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Retaining female field grade officers in the USAF: an evaluative study

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Retaining female field grade officers in the USAF: an evaluative study

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Content Running head: RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 1

Retaining Female Field Grade Officers in the USAF:
An Evaluative Study
by
Renee Swift

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Renee Swift
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 2

Dedication

To Dr. James T. Swift, my father and my eternal inspiration. Fight on Dad.

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 3

Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................7
Introduction to Problem of Practice .....................................................................................8
Organizational Context and Mission ...................................................................................8
Importance of Addressing the Problem ...............................................................................9
Purpose of the Project and Questions ................................................................................10
Organizational Performance Goal ......................................................................................10
Stakeholder Group of Focus ..............................................................................................12
Methodological Approach .................................................................................................14
Review of Literature ..........................................................................................................15
Female Field Grade Officers’ Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ....20
Interactive Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................29
Data Collection and Instrumentation .................................................................................31
Findings..............................................................................................................................33
Summary ............................................................................................................................49
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ............................................52
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach ......................................................................61
Future Research .................................................................................................................62
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................63
References ..........................................................................................................................65
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Interviews .............81
Appendix B: Interview Protocol .......................................................................................85
Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol .......................................................................88
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 4

Appendix D: Credibility and Trustworthiness ..................................................................90
Appendix E: Ethics ...........................................................................................................92
Appendix F: Limitations ...................................................................................................95
Appendix G: Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..........................................................96
Appendix H: Definitions .................................................................................................100

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 5

List of Tables

Table 1: Active Duty Air Force Field Grade Officers by Rank 13
Table 2: Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences and Types 28
Table 3: Participant Demographics 34
Table 4: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 53
Table 5: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 55
Table 6: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 58
Table 7: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 98

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 6

List of Figures

Figure A: Conceptual Framework 31

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 7

Abstract
This research focused on lower retention rates of women in the Air Force officer corps,
particularly at the field officer ranks. Data shows that female officers have lower rates of
retention than male officers in the Air Force, a gap of almost 20%. Using the gap analysis model
(Clark & Estes, 2008), the qualitative study explored the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that impact the career decisions of female field grade officers in the Air
Force. In addition to document analysis, interviews with 15 participants were conducted.
Findings indicated that in order to make remaining in the Air Force for a full career more
feasible female officers need: (a) timely and accurate communication venues regarding career
progression, (b) more involvement in their career decision making process, and (c)
organizational support to overcome informal social barriers. This case study recommends
empirically-based solutions to assist the Air Force in increasing officer retention. This study
adds to the body of knowledge about women's retention within military organizations. The
military departments may find this study helpful if attempting to improve member career
satisfaction and overall officer retention.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 8

Introduction to Problem of Practice

The United States Congress has expressed concern as to whether the racial and gender
composition of the military is representative of the broader society (Kamarck, 2016). Women
comprise 50.8% of the U.S. population (United States Census, 2017), and the data shows that
women received 58% of all bachelor’s degrees (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006), and represent 59%
of the college-educated, entry-level workforce (“Women in the Labor Force”, 2015). However,
in the military, women are underrepresented in the commissioned officer corps, particularly at
the flag and general officer ranks (Lim, Mariano, Cox, Schulker, & Hanser, 2014). Furthermore,
the representation of women decreases as rank increases (Keller et al., 2018). While the overall
number of women serving as Air Force officers has increased substantially over the last twenty
years, the pattern of decreasing representation at the senior levels is still a major concern to Air
Force leaders (Lim et al., 2014). Without increased gender diversity in the officer ranks, the
military will not be able to develop a diverse officer corps that is educated and trained to lead an
increasingly diverse enlisted force that is vital to maintain national security (Lim, Cho, & Curry,
2008).
Organizational Context and Mission

The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aviation branch of the three military
departments of the Department of Defense. The mission of the United States Air Force is to “fly,
fight and win...in air, space and cyberspace” (About Us, n.d.). The Department of the Air Force
was established on September 18, 1947 and has an annual budget of $165.5 billion (Department
of Defense, 2017) with 318,415 active duty personnel, 140,169 civilian employees, and 170,700
Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve personnel (Air Force Demographics, 2017). To meet
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 9

the Air Force’s broader personnel needs, the service strives to recruit and retain innovative
Airmen to achieve mission success (Air Force Vision, 2015).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The ability to develop a diverse officer corps, educated and trained to lead an
increasingly diverse enlisted force, is necessary in order to maintain national security (Lim et al.,
2008). Historically, a lack of diversity in military leadership led to disciplinary problems and
discontent that threatened the integrity and performance of the military (MLDC [Final Report],
2011). A diverse officer corps is mission critical to national security interests (Abigail Noel
Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, 2012). As such, it is important to ensure that the Air
Force appoints and retains leaders who are as diverse as the nation they serve (Lim et al., 2014).
Increased gender representation and inclusion maintains the connection between the military and
the rest of society while also virtually doubling the potential leader talent pool (Lim et al., 2008).
Furthermore, different gender perspectives can improve the effectiveness of the Air Force as
diverse teams work better because people bring aspects of their backgrounds, thoughts,
experiences and abilities into problem solving and decision making (Lim et al., 2008). The
nature of modern warfare is shifting, requiring a range of new skills and competencies. Women
enhance the combat capabilities of the military with female engagement teams and special forces
cultural support teams, providing valuable cultural intelligence (Kamarck, 2016; Streeter, 2014).
In the civilian workforce, increased gender diversity in executive positions is shown to enhance a
company’s performance, creativity, and profitability (Hunt, Layton, & Prince, 2015). Similarly,
workplaces that had greater diversity made better decisions as inclusive teams were more aware
of their potential biases and entrenched ways of thinking (Rock & Grant, 2016). In an effort to
remain competitive with the private sector, the Department of Defense recognizes the need for
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 10

expanding diversity and equal-opportunity initiatives. It is estimated that without action, an
increase in representation of women in the higher ranks for the next decade is unlikely to occur
(Lim et al., 2008).
Purpose of the Project and Questions
Women are underrepresented in the Air Force commissioned officer corps and at the flag
and general officer ranks. Likewise, the representation of women decreases as rank increases
(Lim et al., 2014). Using the lens of Clark and Estes’ (2008) performance gap analysis problem-
solving framework, this study sought to understand the retention of women as it pertains to the
Air Force goal of increasing the representation of women in the officer corps and at the higher
ranks through recruiting and retention.
It is important to understand the reasons why female field grade officers choose to remain
in the Air Force. As such, the following questions guided this study:
1. What are the female field grade officers’ knowledge and motivation influences that
impact their Air Force career decisions?
2. What is the interaction between USAF organizational culture and context and female
field grade officers’ knowledge and motivation regarding a career in the Air Force?
Organizational Performance Goal
Retention rates among female officers are lower than male officers in the Air Force. At
ten years of service, the difference between male and female officer retention is 20% with
women’s continuation rates continuing to decline at a faster rate than men’s for the next several
years (MLDC [Retention], 2011). While some attrition is expected, the organizational goal is to
reduce the gender gap in retention so that female continuation rates mirror those of the men.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 11

Increasing the number of women in officer corps is a part of an Air Force diversity
initiative designed to attract, recruit, develop, and retain a diverse workforce (United States Air
Force Diversity Strategic Roadmap, 2013). Furthermore, the USAF stated “diversity is a
military necessity” in official guidance (Air Force Instruction 36-7001, 2012). Of the four
branches of the military, the Air Force has the highest percentage of women serving,
approximately 19% (Kamarck, 2016). However, senior USAF leadership has expressed a desire
for the demographic makeup of the service to more closely reflect the eligible population of
society (Keller et al., 2018).
Similarly, the U.S. Supreme Court held in Grutter v. Bollinger that it is a compelling
government interest to pursue the goal of diversity as a "diverse officer corps... is essential to the
military's ability to fulfill its principal mission to provide national security" (2003, p. 331).
Accordingly, there are several Air Force policies and initiatives that seek to formalize diversity
and inclusion organizational oversight. Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-70 defines
diversity and inclusion, provides organizational support for diversity and inclusion initiatives,
and outlines the roles and responsibilities of service members to create an inclusive
organizational culture. Likewise, the aforementioned Air Force Instruction 36-7001 "establishes
guidance and procedures for the administration and management of Air Force diversity
initiatives" (2012, p. 4). The policy requires all Airmen to undergo diversity training and
supports outreach efforts and opportunities in line with Air Force Diversity strategic priorities.
The retention of qualified military officers is essential to preserving an optimal force
structure, unit readiness, and morale and to avoid the costs associated with training replacement
personnel (Harrington, Bigelow, Rothenberg, Pita, & Emslie, 2016). Because early turnover is
very costly to an organization, retaining experienced officers for a full career is considered cost-
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 12

effective (Walker, 2012). Of note, the military retirement system allows service members to
become vested at 20 years of service, with an immediate annuity of 50% of their final salary for
the rest of their lives. Reservists do not generally begin to receive retirement pay until age 60.
Approximately 49% of military officers serve long enough to meet the 20-year vesting
requirement and retire at an average age of 46, after about 23 years of service (Kamarck, 2018).
The retirement system and the promotion requirements have shaped retention decisions and
statistics, and also career progression pyramids to view 20 years as a full military career (Asch,
Mattock, & Hosek, 2017).
To forecast officer retention, the Air Force Personnel division creates a sustainment level
for each career field based on historical retention data from the past five years, assuming that
some of the patterns will continue in the future (Harrington et al., 2016). While the Air Force
does not publish specific retention goals, the sustainment model data is publicly available and
shows the rationale that is used to tailor policies and programs for personnel decisions.
Maintaining sufficient accession and retention rates ensures that the Air Force has an adequate
pool of officers to produce the required number of Field Grade and ultimately General Officers.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
Increasing the numbers of women in the officer ranks is a key aspect of the Air Force
Diversity Strategic Roadmap (2013). Women comprise approximately 19% of the officer corps
in the USAF; however, male officers are almost two times more likely to remain in the Air Force
than female officers, given the same year group and career field (MLDC [Retention], 2011).
Many female officers want to remain in the service for a full twenty-year career but separate for
a myriad of reasons (DiSilverio, 2003). Female officers often cite the difficulty of frequent
moves, deployments, lack of career path flexibility, leadership, sexual harassment, and lack of
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 13

role models and mentors all as considerations when deciding to remain in or separate from the
Air Force (DiSilverio, 2003, Keller et al., 2018). While the impact of traditional barriers to
officer retention such as frequent deployments, pay and incentives is relatively well documented,
female officer retention is not as well understood, especially the factors that female officers
consider when deciding whether to remain in or separate from the Air Force particularly once
they've reached the field grade ranks. Of note, field grade officers (FGOs) are officers in the
ranks of major (O-4), Lieutenant Colonel (O-5), and Colonel (O-6), and typically have 10 to 20
years of experience. They typically serve in positions on headquarters staffs, as research fellows,
or serve as squadron or group commanders.
Women make up more than 23% of the officer corps through captain (O-3), then fall off
steadily throughout the field-grade ranks (MLDC [Retention], 2011). There are 4,697 female
field grade officers in the Air Force. Given the size of the Air Force, the number of female field
grade officers, a single investigator conducting the research, and the limitations on conducting
academic research on Department of Defense personnel, the study only included feedback
provided by 15 participants of the larger pool of officers. The rationale for participant selection
is discussed further in the Sampling Strategy and Rationale in Appendix A. Table 1 provides a
breakdown of active duty Air Force field grade officers by rank as it pertains to the study.
Table 1
Active Duty Air Force Field Grade Officers by Rank

Note. Descriptive Note. Adapted from “Active Duty Military Personnel by Service by Rank/Grade,” by Defense
Manpower Data Center, 2017 (https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/appj/dwp/dwp_reports.jsp).

