University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Closing the access gap to gifted and talented education for Black K-12 students

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Closing the access gap to gifted and talented education for Black K-12 students

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Content Running head: THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 1
CLOSING THE ACCESS GAP TO GIFTED AND TALENTED EDUCATION FOR BLACK
K-12 STUDENTS

by

Christopher J. Garnier

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Christopher J. Garnier

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 2
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my best friend and partner in life, my gracious and
patient wife, Kimberly. This journey has been filled with obstacles and challenges and they
would not have been conquered had you not shared my vision in the man I wanted to become,
loving me while pushing me to succeed. During His Sermon on the Mount, Christ told the
Parable of the Wise and Foolish Builders, instructing and teaching those who built their house
upon solid ground would weather the storms of life as anchoring to bedrock makes a building
withstand the test. Thank you for being my bedrock Love.
I also dedicate this dissertation to Winslow, Talia and Quentin; my beautiful children
whose love and patience through this process has been exemplar and humbling. I’m so grateful
and proud to be your father. You three have such kind and loving hearts and I am excited to
watch you conquer the world while fulfilling your own dreams. I love you!
Mom, you have been more of an inspiration to me than you know. Watching your
resiliency in earning your PhD as a full time mother had a profound impact on my life. When
you graduated as Dr. Ramona Garnier, I knew that earning my doctorate was not only a
possibility but also a personal goal I expected myself to achieve.
Dad, you instilled in me the will to never quit and always finish what I started. I thank
you for the sacrifices you made to provide the best possible life for both Elise and me. You have
always been my hero and role model.
I also thank my in-laws Keith and Linda Wilson. Who would have known that high
school kid you caught hiding in your daughters’ hotel room in Palm Springs would be so lucky
to be a part of your family? Your steadfast encouragement, support and love have been a
catalyst to this accomplishment. I am blessed for having you in my life.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 3
Lastly, to the memory of my Papa Frank; treating people with respect, a relentless work
ethic and acquiring an education were always important to you. I hope your lived example
shines throughout my dissertation knowing you are smiling and proudly looking down upon me.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I want to acknowledge and convey my deep appreciation and gratitude for my
Chair, Dr. Jennifer Crawford. I know she has exercised a great amount of patience and
understanding with me throughout this process as she continually displayed a quiet confidence in
her knowledge of my completion. Dr. Crawford, you have been a friend on this journey and
your encouragement and guidance of my research has been invaluable.
My sincere thanks also go to the members of my committee, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Rob
Filback. I am grateful you chose to share some of your valuable time and expertise with me. I
thank you for the calm and assurance you provided me during my defense and for the insightful
and applicable feedback you provided to assist in improving my research.
Dr. Monique Data, had you not developed my self-efficacy throughout my master’s
program, I would have found difficulty finding value in the Global program. Global has changed
my life providing me with limitless opportunities to affect change in education. I am grateful for
your guidance and your eagerness to recommend me for the program; in essence you changed
my life Monique.
Dr. Tracy Tambascia, you are one of the most kind and empathetic individuals I have had
the fortune to know yet you demand excellence. Thank you for the high expectations you
continually demanded of me. Your influence has helped me grow immensely as a human being.
I am grateful to Poway Unified for igniting my passion to advocate for children
throughout our district whose families feel voiceless. Transformative leadership does not always
align with an official title. I look forward to continuing to help transform Poway Unified into a
more inclusive and equitable school district. More specifically, I want to thank Dr. Marian Kim-
Phelps whose addition to our district is an example of progression. Marian you were vital in
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 5
creating opportunities I needed to collect data and I am grateful, as you have become an ally in
my advocacy for equitable education. I also acknowledge, Greg Mizel for giving me my first
chance to teach and mentor in a public school. Thanks for always allowing me to “emote.” You
are a good man and Poway Unified School District is better simply because of your presence. I
would also like to acknowledge Dr. John P. Collins. The battle I engaged in to expose your
crimes which led to your fall from grace are proof that the good guy eventually comes out on
top!
Lastly, to Cohort 6, you have been a blessing to me on this journey as we navigated
through Los Angeles, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Doha, Katmandu, Mexico City and Helsinki. Our
friendships are invaluable and immeasurable. Thank you for helping me to get through this, as it
would have been impossible without your love and support. Our future has never been brighter
and the anticipation to watch it explode is immense.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 4
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Introduction 11
Background of the Problem 11
Racial Identity 12
Diverse Faculty Leads Diverse Population of Gifted Students 13
Social Injustice 14
Scholarly Identity 15
Importance of Addressing the Problem 16
Organizational Context and Mission 17
Organizational Performance Goal 21
Stakeholder Groups 22
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 25
Stakeholder Group for the Study 25
Purpose of the Project and Questions 26
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 26
Organization of the Project 27
Definitions 27
Chapter Two: Literature Review 29
Educational Segregation/Integration 29
Brown v Board 30
Historic Perspective 30
Gifted Education is DeFacto Educational Segregation 31
Gifted Education 32
The Need for Gifted Education 33
To Be or Not To Be Gifted 33
GATE History 34
California GATE Eligibility 34
Scholarly Identity 35
Black Student Self-Efficacy 36
“Acting White” 37
Role of Teachers and Educators 39
Qualifications 40
Teacher Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences 41
Knowledge and Skills 41
Motivation 46
Organizational Influences 48
Chapter Three: Methods 54
Participating Stakeholders 55
Data Collection and Instrumentation 57
Surveys 57
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 7
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale 58
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 58
Interviews 59
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale 60
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 61
Credibility and Trustworthiness 62
Validity and Reliability 62
Analysis 63
Ethics 64
Limitations and Delimitations 65
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 66
Findings for Knowledge Assets 74
Assumed Knowledge Influence 1 79
Assumed Knowledge Influence 2 81
Assumed Knowledge Influence 3 82
Assumed Knowledge Influence 4 86
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Influence 89
Findings for Motivation Influences 91
Assumed Motivation Influence 1 92
Assumed Motivation Influence 2 95
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivational Influence 99
Findings for Organizational Influences 99
Assumed Organizational Influence 1 101
Assumed Organizational Influence 2 103
Assumed Organizational Influence 3 105
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organizational Influence 107
Chapter Five: Evaluation and Recommendations 109
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 111
Organizational Context, Mission and Performance Goal 112
Description of Stakeholder Groups 113
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study 114
Purpose of the Project and Questions 114
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 115
Knowledge Recommendations 115
Motivation Recommendations 117
Organizational Recommendations 119
Summary of KMO Influences 122
Recommendations to Increase Black Student Participation in Gifted Education 123
Professional Development 123
Further Research 124
Conclusion 125
References 129
Appendix A Recruitment Letter 139
Appendix B Survey Items 140
Appendix C Tabulated Survey Data 144
Appendix D Interview Protocol 145
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 8
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Student Enrollment by Ethnicity 18
Table 2: SDUSD Teacher Ethnicity 21
Table 3: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 25
Table 4: SDUSD GATE Assumed Knowledge Influences 46
Table 5: SDUSD GATE Assumed Motivational Influences 48
Table 6: Assumed Organizational Influences 52
Table 7: Validated Assumed Knowledge Influences 77
Table 8: Assumed Motivational Influences Validated 91
Table 9: Validated Assumed Organizational Influences 100
Table 10: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 115
Table 11: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 118
Table 12: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 120

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. SDUSD organizational chart. 19
Figure 2. SDUSD GATE participant ethnicity. 20
Figure 3. District GATE enrollment compared to total enrollment. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 4. Racial Demographics of study’s four sites compared to GATE demographics. 73
Figure 5. Giftedness existence in all races in relation to gifted specialized education. 76
Figure 6. Teachers’ knowledge of equity and diversity in GATE. 80
Figure 7. Traditional vs. non-traditional measures for gifted identification. 84
Figure 8. Non-traditional measures for gifted identification. 85
Figure 9. Effective tools for GATE identification. 87
Figure 10. Teachers’ motivation to indentify and support gifted students. 93
Figure 11. Teachers’ motivation for gifted student identification. 96
Figure 12. Motivation in relation to teacher’s knowledge of gifted identification. 102
Figure 13. Racially equitable GATE identification. 104
Figure 14. Prioritization of non-traditional gifted student identification. 106

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 10
ABSTRACT
Nationally, Black students are significantly underrepresented in gifted programs in public
schools relative to their White peers. Many in education who work to reduce the achievement
gap tend to focus on the bottom echelon, or Black students who perform at the lowest level, yet
fail to place emphasis on those students who are high academic achievers. Greater focus on
Black students who are high achievers is paramount to closing the achievement gap and in doing
so, educational policy makers must explore educational equity within the parameters of students
who are identified and participate in gifted programs. Gifted program participation provides the
confidence students need to thrive in rigorous academic settings leading to a higher percentage of
acceptances to elite universities and a higher percentage of bachelor degree attainment.
Nationally, this issue is related to the larger problem, in which a low number of Black students
are identified as gifted in the public educational system further widening the achievement gap.
The first step of participation within a school’s gifted program is student identification by the
teacher. The study examines teachers within in a large public school district and their role in
providing equitable access to gifted education, particularly for Black students.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The achievement gap, and efforts to reduce it, contains numerous layers of complexity.
Many in education who work to reduce the achievement gap tend to focus on the bottom
echelon, or students of color who perform at the lowest level, yet fail to place emphasis on those
students who are high academic achievers. Greater focus on students of color who are high
achievers is paramount to closing the achievement gap and in doing so, educational policy
makers must explore educational equity within the parameters of students who are identified and
participate in Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) programs. The rigor of courses students
take is among the strongest predictors of bachelor’s degree attainment (Adelman, 1999). Gifted
and talented identification and program participation provides the confidence students need to
thrive in rigorous academic settings. Nationally, this issue is related to the larger problem, in
which a low number of Black students are identified as gifted in the public educational system
further widening the achievement gap. The U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights
(2014) reported that Black and Latino students represent 26% of students enrolled in GATE
programs, compared to the 40% enrollment in schools offering such programs.
Background of the Problem
Historically, Black students are significantly underrepresented in gifted programs relative
to their White peers and teachers are a major causation of the disproportionality (Ford, Whiting,
& Moore, 2009). Grissom, Rodriguez, and Kern (2017) illustrated the linear relationship
between a culturally diverse faculty and the enhancement of cultural diversity of students who
participate in gifted programs. A significantly higher representation of Black students in gifted
programs exists with the presence of a Black principal. The simple presence of a Black principal
proved to increase Black participation in gifted programs by 3.8%, which was equivalent to the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 12
gain associated with increasing a school’s staff of Black teachers by 13%. The first step of
participation within a school’s gifted program is student identification, as teachers of color, in
general, are more attuned to giftedness among racially and ethnically diverse students due to
heightened sensitivity to cultural differences (Ford, Grantham, & Whiting, 2008; Grissom, Kern,
& Rodriguez, 2015). Because schools represent one of the largest forces of cultural exchange in
a child’s life, Kettler and Hurst (2017) suggested that an educational workforce that mirrored the
student body exemplifies the value of multiple perspectives and cultures leading to equitable
participation in gifted programs. A teacher’s input and recommendation is the initial step for
screening gifted education participants, however, Ford et al. (2009) conveyed that teachers rate
their Black students low on GATE assessments preventing equitable nominations, negating
consideration into gifted programs.
Racial Identity
Many Black students perceive educational giftedness as a negative attribute in relation to
their racial identity as Henfield, Washington and Owens (2010) highlighted the perception of
academic prowess by a student of color associated with “acting White.” In Henfield’s study
(2010), Black participants reported that they were either told or knew someone who had been
accused of “acting White” because they were Black and intellectual (p. 19). Recruiting students
of color into gifted courses is a daunting task that finds many of its challenges affiliated with
racial identity. Henfield’s (2010) study reported that many gifted Black students believed that
his or her school experiences differed from their Black peers who were not enrolled in gifted
programs. The study revealed that gifted Black students had to defend their identities as “real”
Blacks by their peers who were not identified as gifted and who were not participating in
advanced curriculum. Recruiting Black children into gifted programs and providing rigorous
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 13
coursework is a contributor in reducing the achievement gap (Ford et al., 2008). In order to
dispel the negative perception that Black students associate with high academic achievement,
teachers must confront potential stereotypes that he or she have about low ability of students of
color. In many instances teachers holds the keys to GATE testing and stereotyping students “can
act as a deterrent to their nominating Black and Latino students for gifted education programs”
(Henfield et al., 2010, p. 23). Many Black students do not perceive their racial identity inclusive
with high academic aptitude. The more students of color are identified and participate in gifted
programs, the easier it will be to change that cultural perception which leads to racial identity.
Diverse Faculty Leads Diverse Population of Gifted Students
Research has found that it is easier for students of color to challenge themselves with the
rigors of gifted programs when individuals who look like them are members of the academic
staff. Dee (2005) focused on the demographics of teachers and found that student motivation
and expectations increased when both parties shared similar racial and ethnic identity. However,
research has concluded that the demographics of the teacher workforce does not correlate with
student demographics as students of color represent more than 40% of school-age population yet
teachers of color represent 17% of the teaching force (Boser, 2014). The percentage of Black
teachers in a school has a direct relationship with the number of Black participation in that
school’s gifted programs. Black elementary students in gifted programs is 18 percentage points
higher in a school with a 50% Black teaching staff than in a school with no Black teachers
(Grissom et al., 2015). Understanding that this relationship exists is vital for principals as they
choose teachers to work for them and as teachers are tasked with selecting candidates for a
school’s gifted program. Ideally, to gain greater educational equality, a school district’s teaching
staff should mimic the cultural make-up of the student body population. Though race and culture
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 14
should not be a factor when determining students that participate in gifted programs, it is
(McBee, 2006), and those in the business of education must be aware of this factor in their
attempt to reduce the achievement gap through equitable access.
Social Injustice
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) legally fought to erase the social injustices of school
segregation. Though the results of the historic case promised legal equality in the U.S.
educational system, providing that equality for Black students is still a major obstacle.
Integration meant fewer teaching positions and Black teachers suffered the brunt of those job
loses severely, limiting the advocacy for Black students and the example Black teachers provided
for their Black students (Fairclough, 2004). Ford and King (2014) examined gifted programs
and “the inequitable distribution of resources and opportunities” for minority students that
promotes and exacerbates educational disparities (p. 3). The result of Brown v. Board of
Education made desegregated schools the law of the land; however, gifted academic programs
have turned into a “de facto” form of educational segregation (Ford, 2014). Underrepresentation
of minority students in gifted programs and lack of access to advanced curriculum is a major but
often neglected topic in discussions of the achievement gap. In 2011, Black students comprised
19% of school districts but only 10% of gifted education (Ford & King, 2014), exemplifying the
social injustice of underrepresentation. Underrepresentation of Black students’ participation in
gifted programs lurks at 50% failing to exhibit progress thus failing to provide evidence of true
educational desegregation. Research shows that giftedness exists in every racial group (Moore,
2005); however, resources are not equally and equitably distributed because of systemic
educational social injustices. Continually questioning and challenging social injustices within
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 15
the educational system is the greatest conduit in combatting gifted programs serving as modern
day tools of segregation.
The “American dream” submits that anything is possible with the right attitude
(Pasachoff, 2011). Ford et al. (2008a) examined students’ attitude/achievement paradox in
which there is a discrepancy between beliefs and subsequent behaviors as the gap between
attitude and educational achievement displayed by students is complex. The study discovered
that students profess that they believe education is crucial and valuable for success in life yet
many of the same students admit that they do not put forth much effort to achieve academic
success; that dichotomy contributes to low achievement. Unfortunately, this attitude/achievement
discrepancy appears too often amongst Black students. The achievement gap is affected by
social and behavioral elements but an important aspect is attitudinal. The achievement gap
between Blacks students and their peers can be reduced through greater participation of Blacks in
gifted programs if the proper attitude by both student and teacher are aligned. Lack of
participation of Black students in gifted education, leads to lack of participation in AP classes,
diminishing one’s chances to attend elite colleges and universities, thereby contributing to the
achievement gap (Ford et al., 2008, p. 222). Teachers must combat personal racial biases
manifested through life experiences as Black students combat an attitude/achievement paradox.
Black students who fail to reach their potential contribute to the persistent underrepresentation in
gifted education and that underrepresentation contributes to the achievement gap (p. 233).
Scholarly Identity
Many Blacks do not find self-efficacy in the classroom but rather on an athletic field or in
the entertainment industry (Whiting, 2006a). Whiting (2006a) explored the proposition that
underrepresentation of Black students in gifted education programs is influenced by their
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 16
identities as a student or their scholar identity. Whiting (2006a) also defined a scholar identity
“as one in which culturally diverse students view themselves as academicians,” studious,
competent, capable, intelligent and talented in school setting (p. 48). Developing a scholarly
identity is critical to promoting academic achievement and confidence in school. Students who
lack confidence in school become unmotivated and unengaged and are less likely to achieve
academic prominence making it difficult to be identified as gifted. Instead of finding self-
efficacy in a non-academic setting, Whiting (2006a) contended Black students must establish
their identity in the classroom, as scholarly identity is a byproduct of confidence because of
success achieved through the challenges of rigorous academia (p. 49). The unfortunate reality is
that many Blacks are not effectively prepared to develop identities as scholars or to fully
understand the impact that academic prowess will contribute to future aspirations (Lewis &
Jackson, 2014). When a student of color presumes a “scholarly identity,” questioning the
academic aptitude for giftedness is futile. Parents lay the foundation for children’s identity but
teachers also are responsible for assisting students’ development of a scholarly identity (Whiting,
2006, p. 49).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Solving the problem of the disproportionately low participation of Blacks in gifted
education will assist in closing the achievement gap (Moore, 2005). Efforts to enhance Black
student participation within gifted programs will foster greater achievement of diverse learners as
a multitude of reasons exists as to why Black students are not equitably identified as gifted and
participate in gifted programs throughout the nation. The Fourth Annual AP Report (2017)
noted that that Black and Latino students represented 28.6 of all graduating college seniors in the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 17
U.S., but only 21.4% took Advanced Placement (AP) examinations. In comparison, 64% of all
graduating college seniors are White and 61.7% took AP examinations.
The primary issue of concern is the disproportionate number of Black graduating college
seniors compared to their White counterparts, but also of concern is the disproportionately low
number of students of color who took classes designed for gifted students. Reducing the
achievement gap is a catalyst in solving the larger issue of high school completion, and
increasing representation of students of color attaining higher education. Black student
achievement and their involvement in gifted programs will provide insight by examining the
knowledge and motivation of teachers in relation to goals adopted by educational institutions to
increase the diversity of participants in an effort close the achievement gap.
Organizational Context and Mission
The organization to be studied is the GATE program within a large, public, California
school district. The district’s GATE program has a mission to “support unique and equitable
access for high achieving and underachieving pupils who are identified as Gifted” for 226
educational facilities, serving 131,252 students from pre-K thru 12
th
grade (San Diego Unified,
2018). The district’s District Advisory Committee (DAC) for the GATE Department serves as a
bridge to connect parent and community involvement for educational programs for gifted
students. The GATE DAC includes parent representatives from schools throughout SDUSD to
enhance communication between district administrators, school sites, and parents to establish,
strengthen and cater to the individual needs of schools within the district. The GATE DAC is a
conduit in providing necessary and constructive “feedback from parents to stimulate growth in
the GATE program” (SDUSD, 2018a). The district’s GATE program is responsible for
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 18
advancing the development of the program to assist in developing students within the district
with the highest academic potential.
The Office of Leadership and Learning within SDUSD is the source that helps to identify
and support gifted students within the district. The Office of Leadership and Learning along
with the GATE DAC work in unison to disseminate information regarding GATE and planning
gifted programming. One of SDUSD’s GATE goals “is to help parents, educators, and public
decision-makers recognize, value, and support the abilities and talents of children and youth
identified as gifted.”
Table 1
Student Enrollment by Ethnicity

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
American Indian or Alaska Native
0.3 %
0.3 %
0.2 %
Asian
8.4 %
8.4 %
8.5 %
Black or African American
9.3 %
9 %
8.7 %
Filipino
5.3 %
5.1 %
5 %
Hispanic or Latino
46.9 %
46.8 %
46.7 %
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
0.6 %
0.5 %
0.4 %
None Reported
0.3 %
0.5 %
0.7 %
Two or More Races
5.8 %
6.3 %
6.9 %
White
23.1 %
23 %
22.9 %

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 19

Figure 1. SDUSD organizational chart.

