 0 51
Neutral 0 12
Disagree 0 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 18
School leadership provides support, including time, materials, and
training, for participation in SciFest at my school.
Strongly Agree 0 21
Agree 3 53
Neutral 0 7
Disagree 0 3
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 14
Qualitative data from all stakeholders indicated that school leadership has aligned
resources to influence participation in science competitions. In her 6th year at SHC, Student 5
recalled prior to Mr. Mackenzie becoming principal, students were able to participate in science
competitions “but the school wasn’t going to provide any help” (interview, April 17, 2018). As
she entered her TY, Mr. Mackenzie became principal: “We were the lucky ones” because Princi-
pal [name] said, ‘We’re going to try it. It’s going to be an interesting experience to see how it
does benefit the girls’” (interview, April 17, 2018). According to Student 1, Mr. Mackenzie was
able to increase participation in SciFest by “having a class for it, more so than just” asking
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 151
students to do it during “free time” (interview, April 17, 2018). Student 5 also noted that the
principal and teachers “liaised really well” with one another—a situation that was helpful and
allowed students to “just be able to focus on” on their SciFest project (interview, April 17, 2018).
Another way that SHC leadership aligned resources was by allocating a class section or
embedding time for science competitions within the school day. Teacher 2 indicated that one “of
the major” challenges to implementing STEM PBL and SciFest “would be timing,” or embed-
ding STEM PBL within the school day (interview, April 17, 2018). SHC leadership addressed
this issue by scheduling or “time-tabling” STEM PBL within the “transition year” (Teacher 3,
interview, April 17, 2018). The TY Program Coordinator indicated that
we put it in the timetable so we, you know, dedicated resources to it and then just in terms
of allocating time in the calendar, making sure that there’s sometimes we need to gear
students up for taking part in research. (Ms. Arden, interview, April 17, 2018)
With limited resources for substitute teachers, the principal “would look after my classes
for the day” when I “took students to universities and businesses for research and during science
competitions” (Ms. Reid, interview, April 17, 2018). This fact was also noted by Teacher 2, who
commented that school leadership “provide cover” if the SciFest teacher “needs it” (interview,
April 17, 2018).
The literature review indicated that effective school leaders capitalize upon the complex
cooperative relationships between teachers and staff members to achieve goals or institute change
(Bolman & Deal, 2013). SHC school leaders promoted student participation in science compe-
titions as a method to increase enrollment. Principal Mackenzie shared that one of the benefits
for participating in SciFest was “getting it [STEM] out there more widely” instead of “other areas
you can go to when you go to an all-girls school” (interview, April 17, 2018).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 152
The literature review further revealed that leaders who invest in people create a highly
motivated team and a competitive advantage (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Interview data from SHC
teachers indicated that school leadership created a trusting environment that served as a positive
influence on participation in STEM–PBL (i.e., SciFest competitions). Teacher 2 stated that
“support is a big thing” and “here you are trusted to do your job” (interview, April 17, 2018).
This belief was reiterated by Ms. Reid, who stated that “once you know that someone is support-
ing you from behind, you don’t mind putting in the extra two bits” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Other teachers noticed that “it’s those kind of little things” (Teacher 2, interview, April 17, 2018)
that positively influence school participation in SciFest. “When we had SciFest at school, he [the
principal] was down with me that morning making sure that the hall was set up” (Ms. Reid,
interview, April 17, 2018). Ms. Reid commented that school leadership would “make sure to
make announcements” or “just backing up what I’m doing and reinforcing what I’m doing”
(interview, April 17, 2018).
SHC school leaders’ alignment of financial resources was also seen as positively impact-
ing participation in STEM PBL. The SciFest teacher facilitator indicated that SHC school leaders
supported her financially “absolutely, within reason” (Ms. Reid, interview, April 17, 2018). She
further noted that “actually, I don’t think he’s ever refused me. So, it’s been good. Because I
wouldn’t ask for something unless we desperately needed it” (Ms. Reid, interview, April 17,
2018). The physics teacher indicated that SHC leadership “gives them [students] time to actually
carry out the projects” and that “students would get a little bit of time off from different classes to
actually complete their SciFest projects” (Teacher 5, interview, April 17, 2018).
SHC school leaders structurally encouraged participation in SciFest by allowing students
“the time to actually get the projects done as well” (Ms. Reid, interview, April 17, 2018). Ms.
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Reid cited an example: “This year we went to Trinity and they loaned us equipment worth, I
don’t know, €1,000 (interview, April 17, 2018).
Interviews with parents and representatives from MNCs also supported the belief that
school leadership aligned resources to influence participation in science competitions. One SHC
parent interviewed indicated that school leadership helped with the “availability of resources,
both teaching, parental supports, school, and access to universities around the country” to influ-
ence participation in SciFest (Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018). Bernard Capraro, Silicon
Technology Research Manager, at Intel, Ireland, stated that schools that do well in science
competitions have principals who “recruit speakers like Intel”(interview, April 16, 2018).
Observational data from SHC did not support this theme.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How does participation in SciFest influence female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level and third-level STEM courses?” Examining the STEM
gender gap through the use of the multifaceted and complex feminist theory frameworks guided
understanding of the research. The purpose of this question was to better understand how Ireland
may be transforming educational programs and practices for female students to address the
STEM gender gap. The literature review indicated that female students’ interest in pursuing and
persisting in STEM majors increases when barriers such as expectations, supports, and increased
self-efficacy are addressed (Hardin & Longhurst, 2016). One promising practice for building
female students’ confidence, participation, and success in STEM is after-school clubs and
programs (Heo & Myrick, 2009). The research data for this question was analyzed using the
perspective of Acker’s (1987) feminist theories (liberal, social, and radical). The first theme
indicated that schools that actively recruit and encourage female students to participate in science
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competitions build STEM confidence in female students. The second theme indicated that
STEM–PBL science competitions increase motivation in female students to pursue senior-level
and third-level STEM courses.
Theme 1: Schools That Actively Recruit and Encourage Female Students to Participate in
Science Competitions Build Stem Confidence in Female Students
The quantitative and qualitative research findings for this theme were the strongest. The
findings indicated strong support for the belief that schools actively recruited and encouraged
female students to participate in science competitions to build their STEM confidence. Student
survey data indicated that 65% of SHC students surveyed strongly agreed—and an additional
25% agreed—that their school actively encouraged and recruited female students to participate in
SciFest. Agreement among students from all schools surveyed indicated only 34% strongly
agreed and 29% agreed that their school actively encouraged and recruited female students to
participate in SciFest. Survey results from all students indicated that only 34% strongly agreed
that their school actively encouraged and recruited female students to participate in SciFest.
Survey data indicated that SHC students were more likely to agree that female students
were encouraged by their parents to participate in SciFest, with 63% of surveyed students in
agreement compared to 38% of all other students surveyed. Similarly, 56% of SHC students
surveyed were in agreement that they had access to female role models who influenced their
participation in SciFest compared to only 46% of all students surveyed. In addition to encourage-
ment, 56% of SHC students surveyed were in agreement that their school actively employed
strategies to increase female students’ participation in SciFest compared to only 42% of all other
students surveyed (see Table 19).
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Table 19
Responses Indicating That Schools That Actively Recruit and Encourage Female Students to
Participate in Science Competitions Build STEM Confidence in Female Students: St. Hayes
College (SHC) Students and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
My school actively encourages and recruits female students to
participate in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 46 370
Agree 17 322
Neutral 2 156
Disagree 0 37
Strongly Disagree 3 35
I Don’t Know 3 178
Female students are encouraged by their parents to participate in
SciFest.
Strongly Agree 26 171
Agree 19 251
Neutral 8 237
Disagree 9 69
Strongly Disagree 1 26
I Don’t Know 8 347
Female students have access to female role models who influence
their participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 23 185
Agree 16 323
Neutral 10 186
Disagree 6 92
Strongly Disagree 3 40
I Don’t Know 13 273
My school actively employs strategies to increase female students’
participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 19 181
Agree 20 280
Neutral 19 232
Disagree 5 107
Strongly Disagree 1 34
I Don’t Know 6 260
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
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Similar findings were seen in survey data collected from teachers/administrators. Survey
data indicated that 71% of SHC teachers and administrators—significantly higher than 49% of all
teachers/administrators—agreed or strongly agreed that their school actively employed strategies
to increase female students’ participation in SciFest. Survey data indicated that 71% of SHC and
62% of all teachers/administrators agreed or strongly agreed that female students had access to
female role models who influenced their participation in SciFest. Although SHC students per-
ceived that their school encouraged them to participate in SciFest, survey data indicated that only
29% of SHC teachers/administrators compared to 46% of all teachers/administrators actively
encouraged and recruited female students to participate in SciFest. An additional 57% of SHC
teachers/administrators and 32% of all teachers/administrators surveyed responded neutral to the
survey question stating, “I actively encourage and recruit female students to participate in
SciFest.” Survey data indicated that 43% of SHC teachers/administrators and 46% of all teach-
ers/administrators agreed or strongly agreed that female students were encouraged by their
parents to participate in SciFest (see Table 20).
Similar findings were seen in survey data collected from parents. Survey data indicated
that 50% of SHC parents compared to 39% of all parents agreed or strongly agreed that their
school actively employed strategies to increase female students’ participation in SciFest. Survey
data indicated that 25% of SHC parents and 35% of all parents agreed that female students had
access to female role models who influenced their participation in SciFest. Half of SHC parents
surveyed indicated that they did not know and 25% or SHC responded neutral to the survey item
15 regarding female students’ access to female role models who influenced their participation in
SciFest. Data indicated that 50% of SHC parents agreed that SHC actively encouraged and
recruited female students to participate in SciFest; 50% did not know if SHC actively encouraged
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 157
Table 20
Responses Indicating That Schools That Actively and Encourage Female Students to Participate
in Science Competitions Build Their STEM Confidence: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/
Administrators and All Teachers/Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
I actively encourage and recruit female students to
participate in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 2 22
Agree 2 12
Neutral 8 24
Disagree 2 6
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 9
Female students are encouraged by their parents to
participate in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 2 13
Agree 4 21
Neutral 5 21
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 19
Female students have access to female role models who
influence their participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 4 18
Agree 6 27
Neutral 1 15
Disagree 0 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 11
My school actively employs strategies to increase female
students’ participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 4 18
Agree 6 27
Neutral 1 15
Disagree 0 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 11
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 158
and recruited female students to participate in SciFest. Data from all parents indicated that 54%
of parents agreed that their child’s school actively encouraged and recruited female students to
participate in SciFest. SHC survey data indicated that only 25% of female students were encour-
aged by their parents to participate in SciFest. Findings for all parents indicated that 52% of all
parents agreed or strongly agreed that female students were encouraged by their parents to
participate in SciFest (see Table 21).
Liberal feminist theory advocates equal opportunity for women through the removal of
educational barriers within schools, including policies and practices that discriminate against
female students (Acker, 1987). The belief that schools that actively recruit and encourage female
students to participate in science competitions build STEM confidence in female students also
emerged from an analysis of stakeholder interviews. Student 6 shared that due to participating in
SciFest, “now I have no problem talking with adults and explaining my project and presenting”
(interview, April 17, 2018).
Social feminists’ theories focus on women’s position within the family and the economy
and how schools reproduce gender divisions (Acker, 1987). The impact of traditional gender
roles promoted in society on female participation in SciFest was noted by SHC Student 4:
“There’s always been a stigmatism around it, like girls don’t partake in it”’ however, she went on
to state, “But I’d encourage girls to participate more in it” (interview, April 17, 2018). Student 4
recognized that schools are actively “trying to block out the stereotype of people and science.
Trying to break that barrier, I’d say, is a big challenge for them to overcome to get people to
participate in science” (interview, April 17, 2018). However, Student 4, who participated in
SciFest, further noted, “I haven’t seen much of a challenge in SHC; people are fairly open about
it” (interview, April 17, 2018).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 159
Table 21
Responses Indicating That Schools That Actively Recruit and Encourage Female Students to
Participate in Science Competitions Build Their STEM Confidence: St. Hayes College (SHC)
Parents and All Parents
SHC All
Survey item and response categories parents parents
My school actively encourages and recruits female students to
participate in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 1 15
Agree 1 37
Neutral 0 9
Disagree 0 5
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 2 36
Female students are encouraged by their parents to participate in
SciFest.