Rank Male Female Percentage Female
O-6 3,259 464 14.24%
O-5 9,691 1,526 15.75%
O-4 13,425 2,707 20.16%
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 14

Methodological Approach
To gain an understanding of the knowledge, motivation and organizational gaps that may
be impacting the career decisions of Air Force female field grade officers, a qualitative case
study approach was used. Qualitative research methods were suitable for this study because of
the methodological approach’s emphasis on the participants’ lived experience. In this context it
provided rich accounts of complex issues and gave a voice to those whose views are not often
recorded, helping to move towards explanation and meaning of phenomena through description
(Sofaer, 1999). Qualitative research relies on tacit knowledge and therefore, the researcher
becomes a key instrument. As the researcher and as a current Air Force officer, my professional
knowledge helped to shape the direction of the study in addition to helping gain access to the
research participants.
Data was collected through telephone or video teleconference interviews, given the
geographical disparate locations of participants. Telephone interviews decrease the cost and
travel often associated with qualitative interview techniques, giving the researcher greater ability
to reach geographically dispersed respondents (Creswell, 2014). Document analysis is
frequently used as part of qualitative research methods to triangulate the data to further
corroborate findings and reduce the impact of biases in a study (Patton, 2002). Insights were
gained by comparing documents with what participants reported in interviews.
Participants were purposefully selected based on who could best provide information to
answer the research questions and enhance understanding of the organizational issues. Those
invited to participate were all field grade officers (FGOs), which includes the ranks of major,
lieutenant colonel, and colonel, (O-4 through O-6). They represented different career fields such
as maintenance, logistics, and the medical service corps. My goal was to interview at least ten
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 15

female field grade officers or until data saturation was reached which occurred at approximately
12 interviews.
Review of the Literature
The following section outlines the literature on women in the military with a focus on the
Air Force and the assumed causes of retention gaps. There are many aspects of the military, and
military culture that are not understood by civilian society (Hall, 2011). Therefore, the purpose
of this literature review is to provide the reader with an overview of women's participation in the
military and career requirements for Air Force officers. The research reviewed and included are
those relevant to women in the military, propensity to serve, service requirements and culture,
and retention in terms of the study context.
Gender Diversity in the Military
The following section begins with the history of women’s service in the military, giving
an overview of the changing laws and policies governing women’s participation in the military.
The review then outlines the requirements for officer commissioning and explains the four
commissioning sources for the Air Force. This section also examines women's propensity and
motivation to serve in the military and specifically the Air Force.
History of women in the military. American women have participated in military
service since the American Revolutionary War in many capacities; however, women could not
serve formally until the passage of the Women's Armed Service Integration Act of 1948. At that
time, the proportion of women in the military was limited to 2% of the enlisted force and 10% of
officers (Titunik, 2000). Following World War II, women could not serve in command positions
or hold a grade above lieutenant colonel or Navy commander (Kamarck, 2016). Further,
assignment on ships or on aircraft that engaged in combat was prohibited by congressional
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 16

legislation (Kamarck, 2016). In 1967, Congress voted to lift the limits on the number of women
in the military and allow women to promote to higher ranks, including general and admiral
(Titunik, 2000).
The United States military ended conscription and established an all-volunteer force in
1973, after which the proportion of female officers rose substantially. In 1973, 55,000 women
were in the active duty military, making up 2.5% of the armed forces. By 2015, the number of
women on active duty nearly quadrupled to more than 201,413, comprising 15% of the U.S.
active duty military (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2017).
Despite the increasing numbers of women in the military, Department of Defense policies
barred women from combat jobs, preventing them from getting career enhancing assignments.
The prohibition of women’s assignment to combat aircraft in the Air Force, the Navy, and the
Marines Corps was lifted in 1993, but the 1994 "Direct Ground Combat Definition and
Assignment Rule," restricted women from certain military occupations and units, especially
ground combat units (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1998). Opponents of women in combat
cited psychological and physiological differences between men and women, arguing physical
requirements and standards are lowered, leading to reduced lethality (Kamarck, 2016). The
limits on assignments, particularly to combat-related occupations and units, hindered women’s
careers and promotion potential to higher leadership positions and ranks.
Policies and requirements for commissioning. Military officers receive their
commission through one of four sources: the service academies, Reserve Officer Training Corps
(ROTC) programs at public and private civilian institutions, Officer Candidate or Training
School (OCS/OTS), or through direct commission. The three military service academies provide
a four year undergraduate education and collectively produce about 18% of officers. The service
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 17

academies are generally considered the premier source of career officers (Kirby, Thie, Naftel, &
Adelson, 2010). The Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program is a military training
program at U.S. colleges and universities where regular collegiate education is supplemented by
military, naval, or aerospace courses and is the largest source of commissioned officers
providing approximately 36% of military officers (Thirtle, 2001). Officer Training School,
offers a direct entry for selected college graduates; approximately 22% of officers commissioned
through this source (Harrington & Terry, 2016). Finally, approximately 18% of officers receive
direct commissions. These officers serve as chaplains and in the medical, nurse, dental, and
legal corps (Quester & Shuford, 2017).
Entry qualifications for appointment as a commissioned officer is governed by 10 U.S.
Code § 532; however, the primary requirement to become a military officer is attainment of a
bachelor’s degree from an accredited four-year college or university. One must pass a physical
fitness test of coordination, strength, endurance, speed, and agility, in addition to submitting to
an extensive medical examination and review of records (Hardison, Burkhauser, Hanser, &
Oguz, 2016). Technical majors, such as engineering, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and
computer science, are highly sought after by the Air Force (Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense Personnel and Readiness, 2002). Accordingly, the Air Force assigns career fields based
on the needs of the service, accession source, the preferences of the officer, and the officer's
initial ranking or performance in training (Hosek et al., 2001). Academy graduates are more
likely to be placed in the occupation of their choosing, whereas ROTC participants are
incentivized to major in specific fields selected by the Air Force. OTS graduates have a more
limited choice of career field as they are often selected to fill officer shortfalls. Career potential
is heavily influenced by career field as certain career fields provide the opportunity for an officer
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 18

to demonstrate superior performance needed for promotion to senior ranks (Hosek et al., 2001).
It is significant that women are traditionally underrepresented in the science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Shapiro, & Sax, 2011). Lastly, women are
underrepresented from all commissioning sources except for direct appointment as they are
disproportionately concentrated in the medical professions, including nurses (Quester & Shuford,
2017).
Current propensity to serve. Propensity to serve is typically higher for men than
women as the military is a nontraditional career choice for women. Propensity to serve refers to
an individual’s interest in military service measured in terms of attitudes toward future military
service (MLDC [Outreach and Recruiting], 2010). The propensity measure has been primarily
applied to enlisted recruiting and it is unclear whether data is applicable in similar ways in terms
of decisions to serve in the enlisted or officer corps (Segal, Bachman, Freedman-Doan, &
O'Malley, 1999). Women who join the military have a clear set of education goals and career
aspirations and are often familiar with the military because of family members in the service
(Segal et al., 1999). Of note, the Air Force has the largest percentage of women of all the
military branches with women comprising 19% of enlisted personnel and 21% of officers with
the Air Force being the most attractive service to women (Defense Manpower Data Center,
2017; Segal & Segal, 2004). While the exact reason for this is unknown, several studies indicate
people perceive the risk of death to be lower in the Air Force, and historically, the USAF had the
greatest number of occupations open to women (Questor & Shuford, 2015).
Analysis of United States Air Force Recruiting, Accessions, Promotion, and Retention
This section of the literature review presents a background of the current and
recommended strategies for recruiting female officers. Then, it examines the promotion and
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 19

retention rates of female officers in the Air Force. Finally, the literature regarding the
implications of lower promotion and retention rates for female officers is presented.
Current recruiting and accession efforts. The Air Force has implemented a number of
different outreach and recruiting strategies to attract and retain more women and minorities,
including several initiatives designed to increase the number of female officers and pilots.
Women comprised over 50% of the recruiting pool; however they were underrepresented across
all USAF commissioning sources (Government Accountability Office, 2015). Success in
recruiting requires changing, informing and closing the gap between misperceptions of the
military with the goal of persuading more women to become interested in the Air Force (Yeung,
Steiner, Hardison, Hanser, & Kamarck, 2017). Studies on recruiting, suggest that the Air Force
needs to publicize the important and satisfying roles that women can and do play in the military,
in combat and non-combat jobs, by increasing direct advertising to women with positive and
realistic portrayals of women in the military (Yeung et al., 2017). Likewise, it is suggested that
the Air Force needs to increase the number of female recruiters as they can play a key role in the
recruiting process by building the confidence of female applicants, serving as role models, and
answering female-specific questions (Yeung et al., 2017).
Effects of lower promotion rates among female officers. Barriers to promotion and the
resulting demographic differences in career progression affect the future gender diversity of
senior leadership. Historically female officers have made slower career progress overall, and
therefore were less likely to be eligible to be eligible for selection and promotion to the senior
and general ranks (Lim et al., 2008). The aviation career fields such as pilot, navigator, air battle
manager, and flight surgeon have the highest promotion rates; however, women are less likely to
be in tactical and operational career fields (Lim et al., 2014). Air Force senior and general
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 20

officers disproportionately come from the tactical and aviation of occupations (Hosek et al.,
2001). Further, women were not highly represented in the candidate pools for career enhancing
key assignments such as holding command, being an executive officer or aide to a flag or general
officer, attending in-residence professional military education programs, or completing a joint
duty assignment (Lim et al., 2014). Overall, female officers had below average promotion rates
to the field grade ranks of O-4, O-5, and O-6 (MLDC [Promotion], 2010).
Effects of lower retention among female officers. Retention rates among women in the
officer corps play a significant role in shaping the future number of women among senior leaders
of the Air Force. Women leave the service at twice the rate of men at the midpoint of their
careers (MLDC [Retention], 2011). The continuation rate differences between male and female
officers are pronounced at several points in a typical military career: (a) Year four, achievement
of the minimum service commitment, (b) Year 10, the first competitive promotion point to O-4,
and (c) Year 20, the point at which military members can retire with benefits (MLDC [Final
Report], 2011). Additionally, female officers separate from the military at a higher rate than men
due to perceived limitations in career fields, concerns about harassment, geographic mobility
requirements, and competing family obligations (MLDC [Retention], 2011). On the whole,
military women are underrepresented in research literature and there are few studies that
examine methods for recruitment and retention of military personnel (Braun, Kennedy, Sadler, &
Dixon, 2015).
Female Field Grade Officers’ Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences

The Clark and Estes (2008) analytical framework enables organizations to identify and
examine gaps between goals and performance utilizing influences of knowledge, motivation and
organizational resources. The following sections examine the knowledge, motivation and
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 21

organizational factors influencing female field grade officers’ ability to continue their service in
the USAF using the aforementioned gap analysis framework. The first section examines the
assumed influences related to knowledge and skills that impact stakeholder performance. The
second section discusses the assumed motivational influences that impact stakeholder
performance. The final section addresses organizational influences on stakeholder goal
achievement.
Knowledge Influences

There are four main categories on the knowledge dimension: factual knowledge,
conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
Factual knowledge deals with the basic elements within a discipline such as terminology, dates,
and facts. Conceptual knowledge describes an understanding of concepts, principles, theories,
and models, learned through reading, observing, experiencing, or reflection. Procedural
knowledge is about specific skills, methods, and techniques, such as algorithms. Lastly,
metacognitive knowledge is described as knowledge of one's own cognition. In other words, as
people become more aware of their own thinking and cognitive processes, they tend to learn
better (Pintrich, 2002).
Correspondingly, it is important for all stakeholders to possess the factual, procedural,
conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge needed to remain in the Air Force. Female FGOs
need the knowledge and education regarding career field options, including differences in
locations, deployments, and spouse compatibility to be able to make informed decisions about
continuing their service with Air Force (Keller et al., 2018). People are often unaware how the
differences in culture, background, ethnicity, and gender play into access to higher education or
interest in military service, and how the policies and practices that shape military organizations
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 22

make attracting and retaining women more difficult (Gilchrist & Rector, 2007; Lim et al., 2014).
There is little research that seeks to understand the gender differences in retention in the Air
Force or in the military in general (Keller et al., 2018). Correspondingly, retaining female
officers requires the organization to gain knowledge and competencies that enhance recruitment
and retainability of women in the officer corps. Similarly, understanding the factors that affect
differences in their career progression and retention can help women better inform their retention
decisions (Asch, Miller, & Weinberger, 2016).
Knowledge of career benefits. Female field grade officers need conceptual knowledge
of the benefits of the Air Force as a career as a context to remain in the service. Women often
identified military benefits (e.g., health care, education, retirement pension) as a key motivator
for staying in the Air Force; however, many service members lack an understanding of their
benefits, especially earlier in their careers (Keller et al., 2018; Wenger et al., 2017). For
example, many women may not choose to pursue operational career fields partly because of a
lack of knowledge about the potential benefits of entering such career fields such as specialty
incentive pay (MLDC [Final Report], 2011). Likewise, few officers take advantage of the
Career Intermission Program, a three-year sabbatical program designed to retain qualified
officers, because many officers are unaware of the program or do not understand how it works
(Maucione, 2018). If female officers are informed about benefits such as incentive pays and
specialized career enhancing programs, they will be more likely to remain in the service.
Knowledge of career advancement. Bandura (1997) defined procedural knowledge as
the knowing how to do something. Promotion to O-4, the first competitive promotion point, is
determined by three primary factors: an officer’s choice to continue his/her military service,
promotion board indicators, and superior performance evaluations (Hosek et al., 2001). Female
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 23

officers can make more informed career decisions with knowledge of how to better increase their
promotion probabilities and how to compete for opportunities and assignments that are
considered career enhancing. Lastly, many women are unaware how subtle, almost
imperceptible gender bias in the workplace can function as a barrier to career progression (Ely,
Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011). Recognizing gender bias in organizational policies and practices and
learning how to reduce such organizational barriers, can help women counter those effects to
achieve parity with men in their careers.
Knowledge of how to leverage social networks. Female officers in the USAF will need
to understand how to access and use peer and mentor networks to help them continue in their
careers. Peer mentors share career enhancing information, provide feedback on job performance,
provide help with obtaining resources and social support (Knouse & Webb, 2000). Further,
career sponsors provide access to essential networks, bring achievements to the attention of
senior level executives, and recommend members for key assignments (Ibarra, Carter, & Silva,
2010). Additionally, mentoring seems to bolster satisfaction with one's military education or
career as those who report having had a mentor enjoy more rapid promotions, better professional
confidence, higher competence, more career satisfaction, and even a greater perceived chance of
becoming eminent in their fields (Johnson & Andersen, 2010). Individuals who can find mentors
like them and who they see as successful in the organization may be more likely to stay because
they see it is possible for someone like them to succeed (Carter, Dudley, Lyle, & Smith, 2016).
Female officers report having fewer mentors than male officers and often have difficulty
accessing similar support mechanisms that are afforded to male officers, therefore, female
officers need to know how to access peer and mentor networks to gain information and resources
(Walker, 2012).
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 24