SDUSD is facing a performance problem, which is the lack of equity within their gifted
programs. Ed Data from 2017 reported the total ethnic or cultural diversity for the district
includes 46.9% Hispanic or Latino, 22.9% White, 8.7% African American, 5% Filipino, 8.5%
Asian, .2% Native American, .4% Pacific Islander and 6.9% are Multi Racial.
Data on the district’s GATE program show that 47% of the total student enrollment
within the district are Latino, yet only 33% of those enrolled in the GATE program are Latino.
Furthermore, Black students represent 9% of students, with only 4% in the GATE program
(Srikrishnan, 2017). The program includes 21,750 total participants that consist of 10,542
(48.5%) females and 11,208 (51.5%) males. The ethnic or cultural demographics of the GATE
includes 33.6% Hispanic, 33.1% White and 4.1% Black or African American.
Board of
Education
Superintendent
of Public Schools
Instructional
Branch
Area
Superintendents
Learning and
Leadership
GATE
DAC
Special
Education
Secondary
Schools
Family and
Community
Engagment
Intergrated
Technology
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 20

Figure 2. SDUSD GATE participant ethnicity.
There is a disparity between the racial and cultural construct of the district’s student body
compared to the participants of the district’s gifted program. This problem hinders the district’s
GATE goal according to their mission statement and solving this problem of inequity would
enable the district’s gifted and talented department to achieve its goal to “support unique and
equitable access” for all students, regardless of ethnicity or race, to participate within their
GATE program.
The total ethnic or cultural diversity for all SDUSD teachers includes 64.3% White,
17.4% Hispanic or Latino, 4.5% Black or African American, 3% Filipino, 4.5% Asian, .4%
Native American, .4% Pacific Islander, and .5% Multi Racial (Ed Data, 2017). The racial and
ethnic mismatch between students and teachers within district is obvious. Research suggests that
outcomes such as test scores, attendance and suspension rates are affected when the teaching
force reflects the demographics of the student body. As a consequence, the underrepresentation
of Black teachers relative to the proportion of Black students in the district may be a factor that
has limited Black student participation in the GATE program.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 21
Table 2
SDUSD Teacher Ethnicity

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
American Indian or Alaska Native
0.5 %
0.5 %
0.4 %
Asian
4.5 %
4.4 %
4.5 %
Black or African American
4.9 %
4.7 %
4.5 %
Filipino
3.1 %
3 %
3 %
Hispanic or Latino
17.6 %
17.1 %
17.4 %
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
0.4 %
0.4 %
0.4 %
None Reported
1.4 %
3.1 %
4.5 %
Two or More Races
0.6 %
0.6 %
0.5 %
White
66.9 %
65.8 %
64.3 %
Source: San Diego Unified
Organizational Performance Goal
The district’s gifted program believes that by working proactively with stakeholders in
the community, GATE will grow in equity. Because of this belief, the district developed the
GATE DAC which is comprised of parent representatives from schools throughout the district,
designed to represent all geographical areas of the district with the task of communicating
between district administrators to promote communication on GATE issues (SDUSD, 2017).
The district’s 2017-18 Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP) Goal 1 is entitled Closing
the Achievement Gap with High Expectations for All. Ref # 1.1.a Topic reads Multiple Measures
and Data –All Students, Students w Disabilities, GATE, African American, Latino. The
significance of the topics in the LCAP illustrates that the district has an understanding that a
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 22
greater emphasis should be placed on certain subgroups of the student population of GATE
participants, African Americans and Latinos, in order to close the achievement gap. The
LCAP’s action and services states, “African-American and Latino student achievement will be
monitored to inform the development of effective academic, attendance and behavior support
plans” but it fails to combine GATE goals with action and services associated with African
Americans and Latinos. Ref# 1.10.a entitled Additional Support for African American and
Latino Students states, “The district will continue to increase enrollment of students of color in
advanced courses (e.g., Advanced Placement [AP], International Baccalaureate [IB], college
classes,” yet does not provide a clear path to increasing enrollment. Without specific goals
provided by the organization, an improvement model study is a daunting task, however, if the
ultimate goal for SDUSD if to enhance equity within the GATE program, a priority should be
placed on increasing the percentages of Black student involvement.
Stakeholder Groups
There are multiple stakeholder groups that can be identified in supporting the
organization’s gifted education mission and goal to support unique and equitable access for high-
achieving and under-represented pupils identified to participate gifted education. The first group
is the teachers. Grissom, Rodriguez and Kern (2017) focused on the demographic characteristics
of a school’s teachers and principal in relation to identified giftedness of the student body.
Grissom found a linear relationship between a culturally diverse faculty and a culturally diverse
student body participating in gifted programs. The first step of participation within a school’s
gifted program is student identification and “teachers of color may be more attuned to giftedness
among racially and ethnically diverse students due to heightened sensitivity to cultural
differences” (p. 398). SDUSD (2015) reported a total teaching staff of 6,637. The teachers’
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 23
racial or cultural demographics consist of 4,443 White (66.9%), 1, 169 (17.6%) Hispanic or
Latino, 324 (4.9%) Black or African American, and 299 (4.5) Asian (California Ed-Data). The
disproportionate number of White teachers compared to Latino or Black teachers in the SDUSD
may give insight to the disproportionate number of White students who participate in the gifted
program compared to their Latino and Black counterparts. The increase of African American or
Latino teachers in a school increases the number of African American or Latino participation in
that school’s gifted programs (Grissom, p. 416). A more enhanced racial and ethnic diverse
teaching staff that better aligns with the racial and cultural demographics of the student body
would present a greater opportunity to change the racial and cultural composition of the district’s
GATE program pushing it closer to its mission of equity.
The second stakeholder group to consider are students or the participants of the district’s
gifted program. As Henfield’s (2010) studied revealed, many Black students perceive
educational giftedness as a negative attribute in relation to their racial identity. Resources must
be committed to better understand that perception and alter its course. If a negative general
stigma is attached, convincing an already skeptical group to participate is futile. The benefits of
participation in gifted programs must infiltrate and eradicate the negativity that surrounds the
Black student’s scholarly identity. As reported in the 4
th
Annual AP Report, African American
and Latino students represented 28.6% of all graduating college seniors in the U.S. but only
21.4% participated in gifted or AP education courses; in comparison, 64% of all graduating
college seniors are White and 61.7% took AP examinations illustrating a direct correlation
between gifted education in primary and secondary education and the completion of a tertiary
education.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 24
The third stakeholder group is the parents of Black students. Parents tend to be the
forgotten or most neglected of the three-legged stool of education necessary for a child’s success.
Contreras (2011) illustrated that the greater inclusion and partnership of the parental component
is a necessary approach to intervening and “strengthening the pathway to higher education
among underrepresented students” (p. 522). Though the district has established the GATE DAC,
a group committed to parental involvement within the gifted community, there is no evidence
that suggests the group actively educates parents on the benefits of participation in gifted
education or actively attempts to recruit families. Furthermore, since the majority of GATE
participants are White, inclusion could be a potential detriment to a group that is considered
academically elite. Brown v. Board of Education may have legally desegregated public
education, Ford’s (2014) study examined gifted programs and “the inequitable distribution of
resources and opportunities” for minority students that promotes and exacerbates educational
disparities (p. 3). If parents of Black students are not proactive in insisting their children
participate in gifted academic programs, their children may be victims of de facto educational
segregation.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 25
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 3
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The district’s Gifted and Talented Department’s goal is to support unique and equitable access
for all students, regardless of ethnicity or race, to participate within the program
Organizational Goal
By January 2021, the district will increase African American participation in its gifted
program from 4% to 6%.
Stakeholder Group 1
Teachers
Stakeholder Group 2
Students
Stakeholder Group 3
Parents
Stakeholder Group 1 Goals
By Fall 2020, in order to
attract Black participants into
the GATE program, all
elementary school teachers
will engage in
operationalizing the mission
of supporting unique and
equitable access to the gifted
program through diverse
methods of identification and
assessment.
Stakeholder Group 2 Goals
By the end of school year
2018, all Black elementary
school students will meet with
counselors to discuss gifted
education and to create
academic goals.
Stakeholder Group 3 Goals
By Summer 2018, designate
volunteer parent of current
gifted Black students to
contact potential elementary
school candidate’s parents.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
A complete analysis of the performance problem would involve all stakeholders’ groups,
however, given the scope of the study, the district’s teachers will be the focus. One of the most
important duties for teachers is to assess and identify students who exhibit signs of giftedness. It
is crucial that a student who is recognized as gifted be identified early within his or her
educational journey. Gifted students must be challenged with specialized and rigorous
curriculum or these exceptional students can suffer from boredom, discipline issues and
underachievement. Educators hold the key to opening the door to GATE as it is teachers who
advocate for rigorous and advanced curriculum for their gifted students. A nominated student is
expected to undergo a screening process to assess aptitude and skills. The process includes an
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 26
array of tests, a review of grades and a student interview in order to make an objective
determination of student’s academic ability (National Association for Gifted Children [NAGC],
2018).
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this research is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivational influences that interfere with the district’s goal of creating equitable access in their
gifted education program through increasing the racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity of student
participation. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or assumed interfering
influences that will be examined systematically to focus on actual or validated interfering
influences. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes
the stakeholder in this analysis are teachers.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to identification and placement
of potentially gifted Black students within the GATE program in order to operationalize
the district’s mission of providing equitable access?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis is the conceptual framework used to study the
organizational goals and identify the gap between the current performance level and the
preferred performance level of the organization. The methodological framework is a qualitative
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 27
case study with descriptive statistics. By researching the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences that interfere with the organization reaching the preferred performance
level, this study will be able to make research-based recommendations, evaluated in a
comprehensive manner. The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences will be
assessed by the use of interviews, a literature review and content analysis.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about diversity in the teaching
workforce. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the initial concepts of
gap analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding
the scope of the study. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering knowledge, motivation and
organizational elements as well as methodology when it comes to choice of participants, data
collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter
Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as
recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.
Definitions
Achievement gap: Refers to any significant and persistent disparity in academic
performance or educational attainment between different groups of students, such as White
students and minorities, for example, or students from higher-income and lower-income
household.
Educators of Color: A term used to describe U.S. teachers that are either Latino or Black.
GATE: Gifted and Talented Education, an acronym used to describe specialized
education for students identified with exceptional educational aptitude.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 28
Gifted: Federal Definition: Students, children, or youth who give evidence of high
achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in
specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the
school in order to fully develop those capabilities (NAGC, n.d.-a).
SDUSD: An acronym used for the San Diego Unified School District.
Students of Color: The term used to describe students in grades K-12 in U.S. education
system that are identified as either Latino or Black.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 29
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will examine the relevant literature on educational equity within gifted
education programs. Nationally, Black students are the most underrepresented group in gifted
programs (United States Department of Education Office of Civil Rights,
Civil rights data collection. Author, Washington, DC, 2006, 2009). A contribution to the
achievement gap is the disproportionate percentage of Black students, compared to their White
counterparts that are selected and participate in GATE. The reduction of the achievement gap is
vital in order to better respond to the challenges of the disproportionate percentage of Black
college graduates compared to their White peers.
Educational Segregation/Integration
Understanding America’s history of integration in the educational system is crucial to
comprehending racial divisiveness in today’s public schools. Before, during and after segregated
schools became unconstitutional, Black students have been the most underrepresented in gifted
programs than any other group and there has never been a time in history where the data would
suggest otherwise (Grantham, 2013). The inability or resistance to include Black students into
gifted programs has been a barrier toward full educational integration. The inclusion of Black
students into gifted programs is not an issue of student aptitude but rather an issue of modern day
segregation. The pervasive low Black enrollment in gifted programs is not by chance,
considering educational policy governing access to advanced programs usually requires teacher
referral (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011). Educational segregation is a byproduct of teachers’
failure to refer Blacks into gifted education resulting in underachievement and further
exasperating the achievement gap (Ford, 2011).

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 30
Brown v Board
The results of the historic case, Brown v. Board of Education (1954) legally erased social
injustices of school segregation, however providing equity for historically marginalized groups
within America’s educational systems is still a major obstacle today (Ford, 2014). Ford (2014)
found that Black students comprised 19% of school districts but 10% of gifted enrollment
equating to 47% underrepresentation. Though the Brown decision mandated educational
desegregation, the spirit of the decision remains unfulfilled especially for gifted Black students.
Prejudices prevent the actualization of desegregated gifted education programs violating the
principles and mandate of the historic Brown decision (Valencia, 2010).
Historic Perspective
According to both Belfield and Levin (2007) a student’s educational attainment is one of
the most significant determinants of future success and Blacks attainment of equitable education
has historically been significantly less than their White counterparts; this is known as the
attainment gap. The attainment gap is a profound historical contributor to the achievement gap.
In 1870, 10% of Black children and 54% of White children were enrolled in school compared to
1991 where 93% of each race was enrolled. Since 1870, there has been a steady increase in the
education level for the nation’s general population (Levine & Levine, 2014). By the end of the
19th century the inequalities of education between Blacks and Whites was extremely glaring.
The discrepancies were so large that the NAACP initiated countless litigation in an attempt to
improve education for Blacks utilizing the Plessy v Ferguson (1896) doctrine of “separate but
equal” as Black and White schools were drastically unequal in all aspects. The battle for
educational equity for Blacks began prior to Plessy v Ferguson continued through Brown v.
Board and is perpetuated today in the demographic disparity in gifted education. According to
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 31
Grantham (2011), self-preserving educators and educational policy makers were found to be
more concerned about the effect of the reputation of a culturally diverse class enrollment in
gifted education, especially amongst White parents, than mandating equity. Research shows that
teachers and educational policy makers who fail, whether intentionally or unintentionally, to
consider the nation’s historical inequities in education exasperate the achievement gap.
Gifted Education is DeFacto Educational Segregation
Within education, America has exhibited a passion for tribalism and a reluctance to yield
equity amongst races or ethnicities. Though educational segregation commenced with the
decision of Brown v. Board, gifted programs have emerged as a legal course of stifling
educational equity (Ford, 2014). When public schools began to desegregate, gifted education
expanded as a professional field and many who opposed integration strategically utilized gifted
education to inappropriately continue a separate education for White students (Ford & Grantham,
2007). Recent data show that Black students are only likely to receive 59% gifted services
proportionate to their presence in the broader student population (Grissom et al., 2017). Gifted
services provide the appropriate rigor for students who exhibit the greatest potential and the lack
of those educational services for Black students is a major obstacle to overcome the numerous
historical societal burdens and injustices (Grantham, 2013). Gifted education services are
disproportionately represented by White students acting as a catalyst to advance their climb up
the social and fiscal hierarchy (McIntosh, 1988). Underrepresentation for Black students in
gifted programs persist because educational policy makers utilize gifted programs to support the
status quo preventing true educational desegregation (Kohn, 1998).

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 32
Gifted Education
Superior intellect is a gift that must be nurtured to blossom and studied to be understood
and all students should be provided with an education appropriate to his or her individual needs
(Eakin, 2007). Lewis Terman, known as the “father” of gifted education, published a study in
1925 entitled Genetic Studies of Genius. The study concluded that gifted students shared an
infinitely variable combination of six traits which included (a) qualitatively different in school,
(b) slightly better physically and emotionally in comparison to normal students, (c) superior in
academic subjects in comparison to the average students, (d) emotionally stable, (e) most
successful when education and family values were held in high regard by the family, and (f)
infinitely variable in combination with the number of traits exhibited by those in the study
(Beauvais, 2016; Jolly, 2005). The majority of students is Terman’s (1925) study came from
Western Europe of Caucasian or Jewish ancestry, as noted: 30.7% English, 15.7% German,
11.3% Scotch, 9.0% Irish, and 5.7% French, and 10.5% Jewish. The initial study failed to
consider the effects of sexism, discrimination, societal expectations or stereotypes (Jolly, 2005).
Although, the majority of participants in is his study were homogenous, lacking ethnic or racial
diversity, the six traits Terman found exhibited by gifted students did not and do not share a
universal race or ethnicity. Terman’s research illustrated the need to provide specialized
education for gifted students. Further research and data collected after Terman’s initial study
conveyed gifted students’ dissatisfaction with insufficient learning opportunities that coincide
with a need to acquire knowledge of new concepts and a greater exploration of known concepts,
which is provided through gifted education (Benbow & Stanley, 1996; Eakin, 2007).

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 33
The Need for Gifted Education
All students should be afforded an education that meets and challenges their appropriate
needs and gifted students possess unique learning requirements (Morawska & Sanders, 2009).
High academic achievers or students with high ability need gifted education to challenge, enrich
and nurture them beyond the regular classroom setting (Jolly, 2005). Gifted children possess
abilities significantly above the norm for their age and their giftedness manifest in intellectual,
creative, artistic and/or leadership domains (Scott, 2012). Gifted education provides specialized
instruction necessary for adequate development of the brightest students and in classrooms that
concentrate on low-level task, with minimal expectations, unfavorable circumstances exist that
are essential for their academic success (Moon, Brighton, & Callahan 2003). Without
challenging curriculum, many gifted students become bored and disengaged in regular classroom
instruction and as educators construct differentiation modifications to assure the success of low-
achieving students, specified modifications must be implemented into gifted students’
curriculum to assure their success (Eakin, 2007; Moon et al., 2003).
To Be or Not To Be Gifted
Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius and Worrell (2011) explained that many view giftedness as
a performance at the upper echelon of talent and determining who is gifted is based on very
narrowly defined tests and exams that fail to measure other talents and abilities. Historically, the
primary attention to gifted education is a result of intellectual abilities where giftedness is
perceived as a generic and innate quality of an individual recognized through a cognitive
assessment or IQ test (Robinson, Zigler, & Gallagher, 2000). Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius and
Worrell (2011) conducted research that suggested giftedness went beyond the simple mastery of
an exam but rather giftedness included characteristics such as task performance, creativity and
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 34
motivation. He further concluded that outstanding performance was attributed two
environmental factors that included practice and unequal access to opportunities. Research
indicates that academic giftedness is complex and although general ability and potential may be
essential to academic prowess, giftedness it is determined by a multitude of variables that cannot
always be determined by a test or exam (Subotnik & Rickoff, 2010).
GATE History
1974 marked the genesis of the national implementation of gifted education in public
schools as the U.S. Department of Education housed the Office of the Gifted and Talented.
Although Federal law acknowledged that children with gifts and talents possessed unique needs,
no specific provisions, mandates or requirements were established, instead the task to educate the
gifted became the responsibility of state government (NAGC, 2018; U.S. Department of
Education, 2018). Individual states formulated different names for their formal gifted programs.
In 1980, the California Legislature created legislation AB1040 to adopt the federal definition of
gifted and named their gifted program GATE. The legislation provided for 200 minutes a week
of differentiated curriculum. In 1986, the legislature passed AB555 to ensure that GATE
continued and improved and it provided appropriate funding for all school districts upon
application and approval from the California Department of Education (California Department of
Education, 2018).
California GATE Eligibility
The eligibility requirements utilized to partake in GATE include an identification process
of three factors. The first is the screening of all second grade students using a test of cognitive
ability called the Naglieri Nonverbal Test (NNT) or the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, Eighth
Edition (OLSAT 8) is utilized for the 4th grade. Students who score in the top 10%
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 35
(approximately 92% or higher) are then recommended further screening, with parent permission.
Standardized test scores are the second determining factor. Scores must range in the advanced
range on the California Standards Test in either English Language Arts or Math. The other score
cannot be below the proficient range. Cut point scores are used but vary from grade level to
grade level. The third is teacher referral through gifted characteristic identification. The child’s
teacher is asked to complete a teacher checklist that rates each student in six areas or domains of
giftedness: creative, intellectual, high achievement, leadership, specific academic aptitude and
visual and performing arts. A composite of the three factors is used to identify and select GATE
participants (California Department of Education, 2018).
Growth and diversity. The history of gifted education illustrated effort to identify
scholastic giftedness in students. Anguiano (2003) discussed a lack of inherent intellectual
differences among ethnicities and races and questioned the lack of culturally equitable
participants in gifted education. Appropriate implementation and placement of all gifted
students is mandated by both federal and state law, however, time has created a disparity
between White students and their peers suggesting that White students have a greater capacity to
absorb scholarly information, giving them greater rights and access to gifted education
(Grantham, 2013). In order for gifted education to achieve its intent, social barriers that hinder
appropriate curriculum for all students must be eliminated as gifted education benefits all by
motivating and raising standards (Anguiano, 2003).
Scholarly Identity
A student’s self-perception is crucial to academic success and one’s identification with
school is key to enhancing academic self-perception that develops a scholarly identity (Cross,
Bugaj, & Mammadov, 2016). Students encounter powerful social influences while in school and
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 36
many of those social influences provide confliction to academic prowess. According to
Oyserman (2007), students are motivated to engage in scholarly activities, cultivating their
scholarly identity, when his or her peers engage in scholarly activities. Oyserman (2007) further
revealed that the motivation to pursue scholarly activities diminish if one’s peers fail to value
such activities. A dichotomy exists for many students, academic strength versus popularity.
Cross et al. (2016) found that an emotional connection to school is predictive to academic
success and though gifted students have exhibited exceptional academic potential, their
identification with school is not assured by their abilities. Cross et al. (2016) research showed
that stigmatizing conditions lead to the exclusion of peers and many Black students were
cautious to avoid the label of “brainiac” because it was seen as weak and effeminate (p. 27).
Whiting (2006) explored the underrepresentation of Black students in gifted education programs
and found that it was influenced by their identities as a student or their scholarly identity as
social variables are paramount to their motivation and academic engagement, thereby
contributing to the achievement gap (Fryer & Torelli, 2005; Ogbu, 2004).
Black Student Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy affects a student’s goals, choice of activities and his or her persistence in
classroom activities, ultimately affecting their academic achievement (Bandura, 2000; Schunk &
Pajares, 2005). Many Black students find self-esteem through the entertainment industry or on
an athletic field and not in the classroom as appearance, attention to peers and athleticism are
activities of greater value than studying amongst most adolescents but especially amongst Black
adolescents (Cross et al., 2016). Self-efficacy in the classroom is only possible through
successful navigation of rigorous academia, which will elicit belief in their talent and intelligence
(Whiting, 2006). The gap between attitude and achievement displayed by Black students is one
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 37
of the most complex paradoxes in education. “On one hand, a student will profess that he or she
believes that getting an education is important and valuable for success in life. On the other
hand, that same student will report that he or she does not put forth much effort in school”; that
paradox contributes to the low achievement of many Black students (Ford et al., 2008).
Giftedness is the manifestation of performance and those with a high sense of self-efficacy will
exert effort to perform. Low academic self-efficacy is a major variable as to why gifted Black
students fail to reach their potential further contributing to the achievement gap and to their
underrepresentation in gifted education (Ford et al., 2008).
“Acting White”
Racial identity development has a profound impact on the academic experience of Black
students (Kozol, 2005). Because of stereotypes associated with race and intelligence as Ford et
al. (2008b) found that racial identity development was of great significance for high-achieving
Black students. In a study, Henfield et al. (2010) reported that many intellectual Black students
felt that they had to defend their identities as “real” African Americans to their peers who
exhibited inferior aptitude. Perception is reality, as many Black students perceive educational
giftedness as a negative attribute in relation to their racial identity. Henfield et al. (2010)
highlighted the perception of academic prowess by a student of color associated with “acting
white”. Black participants in Henfield’s study (2010) reported that they had been told or knew
“someone who had been accused of ‘acting white’ because they were Black intellectual” (p. 19).
Though desegregation was a moral necessity, White authorities implemented it and Buck (2016)
contented that the social change of integration established scholarly achievement as a part of
White identity that led indirectly to today’s achievement gap. Ford (2008b) explored gifted
Black students and they expressed terms such as “being intelligent”, “caring about school”, and
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 38
“taking advanced/honors” classes as “acting White”. Black students in Ford’s (2008b) study
associated Black students who “acted White” as “uppity”, “stuck up”, and “not embracing Black
culture”. Many gifted Black students who academically excel are viewed as traitors to their race.
Research shows that many Black students have a negative perception of intelligence and
academic prowess, as it is associated with a stigma of “acting White”. That stigma is a betrayal
to one’s racial group and acts as a hindrance to academic achievement for many Black students.
Ford et al. (2008) found that Black students need for affiliation and the desire to avoid negative
peer pressure was greater than the need for achievement.
Higher education related to gifted education. Ford et al. (2008) surmised that the
underrepresentation of Black students in gifted education was a result of their failure to reach his
or her potential, which contributed to the achievement gap. An overlap between gifted education
and higher education exists, as gifted education, by means of AP classes, is the gateway to elite
colleges and universities (Ford, 2006). The Office for Civil Rights (2016) reported that White
students represented 49% of public schools, yet 62% were in gifted education programs, while
Black students represented 19% of public schools but only 10% were in gifted programs
(Duncan & Lhamon, 2016). That discrepancy equated to more than 250,000 Black students
annually, without access to gifted education. Data has indicated that there are greater
opportunities to acquire rigorous curriculum for White students than for Black students through
gifted education and that rigorous curriculum acts as a propellant to higher education, especially
acceptance to elite universities. The academic rigor a student undertakes is among the strongest
predictors of bachelor’s degree attainment (Adelman, 1999). Gifted education is the pipeline to
institutions of higher education and that pipeline is primed for at least 10 years as many gifted
programs commence in second grade. Kettler and Hurst (2017) explained that the results of
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 39
gifted education lead to a higher GPA and class ranking and colleges look at the difficulty of
student’s classes to ascertain the level of academic commitment. Research consistently supports
gifted education as a gateway to higher education (Borman, Stringfield and Rachuba, 2000).
Evidence is clear that Black students do not participate in gifted education to the degree as their
White counterparts and the disparity further exasperates the achievement gap into higher
education.
Role of Teachers and Educators
The goal of education is for all children to reach the maximum of their potential.
Children with disabilities are protected under federal regulations to assure educational potential
is fulfilled, however, little attention is focused specifically on high-achieving students as limited
resources are dedicated to K-12 teachers’ preparation for gifted students (Subotnik et al., 2011).
Wong and Wong (1998) exclaimed a teachers' perception of his or her students has a profound
and significant influence on individual scholastic performance that provides access to future
educational opportunities, which shape the learning environment. The United States Department
of Education reported that 82% of public teachers were White (U.S. Department of Education,
2016). Teachers spend six to seven hours each school day with students and are often gate
openers for gifted White students but gatekeepers for gifted Black students (Ford & Whiting,
2016) as several studies find White teachers are more likely to have negative perceptions and
low expectations of Black students (Dee, 2005). A teachers’ role is to act as a conduit in
maximizing their students’ educational opportunity and potential, however, Black students are
drastically under-referred for gifted programs and if not referred, students are unlikely to be
given further consideration (Ford et al., 2009).