Strongly Agree 0 13
Agree 1 37
Neutral 1 9
Disagree 0 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 2 35
Female students have access to female role models who influence
their participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 1 9
Agree 0 25
Neutral 1 14
Disagree 0 3
Strongly Disagree 0 2
I Don’t Know 2 44
My school actively employs strategies to increase female
students’ participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 0 10
Agree 2 27
Neutral 0 9
Disagree 0 8
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 2 41
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
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Comments made by SHC students indicated that SHC was actively removing barriers by
building confidence in female students to participate in SciFest. During one interview, Student 2
stated that “we’re all about female empowerment. But I kind of have this belief that, you know,
guys aren’t better than girls so we should be equal and [girls are] meant to people going into
competitions “ (interview, April 17, 2018). Another student explained that “you get blinded by
the ideas of a lab coat and goggles as the only way around science”; but when you participate in
science competitions, you are able to learn about “so many areas of STEM subjects that can
be—that aren’t just confined to what’s in the textbook”(Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018).
Finally, Student 3 shared that SciFest “gives students confidence to speak to others” (interview,
April 17, 2018).
SHC had a history of being “very enthusiastic about music,” but the school has been
promoting “successes in the fields of science and SciFest” (Student 4, interview, April 17, 2018).
Another student commented that SHC “encourages students to do it [participate]” and that was
needed to increase participation “because, I mean, we’re teenagers, and we need the encourage-
ment” (Student 1, interview, April 17, 2018). School science competitions constitute another
strategy that SHC uses to actively recruit and encourage participation in SciFest. During the
school science competition, first- and second-year students “came down to see us” (Student 1,
personal communication, April 17, 2018)—which was exciting and a method for encouraging
younger students to sign up for SciFest in the following years. Student 4 appeared proud that her
science project was showcased during the school competition and stated that “people are looking
[more] at” science success and “there’s more influence in it now” (interview, April 17, 2018).
SHC Principal Mackenzie shared that SHC is a very “progressive” school committed to
“allowing girls to achieve their utmost” (interview, April 17, 2018). SHC actively publicized
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“the fact that we are very committed to STEM” (interview, April 17, 2018). Ms. Arden, the TY
program coordinator and SHC Global Women Studies teacher, shared that Scifest’s inclusivity
model broadens the horizons for students who learn to appreciate science more (interview,
April 17, 2018). At SHC, “we actively promote STEM” because “women should be doing the
same things as men” (Ms. Arden, interview, April 17, 2018).
Ms. Reid, the SHC SciFest facilitator, stated that SciFest builds “confidence, empower-
ment, and a love of science” in female students (interview, April 17, 2018). SHC “students who
do science are not labeled” (Ms. Arden, interview, April 17, 2018); there is no stigmatism to
participating in SciFest. An indicator of the STEM confidence that she mentioned happened
during SciFest when SHC students were observed taking selfies with the SciFest banner and
posting them on SnapChat
™
and Twitter
™
(Ms. Reid, interview, April 17, 2018).
According to Ms. Reid, SciFest also gave female students the confidence needed for
higher level STEM because it gives students “a huge foundation. So they’re not afraid to tackle
something that they haven’t seen before” (interview, April 17, 2018). Teacher 3 indicated that
with SciFest, “we’re trying to encourage them from as early an age as possible” to build “confi-
dence in maths” (interview, April 17, 2018). Ms. Reid also shared that SciFest gives female
students “huge satisfaction because they know more about their particular area of expertise than
their teachers or the research people that are interviewing them” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Parent interviews indicated that SHC actively recruits and encourages female students to
participate in science competitions. One SHC parent acknowledged that “there has been an
awareness here for the past number of years, and the SciFest piece fits in because it’s available to
everybody first of all, so there’s encouragement (Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018). She went
on to indicate the “number one” reason that her daughter participated in SciFest was “because she
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 162
was asked to” by school staff (Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018). Participation in science
competitions has increased students’ self esteem (Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018). Parent 1
had heard SHC students say things such as, “Wow! I was able to do that. I was able to speak to
experts in the field about something, and they were interested to hear what I had to say” (Parent 1,
interview, April 17, 2018). The confidence of female students was a result of the “very strong
leadership,” a history of “strong female science teachers,” and “strong female role models” for
the students (Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018).
Participation is science competitions was seen to be a way to change the narrative for
female students facing the challenges of traditional gender roles promoted in society. Sile Mor-
rissey, a senior executive with CRH, a leading global building materials company, stated that
if a young boy takes charge, he’s showing leadership. But if a young girl takes charge,
she’s being bossy. So, it’s from a very young age, it’s conditioned in, and it’s difficult to
condition that back out again in an education sphere. But I think it’s very true that you
will build confidence through these kind of competitions. (interview, April 18, 2018)
Finally, Mr. Simon Coveney, TD, Tánaiste, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, shared that
creating projects for science competitions gives “people self-belief” and “confidence” that they
“can change things, that they can do things” (interview, April 20, 2018).
Observational data from SHC did not support this theme. However, female students’
confidence was observed during the SciFest competition at the Cork Institute of Technology.
Female students were observed explaining their science projects to a business, political leaders,
as well as the USC Executive Cohort. One female student shared how she solicited feedback on
her project as a viable tool to support learning in third-world countries and “got a lot of good
responses from NGOs [nongovernmental organizations]” (interview, April 20, 2018).
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Theme 2: STEM–PBL Science Competitions Increase Motivation in Female Students to
Pursue Senior-Level and Third-level STEM Courses
The literature review revealed that a gender gap persists in Ireland’s workforce, with
fewer than 25% of women employed in jobs that require STEM skills (Ireland DES, 2016). One
method of cultivating female students’ interest in STEM college majors and careers was found to
be participation in STEM-related clubs in the early years of secondary education (Sahin, 2013).
Research findings in this study indicated that STEM–PBL science competitions increased
motivation in female students to pursue senior-level and third-level STEM courses.
Results indicated that 70% of SHC students surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that
SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest in enrolling in senior-level
(secondary) STEM courses. This figure was significantly higher than all students surveyed, who
were in 45% agreement that SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest in
enrolling in senior-level (secondary) STEM courses. Similarly, 63% of SHC students compared
to 43% of all students surveyed were in agreement that SciFest influenced the development of
female students’ interest in enrolling into third-level (college) STEM courses. Fifty-five percent
of SHC students surveyed compared to only 42% of all other students surveyed agreed or
strongly agreed that female students had access to female role models who influenced their
enrollment in senior-level STEM courses. Similar results were found regarding college-level
courses, with 57% of SHC students surveyed compared to only 39% of all other students sur-
veyed who agreed or strongly agreed that female students had access to female role models who
influenced their enrollment in third-level STEM courses (see Table 22).
The belief that SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest in enroll-
ing in second-level STEM courses was also supported by survey data from teachers/
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 164
Table 22
Participants’ Responses Indicating That STEM–PBL Science Competitions Increase Motivation
in Female Students to Pursue Senior-Level and Third-Level STEM Courses: St. Hayes College
(SHC) Students and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
SciFest influences the development of female students’ interest in enrolling
in senior-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 17 154
Agree 33 341
Neutral 6 195
Disagree 4 66
Strongly Disagree 0 20
I Don’t Know 11 318
Female students have access to female role models who influence their
enrollment in senior-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 14 148
Agree 25 314
Neutral 11 185
Disagree 9 83
Strongly Disagree 2 41
I Don’t Know 10 327
SciFest influences the development of female students’ interest in
enrolling into third-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 14 140
Agree 31 328
Neutral 10 205
Disagree 3 55
Strongly Disagree 1 24
I Don’t Know 12 341
Female students have access to female role models who influence their
enrollment into third-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 13 129
Agree 26 301
Neutral 10 206
Disagree 8 70
Strongly Disagree 1 30
I Don’t Know 11 363
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; PBL = project-based learn-
ing.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 165
administrators. Results indicated that 79% of SHC teachers/administrators surveyed agreed or
strongly agreed that SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest in enrolling
in senior-level (secondary) STEM courses. This figure was significantly higher than that for all
teachers/administrators, of whom 61% were in agreement that SciFest influenced the develop-
ment of female students’ interest in enrolling in senior-level (secondary) STEM courses. Simi-
larly, 86% of SHC teachers/administrators compared to 62% of all teachers/administrators
surveyed were in agreement that SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest
in enrolling into third-level (college) STEM courses. Fifty-seven percent of SHC teachers/
administrators and 55% of all teachers/administrators surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that
female students had access to female role models who influenced their enrollment in senior-level
STEM courses. Percentages were found to be slightly higher for third-level or college-level
courses, with 64% of SHC teachers/administrators surveyed compared to only 54% of all teach-
ers/administrators surveyed agreeing or strongly agreeing that female students had access to
female role models who influenced their enrollment in third-level STEM courses (see Table 23).
The belief that SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest in enroll-
ing in senior-level (secondary) STEM courses was not strongly supported by survey data from
parents. The limited number of SHC parents was taken into consideration when analyzing the
survey data. Survey data results indicated 25% of SHC parents surveyed agreed or strongly
agreed that SciFest influenced the development of female students’ interest in enrolling in
senior-level and third-level STEM courses. This figure was significantly lower than for all
parents surveyed, of whom 52% were in agreement that SciFest influenced the development of
female students’ interest in enrolling in senior-level and third-level STEM courses. Twenty-five
percent of SHC parents and 39% of all parents surveyed agreed that female students had access to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 166
Table 23
Participants’ Responses Indicating That STEM–PBL Science Competitions Increased Female
Students’ Motivation to Pursue Senior-Level and Third-Level STEM Courses: St. Hayes College
(SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
SciFest influences the development of female students’ interest
in enrolling in senior-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 5 13
Agree 6 32
Neutral 1 15
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 2 13
Female students have access to female role models who influence
their enrollment in senior-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 3 10
Agree 5 31
Neutral 3 19
Disagree 0 3
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 11
SciFest influences the development of female students’ interest
influence their participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 4 11
Agree 8 34
Neutral 1 14
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 13
Female students have access to female role models who influence
their enrollment into third-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 3 11
Agree 6 29
Neutral 2 18
Disagree 0 3
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 13
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; PBL = project-based learn-
ing.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 167
female role models who influenced their enrollment in senior-level and third-level STEM courses
(see Table 24).
Ireland’s STEM policy noted that science fairs and competitions were being underutilized
in preparing students for higher level STEM courses and careers because they were not integrated
into the curriculum or assessments (Ireland DES, 2016). Furthermore, second-level STEM
course enrollment was optional for students in Ireland (Ireland DES, 2016). Qualitative data
from interviews with all stakeholders supported the belief that STEM–PBL science competitions
increased motivation in female students to pursue senior-level and third-level STEM courses.
Interviews with students indicated that participation in SciFest prepared them for STEM Leaving
Certificate Exams by increasing their motivation to enroll in secondary STEM courses. A state-
ment from one student indicated that participation in SciFest “helps with choosing what you want
to do for Leaving Cert—you know, like, if I hadn’t done SciFest, I might not have chosen biology
to do for Leaving Certificate” (Student 3, interview, April 17, 2018). Student 1 noted that by
participating in SciFest, “you’re putting STEM subjects into your life, and you’re getting a feel
for what it would be like, in practical terms, and not just in a textbook (interview, April 17,
2018). She went on to share that SciFest gives students “the chance to feel [science] at a whole
other college level than what you’re doing, just inside the textbook” (Student 1, interview,
April 17, 2018). A 6th-year student preparing for the upcoming Leaving Certificate STEM
subject exams stated that “when I did the [SciFest] project, it kind of made me realize that it is
something that I really liked to do” (Student 2, interview, April 17, 2018). Student 5 remarked
that “SciFest influenced what I picked for my Senior Cycle subjects” and “it’s also kind of made
me choose to do zoology at third level” (interview, April 17, 2018). Students also indicated that
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 168
Table 24
Participants’ Responses Indicating That STEM–PBL Science Competitions Increase Motivation
in Female Students Pursue Senior-Level and Third-Level STEM Courses: St. Hayes College
(SHC) Parents and All Parents
SHC All
Survey item and response categories parents parents
SciFest influences the development of female students’ interest in enrolling
in senior-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 1 14
Agree 0 37
Neutral 1 9
Disagree 0 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 2 36
Female students have access to female role models who influence their
enrollment in senior-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 1 10
Agree 0 28
Neutral 1 12
Disagree 0 5
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 2 43
SciFest influences the development of female students’ interest in enrolling
into third-level STEM courses.
Strongly Agree 1 14
Agree 0 37
Neutral 0 9
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 37
My school actively employs strategies to increase female
students’ participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 1 10
Agree 0 28
Neutral 0 12
Disagree 0 5
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 3 43
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; PBL = project-based learn-
ing.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 169
participation in SciFest was helpful with college applications because “you can put it down in a
CV [curriculum vitae]—it’s good to have there” (Student 4, interview, April 17, 2018).