Motivation Influences

Motivation can be described as a desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented
behavior (Pajares, 2006). Underlying individuals’ ultimate choice, persistence and mental effort
are several psychological constructs such as self-efficacy, value orientation and attributions.
Motivation can be impacted by a variety of internal and external factors (Rueda, 2011). Wigfield
and Eccles’ (2000) expectancy-value model of motivation links an individuals’ choice,
persistence, and performance to task value. As it relates to education and learning, they showed
that task value predicted course plans and enrollment decisions. Utility value measures how well
the task relates to current and future goals, such as promotion, and salary. Attainment value is
importance of doing well on a task in terms of self-image and core personal values (Chiu &
Wang, 2008). Self-efficacy refers to an individual's perception of their ability to reach a goal.
The task value model can be used to predict female officers’ intentions to continue in the Air
Force for a full career. This section will focus on utility and attainment value in addition to the
self-efficacy beliefs that provide the foundation for motivation and personal accomplishment.
Female field grade officers’ utility value. Utility value refers to how a task fits into an
individual's future plans and goals, such as career goals (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Utility value
could be used to gauge officer retention intentions. For example, if female officers see a military
career goal as being useful to their individual goals, like earning professional certifications, they
could be motivated to pursue a full career in the Air Force.
Female field grade officers’ attainment value. Attainment value represents the
importance of doing well on a given task and the importance one places on accomplishments
(Eccles, 2006). Relatedly, tasks are important when individuals view them as central to their
identity (Eccles, 2006). Korman (as cited in Boyce & Herd, 2003) stated "people choose careers
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 25

that are consistent with their self-image” (p. 32). Female officers who exhibit feminine traits and
do not demonstrate masculine leadership styles may be less likely to see themselves as a career
officer. Women often perceived they had limited occupational roles, had concerns about
harassment and family obligations, and were less likely to identify as a career military officer
(Asch, Miller, & Malchiodi, 2012; MLDC [Issue Paper #41], 2010). This study will probe for
the degree to which female field grade officers identify with the military as career.
Female field grade officers’ self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in
his/her capacity to carry out behaviors necessary to achieve specific performance goals and
results (Bandura, 1997). Unless people believe they can produce the outcomes they desire, they
have little incentive to act or persevere (Pajares, 2006). Given the masculine military culture,
women may find it challenging to envision being a successful leader progressing through the
officer ranks, while balancing the desire for family (Smith & Rosenstein, 2016).
Social models or peer modeling, the degree of similarity between the observer and the
model is an influence on self-efficacy beliefs (Pajares, 2006). Seeing people similar to oneself
succeed can raise and reaffirm the observers’ beliefs that they too can accomplish the activities
necessary to succeed. As such, when women see military leaders that look like them or have a
similar background, it sends the signal that the military is a viable option for them (Campbell,
2014). Similarly, promoting qualified female military leaders also sends a strong signal to
women that there is opportunity for them to succeed in the USAF.
Female officers’ self-confidence helps to reinforce their perceived effectiveness as leaders
(Walker, 2012). If a woman believes in her capabilities to lead successfully and attain the
highest ranks, she may be more likely to remain in the military for a full career, and also mentor
and lead by example (Hosek et al., 2001). Likewise, if a young woman in the military does not
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 26

believe she can successfully complete a career enhancing training such as the USAF Fighter
Weapons School, then she may not believe the Air Force as a career is a viable option.
Organizational Influences

Although knowledge and motivation influences are important, organization and culture
influences are critical to organizational change dynamics. Unlike formal policies and
procedures, culture is not always clear and must be learned over time (Rueda & Stillman, 2012).
Officers entering the Air Force need to quickly adapt and conform to the military culture to be
successful. Organizational issues can contribute to motivational and knowledge gaps, and often
are the root cause of performance problems (Rueda, 2011). Organizations are complex systems,
each with its own culture that develops over time from the core values, goals, beliefs, emotions
and processes of its members (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) proposed a framework for how cultural knowledge is
shared. In their framework, cultural model is understood as a shared understanding of how the
organization works, in other words, cultural norms and mental schemas. Cultural settings are the
visible and tangible manifestations of culture and can vary within the cultural model. According
to Farenga and Ness (2015), "culture exists and is co-created in collaborative activities that
people value" (p. 450). For instance, a familiar tradition like hosing down pilots after their final
flight. It is important to understand how USAF leadership’s cultural models influence the
diversity goals set by the Secretary of the Air Force, as well as the way they choose to foster
these goals. An organization’s culture is shaped by the individuals and leadership within the
cultural model (Rueda, 2011). There is limited qualitative research that can explain the gender
differences in retention or continuation intentions in the Air Force (Keller et al., 2018). This
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 27

study will examine organizational influences within the USAF’s cultural model and cultural
setting to determine whether any gap exists.
Culture of the Air Force. From a cultural model perspective, the military is
characterized by a hierarchical chain of command and an organizational culture that promotes an
environment that is focused on masculinity, authority, and command leadership (Segal, 2006).
Segal further explained the organizational pressure to resist changes that are perceived to be the
feminization of the military. The combination of formal policies and informal expectations
shapes the demographics of the service, but also further ingrains the underrepresentation of
women in the military. Formal policies, such as occupational limitations, and informal norms,
such as service culture and conflicting social roles, tend to reduce women’s participation, thereby
further impacting women’s overall participation in the service (De Angelis, Sandhoff, Bonner, &
Segal, 2013). Similarly, in the Air Force, the masculine institutional character of the military has
made the increase of women in leadership positions a challenge. This study will explore how the
female field grade officers experience the organizational culture of Air Force when it comes to
the decision to continue in their Air Force careers.
Service climate. The military has recognized the importance of retaining women and
how family issues and leadership contributes to women’s perception of their military service
(Smith & Rosenstein, 2016). A male-oriented military culture and rigid regulations and laws,
were cited by the Secretary of the Air Force, all as reasons women are underrepresented in the
Air Force, especially in the pilot ranks (Kopp, 2015). Air Force leadership acknowledges the
need to change the narrative and culture to address gaps that still exist between men and women
in the services (House Armed Services Committee, 2018). To boost women’s advancement in
the ranks and enhance their recruitment and retention, the Air Force needs to make the case for
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 28

valuing women's contribution to the military's mission. Secretary of the Air Force Heather
Wilson testified, “We are trying to change a little bit the way we talk and think about who the
protectors are in this country,” and that women should be recognized for their inherent roles as
protectors (House Armed Services Committee, 2018). This study will probe for the female field
grade officers’ experience in regards to masculine culture and overall organizational culture of
Air Force when it comes to their decision to continue in the Air Force for a full career.
Service barriers and resources. Leaders align organizational goals, set expectations,
model values, communicate with and engage employees, and reward desired behavior (Kezar,
2000). Leaders also provide resources, training, priorities, and structure to enable staff members
to successfully achieve their performance goals. In learning organizations, leaders are
responsible for building organizations where employees are continually expanding their
capabilities (Senge, 1990). Female officers also noted several policy and cultural barriers that
influenced their retention decisions, including rigid career paths and experiences of sexual
harassment and assault (Keller et al., 2018). Female officers in the USAF will need to identify
the inadequate organizational processes and policies that lead to performance gaps and seek to
contribute ideas that improve and sustain the service. The following table outlines the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences necessary for female field grade officers to
continue in their careers in the Air Force officer corps.
Table 2
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences and Types
Knowledge Type Knowledge Influences
Declarative Conceptual Female field grade officers need to
understand the benefits their military careers
can provide.
Procedural Female field grade officers need to
understand how to progress in their careers.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 29

Metacognitive Female field grade officers need to
understand the advantages of military social
networks and how to leverage a diverse
mentor network.
Motivation Influences
Utility value USAF female field grade officers need to
understand the usefulness of the USAF to
their career progression and goals.
Attainment value USAF female field grade officers must see
their military career as important to their
career goals but more importantly, to their
identity.
Self-efficacy USAF female field grade officers must feel
efficacious in their ability progress in their
careers.
Organizational Influences
Cultural Model Influence 1 / USAF culture The USAF organizational culture needs to
recognize the masculine character of the
military that impedes the advancement of
women into leadership positions.
Cultural Model Influence 2 / USAF climate USAF organization culture needs to make
the case for valuing women's contribution to
the military's mission.
Cultural Setting Influence 1 / Resources USAF must have policies that eliminate
barriers to retaining women in the officer
corps.

Interactive Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is a system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs and
theories that describes and informs research (Maxwell, 2013). The purpose of the conceptual
framework is to inform the design of the study and to help refine the research questions and
methodology (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework presented in this study considers the
previous research on the propensity of women to serve in the military as officers and also the
factors that influence retention and career advancement. Additionally, the study makes use of
the experiential knowledge of the researcher’s personal knowledge to include elements of the
researcher’s background and identity regarding the research topic. The aim is to identify themes
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 30

that can help us better understand phenomena in natural settings, giving emphasis on the
meanings, experiences and views of the participants. For example, in this study, the researcher is
a female Air Force officer in the rank of O-4, as are several of the study participants.
Using the lens of Clark and Estes’ (2008) performance gap analysis problem-solving
framework, this section and the following figure will explain how the knowledge and motivation
influences work together in the Air Force officer corps’ organizational context to recruit, access,
and retain more female officers. Figure A depicts the interaction between USAF organizational
culture and context and female field grade officers’ knowledge and motivation in relation to their
goal. The large blue oval represents the USAF organization and its cultural environment. The
green oval inside the larger blue oval represents USAF field grade officers, who function within
the USAF organizational context, and their knowledge and motivation related to achieving their
goal continuing in the Air Force. The blue arrow from the green oval represents FGOs’
knowledge and motivation and points to their goal, depicted by a gold rectangle outside the
larger blue oval.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 31

Figure A. Conceptual framework.
Data Collection and Instrumentation

Qualitative research is a process of inquiry that seeks to understand social phenomena
within their natural settings (Patton, 2002). Qualitative methods were used because they are
uniquely suited for researchers and practitioners to probe phenomena that are not easily studied
by quantitative methods, like perceptions. Moreover, qualitative methods can illuminate the
experience and perception of events by parties with differing stakes and roles, giving a voice to
those whose views are rarely heard (Sofaer, 1999). One goal of qualitative research methods is
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 32

to help practitioners share their insights and perspectives that have resulted from their shared
experiences.
Interviews
I conducted 15 semi-structured interviews with female field grade officers purposefully
selected to represent a broad range of career fields and specialties. A semi-structured interview
employs a general interview guide, but also uses a flexible mix of more and less structured
questions allowing study participants to define their world in unique ways. Additionally, the
researcher can respond in kind as the interview develops, providing new ways to understand the
research topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conversational interview style allowed the
researcher and interviewees to talk in a more natural way than in a structured format, while being
mindful to meet the interview objectives. The interview questions were designed to explore
female field grade officers’ knowledge and motivation in relation to their goal of continuing in
the Air Force for a full career, and how Air Force organizational culture affects their decision to
continue in their careers. Interviews began with demographic identification questions to
establish years in the USAF and other sociodemographic data. The interview protocol included
an explanation of the study’s purpose, reassurance of privacy and confidentiality for the
interviewee, a request for the interviewee to sign a consent form, and a reminder that the
interviewee can stop the interview at any point. The Interview Protocol is included in Appendix
B.
Document Analysis
In addition to interviews, documents related to women’s retention were analyzed to
understand issues related to women’s retention in the Air Force. Documents included articles
and editorials in newspapers, women’s military organization meeting minutes and reports,
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 33

professional military education research papers, and articles from military culture websites.
These documents provide additional voice and significance to retention issues as they are often
produced by the stakeholder group and other military officers.
Several female field grade officers have conducted research regarding the impact of
policies on retention of female officers in the Air Force as part of their professional military
education requirements. These studies can provide a comparison of the study phenomena in
context, as well as a source of triangulation for data collected during the interviews. Professional
military culture websites give a contemporary perspective on military and veterans issues.
Typically written by former military officers, these websites represent an expression of military
organizational culture and its social environment. Schein (1985) indicated that such artifacts
represent the physical construct of the organization with its unique language, rites and rituals,
myths, uniforms or other manner of dress, organizational stories, symbols, and ceremonies.
Lastly, a review of meeting minutes and reports from women’s military organizations such as
Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) and Service Women’s
Action Network (SWAN), provided information regarding the history, goals, objectives, and
policy efforts from organizations that lobby the military and Congress on behalf of women in the
military. The document analysis protocol is listed in Appendix C.
Findings

The primary stakeholder group for this study consisted of currently serving female USAF
field grade officers who met the sampling criteria outlined in the Interview Sampling Strategy
and Rationale in Appendix A. Fifteen female officers were interviewed. 12 participants were
previous associates, two participants were referred by a colleague, and one participant
volunteered to participate from Facebook interview recruiting. An additional five officers
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 34

declined to participate when asked; one O-6 and four O-4s. Purposeful sampling is frequently
used in qualitative research, focusing on relatively small samples and selecting information-rich
cases to effectively use limited resources (Patton, 2002). To compare perspectives from a wide
range of career fields and to reduce bias, a purposeful sampling method was deemed necessary.
Officers from ten different career fields were interviewed and the sample also included a mix of
active duty and reserve officers to determine if Air Force component played a role in retention
decisions. Lastly, the participant sampling purposefully included officers in different
competitive promotion categories, operational Line of the Air Force (LAF) versus professional
specialties such as medical and legal. The goal of using this criterion for selection was to
examine the perception of diminished opportunities for career progression among non-line
officers as female officers comprise 42% of non-line specialties for promotion categories. The
participant information is provided in the table below for reference purposes.
Table 3
Participant Demographics