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 40
Qualifications
The majority of teachers have no formal training in gifted education and minimal training
in multicultural education and that lack of training reduces the probability of access to gifted
programs for Black students (Ford, 2011). Many states throughout the nation, to include
California, do not require general education teachers to receive specialized training on gifted
students after an initial teacher certification is attained and individual school districts or the
Local Educational Agency establish the professional requirements needed to teach gifted
education (NAGC, 2018). Though gifted education training exists, fewer than 40 colleges and
universities nationwide offer such courses or programs (NAGC, 2014). In lieu of training or
qualifications, the majority of teachers use subjectivity or mere opinions to identify and nominate
students for gifted education and their opinions must be challenged do to the disparity amongst
Black and White participants in gifted programs.
Bias. Student analysis by a classroom teacher is usually the genesis of gifted education
participation and the basis for that analysis derives from the teacher’s perception of potential
giftedness (McBee, 2006), however, most perception is rooted in bias. Even when students have
similar academic success, teachers are less likely to perceive giftedness among Black students
compered to their White counterparts (Grissom et al., 2017) and teachers are more likely to have
negative perceptions and low expectations of Black students (Dee, 2005). Ford et al. (2008)
explained that because of bias, Black students believe White educators have low expectations of
them academically, intellectually and socially. In order for bias to be reduced, educators must be
honest and challenge their potential notions of intellectual ineptness of Black students (Henfield
et al., 2010). Perceptions are a powerful determinant of behavior and disparity in gifted
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 41
education will remain steadfast if teachers have a negative perception of academic ability
associated with Black students.
Selecting Black children for gifted programs. The first step of participation within a
school’s gifted program is student identification and referral. The referral process toward gifted
education participation has historically been a source of inequity and partiality. McBee’s (2006)
research showed teachers were effective at referring White middle-class students into gifted
programs but significant questions remained in their ability to detect and refer students with high
academic potential who came from underrepresented backgrounds. The probability of referral to
gifted education varies greatly across race and background and the disparity illustrates an
obvious under-nomination of Black students. Due to concerns of weakness with academic skills,
teachers are reluctant to refer Black students for gifted education; however, teachers often
misinterpret dissimilar culture for academic weakness (Ford, 2008). There are significant
connections between the diversity of a school’s educators and the representation of Black
students in gifted education. Henfield (2010) explained that Black teachers are generally more
attuned to giftedness among Black students due to heightened sensitivity to cultural differences.
However, there is a shortage of Black teachers compared to Black students and implementing
culturally sensitive policy will circumvent biases in the identification process Grissom et al.
2017; McBee, 2006).
Teacher Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Reviewing literature that focuses on knowledge-related influences pertinent for teachers
within the district is essential in assuring they successfully engage in operationalizing the
district’s GATE program mission of supporting unique and equitable access for pupils identified
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 42
as gifted. When learning or teaching new concepts, it must be understood that people are not
blank slates but rather take previously acquired knowledge and compound it with new
knowledge acquired from their daily lives (Ambrose, 2010). The more relevant knowledge one
acquires, the greater equipped that individual will be to successfully perform his or her duties.
Teachers within the district may lack the knowledge to achieve the mission and based on
cognitive research, as cited by Ambrose et al. (2010), it would be erroneous to assume that prior
knowledge translates into accurate knowledge needed for future success. Equity is a wide-
ranging concept where many have their own definition. To avoid ambiguity and operationalize
the mission with clarity, teachers must be equipped with knowledge of the district’s working
definition of equity and how that definition should be incorporated in order to implement the
mission.
The purpose of this study is to understand the knowledge of teachers in the district in
order to adequately support their capacity to operationalize the district’s mission of promoting
equitable access to the GATE program by identifying and nominating students based on
characteristics other than traditional measures. The knowledge one needs to effectively execute
his or her job must be clear in order for success to be attained (Rueda, 2011). To gain a
comprehensive understanding of the teachers’ knowledge, this study will utilize Krathwohl’s
(2002) framework of the four different knowledge types. Factual means performance requires
knowledge of basic facts, information and terminology. It includes the basic elements one must
know or be familiar with to solve a problem within a specific area. Conceptual refers to
knowledge of underlying categories, principles, structure or theory. It is the interrelationship of
basics and within a more robust structure that enables them to work together and complement
each other and it asks and answers “why?” Procedural refers to knowledge of the skills and
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 43
procedures involved with the task, including techniques, methods and necessary steps. It is
simply, knowing how to do something. Metacognitive is the ability to reflect on and adjust
necessary skills and knowledge including strategies, assessing demands, planning one’s approach
and monitoring progress. It is knowledge of cognition in general and awareness and knowledge
of one’s own cognition (Rueda, 2011). Differentiating knowledge into distinct categories acts as
an aid in properly identifying any assets and needs.
Knowledge related to definition of equity. The organization has a desire to increase the
number of Black students who participate in their GATE program. In 2016, the word “equity”
was incorporated into the program’s mission statement. As the foundation of operationalizing
the mission, teachers need to be equipped with a clear understanding of the concept of equity.
The district might assume that the teachers who select GATE participants are all working with
the same knowledge and understanding of equity. Conceptual knowledge further describes
factual information. In order for teachers to operationalize the mission, they need to know the
district’s definition of equity and why it is an important element of the GATE program. Without
universal comprehension of equity and why it should be incorporated, a lack of conceptual
knowledge exist resulting in a lack of capacity to implement the mission at a foundational level.
Though the teachers may possess some knowledge relevant to equity or equitable outcomes, it
may not be sufficient to successfully support the district’s goals. According to Ambrose, Bridges
and Lovett (2010), prior knowledge can affect both the instructor and the student by making
assumptions that the student may be better prepared for a particular task. Therefore, in the
context of this study, the district may assume that their teachers’ prior knowledge and
understanding of equity is sufficient in guiding them to operationalizing the mission of
promoting equity and how it applies to increasing the number of Black participants within the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 44
GATE program. The purpose of the study is to understand the degree to which teachers are able
to take information and analyze correlations that are in unison with district’s definition of equity.
Understanding the need for a focus on equity. Ambrose et al. (2010) articulate that
misconceptions play a vital role in denigrating one’s knowledge. Teachers may have
misconceptions as to why the district has placed greater emphasis on promoting equity within the
GATE program. Ambrose et al. (2010) explained that misconceptions are “theories that are
deeply embedded” in one’s thinking (p. 24). Rueda (2011) incorporates the understanding of
theories into conceptual knowledge. In order for teachers to operationalize the GATE mission
statement, they need to understand why the district has focused on equity within the program and
equip themselves with an understanding of why it is essential for the program’s success.
Mikulyuk and Braddock (2018) emphasized the importance of cultural and ethnic inclusion in
education as it is accompanied by specific aims to value and “effectively and equitably utilize the
talents of all people” (p. 10). If the district has not provided teachers clear reasons why the
mission was altered to include “equity” within the GATE program’s mission to guide their
conceptual knowledge, misconceptions have the potential to grow. Lack of understanding as
well as misconceptions will hinder the district’s goal of promoting greater equity within its
GATE program by increasing its Black participants.
Based on the disproportionality of Black students in GATE, the procedure for participant
identification and nomination must be examined and scrutinized. Ambrose et al. (2010)
explained that individuals may know facts and concepts but may not know how or when to apply
them. Teachers may know that equity is important but applying that knowledge to increase
Black student participation in GATE may be foreign or challenging. Teachers need to know how
to implement strategies to attract and recruit diversity, specifically Black students, in order to
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 45
achieve equity within the GATE program. If teachers have factual or conceptual knowledge it
cannot not be assumed that they also know how to apply that knowledge to generate the results
needed to operationalize the mission. There may be Black students who would thrive in the
academic rigor that GATE provides but teachers may fail to recognize their talent beyond
traditional measures. In those situations, it is imperative that teachers are equipped with
procedural knowledge to assess indistinct candidates for GATE. Knowing the importance of
equity in GATE is a different kind of knowledge than knowing when or how to attract equity and
lacking the procedural knowledge is detrimental to operationalizing the district’s mission.
Metacognitive knowledge is important when problem solving and determining the best
course of action based on various factors. It forces one to reflect on experiences and to identify
possible areas of improvement. Metacognition will allow the teachers to assess their personal
motivations and values in relation to identification and nomination of equity within the GATE
program. Ambrose et al. (2010) explained that metacognitive knowledge is an assessment of
one’s strengths and weaknesses in order to develop in areas that need work. A teacher may be
equipped with both the conceptual and procedural knowledge yet struggle still struggle with
recruiting diversity into the GATE program. The struggle may be related to motivation or
value/lack of value such as biases and in order to overcome and effectively incorporate equity
into GATE nominations an honest self-assessment that examines strengths, preferences and or
weaknesses is crucial. Metacognition is a higher-order of thinking that builds sophisticated
mental structures that are especially important when problem solving and determining the most
effective way to improve.
Table 4 presents the assumed teacher knowledge influences of the GATE program for
SDUSD organized into different knowledge types.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 46
Table 4
SDUSD GATE Assumed Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type

Teachers need to know the district’s definition
of equity and how the district expects Black
and Latino students to be incorporated within
that definition.

Declarative (Factual)

Teachers need to know why the district has
focused on equity within GATE and why it is
essential to the success of the program.
Declarative (Conceptual)

Teachers need to know how to implement
strategies to attract and recruit diversity,
specifically Black students, in order to achieve
equity within the GATE program.
Procedural

Teachers need to know how to reflect on their
personal recruitment of diversity, specifically
Black students, through awareness of potential
biases, in order to achieve equity within the
GATE program.
Metacognitive

Motivation
In addition to knowledge, motivation is a key influence on performance. Knowledge
provides the intellectual structure to achievement but motivation delivers the direction,
persistence and energy to accomplish goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Ambrose et al. (2010) credit
motivation as the element that generates, directs and sustains goal achievement (p. 69). It is
crucial to review literature that places emphasis on motivation-related influences that are
pertinent to the achievement of teachers operationalizing SDUSD’s GATE mission. According
to Dembo and Seli (2016) three elements are contained in motivated behavior 1) Choice of
behavior 2) Level of activity and involvement 3) Persistence and management of effort (p.32).
Every day brings new choices and the choices an individual makes is a powerful determinant of
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 47
one’s motivation. Teachers have the choice of nominating students who they believe are
appropriate candidates for GATE and though the GATE mission statement encourages equity
within the program, the disparity of Black student participation will not decrease unless teachers
make the choice to consciously identify deserving Black students. The teachers who choose to
put effort into rejecting the status quo for GATE nominations will assist the district in
operationalizing the mission. The level of activity or involvement that one exhibits is
tantamount to one’s motivation. A teacher must believe that there is value in equity within the
GATE program. If considerable effort is made by a teacher to reduce the disproportionality of
Black students in GATE, his or her motivation will be obvious. The effort and persistence one
puts into something is a compelling indication of motivation. A teacher’s responsibilities and
work is endless and conventionality is the panacea to intrusive tasks. However, conventionality
in GATE identification will not increase Black student participation. If a teacher believes in the
GATE mission of promoting equity, their atypical nominees will illustrate their effort and
persistence. Eccles (2007) explained that motivation is enhanced if the task is valued and
teachers must believe that there is value in promoting equity in GATE in order for them to
implement the mission statement. In the context of this study, motivation would be measured by
teachers’ engagement in the process of recognizing student ability beyond traditional measures
of academic achievement and the amount of time teachers exert effort to promote diverse
inclusion in GATE enrollment. Eccles (2007) identified expectancy value as a key catalyst to
motivation.
Expectancy value theory. Expectancy value theory provides an explanation as to the
motivation of an individual’s choices and assist in delineating one’s motivation in terms of
maximum pleasure versus minimal pain. Eccles (2007) theorized that achievement is divided
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 48
into two factors, expectancies for success and task value. Eccles (2007) further explained that
motivation is enhanced when tasks are valued and divided value into four factors that include 1)
degree of enjoyment of the task (intrinsic), 2) the degree the task is useful (extrinsic or utility
value), 3) the importance of the task to one’s identity (attainment value), and 4) the degree in
which the task’s benefits outweigh the costs. Task value is the motivation that allows an
individual to answer the question, “Do I want to do this activity and Why?” Of the four factors,
the two most relevant to this study are attainment value and utility value.
Attainment value correlates to the importance of one’s self. In order to fully engage in
operationalizing the mission related to equitable outcomes, teachers should feel that supporting
unique and equitable access for pupils identified as gifted is one of their core responsibilities and
therefore, perceive it to have attainment value. Simply put, it would be important the teachers
see equity as a core responsibility in their role as an educator. Utility value questions the
usefulness or relevance of a task. Utility value would assert that it is useful to have an equitable
representation of Black students in the GATE program.
Table 5
SDUSD GATE Assumed Motivational Influences
Motivation Construct Assumed Motivation Influence
Utility Value Utility Value –Teachers need to see the value in
equitable participation, especially for Black
students, in the GATE program.
Attainment Value Goal Attainment - Teachers should feel that
supporting unique and equitable access for pupils
identified as gifted is their core responsibility

Organizational Influences
Even when people are knowledgeable and motivated the culture of an organization can
hinder performance (Rueda, 2011). Organizational influences, in addition to knowledge and
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 49
motivation, are paramount in the determination of whether a stakeholder can be successful in
performing their roles. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) explained that organizational
influences can be categorized into two: models and settings. Models consist of values, beliefs
and attitudes; things that are generally automated and invisible, whereas settings are visible or
tangible and appear within the setting of the activity. Rueda (2011) articulated that everyone in
an organization may have the appropriate knowledge and skills and may be highly motivated but
the organization itself may have deficiencies that impede performance. A classroom would be
considered a complex social context with a dynamic cultural setting. Typical organizational
culture is not static but rather dynamic and complex, leading to both variable and compounded
influences. Non-participation, lack of goals, lack of communication and lack of support are
some of the organizational influences explored in this study.
Non-participation. Lack of or non-participation, also known as acceptance of passivity
by the stakeholders will stifle any organization’s mission. The district must assure that teachers,
as well as all other stakeholder groups, are universally participating and working towards goals
in order successfully operationalize its GATE mission. The habitual practices of individuals set
and expected by an organization have influence over whether an organization’s goals will be met
(Rueda, 2011). In other words, the district must have an expectation that all individuals are
habitually and constantly working toward accomplishing the mission.
As a critical step in the process, the district needs to develop a definition of equity that is
disseminated, discussed, and habitually practiced by teachers in order to operationalize the
GATE mission statement. A universal definition would provide the framework of a cultural
model and clarity to the teachers who are expected to support equitable access to the GATE
program. The development of a universal definition would encourage teachers to participate in
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 50
operationalizing the GATE mission. This study, therefore, will probe into the degree to which
teachers feel that the district has developed a culture of equity that results in greater participation
of Black students in the GATE program.
Lack of goals. Dembo and Seli (2016), citing research by Locke and Latham (2002),
emphasized goal setting as the catalyst to self-regulation. Without organizational goals, it would
be challenging to engage stakeholders in the process of accomplishing the mission. Goals are
concrete and must be clear in an organization in order to acquire maximum productivity. Rueda
(2011) explained that goals not only provide direction but also act as a barometer toward
organizational mission accomplishment. Dembo and Seli (2016) emphasized the challenge of
motivating stakeholders without goals and exclaimed that performance is a byproduct of goals
set by an organization.
Considering teachers have a multitude of responsibilities, a culture that lacks specific
goals expected by the district in regards to supporting equitable access to the GATE program
will lead to dismal support of accomplishing the mission. Ambrose (2010) warned that when
goals are not clearly articulated, it is difficult to know what or how to accomplish a mission. As
an organization, the district must provide a culture with clear goals for its teachers if success is
expected in supporting equitable access to GATE. This study will probe into the degree to which
teachers are aware of any goals that cultivate a culture of promoting and encouraging equity,
specifically for Black students.
Lack of communication. Clark and Estes (2008) exclaimed that clear and candid
communication leads to trust, producing enhanced performance within an organization. Trust in
the mission of the organization will increase stakeholder commitment to goals. An organization
must communicate and continually repeat its message to engender stakeholders to understand
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 51
and recognize the mission. Clark and Estes (2008) further articulated that communication helps
people to adjust behavior that is not aligned with the organizational goals. Furthermore,
communication within an organization helps to align the cultural setting through policies and
procedures (Clark, 2008). Effective communication aids in interpreting the message of the
organization clearly and many times stakeholders may not know what success looks like. It is
imperative for an organization to continually communicate their vision and expectations with
stakeholders through clear examples of success leading to trust needed to fulfill the mission.
It is challenging to communicate expectations without examples of success and if the
district fails to communicate the purpose of its mission, the teachers will not respond in
operationalizing it. The words of the mission and what is communicated through example or
nonverbal/indirect communication are completely different. By exhibiting and celebrating
examples of teachers who have promoted equity in GATE by nominating Black students into the
program will act as a nonverbal or indirect message producing unconscious communication that
broadcasts true intentionality of the mission. Dembo and Seli (2008) citing Johnson (2003)
highlighted the power of nonverbal or indirect communication utilized with verbal or direct
messaging as a way to clarify, strengthen and emphasize directives. This study, therefore, will
probe into the degree to which teachers feel that the district has provided a culture setting of
communication that results in greater participation of Black students in the GATE program.
Lack of support. Clark and Estes (2008) emphasized the necessity of an organization to
provide stakeholders with adequate support to include training that provides knowledge and
skills in order to achieve goals. The lack of resources devoted to support stakeholders in their
pursuit to achieve organizational goals can act as a barrier to success. It is inappropriate to
presume that all stakeholders will utilize identical methodology to excel; hence, the organization
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 52
must provide a culture of support in a multitude of ways in order to encourage ingenuity and
freedom within organizational parameters that will lead to goal attainment.
Rueda (2011) explained the usefulness of existing programs or initiatives incorporated in
school districts as a source to organizational success but emphasized the need for evidence that
supports the result of a particular initiative. The support mechanisms provided by the district
available for teachers in their pursuit to increase Black student participation in GATE must be
scrutinized. There may be existing initiatives of support for teachers that promote equity,
however the district lacks evidence that supports a difference is being made. The district needs
to support faculty by providing resources and freedom to assist in measuring student ability
beyond traditional measures of academic achievement. This study will probe into the degree to
which teachers are supported in cultivating a culture of promoting and encouraging equity
through the development of creative means of identifying giftedness, specifically for Black
students.
Table 6
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational
Influence Category
Assumed Organizational Influences

Cultural Model
Influence 1
The district needs to cultivate a culture of promoting and
encouraging equity, specifically for Black students.