Liberal feminist theory advocates equal opportunity for women through the removal of
educational barriers within schools, including policies and practices that discriminate against
female students (Acker, 1987). Comments made by SHC students indicated that female students
at SHC recognized existing barriers to pursuing STEM education. Student 6 shared that one of
the greatest challenges is access or opportunities to learn that
we don’t have a technology option here, and I know some of the other schools don’t have
the engineering one there and we don’t, so I feel like not having the access to it in the
school would be the biggest barrier. (interview, April 17, 2018)
Access to applied mathematics within the school day was another barrier that SHC
students faced. According to Teacher 3, there were
a couple of subjects that they can do as an eighth subject extra, but they do it outside of
school hours. Applied maths being one of them. But if pupils choose to take that eighth
subject, the extra work load is on them really. (interview, April 17, 2018)
SHC teachers and administrators are aware of the barriers and intentionally implemented
SciFest to increase enrollment in second-level STEM courses. By offering SciFest as a choice
activity, SHC has seen the percentage of girls selecting second level STEM classes increase to
70% (Ms. Arden, April 17, 2018). Participation in SciFest gives students “an opportunity to
engage in subjects that they may not have considered”; and “if we could get the TYs interested,
we would then see a huge, better uptake in chemistry and physics in the Leaving Certificate”
(Teacher 2, interview, April 17, 2018).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 170
The real-world application of science was seen as a motivation for students to pursue
STEM second- and third-level courses and influence career choices. One way that teachers
perceive that SciFest influences second- and third-level STEM courses is because students
go out into the real world and do experiments. They get to see what it is like to be real
scientists rather than just sitting and looking at a book or doing the experiments that we
have to do mandatory in the classroom. It’s a fantastic opportunity to get into the real
world and see what it’s really like to be a scientist. So, it has influenced them in their
decision towards careers. (Teacher 2, interview, April 17, 2018)
Parents’ interviews indicated that participation in SciFest provide students with “a great
insight to whether you’ll be interested in science long term” (Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018).
Participation in SciFest “definitely increases” students interest in STEM and “shows them
potential career paths,” stated Parent 2 (interview, April 17, 2018).
The Director of Research and Innovation for Trinity College, Leonard Hobbs, indicated
that he was looking at students “who are doing chemistry at the moment, and they were all
involved in SciFest” (interview, April 16, 2018). Interview data collected from representatives of
MNCs also indicated that STEM–PBL science competitions increase motivation in female
students to pursue senior-level and third-level STEM courses. Ciara Hayes, Corporate Social
Responsibility Specialist at Abbott, stated that
SciFest really just opens your eyes to like science as a possibility as a career and a really
solid possibility. And by having our employees and a medical company and other medi-
cal companies sponsor SciFest, it really shows that the STEM college and career choices
are a great career choice. (interview, April 20, 2018)
Observational data from SHC did not support this theme.
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Findings for Research Question 4
The literature review indicated that lower labor costs, increased telecommunications, low
corporate tax rates, available labor, and the potential for growth have resulted in more and more
American and European MNCs taking advantage of the global economy by outsourcing signifi-
cant research and development tasks (Friedman, 2007; IMF, 2003). Ireland, purposefully capital-
ized on globalization by adopting economic policies advocating free trade and foreign investment
(Andreosso-O’Callaghan et al., 2016). The country thrived under the new economic policy until
the worldwide financial crisis in 2008.
After recovering from the financial crisis, Ireland developed economic and educational
policies focused on providing long-term economic security for the country. Political leaders in
Ireland recognized the need to refine labor policies and improve labor skills, which required
better alignment of educational pathways with corporate needs (Giustiniani et al., 2017). Based
on the desire to attract and sustain investment by MNCs from STEM industry sectors propelled
Ireland to implement a new STEM education policy focused on providing MNCs with highly
skilled STEM labor. The STEM policy identified student participation in SciFest and PBL as a
method for increasing participation and interest for higher level STEM courses and careers
(Ireland DES, 2016).
Research Question 4 asked, “What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students,
civic leaders, college/university professors, and MNCs have regarding the value of student
participation in SciFest?” From the research, two important themes emerged. The first theme
indicated that STEM–PBL science competitions help to develop 21st-century skills. The second
theme was a belief that STEM PBL provides students with the skills needed to compete in a
global economy.
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Theme 1: Belief That STEM PBL Science Competitions Help to Develop 21st-Century
Skills
The literature review indicated that the explosion of technology, innovation, and the
global economy created a demand to equip students with 21st-century skills. Students must be
able to learn through trial and error, take initiative, collaborate, and understand how to solve
problems through interdisciplinary approaches in order to be successful in the global economy
(Wagner, 2017). Finding ways to explicitly teach students to develop these skills can be chal-
lenging for educators. Implementing a constructivist approach to instruction, such as PBL, has
been found to be one method for accomplishing this task (Pryor & Kang, 2013; Slavit et al.,
2016).
The literature review indicated that STEM PBL is a challenging, ill-defined task that
requires students to think critically and analytically and enhances higher order thinking skills
(Capraro & Slough, 2013). STEM PBL increases students’ ability to collaborate, communicate,
problem solve, and innovate while showcasing students’ mastery of several concepts of various
STEM subjects (Top et al., 2015). Recommendations for STEM education in Irish school system
(Ireland DES, 2016) included revising the country’s STEM curricula to include PBL and IBL,
such as SciFest.
The research findings from surveys, interviews, and observations supported the belief that
STEM–PBL science competitions help to develop 21st-century skills. At SHC 83% of students
surveyed compared to 69% of all students surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that students
benefit from participation in SciFest. Successful STEM careers require students participate in
STEM education. Survey data indicated that 70% of SHC students, compared to only 55% of all
students surveyed, agreed or strongly agreed that Scifest participation enhanced STEM
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educational development for students. Data indicated that 77% of SHC students and 68% of all
students agreed or strongly agreed that SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop
21st-century skills (see Table 25).
Table 25
Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That STE–PBL Science Competitions Develop 21st-
Century Skills: St. Hayes College (SHC) Students and All Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 24 248
Agree 31 498
Neutral 9 149
Disagree 1 57
Strongly Disagree 1 16
I Don’t Know 5 122
Students benefit from participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 29 309
Agree 30 435
Neutral 7 163
Disagree 2 39
Strongly Disagree 0 24
I Don’t Know 3 113
SciFest participation enhances STEM educational development in
students.
Strongly Agree 14 162
Agree 35 438
Neutral 9 222
Disagree 3 49
Strongly Disagree 0 17
I Don’t Know 9 195
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; PBL = project-based learn-
ing.
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Survey data collected from teachers and administrators also supported a belief that
STEM–PBL science competitions develop 21st-century skills. Data indicated that 100% of SHC
teachers/administrators and 100% of all teachers/administrators surveyed agreed or strongly
agreed that students benefitted from participation in SciFest. One hundred percent of the SHC
teachers/administrators and 99% of all teachers/administrators surveyed were in agreement that
SciFest provided opportunities for students to develop 21st-century skills. SHC teachers/admin-
istrators clearly recognized the connection between 21st-century skills and the global economy.
Data indicated that 93% of SHC teachers/administrators and 93% of all teachers/administrators
surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that Scifest participation enhanced STEM educational devel-
opment in students (see Table 26).
Survey data results from all other stakeholders supported a belief that STEM–PBL
science competitions develop 21st-century skills. Data indicated that 87% of all parents surveyed
were in agreement that students benefitted from participation in SciFest; 85% of all parents
surveyed and 50% of SHC parents were in agreement that SciFest provided opportunities for
students to develop 21st-century skills.
Survey data from policy makers and MNC representatives indicated that 100% were in
agreement that students benefitted from participating in SciFest. One hundred percent of policy
makers and MNC representatives surveyed indicated agreement that STEM–PBL science compe-
titions develop 21st-century skills. Similarly, results indicated that 100% of MNCs and policy
makers were in agreement that SciFest participation enhanced STEM educational development in
students (see Table 27).
The demand for knowledge-based workers has made it critical for students to develop a
deep conceptual understanding of concepts, to apply knowledge to solve a wide range of complex
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Table 26
Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That STEM–PBL Science Competitions Develop 21st-
Century Skills: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administrators and All Teachers/Administra-
tors
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop 21st-
century skills.
Strongly Agree 6 35
Agree 8 39
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
SciFest participation enhances STEM educational development
in students.
Strongly Agree 6 34
Agree 7 36
Neutral 1 2
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 2
Students benefit from participation in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 10 52
Agree 4 22
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; PBL = project-based learn-
ing.
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Table 27
Participants’ Responses Indicating Belief That STEM–PBL Science Competitions Develop 21st-
Century Skills
Policymakers/MNC
Survey item and response categories representatives SHC parents All parents
SciFest provides opportunities to students to
develop 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 3 2 23
Agree 2 0 58
Neutral 0 0 3
Disagree 0 1 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 1 8
Students benefit from participation in
SciFest.
Strongly Agree 4 1 38
Agree 1 0 45
Neutral 0 1 3
Disagree 0 1 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1 8
SciFest participation enhances STEM edu-
cational development in students.
Strongly Agree 3 1 22
Agree 2 0 51
Neutral 0 2 12
Disagree 0 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1 8
Note. MNC = multinational corporation; SHC = St. Hayes College, pseudonym for researcher’s
assigned school; STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
problems, to construct viable arguments, and to communicate reasoning (Conley et al., 2008). A
review of the interview data from all stakeholders also supported the belief that STEM–PBL
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science competitions develop 21st-century skills. The interview data collected from students
indicated support for the survey data. Student 1 noted that she found participating in SciFest to
be beneficial because she was engaged in “creating new, innovative ideas,” (interview, April 17,
2018). Student 3 shared that participation in STEM PBL “gives students” the opportunity to
critically think or “to prove things and prove a project that you want to do or have ideas about
stuff” (interview, April 17, 2018). She also shared that SciFest “gives them confidence to talk
and helps with their communication skills (Student 3, interview, April 17, 2018).
Students developed collaboration skills by interacting with other students, staff members,
volunteers, business members, and university professors. Student 4 remarked that participation
in SciFest “teach[es] us working with others, cooperation” (interview, April 17, 2018). Collabo-
ration was also noted by Student 6, who noted that there was “a lot of teamwork there and with
our teacher as well” (interview, April 17, 2018). Student 5 acknowledged that collaboration
could be challenging: “There was times when it was hard to work with each other” (interview,
April 17, 2018).
Students’ interview data revealed that the use of technology during SciFest was a method
for developing 21st-century skills. “A big part of SciFest for us was the technology—the whole
project is based on technology” (Student 5, interview, April 17, 2018). Despite being a hub of
technology MNCs, SHC had only one set of 35 iPads
®
for student use in science. This was seen
as a barrier for STEM education for girls and was an essential part of SciFest, as stated by
Student 5: “I think a big aspect you cannot continue to ignore: the technology” (interview,
April 17, 2018). While there is a need to increase access to technology at SHC, the survey and
interview data indicated that students accessed technology through the use of school iPads, local
businesses, and universities.
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Interview data collected from teachers and administrators recognized that participation in
STEM–PBL science competitions developed 21st-century skills. “It gets them away from the rote
learning system,” and “it gives them experience with coming up with their own problem and
trying to find their own solution. So, it’s a big thing for problem solving” (Teacher 3, interview,
April 17, 2018). Interview data indicated that SciFest provided students with the opportunity to
learn science at an increased depth of knowledge compared to the classroom curriculum: “It’s
scientific methodology, but combined with problem solving which they don’t get exposed to as
much with that curriculum” (Teacher 3, interview, April 17, 2018). SHC Principal Mackenzie
noted that students who participate in SciFest “developed this independence of thought, the
ability to work independently, to work in teams, to take responsibility” (interview, April 17,
2018). He further stated that students are “learning to prepare a project, learning to work in a
group, learning how to meet deadlines” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Reflecting on how SciFest develops communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and
creativity, if at all, Ms. Reid responded that students
are collaborating with each other because they are in groups. And they’re also communi-
cating and collaborating with their teacher on a different level as well, because it’s a
different type of task. So they are interacting differently—it’s not a teacher-led exercise
like much of the curriculum is. (interview, April 17, 2018)
The development of communication skills was shared as one of the primary strengths of
student participation in SciFest. Students learned
to communicate and to make sense when debating a topic because not alone do they have
to do the project, get the hypothesis, test it scientifically and all that kind of stuff is a
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given, but then they have to get up and explain. (SHC Principal Mackenzie, interview,
April 17, 2018)
Principal Mackenzie further noted that students are required to present their projects “in front of a
stranger that puts the pressure on them that they don’t want to sound silly or stupid or not, so they
accept pressurized preparation for a stranger” (interview, April 17, 2018).