A total of 15 field grade officers were included in this study, ten O-4s, two O-5s, and
three O-6s. The mean years of service for the participants equaled 15.8 years. Seven officers
were active duty and eight belonged to the reserve component. Of note, two reservists were
Participant Rank Years in Service Component Competitive Category Career Field Marital Status Dual Military Couple Children
1 O-4 8 Reserve Non-Line Flight Nurse Married No No
2 O-4 13 Reserve Line Personnel Single N/A No
3 O-4 12 Active Duty Line Logistics Married No No
4 O-4 8 Guard Non-Line Public Health Married No No
5 O-4 14 Reserve Line Personnel Married Yes Yes
6 O-5 17 Active Duty Non-Line Aerospace Physiologist Married Yes Yes
7 O-4 9 Active Duty Non-Line Medical Service Corps Married Yes Yes
8 O-4 21 Reserve Line Logistics Married Yes No
9 O-4 10 Reserve Line Intelligence Married Yes Yes
10 O-6 28 Reserve Line Pilot Married No No
11 O-4 13 Reserve Line Personnel Single No Yes
12 O-6 26 Active Duty Line Logistics Married No Yes
13 O-6 21 Active Duty Line Personnel Married Yes Yes
14 O-5 22 Active Duty Non-Line Physical Therapist Married Yes No
15 O-4 15 Active Duty Line Pilot Married Yes Yes
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 35

serving on three-year active duty tours at the time of the interviews and four reservists were
previously active duty. Ten officers were considered Line officers in operational fields with the
remaining five being Non-Line officers in the various medical corps. Of the 13 married officers,
8 were married to other military members.
The interviews provided more specific personal qualitative data designed to answer the
research questions related to the factors that influence field grade officers to remain in the Air
Force. The research questions in the study sought to establish:
1. The female field grade officers’ knowledge and motivation influences and their impact on
their Air Force career decisions.
2. The interaction between Air Force organizational culture and context and female field
grade officers’ knowledge and motivation and their impact on their career decisions.
This section presents the findings of the study and is organized by theme. Five themes
emerged from the data collection and analysis to provide possible answers to the research
questions using the Clark and Estes (2008) model as a guide to explore the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences in relation to the organizational goal. The main
themes that emerged from the data were as follows:
1. Female field grade officers generally understood their benefits and how to progress in
their careers.
2. Retirement benefits were a major retention motivator but female officers were also
motivated by leadership aspirations.
3. Some female field grade officers viewed the presence of senior high-ranking female
officers as inspirational, giving some confidence in their ability to advance to the highest
ranks.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 36

4. Female field grade officers did not perceive mentorship as critical to their career
development.
5. Masculine culture and social expectations can act as a barrier to career advancement and
retention.
A synthesis of the results is discussed at the end of this section.
Female field grade officers generally understood their benefits and how to progress
in their careers. Ten officers identified the retirement pension and benefits as a major motivator
to remain in the service. Correspondingly, officers understood that the Air Force provides
unique opportunities for camaraderie, travel, and job security, a benefit that is somewhat unique
to the military. Similarly, most understood how to progress professionally at the midlevel point
in their careers, but many expressed that career development information was often confusing
and conflicting, especially when they were junior officers. For example, Participant 3 agreed she
now understood her career progression milestones, “but I did not have this information when I
was a young company grade officer.” Additionally, Participant 6 stated, “At the junior ranks I
did not feel that I knew how to progress.” She also described her knowledge about her career
progression as, “It became clearer as the Air Force and my career field defined and published the
milestones. My corps made a concerted effort to establish mentoring, all calls and feedback
from the Developmental Team.” This response indicates that the she did not necessarily
understand how to progress earlier in her career but her career field now provides better
information. When asked to consider the benefits of the Air Force, she recognized that the main
benefits to remaining in the Air Force are, “At this point, to grow other future leaders, and work
toward retirement.”
Participant 8 described the Air Force as “an adventure that offers skills, education and
creates a family you'll never find in the civilian world.” She further described her understanding
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 37

of her benefits, “I’ve stayed because of the assignments, schools, and deployments. I met my
husband on a deployment. I travel around the world and do things I would never think of doing
if I had never joined the Air Force.” However, regarding career progression, she expressed
frustration at the lack of information and guidance from her career field. “The DT process is
broken. I provide details on what direction I’d like to take my career and my plans to get there
only to receive a vague vector. I’m not confident in my Career Field Manager or the DT.” For
clarification, a development team (DT) is a team is comprised of senior officers in a career field
and is chaired by the career-field functional manager, typically a general officer. They convene
annually to score officer performance records and recommended rank appropriate or career
enhancing assignments. Her experience reflects a general understanding of the benefits of
remaining in the Air Force, but also points to uncertainty and a lack of empowerment in regards
to career progression. For example, Participant 1 explained she has “a general overview of how
to progress, but not specifically what steps are required in order to turn it into a reality.”
Conversely, the four personnel officers were confident in their knowledge of how to
progress in their career fields. Participant 11 stated, “As a personnel officer I am the subject
matter expert on all the programs designed to advance officer careers.” It is evident from the
responses that the female officers generally understand their benefits and how to procedurally
progress in their careers despite a stated lack of transparency or conflicting information from
their individual career fields.
Retirement benefits were a major retention motivator but female officers were also
motivated by leadership aspirations. In this study, 12 out of 15 participants expressed a desire
to stay until retirement eligible at 20 years of service. Participant 7 expressed her rationale when
asked about the likelihood of remaining in the Air Force, “It is pretty likely at this point
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 38

considering I will hit 10 years, the half way mark,” despite considering separating from time to
time due to family conflicts and boredom in her position. The desire to reach retirement
eligibility was a common refrain. Participant 15 expressed she “would like to reach retirement
eligibility being so close,” with only five years left or “basically one assignment” as she
rationalized. She lamented that having young children and with her career as a pilot that requires
frequent travel “it was going to be a stretch but worth it so I wouldn’t have to work again.”
At the same time, four officers specifically stated they planned to stay in beyond the 20-
year milestone with intentions of serving until they no longer found serving in the Air Force
enjoyable or worthwhile. For example, Participant 10 has 28 years of service and planned to
"remain until my Mandatory Separation Date, unless I feel as if my time is not being utilized to
help others." In this case, the officer has already reached retirement eligibility and plans to stay
until she is required to retire. Additionally, she noted her leadership ability and personal desire
to empower and help others. Similarly, Participant 13 has 21 years of service and described how
she asked herself at important career milestones if she wanted to continue in the Air Force and
added that as a family, they “made a decision to stay as long as we are having fun. We've been to
amazing places and have had good assignments." She added that she continues in the Air Force
because she “wants to inspire women in their career field to show that you can achieve senior
leader status and get promoted as a woman, as a mom, and as wife. But it’s not easy.”
Retirement eligible, she indicated that she is satisfied with her career and that she made the
decision to remain in the military to inspire other women by leading by example. She also
mentions decisions were made as a family, underscoring the influence of family on retention, a
common refrain echoed throughout the interviews.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 39

One participant, however, was motivated to remain in the Air Force by career satisfaction
alone, stating, “I plan to remain in the Air Force until I feel like it’s only a job. Right now it’s a
passion.” The data collected shows female officers consider the retirement pension to be an
extrinsic motivator to continue in their careers, but they are also intrinsically motivated by a
desire to lead, inspire, and help others. The retirement is useful to their future goals and
represents a utility value because the officers have decided to continue in their careers to reach
some desired end state, while others are motivated by the enjoyment they gain from serving.
Conversely, two officers talked about separating despite having eight years and 13 years
of service respectively. Participant 1 felt she “will stay in for a few more years but not likely to
stay in until retirement.” Further, she described how she originally planned to separate after six
years was not quite ready to separate, adding, “it also helped that the Air Force offered a student
loan forgiveness bonus now.” Similarly, Participant 11 spoke of changing careers after recently
obtaining another degree, “As I become more invested in my civilian career I am less motivated
to stay in the Air Force Reserves.” The data shows that monetary benefits and future career
goals are also part of the decision to separate or remain in the Air Force.
Some female field grade officers viewed the presence of senior high-ranking female
officers as inspirational, giving some confidence in their ability to advance to the highest
ranks. Interviewees articulated that the presence of senior ranking female role models had
inspired them to stay in the military. Six officers described feelings of encouragement and
inspiration seeing women promote into leadership positions. For example, Participant 6
expressed the presences of senior ranking female officers as monumental for her:
Seeing women literally sit at the table, have a voice and be well received and respected
influenced my decisions as an officer and to even stay in the Air Force. I had specific
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 40

goals based upon the leaders I saw early in my career and exposure to experts in the
career field at professional conferences. I intentionally did not go into the aircrew career
fields due to quality of life concerns, and I chose this career field based upon women I
saw who were successful, made their own life choices and had more options to raise
families.
Participant 6 directly stated how seeing women in leadership positions influenced her decision to
stay in the Air Force. Also, she clearly indicated that she chose her career field based on female
role models and that these role models have helped to shape her career progression as well.
Finally, she mentioned she based her career decisions around family, highlighting the influence
of family on career decisions. Similarly, Participant 1 also noted familial considerations, “It is
vitally important to have women in leadership to see that there are opportunities to advance but
also to have someone realize what it means to balance work and family.” Another participant,
Participant 2, specifically pointed to how the presence of senior high-ranking female officers
motivated her, “Seeing women in senior leadership positions gives me hope, strength, and the
current to endure the small issues that develop over the natural course of my career.” She
specifically noted that, “seeing them shows me that I am the only limit to my career.” Further,
she described how their presence and experience helped her identify with being an officer, "Even
more so in male dominated career fields. Because I know they’ve had to endure more issues than
I ever will." These measures show female officers are confident they can achieve the higher
ranks and can motivate them to set ambitious goals.
Female field grade officers did not perceive mentorship as critical to their career
development. When asked if they had a mentor and how those mentors had helped their careers,
the participants did not indicate mentoring support was a critical element of their career
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 41

development. Two participants stated they had not had a mentor at all during their career. For
example, Participant 1 answered she has “several colleagues that have been helpful, mostly peers
that are of my same rank that assist each other,” but has not had a specific mentor. Eleven out of
15 officers interviewed described how their mentors had served mostly as a sounding board,
gave leadership advice and provided encouragement. Participant 11 described how her mentors
helped guide her career, “They gave me advice, invited me in to see how things worked at their
level, they pointed out the areas that I needed to improve, and they helped steer opportunities my
way.” Similarly, Participant 7 described her mentors as “just some former commanders that I
run things by” that provided her with mostly peace of mind. Here the two officers showed how
their mentors supported their careers, but mentorship was not viewed as essential to career
advancement. Only one participant described Air Force formal mentoring programs. Participant
5 responded of her mentor, “I was officially provided one recently through the [career field]
Mentorship Program,” but that she worked with an unofficial mentor more. Of note, only one
participant indicated they received any career enhancing benefit from a mentor who can act as a
sponsor to lobby for positions or promotions. Participant 2 said her mentors gave her great
career advice and “they have been willing to put their name on the line to recommend me for
certain jobs.” The data suggests an organizational gap between formal mentorship and informal
mentorship culture as part of career development. Future research that assesses the efficacy of
formal mentoring programs within the Air Force is suggested.
Masculine culture and social expectations can act as a barrier to career
advancement and retention. Participants acknowledged male-oriented military culture exists to
a certain degree but did not feel it impeded their advancement. Participant 2 found being a
female field grade officer empowering, “we are in the minority yet we hold many influential
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 42

jobs. But it feels very normal and mainstream to be a female officer at this point.” Similarly,
Participant 13 said she has not felt disadvantaged or advantaged in her career because of her
gender. Further, she added that she works to “see this as an opportunity to demonstrate female
success to others and not view it as reverse discrimination.” Here, the two officers were
definitive that as officers, their leadership and career progression is recognized and valued the
same as male counterparts while also acknowledging their positions as women.
However, as more interviews were conducted, participants frequently presented
conflicting or contradictory views about their perceptions of male-oriented culture in the Air
Force. Participant 2 opined, “I think my male counterparts were hired because they were already
in the circle of trust based upon job series, or networking opportunities that I was not privy to
based on my sex among other factors.” She described how men benefit from mentors as
sponsors who actively lobby for, or work to get their mentees promoted or placed into career
enhancing positions. She also recognized how leaders tend to coach and mentor people like
them and how this connection tends to benefit male officers. Another officer, Participant 8,
described how she felt her contributions as a female officer were not valued and recognized, and
in her opinion, males were valued more. She added, “When people talk about commanders,
doctors, pilots, etc., those positions are nearly always called “he.” It really bothers me when
someone refers to leadership positions as “he" when they're talking with me.” She also lamented
the use of masculine pronouns being used to describe what are typically viewed as leadership
positions and how gendered language shapes perceptions. Similarly, Participant 7 explained:
We are starting to get more female representation at the exec staff tables, but most of the
seats remain predominantly male. I have to portray extra confidence, but not too much,
competence, but not be a know it all, and dedication to the mission in order to be taken
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 43