Cultural Model
Influence 2
The district needs to develop a universal definition of equity
that is disseminated, discussed and practiced by teachers in
order to operationalize the GATE mission statement.
Cultural Setting
Influence 1
The district needs to provide faculty with the resources and
freedom to assist in measuring student ability beyond
traditional measures of academic achievement.

Cultural Setting
Influence 2
The district needs to exhibit and celebrate examples
of teachers who have selected Black students who have been
successful within the GATE program.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 53
Conclusion
A student’s educational attainment is one of the most significant determinants of future
success and equitable access to gifted programs for Black students leading to significant
educational attainment has been historically and significantly less than their White counterparts
(Belfield & Levin, 2007). Teachers have a significant role in assuring each student receives the
individualized rigor needed to optimally fill one’s potential. Teachers' perception of his or her
students has a profound and significant influence on individual scholastic performance that
provides access to future educational opportunities (Wong and Wong, 1998) as several studies
find White teachers are more likely to have negative perceptions and low expectations of Black
students (Dee, 2005). A teacher is to act as a conduit in maximizing their students’ educational
opportunity and potential, however, Black students are drastically underrepresented in gifted
programs. Teachers need the knowledge and motivation related to their role in operationalizing
the districts’ goal of equitable access to the gifted program.
This chapter examined the historical complexities of gifted education and it’s impact on
Black students. This chapter also examined, in particular, possible principal knowledge,
motivation, and organizational assets that influence equitable access to gifted education leading
to greater academic opportunities for Black students. The next chapter will explore the
methodology that will be used in this study to better understand the knowledge and motivational
assets of teachers in relation to the organization’s mission; an evaluation of equitable access to
gifted education.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 54
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
An excellent and appropriate education should be afforded to all children to especially
include gifted Black students in order to reduce the achievement gap. The purpose of this
research was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences that are a barrier to creating equitable access to the district’s gifted program. The
problem to be dealt with in the study is that giftedness in Black students is sometimes
overlooked, disregarded or not acknowledged, excluding their participation in gifted programs.
This chapter will present the research design and methods for data collection and analysis, the
credibility and trustworthiness, the validity and reliability, the ethics and the limitations and
delimitations of the study.
As the researcher, I am a student and parent rights advocate and proponent of gifted
education but gifted program participation must strive for equity. As a young Black child
selected to participate in GATE, my scholarly identity was transformed. I had a title that would
bring me closer to equality with all peers, “gifted” and I was provided with greater rigor than the
average student, sufficiently preparing me to excel in college. One teacher’s assessment
provided me access changing my academic trajectory.
The goal of the study was to investigate how teachers view and provide opportunities for
the needs of Black students as GATE participants. The results of the study provide information
that may assist educators in formulating plans for collaboration, training or staff development in
areas associated with the recruitment of gifted Black students into the district’s GATE program.
The desire of this researcher was to discover how Black gifted students are identified and
nominated for gifted programs and how their identification and nomination coincides with the
district’s GATE mission statement. It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 55
greater advocacy for the participation of Black students in GATE as well as contribute to the
field of gifted education literature.
While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholder in this analysis are teachers of the school district.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the teacher’s knowledge and motivation related to identification and placement
of potentially gifted Black students within the GATE program in order to operationalize
the district’s mission of providing equitable access?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and district’s solutions?
Participating Stakeholders
The first step of participation within many school’s gifted program is student
identification and teachers hold the key to unlocking and opening the door to the GATE program
for all students as it is the teachers who are key to creating equitable access within the district.
Potentially gifted students are expected to undergo a screening process to assess aptitude and
skills. Primary school teachers, in particular second through fifth grade educators were the
selected population for the study. The eligibility requirements utilized to partake in GATE
within the state of California include an identification process of three factors: (1) The screening
of all second grade students using a test of cognitive ability called the NNT. The Otis-Lennon
School Ability Test, Eighth Edition (OLSAT 8) starting in grade 4
th
grade is also utilized.
Through teacher judgment and assessment, students who exhibit the greatest aptitude and
academic prowess are identified and nominated to begin the GATE process. The child’s teacher
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 56
is asked to complete a teacher checklist that rates his or her selections in six areas or domains of
giftedness: creative, intellectual, high achievement, leadership, specific academic aptitude and
visual and performing arts. A composite of these factors is used in determining GATE
identification (California Department of Education, 2018). The district implemented a protocol
for GATE identification in the 2015-2016 school year called the Cognitive Abilities Test
Screener (CogAT) (SDUSD, 2018b). The CogAt is administered to students in grade second
through fifth and is one element of the Multiple Criterion Matrix. The Multiple Criterion
Matrix considers a variety of elements in an effort to acquire an academic profile of all students.
One hundred and forty-three sites that accommodate K-5 students and are tasked by the
district to provide equitable access to gifted programs exist. Out of the 143 possible sites to
study, four, with a significantly larger population of Black students compared to the district’s
average, were selected to garner data for the study; they include 1) Johnson 38.5% 2) Angier
29.3% 3) Marshall 29% 4) Valencia Park 25.8% (EdData, 2018). There is an average of 21
teachers at each of the four schools selected for the study who are responsible for teaching and
potentially nominating GATE candidates within the pool who average around three-hundred
students per site consisting of a 19:1 student/teacher ratio.
Applied research is problem oriented and designed to make recommendations for
improvement or solutions by increasing understanding of a problem (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Creswell (2014) described the Convergent Mixed Method Design as the most utilized, where
qualitative data and quantitative data are collected and analyzed separately in order to see if the
findings confirm or disconfirm each other (p. 219). This study utilized the Sequential Mixed
Methods Design, as the objective of this research study was to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data in order to increase awareness and support in the identification of gifted Black
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 57
students not evident in many classrooms. In order to attain both breadth and depth of the study,
quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analysis was employed. Quantitative data
was collected through a closed-ended Likert Scale survey. Qualitative data was collected
through personal interviews in order to increase understanding of participants’ perspectives
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The design of the study utilized Creswell’s (2014) “concurrent
embedded” strategy where there is one primary method that guides the study (the survey) and a
secondary method that supports the study (interviews).
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Data collection and instrumentation choice was vital to collecting relevant information in
regards to teachers’ knowledge and motivation in promoting equity within GATE and presenting
insight as to how the district provides support to operationalize their mission of providing
equitable access within the program. Surveys and interviews were the methods that were utilized
to collect pertinent data that provided insight into the knowledge and motivation of the teachers
and the culture of the district in their support of the teachers.
Surveys
Surveys can be instrumental in acquiring the knowledge, feelings, values, preferences and
behaviors of individuals in an organization (Fink, 2017). The purpose of the survey was to
acquire a generalization of teachers’ motivation in identifying and nominating Black students to
GATE and the support they receive from the district in operationalizing their mission of
providing equitable access for high-achieving and under-represented pupils who are identified as
gifted. Because the study constitutes four separate sites with over eighty potential participants,
online correspondence was the most efficient and effective way to disseminate the survey and
acquire data through teacher responses. Permission was acquired from each of the site principals
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 58
and they disseminated the survey on my behalf. The district has a reliable and accurate email
system that has the potential to elicit responses for the survey from a large number of people.
Each survey included 29 items used to establish a generalization of the organization’s culture and
its teachers’ motivation. According to Fink (2017) there are two types of survey validity,
measurement and design. Measurement validity considers the characteristics of the survey
where design validity considers the respondents (p.126). In order to assure validity and
reliability of the study strict procedures were utilized in the design of the instrument requiring
and ultimately producing a quantitative or numeric depiction of attitudes and opinions of the
teachers. To further assure validity and reliability, strict adherence to procedures of its
disbursement were followed.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. There was no constraint on participant eligibility other than the participant
must be a teacher within the four school sites and have the authority to evaluate and/or nominate
participants for the GATE program. Teachers of all ages, ethnicities and levels of teaching
experience were permitted to participate in the survey. Teachers identify and nominate students
for GATE on a continuum of grade level throughout elementary school and acquiring responses
from a gamut of both demographics and experience provided greater insight into the
identification process.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Of the four school sites, there are approximately 85 (Ed Data, 2018) teachers who met the
criterion and the survey was sent to every eligible teacher. In order to gain a generalized sense
of the teachers and their role in GATE identification and nomination, a minimum of 22 teachers
or 25% of the selected site teaching staff were needed to complete the survey and 42% or 36 total teachers
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 59
completed it. The survey assisted in investigating and discovering the teachers’ individual
motivation to enhancing equity in the GATE program while also illustrating the perceived
feelings and values that permeate the district’s culture. Teachers are busy and the most succinct
manner to maximize participation was through distribution to all eligible teachers through their
district email accounts, giving everyone an equal opportunity to participate (Fink, 2017). Taking
a sample from all four elementary schools yielded generalizable data for the study. For
recruitment, an email was sent from the principal of each school site a day in advance describing
the survey and its purpose. The following day, the survey was distributed to the email list of the
four sites. The district’s current email list coupled with the succinctness of the survey produced
an initial high response rate, which was critical to attaining an accurate generalization of the
district’s teachers’ motivation and feelings about the district’s support of the GATE goal. To
gain optimal participation, a follow-up email was sent 3 days later.
Interviews
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) articulated that great detail from the response of participants
is necessary to assure the findings of a qualitative study make sense (238). Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) explained there are no guiding principles in regards to qualitative sample size but rather
validity, meaningfulness and insights are a byproduct of the richness of information attained and
the analytical capabilities of the researcher. The plan for qualitative collection of data through
interview included a minimum of 6-9, one-time, one-hour interview sessions with at least one
teacher interviewed from each of the four sites in an effort to gather rich data. The exact number
of interviews, 6, was determined through time restraints and the saturation of information
provided. With the permission of the teachers, the interviews were conducted in his or her
classroom and at their convenience either before or after school. The interview portion of the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 60
study was utilized to garner further depth of teacher motivation and district culture but the
interview also was used as an effective tool for discovering the knowledge teachers need to
operationalize the mission of promoting equity within the GATE program. A semi-structured
interview proved to be the most conducive protocol in order to provide specific guidance in
attaining desired information and the flexibility to be able to gather greater clarification as data
analysis began during the interview process. Merriam et al. (2016) explained that understanding
is the primary rationale for investigation (238). Understanding the relationship of GATE within
the district and the teachers who have influence on the selection of the program’s participants
provided insight into the disproportionality of Black students. There were two limiting factors in
the quantity of interviews appropriate for the study 1) time 2) saturation. As Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) exclaimed, “sampling is terminated when no new information is forthcoming.”
The data was collected and memorialized through audio recording and notes making the
information easy to recover, scrutinize and analyze. The goal of interviews was to acquire new
information that eventually led to redundancy and the power of data to explain and provide
understanding.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Participants chosen to interview completed the initial survey. The end of
the survey included a separate link, requesting volunteers for a follow-on study. The dialogue
from the interview was augmented by information provided from the survey data. There was a
correlational nature of the study making it important to draw a relationship between both the
quantitative and qualitative data.
Criterion 2. To attain diversity and equity within the sites, at least one teacher from each
of the four sites were represented in the sample. Though all teachers work for the same school
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 61
district, different principals provide different guidance and leadership. Individual school site
leadership offers differentiation in operationalizing the district’s GATE goal. The minimum for
the study was 6 samples and the maximum was 9 samples. Both time restraints and saturation
produced a final number of 6 participants for the interview portion of study.
Criterion 3. Participants had a history of identifying/evaluating students for the gifted
program. Identifying seasoned teachers who have a history of instructing and evaluating
students for GATE was an important quality for participation in the interview. Once volunteers’
identities were revealed and acquired via survey, as the researcher I first had a conversation with
the principal. I inquired from the principal if the ‘volunteered’ teacher had time and if that
teacher met the required criteria, as described above. It was important to show respect for the
entity of study, yet remain true to the study’s needed participants. In order to acquire
information rich data into the GATE selection process, teachers selected had a history of actively
and assertively identifying and instructing gifted students. Teachers who actively identified and
instructed gifted students provided insight into their process of creating equitable access to the
GATE program.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The criteria for purposeful sampling are chosen at the outset by the researcher and its
power is result from selecting information rich cases to study in depth (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Through purposeful sampling, a minimum of six teachers were chosen to participate in
interviews, specifically one interview from at least one teacher at each of school sites, in order to
attach differentiated environment to the data. Each participant exhibited their commitment to the
GATE program by having a history of working with GATE students. The interviews provided
rich and in-depth knowledge in regards to the district and their GATE selection process. As the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 62
investigator, it was incumbent that I select participants that added depth to the research. Desired
criteria for interview participation was established through questions via the survey, to include
the demographic section requesting information about years of experience, school site and gifted
education training. The survey also acted as a recruitment tool as the last question provided a
space to indicate a willingness to be contacted for a further in-depth interview.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) emphasized the importance of establishing trustworthiness
through a quality study by assuring that findings are credible, transferable, confirmable and
dependable. Qualitative data collected derived from interviews and to assure accuracy, all
communication was audio-recorded and fully transcribed. Qualitative research can never
provide an absolute truth, however, to increase both trust and credibility, Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) discussed member checks. Member checks are the single most important way of
eliminating misinterpretation. To conduct the member check, as the researcher, I provided the
transcript to the participants along with my interpretation of the interview data and asked the
participants to review. Not only did the participants appreciate the member check process,
giving them an opportunity to verify their statement, but member checks also were crucial to
identifying misunderstandings or personal biases from the encounter.
Validity and Reliability
The validity of the convergent design is dependent on the construct of the survey and the
respondent validation or member check of the interview (Creswell, 2014). The validity of the
study was strongly influenced by the level of honesty of both the survey and interview responses
provided by the participants. As the researcher, I assured participants understood that their
answers would remain anonymous in order to attain genuine and unimpeded responses. Creswell
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 63
(2014) sited that a lack of follow-up on conclusions when themes within the qualitative and
quantitative scores diverge will lead to lack of validity. As the researcher, in order to provide the
greatest amount of validity, I was vigilant in follow-up.
Analysis
In support of the mixed methods, the use of quantitative data enabled me, as the
researcher to formulate conclusions based on numerical data. Maxwell (2013) explained that
during analysis, quantitative data would show generality while verifying or casting a new light
on qualitative findings. The survey was valuable creating insight through a descriptive statistical
analysis in regards to the motivation of the teachers and their support by the organization and a
means and standards deviation chart was included to identify the average levels of responses. As
the researcher, I looked for overall patterns from the responses from the survey and formulated
an objective perspective pertaining to the demographics, GATE program status and teachers’
thoughts, feelings attitudes and biases in regards to identification and nominations of gifted
students within the district in order to draw conclusions between variables.
The first step in the qualitative data analysis was to transcribe of all audio-recorded
interviews. Analytic memos were created after each interview in order to create and build upon
established themes in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions.
Predetermined typologies or categories were generated from the initial research and interview
questions and analysis providing more depth as data was divided into categories. In order to
yield maximum relevance from the data extracted, the predetermined categories were responsive
to the purpose of the research, exhaustive, mutually exclusive, sensitizing and conceptually
congruent (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The data was then entered into the categories and color
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 64
coded for easier reference. Using the coded data, patterns and relationships emerged and were
noted whether the data supported or failed to support quantitative findings.
Ethics
The validity and reliability of the study coincide with my ability as a researcher to exhibit
and illustrate uncompromising ethical aptitude (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It was vital that trust
was established and participants had confidence that as the researcher, I was above reproach
because the essence and heart of the study derived from data collected. Glesne (2011) articulated
the importance of participant consent to ensure all are aware that their involvement in the study
is voluntary, confidential and that they have the ability to withdraw at any point without penalty.
These points were emphasized through written consent at the commencement of the study. My
study was submitted to the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board to
further ensure the safety of the participants by following the rules and guidelines established
regarding protection and rights of participants. The strength of the study was dependent upon
honest answers regarding a potentially uncomfortable subject of equity in regards to race,
making confidentiality imperative. All participants were told that they had the option to
withdraw from the study at any time they may feel uncomfortable. As the researcher, I carried
out the study in the most ethical manner possible, according to Merriam and Tisdell (2016) the
trustworthiness and the credibility of the study correlates with the trustworthiness of the
researcher.
Bias could be a potential ethics barrier. As a Black man who participated in GATE while
in grade school and a current advocate for inclusion in gifted education, I have an intimate
knowledge of the cognitive affective need for equity in gifted programs. I have a passionate
desire to see all gifted students receive educational opportunities that provide the appropriate
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 65
rigor needed to challenge leading to higher education attainment. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
explained that identifying and monitoring potential biases is necessary to prevent shaping the
collection and interpretation of data. Because I am the primary collector of data, biases may
have affected the study.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are the influences that one cannot control as a researcher. The sample size is
a limitation; as the researcher I could not control the response rate of the survey. Delimitations
are choices I made as a researcher and would like to mention; to include the fact that all the
participants work in the same school district resulting in a convenience sample. For this study, I
chose to limit participants only to the organization as a sample intermixed with other districts
may affect a dissimilar study outcome. All of the respondents had some knowledge regarding
gifted identification potentially leading to predetermined ideas or perceptions about the role
equity plays in gifted education, which could have affected answers. Since the sample size is
comparatively small, the findings of the survey are not necessarily generalizable to the larger
population of teachers; however, they add understanding of the contemporary body of
knowledge potentially adding motivation for further study of equitable access to gifted programs.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 66
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Historically, Black students are significantly underrepresented in gifted programs relative
to their White peers and teachers hold some responsibility for the disproportionality.
The aim of this research study was to evaluate and examine the role teachers’ play in
closing the access gap to gifted education, particularly through the implementation of an
evaluation study. Using Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis theoretical framework, this section
focused on the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organization influences of teachers’ role in
assuring equitable identification in gifted and talented education leading to greater enrollment of
Black students.
This study used a mixed-methods approach to gather data for analysis, using qualitative
and quantitative data, including surveys and interviews. Packets of paper surveys were
distributed to four principals in the district. The principals were responsible for distributing the
paper copy to their eligible teaching staff. Principals and sites were identified based on the
population with the strongest contingency of Black students. The data from surveys and
interviews were then analyzed to validate or not validate the assumed assets described in Chapter
Two.
The following questions were created to guide this evaluation study:
1. What are the teacher’s knowledge and motivation related to the district’s goal of equity
in testing and placing potential Black participants within the GATE program in order to
mirror the racial and cultural demographics of the district? Do the teachers believe that
equity within gifted education is important?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 67
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and the district’s
solutions?
This chapter addresses the first two questions guiding this study. Following the
validation of teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to equity in
gifted education. Evidence-based recommendations created from the validated influence in this
chapter will then be presented in Chapter Five.
As stated in Chapter One, the district’s GATE mission statement is clear, “to support
unique and equitable access for high achieving and underachieving pupils who are identified as
Gifted.” Also from Chapter One, the district’s 2017-18 Local Control and Accountability Plan
(LCAP) includes Goal 1 is entitled Closing the Achievement Gap with High Expectations for All.
Ref # 1.1.a Topic reads Multiple Measures and Data –All Students, Students w Disabilities,
GATE, African American, Latino. The significance of the topics in the LCAP illustrates the
district’s understanding that emphasis should be placed on certain subgroups of the student
population of GATE participants to specifically include African Americans, in order to close the
achievement gap. Ref# 1.10.a entitled Additional Support for African American and Latino
Students states, “The district will continue to increase enrollment of students of color in
advanced courses (e.g., Advanced Placement [AP], International Baccalaureate [IB], college
classes,” however, fails to provide a clear path to increased enrollment. Self-efficacy in the
classroom is only possible through successful navigation of rigorous academia, which will elicit
belief in a student’s talent and intelligence (Whiting, 2006). GATE provides grade school
students with the appropriate rigor vital to future participation in AP, IB and college courses.
Both the district’s GATE mission statement and their LCAP emphasize greater inclusivity and
access to gifted programs to specifically include Black students, yet fail to provide teachers a
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 68
path to operationalizing the mission in accordance with the LCAP. In order for the findings to be
understood with clear relevance, written district policy, in regards to gifted programs, needed to
be readdressed.
The survey questions were initially designed to create a springboard to provide insight
while conducting interviews for qualitative data collection. Though the survey material told an
important story, data collection through interviews demonstrated that there was a disconnect
between written district policy related to support for Black student inclusion and policy practice.
It proved to be challenging to triangulate the qualitative and quantitative data needed to tell the
story of teachers’ influence on the identification of Black students for gifted education. Though
the district’s policy should act as a conduit to increasing Black student participation in the gifted
program, the data collected through the teacher interviews alluded to policy only as verbiage
with no plan of implementation. The themes that emerged through interviews exhibited a clear
disconnect between teachers and the district’s GATE goals, mission and policies. An obvious
lack of district support needed to operationalize the mission leading to greater participation of
Black students was apparent. Though completion of the survey for quantitative data collection
occurred before the interviews participation, the misalignment of policy and practice was not
obvious until the in-person interviews.
Due to the disconnect that emerged between policy and practice during data collection
the interview questions were adjusted. More specifically, the disconnect between the district’s
policies for gifted Black students and its implementation of those policies, the original questions
developed for qualitative data collection were modified in order to gain greater depth from
teachers and their role in GATE identification. Data collected through the interviews revealed a
consistent theme in lack of knowledge of the district’s GATE mission as question four from the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 69
interview protocol asked, “How does your definition of equity relate to or coincide with the
district’s definition of equity?” All teachers interviewed provided their personal definition yet
failed to articulate the district’s definition of equity. Though teachers’ individual definition and
knowledge of equity were similar, a district wide understanding was non-existent. Participant 1
said, “I don’t know what the district considers equity. I think that’s, ideally, they’ll agree that
school sites should receive equal supports, should receive equal services. That is not the reality.”
To further emphasize the emergent theme, when asked the same question to Participant 3 the
response, “I don’t know what the district considers equity. I know what I see at school sites.
There’s nothing close to equity.” All teachers interviewed provided a personal definition of
equity yet failed to articulate the district’s definition. Absent a universal definition of equity for
the entire organization provided challenges aligning prepared interview protocol to teachers’ role
in the identification of Black students for gifted education.
An additional theme that emerged from interviews leading to challenges correlating
research questions with findings was lack of organizational training for teachers aligned with
district policies that could increase Black student participation in GATE. Though every teacher
interviewed acknowledged some formal training in regards to gifted education, the training was
rarely affiliated with the district and equitable identification leading to the increase of Black
student participation proved to be foreign from training that was received. When asked, “What
training have you received to assist you in identifying and nominating students for GATE?”
Participant 6 “I became GATE certified while in college. I don’t have an identifier, I feel like
it’s just informal evaluation, observation and knowing them on a personal level I think makes a
difference.” A similar question was presented to Participant 3 and the response, “So I didn’t
have a lot of experience with it (GATE) in my early days of teaching. When I moved to this
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 70
school, she (the principal) wanted everyone to be GATE certified all the teachers across the
board so that there’s no hesitation in where kids we place as they come in and out so that we can
just say everyone is Gifted and Talented-certified.” In regards to training Participant 1 said, “It’s
an optional training here or throughout the district for an already overwhelmed teacher. It’s
really left up to the teacher to do the research. We had it in our credentialing program. We had
it in our quick, gifted and talented professional development. I’m speaking about myself, too.
There is more all of need to do to reach those students but it’s just not district emphasis.”
Teachers in regards to gifted education have attained great knowledge and skills, however,
clarity by the organization on how to effectively utilize that knowledge in order to provide
equitable access leading to greater participation for Black students in the GATE program was
non-existent.
If not animus, than friction for lack of parity amongst sites in regards to resources
allocated by the district for gifted education emerged as a theme throughout interviews. All
teachers interviewed were comfortable assigning disparity in GATE demographics to the
disparity of resources distributed throughout sites in the district. Participant 1 said, “We’re
public education and there’s a lot of differences from neighborhood to neighborhood. I teach
fifth grade and fifth grade here is way different from the fifth grade my daughter’s in at another
school in {the district}, and that’s very different from the La Jolla Elementary fifth grade.”
Participant 3 said, “I know what I see at school sites. There’s nothing close to equity. I always
feel like the district is so overwhelmed with so much stuff that it’s like you just make the best of
what you have.” Teachers’ expressions on district support crucial to following and enacting
policy created to enhance participation of Black students in the gifted program were dispirited.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 71
An additional variable for consideration and important to achieve greater understanding
of results and findings are the demographics of the four school sites compared to district. As a
reminder, the totality of Black students in the school district is nine percent and Black student
participation in GATE hovers just over four percent as illustrated in Figure 3. The four school
sites in the study population of total Black students compared to Black student enrollment in
GATE include 1) Johnson 38.2 percent with 42.1 percent enrolled in GATE 2) Angier 28.6
percent with 18.5 percent enrolled in GATE 3) Marshall 25.2 percent with 15.4 percent enrolled
in GATE 4) Valencia Park 23.2 percent with 10% enrolled in GATE (EdData, 2018). Figure 3
illustrates the district enrollment by ethnicity compared to their GATE program by ethnicity as
21, 763 students encompass the GATE enrollment, which equates to 17 percent of the entire
enrollment in the program with Black students representing four percent. Demographics of the
sites compared to the district is a crucial variable needed to understand the findings of the
quantitative data collected from the teachers during interviews as it exhibits the relationship to
the organization in enrollment of Black students to GATE. Every site in the study had a
significantly greater population of both Black student enrollment and Black student participation
in GATE. When teachers answered both the survey and interview questions, it must be
understood that the demographics of the students within their sphere of influence are different
than the average student demographics of the organization as a whole. Because of the
demographics of the students at the four sites, it can be assumed that teachers’ answers were
greater aligned and integrated with their desire for equitable access to GATE leading to greater
enrollment of Black students than disparate sites within the organization.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 72