A female dentist and classroom volunteer also commented that SciFest developed 21st-
century skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, adaptability, and perseverance. She
indicated that students were learning how to critically think and shared that it was “probably the
most important thing” that students get from participating in SciFest as they “learn to question”
(Parent 1, interview, April 17, 2018). Parent 1 continued:
It makes them think on their own feet, and they have to come up with the problem them-
selves. They have to figure out how they’re going to research it and figure out the answer
hopefully and make mistakes at it and realize the mistakes. (interview, April 17, 2018)
Interview data from political leaders and parents also supported the theme that participa-
tion in STEM–PBL science competitions developed 21st-century skills. Simon Coveney TD,
Tánaiste, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, stated that students’ SciFest projects show that
they “are trying to solve problems in Africa, as well as trying to solve problems in Cork, and
that’s a good thing” (interview, April 20, 2018). Ms. Morrissey, a senior executive with CRH,
Inc., contended that at the executive level, “your qualification originally in engineering, in
mathematics, in accounting, in whatever you did, is much less relevant at that level. So it’s
actually adaptability and flexibility and collaboration” (interview, April 18, 2018). This opinion
was reiterated by her human resources colleague, who stated that “flexibility, resilience, being
able to problem solve, and overall just being innovative and being able to create value” are
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characteristics “that are highly sought after” when hiring employees (CRH, Speaker 1, interview,
April 18, 2018).
Although three classrooms were observed, support of the belief that participation in
STEM–PBL science competitions developed 21st-century skills was evidenced in only one
classroom where students were actively engaged in collaborative groups for 25 minutes, discuss-
ing linear sequences and equations.
Theme 2: Belief That Participation in Science Competitions Provided Students With Skills
Needed to Compete in a Global Economy
The literature review revealed that STEM education is a vital component of the economic
future of many nations (Top et al., 2015). Ireland’s economic ambitions require a labor force
with expertise in STEM subjects to support innovation, future prosperity, and to negate the threat
of the country’s projected 40,000 STEM jobs by the year 2022 (Ireland DES, 2016). Research
suggested that students who participated in science competitions matriculated to postsecondary
STEM majors at a higher percentage, developed increased science content knowledge, better
understood experimental design, and had improved verbal and written communication (Sahin,
2013; Schmidt & Kelter, 2017). Ireland’s STEM educational policy identified STEM–PBL
science competitions such as SciFest as a method for developing a highly qualified STEM
workforce, able to compete globally (Ireland DES, 2016).
In this study, the research findings supported the belief that STEM PBL provided students
with the skills needed to compete in a global economy. Survey data indicated 74% of SHC
students agreed that participation in SciFest showcased the skills needed to obtain careers in
STEM fields. SHC students agreed at significantly higher percentage than all students surveyed,
who were only in 55% agreement that participation in SciFest demonstrated the skills needed to
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obtain careers in STEM fields. Survey data indicated that 58% of SHC students and 52% of all
students agreed that SciFest provided opportunities to develop the skills required in a global
economy. Additionally, survey data indicated that 31% of SHC students and 25% of all students
were neutral or did not know whether SciFest provided opportunities to develop the skills needed
in a global economy. Finally, survey data indicated that 47% of SHC and 32% of all students
agreed or strongly agreed that MNCs were important partners in SciFest (see Table 28).
Survey data from teachers/administrators were found to strongly support that participation
in science competitions provided students with the skills needed to compete in a global economy.
Findings from data collected indicated that 100% of SHC teachers/administrators and 96% of all
teachers/administrators surveyed were in agreement that participants in SciFest demonstrated the
skills needed to obtain careers in STEM fields. Additionally, survey data indicated that 93% of
SHC teachers/administrators and 92% of all teachers/administrators were in agreement that
SciFest provided opportunities for students to develop skills needed in a global economy. SHC
teachers/administrators recognized the value of MNCs’ support for preparing students to compete
in a global economy. Results indicated that 79% of the SHC teachers/administrators surveyed
compared to only 55% of all teachers/administrators surveyed agreed that MNCs were important
partners in SciFest (see Table 29).
Survey data from all stakeholders were in alignment with the belief that participation in
science competitions provided students with the skills needed to compete in a global economy.
Although there were a limited number of SHC parents who completed surveys, data from those
surveyed indicated that participation in science competitions provided students with the skills
needed to compete in a global economy. Of the parents surveyed, 50% of SHC and 76% of all
parents were in agreement that students’ participation in SciFest demonstrated the skills needed
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Table 28
Responses Indicating Belief That Participation in Science Competitions Provides Students With
Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy: St. Hayes College (SHC) Students and All
Students
SHC All
Survey item and response categories students students
Participants in SciFest demonstrate skills needed to obtain careers in
STEM fields.
Strongly Agree 19 180
Agree 33 413
Neutral 11 215
Disagree 2 54
Strongly Disagree 0 21
I Don’t Know 5 198
SciFest provides opportunities to develop skills needed in a global
economy.
Strongly Agree 12 165
Agree 29 395
Neutral 13 245
Disagree 6 80
Strongly Disagree 2 28
I Don’t Know 9 166
MNCs are an important partner in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 7 103
Agree 25 244
Neutral 14 226
Disagree 0 44
Strongly Disagree 2 17
I Don’t Know 22 442
Note. SHC = St. Hayes College, pseudonym for researchers’ assigned school; STEM = science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics; MNC = multinational corporation.
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Table 29
Responses Indicating Belief That Participation in Science Competitions Provided Students With
Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy: St. Hayes College (SHC) Teachers/Administra-
tors and All Teachers/Administrators
SHC teachers/ All teachers/
Survey item and response categories administrators administrators
Participants in SciFest demonstrate skills needed to obtain
careers in STEM fields.
Strongly Agree 6 34
Agree 8 38
Neutral 0 1
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1
SciFest provides opportunities to develop skills needed in a
global economy.
Strongly Agree 5 32
Agree 8 37
Neutral 1 4
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1
MNCs are an important partner in SciFest.
Strongly Agree 5 21
Agree 6 20
Neutral 1 12
Disagree 0 6
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 2 13
Note. SHC = St. Hayes College, pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school; STEM = science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics; MNC = multinational corporation.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 184
to obtain careers in STEM fields. Of the parents surveyed, 50% of SHC and 72% of all parents
were in agreement that SciFest provided opportunities to develop the skills needed in a global
economy.
Despite the limited number of surveys collected from MNCs and policy makers, data
indicated that those surveyed were in 100% agreement that participation in SciFest demonstrated
the skills needed to obtain careers in STEM fields. Additionally, data indicated that 80% of the
policy leaders and MNC representatives surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that SciFest provided
opportunities for students to develop the skills needed in a global economy (see Table 30).
Research found that students’ interest and pursuit of STEM careers was nurtured by
participation in STEM-related clubs during the early years of secondary education (Sahin, 2013).
In this study, data collected from interviews with all stakeholders supported the belief that par-
ticipation in science competitions provided students with the skills needed to compete in a global
economy. Students indicated that participation in SciFest gave them skills that supported their
college and career choices. During an interview with Student 1, she shared that participation in
SciFest “completely makes you set on for something in college, and a career” (interview,
April 17, 2015). Student 5 shared that participating in SciFest developed qualities such as
“thinking outside the box” and “thinking for themselves,” which she believed were “a quality that
a lot of people want for their employees” (interview, April 17, 2018). She further noted that
participating in Scifest “kind of made me choose to do zoology at third level” (interview,
April 17, 2018).
The belief that participation in science competitions provided students with the skills
needed to compete in a global economy was echoed by teachers and administrators. “We have to
create kids that can think for themselves, so if you create kids that think for themselves, it has to
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Table 30
Responses Indicating Belief That Participation in Science Competitions Provides Students With
the Skills Needed to Compete in a Global Economy
Policymakers/MNC
Survey item and response categories representatives SHC parents All parents
Participants in SciFest demonstrate skills
needed to obtain careers in STEM fields.
Strongly Agree 3 0 14
Agree 2 2 57
Neutral 0 1 10
Disagree 0 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1 11
SciFest provides opportunities to develop
skills needed in a global economy.
Strongly Agree 3 1 21
Agree 1 1 47
Neutral 0 0 8
Disagree 0 1 3
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 1 15
Note. MNC = multinational corporation; SHC = St. Hayes College, pseudonym for researcher’s
assigned school; STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
correlate economically” (Teacher 2, interview, April 17, 2018). One of the reasons that SHC
promoted SciFest participation was because
I think, our future economically is going to be very much driven by research development,
STEM type careers. The very traditional jobs that existed in Ireland are going to disap-
pear. It’s started already, so this is where our future and our economy is going to be. This
is where the future jobs for the young people who are in school now are going to be.
(Principal Mackenzie, interview April 17, 2018)
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The economic impact of MNCs on Ireland’s economy and students’ future careers was
evident in the interviews with teachers and administrators. Teachers expressed that in order to
maintain MNCs in Ireland, it was necessary to “have a skilled workforce” (Ms. Reid, interview,
April 17, 2018). One of the reasons for participating in SciFest was to “peak” students’ “interest”
and motivate them to “love science—that if they can follow that through, that they’ll go on and
do careers and that these companies will stay in our country” (Ms. Reid, interview, April 17,
2018). Ms. Reid further noted that
Intel and all the social media hogs, they’re all here now because of our skilled workforce.
So all we’re trying to do is reinforce that and make sure that the workforce stays the same
so more of those of companies will hopefully, well, they’ll stay in the country, and more
companies will come in. (interview, April 17, 2018)
The opinion that participation in science competitions provided students with the skills
needed to compete in a global economy was reiterated by parents, policy makers, and MNC
representatives. Parent 1 indicated that science competitions increase students’ interest in STEM
careers and “shows them potential career paths” (interview, April 17, 2018).
Mr. Simon Coveney TD, Tánaiste, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade shared that
Ireland wants to be, and is, a global country, in terms of how it thinks, and we need to try
and train people to maintain and grow that—so from that point of view, these kinds of
competitions and project-driven events, I think, are—are about broadening the mind.
(Political Leader 1, interview, April 20, 2018)
Finally, representatives from MNCs shared how STEM education and science competi-
tions were “seen as absolutely crucial to the future” economic prosperity of Ireland (MNC CRH
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 187
Speaker 2, interview, April 18, 2018). This opinion was reiterated by Dairmund O’Connor from
Eli Lilly:
In southern Ireland, pharmaceutical and biochemistry and the bio-industry is a big em-
ployer and there’s a lot of the big companies are here. Those people, those companies
aren’t here unless they’ve got the right people and they’ve got an educated workforce and
workforce who have a good education and know how to express themselves and that’s—
you know, if you are going to maintain that, you need these people, and that’s what is
going to drive that really. (interview, April 20, 2018)
Finally, a human resources representative at CRH shared that
the toughest thing for us [is] to go out to market and meet candidates and they’re fantastic
and they may have all the right hard skills and have taken all the right classes, but at the
end of the day your success comes down to your soft skills [skills that students develop by
participating in science competitions]. (interview, April 18, 2018)
Observational data from SHC did not support this theme.
Chapter Summary
The data analysis in this research study included stakeholders’ responses to surveys,
interviews, as well as onsite observations. Six theoretical frameworks were used to support the
analysis of the data: (a) Acker’s (1987) feminist theory, (b) Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four
frames of leadership, (c) Friedman’s (2007) theory of globalization, (d) the design principles for
STEM and PBL developed by Slough and Milam (2013), (e) Spring’s (2008) world culture, and
(f) Wagner's (2008a) 21st-century skills. Two themes emerged around each of the four research
questions. A review of the pertinent literature provided background for each of the themes.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 188
In response to Research Question 1, two themes emerged from the data collected. The
first theme indicated that students’ participation in science competitions develops 21st-century
skills that prepare them for STEM subject matter exams on the Leaving Certificate. Students
engaged in PBL science competitions develop problem-solving skills, learn to be more open
minded, remember what they learn longer, and perform better on standard achievement tests than
non-PBL students (Fallik et al., 2008). School leaders and teachers employed strategies to
implement STEM PBL that showcased students’ mastery of several concepts of various STEM
subjects (Capraro & Slough, 2013). The second theme from the data collected was the belief that
school leaders and teachers employed strategies to encourage students’ participation in science
competitions to support students’ success on state examinations.
In response to Research Question 2, two themes emerged. The first theme was that
school leadership was a positive influence on SciFest participation. Researchers have noted the
importance for high school administrators, counselors, and teachers to strike a balance between
developing students’ STEM skills and encouraging positive attitudes toward STEM-related
activities (AAUW, Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender, and Teacher
Education, 2000; Crombie et al., 2002; Woodrow, 1994). Effective leaders must implement a
comprehensive approach to organizational change by examining goals from structural, human
resources, political and symbolic perspectives (Bolman & Deal, 2003). The second theme to
emerge was school leadership aligns resources to influence participation in STEM PBL (SciFest
competitions).