seriously from time to time; while males are granted the seriousness initially, until they
prove they aren't worthy of it.
Here she described how gender differences affect perceptions of leadership ability. Notably,
many of the participants in medical career fields commented that masculine military culture was
not a factor for them because they are in the medical service which traditionally has more women
than in the operational fields.
Instances of senior male officer’s hesitancy to interact with, or select women for key
positions given gender bias, apprehension about possible sexual harassment accusations, or an
unwillingness to deal with competing family obligations were also noted. The respondents
understood this hesitancy as an informal barrier to their social acceptance which made
progressing in their careers all the more difficult. For example, Participant 6 recounted, “Early
in my career my boss did not think females "should" go to jump school or fly certain missions. I
was prevented from pursuing several training opportunities.” She added that as she progressed,
“I felt I had to defend successes, as it was openly discussed that females were successful on
looks alone and presumptuous sexual connotations.” Here the interviewee explained how her
career was directly impacted and makes note of gender bias and stereotypes. Similarly, she
mentions perceptions of sexism and having to justify her career progression, often through the
lens of those perceptions.
Correspondingly, Participant 11 explained how she felt she often is not alerted to certain
programs or opportunities because they assumed she would not be interested or competitive
enough to be selected. She attributes this to being a female officer, a woman of color, and single,
going on to say that her “superiors don’t recognize how my identity informs my leadership.”
Further, she mentioned the difficulties forming career enhancing relationships. “Earlier in my
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 44

career I felt as though some male officers didn’t mentor me or didn’t form personal relationships
with me out of fear of how it would be perceived having a close relationship to a female
subordinate.” On the whole, she highlighted a problem facing women in the workplace in terms
of reluctance from senior male officers to mentor or sponsor female officers that might help them
succeed in their careers.
In response to a question about the conductivity of Air Force culture to retention,
participants felt policies aimed at retaining women like increased maternity leave were a positive
step forward, but felt but social traditions and culture made continuing for a full career difficult.
For example, Participant 11 who was leaning towards separating stated, “The Air Force, like the
other branches, has a culture largely based in tradition. I don’t expect the culture to change;
therefore I realize that I have to decide whether I want to continue to be a part of it.” She further
explained how she has spent her entire career as an “other” and never felt she completely fit in.
She also felt that the “model life for an Air Force officer is designed for a man with a stay at
home wife” and that her life circumstances do not match that model. Four other officers echoed
her sentiments. For example, Participant 14 described the lack of support for officers that do not
“fit the “Ken and Barbie” mold,” adding, “Family is viewed in the very traditional lens in which
the woman stays home and has 2.5 kids.” Furthermore, as part of a dual military couple, she has
felt “ostracized as mil-to-mil that does not fit the typical officer-spouse mold.” These officers
described a seeming lack of social acceptance for female officers, especially those married to
other military members. This seeming lack of social acceptance was summarized by Participant
4 as “being a female military officer is powerful but harder than being a male officer. Military
women have to sacrifice.” Overall, nine out of 15 officers said they want to stay and serve, but
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 45

Air Force officer culture and the rigidity of successful career progression make it difficult to
balance family, Air Force life, and career goals.
The female field grade officers characterized Air Force culture as traditional and
masculine oriented in that it has strong norms that fail to value the unique contributions of
women, coupled with perceived advantages for officers adhering to traditional family types. The
role of cultural patterns in Air Force, in terms of masculine culture specifically, is demonstrated
in the interview data, suggesting an organizational gap in addressing strong masculine norms and
integrating the changing roles of women. Future research that assesses the current masculine
culture and climate in the Air Force to identify possible subcultures within the organization is
recommended.
Findings from Document Analysis
Professional Military Education Research papers, editorial articles, women’s military
organization meeting minutes and reports, Air Force women officer’s forum, and articles from
military culture websites were analyzed regarding women's retention, masculine culture in the
Air Force, mentorship and benefits. The document analysis presented organizational and cultural
challenges that lend an additional perspective about the retention intentions, career advancement,
mentorship, social expectations and informal norms in the Air Force and military. The following
section presents the organizational findings with supporting data from the research.
Document analysis of Professional Military Education research papers and editorial
articles showed that female officers enjoyed serving, believing their service is important, and
contributed to the greater Air Force mission. For example, an editorial article regarding keeping
women in the Air Force written by a female aviator declared, "We join in order to be part of
something greater than ourselves, in order to defend the country, and for the opportunities in
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 46

leadership and personal growth” (Prince, 2017). Similarly, qualitative interview data as part of
an Air Force academic research paper discussed desire to serve in terms of female officer
attrition.
Additionally, document analysis supported the pattern of retirement compensation as a
major consideration in terms of the decisions to remain in the service, while emphasizing that
financial compensation is not always the most important factor in retention decisions. A
Professional Military Education research paper found that service members consider military and
retirement compensation in their retention decisions, but the decision to separate or remain in the
service is based on a combination of several “non-monetary factors, including career
opportunities, family stability, geographic stability, spousal employment and promotion
opportunities” (Felger, 2017, p. 3). Conversely, a military paper focused on female officer
retention and postpartum policies described how every female respondent had considered
separation, but for those who had ten years of service or more, the likelihood of separation
diminished “because they were now over halfway to earning a retirement that would provide
healthcare and a paycheck for the rest of their lives” (Silva, 2016, p.17). These articles
confirmed that retirement benefits are often a major retention motivator, but officers also
considered retention in terms of career, family, and quality of life aspirations as well.
However, women’s Air Force forums show a persistent lack of knowledge on how to
procedurally navigate complex military bureaucratic processes such as personnel actions or pay
issues. The time consuming and often confusing "bureaucratic mire" has been frequently cited as
a contributor to the pilot retention and shortage, in addition to other Air Force cultural problems.
Additionally, articles about retention also discussed officer’s complaints pertaining to lack of
purpose, little control over one's career in terms of promotions and assignments, burdensome
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 47

administrative requirements, and dissatisfaction with the personnel system (Kane, 2011;
Matthews, 2015). While the interview participants spoke about career progression uncertainty
specifically related to the Development Teams and Career Field Managers, document analysis of
editorial articles showed female officers understood how to progress in their careers, but felt
promotions are based on “hitting the wickets,” rather than performance or merit. The
characterization of the "anti-entrepreneurial career ladder" points more to organizational factors
and military culture, both crucial influences for sustaining motivation and commitment among
members.
A professional military education paper survey of military officers found that 55% of
officers surveyed agreed mentors played a key role in their career goal achievement with only
37% agreeing that mentors were needed in order to succeed (Johnson & Anderson, 2010). They
also discussed the preference towards informal mentoring and negative perceptions of formal
mentoring programs in the military. Additionally, articles focused on the lack of female
mentors, the different ways men and women are mentored and how men frequently avoid
working with and mentoring women for a variety of reasons, mostly due to gender stereotypes.
Further, editorial articles reinforced the need for males to mentor women in the military given
the preponderance of men in leadership positions. The articles also confirmed the importance of
female role models in career-relevant areas to inspire women to enter and persist in traditionally
male dominated career fields. This supports the idea that the presence of mentors and role
models is a salient factor in predicting retention and persistence of women in service.
In terms of masculine culture, document analysis found female officers are expected to
downplay their femininity and exhibit traditionally masculine behaviors. Consistent with the
interview data, document analysis showed military women often do not feel valued in
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 48

comparison to their male counterparts (Maples, 2017). Meeting minutes from an advocacy
organization regularly discussed gender discrimination and sexual harassment as a standard
agenda item. The interviewees did not discuss their own specific instances of sexual harassment,
but two provided anecdotes about other women they knew in the Air Force. Advocacy group
reports cited male-centric policies, sexual harassment and gender bias as a top challenge to
retention. Document analysis also found that social expectations make being a woman in the
military challenging. Editorial articles echoed sentiments that the military rewards officers who
fit the traditional stay-at-home spouse family model. Further, the articles and papers examined
issues of strain on personal relationships and social difficulties for dual military couples and
single female officers (Granville, 2015; Maples, 2017). Articles and military research papers
found female officers today are less likely to choose their careers over balancing demands and
desires for family, with the perception that senior ranking female officers are less likely than
their male counterparts to be married (Patten & Parker, 2011; Tirpak, 2018). Articles noted how
policy or regulations such as different fitness standards for males and females can serve as the
basis for institutional bias. Further, several articles criticized outdated policies regarding
pregnancy and flight status and the lack of aviation life support equipment designed for women
(Contreras, 2017; Panzino, 2018; Pawlyk, 2018; Tirpak, 2018). Advocacy group meeting
minutes regularly discussed the availability of personal protective gear and equipment for
servicewomen as a standard agenda item. Poorly fitting uniforms and protective gear which are
primarily designed for male body anthropometrics shows how military culture previously had not
considered women as operators.

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 49

Summary
The data collected indicates that the participants possessed varied levels of working
knowledge of their benefits, how to progress in their careers, and were able to reflect about
strategies necessary to succeed in the military. It is evident from the responses that female field
grade officers understood the benefits of serving in the Air Force, such as healthcare and a
retirement pension, and how to procedurally progress in their careers. However, some officers
expressed lacking career progression information as junior officers, which in turn affected
motivation to continue in the service for some respondents. Gaps in knowledge may have been
created by inconsistencies from the individual career field development teams. Individuals are
more likely to have high levels of career knowledge, identity, and resilience when managers use
coaching skills, provide performance feedback, and communicate resources for professional
training and development (Day & Allen, 2004; Noe, Noe, & Bachhuber, 1990). On the whole,
the participants were satisfied with their careers and Air Force life. The results revealed
satisfaction with job security, retirement benefits, healthcare benefits, education benefits, child-
care arrangements, and opportunity for travel. However, it is important to note the negative
relationship between work-family conflict and career satisfaction noted in the interviews. Some
of the most commonly shared drawbacks include time away from family, frequent moves, rigid
career paths, difficulties with family planning and deployments. These factors represent some of
the key challenges to persistence and are consistent to those identified in military retention
literature. Notably, high levels of work-family conflict are associated with decreased job
satisfaction and job resilience. Moreover, overall family and life satisfaction as a major factor in
retention decisions for military members (De Angelis, Smith, & Segal, 2018; Segal & Segal,
2004).
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 50

Interview participants reported they felt confident in their ability to progress in their
careers, particularly when they could see high ranking female officers in senior leadership
positions. While those interviewed expressed a high sense of efficacy with regard to their career
abilities, they did not express a need to identify with being a military officer or want to be valued
as a female officer. Instead, they wanted their success to be valued on the basis of merit on their
work and achievements. Marital and family status considerations seemed to provide motivation
for career identity and retention decisions; further research on the role that family status plays on
career identity and motivation for military officers is suggested. The influence of female role
models and perceptions of self-efficacy were evident with participants communicating feelings
of belonging, encouraging them to achieve goals and persist in their fields. Some also saw
themselves as role models wanting to help junior female officers indicating that they understood
the importance of female role models on retention. Zeldin, Britner, and Pajares (2008) posited
that self-efficacy beliefs help foster retention, therefore, it is important the Air Force is cognizant
of conditions that facilitate goal attainment and continue to promote retention.
While all of the women described how their mentors provided helpful information, only
one indicated that their mentors sponsored, or in other words, had personally advocated for an
assignment, project, or promotion on their behalf. If sponsors or mentors are important for the
success of men in organizations, sponsorship is essential for women to reach senior leadership
levels (Ramaswami, Dreher, Bretz, & Wiethoff, 2010; Travis, Doty, & Helitzer, 2013). As
mentorship and sponsorship are considered critical for career development, this suggests an
organizational gap regarding mentoring as part of Air Force culture as one way to provide
opportunities for learning and development. Consistent with the literature, there are a number of
possible explanations for the lack of female mentoring in the Air Force: (1) a dearth of high-
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 51

ranking female officers (2) female protégés may use their mentors less-effectively than male
protégées (3) and female are less likely to recognize the importance of gaining a sponsor.
Despite organizational gaps identified in the data, it is important to note that the female officers
seem to have created a collaborative environment via social media where they are able to
connect and network building off their respective individual skills and competencies to help fill
in any knowledge gaps related to their careers.
Policies concerning women in the Air Force have changed, allowing women to
participate in combat operations, in addition to providing greater support like longer maternity
leave. And in theory, while formal policies govern Air Force activities, in practice, many actions
are controlled by informal social norms and practices. The interview responses and document
analysis suggest social norms and Air Force culture remain masculine-oriented and geared
toward traditional gender roles. And while many participants said that both the climate and
culture are improving, particularly the O-6s, the military is slow to change and the culture will
have to continue “to change to facilitate the expanding role of women in all grades and skill
groups” (Thie et al., 1994, p. 228). Notably, the participants gave examples of coping strategies
used to deal with sexism in their respective organizations to minimize negative impact to their
careers due to their femaleness. Despite the masculine organizational climate that at times may
seem hostile towards women, those interviewed reported they felt their femaleness is irrelevant
and that they would rather their service and leadership contributions be recognized and valued
irrespective of gender. As organizational culture has been recognized to affect job satisfaction
and turnover, particularly in masculinist environments, further study to identify how
organizational culture influences affect retention decisions in a military setting is warranted
(Catanzaro, Moore, & Marshall, 2010).
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 52

Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Solutions to address the retention gap can be approached in various ways, including
increased career field communication, mentorship, and policy changes. Empowering female
officers to feel like they have more control over their career progression is one area of
improvement. Career empowerment can be driven through organizational knowledge sharing
and increased communication. It is important not overlook the significant role compensatory
benefits such a retirement pension, health care, and affordable childcare play as an inducement to
remain in the service. Identifying and closing gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences is a good first step to improving female field grade officer retention. The implication
of this study is to add to the scholarly body of knowledge aimed to increase retention of women
in the military and to increase the number of women in leadership positions. The findings of this
study may be useful for Air Force leaders to implement strategies and plans within the service to
understand the motivations for officers to remain in the service and to allow for innovative
solutions that further motivate officers, particularly women. While these efforts are designed to
retain more women in the field grade ranks, any policy changes will be applied across the board
and may have the added effect of retaining more males as well. Improving understanding of the
organizational issues and motivating factors that encourage women to remain in the service can
have a significant impact on reducing the retention gap between male and female officers.
The assumed causes of the knowledge gap were gathered from interviews, formal and
informal documents, and literature related to officer retention, and were classified as declarative,
procedural, or metacognitive according to Anderson et al. (2001) taxonomy for learning.
Interviews revealed that female field grade officers understood the benefits their military careers
could provide (declarative knowledge) and generally understood how to progress in their careers
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 53

(procedural knowledge), but often found information was unclear or lacking. Table 4 shows the
recommendations for this influence based on theoretical principles.
Table 4
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Knowledge Influence

Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Female field grade
officers will understand
the benefits their
military careers can
provide. (D)
How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (McCrudden
& Schraw, 2007)

Provide
(additional)
information about
benefits to officers
at key points in
their career.
Female field grade
officers will know how
to progress in their
careers. (P)
Self-regulatory
strategies, including
goal setting, enhance
learning and
performance (Dembo
& Eaton, 2000; Denler
et al., 2009).
Publish career field
specific career
pyramids that
show the
progression of
opportunities
through the ranks

The Air Force, and the respective career fields should provide targeted information
about benefits and programs to officers at key points during their career. Data analysis
showed that female field grade officers generally understood their benefits but some were
unaware of the various programs and benefits available to them, especially earlier in their
careers. Declarative knowledge, or conceptual knowledge is the ability to recognize the basic
elements within a larger structure and how they function together (Krathwohl, 2002). As
military life and culture is unique, an understanding of the various Air Force organizational
structures, technical knowledge, geopolitical awareness, cultural values and social norms is
beneficial to career progression for military officers (Wisecarver, Schneider, Foldes, Cullen, &
Zbylut, 2011). Service members appear to learn about their benefits upon commissioning and
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 54

throughout their time in the military; however some members lack detailed information about the
plethora of benefits available to them. Therefore, how individuals organize knowledge
influences how they learn and apply what they know (McCrudden & Schraw, 2007). As such,
the Air Force, and more specifically, the individual career fields should provide targeted
information about benefits and unique opportunities to officers at key points during their career.
Effective benefits communication is shown to have significant impact on employee
engagement, motivation and retention. Yet multiple studies suggest that many employees feel
they receive limited information about their benefits or do not fully understand them (Miller,
2016). To be successful, organizations need to alter their communication approach to non-
traditional communications methods such as social media and text (Miller, 2016). This study
supports the recommendation to provide targeted career and benefits messaging by rank and
milestones to help officers make better career decisions.
The Air Force, through the respective career fields, should provide career
progression information and personalized feedback to officers regularly. Data showed that
female officers generally understood how to progress in their careers but several expressed that
career development information was often confusing and conflicting, especially earlier in their
careers. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something which includes problem solving
skills. Female field grade officers will need to understand how to progress in their careers. Self-
regulatory strategies, including goal setting, enhance learning and performance (Dembo & Eaton,
2000; Denler, et al., 2009). The recommendation is for each career field to publish career
pyramids that show the progression of opportunities and anticipated milestones through the
ranks.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 55

Career field specific development teams (DTs) convene annually to score officer
performance records and recommended rank appropriate assignments. The Air Force should
ensure each career field provides timely feedback that links use of learning strategies with
improved performance (Shute, 2008). “Development teams should provide personalized, in
addition to career field–wide, feedback to officers” (Hanser, Lim, Yeung, & Cring, 2015, p xi).
Additionally, development teams should emphasize learning and development in their
personalized officer feedback (Hanser et al., 2015). Providing personalized feedback that
accounts for differences in life status or expertise can result in performance improvements and
overall retention.
Motivation Recommendations
Motivation theories link "achievement performance, persistence, and choice directly to an
individuals' expectancy-related and task-value beliefs" (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 118). The
interview participants (a) saw the Air Force as beneficial in terms of compensatory benefits such
as the retirement pension and unique opportunities such as travel (utility value), (b) some were
motivated by rank and milestone achievement (attainment value), and (c) overall felt confident to
progress in their careers (self-efficacy); however, some felt some it was more difficult given
competing demands from family. Table 5 outlines the assumed motivation influence and
recommendation based on principles from theory.
Table 5
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence

Principle and
Citation
Context-
Specific
Recommendati
on
USAF female field
grade officers will
High self-
efficacy can
Empower
officers to have
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 56

feel efficacious in
their ability
progress in their
careers.(SE)
positively
influence
motivation
(Pajares, 2006).
a role in making
important career
decisions, feel
their voices are
heard, to
encourage
participation and
ownership in
their career
progression.

Female field grade
officers will
understand the
usefulness of the
USAF to their
career progression
and goals. (U)
Activating
personal interest
through
opportunities for
choice and
control can
increase
motivation
(Eccles, 2006).
Provide career
field specific
rationale for
remaining in the
service.

The Air Force should ensure officers are empowered to select and achieve their
desired career path within the organization. Female field grade officers generally feel they
know how to and are able to progress in their careers. Pajares (2006) found that high self-
efficacy can positively influence motivation. Some officers found that seeing role-models who
have reached their goals, despite informal or formal barriers, can provide motivation to continue
in their careers. It is recommended that the Air Force allow officers to have a greater role in
making important career decisions and encourage participation and ownership in their career
progression. Employees that are able to have control over their career environment have a higher
level of job satisfaction and retention (McNeese-Smith, 1996). Likewise, seeing women
continue in their careers and into leadership positions strengthens women's self-efficacy in their
career prospects (Ibarra, Ely, & Kolb, 2013). The Air Force needs to ensure officers are
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 57

empowered to select and achieve their desired career path, leading to better engagement and
confidence to grow and continue within the organization.
The Air Force should provide targeted information to officers at key points in time
related to knowledge and use of benefits. Female field grade officers generally understood the
utility of the Air Force, especially regarding compensatory benefits like the retirement pension
and the GI Bill. While service members recognize some benefits exist or have a cursory
knowledge of the various programs, they may not understand or appreciate the details of the
benefits programs (Wenger et al., 2017). To increase motivation, a recommended theory-based
approach would suggest activating personal interest through opportunities for choice and control
(Eccles, 2006); for example, providing career field specific rationale for remaining in the service.
Targeted information could assist service members in planning the most effective pathways to
achieve their career goals (Wenger et al., 2017). As multiple sources of information regarding
Air Force benefits already exist, it is recommended the Air Force provide targeted information
about benefits to service members nearing separation eligibility or at key milestones in their
career.
Organizational Recommendations
Table 6 shows the list of assumed organizational influences based on the most frequent
organizational influences mentioned during interviews with the sample of female field grade
officers. The military is a complex organization, with its own culture that has developed over
time from the core values, goals, beliefs, emotions and processes of its members. Similarly,
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organization goals are often not achieved due to a lack of
resources or that stakeholder goals are not aligned with the organization’s mission and culture.

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 58

Table 6
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence

Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Female field grade officers
will feel that USAF
organizational culture needs
to recognize the masculine
character of the military that
impedes the advancement of
women into leadership
positions.
Effective leaders are aware of
biases and prejudices that occur in
the organization at the individual
and structural levels. They
acknowledge their own biases and
prejudice and protect the
organization from their negative
impact. (They put themselves in
uncomfortable situations that
challenge their biases). They also
recognize and address micro-
aggression and other covert ways
of expressing bias and prejudice.

Related Research:

Bensimon (2005)

Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila &
Wallerstein (2008)
Communicate to
members regularly
the importance of
diversity and
inclusion and
reinforce policies that
ensure biases and
prejudices are kept in
check.
Female field grade officers
feel the USAF policies need
to eliminate barriers to
retaining women in the
officer corps.
Effective leaders address
institutional policies and practices
that create barriers for equity.

Related Research:

Bensimon (2005)
Utilize feedback from
multiple sources to
assess the
effectiveness of
organizational
practices.

Regularly examine
policies and
procedures for bias
and inequities.

Air Force leadership should communicate the importance of diversity and examine
existing policies for bias. The data revealed organizational gaps which may create barriers to
career advancement and retention for female field grade officers. For example, some of the
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 59

female field grade officers indicated that the masculine character of the Air Force can serve as an
informal career impediment. Similarly, the data suggested certain social expectations make
being a woman in the military challenging. Women face bias and discriminatory barriers,
particularly in male-dominated and masculine environments, (Eagly & Carli, 2003; Segal, 1986).
Changing culture is difficult across such a large organization because it is also necessary to
change individual values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors within the organization (Meredith et
al., 2017). Attitudes need to change within military culture to allow women to continue to serve
free of bias and stereotypes (Meredith et al., 2017). Many government agencies often
unknowingly contribute to an inequitable and exclusionary organizational climate and fail to
address informal institutional barriers (Allison, 1999).
Current diversity measures include formalizing Air Force–wide diversity guidance and
creating the Air Force Diversity Committee, however, diversity training or learning is left largely
to commander’s discretion to create and implement (Streeter, 2014). Absent effective
leadership, "diversity is a liability until and unless processes are in place to manage the negative
dynamic" (as cited in Lim, 2015, p.17). As such, effective leaders are aware of biases and
prejudices that occur in the organization at the individual and structural levels and address
institutional policies and practices that create barriers for equity (Benismon, 2005).
Additionally, effective leaders can promote an organizational culture that promotes equity and
inclusion, cultivating an atmosphere where diversity is viewed as an asset to the organization and
its stakeholders (Angeline, 2011; Prieto, Phipps, & Osiri, 2009). A clear message from
executives at the top of many organizations that communicates equitable opportunities and
strong anti-harassment and anti-discrimination policies with clearly defined consequences for
violations has helped to increase women's access to leadership roles (Eagly & Carli, 2003).
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 60

Organizations that openly articulate the values of inclusion to all stakeholders understand that
diversity initiatives create a competitive advantage, specifically as a key enabler of growth and
retention. Therefore, the recommendation is to communicate to members the importance of
diversity and inclusion and reinforce policies that ensure biases and prejudices are kept in check.
Additionally, the recommendation is to regularly examine policies and procedures for bias and
inequities.
The Air Force should foster a mentoring culture instead of focusing solely on formal
programs. In terms of organizational culture, interview data revealed that female field grade
officers did not perceive mentorship as critical to their career development, suggesting an
organizational gap and the need to create a culture of mentorship in the Air Force. The Air Force
has a number of formalized mentorship programs in addition to official guidance, Air Force
Manual 36-2643, Air Force Mentoring Program, created to establish "a mentoring strategy that is
effective for Airmen at any stage in their career" (2017, p. 1). In fact, in the last four years the
Air Force launched two enterprise-wide web-based formal mentoring and assignment tools
designed to improve mentoring and diversity in key career fields such as pilots (Bailey, 2018)
In the Air Force, formal mentorship programs require a relationship initiated by the
organization, formally assigning the mentee to a mentor, while tracking the duration and
frequency of interactions in terms of goals and outcomes (Johnson & Andersen, 2010).
Additionally, they found informal mentoring to be more effective than formal mentoring in terms
of career satisfaction and retention intentions in military settings. Further, they noted the level of
interaction decreases as well as the quality of information disseminated with formal mentoring
programs. Finally, formal mentoring programs are not positively received amongst military
officers. As meaningful mentor relationships are formed informally or organically, the
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 61

recommendation is to avoid creating or requiring further mandatory mentoring programs that
which often result in “marginal mentoring” practices instead of focusing on the positive
developmental relationships intended (Johnson & Andersen, 2010). Leadership support for
mentoring and professional development, effective mentoring behavior examples, both backed
by appropriate organizational resources will help mentoring relationship occur naturally
(Johnson & Andersen, 2010). By aiming to establish a culture of mentorship instead of focusing
on specific formal programs, the Air Force can better foster beneficial mentoring relationships
for officers.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach

The approach used for this research was Clark and Estes (2008) analytic framework. The
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were assessed as the root causes
for identified performance gaps. The model follows a systematic process, starting with
measuring the organizations current status, developing or identifying a goal, diagnosing,
implementing solutions and evaluating performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). The strength of the
Clark and Estes model is that it provides a systematic approach to analyze gaps in performance
providing structure and guidance for the task. This framework takes into consideration that each
organization is distinct and the cause of the problem is unique allowing the researcher to tailor
their analysis.
On the other hand, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework limits the study to knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences exclusively, overlooking the possibility that gaps could
be caused by other independent factors. Additionally, the model calls for an analysis of all
involved stakeholders but given the variety in organizations this could be a rather large group.
For the purposes of this study, due to time constraints and financial limitations only one
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 62

stakeholder was selected, interviewed, and analyzed giving a one-sided picture of the perceived
barriers. Finally, the framework calls for an analysis of the gap between current performance,
desired goals, and then to make recommendations to increase performance and close the gap.
However, the model was difficult to administer in terms of recommendations given the
hierarchical nature of the military, the complexity of coordinating efforts across a large
organization such as the Air Force, and the need for congressional approval for many policy
changes.
Future Research
There are several additional studies that can be conducted related to this study. The
retirement pension was listed a significant motivator for retention. As the 20-year pension-style
plan changed significantly to more of a 401(k) plan in 2018, future research that examines the
correlations of compensation packages, member demographics, and retention intentions of
officers enrolled under the new retirement plan is suggested.
Secondly, the military branches all have vastly different missions and their own unique
culture, traditions, values, and procedures (Sanghera, 2018). One area for further study should
examine the current status of female officer retention in the Army Marines, and Navy and their
respective efforts to retain female officers. Similarly, this study focused on currently serving
officers, future study including women who have separated may provide additional information.
Lastly, further study to identify how organizational culture influences affect retention
decisions is warranted. Also, benchmarking against the other branches could help compare and
contrast the differences between them and identify what is effective or not on a broader field.
Additionally, other stakeholder groups such as dual military officer couples or junior officers
should be studied to understand all perspectives and needs. The role that family status plays on
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 63

career identity and persistence motivation for officers is also suggested for further study. For
example, four out of five officers that declined to participate in this study were single. This is
significant because female officers in the military are more likely to be unmarried, however, in
this study the majority of participants were married.
Conclusions