Figure 3. District GATE enrollment compared to total enrollment.
Figure 4 consists of the four sites in the study and their comparison to gifted enrollment.

Site 1
Site 2
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 73

Figure 4. Racial Demographics of study’s four sites compared to GATE demographics.
Black student enrollment in gifted education across the four sites as illustrated in Figure 4
exhibits an immense dichotomy in percentages compared to the district’s totality. Though
teachers may express a desire for equity within the GATE program leading to greater Black
student enrollment, interviews consistently illustrated disproportionality of resources amongst
sites. When asked, “Do you feel supported by the district in providing equitable opportunities
for your gifted students? Participant 3 said, “There is very little focus, in my experience in 17
years with the district, on gifted and talented education. When Participant 6 was asked the
question it was answered with, “I believe that the wealthier White schools in the district, the
schools where parents have a lot of money are able to teach in a way that they have enough
gifted and talented students or they have enough resources, or the they know enough about it that
Site 3
Site 4
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 74
they are able to teach at a higher level that benefits all the kids at that school.” A theme related
to lack of resources or interest in the gifted program by the district is echoed throughout the
participants’ responses. The district may provide particular sites with the necessary resources to
identify and carve out specialized education for their gifted students, but disparity exists
throughout the organization acting as an obstacle to equitable access hindering greater
enrollment of Black students.
Though teachers were the stakeholders of focus for the study, because of clear organizational
challenges discovered during interviews, the data collected did not align directly with Clark and
Estes’ gap analysis theoretical framework that embraces assumed knowledge and motivation
influences. Teachers’ knowledge and motivation needed to operationalize the district’s GATE
mission were not the barriers to greater enrollment of Black students within the program but
rather the barriers derive from obvious organizational factors. Though continued portions of this
chapter analyze teachers’, it must be emphasized that the knowledge and motivation gaps are
auxiliary considerations in comparison to the district in the analysis, results and findings of the
problem.
Findings for Knowledge Assets
Knowledge to attain the organizational goal to “support unique and equitable access for
high achieving pupils” is critical if they are expected to successfully identify gifted students in
order to provide an equitable GATE program. “During a gap analysis, it is necessary to
determine whether people know how (and when, what, why, where, and who) to achieve their
performance goals” (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 44). Performance goals in terms of recruiting
students to the GATE program, no matter race or culture, do not exist within the district,
however the importance of specialized education must be known to assure all students are
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 75
receiving the necessary rigor to maximize potential. When surveyed, 29 of 36 teachers either
Agreed or Strongly Agreed, “Gifted students should receive a specialized education.” Daniels
(1998) explained that public schools have an imbalance between resources provided for special
education and resources provided for gifted education, though gifted education is a subsidiary of
special education. In a study, Loveless (2008) found more than 7 out of 10 teachers noted that
their brightest students were not challenged or given an opportunity to “thrive” while in their
classrooms. Hertberg-Davis (2013) exclaimed gifted students need gifted programming because
“general education program is not yet ready to meet the needs of gifted students” (p. 9) due to
lack of general educators’ training in gifted education and the pressure classroom teachers face to
raise the performance of their struggling students. 15 of 36 teachers surveyed for this study
answered, “Yes”, to “Have you been given any formal training on identifying or nominating
students for GATE”, yet all teachers are expected to identify gifted students and provide
specialized curriculum to support their unique educational needs.
Terman’s (1925) study, referenced in Chapter Two, found the six traits exhibited by
gifted students did not share a universal race or ethnicity. In essence, giftedness exists is all
races and cultures. The teachers surveyed, exhibited knowledge of those who have the
opportunity to participate in the GATE program. That knowledge coupled with their
understanding of the need for a specialized education in order to provide the appropriate rigor for
gifted students is illustrated in Figure 5 as 94% surveyed either Agree or Strongly Agree
“Giftedness Exist in All Races and Culture”, while 81% either Agreed or Strongly Agreed,
“Gifted Students Should Receive a Specialized Education.”
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 76

Figure 5. Giftedness existence in all races in relation to gifted specialized education.
This section details the findings related to the district teachers’ knowledge and assumed
influences on the district’s GATE program. Each assumed influence was addressed in the survey
and interviews. Table 7 highlights the assumed knowledge influences and whether or not they
were validated as teacher an asset to teacher knowledge within the schools studied.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Gifted Students Should
Receive a Specialized
Education
Giftedness Exists in All Races
and Cultures
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 77
Table 7
Validated Assumed Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Survey Interview Validated
Yes/No
Gap/Asset
Teachers need to
know the district’s
definition of equity
and how the district
expects Black and
Latino students to be
incorporated within
that definition.
97% Disagreed or
Strongly Disagreed,
“Certain races and
cultures are naturally
more suited for gifted
curriculum than
others.” Teachers
exhibited knowledge of
all students’ aptitude
essential to equitable
access; as part of
district definition.
100% of interviewees did
not know district’s
definition of equity. “I
guess it would be equal,
right, like, so what they
would be all kids to have
equal access to the
appropriate education at
their level, or something
like that. Right?”

Yes/Gap
Teachers need to
know why the district
has focused on equity
within GATE and why
it is essential to the
success of the
program.
97% either disagree or
strongly disagree
“Certain Races and
Cultures are Naturally
More Suited for Gifted
Curriculum Than
Others” and 94% either
Agree or Strongly
Agree “Diversity
Improves the
Educational experience
for All Students”
“I don’t know what the
district considers equity. I
know what I see at school
sites. There’s nothing close
to equity. I always feel like
the district is so
overwhelmed with so much
stuff that it’s like you just
make the best of what you
have.”

Yes/Gap

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 78
Table 7, continued
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Survey Interview Validated
Yes/No
Gap/Asset
Teachers need to
know how to
implement strategies
that attract and recruit
diversity, specifically
Black students, in
order to achieve equity
within the GATE
program.
61% indicated, “Non-
Traditional Measures,
Such as Teacher
Observation, Portfolio
Assessment, Parent
Nomination are
Reliable Tools to
Identify Gifted
Students.”
100% of interviews
proclaimed their knowledge
of alternative measures to
identify gifted students. “I
think it (GATE) needs to
have more emphasis on the
other learning styles….I
know teachers try to reach
the different modalities, but
the reality is not always
possible. So, I think the
gifted person, or any
person, needs to have their
academics presented in a
way that reaches their
learning style approaches.”
No/Asset
Teachers need to
know how to reflect
on their personal
recruitment of
diversity, specifically
Black students,
through awareness of
potential biases, in
order to achieve equity
within the GATE
program.
When asked to
prioritize 10
identification
procedures with a
number from 1–10,
number 1 the most
effective to number 10
the least effective, the
top 5 recruitment
identifiers were 1)
Performance Based
Assessment 2) Non-
Verbal Test 3) Teacher
Observation Checklist
4) Individual IQ Test 5)
Portfolio Evaluation
“I don’t have an identifier, I
feel like it’s just informal
evaluation, observation and
knowing them on a personal
level I think makes a
difference.”
No/Asset

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 79
Assumed Knowledge Influence 1
The first assumed knowledge influence is teachers’ knowledge of the district’s definition
of equity and how the district expects teachers to incorporate that definition into the gifted
program acting as a catalyst to greater enrollment of Black students. The interview questions
supported teachers’ knowledge of equity and diversity in GATE and its relation to the district.
Two questions in particular; “What is your definition of equity?” and “How does your definition
of equity relate or coincide with the district’s definition of equity?” provided insights into
teachers’ understanding of best practice surrounding teachers’ knowledge of equity. All teachers
interviewed provided their personal definition yet failed to articulate the district’s definition of
equity. Though teachers’ individual definition and knowledge of equity were similar, universal
percipience absent. Participant 1 said, “I don’t know what the district considers equity. I think
that’s, ideally, they’ll agree that school sites should receive equal supports, should receive equal
services.” Partcipant 1’s response is in direct conrtast to the Assumed Knoweldge Infuence #1,
validating it because an apparent gap exists. Without universal knowledge of the district’s
definition of equity, it is a challenge to incorporate the practice of equitable inclusion leading to
increased enrollment of Black students within the GATE program. While teachers exhibited
personal knowledge in providing equity within their classrooms, it appeared to be a more indirect
understanding and less of having a working definition that could be applicable in identifying
Black students who would benefit from the rigor that gifted programs provide.
When surveyed 81% Agreed or Strongly Agreed, “It Is Important to Strive for Racial
Equity in Gifted Education,” 94% Agreed or Strongly Agreed, “Diversity improves the
educational experience for all students and 97% Disagreed or Strongly Disagreed, “Certain races
and cultures are naturally more suited for gifted curriculum than others.” The survey questions
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 80
supported teachers’ knowledge of diversity and equity and its relation to gifted education as
illustrated in Figure 6. The survey answers exhibited teachers’ personal knowledge essential to
increasing Black student participation in gifted programs. However, the interview data coupled
with the survey data revealed that teachers’ personal knowledge is not aligned with the district
policy that is framed to provide equitable access to gifted programs leading to greater Black
student participation.

Figure 6. Teachers’ knowledge of equity and diversity in GATE.
Based on the survey and interview data, while teachers had general knowledge of equity
and its relation to gifted education, they were unable to provide a universal working definition.
Without the appropriate knowledge, teachers are unable to determine if they are in accordance
with district policy that provides Black students equitable access to GATE, as they are charged
with identifying all students who would benefit from the program. This assumed knowledge
asset is validated because an apparent gap exists.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Certain races and cultures are
naturally more suited for
gifted curriculum than others.
Diversity improves the
educational experience for all
students.
It is important to strive for
racial equity in gifted
education.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 81
Assumed Knowledge Influence 2
The second assumed knowledge influence is that teachers need to know why the District
has focused on equity within GATE and why it is essential to the success of the program. Again,
referring to Figure 6, 97% surveyed either Disagree or Strongly Disagree, “Certain Races and
Cultures are Naturally More Suited for Gifted Curriculum Than Others”, 94% either Agree or
Strongly Agree “Diversity Improves the Educational experience for All Students” and 97%
either Disagree or Strongly Disagree “Certain Races and Cultures are Naturally More Suited for
Gifted Curriculum Than Others”, all illustrating teachers’ knowledge in regard to benefits equity
provides in enhancing students’ educational experience. The survey provided teachers’
knowledge in relation to equity, however, interviews indicated a disconnect between personal
knowledge of equity and the district’s policies for equitable access to the GATE program leading
to greater Black student participation. Participant 3 said, “I don’t know what the district
considers equity. I know what I see at school sites. There’s nothing close to equity. I always
feel like the district is so overwhelmed with so much stuff that it’s like you just make the best of
what you have.” Participant 3’s response exhibited a lack of direction and cohesion in regard to
understanding why the district had placed an emphasis on equitable access in the gifted program
and has identified inequitable resources for all sites throughout the organization exposing a gap
making the assumed knowledge influence valid. Teacher 6 added to the validity of Assumed
Knowledge Influence #2 when exclaiming, “I feel like in the last couple of years there was a big
push and equity was definitely a buzz word and, like I said, we had a few P.D.s and it was
brought up at staff meetings and you’re just kind of hearing it everywhere. I don’t feel like this
year I’ve been hearing about it as much, which is interesting ‘cause things kinda come and go,
but as far as action I don’t see really a difference.”
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 82
In interviewing teachers, all failed to articulate why the district placed an emphasis on
equity within GATE though all were able to provide their personal ideas on the importance of
equitable access to the program. Teachers’ expressed that their lack of knowledge was due to
alternative district priorities leading to time constraints preventing education and dissemination
of district wide GATE aspirations. To be noted, two teachers or 33% of teachers interviewed
recalled equity training in gifted education provided by the district yet failed to relay any insight
of value apportioned by that training. In essence, teachers exhibited a distinct lack of
knowledge in regard to their roles in unison with the district’s policies related to equitable access
to the GATE program providing an immense challenge of increasing Black student participation.
Teacher 1 said, “That whole thing with the equity, it was all talk and so the principal would
come back and talk about what does equity mean, you know?...But then there was no time to
plan so lessons could be equitable. There is no work put into that (by the district) at all.”
Though some organizational training may have occurred, it is clear that it was not implemented
effectively at the classroom or teacher level for every site. In any case, based on the survey and
interview data, this assumed knowledge influence was validated among teachers as they have
clear knowledge of the essentiality of equitable access to GATE enhancing Black student
participation, yet fail to have knowledge in regard to its relationship to the district.
Assumed Knowledge Influence 3
The third assumed knowledge influence is teachers’ knowledge about how to implement
strategies to attract and recruit diversity, specifically Black students, in order to achieve equity
within the GATE program. Obstacles to identify students from diverse backgrounds as gifted
and talented have been examined by researchers and multiple strategies have been developed to
provide greater equity in the identification and assessment reviews. According to the National
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 83
Association for Gifted Children (NAGS) (2019), assessment practices related to identifying
students for gifted education programs, which also ensures equitable participation, depends on:
1. the identification process and the assessments used are aligned with the program’s
definition of giftedness;
2. the process includes the use of multiple assessments that are combined in a reasoned way
that is not biased against any particular subgroup of students;
3. the types of assessments used have sufficient psychometric evidence supportive of
decisions about students’ readiness for gifted programming;
4. all individuals involved in the assessment process have sufficient training in the
administration and use of the assessments;
5. they themselves are fully informed about best practices in the field of testing as well as
the latest research regarding the identification of gifted students; and
6. there is a process in place whereby the identification process is periodically evaluated to
ensure it is reflective of best practices in the identification of gifted students.
Teachers’ knowledge of different strategies to attract a more diverse population
specifically Black students to the GATE program is illustrated in Figure 7, as 72% of teachers
surveyed either Disagree or Strongly Disagree, “Standardized Tests are Reliable Tools to
Identify Gifted Students and 64% either Agree of Strongly Agree, “Non-Traditional Measures,
Such as Teacher Observation, Portfolio Assessment, Parent Nomination, are Reliable Tools to
Identify Gifted Students.” The two survey questions provide insight to teachers’ knowledge of
alternative gifted program selection that can lead to greater inclusivity; the answers to the
survey questions were the antithesis to the teachers’ current selection process.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 84

Figure 7. Traditional vs. non-traditional measures for gifted identification.
When asked in the survey to prioritize 10 procedures with a number from 1-10 (number 1
being the most effective) that would be the most effective in the GATE identification process,
teachers revealed their knowledge in regard to alternative identification processes. Figure 8
illustrates the assessments options teachers’ believe are the most effective in GATE
identification leading to program participation when given the choices of 1) Individualized 2) IQ
Test 3) Teacher Observation Checklist 4) Group IQ Test 4) Performance-Based Assessment 5)
Nonverbal Test 6) California Standard Achievement Test 7) Parental Referral 8) Teacher
Referral 9) Student Self-Referral 10) Portfolio Evaluation
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Standardized Test are Reliable
Tools to Identify Gifted
Students
Non-Traditional Measures,
Such as Teacher Obeservation,
Portfolio Assessment, Parent
Nimoination are Reliabe Tools
to Idnetify Gifted Students
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 85

Figure 8. Non-traditional measures for gifted identification.
All in all, even amongst teachers, there is not a cohesive idea on how to evaluate gifted
students. Most participants of the study may have agreed the best way to identify gifted students
is through an achievement test, however, that response may be a product of complacency or lack
of organizational acceptance in regard to GATE selection ingenuity. Through both surveys and
interviews, teachers illustrated knowledge in regard to strategies that would provide equitable
access to GATE having potential to increase Black student participation.
Figure 8 was calculated by adding the prioritization provided by teachers from the
survey. The lowest enumerated selection indicates teachers’ knowledge in regard to effective
methods for gifted identification and selection as teachers’ clearly exhibit an understanding of
how to implement non-traditional strategies in order to attract and recruit diversity to the GATE
program. Through the survey, teachers indicated that the most effective way to provide an
equitable judgment for GATE participants is through Performance Based Assessment, which
does not coincide with the district’s current selection process. Survey responses in Figure 8 was
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Performance-Based
Assessment
Noverbal Test
Teacher Obervation Checklist
Indiviualized IQ Test
Portfolio Evaluation
Teacher Referal
Group IQ Test
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 86
further supported by interviews when teachers were asked, “What is the best strategy in
identifying gifted students?’ Participant 1 stated,
I think it’s hard to have a specific mold that is identifying gifted students by just one way.
We don’t want every gifted student to be the same as the next. That’s what’s great, is
that they’re all different and they all have their own little pockets of knowledge that the
other one doesn’t. I think that the only way to find that information and to assess that
information is to give them a variety of ways to represent it, not just through a test, but by
a collection of their work, or by giving a speech, or whatever.
The teacher’s response did not validate the assumed knowledge influence as it illustrated
knowledge for the need of multiple types of assessments or strategies in order to assure gifted
children are not only identified, but after identification, receive the appropriate rigor in order to
reach their full academic potential.
All teachers interviewed expounded on their knowledge to incorporate improvements in
gifted identification and serving a broader range of advanced students negating an obvious gap in
Assumed Knowledge Influence #3. However, a significant amount of work needs to be
accomplished to ensure that all high-ability students receive appropriate gifted education services
to meet their individual needs.
Assumed Knowledge Influence 4
The fourth assumed knowledge influence is teachers need to know how to reflect on their
personal recruitment of diversity, specifically Black students, through awareness of potential
biases, in order to increase Black student participation within the GATE program. Teachers’
knowledge of how to reflect on their personal recruitment of diversity in order to achieve equity
within the GATE program is illustrated in Figure 9 as 94% surveyed either Agree or Strongly
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 87
Agree, “Learning experiences Related to Problem Solving are the Most Appropriate to Identify
Primary Children as Gifted;” 81% surveyed either Agree or Strongly Agree that “Learning
Experiences Related to Math are Most Appropriate to Identify Primary Children as Gifted;” 69%
Agree or Strongly Agree, “Learning Experiences Related to Building are Most Appropriate to
Identify Primary Children as Gifted;” 64% surveyed, Agree or Strongly Agree “Nonverbal Tests
(Completing Puzzles, etc.) are Most Appropriate to Identify Primary Gifted Students;” 61%
Agree or Strongly Agree, “Non-Traditional Measures, Such as Teacher Observation, Portfolio
Assessment, Parent Nomination, are Most Appropriate to Identify Primary Gifted Students. Not
illustrated in Figure 9, but 50% or more of teachers surveyed either, Disagree or Strongly
Disagree that the most appropriate method of gifted identification included, State Achievement
Tests, Intelligence (IQ) Tests, Teacher Observations, Parental Referrals, In Classroom
Assessments and Student/Self Nominations.