In response to Research Question 3 two themes emerged. The first theme to emerge from
the data collected indicated schools that actively recruit and encourage female students to partici-
pate in science competitions build STEM confidence in female students. Research suggests
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 189
female students' interest in pursuing and persisting in STEM majors increases when barriers such
as expectations, supports, and increased self-efficacy are addressed (Hardin & Longhurst, 2016).
Furthermore, students interest in STEM education and careers was found to be cultivated by
participation in STEM-related clubs (Sahin, 2013). The second theme to emerge from the data
collection indicated STEM PBL science competitions increase motivation in female students to
pursue senior-level and third-level STEM courses. Literature supporting the theme indicates
students who participate in science fairs and competitions matriculate to postsecondary STEM
majors at a higher percentage (Sahin, 2013, Schmidt & Kelter, 2017).
Data collected around Research Question 4 yielded two themes. The first theme indicated
STEM PBL science competitions develop 21st Century Skills. Relevant literature supporting this
theme indicates science fairs and competitions were found to be effective for developing 21st-
century world citizenship, critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, innovation, communica-
tion, and collaboration (Top et al., 2015). The second theme to emerge was a belief that STEM
PBL provides students the skills needed to compete in a Global Economy. Relevant literature
supporting this theme indicates students need to learn through trial and error, take initiative,
collaborate, persist, and understand and solve problems through interdisciplinary approaches for
successful careers in the global economy (Wagner, 2017).
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Chapter Five: Summary, Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions
Seeking to capitalize on the growing global market, Ireland adopted economic policies
advocating free trade and FDI (Andreosso-O’Callaghan et al., 2016). The subsequent influx of
MNCs taking advantage of Ireland’s low corporate tax rates, low cost of labor, and skilled work-
force became the cornerstone of Ireland’s economic and educational policies. Ireland’s aggres-
sive approach to secure FDI and MNCs successfully catapulted Ireland into an economic power-
house. The country’s FDI policies were challenged but remained intact after the worldwide
financial crisis of 2008.
Ireland’s educational systems, structures, and pathways are transforming to ensure a
continuous pipeline of talented, knowledge-based workers with 21st-century skills to meet the
needs of MNCs (Giustiniani et al., 2017; Ireland DES, 2016). Facing a projected 40,000 ICT job
gap by 2020 and recognizing that MNCs are dependent on the quality and quantity of STEM
graduates, Ireland adopted a STEM educational policy that recognized the persistence of a STEM
gender gap (Ireland DES, 2016). A critical component of the new STEM educational policy was
to address the job and gender gap by developing 21st-century skills through IBL (Ireland DES,
2016). The STEM policy advocated the use of science competitions to engage students in
authentic problem solving around real-world problems and to provide students with the opportu-
nity to develop 21st-century skills (Ireland DES, 2016).
This convergent parallel mixed-method research study combined qualitative and quantita-
tive data to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem (Creswell, 2014). This
study explored the relationship of school leaders, curriculum, instruction, assessments, and
science competitions with respect to the development of 21st-century skills. The study explored
the influence of science competitions on female students’ STEM course enrollment at the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 191
secondary level and higher education. The purpose of this study was to understand the influence
of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills through imple-
mentation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in the SciFest
science competition. This study also examined how school leadership has influenced student
participation in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate Exam.
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. The first chapter presented an overview of
the background of the study and a statement of the problem. The chapter included the four
research questions that guided the study:
1. How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the Leaving Certificate
Examination?
2. How does school leadership influence participation in SciFest?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses?
4. What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/
university professors, and MNCs have regarding the value of student participation in SciFest?
The importance of the study, limitations and delimitations, as well as definitions of key terms
used throughout the dissertation were included in Chapter One.
The second chapter provided a review and synthesis of literature around the major topics
of the study, including globalization, the flattening phenomenon, economy, education, STEM,
gender, and leadership. Chapter Two concluded with a summary of the literature and presenta-
tion of the six theoretical frameworks used to assist with analyzing the data: (a) Acker’s (1987)
feminist theory, (b) Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four frames of leadership, (c) Friedman’s (2007)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 192
theory of globalization, (d) the design principles for STEM and PBL developed by Slough and
Milam (2013), (e) Spring’s (2008) world culture, and (f) Wagner’s (2008a) 21st-century skills.
Chapter Three presented an overview of the methodology and research design used for the
study. A description of the mixed-method research approach with primarily qualitative data was
included in the chapter, along with significant components of the research design: explanation of
the research team, population and sample, instrumentation, data collection and analysis methods,
threats to validity, credibility, and trustworthiness, as well as ethical considerations.
Chapter Four presented the results and findings of the data collection. The chapter was
organized by research questions and themes. Two themes emerged around each of the four
research questions. Chapter Five summarizes the findings of this study, identifies limitations not
previously discussed in Chapter One, and provides implications for practice and future research
considerations.
Summary of Findings
The analysis of the survey, interview, and observational data collected resulted in the
emergence of eight themes related to the study’s four research questions. A summary and dis-
cussion of the study’s findings in relation to current practice are included in this section.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question One was designed to examine how schools implement PBL, such as
science competitions, while preparing students for traditional state examinations. The traditional
format of the Leaving Certificate subject examinations posed challenges for school leaders, who
were attempting to increase enrollment in higher level STEM courses and to implement 21st-
century learning through science competitions and PBL. The perceived difficulty of STEM
subjects Leaving Certificate Exams create a disincentive for students to take STEM subjects or to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 193
study mathematics at higher levels in secondary schools. Understanding how schools implement-
ing science competitions are preparing for high-stake exams is critical to the country’s goal of
producing a highly skilled STEM labor force.
An analysis of the survey, interview, and observational data yielded the emergence of two
themes. The first theme was the belief that participation in science competitions helps to develop
21st-century skills that prepare students for STEM subject matter exams on the Leaving Certifi-
cate. Quantitative and qualitative research data from all stakeholders indicated a positive correla-
tion between students developing 21st-century skills students and participating in SciFest. The
opinions of the stakeholders were supported by pertinent literature indicating that PBL empha-
sizes 21st-century skills by engaging students in good discussions as they develop a deeper
understanding of the content necessary for success both in college and the 21st-century workforce
(Wagner, 2008a). Implementing a constructivist approach to instruction, such as PBL, to develop
21st-century skills and a deeper conceptual understanding was further supported by the work of
Slough and Milam (2013).
The second theme to emerge from the data collected was the belief that school leaders and
teachers employed strategies to encourage students’ participation in science competitions to
support their success on state examinations. Students were able to showcase mastery of several
concepts of various STEM subjects by solving real-world problems by engaging in STEM–PBL
activities (Capraro & Slough, 2013). With the rapid rate of globalization and technology innova-
tions, traditional leadership strategies no longer work (Belasco & Stayer, 2008). School leaders
positively influenced student participation in STEM PBL by implementing strategies including
common planning, professional development, technology, instructional materials, schoolwide
recognition programs and promoting STEM PBL on social media (see Table 9). In order to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 194
change traditional ways of teaching and recruiting students for higher level STEM courses,
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) work supports developing complex, cooperative relationships among
a number of people to get things done. Additional research by Bolman and Deal (2013) supports
school leadership working with teachers to encourage students to participate in SciFest on “the
premise that a highly motivated and skilled workforce is a powerful competitive advantage” (p.
135).
The nearly instantaneous availability of information, the impact of social media and
technology on students, and how they learn have significant implications for curriculum, instruc-
tion, assessment, student engagement, professional development, and leadership (Wagner,
2008a).
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How does school leadership influence participation in
SciFest?” From the data analysis two themes emerged. The first theme indicated that school
leadership was a positive influence on SciFest participation. The data collected showed that all
stakeholders agreed that SHC leadership was a positive influence on SciFest participation.
Positive influences included promotion, student recognition, school competitions, alignment of
limited resources, and support. Interview data strongly supported that school leadership was a
positive influence on students’ participation in SciFest. One student explained how she was one
of the “lucky ones” because the principal was willing to “try it” and “see how it does benefit the
girls” (Student 5, interview, April 17, 2018). Relevant literature indicated that leadership
requires high levels of creativity to address challenges, ambiguities, and paradoxes (Bolman &
Deal, 2013). School leaders often find that there is no task more important than nourishing the
extraordinary potential in all students (Bolman & Deal, 2002). Bernard Capraro, Silicon
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 195
Technology Research Manager at Intel, stated that each year “the same schools do well—why?
School leadership” (interview, April 16, 2018).
The second theme indicated by the data collection was that school leadership has aligned
resources to influence participation in STEM PBL. SHC stakeholders recognized the challenge
with which SHC school leaders were faced when dealing with scarce resources including time,
money, technology, materials, and supplies. The data indicated that all SHC stakeholders
strongly agreed that school leadership has aligned resources to influence participation in STEM
PBL. Schools are coalitions of individuals and groups with enduring differences and scarce
resources, thus placing power and conflict at the center of organizational decision making
(Bolman & Deal, 2013). This situation was evident in parent interviews that indicated that
school leadership helped with the “availability of resources, both teaching, parental supports,
school, and access to universities around the country” (SHC Parent 2, interview, April 17, 2018).
Effective leaders implement a comprehensive approach to organizational change by
examining it from structural, human resources, political, and symbolic perspectives (Bolman &
Deal, 2013). Leaders who examine the alignment of organizational goals and situations from
multiple perspectives are able to better understand the needs of students, teachers, and the school.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How does participation in SciFest influence female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level and third-level STEM courses?” From the data analysis,
two themes emerged. The first theme indicated that schools that actively recruit and encourage
female students to participate in science competitions build STEM confidence in these female
students. This was the strongest theme to emerge; one parent even stated that her daughter
participated in SciFest “because she was asked” (SHC Parent 2, interview, April 18, 2018). This
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 196
theme was supported by research on liberal feminist theory indicating that strategies to change
the narrative for female students include the removal of identified barriers, analyzing curriculum
and materials for gender bias, persuading girls not to drop STEM courses, teacher training, and
assertiveness training (Acker, 1987). One SHC parent acknowledged that “STEM was tradition-
ally probably be more focused on, particularly engineering, in male-dominated schools” (Parent
2, interview, April 17, 2018). Attempting to address the STEM gender gap, Ireland is in the
process of adopting educational policies targeted at transforming educational programs and
practices to address gender equity (Ireland DES, 2018b).
The second theme to emerge from the data collection indicated that STEM–PBL science
competitions increase motivation in female students to pursue senior-level and third-level STEM
courses. Female students often face barriers to pursuing STEM education. In this study the fol-
lowing barriers were identified: technology and availability of higher level STEM courses
including engineering, coding, and applied mathematics within the school day. Additionally,
traditional gender biases and teacher expectations were indicated by Teacher 3’s comment,
“Females just don’t seem to be as interested” in higher level math and physics classes (interview,
April 17, 2018). This theme was supported by relevant research indicating that participation in
STEM-related clubs in the early years of secondary education was found to cultivate students’
interest in STEM and interest in pursuing STEM fields as a profession (Sahin, 2013). Despite the
barriers, research indicates that when barriers such as expectations, supports, and increased self-
efficacy are addressed, females students’ interest in pursuing and persisting in STEM majors
increases (Hardin & Longhurst, 2016).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 197
Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students,
civic leaders, college/university professors, and MNCs have regarding the value of students’
participation in SciFest?” From the research, two important themes emerged from the data col-
lection. The first theme indicated that STEM–PBL science competitions develop 21st-century
skills. This theme was supported by all stakeholders. The demand for knowledge-based workers
has made it critical for students to develop a deep understanding of concepts, to apply knowledge,
to solve a wide range of complex problems, to construct viable arguments, to communicate
reasoning, to take initiative, to learn through trial and error, to collaborate, to persevere, to solve
problems through interdisciplinary approaches, and to have strong moral foundations (Conley &
Barefoot, 2008; Wagner, 2017). In this study, students noted creating new and innovative ideas
while proving things by developing projects of interest to them were identified as benefits of
student participation in SciFest (Students 1 and 3, interviews, April 17, 2018).
The second theme to emerge was a belief that STEM PBL provides students with the
skills needed to compete in a global economy. Organizations have become increasingly more
knowledge based, geographically mobile, and collaborative in nature (Chu et al., 2017), thus
prompting employers to look for candidates who demonstrate 21st-century skills and changing
what students need to know and are being taught in the 21st century (Wagner, 2008b). Research
found that participation in STEM-related clubs in the early years of secondary education culti-
vates students’ interest in STEM and interest in pursuing STEM fields as a profession (Sahin,
2013). School leaders in this study intentionally implemented SciFest as a choice activity in the
TY, thereby providing students with the “opportunity to engage in subjects that they may not
have considered” in an effort to increase enrollment in second-level STEM courses (Ms. Arden,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 198
TY Program Coordinator, interview, April 17, 2018). Preliminary results indicated an increase in
the percentage of girls selecting second-level STEM classes (Ms. Arden, TY Program Coordina-
tor, interview, April 17, 2018). Additional research suggested that students who participate in
science fairs and competitions matriculate to postsecondary STEM majors at a higher rate,
develop increased science content knowledge, better understand experimental design, and have
improved verbal and written communication (Sahin, 2013; Schmidt & Kelter, 2017).
Students engaged in PBL science competitions develop problem-solving skills, learn to be
more open minded, remember what they learn longer, and perform better on standard achieve-
ment tests than non-PBL students (Fallik et al., 2008). The National Council for Curriculum and
Assessment in Ireland maps 21st-century skills as being essential for all learners to develop as
they progress through the education system at each stage of the Irish education continuum and
places them in the context of the ATCS skills categories (Ireland DES, 2016).
Limitations
During the course of this study, the researcher encountered additional limitations not
identified in Chapter One that could not be controlled and might inappropriately affect the results
of the study (Price & Murnan, 2004). Although multiple attempts were made to collect survey
data from all stakeholders, limitations of this study included the small survey samples from SHC
parents, MNC representatives, political leaders, and policy makers. A comprehensive analysis of
the research was conducted and threats to the validity and reliability were addressed by triangu-
lating the rich data collected (Creswell, 2014).
Practical Implications
The review of literature in Chapter Two examined globalization and the influences of FDI
and MNCs on Ireland’s economy, educational system, and 21st-century skills. Additionally,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 199
participation in STEM PBL was examined to better understand how school leadership influences
STEM–PBL education and female students’ enrollment in STEM second- and third-level courses
through the implementation of science competitions as students prepare for the Leaving Certifi-
cate Exams. This research study showed that (a) participation in science competitions develops
21st-century skills that prepare students for STEM college and careers, (b) school leaders have
influenced students’ participation in science competitions such as SciFest, and (c) actively
recruiting and encouraging female students to participate in science competitions builds STEM
confidence and increases female students’ interest in pursuing STEM in secondary and higher
level courses.
Ireland’s changing educational policies have been designed to equip students with the
21st-century skills needed to successfully pursue STEM college and career pathways in a global
economy (Ireland DES, 2016; OECD, 2017). Changing policies must be combined with a sig-
nificant investment in changing curriculum frameworks, professional development, instructional
methods, and assessment strategies (Draus et al., 2014). Practical recommendations based on this
study include the need for school leaders to align resources to increase participation in STEM
PBL and to clearly communicate a vision connecting participation in STEM PBL with the skills
needed to successfully pursue STEM college and career pathways.
STEM-related work is well compensated, rewarding, and has long-term socioeconomic
implications for female students’ pursuit of STEM careers (Draus et al., 2014; Quesenberry &
Trauth, 2012). Examining the STEM gender gap from the context of current MNCs in Ireland,
which include eight of the top 10 global ICT companies, nine of the top 10 global pharmaceutical
companies, and three of the top six global gaming companies—all based in Ireland—is discon-
certing (IDA Ireland, 2017). A comprehensive educational strategy to address the gender gap is
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 200
being developed in Ireland (Ireland DES, 2018b). Practical implications from this study indicate
that there is a need for secondary school leaders to remove barriers to female students’ participa-
tion and to actively recruit female students to participate in STEM PBL. Barriers that female
students experience that were identified in this study included the use of technology for instruc-
tion, availability of higher level STEM courses within the school day, and infusion of 21st-
century skills and STEM PBL into curriculum and instruction.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was conducted in a female secondary school where student participation in
SciFest was a voluntary activity selected during the TY. The ways in which students participated
in science competitions at all schools in the study appeared to vary. Schools infused science
competitions into Junior Cycle courses, TY courses, and/or extracurricular activities. Student
participation was voluntary or mandatory, depending on the individual school. The findings in
this study may not generalizable due to the identified limitations and selection criteria for study
participants.
A recommendation for future research related to this study would be to explore the
connection female students’ enrollment in secondary and third-level STEM courses in schools
that embed STEM PBL into the curriculum for all students. An additional area of study worthy
of exploring is the trajectory of female students’ participation in STEM PBL and enrollment and
persistence in third-level STEM majors.
Conclusions
Ireland’s educational policies have long been the foundation for creating systems to
support the growth of human capital (Clancy, 1996). The focus on economic growth as a driver
for educational change in Ireland has resulted in free secondary education (1967), a network of
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 201
technical colleges (1972), the development of two national universities, and most recently the
adoption of an ICT education policy (2015; Clancy, 1996; Ireland DES, 2016; Raftery & Hout,
1993). The expanding global market has resulted in a demand for knowledge-based, geographi-
cally mobile, and a collaborative-in-nature workforce (Chu et al., 2017). Facing intense interna-
tional competition for FDI by MNCs looking for candidates who demonstrate 21st-century skills
and expertise in STEM, Ireland adopted a new STEM education policy (Ireland DBEI, 2015).
The new STEM policy identified negative stereotypes, lack of parent information regarding
STEM subjects and careers, and a disconnect between the Leaving Certificate and industry needs
as barriers to female students’ enrollment in secondary STEM subjects and careers (Ireland DES,
2016).
Data collected and analyzed in this study showed a positive correlation between participa-
tion in science competitions and the development of 21st-century skills that prepare students for
STEM college majors and career. Additionally, this study found significant support indicating
that school leaders were a positive influence on students’ participation in STEM PBL, and
increased participation in STEM PBL was noted when school leaders aligned limited resources to
STEM PBL. The most significant finding from this study was that actively recruiting female
students to participate in STEM PBL builds their confidence and motivation to pursue secondary
and higher level STEM courses. Female students indicated that participation in STEM PBL is
“empowering” and helps “women realize they can do STEM” (Student 1, interview, April 17,
2018).
For Ireland to meet the demands of MNCs, there is a need for school leaders to communi-
cate to parents a vision connecting participation in STEM PBL with the skills needed to success-
fully pursue STEM coursework and career pathways, to actively recruit female students to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 202
participate in STEM PBL, and to align resources to remove STEM barriers for female students.
The adoption of the STEM policy and pending Gender Equity Policy, combined with a commit-
ment from all stakeholders, has placed Ireland on the right trajectory for addressing the STEM
gender and job gap.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 203
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Appendix A: Recruitment Letter to Principal
Dear [CONTACT NAME],
My name is [USC STUDENT’S NAME] and I am currently [USC STUDENT’S TITLE/POSITION],
located in the United States. I am also a doctoral student at the University of Southern California (USC)
and in April, 2018, I will travel with 12 other doctoral students from USC to Ireland as part of a research
team led by Dr. Michael Escalante.
Your name was provided to me as an innovative leader running an exemplary program. Recently, Sheila
Porter, CEO of SciFest, contacted you or a representative at your school to request your participation in a
1-day study. From April 16 to 19, 2018, another doctoral student and I hope to visit [NAME OF
SCHOOL/INSTITUTION] to talk with, observe, and survey willing students, teachers, and you.
This study’s ultimate goal is to understand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-
century skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and maths (STEM). We are
interested in STEM education as a means of producing knowledge-ready workers and citizens prepared
for the 21st-century. Expanding on prior studies, we hope to understand how leadership and increased
female participation influence broader acquisition of 21st-century skills and/or pursuit of STEM in
college-career. Furthermore, we aim to understand the influence of globalization and multinational
corporations on schools throughout Ireland.
The following questions will guide our research:
1. How do schools engage in SciFest while preparing students for the state examinations?
2. How does school leadership influence participation in SciFest?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence female students’ interest in enrolling into senior-
level and third-level STEM courses?
4. What perceptions do teachers, principals, parents, students, civic leaders, college/university
professors, and multinational corporations (MNCs) have regarding the value of student participa-
tion in SciFest?
Please know that participation during our visit will be entirely voluntary, confidential, and nonevaluative.
If you would like, at the completion of the overall study, I would be more than happy to provide a copy of
the final dissertation results and conclusions report.
Thank you for considering my request and taking your valuable time to read this correspondence; without
your help, this experience would not be possible. May I request that you reply at your convenience via
email to [USC STUDENT’S EMAIL] to provide a contact number and preferred time for me to call you
to discuss details about my visit to [NAME OF SCHOOL/INSTITUTION].
Sincerely,
[USC STUDENT’S NAME]
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 228
Appendix B: Political Leader/Educational Policy Maker Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to SciFest participation in Ireland. The ultimate goal of this study is to understand the
influence of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills
through implementation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in
the SciFest science competition. The study examines how school leadership influences student
participation in SciFest while preparing for the state examinations. Additionally, this study
investigates how SciFest influences female students’ interest in STEM courses and stakeholders’
perceptions of SciFest’s value in preparing students to compete in the 21st-century workforce.
For clarification, we are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering,
and maths (STEM). Students need 21st-century skills to compete in a global workforce and
economy; these 21st-century skills include critical thinking, collaboration, effective oral and
written communication skills, and creativity.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes among the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Schools’ engagement in SciFest while preparing students for the state examinations
1. What is the ideal way to prepare students for the state examinations while participating in
SciFest at the same time?
2. What strategies should schools employ to prepare students for SciFest while preparing
students for the state examinations?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence preparation for the state examinations?
4. Some principals say that SciFest takes away from the core instruction and preparation for the
state examinations. How would you respond to that?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 229
II. The influence of school leadership on SciFest participation
1. If possible, talk to me about instances that you are aware of when school leadership influ-
enced students to participate in SciFest.
2. What leadership qualities are important in getting schools to participate in SciFest?
3. What challenges do you think school leaders face in supporting their school’s participation
in SciFest?
4. Suppose I am a new principal and I am considering implementing SciFest at my school.
What would you say?
III. Influence of SciFest participation on female students’ interest in enrolling into senior-
level and third-level STEM courses
1. How has SciFest affected female students’ interest in continuing their study in STEM
courses in the senior level and/or third level, if at all?
2. Why do you believe that female students participate in SciFest?
3. What do you see as some of the advantages of female students’ participation in SciFest?
4. What, if any, barriers exist for female students’ participation in senior-level and third-level
STEM courses?
IV. The value of student participation in SciFest
1. How does student participation in SciFest benefit students, if at all?
2. What is the role of SciFest in the development of 21st-century skills, if any?
3. How does SciFest influence students’ college and career choices?
4. How does SciFest contribute to Ireland’s economic prosperity, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 230
Appendix C: Business and Industry (MNCs) Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to SciFest participation in Ireland. The ultimate goal of this study is to understand the
influence of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills
through implementation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in
the SciFest science competition. The study examines how school leadership influences student
participation in SciFest while preparing for the state examinations. Additionally, this study
investigates how SciFest influences female students’ interest in STEM courses and stakeholders’
perceptions of SciFest’s value in preparing students to compete in the 21st-century workforce.
For clarification, we are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering,
and maths (STEM). Students need 21st-century skills to compete in a global workforce and
economy; these 21st-century skills include critical thinking, collaboration, effective oral and
written communication skills, and creativity.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Schools’ engagement in SciFest while preparing students for the state examinations
1. What is your opinion of the ideal way to prepare students for the state examinations while
participating in SciFest at the same time?
2. What strategies should schools employ to prepare students for SciFest while preparing
students for the state examinations?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence preparation for the state examinations?
4. Some principals say that SciFest takes away from the core instruction and preparation for the
state examinations. How would you respond to that?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 231
II. The influence of school leadership on SciFest participation
1. If possible, talk to me about instances you are aware of when school leadership influenced
students to participate in SciFest.
2. What leadership qualities are important in getting schools to participate in SciFest?
3. What challenges do you think school leaders face in supporting their school’s participation
in SciFest?
III. The influence of SciFest participation on female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses
1. How has SciFest affected female students’ interest in continuing their study in STEM fields
in the senior level and/or third level, if at all?
2. Why do you believe that female students participate in SciFest?
3. What do you see as some of the advantages of female student participation in SciFest?
4. What, if any, barriers exist for female students’ participation in senior-level and third-level
STEM courses?
IV. The value of student participation in SciFest
1. How does student participation in SciFest benefit your organization, if at all?
2. What is the role of SciFest in the development of 21st-century skills, if any?
3. How does SciFest influence students’ college and career choices?
4. How does SciFest contribute to Ireland’s economic prosperity, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 232
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to SciFest participation in Ireland. The ultimate goal of this study is to understand
the influence of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills
through implementation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in
the SciFest science competition. The study examines how school leadership influences student
participation in SciFest while preparing for the state examinations. Additionally, this study
investigates how SciFest influences female students’ interest in STEM courses and stakeholders’
perceptions of SciFest’s value in preparing students to compete in the 21st-century workforce.
For clarification, we are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering,
and maths (STEM). Students need 21st-century skills to compete in a global workforce and
economy; these 21st century skills include critical thinking, collaboration, effective oral and
written communication skills, and creativity.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Schools’ engagement in SciFest while preparing students for the state examinations
1. What is the ideal way to prepare students for the state examinations while participating in
SciFest at the same time?
2. What strategies are employed to prepare students for SciFest at your school while preparing
students for the state examinations?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence preparation for the state examinations?
4. Some principals say that SciFest takes away from the core instruction and preparation for the
state examinations. How would you respond to that?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 233
II. The influence of school leadership on SciFest participation
1. Talk to me about instances, if any, when your leadership has influenced participation in
SciFest.
2. What leadership qualities are important in getting your school to participate in SciFest?
3. What challenges do school leaders face in supporting their school’s participation in SciFest?
4. Suppose I am a new principal and I am considering implementing SciFest at my school.
What would you say?
III. The influence of SciFest participation on female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses
1. How has SciFest affected female students’ interest in continuing their study in STEM fields
in the senior level and/or third level, if at all?
2. Why do you believe that female students participate in SciFest?
3. What do you see as some of the advantages of female students’ participation in SciFest?
4. What, if any, barriers exist for female students’ participation in senior-level and third-level
STEM courses?
IV. The value of student participation in SciFest
1. How does student participation in SciFest benefit students, if at all?
2. What is the role of SciFest in the development of 21st-century skills, if any?
3. How does SciFest influence students’ college and career choices?
4. How does SciFest contribute to Ireland’s economic prosperity, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 234
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to SciFest participation in Ireland. The ultimate goal of this study is to understand the
influence of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills
through implementation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in
the SciFest science competition. The study examines how school leadership influences student
participation in SciFest while preparing for the state examinations. Additionally, this study
investigates how SciFest influences female students’ interest in STEM courses and stakeholders’
perceptions of SciFest’s value in preparing students to compete in the 21st-century workforce.
For clarification, we are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering,
and maths (STEM). Students need 21st-century skills to compete in a global workforce and
economy; these 21st-century skills include critical thinking, collaboration, effective oral and
written communication skills, and creativity.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. School’s engagement in SciFest while preparing students for the state examinations
1. What is the ideal way to prepare students for the state examinations while participating in
SciFest at the same time?
2. What strategies are employed to prepare students for SciFest at your school while preparing
students for the state examinations?
3. Are you finding that participation in SciFest influences preparation for the state examina-
tions? Please describe this influence.
4. Some teachers might say that SciFest takes away from the core instruction and preparation
for the state examinations. How would you respond to that?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 235
II. The influence of school leadership on SciFest participation
1. Talk to me about instances, if any, where your school principal or other school leaders have
influenced participation in SciFest.
2. What leadership qualities does your principal demonstrate in getting your school to par-
ticipate in SciFest?
3. What challenges do your school principal or other school leaders face in supporting the
school’s participation in SciFest?
4. If you worked at a school where the principal was considering implementing SciFest, what
advice would you give them?
III. The influence of SciFest participation on female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses
1. In your opinion, how has SciFest affected female students’ interest in continuing their study
in STEM fields in the senior level and/or third level, if at all?
2. Why do you believe that female students participate in SciFest?
3. What are examples of the advantages that female students get when they participate in
SciFest?
4. What, if any, barriers exist for female students’ participation in senior-level and third-level
STEM courses?
IV. The value of student participation in SciFest
1. What is your perception of the benefit that students may get from participation in SciFest?
2. What is the role of SciFest in the development of 21st-century skills, if any?
3. If I were a student at this school and I were trying to decide on a college major (third-level
course of study), how would SciFest influence my decision?
4. What is your opinion of SciFest’s contribution to Ireland’s economic prosperity?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 236
Appendix F: Student/Parent Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Select One: Student ____ Parent ___ Contact Information:
(Child’s) Gender: _____________________________ (Child’s Grade): ___________
(Child’s) School:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to SciFest participation in Ireland. The ultimate goal of this study is to understand the
influence of globalization and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills
through implementation of STEM education, instructional practices, and student participation in
the SciFest science competition. The study examines how school leadership influences student
participation in SciFest while preparing for the state examinations. Additionally, this study
investigates how SciFest influences female students’ interest in STEM courses and stakeholders’
perceptions of SciFest’s value in preparing students to compete in the 21st-century workforce.
For clarification, we are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering,
and maths (STEM). Students need 21st-century skills to compete in a global workforce and
economy; these 21st-century skills include critical thinking, collaboration, effective oral and
written communication skills, and creativity.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. School’s engagement in SciFest while preparing students for the state examinations
1. What is the ideal way to prepare students for the state examinations while participating in
SciFest at the same time?
2. What strategies are utilized to prepare students for SciFest at your (child’s) school while
preparing students for the state examinations?
3. How does participation in SciFest influence students’ preparation for the state examinations,
if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 237
4. Some say that SciFest takes away from the core instruction and preparation for the state
examinations. How would you respond to that statement?
II. The influence of school leadership on SciFest participation
1. Talk to me about instances, if any, when school leadership has influenced your (child’s)
participation in SciFest.
2. What leadership qualities are important in getting your (child’s) school to participate in
SciFest?
3. What challenges do school leaders face in supporting their school’s participation in SciFest?
4. Suppose I am a new principal and I am considering implementing SciFest at my school.
What would you say?
III. The influence of SciFest participation on female students’ interest in enrolling into
senior-level and third-level STEM courses
1. How has SciFest affected female students’ interest in continuing their study in STEM
courses in the senior level and/or third level, if at all?
2. Why do you believe that female students participate in SciFest?
3. What do you see as some of the advantages of female students’ participation in SciFest?
4. What, if any, barriers exist for female students’ participation in senior-level and third-level
STEM courses?
IV. The value of student participation in SciFest
1. How does student participation in SciFest benefit students, if at all?
2. What is the role of SciFest in the development of 21st-century skills, if any?
3. How does SciFest influence students’ college and career choices?
4. Why do you (does your child) participate in SciFest?
5. (Parent Only) How does SciFest contribute to Ireland’s economic prosperity, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 238
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Protocol
Date: Location of Observation:
Teacher Observed: Time of Observation:
Class Size (total students): Males Females
Class Title and Grade Level:
DESCRIPTION/DIAGRAM OF
CLASSROOM
! Position of student desks
! Position of teacher’s desk
! Whiteboard
! Grouping of students
! Technology
! Tables, computers, shelves
! Wall displays, decorations
* Reflection on how physical
space promotes 21st-century
skills
FRONT OF CLASSROOM
Overview of Lesson (Learning Objective for the Day):
Instructional Materials Used:
Additional Classroom Information:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 239
21st-Century Skills
(Wagner, 2008)
STEM/Inquiry-
Based (Slough &
Milam (2013)
Actions and Comments
Observed Observer Comments
Critical Thinking and
Problem Solving
Making Content
Accessible
Collaborating Across
Networks
Making Thinking
Visible
Agility and Adapt-
ability
Helping Students
Learn From Oth-
ers
Initiative and Entre-
preneurialism
Promoting Au-
tonomy and Life-
long Learning
Effective Oral and
Written Communica-
tion
Accessing and Ana-
lyzing Information
Curiosity and Imagi-
nation
Other Observations
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 240
Reflection Questions:
1. RQ1: What evidence exists of STEM education and 21st-century skill development?
2. RQ1: What evidence exists of inquiry-based learning strategies?
3. RQ1: What evidence is there in preparing students for the state examinations?
4. RQ1: How does the teacher integrate elements of SciFest during the lesson?
5. RQ3: How are female students engaged in STEM activities in the classroom?
6. RQ1: What is the nature of student interactions in class?
7. RQ1: How is the teacher engaging students in STEM education?
8. Are there additional questions for the teacher?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 241
Appendix H: SciFest Observation Protocol
Date: Location of Fair: Cork Institute of Technology
Time of Observation:
Number of Students Participating: Males Females
Grade Level of Students Participating:
DESCRIPTION/DIAGRAM OF
FAIR
! Position of student projects
! Grouping of students/themes
! Technology
! Tables, computers
! Wall displays, decorations
* Reflection on how physical
space promotes 21st-century
skills
FRONT OF FAIR
Overview of Events/Themes:
Additional SciFest Information:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 242
21st-Century Skills
(Wagner, 2008)
STEM/Inquiry-
Based (Slough &
Milam (2013)
Actions and Comments
Observed Observer Comments
Critical Thinking and
Problem Solving
Making Content
Accessible
Collaborating Across
Networks
Making Thinking
Visible
Agility and Adapt-
ability
Helping Students
Learn From Oth-
ers
Initiative and Entre-
preneurialism
Promoting Au-
tonomy and Life-
long Learning
Effective Oral and
Written Communica-
tion
Accessing and Ana-
lyzing Information
Curiosity and Imagi-
nation
Other Observations
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 243
Reflection Questions:
1. RQ1: What evidence exists of STEM education and 21st-century skill development?
2. RQ1: What evidence exists of inquiry-based learning strategies?
3. RQ1: What evidence is there in preparing students for the state examinations?
4. RQ1: How does the teacher integrate elements of SciFest during the lesson?
5. RQ3: How are female students engaged in STEM activities in the classroom?
6. RQ1: What is the nature of student interactions in class?
7. RQ1: How is the teacher engaging students in STEM education?
8. Are there additional questions for the teacher?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 244
Appendix I: Survey Protocol for School Administrator or Teacher
Date: Location of Survey:
Select One: School Administrator Teacher
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–26 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, technology, engineering, and maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other countries
and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (e.g., Intel).
School Leadership: Principal, other school administrator, or SciFest lead teacher.
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. Participation in SciFest prepares students to be successful on
the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
2. School leadership encourages participation in SciFest to
support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
3. Teachers encourage participation in SciFest activities to
support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
4. School leadership employs strategies to positively influence
school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 245
4a. Check all strategies that school leadership employs at your school: Yes No
Common planning time
Department meetings
Professional development
Student incentives
Teacher incentives
Instructional materials
Instructional coaches
Hold informational meetings
Promotes SciFest on social media
Family Science Nights
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam
Actionable feedback to teachers to improve science instruction
Recruitment of partners/spouses
School-wide student recognitions
School-wide teacher recognitions
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
5. Teachers at my school employ strategies to positively influence
school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
5a. Check all strategies that teachers employ: Yes No
Inquiry-based learning
Before- or after-school clubs
Science competitions
Independent study
Science Olympiads (series of events)
Interdisciplinary teaching
Family Science Nights
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 246
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
6. School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest activities
with the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
7. School leadership develops a shared vision for implementing
SciFest at the school. SA A N D SD DK
8. School leadership effectively communicates a shared vision
to all stakeholders for implementing SciFest competitions at
the school. SA A N D SD DK
9. School leadership is a positive influence on SciFest competi-
tions at my school. SA A N D SD DK
10. School leadership allocates adequate financial resources to
effectively implement SciFest at my school. SA A N D SD DK
11. School leadership provides support, including time, materi-
als, and training, for participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
12. Female students who participate in SciFest tend not to select
maths-based or technology-based projects. SA A N D SD DK
13. I actively encourage and recruit female students to participate
in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
14. Female students are encouraged by their parents to participate
in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
15. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
16. My school actively employs strategies to increase female
participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
17. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
18. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment in senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
19. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 247
20. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
21. SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop 21st-
century skills. SA A N D SD DK
22. Participants in SciFest demonstrate skills needed to obtain
careers in STEM fields. SA A N D SD DK
23. SciFest participation enhances STEM educational develop-
ment in students. SA A N D SD DK
24. SciFest provides opportunities to develop skills needed in a
global economy. SA A N D SD DK
25. Students benefit from participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
26. MNCs are an important partner in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 248
Appendix J: Survey Protocol for Political Leader, Business Leader, or Policy Maker
Date: Location of Survey:
Select One: Political Leader _____ Business Leader _____ Policy Maker _____
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–26 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, technology, engineering, and maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other countries
and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (e.g., Intel).
School Leadership: Principal, other school administrator, or SciFest lead teacher.
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. Participation in SciFest prepares students to be successful on the
state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
2. School leadership encourages participation in SciFest to
support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
3. Teachers encourage participation in SciFest activities to
support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
4. School leadership employs strategies to positively influence
school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 249
4a. Check all strategies that school leadership employs: Yes No
Common planning time
Department meetings
Professional development
Student incentives
Teacher incentives
Instructional materials
Instructional coaches
Family Science Nights
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam
Actionable feedback to teachers to improve science instruction
Recruitment of partners/spouses
School-wide student recognitions
School-wide teacher recognitions
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
5. Teachers in schools employ strategies to positively influence
school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
5a. Check all strategies that teachers employ: Yes No
Inquiry-based learning
Before- or after-school clubs
Science competitions
Independent study
Science Olympiads (series of events)
Interdisciplinary teaching
Family Science Nights
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 250
Other:
6. School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest activities
with the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
7. School leadership develops a shared vision for implementing
SciFest at the school. SA A N D SD DK
8. School leadership effectively communicates a shared vision
to all stakeholders for implementing SciFest competitions at the
school. SA A N D SD DK
9. School leadership is a positive influence on SciFest competi-
tions in schools. SA A N D SD DK
10. School leadership allocates adequate financial resources to
effectively implement SciFest in schools. SA A N D SD DK
11. School leadership provides support, including time, materi-
als, and training, for participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
12. Female students who participate in SciFest tend not to select
maths-based or technology-based projects. SA A N D SD DK
13. School leadership encourages and recruits female students to
participate in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
14. Female students are encouraged by their parents to participate
in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
15. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
16. Schools actively employ strategies to increase female
students’ participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
17. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
18. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment in senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
19. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
20. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 251
21. SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop
21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
22. Participants in SciFest demonstrate the skills needed to
obtain careers in STEM fields. SA A N D SD DK
23. SciFest participation enhances STEM educational
development in students. SA A N D SD DK
24. SciFest provides opportunities to develop skills needed
in a global economy. SA A N D SD DK
25. Students benefit from participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
26. MNCs are an important partner in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 252
Appendix K: Survey Protocol for Parent of Second-Level Student
Date: Location of Survey:
Your child’s gender: Female ____ Male ____
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–26 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, technology, engineering, and maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other countries
and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (e.g., Intel).
School Leadership: Principal, other school administrator, or SciFest lead teacher.
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. Participation in SciFest prepares students to be successful on
the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
2. The school leadership at my child’s school encourages partici-
pation in SciFest to support student success on the state
examinations. SA A N D SD DK
3. Teachers encourage participation in SciFest activities to
support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
4. School leadership at my child’s school employs strategies to
positively influence school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
4a. Check all strategies that school leadership employs at your child’s school: Yes No
Student incentives
Teacher incentives
Instructional materials
Instructional coaches
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 253
Hold informational meetings
Promotes SciFest on social media
Family Science Nights
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam
Actionable feedback to teachers to improve science instruction
Recruitment of partners/spouses
School-wide student recognitions
School-wide teacher recognitions
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
5. Teachers at my child’s school employ strategies to positively
influence school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
5a. Check all strategies that teachers employ: Yes No
Inquiry-based learning
Before- or after-school clubs
Science competitions
Independent study
Science Olympiads (series of events)
Interdisciplinary teaching
Family Science Nights
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
6. School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest activities
with the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
7. School leadership develops a shared vision for implementing
SciFest at the school. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 254
8. School leadership effectively communicates a shared vision
to all stakeholders for implementing SciFest competitions at
the school. SA A N D SD DK
9. School leadership is a positive influence on SciFest competi-
tions at my child’s school. SA A N D SD DK
10. School leadership allocates adequate financial resources to
effectively implement SciFest at my child’s school. SA A N D SD DK
11. School leadership provides support, including time, materi-
als, and training, for participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
12. Female students who participate in SciFest tend not to select
maths-based or technology-based projects. SA A N D SD DK
13. My child’s school actively encourage and recruit female students
to participate in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
14. Female students are encouraged by their parents to participate
in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
15. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment in senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
16. My child’s school actively employs strategies to increase
female students’ participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
17. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
18. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment in senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
19. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
20. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
21. SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop 21st-
century skills. SA A N D SD DK
22. Participants in SciFest demonstrate the skills needed to
obtain careers in STEM fields. SA A N D SD DK
23. SciFest participation enhances STEM educational develop-
ment in students. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 255
24. SciFest provides opportunities to develop the skills needed in
a global economy. SA A N D SD DK
25. Students benefit from participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
26. MNCs are an important partner in promoting SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 256
Appendix L: Survey Protocol for Student Participant in SciFest
Date: School:
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–26 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, technology, engineering, and maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other countries
and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (e.g., Intel).
Background Information
Have you taken part in a SciFest@School science fair: Yes No
Have you taken part in a @College science fair: Yes No
You are: Male ____ Female _____ Decline to State _____
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. Participation in SciFest prepares students to be successful on
the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
2. The school leadership at my school encourages participation
in SciFest to support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
3. Teachers encourage participation in SciFest activities to
support student success on the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
4. School leadership at my school employs strategies to positively
influence school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 257
4a. Check all strategies that school leadership employs at your school: Yes No
Student incentives
Teacher incentives
Instructional materials
Instructional coaches
Hold informational meetings
Promotes SciFest on social media
Family Science Nights
Alignment of curriculum to exit exam
Recruitment of partners/spouses
School-wide student recognitions
School-wide teacher recognitions
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
5. Teachers at my school employ strategies to positively influence
school participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
5a. Check all strategies that teachers employ: Yes No
Inquiry-based learning
Before- or after-school clubs
Science competitions
Independent study
Science Olympiads (series of events)
Interdisciplinary teaching
Family Science Nights
Real-world applications
Use of technology to promote science learning
Other:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 258
6. School leadership works with teachers to align SciFest activities
with the state examinations. SA A N D SD DK
7. School leadership develops a shared vision for implement-
ing SciFest at the school. SA A N D SD DK
8. School leadership effectively communicates a shared
vision to all stakeholders (students, parents, teachers,
etc.) for implementing competitions at the school.. SA A N D SD DK
9. School leadership is a positive influence on SciFest
competitions at my school. SA A N D SD DK
10. School leadership allocates adequate financial resources to
effectively implement SciFest at my school. SA A N D SD DK
11. School leadership provides support, including time, materi-
als, and training, for participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
12. Female students who participate in SciFest tend not to select
maths-based or technology-based projects. SA A N D SD DK
13. My school actively encourages and recruits female students
to participate in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
14. Female students are encouraged by their parents to participate
in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
15. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
16. My school actively employs strategies to increase female
students’ participation in SciFest.. SA A N D SD DK
17. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
18. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment in senior-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
19. SciFest influences the development of female students’
interest in enrolling into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
20. Female students have access to female role models who
influence their enrollment into third-level STEM courses. SA A N D SD DK
21. SciFest provides opportunities for students to develop 21st-
century skills. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 259
22. Participants in SciFest demonstrate the skills needed to
obtain careers in STEM fields. SA A N D SD DK
23. SciFest participation enhances STEM educational devel-
opment in students. SA A N D SD DK
24. SciFest provides opportunities to develop the skills needed
in a global economy. SA A N D SD DK
25. Students benefit from participation in SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
26. MNCs are an important partner in promoting SciFest. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 260
Appendix M: Information/Fact Sheet for Exempt Research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION, LEADERSHIP, AND SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY FAIRS ON STUDENTS’ ACQUISITION OF 21ST-CENTURY
SKILLS AND THEIR COLLEGE-CAREER PURSUIT OF SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS
MAJORS-CAREERS IN SCHOOLS IN IRELAND
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Dr. Michael Escalante, Professor
of Clinical Education, principal investigator and faculty advisor, from the University of Southern
California. This study is entirely student funded; the data collected will be used to produce
individual doctoral dissertations for the co-investigators listed below at the University of South-
ern California. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before
deciding whether or not you want to participate.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Influence of globalization, leadership, and science fairs on female students’ acquisition of 21st-
century skills and their college career pursuit of STEM majors-careers in schools in Ireland.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you could be asked to participate in any combination of the
following activities: a 15-minute online survey; a 45-minute, audiotaped, face-to-face interview,
a 45-minute classroom observation (teachers and students only), and/or a 10-minute observation
at SciFest in Cork, Ireland (students/parents/teachers/principals only). You are not obligated to
answer any questions that cause you discomfort.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no potential risks to your participation; however, you may feel uncomfortable answer-
ing some of the questions. You do not have to answer any question you do not want to.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
You may elect to participate in the interview process and not be audio recorded. In addition, you
may elect not to participate. Your relationship with your school/employer will not be affected
whether or not you participate in this study.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There are no anticipated benefits to your participation. We hope that this study will help
researchers and policy makers to better understand the drivers that increase the likelihood of
students pursuing studies in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) while acquiring
21st-century skills necessary for all citizens.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 261
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There is no payment for your involvement in the study. However, the co-investigator at your site
might provide tchotchkes (swag) from the University of Southern California or create a lottery for
your participation in the study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Survey and observation data will be anonymous for all groups. Interview protocols for teachers,
principals, and students collect identifiers; however, any identifiable information obtained in
connection with this study will remain confidential. Responses will be coded with a false name
(pseudonym) and maintained separately. The audiotapes of interviews will be destroyed once
they have been transcribed.
Interview protocols for business leaders, government officials, and educational policy makers
collect identifiers (participant names/job titles/time in position and contact information). Only
names and titles will be identifiable in the study. The audiotapes of interviews will be destroyed
once they have been transcribed.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, Clinical Professor, University of Southern California, mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Jonathan Blackmore, Director, Covina-Valley Unified School District, jblackmo@c-vusd.org
Roger Brossmer, Assistant Superintendent, Downey Unified School District, brossmer@usc.edu
Elizabeth Eminhizer, Assistant Superintendent, Covina-Valley Unified School District,
eminhize@usc.edu
Raquel Gasporra, Assistant Superintendent, Whittier City School District, gasporra@usc.edu
Jennifer Graziano, Director, Compton Unified School District, jgrazian@usc.edu
Jason Hasty, Director, Los Angeles County Office of Education, jhasty@usc.edu
Chris Hollister, Assistant Superintendent, Chaffey Joint Union High School District, chollist@usc.edu
Veronica Lizardi, Director, Downey Unified School District, vlizardi@usc.edu
Robert McEntire, Assistant Superintendent/CBO, Covina-Valley Unified School District,
rmcentir@usc.edu
Josh Randall, Assistant Superintendent, Sulphur Springs Union School District, jirandal@usc.edu
Wayne Shannon, Assistant Superintendent, Downey Unified School District, twshanno@usc.edu
Marc Trovatore, Director, West Covina Unified School District, trovator@usc.edu
Diana Velasquez, Director, Los Angeles County Office of Education, vela983@usc.edu
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 262
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the research
in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of
the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South
Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Eminhizer, Elizabeth
(author)
Core Title
Influence of globalization, school leadership, and students’ participation in science competitions on 21st-century skill development, instructional practices, and female students’ interest in sci...
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
04/26/2019
Defense Date
03/11/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
21st-century skills,active,actively recruiting female students,assessment,assessments,collaboration,college,Communication,creativity,developed confidence,development of 21st-century skills,educational policy,Engineering,equity,FDI,Female,female students’ STEM course enrollment,foreign direct investment,gender,Globalization,High School,high stake assessments,influence,innovation,instructional practices,Ireland,knowledge-based workers,leadership,math,MNC,Motivation,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest,participation,PBL,problem solving,project based learning,recruitment,School,school leadership,Science,science competitions,SciFest,secondary courses,secondary schools,soft skills,state assessments,STEM,STEM courses: STEM enrollment,STEM gender gap,STEM job gap,STEM motivation,STEM-PBL,Students,Technology
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Advisor
Escalante, Michael (
committee chair
), Castruita, Rudy M. (
committee member
), Doll, Michele Taney (
committee member
), Garcia, John A., Jr. (
committee member
), Hinman, Charles (
committee member
)
Creator Email
eeminhizer@gmail.com,eminhize@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-147836
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etd-EminhizerE-7286.pdf
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Document Type
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application/pdf (imt)
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Eminhizer, Elizabeth
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
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Tags
21st-century skills
active
actively recruiting female students
assessments
collaboration
creativity
developed confidence
development of 21st-century skills
educational policy
equity
FDI
female students’ STEM course enrollment
foreign direct investment
gender
high stake assessments
innovation
instructional practices
knowledge-based workers
MNC
multinational corporations
participation
PBL
problem solving
project based learning
school leadership
science competitions
SciFest
secondary courses
soft skills
state assessments
STEM
STEM courses: STEM enrollment
STEM gender gap
STEM job gap
STEM motivation
STEM-PBL