This study sought to understand Air Force female field grade officers' career continuation
decisions and the relevant knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect
retention. The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model served as the conceptual and
methodological framework for the study. In addition to gaining insight into the Air Force female
field grade officers’ experience, this study adds to the body of knowledge about retention, more
specifically women’s retention in the military. Military leadership may find this study helpful
when attempting to improve career satisfaction, retention, and overall organizational
performance. Data analysis found satisfaction with job security, retirement benefits, healthcare
benefits, education benefits, child-care arrangements, opportunity for travel, in addition to a
strong desire to serve their country or something bigger than themselves. Document analysis and
interviews showed several thematic gaps: disparate knowledge in regards to career progression;
lack of organizational resources and ability to influence career progression; perceived
androcentric informal social norms and practices; and a lack of sponsorship. The importance of
these factors is consistent with the findings from military retention literature, which typically
find that maintaining work-life balance and meeting family commitments were top influencers
for women when deciding to remain in or separate from the Air Force. It is critical that
organizational practices enable service leaders to retain the most talented members of the officer
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 64

corps; by implementing the recommended solutions, the Air Force may begin to effectively
address retention disparities.

RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 65

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RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 81

Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria
for Interviews

Interview and/or Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The population of interest for this study is commissioned officers in the USAF in the
ranks of major (O-4), Lieutenant Colonel (O-5), and Colonel (O-6). Field grade officers
typically have between 10 to 20 years of experience. There are 26,375 field grade officers in the
Air Force, 4,697 of which are women (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2017). The participants'
ages ranged from 34 to 50 years old and represented the following career fields: logistics,
nursing, hospital administration, aerospace physiology, intelligence, pilot, personnel, physical
therapy, and public health. It is worth mentioning that Air Force officer career specialties are
broken down into competitive categories for promotion purposes. Line of the Air Force (LAF)
officers are eligible for operational command in career fields such as aviation, maintenance,
engineering, personnel, cyber and intelligence. Officers in the medical fields, chaplain corps,
and judge advocates (Lawyers) remain in their individual professional categories for promotion
and cannot hold operational command, therefore their career opportunities are somewhat limited.
Individuals from different career specialties were asked to participate because career
specialty is a major contributor in the probability of reaching career milestones, promotion, and
retention (Asch, 2016). Officers in aviation career fields tend to have higher retention rates
because they have a longer initial service commitment. Pilots have a 10-year active-duty service
commitment, whereas other USAF officer occupations for the most part require a four-year
active-duty service commitment (Mattock et. al., 2016). Female officers in aviation career
specialties have lower retention rates than their male counterparts and the gender retention
differences are more pronounced in aviation than in other non-flying Air Force specialties.
While the aviation career specialties tend to have better career advancement opportunities, there
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 82

are very few women in these specialties. There are approximately 730 female pilots; 323
navigators; and 228 air battle managers out of 12,267 pilots, 3,242 navigators and 1,309 air battle
managers total in the USAF (Air Force Demographics, 2017). Similarly, 58% of female officers
are line officers and 42% are non-line. In comparison, 85% male officers are line officers and
only 15% are non-line (Air Force Demographics, 2017). Given the low number of women in the
aviation specialties and in the LAF overall, it was important to include non-line officers as well
as they make up a significant proportion of female officers.
Participants were currently serving on active duty and in the reserve component in the
United States Air Force. Reserve officers were included because a majority of reserve officers
join the USAFR after leaving active duty with the lion share joining at the O-3 and O-4 pay
grades. As such, reserve officers have had the same or similar experiences to their active duty
counterparts in terms of service entry and career progression (Military Leadership Diversity
Commission, 2011). Further, reservists are being used increasingly to fill key active duty billets
for at least 180 days or more. Similarly, the Air Force has boosted the number of active duty
reserve positions as the USAF has increasingly relied on Air National Guard and air reserve
component members to meet operational demands. As more and more reserve officers transfer
between active duty and reserve statuses throughout their careers, it was important to include
them to gain an integrated total force perspective.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Must be commissioned officers in the USAF, in the rank of O-4, O-5, or O-
6, as they have reached the mid-level management level with a breadth of career experiences
such as assignment on headquarters staffs, professional military research and education, and
command tours.
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Criterion 2. Must be currently serving female field grade officers in the USAF active
duty or reserve component to ensure contemporary knowledge of career progression milestones,
and organizational culture and policies. The study will explore female FGOs’ knowledge and
motivation to continue in the Air Force, therefore active participation in the service, as opposed
to being retired or separated is an important selection criterion.
Criterion 3. Must be willing to participate in a 60-minute interview. The Air Force does
not does not allow academic research that uses DoD resources and research activities cannot take
place while personnel are at work. Consequently, given time constraints, not all female field
grade officers will want to answer questions about their experiences within the Air Force in
relation to retention. Interviewees were purposefully selected and invited to participate, and
participation will be voluntary.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Purposeful sampling was used to identify and select participants based on their unique
attributes of the phenomenon of interest. In this case, a sample of female field grade officers in
both the active and reserve components made the most effective use of limited resources. Given
constraints of time, access, and location, a convenience sample was the most practical along with
snowball or network sampling. Convenience samples are common to use when participants have
expressed willingness to participate in the research (McEwan, & McEwan, 2003) and similarly,
participants can easily refer additional participants who meet the established criteria (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). I contacted female field grade officers I am familiar as suggested by the Air
Force Human Subject Research Office, with who were likely going to be interested in
participating in this study. I also asked them to refer any additional field grade officers that may
be interested in participating. Lastly, I solicited participation on an Air Force female officer
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 84

public group on Facebook with approximately 3,600 members. Of note, due to the restrictions
on researching Air Force members using DoD resources, it is probable that the purposeful and
convenience sampling technique may have affected the results.
Recruiting a large number of research participants was difficult with the recruiting and
data collection limitations. Therefore, given access and time constraints, the goal was to
interview approximately ten FGOs or until data saturation was reached. Telephone and video
telephone interviews were conducted to gain an understanding of the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences in relation to the retention of female officers in the USAF officer corps.

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol

Interview Opening Remarks
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I am conducting this research as part
of my EdD program in Organizational Change and Leadership with Rossier School of Education.
The interview should take around 60 minutes and consists of 20 questions. You don’t have to
answer any questions you don’t want to answer, and you can stop the interview at any time. Your
answers will be kept confidential and will be summarized with other interview responses so that
no one can be identified. I would like to record the interview to help me remember your
responses. Within a week, I will transcribe the session and delete the recording.
Do I have your permission to record the interview?
Do you mind if I also jot down a few notes to jog my memory?
Do you have any questions for me before we get started?
Remember that you can skip any question or stop the interview at any time.
Interview Questions
The first set of questions are designed to gather demographic information.
1. How many years of service do you have in the Air Force?
2. What is your rank?
3. What is your Air Force specialty (occupation)?
The next set of questions are focused on your personal thoughts and experiences related to
knowledge and motivation.
4. Why did you join the Air Force?
 Probe: for knowledge of benefits like the GI Bill or the retirement pension.
5. What are some of the benefits to remaining in the Air Force?
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 86

 Probe: Are there any drawbacks?
6. Do you feel you know how to progress in your career?
 Probe: for procedural steps, e.g., can you walk me through the steps of what you
need to do to advance in the ranks and what milestones are necessary to continue
in your career?
7. Do you have a mentor?
 Probe: How have they helped you, if at all?
8. Are you seen as a mentor to anyone?
9. To what degree does the presence of women in leadership positions in your career field
influence your military career?
 Probe: Does this influence your ability to identify with being a career officer?
10. What is the likelihood that you will remain in the Air Force?
 Probe: Have you ever considered separating?
11. Can you describe a point in your military career where you felt successful?
The next set of questions are focused on your personal thoughts and experiences related to Air
Force culture.
12. What does success in your military career look like?
13. How satisfied are you with Air Force life?
14. To what degree do you feel Air Force culture is conducive to remaining in the service?
 Probe: Recently, the Air Force introduced a number of initiatives like longer
maternity leave to try to retain women. Do these changes matter when you
consider staying in the Air Force or not?
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 87

15. To what degree do you feel your service and leadership contributions as a female officer
are recognized and valued? How does the organization recognize and value you?
 Probe: Is this more or less or the same as your male counterparts would you say?
16. Please describe what it is like to be a female officer in the military.
17. Are there any institutional barriers to your career progression, formal or informal?
 Probe: What about masculine military culture? Is that a factor?
18. Have you experienced any social expectations that have made staying in the Air Force
difficult?
19. Are there any policies that make it difficult to continue in your career with the Air Force?
 Probe: What about policies that make it difficult to retain women specifically?
20. Is there anything else you think I should know about this subject that I didn’t ask you?
Thank you very much for your time and your insightful answers.

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Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol
Professional Military Education (PME) Research Studies:

1. Who authored the studies?
2. When were the studies conducted or published?
3. What is the purpose of or motivation for the studies?
4. What do these studies say about officer female officer retention?
5. Who are the study participants if any?
6. Are there elements of the PME studies that reflect the Air Force’s goal of retaining
female officers?
7. Do the studies probe for the factors that affect women’s retention in the Air Force?
8. Do the studies contain recommendations to improve retention that can be referred to
the Air Force leadership for consideration?
Women’s Military Organization Meeting Minutes, Forums and Reports:

9. What is the purpose of the women’s military organizations?
10. What is the membership makeup of the women’s military organizations?
11. Do the meeting minutes address female officers retention issues?
12. Do the meeting minutes discuss factors that affect women’s retention in the Air
Force?
13. Do the minutes contain recommendations to improve retention that can be referred to
the Air Force for consideration?
Articles and Editorials in Newspapers and Military Culture Websites:

14. Who is the intended audience of the newspaper and website articles?
15. Who authored the newspaper and website articles?
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16. Do the articles discuss factors that affect women’s retention in the Air Force?
17. Do the newspaper and website articles seek to change Air Force or military culture in
regards to women in the service?
18. Do the newspaper and website articles provide information that provide additional
information that can influence women’s retention in the Air Force?
19. Do the newspaper and website articles contain recommendations to improve retention
that can be referred to the Air Force for consideration?

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Appendix D: Credibility and Trustworthiness

Credibility and trustworthiness are essential in qualitative research because human beings
are the primary instrument of data collections and the outcomes of these studies can impact
people’s lives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Credibility in qualitative research is the extent to
which the findings are credible. Trustworthiness is established when findings reflect the
meanings as described by the participants.
Credibility emphasizes the truthfulness of what the researcher reports and there are a
number of strategies that the researcher can use to increase the credibility of the findings
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Strategies to ensure credibility are prolonged engagement, persistent
observation, triangulation, peer review, and member checking (Maxwell, 2013). Triangulation is
accomplished by collecting data from different sources and analyzing the consistency of findings
across methods and data sources (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
There are many Air Force student papers, faculty research pieces, military journals, and
scholarly books that are published through the Air University Press and are available to military
members. Reports such as these from the stakeholder group lend credibility by verifying that the
findings of the research study could be confirmed by other researchers. Member checking, also
known as participant or respondent validation, is a technique in which the data and conclusions
are shared with the participants to check for accuracy, allowing participants to clarify what their
intentions were, correct errors, and provide additional information if necessary (Maxwell, 2013).
To strengthen the accuracy of the data, I provided a coded transcript of the interviews to the
participants for feedback giving them the opporutnity to correct any inccorect interpretations and
provide additional information.
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Rich, thick descriptions enhance credibility by thoroughly describing source data and
how it fits between the data and the emerging analysis of the contexts in which those experiences
occur (Morrow, 2005). To ensure the trustworthiness of this study, rich descriptions of the
participant demographics in the context of the organizational structure were included.
Reflexivity is the process of reflecting on how the researcher could be influencing a research
project with his or her own biases (Maxwell, 2013). Credibility was maintained through
researcher reflexivity to identify biases and worldviews in relation to the study. My position as
an Air Force field grade officer may lend a cultural perspective that can increase the potential for
bias in the way data is gathered, interpreted, and reported. To minimize bias I tried to remain
cognizant of my own cultural assumptions. For example, I refrained from self-disclosure and
sharing stories to avoid influencing the responses provided by the participant.
Overrepresentation from my career field was a particular concern in terms of recruiting
participants; care was taken to ensure a purposeful sample across many different career fields.
Additionally, I solicited feedback from the interviewees regarding conclusions drawn from the
interviews to consider alternative perspective and locate blind spots. The participants’ active
engagement provides alternative sources of information allowing them to contribute to
triangulation as well (Creswell, 2014).