Figure 9. Effective tools for GATE identification.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Nonverbal Test
Bulidning Assessment
Math Assessment
Problem Sovling Assessment
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 88
The strategy to decipher teachers’ metacognition in regard to personal recruitment of
diversity in order to achieve equity in the GATE program was posed through the framing of the
question. Each survey question asked for the “Most Appropriate Method of Gifted
Identification” with the choices of Agree, Strongly Agree, Disagree or Strongly Disagree. The
manner in which the questions were asked, in itself was a reflective exercise and the survey
exhibited diverse views on what is the “Most Appropriate for GATE Identification.”
Survey responses in Figure 9 were further supported by teachers during interviews when
asked, “What is your personal method in gifted student identification?” Each subject provided
insight on his or her knowledge of the most appropriate way to identify and ultimately recruit for
gifted programs. Participant 6 exclaimed, “I don’t have an identifier, I feel like it’s just informal
evaluation, observation and knowing them on a personal level I think makes a difference.” The
response shows the teacher’s clear understanding that gifted identification is beyond
standardized evaluation. During interviews, all participants consistently expressed individual
knowledge in regard to their personal evaluation and recruitment of gifted students and the
impact their decisions have on student achievement through providing appropriate rigor. The
interviews were used to better understand teachers’ investment in equitable identification for
gifted programs to increase Black student participation. When the same question was presented
to Participant 3, the response,
I think emphasizing different things with students is really important, because there are
kids who can study and get 100% on everything. That doesn’t mean they’re gifted and
talented. It just means they are good at remembering stuff and memorizing. Then,
there’s kids who, they see things differently, but the conversation that I have with them
during reading or even math, it’s beyond the level of everybody else.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 89
The two responses combined with the survey results exhibit teachers’ knowledge of personal
reflection in the recruitment of students into gifted programs, which does not validate the
assumed knowledge influence. There is little agreement on the most affective measurement to
identify gifted students, leading to equitable access, but the teachers have put great thought into
the issue and their ideas could be significantly utilized in order to operationalize the district’s
mission needed to increase Black student participation within gifted education.
As the interviews provided greater depth to the survey, it was made clear that teachers
desired greater autonomy in selecting students for GATE because all had dissimilar
contemplation in the selection of its participants to the program and there was not an interview
where teachers accepted the current state of GATE selection and identification that coincided
with the district’s expectations and standards. In other words, teachers through interviews,
exhibited individual metacognitive solutions to gifted identification that were contrary to district
convention. Based on the survey and interview data, this assumed knowledge influence not
validated a proved to be an asset.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Influence
The research indicates the Assumed Knowledge Influence #3 proved to be an asset, as
teachers who are vital to identifying Black students who are gifted, understood diverse measures
of giftedness has the potential to lead to diverse participation in GATE. Assumed Knowledge
Influence #4 was another asset, as teachers expressed robust and diverse processes in the
selection of gifted participants leading to equitable access to GATE that could increase Black
student participation. An emergent influence that must be acknowledged is large number of
teachers with either GATE certifications or GATE training. Participant 3 was asked why the
certification was attained it was explained, “When I moved to this school, she (the principal)
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 90
wanted everyone to be GATE certified all the teachers across the board so that there’s no
hesitation in where kids we place as they come in and out so that we can just say everyone is
Gifted and Talented-certified.”
A great deal of knowledge has been required to be attained by teachers in regard to gifted
education, yet a clear divide exists on how to effectively utilize that knowledge in order to
provide equitable identification that could lead to an increase of Black student participation in
the GATE program.
Areas of focus for improvement, where gaps exist are indicated in both Assumed
Knowledge Influence #1 and #2 where all teachers were unable to provide a universal
organizational definition of equity and could not remember specific training or articulate specific
instruction that placed an emphasis on equitable access. Moran, Rein and Goodman (2006)
exclaimed that policy will not “stick” through a simple edict but through public persuasion. The
GATE mission of equitable access may be an “edict” that won’t “stick” rather than enduring
policy, because teachers are not properly equipped with knowledge to be persuaded in order to
operationalize the organization’s mission preventing acting as a barrier to an increase of Black
student involvement. Dembo and Seli (2016) discussed motivation in terms of cost and benefits.
Teachers have many responsibilities and the lack of universal knowledge needed to assist in
providing equitable identification for gifted programs leading to greater Black student enrollment
in GATE may act as an additional responsibility. One may not endure the benefits discouraging
ingenuity potentially leading to diversified GATE identification criteria that could provide
opportunities for more Black students to participate in the gifted program; this is discussed
further in the related recommendations in Chapter Five.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 91
Findings for Motivation Influences
Rueda (2011) explained that motivation influences the decision to pursue the task; the
persistence to complete the task; and the effort invested in completing the task. The literature
review outlined external and internal factors that influence motivation, including goals,
incentives, feedback and praise. This section examines the motivation influences of teachers in
the district who are charged with identifying underrepresented students for gifted and talented
education. In the case of this study, enhancing the access to gifted education for Black students
is the goal. Table 8 includes the validated assets associated with teacher motivation.
Table 8
Assumed Motivational Influences Validated
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Survey Interview Validated Yes/No
Gap/Asset
Teachers need to see
the value in equitable
participation, especially
for Black students, in
the GATE program.
81% Agree or
Strongly Agree,
“Gifted students
should receive a
specialized
education”
“I think they need more
support. I think they
need more
opportunities,
individualized
opportunities. In an
ideal world we could
reach all those learners
in the classroom and
push them”

they’re doing with it.”
No/Asset
Teachers should feel
that supporting unique
and equitable access for
pupils identified as
gifted is their core
responsibility
61% Disagree or
Strongly Disagree,
“Students Who Do
Not Qualify as
Gifted Should be
Tested Every Year”
“This year, I am trying
research projects. I just
sort of started that
because I don’t have a
lot of time where I can
watch them and see
how
Yes/Gap

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 92
Assumed Motivation Influence 1
The first assumed motivation influence is teachers need to see the value in equitable
participation, especially for Black students, in the GATE program. The assumed motivation
influence examined whether teachers understand that equitable access to gifted programs is a
catalyst to equitable access to college. The academic rigor a student undertakes is among the
strongest predictors of bachelor’s degree attainment (Adelman, 1999). Gifted education is the
pipeline to institutions of higher education and that pipeline is primed for at least 10 years as
many gifted programs commence in second grade. In terms of motivation, this assumed asset
examined whether teachers view themselves instrumental in providing equitable opportunity for
their students.
As earlier stated, 94% of teachers surveyed either Agree or Strongly Agree “Giftedness
Exist in All Races and Cultures,” which is a dynamic variable in terms of motivation. Had the
surveys indicated giftedness was more universal to particular races or cultures, teachers’
motivation to identify more Black students for GATE could be terminal. Figure 10 provides
greater insight into teachers’ motivation in regard to rigorous academic access. 81% of teachers
surveyed Agree or Strongly Agree, “Primary Age Children Should be Identified as Gifted,” 81%
Agree or Strongly Agree “Gifted Students Should Receive a Specialized Education,” and 18
Agree while 17 Disagree “Identification of Primary Age Children is Reliable and Can be
Justified in the Upper Grades.”
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 93

Figure 10. Teachers’ motivation to identify and support gifted students.
Teachers overwhelmingly indicated that gifted students should be identified in primary
school and should receive a specialized education; combined with knowledge that giftedness
exists in all races and cultures, suggest teachers’ motivation to equitably identify gifted students
potentially increasing Black student participation in the GATE program is pellucid.
Teachers may be motivated to exert effort to selecting students for the GATE program
while in primary school, yet may not believe that it supports or predicts future performance.
Lack of faith in the projected outcome associated with GATE participation could act as a
potential barrier to selection motivation. It would be futile to wield additional effort to select
students for GATE unless imminent value exists, deterring Black student growth in the program.
Lack of value equates to lack of motivation. It should be noted, while teachers overwhelmingly
agree, “Primary Students Should Be Identified as Gifted,” but are evenhanded when surveyed
“Identification of Primary Age Children is Reliable and Can be Justified in Upper Grades.” Ford
et al. (2008) surmised that the underrepresentation of Black students in gifted education was a
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Gifted Students Should
Receive a Specialized
Education
Primary Age Students Should
be IdentiVied as Gifted
IdentiVication of Primary Age
Children is Relaible and Can be
JustiVied in Upper Grades
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 94
result of their failure to reach his or her potential, which contributed to the achievement gap. An
overlap between gifted education and higher education exists, as gifted education, by means of
AP classes, is the gateway to elite colleges and universities (Ford, 2006). Knowledge or greater
understanding of GATE student trajectory potentially can provide teachers greater motivation in
their identification of those who will benefit from the program potentially increasing Black
student enrollment.
The interviews in unison with the survey revealed teachers’ motivation and desire to
strive for equitable access to GATE leading to increased Black student participation when asked,
“What do you think gifted and talented students need the most, especially those who lack
resources?” Participant 5 answered with a motivated reluctance, “I think they need more support.
I think they need more opportunities, individualized opportunities. In an ideal world we could
reach all those learners in the classroom and push them.” The answer in aligned with the
Assumed Motivation Influence #1 as teachers clearly see value in individualized opportunities to
specifically include gifted programs. Teachers were equipped with knowledge and motivated to
provide equitable access to appropriate rigor for their gifted students through identification
potentially increasing Black student participation in GATE. Participant 4 exclaimed,
In years past with my gifted and talented students, they don’t learn from me talking to
them and presenting information from a math book or a science book…They need
flexibility in the way they solve problems. I want to see all my students work, but there’s
that student who, he can’t show his work. He knows it somehow, or she knows it
somehow, without doing the traditional algorithm that I’m making them do and I have to
assure they are getting the proper work that challenges them.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 95
The participant’s words comport with the survey as teachers overwhelmingly indicated that
gifted students should receive a specialize education and it is obvious that teachers were
motivated to provide it. The challenge to motivation in assuring equitable identification leading
to increase enrollment of Black students in GATE does not appear to be an element of value but
rather an element of support. Without appropriate mechanisms of support, motivation will reach
its limit. Based on the survey and interview data, the assumed motivation influencer was not a
validated to be a gap.
Assumed Motivation Influence 2

The second assumed motivation influence is teachers’ feeling that supporting unique and
equitable access for pupils identified as gifted is their core responsibility. The goal of education
is for all children to reach the maximum of their potential (Ford et al., 2009). Children with
disabilities are protected under federal regulations to assure educational potential is fulfilled,
however, little attention is focused specifically on high-achieving students as limited resources
are dedicated to K-12 teachers’ preparation for gifted students (Subontik et al., 2011). A
teachers’ role is to act as a conduit in maximizing their students’ educational opportunity and
potential, however, Black students are drastically under-referred for gifted programs and if not
referred, students are unlikely to be given further consideration (Ford et al., 2009).
Figure 11 connects three points that provide insight into teacher motivation. When
surveyed, 72% either Disagreed or Strongly Disagreed, “Standardized Test Are Reliable Tools in
Identifying Gifted Students”, 81% Agree or Strongly Agree “Gifted Students Should Receive a
Specialized Education” and 61% Disagree or Strongly Disagree, “Students Who Do Not Qualify
as Gifted Should Be Tested Every Year.”
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 96

Figure 11. Teachers’ motivation for gifted student identification.
The majority of teachers surveyed noted standardized test are not reliable tools in gifted
identification yet strongly indicated that students who do not qualify as gifted should not be
tested every year. In order to qualify for the district’s GATE program students must pass a
standardized exam. A disconnect exist that is correlated to motivation as a significant number of
those surveyed indicated, gifted students should receive a specialized education, yet failure to
pass the GATE exam negates one from receiving that specialized education. In interviews, all
participants claimed to have students who are gifted but haven’t passed the exam or haven’t
taken the exam. The disconnect is that data collected clearly indicates teachers have little faith in
a standardized test’s ability to identifying giftedness but denying a student numerous opportunity
to qualify for GATE is potentially denying one’s opportunity to have a specialized education. If
a teacher has knowledge that a student failed to pass the exam and the same teacher does not
believe that the child should be afforded multiple opportunities, motivation to support unique and
equitable access for gifted students is questionable. The data reveals teachers do not believe test
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Studnets Who Do Not Qualify
as Gifted Should be Tested
Every Year
Gifted Students Should
Receive a Specialized
Education
Standardized Test are Reliable
Tools to Identify Gifted
Students
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 97
are the most effective means of gifted identification yet test must be utilized as it is the only
determination that the district recognizes, providing challenges to increasing Black student
participation in GATE. If a child fails to pass the GATE exam, one would wonder if the teacher
would stop looking for signs of giftedness in that particular student averting the appropriate rigor
that eventually leads to collegiate success.
The survey evidence was further supported by the teacher interviews as all participants
voiced an intrinsic motivation to provide equitable identification and access to appropriate rigor
for their gifted students that could increase Black student enrollment. However, all participants
lamented over lack of time to provide adequate assistance to their gifted students. When asked,
“Tell me how you feel that you support gifted students?” Participant 6 exclaimed, “I’d say the
teachers more talk about it in the lunchroom and we talk about how those kids are getting left
behind. And what we can do to bump things up for them and to challenge them, but all of it’s
hard because it takes so much time then to have lessons for them that would add on to what
we’re doing.”
When asked the same question, Participant 2 said, “Those kids who are, these GATE
kids who are quick, quick, quick, quick, it’s like…Now they’re just going to go do this
independent project...They’re kind of like left alone. So, they’re kind of getting, sorry, they’re
getting screwed because, they get it easier.” When posed with the same question, Participant 3
explained, “This year, I am trying research projects. I just sort of started that because I don’t
have a lot of time where I can watch them and see how they’re doing with it.” The apparent
pattern in all three responses was lack of dedicated time to devote to identifying and nurturing
gifted students leading to equitable access that could increase Black student participation in
GATE and revealing Assumed Influence #2 is validated. Teachers do not feel that supporting
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 98
equitable access for gifted students is a core responsibility because the motivation to support
students with greater needs consume the pinnacle of instruction time potentially limiting the
increase of Black student enrollment in GATE.
A follow-up question was asked, “What motivates you to give additional attention to
gifted kids considering time constraints? Particpant 5 response is an example of the overall
pattern of intrinsic motivation,
No, nothing. It’s intrinsic. Like, I just…it’s just like I have motivation to help my…I
mean obviously kids…We’re here because we’re, we’re doing it because we love our
kids. And so I literally, like just like I gonna bring my kids for an IEP to get tested, I’m
gonna fight for those guys so they can get their best education and do their best, I’m
gonna do the same for my kids for GATE and I’m gonna do the same for my kids who
are in my classroom.”
The survey combined with the interviews provided clarity in regard to teacher
motivation. All participants expressed in their interview an intrinsic motivation to identify and
support gifted students, however, each participant also claimed that lack of dedicated time
provided to them by the district, was an obstacle in providing individualized consideration that
gifted students deserved acting as a barrier to increased Black student participation. The more
gifted students to a class, the more work teachers must dedicate time and effort to the
identification process in an already overwhelming workload. Though teachers say that they are
intrinsically motivated to support equitable identification and access to GATE leading to an
increase in Black student enrollment, it is clear that their actions are an afterthought and not
considered their core responsibility validating the assumed motivational influence.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 99
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivational Influence
The results and findings suggest the Assumed Motivation Influence #1 was not validated
and is an organizational asset as teachers clearly recognize and see value in equitable
identification and participation within gifted programs leading to increased enrollment of Black
students. An area of focus for improvement is suggested in the validation of Assumed Influence
#2 as the gap suggests a lack of motivation due to time constrains and additional obligations
preventing teachers from viewing equitable GATE identification as their core responsibility.
Though teachers expressed an intrinsic value to provide individualized care into their gifted
students, as Dembo and Seli (2016) suggested motivation is measured in costs benefits. The
intrinsic value illustrated by teachers to support equitable identification to gifted education
proved not to outweigh the motivational costs of valuing it as core responsibility hindering
distended Black student enrollment in GATE. The challenge to increasing motivation in order to
strive for equitable identification and access to gifted programs leading to greater Black student
participation is in relation to organizational factors including goals, incentives, feedback and
praise, which is discussed further in Chapter Five recommendations.
Findings for Organizational Influences
According to Burke (2008), organizations are in a continuous build over time. Burke
(2008) explained his idea of continuous as being the connection between the various features of
organizations that are “interdependent, linear, homeostatic or highly dependable” (p. 2). Some
of these organizational features include: resources, processes, structures, policies, practices and
people (Rueda, 2011). Sometimes organizations are challenged with solving problems, with
organizational barriers being the reason. According to Clark and Estes (2008) some of these
barriers may include lack of resources, antiquated facilities, or misaligned policies. Rueda
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 100
(2011) articulated that everyone in an organization may have the appropriate knowledge and
skills and may be highly motivated but the organization itself may have deficiencies that impede
performance. A classroom would be considered a complex social context with a dynamic
cultural setting, which is highly influenced by the organization and as discussed at the beginning
of the chapter, the greatest obstacle preventing teachers from adhering to policy partially devised
to increase Black student participation in GATE is the district. Though the chapter began
scrutinizing disparate district potential barriers to the problem of practice, this section’s purpose
is to analyze the organization’s validated assumed influences that led the research.
Table 9 includes validated teacher assets associated with the district.
Table 9
Validated Assumed Organizational Influences

Assumed
Organizational
Influences
Survey Interview Validated
Yes/No
Gap/Asset
The district needs to
cultivate a culture of
promoting and
encouraging equity,
specifically for Black
students.
81% Agree or
Strongly Agree “It
is Important to
Strive for Racial
Equity in Gifted
Education”
“No one’s talking about kids that
are above. And we can be
preparing them for what they’re
gonna see next year in middle
school, but it’s hard because
there’s not a lot of support around
that”
Partially
Validated/Gap
The district needs to
develop a universal
definition of equity that is
disseminated, discussed
and practiced by teachers
in order to operationalize
the GATE mission
statement.
64% Disagree or
Strongly Disagree,
“Cultural Diversity
Should be a Factor
When Nominating
Students for
GATE”
“Yeah, a couple years ago, they
had this equity thing and so they
talked about it all year long and I
guess the principals went to
conferences about it. That’s
basically all that came back about
that was equity looks different for
different kids. Same kind of
thing where it means that kids are
getting their needs met and their
needs may be different from each
other.”
Yes/Gap
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 101
Table 9, continued

Assumed Organizational Influence 1
The first assumed organization influence is the district needs to cultivate a culture of
promoting and encouraging equity, specifically for Black students. Based on the
disproportionality of Black students in GATE, the district’s procedures for participant
identification and nomination must be examined and scrutinized. Ambrose et al. (2010)
explained that individuals may know facts and concepts but may not know how or when to apply
them. Teachers may know that equitable identification of gifted students is important but
applying that knowledge to increase Black student participation in GATE may be foreign or
challenging. The district is responsible for cultivating a culture where teachers need to know
how to implement strategies to attract and recruit diversity, specifically Black students, in order
to achieve equity within the GATE program.
According to the survey, as shown in Figure 12, 97% Disagree or Strongly Disagree,
“Certain Races and Cultures are Naturally More Suited for Gifted Curriculum Than Others”,
94% Agree of Strongly Agree, “Diversity Improves the Educational Experience for All
Students” and 81% Agree or Strongly Agree, “It is Important to Strive for Racial Equity in
Assumed
Organizational
Influences
Survey Interview Validated
Yes/No
Gap/Asset
The district needs to
provide faculty with the
resources and freedom to
assist in measuring
student ability beyond
traditional measures of
academic achievement.
Survey data
illustrates teachers’
knowledge of
gifted identifiers
beyond current
district identifiers
creating diversity in
GATE.
“I believe that the wealthier
White schools in the district, the
schools where parents have a lot
of money are able to teach in a
way that they have enough gifted
and talented students or they have
enough resources, or the they
know enough about it that they
are able to teach at a higher level
that benefits all the kids at that
school.”
Yes/Gap
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 102
Gifted Education”. These data points illustrate teachers in the district have the requisite
knowledge and motivation needed to operationalize the GATE mission leading to an increase in
Black student enrollment. Though 81% surveyed in the affirmative of the importance to strive
for racial equity in gifted education, it is clear that the district’s ability to translate teacher
motivation and knowledge into a culture of promoting and encouraging equity is deficient; that
deficiency is an impediment to increased Black student enrollment in GATE.

Figure 12. Motivation in relation to teacher’s knowledge of gifted identification.
Interviews combined with survey data in Figure 12, provides compelling analysis. When
asked, “Do you think the district has developed a culture where students’ equity is promoted in
the GATE program? Participant 5 said, “No one’s talking about kids that are above. And we
can be preparing them for what they’re gonna see next year in middle school, but it’s hard
because there’s not a lot of support around that. The district is just concerned with the kids that
are below.” The teacher’s response in regards to district support was consistent throughout all
interviews and was an indicator of inadequate resources and support to strive for equity in gifted
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Agree Strongly
Agree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Ceratin Races and Cultures are
Naturally Suited for Gifted
Education
Diversity Improves the
Educational Experience for All
Students
It is important to Strive for
Racaial Equity in Gifted
Education
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 103
identification impairing the increase of Black student participation in GATE and validating the
assumed influence. If the district does not provide the necessary resources and support to
cultivate a culture of promoting equity, equitable identification of Black students to gifted
programs will be a challenge, acting as a barrier to increased enrollment. The survey combined
with interview data indicate clarity of teachers’ individual knowledge and motivation in striving
for equitable identification and access to gifted programs, however all interviewees expressed
lack of support by the district for the GATE program potentially confining Black student
participation. Assumed Organizational Influence #1 is validated, as gap exists. Though the
district has done an adequate job attaining teachers who expressed value in equitable
identification and access to gifted programs, both in interview and survey data but the resources
needed to operationalize the district’s GATE mission should be assessed. The struggle for
resources necessary to create a district wide culture that promotes and encourages equitable
identification and access to gifted education is pellucid, hindering an increase to Black student
enrollment.
Assumed Organizational Influence 2
The second assumed organization influence is the district’s need to develop a universal
definition of equity that is disseminated, discussed and practiced by teachers in order to
operationalize the GATE mission leading to greater Black student participation in the program.
Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that clear and candid communication leads to trust, producing
enhanced performance within an organization. When surveyed, 81% Agree or Strongly Agree,
“It is Important to Strive for Racial Equity in Gifted Education”, 64% Disagree or Strongly
Disagree, “Cultural Diversity Should be a Factor When Nominating Students for GATE”, 58%
Agree or Strongly Agree, 61% Agree or Strongly Agree, “Non-Traditional Measures, Such as
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 104
Teacher Observation, Portfolio Assessment, Parent Nomination, are Reliable Tools to Identify
Gifted Students”, 72% Disagree of Strongly Disagree, “Standardized Tests are Reliable Tools to
Identify Gifted Students” and 94% Agree or Strongly Agree, “Diversity Improves the
Educational Experience for All Students” as illustrated in Figure 13. In analyzing the data,
conflict in regards to gifted identification and racial equity are prevalent, due to poor district
direction and communication, acting as a restraint to increased Black student enrollment in
GATE.

Figure 13. Racially equitable GATE identification.
The interviews did not corroborate with the data in Figure 13. When asked, “How do you
support the district in providing greater equity within the GATE program Participant 1 said,
“Yeah, a couple years ago, they had this equity thing and so they talked about it all year long and
I guess the principals went to conferences about it. That’s basically all that came back about that
was equity looks different for different kids.” Clark and Estes (2008) reminded organizations
that trust in the mission of the organization will increase stakeholder commitment to goals. An
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Agree Strongly
Agree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree
It Is Important to Strive for
Racial Equity in Gifted
Education
Cultural Diversity Should be a
Factor When Nominating
Students for GATE
Non-Traditional Measures are
Reliable Tools to Identify
Gifted Studnets
Standaridized Test are
Reilable Tools to Identify
Gifted Students
Diversity Improves the
Educational Experiecne for All
Students
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 105
organization must communicate and continually repeat its message to engender stakeholders to
understand and recognize the mission and to gain trust. Clarity in message by the district
appears to be an obstacle to performance needed to increase Black student enrollment in gifted
education. Based on the survey and interview data the assumed organizational influence was
validated as teachers expressed an understanding for need of equitable identification and access
to gifted programs yet failed to be provided with a universal message in order to adhering to
policy designed to increase Black student enrollment in GATE.
Assumed Organizational Influence 3
The third assumed organizational influence is the district’s need to provide faculty
with the resources and freedom to assist in measuring student ability beyond traditional measures
of academic achievement. Academic giftedness is complex and although general ability and
potential may be essential to academic prowess, giftedness is determined by a multitude of
variables not always determined by a test or exam (Subotnik & Rickoff, 2010). Clark and Estes
(2008) emphasized the necessity of an organization to provide stakeholders with adequate
support to include training that provides knowledge and skills in order to achieve goals. In
referring back to Figure 13, providing teachers with multiple means to assess GATE participants
would provide greater autonomy in GATE identification. Teachers clearly identify that they
believe the most effective way to identify gifted students is through Performance-Based
Assessment, however, Figure 14 reveals a gamut of non-traditional methods that could be
utilized for identification. Considering the disputation in affective measure for GATE
identification, teachers’ loyalty to test identification may be a byproduct of tradition. Figure 14
also illustrates teachers’ desire to identify gifted students beyond the measures that are currently
provided by the district. Figure 14 is a reminder of disparity in thought teachers expressed in
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 106
regard to identifying giftedness. It was calculated by adding the prioritization provided by
teachers from the survey. The lowest enumerated selection indicates teachers’ knowledge in
regard to effective methods for gifted identification and selection as teachers’ clearly exhibit an
understanding of how to implement non-traditional strategies in order to attract and recruit
diversity to the GATE program. The district’s traditional methods of gifted identification is not
inclusive certain students providing challenges to increase Black student enrollment in the
program.

Figure 14. Prioritization of non-traditional gifted student identification.
The survey data combined with teacher interviews exhibited findings that reveal Assumed
Organizational Influence #3 has a gap as Participant 6 said,
I believe that the wealthier White schools in the district, the schools where parents have a
lot of money are able to teach in a way that they have enough gifted and talented students
or they have enough resources, or the they know enough about it that they are able to
teach at a higher level that benefits all the kids at that school.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Performance-Based
Assessment
Noverbal Test
Teacher Obervation Checklist
Indiviualized IQ Test
Portfolio Evaluation
Teacher Referal
Group IQ Test
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 107
The teacher’s statement clearly indicates that schools with greater resources within the district
have greater ability to teach and identify gifted students with more autonomy, creating
opportunities for GATE participation not afforded to all sites. The participant’s response in
regards to resources was consistent throughout interviews validating the assumed organizational
influence. Teachers displayed knowledge of non-traditional measures with potential to identify
diverse students to gifted education yet equitable resources to integrate those measure are not
sufficient. The disparity of resources and freedom provided by the district to assist in measuring
academic achievement that qualifies for GATE is an obstruction to increased Black student
enrollment.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organizational Influence
The results and findings suggest the Assumed Organizational Influence #1 was validated
as one of the district’s assets is the teachers’ knowledge and motivation in regard to equitable
identification and access to gifted education illustrated by survey answers but resources needed
to cultivate a culture of promoting and encouraging equity act as an obstacle to increased
enrolment of Black students as revealed in the interviews. An area of focus for improvement is
suggested in the validation of Assumed Influence #2 as equity has not been defined by the
district creating a lack of guidance or direction illustrating an existent gap. An additional gap or
area of focus for improvement derives from the validation of Assumed Influence #3 as resource
disparity amongst sites exist in the district providing challenges to equitable identification of
gifted students deterring the increase of Black student participation in GATE. Recent data show
that Black students are only likely to receive 59% gifted services proportionate to their presence
in the broader student population (Grissom et al., 2017). The four sites studied have a much
higher population of Black children compared to the overall demographics of the district, yet a
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 108
disproportionality exist in representation of those identified in the gifted program providing
insight to equitable access throughout the organization; discussed further in the related
recommendations in Chapter Five.
Conclusion
The findings presented in this chapter suggest that teacher knowledge and motivation are
minimal variables preventing increased Black student enrollment in gifted education. However,
the organization and the assumed organizational influences have immense effect on goal or
mission attainment. The findings illustrated a great deal of knowledge attained by teachers in
regard to gifted education was available to provide equitable identification leading to a an
increase in Black student participation, yet a clear divide existed on how to effectively utilize
that knowledge. In terms of motivation, though teachers expressed an intrinsic value to provide
individualized care into their gifted students, that intrinsic value proved not to outweigh the
motivational costs of valuing it as core responsibility. Again, data is clear that knowledge and
motivation were minimal factors in evaluating the problem of practice. The organization has
transparent misalignment of GATE policy and practice as findings reveal disparity in district
provisions acting as an obstacle to equitable identification deterring an increase in Black student
participation within the program. In conclusion, Chapter Five examines opportunities to further
operationalize the district’s policy in regards to gifted education increasing Black student
enrollment.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 109
CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Gifted and Talented Education or GATE, provides greater individualized rigorous
educational opportunities that lead to enhanced access to AP curriculum affiliated with
acceptance and attendance to elite colleges and lack of equitable resources in gifted programs
further contribute to the achievement gap (Ford et al., 2008, p. 222). The Clark and Estes (2008)
Gap Analysis Model was used to create an evaluation study of teachers and their role in the
organization’s policy and mission to “support unique and equitable access” for all, to specifically
include Black students. The purpose of this evaluation study was to explore and examine the
role teachers’ play in the identification of Black students to GATE and its impact on reducing the
access gap to gifted education. However, a clear disparity is present as Black students in the
district represent 9% of student body, with only 4% in the GATE program (Srikrishnan, 2017).
Underrepresentation of Black students in gifted programs and lack of access to advanced
curriculum is a major but often neglected topic in discussions. Nationally, in 2011, Black
students comprised 19% of school districts but only 10% of gifted education (Ford & King,
2014), statistics closely aligned with the organization of study. Research shows that giftedness
exists in every racial group (Terman, 1925); however, the study found resources needed to
increase Black student participation in the gifted program appear to lack equitable distribution
throughout its sites. Although the stakeholder group of study were teachers, data collected
revealed the pellucid barrier to equitable identification leading to increased GATE enrollment of
Black students was the district. Pressman and Wildavsky (1973) said, “The separation of policy
design from implementation is fatal.” The organization has created policy without
implementation. In essence, the district’s policy is simply verbiage and without focused
implementation an increase in Black student enrollment within gifted education is fatal.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 110
Data revealed performance goals or assessments in terms of identifying students for the
GATE program in terms of race or culture do not exist within the district. No clear structure
could be identified within the organization implementing its policy. The district’s sincerity of
importance of specialized education must be assessed to assure all students are receiving the
necessary rigor to maximize potential. Daniels (1998) explained that public schools have an
imbalance between resources provided for special education and resources provided for gifted
education, though gifted education is a subsidiary of special education. In a study, Loveless
(2008) found more than 7 out of 10 teachers noted that their brightest students were not
challenged or given an opportunity to “thrive” while in their classrooms. Hertberg-Davis (2013)
exclaimed gifted students need gifted programming because “general education program is not
yet ready to meet the needs of gifted students” (p. 9) due to lack of general educators’ training in
gifted education and the pressure classroom teachers face to raise the performance of their
struggling students. All teachers interviewed provided data that confirmed their time dedicated
to the needs of “struggling students” limits motivation to provide equitable attention to higher
performing pupils. The data further concluded that the district has failed to provide their
teachers training that would create knowledge and motivation, hindering an increase of Black
students to the gifted education program.
Although, the district has been identified as the clear barrier to an increase of Black
student enrollment in GATE, this analysis identified and then validated assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that impact teachers’ responsibility to equitable student
identification for the program. These assumed influences were initially identified based on
research surrounding best practice in gifted student identification leading to equitable access.
Teacher influences were validated through a survey and interviews. This chapter will explore
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 111
the key validated influences that enabled, supported and hindered teachers’ opportunities in
operationalizing the program’s mission designed to create equitable access to GATE acting as an
agent to the increase of Black student enrollment. In particular, Chapter Five responds to the
third research question guiding this study, “What recommendations in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources may be appropriate for solving the organizational
problem of practice?”
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
In order to understand the role of assessment and evaluation within the entity of study, it
is important to understand the entity. The study contemplates the Gifted and Talented Education
(GATE) program in a large public school district with over 130, 000 students. The district is
facing a performance problem, which is the lack of equity within their gifted programs. In the
2016-2017 academic year, 44 percent of Latinos made up the entire enrollment for the district;
they only made up 33 percent of the entire GATE program. For Black students, who made up 8
percent of the district’s overall population, the disproportionality was even worse, as they
accounted for 3 percent of the total GATE program. Though equitable student involvement
within the GATE program has been recognized as their mission, the district has failed to define
equity for their organization. The district has also failed to define any tangible goals that lead to
meaningful or robust assessments or evaluations that will assist in operationalizing their GATE
policy. The lack of a defined mission by the district with an implementation strategy is a barrier
to increased Black student participation in the gifted program.
Teachers in the study validated influences and indicated gaps that exists acting as points
of interest and potential obstacles to operationalize district’s policy, partially created to increase
Black student enrollment in GATE, as discussed in Chapter Four. The determination of
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 112
validated influences illustrates gaps in teachers’ behaviors that are essential to providing
equitable access to the district’s gifted program leading to potential increase in participation of
Black students. Both validated and influencers that were not validated are relevant to this
research, as they are behaviors identified as influencing teachers’ identification and servitude of
the gifted population. Based on the data analysis, teachers expressed an appetency to provide
equitable identification leading to the equitable access needed to implement or address the
assumed influences. Therefore, teachers’ assumed influences were affected by various reasons
related to time constraints, district priorities, or lack of resources. All validated assumed
influences were identified within Chapter 4’s tables and are important to create structures that
support equitable access to gifted programs leading to an increase of Black student participation.
Consequently, the validated influences are considered as gaps needing to be developed fully or
improved.
Organizational Context, Mission and Performance Goal
Within a large public school district, equity in access to gifted education leading to
increased Black student enrollment was studied. Emphasis was placed on four elementary
school sites within the district. The district’s GATE mission is to “support unique and equitable
access for high achieving and underachieving pupils who are identified as Gifted”. A
performance problem exists due to lack of Black student participation. Though equitable student
involvement within the GATE program has been identified in their mission statement, the district
has no clear definition of goals that are tangible in order to enable their teachers to operationalize
GATE policy and mission leading to an increase in Black student enrollment. Since Black
students are the most underrepresented, an artificial goal was established in Chapter 1 of this
study: By January 2021, the district will increase African American participation in its gifted
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 113
program from 4 percent to 5 percent. The goal was derived through established policy in the
district’s Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP) to include Ref# 1.10.a entitled Additional
Support for African American and Latino Students states, “The district will continue to increase
enrollment of students of color in advanced courses”. The study provides clear data that suggest
the artificial goal established in Chapter 1 created to increase Black student enrollment in GATE
is unattainable with the district’s current implementation of its policy.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are three primary stakeholder groups involved in creating equitable identification
acting as a catalyst to greater Black student participation in the district’s gifted programs: a) the
teachers as Grissom (2017) focused on the demographic characteristics of a school and found a
linear relationship between a diverse faculty leading to greater diversity in gifted programs b)
students who participate or have the potential to participate in the gifted program are an
extremely important stakeholder as reported in the 4
th
Annual AP Report, African American and
Latino students represented 28.6% of all graduating college seniors in the U.S. but only 21.4%
participated in gifted or AP education courses; in comparison, 64% of all graduating college
seniors being White and 61.7% took AP examinations illustrating a direct correlation between
gifted education in primary and secondary education and the completion of a tertiary education
and c) parents are also a vital stakeholder and tend to be the forgotten or most neglected entity
necessary for a child’s academic success as Contreras (2011) illustrated the greater inclusion and
partnership of the parental component is a necessary approach to intervening and “strengthening
the pathway to higher education among underrepresented students” (p. 522).

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 114
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study
To meet the goals of GATE, partially crafted to increase Black student participation, it is
imperative that teachers have the knowledge and skills to provide equitable identification of their
gifted students. The goal for teachers as the stakeholder and prescribed in Chapter 1: “By fall
2020, in order to attract Black participants into the GATE program, all elementary school
teachers will engage in operationalizing the mission of supporting unique and equitable access to
the gifted program through diverse methods of identification and assessment.” One of the most
important duties for teachers is to assess and identify students who exhibit signs of giftedness
and it is crucial that a student who is recognized as gifted be identified early as gifted students
must be challenged with specialized and rigorous curriculum or these exceptional students can
suffer from boredom, discipline issues and underachievement (Eakin, 2007; Moon et al., 2003).
In order to reach this goal teachers need clear direction and specified resources which the district
did not supply acting as a barrier to increased Black student enrollment if the gifted program.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
Although the data immensely suggests the greatest barrier to increased Black student
participation within GATE are organizational deficiencies, the purpose of this study was to
investigate the KMO influences associated with teachers’ performance related to gifted
education identification. The questions guiding this evaluation study were the following:
• What are the teacher’s knowledge and motivation related to identification and placement
of potentially gifted Black students within the GATE program in order to operationalize
the district’s mission of providing equitable access?
• What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 115
• What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
The knowledge influences in Table 10 provide the complete list of assumed influences
and their validation. Table 10 also provides insight through triangulation of surveys and
interviews, further supported by peer-reviewed literature. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that
declarative knowledge about something is often necessary to know before applying it to classify
or identify, as in the case of understanding and providing equitable access to gifted programs
needed to enhance Black student participation. As indicated in Table 10, all of the assumed
influences were validated. Table 10 also shows the recommendations for these highly probable
influences based on theoretical principles that will increase Black student enrollment in gifted
education.
Table 10
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge Influence:
Cause, Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to Know the
District’s Definition of Equity and
How the District Expects Black
Students to be Incorporated Within
That Definition. (D)eclarative
(Factual)

V Procedural knowledge
increases when
declarative knowledge
required to perform
the skill is available or
known. (Clark et al.,
2008).
District to provide a
working definition of
equity and how it applies
to the GATE program.
Teachers need to know why the
district has focused on equity
within GATE and why it is
essential to the success of the
program. (D)eclarative
(Conceptual)

V Learning is highly
dependent on “goal-
directed practice” and
“targeted feedback”
(Ambrose, 2010).
District to provide
training with authentic
problematic dedication,
expertise-based
demonstrations, and
practice with feedback.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 116
Table 10, continued
Assumed Knowledge Influence:
Cause, Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to know how to
implement strategies to attract and
recruit diversity, specifically Black
students, in order to achieve
equitable access to the GATE
program. (P)rocedural
N Procedural knowledge
includes strategic
knowledge (Anderson
& Krathwohl, 2001).

District to provide
training that utilizes
situations and case
studies to generate
creative procedures
required to increase
Black student enrollment
in GATE.
Teachers need to know how to
reflect on their personal
recruitment of diversity,
specifically Black students, through
awareness of potential biases, in
order to achieve equity within the
GATE program. (M)etacognitive

N Ambrose et al. (2010)
explained that
metacognitive
knowledge is an
assessment of one’s
strengths and
weaknesses in order to
develop in areas that
need work.
District to provide
training to teachers in
which a peer model
trains and exemplifies
potential biases in ,
identification of Black
students for GATE.
*(D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Teachers need to
know the district’s definition of equity and how the district expects Black students to be
incorporated within that definition. (D)eclarative (Factual) Procedural knowledge increases when
declarative knowledge required to perform the skill is available or known (Clark et al., 2008).
District should provide a working definition of equity and how it applies to the GATE program.
Teachers need to know why the district has created policy that focuses on increased Black
student participation in GATE and why it is essential to the program’s success. (D)eclarative
(Conceptual) Learning is highly dependent on “goal-directed practice” and “targeted feedback”
(Ambrose, 2010). Training with authentic problematic dedication, expertise-based
demonstrations, and practice with feedback from the district should be provided. Procedural
knowledge increases when declarative knowledge required to perform the skill is available or
known. (Clark et al., 2008), hence the district’s need to provide a working definition of equity
and how it applies to the GATE program is essential to increase of Black student participation.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 117
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. (P)rocedural
knowledge includes strategic knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) as teachers need to
know how to implement strategies to identify gifted Black students in order to increase their
enrollment in GATE. If the district provided training that utilized situations and case studies to
generate creative procedures, it would operationalizing their policy leading to an increase in
Black student enrollment within gifted education.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Through
awareness of potential biases, teachers need to know how to reflect on their personal recruitment
of diversity, specifically Black students, in order to increase their enrollment in gifted education.
(M)etacognitive Ambrose et al. (2010) explained that metacognitive knowledge is an assessment
of one’s strengths and weaknesses in order to develop in areas that need work. To increase
teachers’ metacognition in relation to gifted Black student identification, it is recommended that
the district provide training to staff that explore and challenge potential biases that may prevent
in increase in Black student enrollment in GATE.
Motivation Recommendations
Table 11 displays the complete list of assumed motivational influences and their
validation. Table 11 also provides insight through triangulation of surveys and interviews,
further supported by peer-reviewed literature. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that there are three
indicators of motivation in task performance – choice, persistence and mental effort. Choice is
going beyond intention to start something. Persistence is continuing to pursue a goal in the face
of distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying new knowledge to solve a novel
program or perform a new task. All teachers in the study exhibited concern for their role in
creating equity within the GATE program potentially leading to an increase in Black student
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 118
enrollment. However, the lack of specified effort to operationalize the district’s policy suggest,
persistence and individual choice may be lacking, acting as a barrier to increased Black student
enrollment. As such, as indicated in Table 11, some motivational influences have been validated
indicating that a gap exists. Table 11 also shows the recommendations for these influences based
on theoretical principles that will increase Black student enrollment in gifted education.
Table 11
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to see
the value in equitable
participation, especially
for Black students, in
the GATE program.
N Individuals are more
likely to engage in an
activity when it
provides value to them.
(Eccles, 2009).
Provide opportunities for
teachers to meet, learn and
collaborate with peers in
relation to best practices to
enhance inclusive gifted
identification.
Teachers should feel
that supporting unique
and equitable access for
pupils identified as
gifted is their core
responsibility
V Individuals who do not
perceive any support in
their environment “tend
to be hopeless”
(Ambrose, 2010).

Provide incentives for
teachers who are GATE
certified and when students
qualify for the program.

Knowledge provides the intellectual structure to achievement but motivation delivers the
direction, persistence and energy to accomplish goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Ambrose et al.
(2010) credit motivation as the element that generates, directs and sustains goal achievement (p.
69). Individuals are more likely to engage in an activity when it provides value to them (Eccles,
2009). The first Assumed Motivation Influence of teachers need to see the value in equitable
participation, especially for Black students, in the GATE program is a Utility Value. By
providing opportunities for teachers to meet, collaborate and learn from each other’s thoughts
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 119
and techniques of inclusivity creates value and “buy in” leading to motivation needed to increase
Black student enrollment in GATE.
Dembo and Seli (2016) explain how expectancy value theory provides an explanation as
to the motivation of an individual’s choices and assist in delineating one’s motivation in terms of
maximum pleasure versus minimal pain. The second Assumed Motivation Influence of teachers
feeling that supporting unique and equitable access for pupils identified as gifted is their core
responsibility is a Goal Attainment. Individuals who do not perceive any support in their
environment “tend to be hopeless” (Ambrose, 2010) and hopelessness is a detriment to
motivation. Providing incentives for teachers who are GATE certified and celebrating teachers
when their Black students qualify for the program will lessen the pleasure/pain divide and create
hope leading to goal attainment of increased Black student enrollment in the program.
Organizational Recommendations
Table 12 was created upon completion of data gathering and analysis. It displays the
complete list of assumed organizational influences and their validation. Table 12 also provides
insight through triangulation of surveys and interviews, further supported by peer-reviewed
literature. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organization and stakeholder goals are often not
achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that are
not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
propose two constructs about culture – cultural models or the observable beliefs and values
shared by individuals in groups or the settings and activities in which performance occurs. Thus,
both resources and processes and cultural models and settings must align throughout the
organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. As such, as indicated in Table 12,
some organizational influences have been validated revealing the existence of a gap that is
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 120
restricting the increase of Black student enrollment in GATE. Table 12 also shows the
recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles that will increase Black
student enrollment in gifted education.
Table 12
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
The district needs to
cultivate a culture of
promoting and
encouraging equity,
specifically for Black
students.
V Job satisfaction
increases when all
organization
stakeholders agree on
culture, mission, goals,
and resources required
to achieve goals (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
Conduct district wide
meetings to communicate
the vision, mission and
goals in regards to equity
and the gifted program.

The district needs to
develop a universal
definition of equity that
is disseminated,
discussed and practiced
by teachers in order to
operationalize the
GATE mission
statement.
V Organizational
performance increases
when individuals
communicate
constantly and candidly
to others about plans
and processes (Clark &
Estes, 2008)
Conduct site team
meetings with leadership
to establish goals and time
frames.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 121
Table 12, continued
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
The district needs to
provide faculty with the
resources and freedom
to assist in measuring
student ability beyond
traditional measures of
academic achievement.
V Organizational
performance increases
when processes and
resources are aligned
with goals established
collaboratively (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
Cultivate a culture of
participation with all
stakeholders in achieving
organization goals by
encouraging feedback and
communication by teachers
in order to achieve
ingenuity and understand
the needs of the gifted
community.

The first assumed organizational influence probed into the degree to which the teachers
feel that the district has cultivated a culture of promoting and encouraging equity within the
gifted program that would lead to an increase in Black student enrollment. Job satisfaction
increases when all organization stakeholders agree on culture, mission, goals, and resources
required to achieve goals (Clark & Estes, 2008) making it imperative for the district to conduct
organizational wide meetings to communicate the vision, mission and goals in order to increase
the participation of Black students in gifted education. The second Assumed Organization
Influence, “The district needs to develop a universal definition of equity that is disseminated,
discussed and practiced by teachers in order to operationalize the GATE mission statement,” is
another example of Cultural Model Influence. Organizational performance increases when
individuals communicate constantly and candidly to others about plans and processes (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Enhanced performance or an increase in Black student enrollment would result
from district wide meetings with teachers to establish goals that create culture which exhibit and
exemplify the district’s GATE policy. The third Assumed Organization Influence examined
exhibits a Cultural Setting Influence in where “The district needs to provide faculty with the
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 122
resources and freedom to assist in measuring student ability beyond traditional measures of
academic achievement.” Organizational performance increases when processes and resources
are aligned with goals established collaboratively (Clark & Estes, 2008). Cultivating a culture of
participation with all stakeholders in achieving equitable access to gifted programs by
encouraging feedback and communication by teachers is necessary in order to achieve ingenuity
and robust understanding of the individual educational needs of the gifted students leading to an
increase in Black student enrollment.
Summary of KMO Influences
The study validated assumed influences categorized under knowledge, motivation, and
organization (KMO) challenges in Chapter 4. The validated assumed knowledge influence
included #1 and #2 as an apparent gap exist where all teachers were unable to provide a universal
organizational definition of equity and could not remember specific training or articulate specific
instruction that placed an emphasis on equitable access. Moran, Rein and Goodman (2006)
exclaimed that policy will not “stick” through a simple edict but through public persuasion. The
district’s GATE mission of equitable access leading to increased in Black student participation
may be an “edict” that won’t “stick” rather than enduring policy, because teachers are not
properly equipped with knowledge to be persuaded in order to operationalize the organization’s
policy.
Assumed Motivation Influence #2 was validated as the gap suggests a lack of motivation
due to time constrains/obligations that prevent teachers from viewing equitable GATE
identification and participation as their core responsibility. Though teachers expressed an
intrinsic value to provide individualized care into their gifted students, as Dembo and Seli (2016)
suggested motivation is measured in costs benefits. The intrinsic value illustrated by teachers to
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 123
support equitable gifted education opportunities, proved not to outweigh the motivational costs
of valuing it as core responsibility and acting as a barrier to increased Black student
participation.
Assumed Organization Influence #1 was validated, though the district’s asset is the
teachers’ knowledge in regards to equitable identification and access to gifted education,
resources needed to cultivate a culture of promoting and encouraging equity act as an obstacle.
Assumed Organization Influence #2 was validated, as equity has not been defined by the district,
creating a lack of guidance or direction restricting an increase to Black student enrollment.
Assumed Influence #3 was also validated, as resource disparity amongst sites exists in the
district providing challenges to equitable access for gifted education acting as a barrier to
increased Black student participation. Again, the four sites studied have a much higher
population of Black children compared to the overall demographics of the district, yet a
disproportionality exist in representation of those identified in the gifted program providing
insight to equitable access throughout the organization. Assessing knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences have been invaluable in providing insight into the effective measures
leading to organization mission attainment that would increase Black student participation in the
gifted program.
Recommendations to Increase Black Student Participation in Gifted Education
Professional Development
The significant issue revealed by this study is that teachers who are expected to
operationalize the district’s GATE are not consistently provided with the necessary background
knowledge or the environment to develop and refine skills required to identify and meet the
individual needs of all gifted students restricting the increase of Black student enrollment. It is
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 124
evident from both the quantitative and qualitative data collected from this study, the district
exhibited a need for improvement in support practices related to gifted education and equitable
access to the program. All teachers who participated in the study displayed some awareness of
the importance in equitable identification to increase Black student participation in GATE.
However, that awareness could be incomplete and generalized, rather than complete and focused
on their unique function to increase the enrollment of Black students in the program.
An important component in the process of increasing teachers’ knowledge and
motivation needed to operationalize district GATE policy is professional development that is on-
going and continually supportive. Teachers who are charged with the identification and support
of gifted students should be provided with training in regards to equitable access that includes
detailed information regarding the identification process, including referral and testing. In
addition, a supportive professional development should provide opportunities such as
demonstration lessons, classroom observation and feedback for teachers, videotaping of
classroom lessons with analysis and feedback, opportunities to visit model classrooms and
opportunities to interview and include both parents and students. Professional development
opportunities should not be limited to teachers as administrators are also vital to the
organization’s goal attainment; they should be able to attend sessions, which could lead to
cooperation and collaborative meetings to increase Black student enrollment in GATE.
Further Research
To give the study greater weight, a next step would be to redesign the survey and
disseminate it. The study of gifted education debates definitions of giftedness and methods
and/or practices of identification and its relationship to increased Black student participation. It
is necessary to restructure the existing survey so it is reflective of a greater range of beliefs and
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 125
practices in gifted identification through non-traditional methods creating greater equity in
access, possibly leading to a larger number of Black students in the program. The lack of
consistency in teachers’ responses in regards to the organization’s definition of equity combined
with debatable definitions of giftedness illustrates opportunities for significant gaps potentially
preventing all students from receiving adequate academic rigor. Additional opportunities for
teachers to provide open-ended responses should be considered when redesigning the survey so
those who are reluctant for an interview can provide rich data. Once redesigned, the survey
should be distributed to a larger sample size of school sites leading to a larger sample size of
teachers. It is important to distribute the survey to different sites other than the original four as
different sites have autonomy over their gifted programs yet a disparity in resources. In addition,
the survey should be distributed to the administrators in order to provide data regarding their
level of knowledge and motivation and any organizational barriers to operationalizing the
district’s GATE policy and increasing the enrollment of Black students in the program.
Conclusion
The rigor of courses students take is among the strongest predictors of bachelor’s degree
attainment (Adelman, 1999). Gifted and talented identification and program participation
provides the confidence students need to thrive in rigorous academic settings. Nationally a
problem exists in which a low number of Black students are identified as gifted in the public
educational system further widening the achievement gap. The U.S. Department of Education
Office of Civil Rights (2014) reported that Black and Latino students represent 26% of students
enrolled in GATE programs, compared to the 40% enrollment in schools offering such programs
and equitable access acts as a barrier to providing the appropriate individual rigor needed for all
gifted students. A teacher’s input and recommendation is the initial step for screening gifted
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 126
education participants, however, Ford, Whiting and Moore (2009) conveyed that teachers rate
their Black students low on GATE assessments preventing equitable nominations, negating
consideration into gifted programs. The Fourth Annual AP Report (2017) noted that that Black
and Latino students represented 28.6 of all graduating college seniors in the U.S., but only 21.4%
took Advanced Placement (AP) examinations. In comparison, 64% of all graduating college
seniors are White and 61.7% took AP examinations. The primary issue of concern is the
disproportionate number of Black graduating college seniors compared to their White
counterparts, but also of concern is the disproportionately low number of students of color who
took classes designed for gifted students. Reducing the achievement gap through equitable
access is a catalyst in solving the larger issue of high school completion, and increasing
representation of students of color attaining higher education. Solving the problem of the
disproportionately low participation of Blacks in gifted education will assist in closing the
achievement gap (Moore, 2005).
There are multiple stakeholder groups that can be identified in supporting the
organization’s gifted education policy, however, teachers were chosen for this study. Grissom
(2017) focused on the demographic characteristics of a school’s teachers and principal in relation
to identified giftedness of the student body and found a linear relationship between a culturally
diverse faculty and a culturally diverse student body participating in gifted programs. A change
of staff was not an option so understanding teachers’ knowledge and motivation in regards to the
district while utilizing the “KMO” framework was invaluable to the evaluation of this study’s
problem. One of the most important duties for teachers is to assess and identify students who
exhibit signs of giftedness and it is crucial that a student who is recognized as gifted be identified
early as gifted students must be challenged with specialized and rigorous curriculum or these
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 127
exceptional students can suffer from boredom, discipline issues and underachievement (Eakin,
2007; Moon et al., 2003). A teachers’ role is to act as a conduit in maximizing their students’
educational opportunity and potential, however, Black students within the district are drastically
underrepresented within gifted programs.
Framing the study in knowledge, motivation and organization influences, was essential in
understanding performance gaps beyond the district’s clear deficiencies. Though knowledge
provides the intellectual structure to achievement, motivation delivers the direction, persistence
and energy to accomplish goals (Clark & Estes, 2008) and individuals within an organization
may be knowledgeable and motivated but the culture of an organization can hinder performance
(Rueda, 2011). Knowledge, motivation and organization influences prove to be dependent upon
each other in order to generate a comprehensive study. Throughout the study, knowledge,
motivation and organization related influences pertinent to teachers within the district were
essential in assessing and evaluating the GATE policy and its affect on increasing Black student
participation in gifted education.
The study’s results yielded a robust understating of both assets and obstacles distinct to
the organization influencing mission accomplishment. The study illustrated teachers’ knowledge
in regards to gifted education access, but how to effectively utilize that knowledge was
unapparent. In terms of motivation, though teachers expressed an intrinsic value to provide
individualized care for their gifted students, that intrinsic value proved not to outweigh the value
of their time in providing instruction to populations that were considered to have greater need.
Another important finding to be considered is equitability in resources to all sites provided by the
district. Data suggested that disparity exists throughout the organization acting as an obstacle to
increased Black student participation in gifted education.
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 128
This evaluation study was intended to be an exemplar to inform and educate
organizations, school districts, principals, teachers and policymakers of approaches of support
teachers need to build the skills to effectively support and create equitable access to gifted
education narrowing the achievement gap. For this reason, evaluation of an organization whose
mission statement is, “to support unique and equitable access for high-achieving and under-
represented pupils identified to participate gifted education” was intended to bring greater
attention to the national issue in which a low number of Black students are identified as gifted in
the public educational system further widening the achievement gap. Many times solutions to
improving schools are often race neutral, but since the desegregation of public schools, gifted
education has manifested into a “de facto” form of educational segregation (Ford, 2014). In
order to find solutions to this problem, race and the role it plays in equitable access to gifted
education leading to increased Black student participation should be scrutinized. The
organization of study coincides with the national statistics in relation to gifted education
demographics. Though the organization’s mission is focused on equitable access, assertive
practices utilized to operationalize the mission are non-existent or vague at best. If the
organization is a microcosm of the national practices utilized to provide equitable access to
gifted programs, our Black children will remain in a place of privilege that is overwhelmed by
their White counterparts’.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 129
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THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 139
APPENDIX A
Recruitment Letter
Dear Participant,
I want to thank you for participating in this research study. I am conducting research on
equity in gifted education. You were selected to participate in this interview because you completed
a survey for this study and indicated your entrance to be contacted for further discussion.
Participation is strictly voluntary and you may refuse to participate at any time. There is no
compensation for participating nor is there any known risk. In order to ensure that all information
will remain confidential, your name will be redacted. You will be identified by “Participant #”;
your individual # will be assigned chronologically by date of the interview. For example, Participant
1 will be the first interview conducted, Participant 2 will be the second interview conducted and so
on.
I anticipate that this interview will take less than 60 minutes to complete. The data collected
will provide useful information regarding the influence teachers have in providing equitable access to
gifted education. If you would like a summary copy of this study please let me know at the end of
the interview and I will add your name to a list that I will maintain separately from my interview
notes. If you have questions later, please contact me at cgarnier@usc.edu. If you are not satisfied
with the manner in which this study is being conducted, I encourage you to please contact Dr.
Jennifer Crawford, University of Southern California Professor and Dissertation Committee Chair, at
jenifeac@usc.edu.

Very Respectfully,
Christopher J. Garnier - Doctoral Student

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 140
APPENDIX B
Survey Items
SDUSD GATE SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. What types of diversity are present in your classroom?

Hispanic African American White Asian Economic Other

2. Giftedness exists is all races and cultures.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

3. Certain races and cultures are naturally more suited for gifted curriculum than others.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

4. Diversity improves the educational experience for all students.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

5. It is important to strive for racial equity in gifted education.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

6. Cultural diversity should be a factor when nominating students for GATE.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

7. Gifted students should receive a specialized education.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

8. Primary age children should be identified as gifted.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

9. Identification of primary age children is reliable and can be justified in the upper grades.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

10. Students who do not qualify as gifted should be tested every year.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 141
11. Standardized tests are reliable tools to identify gifted students.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

12. Achievement tests, such as yearly state achievement tests, would be most appropriate to
identify primary gifted students.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

13. Nonverbal tests (completing puzzles, etc. would be most appropriate to identify primary
gifted students.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

14. Intelligence tests (IQ) would be most appropriate to identify primary gifted students.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

15. Non-traditional measures, such as teacher observation, portfolio assessment, parent
nomination, are reliable tools to identify gifted students.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

16. Teacher observation of students in the classroom should be considered as the most
appropriate non-traditional method of identification.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

17. Parent referrals should be considered as the most appropriate traditional method of
identification.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

18. Assessment of in-classroom performance should be considered as the most appropriate non-
traditional method of identification.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

19. Student nomination should be considered as the most appropriate non-traditional method of
identification.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

20. Portfolio assessment should be considered as the most appropriate non-traditional method of
identification.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 142
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

21. Learning experiences related to building would have the potential to identify primary
children as gifted.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

22. Learning experiences related to math would have the potential to identify primary children as
gifted.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

23. Learning experiences related to problem solving would have the potential to identify primary
children as gifted.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

24. Please prioritize the following identification procedures with a number from 1 – 10. Number
1 would be the most effective.

Individualized IQ test

Teacher observation checklist

Group IQ test

Performance-based assessment

Nonverbal tests

California Standard Achievement Test

Parent referral

Teacher referral

Student self-referral

Portfolio evaluation

25. Number of years taught.

26. Number of students you have nominated for GATE.

28. Have you been given any formal training on identifying or nominating students for GATE?

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 143
Yes No

If yes please describe the training in 2 sentences or less.

29. Would you be willing to be contacted for a further in-depth interview?
Yes No
If yes please include your email address_____________________________________
Please include your school site_____________________________________________

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 144
Appendix C
Tabulated Survey Data

Survey Questions

Hispanic
African
American
White Asian Economic Other Written Answers
1. What types of diversity are present in your classroom? 44 43 18 39 41 15
Somali, Malaysian,
Burmese
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Comments
2. Giftedness exists is all races and cultures. 32 2 1 1
3. Certain races and cultures are naturally more suited for
gifted curriculum than others.
1 0 8 27 Horrible Question
4. Diversity improves the educational experience for all
students.
25 9 0 2
5. It is important to strive for racial equity in gifted
education.
22 7 4 2
6. Cultural diversity should be a factor when nominating
students for GATE.
4 9 15 8 Horrible Question
7. Gifted students should receive a specialized education. 5 24 7 0
"What do you mean by specialized?"
"All students should."
8. Primary age children should be identified as gifted. 2 27 6 1
9. Identification of primary age children is reliable and can
be justified in the upper grades.
1 18 17 0 How would I know if they stay gifted?
10. Students who do not qualify as gifted should be tested
every year.
1 13 21 1
Agreed When considered with other
factor.
11. Standardized tests are reliable tools to identify gifted
students.
0 10 18 8
12. Achievement tests, such as yearly state achievement
tests, would be most appropriate to identify primary gifted
students.
0 1 25 10
Agree-I"I don't know. I don't do state
testing at my grade level"
13. Nonverbal tests (completing puzzles, etc. would be
most appropriate to identify primary gifted students.
1 22 11 2
Agree-"Not sure" X2 Agree-"Should be
part of the process." "Disagree-"Need
More"
14. Intelligence tests (IQ) would be most appropriate to
identify primary gifted students.
1 14 20 1
15. Non-traditional measures, such as teacher observation,
portfolio assessment, parent nomination, are reliable tools
to identify gifted students.
2 19 12 3
Underlined "parent nomination w/
comment: "Ha! Ha!"
16. Teacher observation of students in the classroom
should be considered as the most appropriate non-
traditional method of identification.
2 11 21 2
17. Parent referrals should be considered as the most
appropriate traditional method of identification.
0 3 23 10
18. Assessment of in-classroom performance should be
considered as the most appropriate non-traditional method
of identification.
1 14 19 2
19. Student nomination should be considered as the most
appropriate non-traditional method of identification.
0 2 24 10
20. Portfolio assessment should be considered as the most
appropriate non-traditional method of identification.
0 18 13 5
21. Learning experiences related to building would have
the potential to identify primary children as gifted.
2 23 11 0
22. Learning experiences related to math would have the
potential to identify primary children as gifted.
3 26 7 0
23. Learning experiences related to problem solving would
have the potential to identify primary children as gifted.
9 25 2 0
24. Please prioritize the following identification
procedures with a number from 1 – 10. Number 1 would
be the most effective.
Indiviualized IQ
Test
Teacher
Obersvation
Checklist
Group IQ Test
Performance-
Based
Assessment
Nonverbal Test
California
Standard
Achievement
Test
Parental Referral Teacher Referral
Student Self-
Refferal
Portfolio
Evaluation
155 153 208 112 126 239 287 189 330 177
25. Number of Years Taught (Avg)? 15.51612903
Yes No
26. Have you been given any formal training on
identifying or nominating students for GATE?
15 21
Yes No
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP THROUGH GIFTED EDUCATION 145
APPENDIX D
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
1. What is your definition of a gifted and talented student?
2. Discuss your student teaching experience and how it relates to identifying and
nominating students for GATE.
3. What do you think gifted and talented students need most?
4. What is your definition of equity? How does your definition of equity relate to or
coincide with the district’s definition of equity?
5. How important are diversity and equity to the school district in their GATE program?
How do you know?
6. How important are diversity and equity in your GATE program selections?
7. What training have you received to assist you in identifying and nominating students for
GATE?
8. What are the traditional GATE identification procedures within the district?
9. Do you think all gifted and talented students are strong academically? Explain?
10. Do you believe that a student should participate in the GATE program but fail to meet the
traditional identification procedures?
11. If “Yes”…what are non-traditional methods to identify gifted students? If “No”, do you
believe a test and a teacher nomination are the best identifiers to giftedness?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Nationally, Black students are significantly underrepresented in gifted programs in public schools relative to their White peers. Many in education who work to reduce the achievement gap tend to focus on the bottom echelon, or Black students who perform at the lowest level, yet fail to place emphasis on those students who are high academic achievers. Greater focus on Black students who are high achievers is paramount to closing the achievement gap and in doing so, educational policy makers must explore educational equity within the parameters of students who are identified and participate in gifted programs. Gifted program participation provides the confidence students need to thrive in rigorous academic settings leading to a higher percentage of acceptances to elite universities and a higher percentage of bachelor degree attainment. Nationally, this issue is related to the larger problem, in which a low number of Black students are identified as gifted in the public educational system further widening the achievement gap. The first step of participation within a school’s gifted program is student identification by the teacher. The study examines teachers within in a large public school district and their role in providing equitable access to gifted education, particularly for Black students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Garnier, Christopher Joseph (author)

Core Title Closing the access gap to gifted and talented education for Black K-12 students

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 08/14/2019

Defense Date 07/17/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access gap,achievement gap,black students,diversity,equity,Gifted Education,identification,Integration,OAI-PMH Harvest,Race,recruitment and retention,segregation,Special Education,students of color,underrepresentation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crawford, Jennifer (committee chair), Filback, Rob (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email cgarnier@usc.edu,chrisjgarnier@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-212857

Unique identifier UC11663172

Identifier etd-GarnierChr-7778.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-212857 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GarnierChr-7778.pdf

Dmrecord 212857

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Garnier, Christopher Joseph

Type texts

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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