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Appendix E: Ethics

Researchers are obligated and mandated by federal laws and Institutional Review Board
(IRB) policies to consider and respect participants’ rights to privacy, voluntary participation,
confidentiality, and permission to withdraw Glesne (2011). These combined efforts ensure that
respondents are safe and are treated with respect, in turn assuring authentic and reliable
responses. Ethical considerations in research include respect for participants, doing no harm,
ensuring participants' privacy and confidentiality, informed consent and voluntary participation.
The credibility of a research study is closely associated with the ethics of the researcher
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). My position as a field grade officer did not create a positionality
issue among study participants because none were under the researcher’s supervision; all
participants were peers in different units. Additionally, there was no existence of a supervisor-
employee relationship and there was and is no risk of retaliation or reprimand to members
participating in this study. For the purposes of this study, I acted as a researcher and not as an
agent or officer in the USAF. Likewise, during the data collection phase of this study, I made it
clear that I was acting as a researcher for non-military research, not as an agent or officer in the
Air Force. Lastly, as a member of the organization, I did not directly benefit from the results, so
there was no conflict of interest. However, the results can be made available to senior leadership
within the organization and might prove useful to both the executive leadership for recruiting and
retaining female officers within the service.
Participants were provided an email invitation to participate. Within this introduction,
participants were notified of the study’s purpose, benefits, and risks and were be asked to sign
informed consent forms prior to beginning the study. According to Glesne (2011), informed
consent is necessary to ensure the participants are aware that their participation is voluntary, all
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 93

the collected data will be kept confidential, and participants can withdraw at any time without
penalty. No incentives were used to avoid bias and to promote voluntary participation. I
attempted to remain cognizant of assumptions about motivations and influences that are based on
my organizational cultural beliefs, years of experience, and values that can create bias.
Participants were made aware of their right to privacy as indicated by the Office of Human
Research Protections. The research in no manner indicated characteristics or details that might
allow readers to trace the information back to a participant. Likewise, participants’ identification
was not revealed in any reports. Incentives for research participation were not provided to
ensure answers recorded from the surveys and during the interviews are not influenced by the
researcher (Merriam, 2016). After completion of the interviews, all participants were sent a note
thanking them for their time and insight into the identified problem of practice.
To ensure confidentiality, data collected was coded in a way to avoid personally
identifiable information or the linking of a response to a question to a specific individual. Each
participant was informed that data will be deleted and discarded one year after the study is
accepted and the results are published. Participants were provided with my contact information
and the numbers for the IRB and local support offices.
The Air Force does not grant permission for research to students performing graduate or
post-graduate research and researchers are prohibited from gathering information to meet
requirements for an academic degree (“Student Surveys and Research,” n.d.). Therefore, Air
Force IRB approval was not obtained because the researcher did not recruit using any DoD
resources or on bases, study activities did not take place while personnel were at work, and
private Air Force records were not used. Additionally, the researcher used an USC.edu email for
correspondence, contacting participants via their civilian email addresses. Written
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 94

correspondence from the Air Force Human Subject Research Office noting IRB review was not
needed given the aforementioned criteria was obtained.
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Appendix F: Limitations
The study had limitations related to the sampling procedure and researcher bias. The
sample for the present study was not randomly selected and the data collected might not
necessarily reflect an accurate picture of the entire USAF female field grade officer population.
A larger sample with officers from career fields such as Cyberspace Operations, Air Battle
Management, Security Forces, or Engineering may have yielded different results given the nature
of those fields. Similarly, the study largely relied on information collected from participants
known to the researcher given the recruitment and data collection limitations. As a result, care
was taken to ensure participants fit a wide demographic range and no single career field was
overrepresented.
Another limitation of this study may be researcher bias. Being a field grade officer and
an officer in the Medical Service Corps presented a bias because the knowledge I had as the
researcher and how it could possibly have affected how the protocol was developed or how
responses to questions were interpreted during data analysis. The Air Force has language and
particular acronyms that represents the everyday communication for the organization.
Participants used this language in their responses which fostered a level of trust that facilitated
the interview process. However, the shared language and experience of the participants and
researcher can lead to analysis or data collection bias. It is also possible I was not objective and
confirmation bias may play a role in the reliability of the results. However, triangulation of the
qualitative data and document analysis helped mitigate the potential for confirmation bias.

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Appendix G: Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The following implementation and evaluation plan loosely follows the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New World Kirkpatrick model
suggests that evaluation plans begin with the desired results, working backwards to assess
behavior, learning, and reaction. With the desired outcomes established, the organization can
then determine what behaviors are necessary to achieve results, what learning occurred during
the training or information sharing, and the satisfaction of organizational members with the
learned strategies. As such, research-based solutions were proposed to help close the identified
gaps. The proposed solutions include an increase in useful career enhancing information from
career fields, greater buy-in for career decisions, and a review of policies that can be prejudicial
to female officers’ career progression. This section suggests a plan for implementing the
solutions and discusses how to evaluate the solutions to ensure the solutions are helping close the
identified gaps.
Organizational Support
In order to successfully retain female field grade officers, the Air Force will need to
empower officers to pursue career enhancing opportunities and assignments that meet their needs
and those of their families. This includes increased flexibility with respect to the timing and
sequence of professional development in addition to codifying paths for officers to pursue unique
opportunities that have historically been difficult to support through the traditional career paths.
Currently, the Air Force assignment system directs assignments based on the needs of the Air
Force by rank and location. Rarely are the officers’ knowledge, experiences, and needs taken
into account. Many officers do not have any interaction with their assignment team before being
given an assignment. Air Force officers should be empowered to work with their career field
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assignment officers to advocate for their future duty assignments and career progression goals,
with the needs of the Air Force in mind, but also the needs and preferences of the member.
Moving away from the one-size-fits-all approach and toward a flexible, option-based strategy
has been shown to reduce work family conflict and increase employee satisfaction in general
(Hausknecht, Rodda, & Howard, 2009).
To facilitate this, officers must ensure they complete their annual Officer Development
Plans for career inputs from the Development Team by the board cycle deadlines. In order to
prepare for the specific development team boards, each career field will need to ensure it sends
adequate notification, instructions, and advertising communications before the boards. The
career field team can use the board and resulting feedback to assess knowledge, retention
intentions, and adjust individual vectors as necessary to allow officers greater control and say in
their careers.
Similarly, as several of the officers interviewed reported they did not understand how to
progress in their careers, i.e., how to compete for broadening opportunities. To prevent such
gaps, the career field managers should regularly send out information about potential career
opportunities or unique assignments, and how to compete for them. This information can be
distributed in webinars, via email or in various modes of social media with career field managers
available to answer questions officers may have. As such, the Air Force could further support
officers through the competitive opportunities and assignments process with specific job vectors
through feedback on their respective development plans. They will discuss career goals and
assignment change preferences with a member of the placement team, and each candidate will
receive targeted career feedback and possible assignment vectors that match their experience and
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 98

preferences as possible. In particular, the reserve officers will also receive support with finding
new assignment placements as necessary.
Behavior
Critical behaviors. It is critical that officers complete their annual Officer Development
Plans for career inputs and feedback from the Developmental Team. Secondly, they must
indicate their interest in unique assignments or provide illuminating comments that allow the DT
and assignments teams to better work opportunities that fit into their current life stage. Third, to
show career commitment, officers must enroll in and complete professional military education
(PME) at the appropriate rank intervals to continue progressing in their careers.
Required drivers. Officers require the support of the Air Force to request and pursue
career enhancing opportunities through their officer development plans. They also require the
support of the career field development teams and the motivation to secure career enhancing
opportunities and assignments. The table below outlines the recommended method and timing to
support critical behaviors of female field grade officers.
Table 7
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Reinforcing
Send emails reminding officers of the importance
of the officer developmental plan with
instructions on how to submit it
two months prior, with a follow up two
weeks prior; connected to DT board
cycles
Encouraging
During the board process, provide officers with
actionable feedback from best practices and
senior officers that matter
Annually, post board
Rewarding
Congratulatory notification to officer and unit
leadership when DT board results result in a
favorable rating (Key Personnel Listing)
Annually
Monitoring
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Ensure access to career field mentor or manager
to answer career questions
Ongoing

Evaluation Tools
During and after the development team video conference information session, the Action
Officer (AO) will collect demographic data about the participants, observe participants, and
develop thematic data. Additionally, issues for further exploration will be annotated and
collected for future research and dissemination. Following the session, an email will be sent to
participants inviting them to participate in a brief survey about the relevance of the material to
their career progression and their overall satisfaction with the content and delivery of the session
allowing them to share whether they feel the Development Team information session is useful.
Leadership can use the aforementioned data to trend requirements and associated processes to
ensure that the organizations are staffed with the qualified personnel they need. Gathering career
intentions data and reporting the findings is vital to the assessment of the effectiveness of the
career enhancing information presented to officers.
Data analysis and reporting. Gathering career intentions data and reporting the findings
is vital to the assessment of the effectiveness of the career enhancing information presented to
officers. As officer developmental plans are submitted annually, the individual career field
management teams should analyze the plans for trends and data that shows a shift in
understanding in career progression knowledge. The Level 4 goal for officer retention is
measured by the number of complete ODPs submitted, requests for school tours, and career
enhancing assignments. Data and metrics will report the data on these measures as a monitoring
and accountability tool provided to senior leadership for possible action.

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Appendix H: Definitions
Active Duty - full-time duty in the active military service of the United States
Aeromedical Evacuation - the movement of patients under medical supervision to medical
treatment facilities by air transportation
Aide-de-camp – a military officer who serves as a personal assistant to general officers or high
ranking civilians
Air Force Career Field Manager (AFCFM) - an individual on the Headquarters United States
staff who is responsible for career development programs, specialty standards and requirements,
training, and force management for a specialty.
Air Reserve Component – composed primarily of members who serve part-time but who can be
ordered to full-time duty. The Air Force Reserve Component is made up of both the Air National
Guard (ANG) and the United States Air Force Reserve (USAFR).
Air Force Specialty (AFS) - a specific career field and qualification level for Air Force officers
and enlisted personnel
Air National Guard (ANG) - the air component of the National Guard
Command - authority that a commander in the armed forces lawfully exercises over
subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment
Commission - a document conferring authority issued by the President to officers in the military
services
Commissioned officer – officers who hold presidential commissions and are confirmed at their
ranks by the Senate
Competitive category - a separate promotion category for specific groups of officers who have
specialized education, training, or experience
Flag or general officer - the most senior military officers in pay grades O-7 and higher
Development Team (DT) a team comprised of senior officers in a career field and is chaired by
the career-field functional manager, typically a general officer
Department of Defense (DoD) an executive branch department of the federal government of the
United States charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the
government concerned directly with national security and the United States Armed Forces.
Enlisted - personnel ranked below all officers
Fighter Weapons School - an Air Force school that trains students in weapons and tactics
employment in their combat specialty.
RETAINING WOMEN IN THE USAF OFFICER CORPS 101

Judge Advocate (JAG) – a military attorney, an officer who advises the government on courts-
martial and investigates, prosecutes and defends those charged with crimes in the military
Line of the Air Force (LAF) - a competitive category of commissioned officers who exercise
operational command authority and is eligible for operational command positions
Mandatory Separation Date (MSD) - the date set forth by law for retiring commissioned
officers determined by years of service, age, or rank.
Officer Candidate or Training School (OTS) - a nine-week program that trains college
graduates and commissions them as second lieutenants
Pay grade - an administrative classification used to standardize compensation across the military
services
Professional Military Education (PME) - the professional training, development, and
schooling of military personnel designed to foster leadership in military service members
Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) - a program on select college campuses that trains
college students for future service in the U.S. military as commissioned officers
Service Academies - the primary undergraduate institutions and commissioning sources that
educate and develop the officers who are expected to lead the armed forces
Service Commitment - the total required service that an individual must serve upon accepting
an appointment with a military service before becoming eligible for voluntary separation or
retirement
United States Air Force Academy (USAFA) - the primary undergraduate educational
institution of the United States Air Force

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This research focused on lower retention rates of women in the Air Force officer corps, particularly at the field officer ranks. Data shows that female officers have lower rates of retention than male officers in the Air Force, a gap of almost 20%. Using the gap analysis model (Clark & Estes, 2008), the qualitative study explored the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact the career decisions of female field grade officers in the Air Force. In addition to document analysis, interviews with 15 participants were conducted. Findings indicated that in order to make remaining in the Air Force for a full career more feasible female officers need: (a) timely and accurate communication venues regarding career progression, (b) more involvement in their career decision making process, and (c) organizational support to overcome informal social barriers. This case study recommends empirically-based solutions to assist the Air Force in increasing officer retention. This study adds to the body of knowledge about women's retention within military organizations. The military departments may find this study helpful if attempting to improve member career satisfaction and overall officer retention.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Swift, Renee (author)

Core Title Retaining female field grade officers in the USAF: an evaluative study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 06/17/2021

Defense Date 04/22/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag military, officers, women, female, retention, gender,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Seli, Helena (committee chair)

Creator Email renee.swift@gmail.com,rswift@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-176655

Unique identifier UC11661520

Identifier etd-SwiftRenee-7501.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-176655 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SwiftRenee-7501-0.pdf

Dmrecord 176655

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Swift, Renee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA