University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Unearthing the silenced voice: immigrant Armenian students’ cultural influences, experiences, and perceptions in navigating a writing identity

(USC Thesis Other)

Unearthing the silenced voice: immigrant Armenian students’ cultural influences, experiences, and perceptions in navigating a writing identity

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

1

Unearthing the Silenced Voice: Immigrant Armenian Students’ Cultural Influences, Experiences,
and Perceptions in Navigating a Writing Identity

By Narineh Natalie Keshishian

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
August 2019

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

2
Dedication
In loving memory of my hero, my father Andranik Keshishian. This is for all the
sacrifices you made as an Armenian immigrant and the resilience you always instilled in me to
speak my voice. You were the shining light in my life during your time here on Earth and you
remain my precious angel as you guide me through life from the Heavens above.
To my loving husband, Asped, whose positive energy and everlasting faith in my success
has continually propelled my confidence and abilities throughout this doctoral program. To my
best friend, my mother, Soseh, whose insurmountable strength has helped pave the way to my
success. Finally, I dedicate this work to Gevork, my brother, who has always been a driving
force behind my success and who continues to inspire me to be better each and every day.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

3
Acknowledgment
The sacrifices and inspiration of many individuals deserve an acknowledgement. First, I
would like to acknowledge my dissertation chair, Dr. Briana Hinga. I cannot thank you enough
for your optimism and dedicated guidance through this process. Your constant positive feedback
and small celebrations truly helped me reach the end of this journey. In addition, I would like to
acknowledge Dr. Alan Green and Dr. Alfred Ramirez for their invaluable time and assistance. I
am forever grateful.
Certainly, I want to acknowledge all educators that serve immigrant students. It is with
your help, dedication, and love for teaching that you are able to empower the immigrant student
population across this nation.
Lastly, I want to acknowledge immigrant students’ in the United States and around the
world who choose to begin a new life in a new country but never forget the importance of
education.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgment 3
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Introduction 7
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 14
Organization of the Study 15
Definition of Terms 16
Chapter Two: Literature Review 18
Theoretical Framework: Critical Race Theory 19
Conceptual Framework 22
Definition of Acculturation 25
Acculturation in the United States 26
The Dehumanization of non-White Culture 28
Complex History of Armenians 29
The Acculturation of Armenians 31
Academic Writing Identity in the United States Education System 32
Immigrant Students Navigating their Writing Identity in the U.S. 34
Summary 35
Chapter Three: Methodology 37
Site Selection and Setting 38
Participants 39
Data Collection 41
Data Analysis 42
Positionality 43
Limitations and Delimitations 44
Credibility and Trustworthiness 45
Ethical Considerations 45
Chapter Four: Findings 47
Table 1: Participant Demographic Chart 48
Participants 49
Findings for Research Question 1 52
Becoming English Proficient 53
Overcoming Challenges as an Immigrant Student 56
Adjusting 58
Summary 61
Findings for Research Question 2 61
Seeking Help 62
Sacrifice for Family 64
Goal Setting 65
Summary 67
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

5
Conclusion 68
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings 69
Summary of Findings 71
Implications for Practice 72
Increase Faculty Knowledge of Acculturation Challenges 72
Social Capital to Enhance Academic Writing 74
Recommendations for Research 75
Conclusion 77
References 79
Appendix A: Student Interview Protocol 89

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

6
Abstract
Using a critical race theory lens, this research study sought to understand the
perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian students and the
way in which these factors influenced their voice through the development of a writing identity.
The purpose of this study is to illuminate the silenced voices of the marginalized and
underserved immigrant Armenian student population as they searched for a writing identity and
looked to further their educational aspirations. The research questions helped to understand how
the various experiences had an influence on the students’ writing identity and how the
minoritized students employed strategies while navigating through the demands of academic
writing. Semi-structured interviews were utilized to promote a counter-storytelling approach
where participants provided rich data about their authentic experiences.
The findings from the study disclosed that the participants struggled to write for an
academic audience with consideration to their cultural backgrounds and past experiences.
Despite being educated in their country of origin and having completed the necessary courses to
enroll in regular English classes, the participants did not feel that their writing identity ever fully
flourished. Findings from the research make suggestions in ways which practitioners and
researchers can enhance writing identity amongst immigrant students in community colleges.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

7
Chapter One: Introduction
From societal norms to the education system, the host country into which immigrant
populations migrate provides a vast array of challenges. The ability to understand the
experiences related to cultural, economic, and societal challenges is essential in the quest to
create a smoother transition process. In the United States, an increase in the number of
immigrants gave rise to racial and ethnic-linguistic diversity of the immigration population
(Rumbaut & Massey, 2014). Armenians were one of the many immigrant groups migrating to the
United States in pursuit of freedom and independence (Cohan, 2005). The immigration of
Armenians to America has stemmed from a variety of factors and situations. Fleeing genocide
and war, seeking asylum, and gaining the opportunity for a better life have been the most
prominent reasons Armenians immigrated to the United States (Pattie, 1994). Throughout the
many years of migration, Armenians have attempted to acculturate into the United States,
learning to speak the dominant language of the host society, and striving to adapt to the
economic and political demands of a Western culture (Takooshian, 1995).
Armenian college students face several challenges, including some that hinder their
academic performance (Martirosyan, Saxon, Wanjohi, 2014). This study focuses on the
experiences of immigrant Armenian students at the community college level as they navigate
their writing identity through academic composition. The focal point of this dissertation is to
address the obstacles of the missing voice and struggled experiences of immigrant Armenian
students in academic writing.
Redfield, Linton, and Herskovist (1936) have defined acculturation as the phenomenon in
which groups of individuals, that come from different cultures, attempt to adopt practices and
values of other cultures while retaining their own distinctive cultural patterns (As cited in Berry,
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

8
1997). The Armenian immigrant student population has had its own challenges in acculturating
to the host society in the United States (Takooshian, 1995). Immigrant students face many
challenges in the host country, including navigating their voice in English writing, a skill
required to fulfill academic expectations (Yan & Berliner, 2011). Acculturation and assimilation
of immigrant Armenian students have been slow due to Armenian immigrants’ upholding their
own cultural identity and established historical traditions (Bakalian, 1992). The challenge in the
acculturation process has resulted in a larger struggle to become part of the “mainstream” culture
(Berry, 1997) while striving to maintain the Armenian legacy. Despite the Armenian immigrant
students’ continual attempts to improve and acculturate, an evident inequity exists in the
education system that has proven to hinder educational equity for non-White students (Knaus,
2009).
Educational systems that do not incorporate and acknowledge a student’s background
ignore the importance of cultural differences (Scruggs, 2009). Effective practices in education
occur when students and faculty learn about the various cultural experiences of students.
Application of these experiences builds a foundation to improve the cultural pedagogy (Scruggs,
2009). A relevant component to consider is the silenced voice of immigrant Armenian students
in academic writing in the community colleges. Thorough research and direct counter-
storytelling of students who confront these disincentives, coupled with the use of the critical race
theory, will highlight how Armenian immigrant students are disenfranchised at the community
college level. To this end, this study’s primary focus aims to help better describe the descriptions
of immigrant Armenian students’ efforts and contributions in academic writing in consideration
of their writing identity.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

9
Background of the Problem

Armenians have been immigrating to the United States since the mid to late 1800s, with
the population continually growing to the present day (Cohan, 2005). The first great Armenian
migration commenced in the 1890s when Armenian families were forced out of their occupied
land in the Ottoman Empire due to their Christian faith (Takooshian, 1995). A subsequent wave
of immigrant Armenians were forced to become refugees of the United States as Turkish elites
sought to annihilate the Armenian ethnicity (Bakalian, 1992). Furthermore, the American
population saw an increase of Armenian minorities entering the United States after WWII due to
a rise in Arab, Turkish, and Islamic fundamentalism (Bakalian, 1992). Armenian families were
drawn to the United States in pursuit of religious freedom and for the opportunity of
independence (Cohan, 2005). Throughout the entire 20th century, Armenians have been forced
westward, primarily to the United States, in search of finding their true identity
(Takooshian,1995). The troubled and traumatic history of the Armenian people reflects a need to
better understand the ongoing challenges of immigrant Armenians, especially students, who have
difficulty unearthing their writing identity and expressing their voice in academic writing at the
community college level.
A more detailed look into the Armenian migration paints an accurate portrayal of what
the Armenian population faces today in the United States. The Armenian diaspora took shape
when Armenians settled in the United States after the Hamidian massacres of the mid-1890s and
the Adana Massacre of 1909 (Akcam, 2012). The Armenian immigrant population increased in
the United States after the brutal genocide of 1915 at the hands of the Ottoman Empire (Akcam,
2012). It has been approximated that 1.5 million Armenians were massacred between the years
of 1915 and 1923, and more than half a million immigrants were forced to flee their occupied
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

10
land (Cohan, 2005; Hovannisian, 1999). Moreover, in the 1950s, several thousand Armenians
from the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and Turkey) migrated to America due to
the political instability of the region (Takooshian, 1995). After the collapse of the Soviet Union
in 1991, additional Armenians from the former Soviet Union relocated to the United States due
to socio-economic and political reasons (Hovannisian, 1999). In 2014, the American Community
Survey (ACS) estimated that about 461,076 Americans with some form of Armenian background
and ancestry resided in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). The arrival of the
Armenians in America strengthened the Armenian American community, especially in the
western region of the United States where most immigrant Armenians settled (Takooshian,
1995).
The historical trauma of the Armenian population has led to Armenians preserving their
culture and identity. Upon their immigrating to the United States and enrolling into college-level
courses, the Armenian immigrant students found the transition into the host society’s writing
style and the demands of navigating their voice to be challenging as they engaged in preserving
their historical Armenian identity. Immigrant Armenian students, attending a community college
for the first time, undergo a form of acculturation during their academic tenure. Despite their
origin and complex history, all immigrants encounter a process of adaptation known as
acculturation (Berry, 1997) after living in the host culture for some time. As immigrants adapt to
the culturally plural society, those attending community college are equally acculturating into the
educational system (Kurtz-Costeso & Pungello, 2000). In the United States educational system,
students are expected to know how to compose and navigate their voice in English academic
writing styles. Acculturation demands immigrant students learn a new discourse, which has
inevitable effects on the reforming of student perceptions (Reger, 2015).
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

11
Immigrant students face many challenges in the United States, including navigating their
voice in academic English writing (Yan & Berliner, 2011). Immigrant students are inadequately
prepared for college-level writing, and their writing experience is usually described as entailing
“struggles and deadlines” (Jaeger, 2008, p.10). Van de Poel and Gasiorek (2012) stated that
immigrant students are challenged to learn the norms, values, and expectations of academic
writing in addition to learning the actual language. Additionally, immigrant students have
difficulty understanding their academic roles and the values of the academic culture they are
expected to know in the United States (Yan & Berliner, 2011).
The task of forming an academic writing identity in the United States is increasingly
challenging for immigrant students due to previous education, socioeconomic status, ethno-
linguistics, upbringing, family, experiences, and background (Van de Pole & Gasiorek, 2012).
Although some immigrant students entering the United States may have had adequate writing
exposure in their native language, most immigrant learners do not have the required English
composition skills they are expected to master, specifically at the community college level
(Hawkes, 2014). Mastering linguistics, grammar, and English composition skills can be difficult
for immigrant students in community colleges. In addition to grasping English composition,
immigrant students must learn to create, think, and write in an unfamiliar manner that is unlike
that of their native language. Kroll (1990) highlighted that the task of writing is challenging for
all types of writers, even for native English learners. Kroll (1990) stated the following:
For language learners, it is fair to say that writing academic papers is particularly
difficult. Immigrant students must learn to create written products that demonstrate
mastery over contextually appropriate formats for the rhetorical presentation of ideas as
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

12
well as mastery in all areas of language, a Herculean task given the possibilities of error
(Kroll, 1990, p.140).
In identifying challenges of an immigrant student’s writing identity, it is important to
consider issues of race and equity. A race issue arises when the marginalized immigrant student
population experiences inequitable writing outcomes compared with their native, dominant
student population (Knaus, 2009). The critical race theory argues that the “official school
curriculum is culturally designed to maintain White supremacy through focusing on what works
well for many White people” (Knaus, 2009, p. 137). It goes on to say, “mainstream curriculum
silences perspectives and voices, while authorizing dominant, White voices as ‘standard’
knowledge students need to know” (Swartz, 1992; Ladson Billings, 1999, as cited in Knaus,
2009, p.137).
Statement of the Problem
The acculturation process of immigrants into a new society brings with it a multitude of
challenges. Immigrants work to adjust to the sociocultural and economic norms in hopes of
gradually molding to a new setting. Immigrants of Armenian descent, who look to continue their
educational aspirations in the United States, endure similar adjustments including added
academic challenges. Immigrant students are faced with overcoming Western or Caucasian
culture (Knaus, 2009) which silences perspectives and voices while validating White voices as
being the ‘standard’ (Swartz, 1992; Ladson Billings, 1999, as cited in Knaus, 2009). Silenced
voices of marginalized students’ may be viewed as an “achievement gap” problem, which
unfairly placed the blame on a students’ achievement. This research moves that focus toward an
“opportunity gap” problem, where attention shifts from the student’s achievement to an overall
system issue (Milner, 2010). An outlet of expression for Armenian immigrant students is their
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

13
writing, but the search for their writing identity is more complicated. This is a problem as writing
is considered to be a “high stakes” activity in community colleges and universities, resulting in
the likelihood of student failure (Lillis & Scott, 2007). Failure at the community college level
places students on remedial paths, which delays transfer opportunities to 4-year institutions.
This study will address the development of immigrant Armenian students’ ability to
communicate using academic writing as they navigate their experiences, cultural background,
and perspectives. This study will further examine the challenges of the Armenian people and
their culture in hopes to discover the influence on their academic writing identity. Furthermore,
applied research will help identify factors and strategies for Armenian students to consider when
addressing issues concerning the development of one’s writing identity.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study is to illuminate the perspectives, cultural
experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian students and how these factors influence
their voice in the development of a writing identity. This study will further explore what
strategies immigrant Armenian students at community college levels can employ to successfully
navigate academic writing demands. The researcher will interview immigrant Armenian students
who have attended community colleges in the Southwestern region of the United States to
illuminate their perspectives and the accompanying experiences that create barriers when
immigrant students attempt to navigate their voice in English courses. The critical race theory
will be used as a framework to emphasize counter-storytelling, often referred to as a
methodology to tell the stories of individuals whose stories are never told (Solorzano & Yosso,
2002). The researcher will use the critical race theory to highlight concerns surrounding racial
dominance and the muted (Manglitz, Guy, & Hunn, 2006) voices of immigrant Armenian
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

14
students in an academic writing setting. Furthermore, the findings that stem from the critical race
theory will help explain the challenges immigrant Armenian students encounter when they are
expected to produce English composition in an environment of White pedagogy and color-
blindness (Ledesma & Calderon, 2015).
The following research questions are aimed to guide the study:
1. How do the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian
students influence their voice in the development of writing identity?
2. What strategies do immigrant Armenian students employ at community colleges to
navigate the demands of academic writing?
Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is to discover the perspectives and challenges of Armenian
students’ development of a writing identity. The study aims to demonstrate how a group of
Armenian students will perceive the inclusion (or exclusion) of their cultural identity in the realm
of academic writing. Furthermore, this study will unearth the issues affecting immigrant
Armenian students when attempting to meet the writing demands at the community college level.
The study will explore racial and cultural experiences in an attempt to describe the strategies
required to overcome the acculturation issues and to discover the missing voice of immigrant
Armenian students. This research considers the underrepresented immigrant Armenian student
experiences and the hurdles these students encounter while navigating their voice in academic
writing in the Western culture (Knaus, 2009). Furthermore, none of the existing research has
used a qualitative perspective on immigrant Armenian students’ academic writing in community
colleges or uses the voices of students to add to the already existing literature. Although previous
research has focused on various immigrant populations’ academic writing identities, this research
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

15
considers the underrepresented minority group of Armenians that struggle with the development
of a writing identity. The researcher will aim to use students’ experiences and perspectives to
better clarify writing identity development among the immigrant Armenian student population at
the community college level.
Organization of the Study

The organizational structure of this dissertation is as follows: An introductory chapter
will be followed by four chapters. The second chapter identifies and summarizes the literature
that is relevant to the study. The third chapter describes and defines the details of the research
methodology. The sum of the first three chapters will make up the proposal for the research. The
final two chapters will explain the findings of the study, provide a discussion of specifics
concerning the implications, and outline recommendations for future research.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

16
Definition of Terms
Unearthing is used in this dissertation as a term that indicates the discovery or exposure of
immigrant students’ silenced voices.
Acculturation refers to “those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having
different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the
original culture patterns of either or both groups” (Redfiend, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936, p.149).
Assimilation is the notion or desire to isolate from one’s own cultural identity while accepting
the cultural identity of the dominant society (Berry, 2006).
Academic writing is “an act of identity” (Hyland, 2005, p. 1092) conveying disciplinary content
and also represents the writer’s voice.
Armenians are a population of people originating from the Caucasus mountain range who were
the first nation to accept Christianity (Cohan, 2005).
Armenian Genocide refers to the systematic massacre of 1.5 million Armenian people, during
the periods of 1915 to 1923, by the Ottoman Empire at the direction of the Turkish elite
(Hovannisian, 1998).
Critical Race Theory stems from legal studies (Delgado, 2001) and was examined in the area of
education in the 1900s (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). Critical race theory addresses the
perpetuating of dominant ideologies rooted in White superiority.
Counter-storytelling is “a method of telling the stories of those people whose experiences are
not often told” and often not heard (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002, p. 26).
Culturally plural defines the existence of inhabitants with various backgrounds coming together
to live in a single society (Berry, 1997).
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

17
TOEFL stands for Test of English as a Foreign Language and is a standardized test that
evaluates a student’s ability to use and understand English at the college or university level.
LEP stands for limited English proficiency. The term describes individuals who are not fluent in
the English language due to it not being their native language.
Minoritized groups are a group of people marginalized or with less control over their lives than
members of the dominant group in that society that they inhabit.
Aspirational Capital refers to “those who allow themselves and their children to dream of
possibilities beyond their present circumstances” (Yosso, 2005, p. 78).
White-Based Curriculum is a standard of education that results from white colonialism and is
promoted by White ideas and White authors (Peters, 2015).
Writing Identity is distinguishing between your thoughts and words, and those of other writers
(Robbins, 2016).
Host Country a country in which individuals from other countries or states are visiting (Berry,
1997).
Iranian-Armenian are Iranians of Armenian ethnicity who speak Armenian as their first
language.
Aspirational Capital is the ability to maintain hope in the face of structured inequality (Yooso,
2005).

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

18
Chapter Two: Literature Review

Qualitative research has been conducted to address the cultural influences on English
composition skills among many immigrant students in higher education. Yingli (2012)
highlighted academic writing development of language learners in the United States as an
important variable in generating meaning and communicating information for academic success
in community college contexts. No extant literature has considered academic writing experiences
among immigrant Armenian students in the United States as an area of research. This research
intends to better explain the development of academic writing identity of immigrant Armenian
students enrolled in community colleges. The purpose of this study is to outline the perspectives,
cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian students and how these factors
influence their voice in their development of their writing identities. Additionally, this study
aims to highlight the voices of immigrant Armenian community college students so as to
contribute to the existing literature on academic writing. Through the illumination of voices of
underrepresented immigrant Armenian students, the importance of these new perspectives could
help highlight the challenges in unearthing one’s writing identity. Furthermore, strategies will be
identified to help students navigate the demands of academic writing at the community college
level. Two research questions will guide this study:
1. How do the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian
students influence their voices in the development of a writing identity?
2. What strategies do immigrant Armenian students employ at community colleges to
navigate the demands of academic writing?
These two research questions act as a guide to better explain how students perceive and
navigate their voice through the demands of academic writing. Moreover, the research questions
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

19
provide ethnic and cultural experiences in an attempt to explain the strategies required to bridge
existing acculturation issues.
This first section of this chapter presents the study’s theoretical framework. The literature
within the theoretical framework touches on the critical race theory in association with academic
writing in education. The subsequent section presents a definition of acculturation, the necessity
of acculturation for immigrants in the United States, and the dehumanization of cultures other
than the Caucasian race. The following two sections focus on the complex history of the
Armenian population, its experiences of acculturation in United States, and how immigrant
students navigate the education system in terms of academic writing. In closing, a summary of
the literature findings will highlight the challenges encountered in the development of academic
writing identity, reasons for the existence of the marginalized voice of immigrant Armenian
students, and other themes of relevant importance. Although little research has been conducted
among this specific population of students, the researcher will explore the notion of immigrants
navigating their academic writing and people of color in education systems in which writing is
demanded. The research seeks to link potential implications of these findings to immigrant
Armenian students in the academic writing demanded in higher education. In addition, the
researcher will analyze the existing literature on academic writing and investigate the hurdles
immigrant and minority students have experienced while pursuing their academic goals.
Theoretical Framework: Critical Race Theory

The critical race theory is the theoretical framework used to develop voices and
narratives of individuals in an effort to challenge racism and structures of oppression (Ledesma
& Calderon, 2015). This theory provides a prevailing lens into the education system suited for
understanding racial oppression and the reasons behind the marginalized voices of students
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

20
(Delgado, 2001). Furthermore, the theoretical framework used in this dissertation will address
the obstacles of the missing voices and the struggled experiences of immigrant Armenian
students in their efforts to develop their writing identity in English writing courses at the
community college level.
Throughout the past 2 decades, the critical race theory has become an epistemological
and methodological tool to help examine the experiences of underrepresented student
populations across the education pipeline (Ledesma & Calderon, 2015). The critical race theory
addresses the perpetuating dominant ideologies rooted in White superiority within education
(Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). In this research, the use of the critical race theory is meant to
illuminate the personal writing experiences of students and writing identity development in a
White-based curriculum, (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001) and to shed light on the voices of
oppressed students through counter-storytelling.
The origins of the critical race theory were first identified in the legal field (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2001) and was later introduced into the field of education in the 1900s (Ladson-
Billings & Tate, 1995). Critical race theory was developed in response to the deeply
institutionalized injustice meted out to racial minorities (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). The theory
was developed by a group of scholars and activists interested in seeing a shift in power, and
eradication or mitigation of racism (Ledesma & Calderon, 2015). Moreover, the critical race
theory is used as a tool to discover educational inequality (Ladson-Billings, 1998), emphasizing
the disruption of the status quo (Ledesma & Calderon, 2015) and encourages the voices of
marginalized students to be brought forth in schools. This study challenges the mainstream
colonial-based schooling system in the United States (Knaus, 2009), which oppresses the voices
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

21
of non-White subjects. The use of the critical race theory magnifies the voice of oppressed
Armenian immigrant students as they attempt to search for and develop a writing identity.
The use of the critical race perspective enables awareness of the writing identity
development of non-White students, often defined by students of color as a struggle (Ledesma &
Calderon, 2015). Whites determine the norms and define what is perceived as “right” or
“wrong,” expecting other groups to conform (Peters, 2015). The critical race theory develops and
illuminates voices that challenge racism and the structures of oppression in education (Ladson-
Billings, 1998). Additionally, the theory exposes how mainstream schools promote racism
through dominant White teaching practices, White curriculum (Peters, 2015), and school
representations that privilege White culture.
For immigrant Armenian students, their experiences in the host culture can be important
constructs in the development of their writing identity. Cumming (2013) stated that writing is
where language, culture, and identity all intersect. However, when there are systematic rules and
structures to follow that hinder the voice of non-White students, this results in writers not
accurately positioning themselves in relation to the set values and practices of their academic
identities (Hawkes, 2014). The critical race theory argues to uncover problems that have
historically shaped and framed higher education (Ledesma & Calderon, 2015). A student who
does not know how to write correctly in an academic context lacks the evidence of
“membership” to an academic community (Hawkes, 2014). The use of the critical race theory
and the students’ counter-storytelling ability can illuminate English classroom structures,
permitting students to express culturally rooted voices (Hawkes, 2014). The critical race theory
provides a lens for understanding inequalities in higher education and creates a space to discover
the perspectives of immigrant Armenian students’ efforts and contributions to academic writing.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

22
II. Conceptual Framework

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: Immigrant Armenian Students’ Writing Identity Development
Six contributing factors that are divided into two sections interconnect to influence the
writing identity of immigrant Armenian students at the community college level. The conceptual
framework outlined in Figure 1 is composed of the sociocultural identity of the subjects on the
top portion and inequitable access to educational opportunities on the bottom. The sociocultural
identity (Hawkes, 2014) includes the subcategories of the complex history of Armenians, cultural
practices of the Armenian population, and the acculturation process of immigrant Armenian
students at the community college level. Hawkes (2014) explained that sociocultural identity is
that which is naturally occurring through upbringing, and consists of elements that align with
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

23
ethnicity, gender, culture, history, background, and similar factors. The inequitable education
system at the community college level includes the subcategories of the writing identity, White
curriculum, and overall educational inequity of non-White students. Ngo (2008) highlighted that
immigrants do not have equal access to opportunities in various aspects of their lives, including
education. Immigrants are expected to accomplish and resemble the dominant culture after
having acclimated and adjusted to the cultural identity and the norms of the White culture in the
United States (Ngo, 2008). Mullaly (2002) referred to this as the “myth of opportunity.” Most
immigrants have experienced high rates of poverty and social alienation, proving the myth to be
false (Mullaly, 2002).
Next, the complex history of the Armenian people has been filled with times of triumph,
but more recently, their history has been filled with times of adversity. The Armenian people
experienced the first genocide of the 20th century in 1915 (Pattie, 1994) as the Ottoman Empire
massacred more than 1.5 million Armenians (Cohan, 2005). The intent was to erase the existence
of the Armenian people by murdering and starving the population. Until this day, the Turkish
government denies the acts of the 1915 atrocities and states that its actions were consonant with
wartime behavior. Remembrance of the genocide by the Armenian population, allows for the
preservation of identity of the Armenian people and influences their cultural practices and
tendencies (Der-Karabetian, 1997).
The cultural practices immigrant Armenians students exhibit emerge from the complex
history of the Armenian people and the nation’s surrounding geopolitical atmosphere. The
Turkish government’s effort to annihilate and suppress the existence of the Armenian people
created a need for cultural preservation. The Armenian people’s rich culture has become
important as the diaspora spreads across the globe and has acculturated into various societies.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

24
Despite the movement of the people and the scattering of the population, the Armenian people
have maintained their own identity, cultural practices, and uniqueness (Margaryan, 2011). Pattie
(1994) highlighted that the Armenian diaspora lives in multicultural and multiethnic states
whereby the process of acculturation occurs slowly as Armenian immigrants attempt to preserve
their identity.
Der-Karabetin (1997) has defined the process of acculturation as the manner in which a
population attempts to maintain its identity while at the same time acclimating to the newfound
society. Individuals who are slow to acculturate and who preserve their cultural viewpoints may
tend to experience disorientation and uncertainty as values conflict with those of the host society
(Der-Karabetian, 1997). Difficulty in the interaction with their new environment brings about an
array of challenges in growing accustomed to the dominant culture (Berry, 1997), societal norms,
and educational aspirations.
Educational inequity refers to the United States’ unjust education system, in which
students are expected to know how to compose and navigate their voice in academic English
writing. According to Knaus (2009), “The limited curriculum reflects the argument of critical
race theory in that the official school curriculum is culturally designed to maintain White
supremacy through focusing on what works well for many White people” ( p. 137). Students
have been offered an increasingly standards-based education that comes nowhere near to
recognizing or addressing social contexts of poverty, hardships, and personal struggles (Knaus,
2009). Rather than evaluating how immigrants fail in navigating their voice in academic writing,
schools’ systems and educators must address student perspectives when shaping educational
practices (Peters, 2015).
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

25
White curriculum refers to the official school curriculum that is culturally shaped by
colonialism (Knaus, 2009). The curriculum places White Eurocentric writers and curriculum
designers above others without much concern. A White curriculum leads to blindness of others
and dismisses non-White thinkers (Peters, 2015). “Primarily, White curriculum silences
perspectives and voices, while authorizing dominant White voicings as ‘standard’ knowledge
students need to know” (Swartz, 1992; Ladson Billings, 1999, as cited in Knaus, 2009, p.137).
Writing identity is referred to as the representation of oneself in the realm of literacy and
composition (Ivanic, 1998). Immigrant students struggle with the demands of expressing their
voice and self through academic writing. Ivanic (1998) explained that immigrant students find
writing difficult because they do not feel comfortable portraying their identity and self in
academic discourse.
Definition of Acculturation
With a multitude of varying definitions used to characterize the word acculturation, the
term’s original meaning was understood as “those phenomena which result when groups of
individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact, with subsequent
changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups” (Redfiend, Linton, &
Herskovits, 1936, p.149). The term “acculturation” was first coined in 1880 by John Wesley
Powell. He compared acculturation to the process of psychological change produced by cross-
cultural interactions (Gudykunst & Kim, 2005). According to theorists, immigrants entering the
host society incorporate the behaviors, cultures, belief systems, and guidelines of the new society
while accommodating to their own perspectives, beliefs, traditions, and values (Sam & Berry,
2010). Berry (1997) defined acculturation as a change in the culture or the psychology of an
individual as it relates to a social context in which a minority community encounters a host.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

26
Within his definition, Berry (1997) proposed that acculturation comprises two dimensions: The
first dimension is the degree to which there is a desire to maintain cultural identity; the second
dimension includes the extent to which there is willingness to engage with the host community.
Acculturation strategies display different adaptation outcomes, including challenges that arise
from the stress of adjusting to the environment to fully integrate into society.
Costes and Pungello (2000) highlighted that children adapt more easily to a new culture
and a new country than adults do. The researchers emphasized that children have less-defined
cultural identities than adults do. Cultural values, beliefs, and traditions are not strongly
embedded in a child at the time of migration (Costes & Pungello, 2000). Immigrant college
students are considered adults and are likely to struggle adjusting to the new society, as they
have had more experience with their native culture (Costes & Pungello, 2000). The challenges of
acculturation become more evident at the community college level as immigrant Armenian
students struggle to navigate a writing identity within a White-based curriculum. The process of
overcoming historical trauma and cultural experiences make acculturation an obstacle that
further suppresses the voice of immigrant Armenian students at the community college level.
Acculturation in the United States
The United States is known as a melting pot with all of its population composed of a
diverse group of individuals from various cultures. Despite the nation’s rich diversity, adults who
immigrate to the United States face several hurdles while adjusting to their new lives (Berry,
1997). Costes and Pungello (2000) looked at the similarities and inconsistencies between
immigrant students’ native countries and the host country’s influence on acculturation. The more
similar a student’s religious beliefs, customs, and lifestyle are across the two societies, the more
easily acculturation transpires in education (Berry, 1997). Migrants moving from the Middle East
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

27
to the United States are expected to have a more distinct acculturation experience than those are
individuals moving from the United Kingdom to the United States (Costes & Pungello, 2000).
The Armenian culture, education system, attitudes, and mentalities run counter to the American
culture (Takooshian, 1995). Faculty, staff, and higher education institutions that have immigrant
students on campus that are of Armenian descent must consider the difficult adjustments these
students undergo in the host society to overcome academic gaps.
Acculturation is the concept whereby immigrants undergo an adaptation process while
maintaining their identity and simultaneously acclimating to the host society (Chen & Razek,
2016). Through the process of acculturation, students maintain their cultural identity, discover
opportunities to satisfy their needs, and find a way to gain social power without fully becoming
“Americanized” (Der-Karabetian, 1997). Individuals acculturating to norms in the United States
can preserve their cultural roots and prosper within the education system. It is clear that
Armenian students’ acculturation and adaptation is complex and multidimensional (Der-
Karabetian, 1997). Sustaining the remembrance of the Armenian genocide and passing on what
transpired, from one generation to the next, remains a method the Armenian people have used to
preserve a sense of identity (Der-Karabetian, 1997).
Immigrants in racially and ethnically diverse societies, such as the United States, find it
important to understand their identity formation (Jaeger, 2008). Identity becomes increasingly
vital to their overall development and quality of school experiences. To understand the
development of their immigrant identity formation, students undergo a process of acculturation
following their arrival to the United States (Berry, 19997). Acculturation involves the process of
balancing an individual’s heritage with the culture of the receiving region or country (Schwartz
et al., 2013). Acculturation has often been framed as a stressful process (Schwartz et al., 2013)
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

28
and is associated with psychopathology, family conflicts, and risk taking. Due to these
acculturative stressors, first- and second-generation immigrant students encounter many
acculturation challenges. The hurdles immigrants come across can include difficulty adapting to
the receiving culture and rejection from their own cultural community for having relinquished
their heritage (Schwartz, 2013).
The Dehumanization of Non-White Culture
The acculturation process of immigrants in the United States can lead to the
dehumanization of individuals (Ngo, 2008). The non-dominant population is expected to live a
good life, similar to that of the dominant culture in the United States, but the actual outcomes are
not always favorable (Ngo, 2008). As highlighted by Mullaly (2002), the dominant culture
pedals the myth of a fair society where opportunities and resources are available for all. This
“myth of opportunity” continues to dehumanize the immigrant population who fail to achieve
middle-class norms, including student educational development. The inability to take advantage
of the vast opportunities resulting from the failed attempts of acculturation creates a bias against
the non-dominant culture. Mullaly (2002) stated that the “myth of opportunity” has proven to be
illegitimate, as is evidenced in areas of education, employment, and the increase of poverty
among generational children of immigrants. It has been documented that the myth of opportunity
helps attribute blame to immigrants who fail to achieve Eurocentric working-class patterns (Ngo,
2008). Immigrants who experience hardships are perceived as groups of people who are inferior
and incompatible and who fail to take advantage of the equal opportunity available to all citizens
(Ngo, 2008). Watt and Roessingh (2001) stated that immigrants do not have equal access to
opportunities in several aspects of their lives, including educational opportunities.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

29
What’s more, the monolithic perspectives of culture refrain from examining the diversity
found within cultural groups. This leads to diminishing the identity formation and reformation of
immigrants by presenting Anglo-American middle-class cultural patterns as the goals and
abilities for immigrants to achieve and to seek (Ngo, 2008). Additionally, the monolithic
perspectives lead to an extinction of the minoritized cultural groups that are in the process of
acclimating to the dominant culture (Ngo, 2008). It is evident from the extant literature that the
dominant culture often contributes to the unjust experiences immigrants undergo in the education
system.
Complex History of Armenians
Armenians are ancient people who existed before the first century C.E. (Hovannisian,
1999). The Armenian population has gained and lost its territory throughout its long and
unsettled history. Armenians have had a complex history of needing to uphold their identity,
traditions, and land. The name of the country in which Armenians inhabited was adopted from
religious scripture and the Persian language. Armenia, which is also known as Hayastan by its
people, was formed by the name “Haik,” a descendant of Noah, and “stan,” which represents
“land” in the Persian language (Cohan, 2005). The Armenian people have always leaned on
religion as their hope for survival. Christianity has been deeply embedded into the Armenian
history and culture. In 301 C. E., Armenians were the first people to adopt Christianity as a state
religion among the many pagan worshipers surrounding their region (Cohan, 2005). Due to the
early Christian identity of the Armenian people, religion has had an immense influence on the
culture, setting it apart from that of its neighboring countries (Cohan, 2005).
Armenians and a multitude of minorities began to look forward to a new age of an
established government within the lands of the Ottoman Empire (Cohan, 2005). The authority of
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

30
the sultan was challenged when a group of Arabs, Greeks, Jews, Kurds, and Armenians initiated
working with a group of Turks. The group that was formed was known as the Ottoman Liberals,
with the Turkish facet of the group taking on the name of the “Young Turks.” Within the same
year, one of the subcommittees of the Young Turks, the Committee of Union and Progress
(CUP), marched into Constantinople and overthrew the Sultan Abdul-Hamid. By the following
year, the Ottoman Empire had established a constitutional government that would provide equal
rights to all its citizens. The Armenians were hopeful that the newly developed constitution
would protect them from the violence they experienced under the sultan. With the passage of
time, authoritarian rule and a radical policy of Turkification overpowered the advocates of
liberalism, including the Armenian population.
In April 1909, the Hamidian supporters carried out a massacre of Armenians in the city of
Adana in an attempt to restore the power of the sultan. At one time, Adana was an Armenian
territory and was heavily populated by Armenians. Despite attempts at resistance, roughly
30,000 Armenians were massacred, and nearly half the city was destroyed. The tragic massacre
of these Armenians would ultimately be overshadowed by the 1.5 million Armenians who were
murdered a few years later in what is known today as the Armenian genocide.
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I by fighting its Russian neighbors in
lands populated by the Armenian people. The Russian Army contained Armenian soldiers in its
infantries, which caused the Ottomans to resent the population of Armenians living in Ottoman
territories. The Russians eventually defeated the Ottoman Army. Due to this humiliating loss, the
Ottoman Empire used the Armenians as a scapegoat and began to plan the extermination of the
Armenian population inhabiting the region (Der-Karabetian, 1997). The Armenian genocide
commenced in the spring of 1915 with the leaders of the Ottoman Empire taking advantage of
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

31
much of the rest of the world’s still being entrenched in war. The CUP, the ruling party of the
Ottoman Empire, began the brutal killing of the Armenian population, including intellectuals,
doctors, businessmen, and artists. Militias were established to carry out the deportations and
executions of the Armenian people, as others were loaded onto trains and sent to the Syrian
Desert to march to their deaths. The Armenian genocide resulted in the murder of approximately
1.5 million men, women, and children, threatening the existence of an entire people.
After the eventual destruction of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the leaders of the Young
Turks escaped the country, fleeing to Germany where they were promised not to be prosecuted
for genocide. The Turkish government has since denied the claim that genocide ever occurred.
Turks have argued that the Armenians were an enemy force and that the killings were justified
due to the war. Turkey became an important ally with the united Western nations through its
inclusion in the North American Treaty Organization (NATO). Due to this relationship, the
governments of Turkey and the United States have avoided recognizing that a genocide of the
Armenian people ever took place in 1915.
The Acculturation of Armenians
The violent and historical act of the Armenian genocide wiped the people of Armenia
from their homeland, taking away three thousand years of tangible evidence and spiritual culture
(Cohan, 2005). Today the question remains: What is home for Armenians? (Hovannisian, 1999).
Pattie (1994) described Armenians as having an “archetypal diaspora” and a “sacral myth” that
maintains their collectivity. Similar to the Jews, Armenians have survived many years of
scattered living among other people. Today 6 to 7 million Armenians are spread throughout the
world, including the Republic of Armenia, territories of the former Soviet Union, Iran, the
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

32
Middle East, the United States, Europe, South America, and nearly everywhere around the world
(Pattie, 1994).
Boston and New York became the primary destinations for the first wave of Armenian
settlers in the United States. The reasons for settling in the Northeast included reuniting with
family and friends, working in New England factories, and starting new businesses (Takooshian,
1995). Having keen entrepreneurial backgrounds led many Armenians to work in the import-
export business, primarily the oriental carpet and rug business. The expansion of the Armenian
communities spread into the Great Lakes region and ultimately into Fresno and the Los Angeles
basin (Pattie, 1993). The influx of Armenians into Los Angeles was so great that the city was
labeled the “first city” of the Armenian diaspora and is host to the largest Armenian community
outside of Yerevan, the capital city of Armenia. The population of Armenians continues to grow
in Los Angeles and its surrounding cities. Armenians of the diaspora who currently live in the
United States learned to acculturate to their society by attending school, learning to speak
English, and adapting to the demands of the political and economic lifestyle. However,
Takooshian (1995) stated that Armenians are highly resistant to assimilation, preferring to
maintain their own churches, networks of intermarriage, associations, and friendships. The
Armenian culture is characterized by traditional family structures that include clear parental
authority, strong family ties among extended family members, and a sense of obligation to the
family (Bakalian, 1992).
Academic Writing Identity in the United States Education System
Theorists and practitioners are in broad agreement that educational outcomes depend on
more than just assessments (Hawkes, 2014). The United States education process is designed in a
sociocultural context, yet its outcomes are highly context-dependent, making it critical for
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

33
educators and schools to create a multicultural environment (Hawkes, 2014). The multicultural
environment must consideration the educational process and performance, which must include
the relationship between institutional cultures and a concern for students’ backgrounds.
According to Hawkes (2014), a student’s home environment and academic sense of self helps
define the student’s sociocultural and academic identity. Students’ sociocultural identity
generally develops through their upbringing, ethnic background, and gender. Academic writing
identity is how students position themselves in relation to their values and practices of their
academic environment (Hawkes, 2014). In general, students’ academic identities develop from
their sociocultural identities, and this fact is vital when teachers are considering a student’s
academic ability and writing style.
Academic writing can be described as a skill that is an essential means in constructing
meaning from text and disseminating information (Ying, 2003). In the United States, having
writing skills demonstrates a student’s thinking ability and measures the capacity of the student’s
voice (McLaughlin & Moore, 2012). For students who come from various cultures, academic
success is highly correlated with strong academic writing skills. McLaughlin and Moore (2012)
argued that academic writing in the United States is a “high-stakes” process that can cause
students to fail in the task of writing. Students are generally expected to “move past obvious or
surface-level interpretations and use writing to make sense of and respond to written, visual, and
other texts they encounter” (Council of Writing Program Administrators, National Council of
Teachers of English, National Writing Project, 2011). When students write during their late high
school and early college years, it is evident through research literature that the students must
know how to organize their thoughts, display their perspectives as writers, and show awareness
of their writing and thought processes through their texts (Ying, 2003).
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

34
Writing is a complex process for many students, and it particularly poses a challenge for
immigrant students attempting to acculturate to the United States education system. Ying (2003)
argued that writing involves important skills that require a student to have strong linguistic
abilities, an expressive voice with purpose, and the courage to transform one’s ideas into logical
narratives. Borjian & Padilla (2010) mentioned the need for educators and school systems to
create a space for multiculturalism because the United States education system does not create an
environment where students feel accepted and welcomed. With multicultural awareness, faculty
and staff develop a sense of mindfulness about individual differences among immigrant student
populations and how their heritage plays a role in their writing identity development (Borjian &
Padilla, 2010). Bruna and Chamberlin (2008) recognized the pedagogical gaps in the United
States school systems and understood the immigrant students’ desire to address the deficits
causing these gaps. By educating administrators, staff, and faculty about the migration
experiences, school systems can determine how to close the existing pedagogical gap of
immigrants. Students would then have a concept of a better approach to cope with the trauma
and the hardships they have experienced while transitioning as immigrants into the United States
(Bruna & Chamberlin, 2008).
Immigrant Students Navigate Their Writing Identity in the United States Education
System
As students associate with multicultural communities, they begin to gain a new discourse,
what is known as “secondary discourse” (Gee, 2001b). According to Gee (2001b), secondary
discourse is the interaction with others who are not a part of the primary discourse community.
For non-White students, their dominant discourse is a result of their home identity and language
from their native country. As immigrant students develop and grasp a secondary discourse, a
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

35
simultaneous need arises to learn American culture and technical aspects of writing, which
include rules, structure, grammar, style, and voice. Students encounter difficulty with structuring
their writing with culturally based text structures that contrast with those expected at school
(Gee, 2001).
Structures of writing, such as expository writing, differ from one culture to the
other. Within United States culture, the significant aspects of English composition include topic
sentences, paragraphs, and conclusion paragraphs, making the system difficult for students to
write in this manner. Gee (2001b) stated that understanding the absence of traditional writing
structures and different voices can prevent students from being viewed as incompetent. Yingli
(2012) explained that there is often an obvious difference in academic writing between the first
and the second language. Yingli (2012) studied immigrant student writing patterns. One essential
concept the study noted was the different uses of authority and voice between the languages.
Writing with authority and with voice includes voicing one’s opinion, taking a stance, and
arguing with the text to make meaning. The writer’s voice in the United States indicates a
confident writer. According to Steinman (2003), the “voice” of a writer also depends on one’s
cultural background.
Summary
Armenian immigration to the United States has occurred in various intervals and
throughout different periods (Pattie, 1994). War, genocide, and freedom are a few of the many
reasons that caused the Armenian people to immigrate to the United States (Pattie, 1994). During
the many years of migration, Armenians have learned to slowly adapt to the host society,
learning to speak the dominant language and acclimating to the various demands of the United
States (Takooshian, 1995). Immigrant Armenian college students have faced several challenges,
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

36
including some that have hindered their academic performance (Martirosyan, Saxon, & Janjohi,
2014). The purpose of this study is to focus on the struggled experiences of immigrant Armenian
students at the community college level as they navigate their voice through academic writing.
The study further offers a critical race perspective on academic writing identity and the process
of navigating a writer’s voice.
The critical race theory, a theoretical framework focusing on counter-storytelling, has
been selected to highlight educational equity, the concerns surrounding racial dominance, and the
muted voice of immigrant Armenian college students. With the use of the critical race theory,
this study focuses on educational systems that do not include a student’s background in the
curriculum and ignores the importance of the various cultural differences (Scruggs, 2009).
Effective change and practices in education take place when education systems address students’
cultural experiences. Through students’ counter stories, rich information will be added to
immigrant students’ writing identity with an eye toward improving the way in which they
navigate their voice in academic writing.
The following chapter highlights the study’s methodology and illuminates the study’s
instrumentation. The chapter will focus on the methodology used for data collection procedures
and analysis.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

37
Chapter Three: Methodology
Research has revealed that the population of immigrant Armenian students at the
community college level is composed of students who are underrepresented and marginalized
within their classes. Immigrant Armenian students must overcome challenges they face in their
writing that silence their perspectives and voices but validate White voices that are viewed as the
“standard” (Swartz, 1992; Ladson Billings, 1999, as cited in Knaus, 2009). The purpose of this
study was to highlight immigrant Armenian voices and explore the perspectives, cultural
experiences, and backgrounds in determining how these factors influence their voice in the
development of a writing identity. Furthermore, the study seeks to inform faculty of new
methods and prospective immigrant students of strategies required to navigate the demands of
academic writing. The following research questions guided the study:
1. How do the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian
students influence their voice in the development of a writing identity?
2. What strategies do immigrant Armenian students employ at community colleges to
navigate the demands of academic writing?
The counter-storytelling method, an essential component of the critical race theory, was
used throughout this study to bring to the forefront voices of the oppressed (Delgado 1989;
Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). The use of counter-storytelling in this qualitative research illustrated
the students’ voices (Maxwell, 2013). Critical race theory highlights counter-storytelling as a
method to create meaning among students whose stories are not often told (Solorzano & Yosso,
2002) and is a valuable mechanism to challenge racial dominance (Ladson-Billings & Tate,
1995). Delgado (1989) explained that oppressed groups and individuals use stories as an
essential tool for their own survival and liberation. The participants also used counter-
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

38
storytelling to directly answer the research questions. Through the interviews of immigrant
Armenians students, this study explained strategies and tools the participants used to succeed in
handling writing challenges. The study aims to inform practitioners of English instruction about
ways to prepare future immigrant students for writing success and helped mitigate opportunity
gaps. The stories of these immigrant students have added power when retold because what
begins as individual experience gains validation through the act of retelling (Solorzano & Yosso,
2002).
Site Selection and Setting
The study included students from an urban institution of higher education. The site
selected, Spring Community College (SCC, a pseudonym), is a fairly large community college in
the southwestern portion of the United States, offering certificates and associate degrees. SCC
serves a diverse population of students consisting of the following: 59% non-Latino Caucasian,
21% Latino, 10% Asian/Filipino/Pacific Islander, 1% Black, 1% American Indian, and the
remaining 8% of students represented as “other.” The institution provides the opportunity and
support to those wishing to continue their education and reach their desired career goals. The
college is devoted to promoting the importance of higher education in the evolving urban city.
SCC is dedicated to student learning through providing transfer preparation, associate degrees
and certificates, career development, and noncredit instruction. The college’s mission is to
engage students in innovative learning experiences that improve and help sustain positivity
among the student population and the local community. The study site is accredited by the
Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges and the Western Association of
Schools and Colleges (WASC), both of which are institutional accrediting bodies recognized by
the Council for Higher Education Accreditation and the U.S. Department of Education.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

39
SCC was the top option for its large student population, which amounts to nearly 20,662
noncredit and credit students. Within this population exists 7,500 Armenian noncredit and credit
students. In the determination of an ideal setting, Merriam (2009) suggested that it should be a
location where the phenomenon of interest naturally occur. The estimated sample size of students
attending SCC in 2016 who were enrolled in the noncredit program was 2,411 students and
5,089 in the credit program, with approximately 36.3% of the campus population being
Armenian. Many of the Armenian immigrant students are enrolled in English courses at SCC
based on its convenient location.
Community colleges serve as a “gateway” to the start of higher education careers for
many immigrants and their families (Wisell & Champanier, 2010). Similar to most community
colleges, SCC provides access to education for immigrants. SCC serves a large group of
Armenian students, as it is a public community college in the urban area of the southwestern
region of the United States, one with a dense Armenian population. The study site has had issues
concerning immigrant students’ acculturating into the host school and finding a writing identity
when tasked to compose an array of texts, which in turn has resulted in opportunity gaps.
Participants
The study’s participants were assigned pseudonyms to help protect their identities. To
gain access to participants, the researcher used gatekeepers, also known as the individuals who
assisted in facilitating access (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The gatekeepers stand between the
researcher and the potential respondent. These individuals are administrators, staff members at
the research and planning department, and faculty who work in the English departments that
serve immigrant Armenian students. For me to gain answers to the research questions, I selected
departments with specific student populations that met the research criteria. The completion of
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

40
the entry process with the gatekeepers permitted the researcher to take the next step in the
study. Once the institution had approved the study to be conducted, the English department then
contacted faculty members via email to recommend potential participants from their classrooms.
Employees working with the English department assisted in the recommendation of participants
for this study. After the department specified potential participants, the researcher sent emails to
inquire about their interest.
The researcher used purposeful sampling to identify and select information-rich cases
associated with the phenomenon of interest (Merriam, 2009). As Maxwell (2013) noted,
purposeful selection is a strategy in which particular persons and settings are selected
deliberately to provide information relevant to the study. With the focus of the study on
immigrant Armenian students, the SCC campus was selected purposefully due to the high
concentration of immigrant Armenians. After the criteria list was explained to English
department faculty members, they selected students willing to participate and who fit the study
criteria. The criteria included the following elements: immigrant Armenian student who had
immigrated to the United States and was enrolled in an English course at the community college
level. The participants who met the criteria provided the researcher with information required to
answer the research questions, an important consideration in qualitative selection (Maxwell,
2013). To ensure the participants’ interest, subjects were asked to fill out an online survey.
Additionally, the surveys helped determine whether the participants met the selection criteria.
Throughout this process, the researcher followed up with the interested participants, coordinated
a specific time and date for an interview, and conducted the interview. The participants were
given the option to decide how they preferred to be contacted, via email or telephone. A total of
five participants filled out the online survey and met the criteria list.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

41
After the interviews were completed, the researcher used member checking, a component
of respondent validation for exploring the credibility of results (Maxwell, 2013). Member
checking is the most significant method used to rule out the possibility of misinterpreting the
what participants have said and the perspectives they may have. This is also an important way of
identifying the researcher’s biases and any misunderstandings of the interviews (Maxwell, 2013).
Data Collection
The data collected in the interviews contained the information needed to address the
research questions. The participants were purposefully selected from the host institution because
they identified as being immigrant Armenians who encountered academic writing obstacles
throughout their English classes. Interviews serve as one of the various forms of data collection
methods (Maxwell, 2013). DeMarrais (2004) defined an interview as “a process in which a
researcher and participant engage in a conversation focused on questions related to a research
study” (as cited in Merriam, 2009, p. 55). Interview questions helped gain an insight into the
participants’ thoughts, intentions, and emotional states (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Based on the
participants’ counter-stories, an important component of critical race theory (Solorzano & Yosso,
2001), the researcher hoped to gain a better understanding of the students’ experiences.
The stories and first-person accounts of experiences told in a story form focused on the human
experience, (Merriam, 2009) an essential component of the study’s theoretical framework.
The potential study participants were instructed to fill out a form that indicated their
availability. In addition to the form, participants provided preferred contact information for the
researcher to use to reach them. The individual interviews were conducted in the classroom
setting at the end of their class sessions. Interview lengths were between 40 minutes to 1 hour.
Weiss (1994) suggested the importance of qualitative interviews lasting between 30 minutes to 1
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

42
hour. The focus of the interviews was to uncover and describe what lies behind the obstacles
about which little is yet known (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). The in-depth qualitative interviews
brought to light the various experiences of immigrant Armenian students and their narratives,
which delineated the struggles they have faced in their academic writing experiences and how
those affected their ability to succeed in community college. To ensure the details were
preserved properly, participant interviews were audio recorded, and the researcher took
additional notes during the interviews to be able to refer back to for critical information. Semi-
structured interviews were used in this qualitative study, allowing new ideas to be brought up
among participants (Maxwell, 2013). With a less structured method, the researcher was able to
gain a more contextual understanding of the study, which led to specific outcomes. The open-
ended interview technique helped better explore the experience of the subjects and eventually
helped the researcher gain better insight into students’ needs (Merriam, 2002).
Data Analysis
In the nature of qualitative research, this study required data to be analyzed through codes
and themes (Tesch, 1990). The participant interviews were transcribed and eventually coded
using a constant comparative approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). This method was used to
compare one portion of data with another segment to determine similarities and differences
(Merriam, 2009). The use of this approach to analyze the data aligns appropriately with a critical
race perspective, as it sheds light on the experiences the participants narrated. The constant
comparative method “combines systematic data collection, coding, and analysis with theoretical
sampling in order to generate a theory that is integrated, close to the data, and expressed in a
form clear enough for further testing” (Conrad, Neumann, Haworth, & Scott, 1993, p. 280). The
constant comparative method used three levels of coding, all of which work toward obtaining a
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

43
better understanding of the collected information (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The first level of
coding was referred to as open coding. In open coding, the researcher collected the data and
categorized the gathered information into groups.
The subsequent step is known as axial coding procedure. In this second step, data
collected about the immigrant students were pieced together. This step of coding permitted
connections to be made among the core themes. One way the researcher conducted axial coding
was to continue asking questions and making comparisons to identify the relationships among
the code patterns. The final coding level is known as selective coding wherein the researcher can
identify core categories from all of the data and make connections among the categories through
similarities and relationships (Kolb, 2012). With the use of the constant comparative approach, it
is possible to categorize thoughts and perspectives from the data analyzed via codes and themes.
Positionality
Positionality in qualitative research is used to describe individuals’ worldviews, the
positions individuals hold, and the position the researcher has adopted within a given research
task (Sultana, 2007). The individuals’ worldviews are composed by and reflect the nature of their
social reality, their epistemological assumptions, and their assumptions about human nature
(Sultana, 2007). These worldviews are shaped by values, political allegiance, religious faith,
race, gender, sexuality, social class, and historical and geographical location (Wellington,
Bathmaker, Hunt, McCulloch, & Sikes, 2005). Merriam (2009) explained that the researcher
serves as a primary instrument in a study. The researcher in this study was aware that her
identity, experiences, and position played a primary role and had some influence on the research
problem.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

44
The researcher is an Armenian American woman in the United States and is a first-
generation college student. Personal obstacles and writing experiences have led the researcher to
substantiate the importance of this study. I am a former immigrant in the United States and a
first-generation college student; as such, there were ways in which I connected with the study on
a more individual level. Strauss and Corbin (1990) argued that “the touchstone of your own
experience may be more valuable an indicator for you of a potentially successful research
endeavor” (as cited in Maxwell, 2013, p. 24).
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations in a study are the factors that allow for a clearer understanding of the
findings reached via the results (Lunenburg & Irby, 2008). Limitations may result from the
methodology, data, or the manner in which the methods are analyzed. This study was limited to
immigrant Armenian students who had come to the United States and were enrolled in English
courses at a community college. Another limitation of the study was the number of participants.
The small sample size of immigrant Armenian students in search of a writing identity limited the
findings’ generalizability. Access to the students who fit the criteria was limited, restricting the
study to just one site. Additionally, students’ recollections of experiences may have been
affected by more recent and favorable experiences.
Delimitations are “self-imposed boundaries” placed on the researcher for the purpose and
extent of the study (Lunenburg & Irby, 2008). The delimitations of this study included the
following: the ethnicity (Armenians) of the immigrant students at the community college, the
location of the community college that the students were enrolled in, the number of immigrant
students interviewed at the community college, immigrant Armenian students who came to the
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

45
United States with previous education from their native countries, and enrollment of these
students in an English course at the community college level.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To ensure credibility with participants, the researcher analyzed the data to verify that
what was said in the interviews was rational. Credibility is established when the results of
qualitative research are believable or credible from the perspective of the participants in the
research study (Lunenburg & Irby, 2008). Participants’ perspectives are a principal part of
counter-storytelling, and to ensure credibility in the research, I used triangulation. Triangulation
entails “collecting information from a diverse range of individuals and settings using a variety of
methods” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 128). Data triangulation was used “to compare and cross check the
consistency of information derived at different times and by different means” (Patton, 2002, p.
556). To ensure credibility, the researcher collected “thick descriptions” (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016, p. 256) of student experiences, feelings, and thoughts to confirm the validity of the
students’ stories. The loaded descriptions in the study provided rich data to permit practitioners,
researchers, and students to make informed decisions.
Ethical Considerations
The framing of the research was structured with an emphasis on ethical importance, as
ethics affects and touches virtually every aspect of the study. First, the researcher explained the
policies and procedures of the interview process in detail through consent documents and
through verbal communication to ensure the participants valued the transparency of the study
established (Creswell, 2014). The written consent with the aforementioned ethical procedures
outlined in clear detail for the participants’ perusal. Second, the participants’ written consent was
gathered, and the Institution Research Board at the University of Southern California approved
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

46
the study prior to the start of any research activity. Furthermore, study participants were made
aware of the tools and the methods used to transcribe and aggregate the data collected. Finally,
and most importantly, the ethical principles such as respect for anonymity and confidentiality
were important factors in ensuring the well-being of the subjects (Creswell, 2009).

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

47
Chapter Four: Findings

This study sought to explain the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of
immigrant Armenian students and the manner in which these factors influenced their voice
throughout the development of a writing identity. The study explored the strategies immigrant
Armenian students employed at community colleges to navigate the demands of academic
writing. Although academic writing is defined as “an act of identity” (Hyland, 2005, p. 1092)
conveying disciplinary content representing a writer’s voice, the study participants defined
academic writing as the process of learning to write and sound like an “American.”
The study examined five student participants who attended a community college in the
Southwest region of the United States. This chapter investigated how the students’ feelings and
thoughts, in academic writing, affected their college writing experiences. The immigrant
Armenians students’ experiences, perspectives, and cultural backgrounds were important
counter-stories, as the narrative of a marginalized group are often not heard (Delagado &
Stefancic, 2014a). Stories were shared by the participants, who were in a better position to
discuss this particularly because of their background (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). The “voice of
color” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001) had a deeper understanding of the issues they faced in
academic writing than did their White counterparts. The non-native storyteller has a better
perspective of experiencing academic writing struggles than would a White storyteller. The
untold narratives of non-White storytellers were coupled with gathered data in search of
advancements for minority students.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

48
Table 1
Participant Demographic Chart
Participants Art Natasha Sally Nelly Annie
Characteristic
Gender Male Female Female Female Female
Race
Caucasian
Armenian
Caucasian
Armenian Armenian
Iranian
Armenian Armenian
Year in School
College
Junior
Third-Year
Medical
Student
College
Graduate
Recent
Pharmacy
Graduate
College
Graduate
Major Psychology Biology
Business
& Finance Biology Chemistry
Languages Three Three Four Four Four
Profession
College
Student
Medical
Student Banker Student Scientist
Immigrant Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
ELL Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Degree(s) GED BS BS BA BA
MA Pharm D. MA
Ph.D
Note. ELL = English Language Learner

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

49
Participants
The five study participants identified as immigrant Armenian students who attended the
institution. The study was composed of four women and one man. The subjects used the
following terminology including Caucasian Armenian, Iranian Armenian, or Armenian to refer
to their identity. Three of the five subjects had graduated and had completed their schooling. The
remaining two participants were still attending school at the time of the study. Of the two
participants still attending school, one subject was attending SCC, whereas the other was in the
third year of a medical program. Consistent across all subjects was their knowledge of three
languages, including Armenian, English, and Farsi. Finally, to be considered for the study, it was
essential that the participants were classified as English language learners.
The first participant interviewed for the study was a young Armenian male immigrant
named Art. Art defined himself as a semi traditional Armenian growing up in a liberal Armenian
household. At the time of data collection, Art was attending SCC and was going to transfer to a
4-year university. Before immigrating to the United States, Art was enrolled in private English
courses in Iran to strengthen his language and communication skills. Art immigrated to the
United States at the age of 15 and enrolled in a public high school as a freshman. Art graduated
from high school and enrolled in SCC where he was accepted into the scholars’ program. The
scholars’ program is designed to assist students eager to transfer to a 4-year university. The
program is designed to guide and counsel students to take specific courses that will allow for a
smooth transition to the subsequent institution.
Art was initially uncertain of his major. His life goal was to be an attorney; however, he
changed direction and decided to pursue a degree in psychology. During Art’s interview, he
stated, “My accent can never go away, and no one will ever hire me as an attorney. Therefore, I
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

50
have decided to major in psychology. I’m calm, and I think I will be OK in this major.” The
hopeless narrative of Art illustrates a society that is constructed by hierarchy, wherein the
academic and social outcomes tend to favor Whites in comparison to people of color (Yosso,
2005). Art’s reasoning behind attending SCC was because it was conveniently located close to
his house. In addition, Art’s choice of community college was influenced by where his friends
wanted to attend school. He stated, “I went to SCC because all of my friends from high school
were attending SCC, too.”
The second participant was named Natasha, a young Armenian who had immigrated to
the United States from Iran with her family. Natasha attended a private high school in Iran where
she had graduated with honors and was accepted into medical school to study genetics. Prior to
the start of medical school, Natasha’s family decided to leave Iran due to the country’s political
unrest. Her family left behind their property and assets and immigrated to the United States.
Despite the move to the United States and the cultural shock she experienced, her goal to finish
medical school did not waiver. Natasha attended SCC for 2 years prior to transferring to a 4-year
university. At SCC, she completed her general education requirements, which allowed her to set
the foundation required to transfer to a 4-year university. She stated the following when asked
why she attended SCC: “I had no choice; I had to enroll at SCC. I knew I couldn’t go straight to
a 4-year university because my English was not strong enough.” Natasha went on to transfer to a
state university where she graduated with a bachelor of science in biology. She continued her
education by obtaining her master’s degree in biomedical sciences. Natasha was not able to
transfer directly to medical school from her undergraduate studies due to difficulties with the
verbal section of the medical entrance exam (MCAT). After completing her master’s degree,
Natasha felt prepared and ready to take the exam. Natasha was able to pass the exam, applied,
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

51
and was accepted to medical school, staying true to her initial educational aspiration. A student’s
aspirational capital similar to Natasha’s educational aspiration is when students hold on to hope
in the face of structured inequality (Yosso, 2005). At the time of the interview, Natasha was in
her third year of medical school and hoped to graduate within the next few years.
The following study participant was Sally, a middle-aged immigrant Armenian woman.
Sally immigrated to the United States in her mid-to-late 20s. Prior to her moving to the United
States, Sally graduated with a bachelor’s degree in accounting from an urban university and
worked as an accountant for several years in Iran. When Sally arrived in the United States, she
sought the advice of a college counselor regarding her educational goals and career path. The
college counselor provided Sally with two options that aligned with her circumstances. The first
option included dismissing her foreign-held degree by retaking general education courses. The
second option was to evaluate Sally’s foreign-held degree with the added condition that she pass
the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Sally stated, “I knew I had no chance of
passing the TOEFL. I had just immigrated to the United States, and I knew that passing the test
would not happen. I was very intimidated by the TOEFL, to say the least.” Sally opted out of
taking the TOEFL exam and decided to complete the general education courses at SCC needed
to transfer to a 4-year school. Soon thereafter, she transferred to a local state university where
she graduated with a bachelor’s degree in accounting.
Nelly, an ambitious immigrant Armenian woman, was the next participant in the study.
Nelly was a recent graduate of a pharmacy school in the Southwest of the United States. Similar
to Sally, Nelly decided on not evaluating her foreign-held engineering degree and started her
educational journey by completing the necessary general education courses. While living in Iran,
Nelly worked as an agricultural engineer. After moving to the United States, Nelly was able to
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

52
pursue her life-long goal, which was to obtain a degree in the medical field. Nelly decided to
attend SCC with the hope of transferring to a 4-year university. It took Nelly 6 years to transfer
out of SCC to a prominent 4-year college where she majored and graduated with a bachelor of
science degree in biology. She stated, “If it were not for all the required writing assignments at
SCC, I would have transferred out in half the time.”
The final participant interviewed for this study was Annie, an older Armenian immigrant
living in the United States. Annie completed most of her schooling in Iran where she had earned
a bachelor of science degree in applied physics. Annie obtained her master’s and doctoral
degrees in analytical chemistry from a university outside of the United States. After the
completion of her doctoral degree, Annie focused her research on the instrumentation and
development of mass spectrometers. Annie was recruited by a prominent university in the United
States for a position as a research scientist. Unlike the other candidates, Annie only spent 1 year
at SCC taking business courses. Annie’s enrollment at SCC was not for transfer purposes, but
rather it was to improve her business skills. Additionally, Annie selected to attend SCC due to
the institution’s convenient location near her residence.
Findings for Research Question 1
The first research question asked the following: “How do the perspectives, cultural
experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian students influence their voice in the
development of a writing identity?” In answering the question, the researcher narrowed its focus
on the experiences of the participants and how these may have influenced their writing during
their time spent in the community college. Through the counter-stories illustrated by the five
participants, the narratives gave the immigrant students a voice and attempted to depict how
other marginalized students might have similar experiences (Delagdo & Stefanic, 2001). The
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

53
three emerging common themes evident from the counter-story narratives included a) the
importance of becoming English proficient, b) overcoming challenges as an immigrant student,
and c) adjusting to an English writing identity. Furthermore, the critical race theory framework
was the lens used in this study to explain the marginalized and silenced voice of immigrant
Armenian college students.
Becoming English proficient
Art’s perception of an individual who was considered English proficient was explained as
“one who contains a high vocabulary.” Art stated that English proficiency is evident in “a person
who is skilled in grammar or one who has ease when it comes to writing.” Art understood his
evident challenges in expressing his thoughts on paper and was aware that his vocabulary
required more work to reach the level considered proficient. He stated, “I am young, and I hope
that one day I can be like many of the English students who surround me at SCC.” Art shared a
personal story about the scholar’s program and how he was initially denied acceptance. Art
concluded that his admissions paper was probably not as well written as those of some of the
more qualified applicants. He stated, “The feeling of success in school is greatly related to one’s
expertise in the English language. When I initially was denied admissions from the scholar’s
program, I knew I had to get help and accept the reality. I was an immigrant, and this is what we
immigrants go through. Things don’t come easy for us; therefore, we have to work hard for what
we want to achieve.”
Sally’s perspective about her own English proficiency, similar to those of the other
participants, was neither impressive nor grandiose. She said, “I will never sound like a person
who went to school here, studied in the United States, and who received a real American
education.” She continued by expressing the following: “As an immigrant college student, you
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

54
are never English proficient because you are truly just a beginner in all your English courses.
You have to start learning everything from the beginning. It’s unrealistic to attempt to convince
yourself that you are English proficient.” In a society where Whiteness is set as the standard and
portrayed as being normative, everyone is ranked and categorized in relation to this point of
opposition (Ladson-Billings, 1998). In the same manner, Sally categorized herself relative to a
normative standard of Whiteness and did not see herself reaching that level of proficiency. Sally
stated the following:
One reason I will never be an English proficient student is because of the influence from
some of my professors. Even though they tried their best, my professors never truly
understood my struggles as an immigrant. My professors believed that immigrant
students were similar to the students who had grown up in the United States and
graduated from a high school in this country. My professors’ expectations of immigrant
students becoming successful and English proficient were not realistic. You will never
find an immigrant Armenian at SCC who fully views him or herself as English proficient.
When one comes to the realization that he or she will never become English proficient,
the challenges of college become that much more difficult.
Natasha’s understanding of an English proficient student was “one who was born in the
United States and spoke English as a first language. “In my opinion, these are English proficient
students, the same students who have very little difficulty reading and writing.” Natasha and
Sally both giggled when they were asked whether they were English proficient. “It would be a
dream for me to be English proficient, but I do not have the sufficient knowledge to be
considered proficient. In my case, English is my third language. To this day, I still do not believe
I know English completely. The people who can speak, read, and write perfectly can be
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

55
categorized as English proficient.” She continued sharing and stated, “I didn’t realize how my
lack of English proficiency was going to affect me all the way up to, and through, medical
school. I have been on this crazy ride for the past 9 years and I would say I still shy away from
class discussions. I still do not speak up and respond to questions that my professors pose to the
class. It is obvious that my knowledge of English is not up to par compared with the rest of my
class. I am one of three Armenians in my medical school program, and about 65% to 70% of the
students are considered White Americans.”
Natasha highlighted telling a story about her journey to reaching English proficiency and
how it shaped her writing identity. For Natasha, one of the most meaningful experiences in
medical school was her perseverance of getting through the first 2 years, even though she was an
immigrant Armenian. She said, “Looking different, speaking differently, lacking English fluency
affects social interactions and academic success. I know it did for me, but I also know how it is
possible to get through it.”
When Nelly was asked to define and articulate what English proficiency is and how it is
important for academic writing and success, she said the following:
As a multilingual person, if somebody wants to be English proficient, he or she has to
develop language skills and advance knowledge in the language. It becomes important to
practice reading and writing every day to be English proficient and to be successful in
college. I say this because of my experiences of writing academically in the other two
languages I know. Although these languages are completely different from English, I still
see myself having the most difficulty with writing in the English language. The difficulty
of navigating and becoming accustomed to the English language has been the reason for
most of the obstacles I have faced throughout my education as an immigrant.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

56
Annie’s perception about English proficiency was being able to express herself freely, to
compose her ideas, and to communicate her thoughts in English. She continued by stating,
“Having the ability to read newspapers, scholarly articles related to my profession, and
comprehend them further symbolizes the trait of English proficiency. I came to the
understanding that I was eventually able to become English proficient after immigrating to the
United States. My journey took about 20 years, but I can confidently say that today I am English
proficient.” Unlike the other participants, the country Annie lived in for 5 years prior to moving
to the United States used English as its primary language. Annie emphasized that the various
cultural experiences she encountered in the different parts of the world influenced her writing
identity and helped her navigate her voice when writing in English. The second common theme
that emerged out of the participants’ narratives was overcoming the challenges of being an
immigrant student.
Overcoming Challenges as an Immigrant Student
The demands of academic writing served as a primary reason for the challenges the
participants faced throughout their time enrolled in community college. These challenges also
continued into the professional careers of some of the participants. Nelly noted that she had her
own voice in her writing, an Armenian voice that did not follow English writing structures.
Nelly’s challenges were made evident to her by one of her English professors. She stated, “My
professor asked to see me after class to review a writing assignment I had submitted the week
before. The professor was confused as to what I had written, when all along the writing had
made sense to me. It was obvious that I was facing challenges while making an attempt to
develop a Westernized writing identity. I was trying to write in English, those thoughts, which
made sense to me in Armenian.” Nelly and her professor were able to understand that Nelly was
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

57
attempting to overcome challenges of identifying her voice through her writing. Although Nelly
had to retake the course, she was able to pass the class with additional assistance from the
professor and a private tutor. Furthermore, Nelly expressed the unfavorable result she had
obtained on her first attempt at taking the State of California Pharmacy Board examination.
According to the tabulated results, Nelly had scored poorly on the critical thinking portion of the
exam. Nelly expressed that the challenges of finding her identity in writing was evident and
transgressed toward other areas of her life. She said, “Reading comprehension is an additional
challenge I face while trying to navigate and understand my voice in the English language. I will
overcome this too; it is just a matter of time. You have to appreciate the process and how it
works in order to persevere. You fail, you struggle with your failures, you may even cry. I did a
lot of that. Ultimately, you try again until you are eventually successful.”
Sally was also vocal about the need to overcome the many challenges she faced trying to
find her writing identity at SCC and the 4-year university she attended. She stated:
All the students at the 4-year university were required to pass an English essay
examination. I thought to myself, “Okay, I graduated from SCC, so for sure I will pass
this test.” The test was more difficult than I thought due to it being a timed test. The test
consisted of reading an article and writing a five-paragraph response to the questions
posed at the end of the article. It took me three attempts before I was able to pass this test.
I lacked the necessary vocabulary and continued to stress over time. When you live in the
United States, writing is something you deal with every day. You cannot say, Oh, I'm
working now and therefore I do not need to write anything anymore. No, workplaces
expect you to know how to communicate through writing, whether it be emails, written
proposals, or the composition of letters.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

58
Furthermore, the participants agreed that overcoming challenges of adapting to different
voices for different situations affected their ability to prosper. Ede (1989) describes situational
written voice as wearing different clothes for different occasions (as cited in Malik,
2016). Writing an essay differs from writing an email; therefore, overcoming the adaptation to
the varying situations was difficult for this study’s immigrant Armenian participants. The
necessity of situationalizing writing was essential, especially due to the many subjects required
to be taken at the community college level. Natasha explained about needing to write an essay in
an ethics course while attending SCC. As an immigrant learning to express her voice through her
writing, Natasha saw the apparent challenges needed to be overcome when writing about ethics
in an American society. Natasha expressed how she was “forced” to attend her professor’s office
hours outside of class time to address the concerns she faced in expressing her voice through her
writing. “I went, and I talked to the professor; I explained my situation. I told him that this is my
situation, English is my third language, and I have no previous knowledge of ethics in American
society. I wanted him to be aware of the additional challenges I was going to be overcoming
when writing for this class in comparison with the rest of my peers.” The final common theme
that emerged from the interviews regarding the first research question was the adjustment or
acculturation process of the immigrant Armenian students.
Adjusting
The background and cultural perspectives of immigrant students affect the manner in
which they acculturate to a new educational system. The adjustment process was a significant
factor in adopting to a writing identity. Sally expressed her experiences of adjusting to academic
writing in the United States. “I have less experience than my classmates in academic writing. I
struggle in navigating my ideas on paper because in my country, we don’t express ourselves the
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

59
way we are expected to express ourselves in the United States. I have gradually learned how to
express myself now and write for an audience that can understand me, or else I would have never
graduated from college.” Frequently, students discover their conception of writing does not
match the expectation of their main audience (Hardy & Clughen, 2012).
Nelly explained the importance of having to reimagine the manner in which she thought
and how she structured her writing. She indicated that this strategy was deployed to allow the
reader to understand her writing and comprehend her thought processes. Both Nelly and Sally
made it apparent that their cultural experiences and their backgrounds as Armenians had
influenced their writing identity. The way they think, speak, and compose in Armenian does not
smoothly transition when applied to the English language. Gee (1990) noted that students do not
just write and express themselves, but instead they write for an audience and for the intention of
making sense to their audience. This study’s participants found that their different social skills,
linguistic experiences, cultures, backgrounds, and ways of thinking often did not coincide with
the practices of the American culture. The necessary adjustments were needed to ensure they
would overcome the evident challenges in hopes of developing the appropriate writing identity.
Art indicated the existing challenge that arose when adjusting to an environment where
the education system was identified more by independent learning. He stated, “Back in my native
country, the instructors guided and supervised our writing. In the United States, I feel that my
professors expect us to write about the assigned topic without much guidance. We are expected
to turn in the work when it is due and work to improve it if the grade given is unsatisfactory.”
Art further expressed the need to adjust to a learning environment that was completely different
from what he had experienced growing up. The learning system and process in the United States
was a cultural shock to him, causing unexpected challenges to his writing identity. The
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

60
participants all agreed about the need to adjust socially and academically in the hope of
uncovering their voice when composing essays and writing assignments.
Natasha expressed that her passion for learning and education persisted throughout her
entire academic career, despite the country she lived in. Similar to the other participants, Natasha
worked on adjustments that would improve her writing identity and allow for a smoother
transition to meeting the cultural demands of the United States. She said, “I looked around and
thought that one way to become like the rest of society was to do what the rest of the people were
doing. I listened to the popular radio stations and got the lyrics for the songs off of the internet. It
was difficult at first since I was not sure what some of the words within the song’s lyrics meant. I
asked native speakers to translate the difficult words, allowing me to better understand the
meaning.” Lyrics are used to unconsciously break cultural barriers of learners who may feel
disjointed from American society (Segal, 2014). She stated, “I was learning poetry while at the
same time learning vocabulary, grammar, and how to communicate through music. Furthermore,
Natasha agreed that listening to music allowed her to learn about the identity of others, all while
realizing the uniqueness of her own identity. Moreover, music influenced the manner in which
she thought about writing and further improved her speaking and comprehension.
The participants’ academic and social adjustment narratives reflected what is
commonplace in academic settings in the United States. Lamont and Lareau (2015) introduced
the cultural capital concept wherein institutions tend to favor the cultural expectations of the
more dominant group rather than underprivileged groups. Annie’s experience of adjustment was
geared toward a more positive outcome in comparison with that of other participants. Although
Annie was successful in finding her writing identity and overcame many of the challenges she
confronted, she still believed that the system was not favorable toward non-White students. “The
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

61
professors are not inclined to provide to the needs of immigrants who seem lost in finding their
new English writing identity. I speak two other languages other than English, and this makes the
learning process of finding your identity in English more challenging. The adjustment process
for me took many years and finding my voice and writing identity still requires daily
maintenance and improvement.” The experiences of Annie are unique and highlight that there
remain opportunities to assist oppressed groups in adjusting to the demands of English academic
writing.
Summary
The participants highlighted that finding their writing identity at the community college
level requires time and discipline. As immigrant students, the participants understood that
cultural and social differences serve to exaggerate the existing obstacles and demands of
academic writing. The idea of not knowing whether one would achieve English proficiency, the
challenges of becoming accustomed to the American norms, and the ability to adjust to those
norms were common themes in finding the identity required to write or to express thoughts on
paper confidently.
Findings for Research Question 2
The second research question asked the following: “What strategies are employed by
immigrant Armenian students at the community colleges to navigate the demands of academic
writing?” The participants brought to light a multitude of strategies used to manage the writing
demands. Through the counter-stories highlighted by the participants, three common themes
became evident. These included seeking assistance, making strategic adjustments in hopes of
finding a voice in writing, and setting goals that would inspire one to develop a unique and
effective writing identity. These themes guided the participants in establishing the necessary
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

62
strategies to build the desired confidence when faced with composition tasks and to navigate
their voices in academic writing.
Seeking Help
The participants valued seeking help as an important and critical strategy toward their
successes in managing the demands of academic writing. The participants stated that the courses
they were enrolled in did not prepare them to form a writing identity or expressively write in
ways that were academically accepted by their instructors. The necessity to seek assistance or
gather information helped them overcome writing difficulties. Moreover, peer and social
contracts were seen as methods to navigate the demands of academic institutions (Yosso, 2005).
Art stated the following:
I am always looking for help when I write an essay. I may have something in my mind,
but it is in my native language. I have difficulty writing my thoughts in English, so I end
up looking at a dictionary to find words that more clearly express my thoughts. At times,
I find myself lost, and things still does not make sense. I take an additional step where I
have to go check the synonyms of that specific word. I end up completely deleting the
word or expression, and I just write something else in its place. My thoughts make sense
in my own language but not when translated into the English language. It is really
frustrating due to the intense pressures of trying to get things right the first time
around. If I don’t get it right, I will not be able to pass my course and will not have
opportunities like my friends who grew up in the United States.
As an immigrant college student, Art found that it was imperative to work on building his voice
in his writing identity. He requested help from peers and tutors to maintain success in college. He
stated, “I had to always read additional information, get to know more about the subject, and talk
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

63
to my friends to build general knowledge around the subjects. I believed that if I could build my
voice in my writing, then it would allow me to sound important when writing papers.”
Similarly, Sally sought help from her cousins, and when they were not available, she
stated that she would watch “American movies” with subtitles. The subtitles allowed Sally to
understand the English language and to relate and identify with the American culture. She added,
“Anything to make it easy, I just needed to survive through the papers I had to write.” Natasha
indicated that she was constantly in search of a “native speaker” to get the help necessary to
express herself when writing. “I remember there were topics we had to write about that I was not
familiar with. These topics were mostly about the American culture. As an immigrant, it was
really difficult navigating these topics and developing a writing identity.” Natasha highlighted
the difficulty she had in trying to communicate with native speakers when asking for assistance.
Natasha stated that the people whom she was communicating with did not understand what she
was trying to express in her writing. Overall, she defined her college experience as “hard,” and
writing made that experience even more difficult.
Nelly and Annie both sought help from tutors at SCC. Annie did not shy away from
seeking help and indicated that tutors were essential in helping her develop business skills. Nelly
also sought the help of tutors and highlighted that “asking questions to tutors and professors is a
must for all immigrants.” The participants expressed that enrolling in English college courses as
an immigrant student demanded self-independence. Furthermore, the participants expressed that
seeking help empowered them to navigate their voice in their writing identity and ultimately
permitted them to complete the required English courses. In addition to seeking help, making
sacrifices for family was another common theme the participants highlighted concerning the
second research question.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

64
Sacrifice for Family
The participants were of the mindset that the challenges and struggles they had
encountered had been undertaken to realize a better life for themselves and for their families. For
centuries, Armenians have been known for praising and respecting family values, even in the
modern day (Takooshian, 1995). The respect and sacrifice for family were not any different for
this study’s participants. Parents of the participants had sacrificed by migrating to the United
States, where opportunities were viewed as endless. The motivation for the parents and family
members gave to the participants did not waiver even during challenging and inopportune times.
Yosso (2005) explained how important it is for individuals to dream of opportunities that may
be, or seem, beyond their immediate circumstances.
Moreover, Yosso (2005) described the positive effect families have on an individual’s
aspiration when they encourage the individual, despite their current status. For example, Annie
and her family left their home, the property they owned, and all of their established relationships
to begin a new life. Although Annie had been recruited by the United States to continue her
research, she was doubtful and uncertain of the move. During her interview, Annie mentioned
that her widowed mother and brother encouraged her new journey as an immigrant to the United
States. Proper support given by family members and a support system will help validate an
individual’s aspirations (Yosso, 2005). Similarly, Art highlighted the following, “My parents
kept on encouraging me to do the impossible, which was to write expressively. It was difficult
looking at all the red marks left by my professors on my essays and papers.” Nevertheless, Art
understood and appreciated the many sacrifices his family had experienced to allow him the
opportunity of an American education. Art felt obligated and motivated to sacrifice all that he
possibly could be a better student and person.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

65
A commonality expressed by the participants was the opportunity that their families had
provided them by immigrating to what was viewed as the land of opportunity. What could be
accomplished in the United States was above and beyond what was even imaginable in their
native country. The need to overcome the challenges and demands of academic writing was seen
as a necessary step toward achieving the overall goal of showing gratitude to their families. “My
family did what they needed to provide me with this opportunity; therefore, it is now my turn to
give back to them,” explained Art. Additionally, Sally and Nelly were humbled by the actions of
their family members in getting them to the United States. The participants understood the
necessity to strategize and take the appropriate steps in overcoming academic writing demands.
Yosso (2005) stated that families are significant in the success of the minority student due to
their ability to produce the necessary desire for the students to persevere through the difficult
challenges they encounter (Yosso, 2005). The participants made it apparent that their families
became their driving force toward their achieving goals and succeeding. The final common
theme the participants highlighted in regard to the second research question was the importance
of setting goals.
Goal Setting
Setting goals and striving to reach those goals are an important foundation for achieving
academic success (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011). Despite some of their setbacks, all the
participants set measurable goals that allowed them to navigate the demands of writing. The
participants had specific goals that they aligned for themselves with set target dates to monitor
the progress made in reaching those goals. For example, Annie stated, “My set goals are what
make me more disciplined in my career. My goals are the reason I am where I am today.”
Annie’s experiences of acculturation in the United States and her attempts at building a writing
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

66
identity were evidently more positive than those of the other participants. She stated, “I always
knew my strength in chemistry was above average. I also knew it was not just about knowing the
science but more about being able to write about my passion in chemistry.” Annie discussed the
meetings she planned with tutors at the writing center and the networking she did to really be
able to reach her goals as a researcher. It was critical for Annie to conduct cancer research with
Armenian people. “I wanted to be able to reach out to my community of Armenians through my
research. There were things I wanted to mention regarding my research, but I was not sure how
to mention it in the proper tone.” Annie set a goal to work closely with another researcher who
had been publishing work for several years. They collaborated to accomplish Annie’s goal of
having her research written and completed.
Likewise, Sally talked about her personal goals of “making it in America” and starting a
new life in a new country. Sally explained that it had been really hard for her to make it through
a community college and then transfer into a 4-year university. She was not too confident about
her writing abilities in English and knew that the American culture was going to cause her to
take many detours. Sally remained persistent, and for this reason, she knew that nothing would
stop her from accomplishing her goals. Regardless of all of the challenges that have been
presented to Sally, her goal to transfer to a 4-year college had allowed her to overcome all
barriers. “My goal is to create a better life for my parents, and I will not stop until that goal is
attained. My family has been supportive of my educational goals the entire way.” As Yosso
(2005) highlighted, support from family has the power to overcome all negative impediments
that minority students encounter in the often-prejudiced society in which they reside.
Natasha’s goal was to pass all of her classes and become a physician. “I was just
thinking, oh, I’m stuck with English and stuck with classes that expect me to write a lot. I have
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

67
been planning on becoming a physician since I moved to the United States, and I am just going
to remind myself of that and look forward to that. No matter how hard it is going to be, I am
going to go through the hard times and achieve my goals.” All the participants ultimately
succeeded in reaching their sought-after goals even though they experienced hurdles in the
development of their writing identity. Educational systems are seen as not incorporating and
acknowledging a student’s background or ignore the importance of cultural differences (Scruggs,
2009). However, desires and motivation of the participants to accomplish their set goals
encouraged them to stay persistent in navigating their writing challenges even when they felt
they were lacking a writing identity.
Summary
The participants employed a variety of strategies to navigate the rigors of academic
writing. The participants focused on specific insights, such as seeking help in navigating their
writing identities. Assistance was sought through individualized research, tutors, counselors, and
the watching of American films. Next, the participants’ experiences with academic writing came
about as a sacrifice for their families. The importance of giving back to their family members, for
all they had done for the participants, was an added catalyst of conquering the demands of
academic writing. Finally, the participants set goals that encouraged them to strive for and reach
the finish line. Family members promoted aspirational capital for the participants; in other
words, they encouraged the participants to go beyond their own beliefs and achieve goals despite
their hardships. The support and encouragement the participants received from their parents
formed family capital, which motivated the participants to give back to their families.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

68
Conclusion
Throughout the interviews with the participants in this study, a new understanding of
what academic writing represented arose. Although research has defined academic writing as “an
act of identity,” (Hyland, 2005, p. 1092) conveying disciplinary content that also represents the
writer’s voice, academic writing for the participants was more closely aligned to the process of
learning to write and sound like an American. The factors evident in influencing the participants’
voice in the development of their writing identity included wishing to become English proficient,
overcoming challenges as an immigrant student, and adjusting to academic writing in the United
States. Furthermore, the strategies the participants employed to meet the demands of academic
writing entailed searching for help, sacrificing for their families, and setting attainable goals.
Delgado & Stefancic (2001) highlighted that the “voice of color” seems to have a deeper
understanding of the issues related to academic writing than do their White counterparts. The
participant interviews emphasized the narratives of non-White immigrant students and allowed
the researcher to uncover and understand the influences of a writing identity.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

69
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings
This study addressed the challenges faced by marginalized immigrant Armenian students’
while attempting to find their voice and develop an identity in academic writing. The researcher
was also sought to understand the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of
immigrant Armenian students and how these factors influenced the development of a writing
identity. A writer’s voice has been characterized as being socially and culturally influenced
(Yingli, 2012) and is a written reflection of the writer’s culture (Elbow, 1981). Immigrant
students experience challenges in pinpointing their writing identity, and issues of race and equity
serve as core factors that make this more difficult. Immigrants who experience hardships are
perceived as composing groups of people that are inferior and incompatible and that fail to take
advantage of the equal opportunity available to all citizens (Ngo, 2008). Ngo (2008), Watt, and
Roessingh (2001) stated that immigrants do not in fact have equal access to opportunities in
several aspects of their lives, including education. Bruna and Chamberlin (2008) recognized the
pedagogical gaps between U.S. schools and the needs of immigrant students as a means of
addressing the deficits causing these gaps.
A race issue arises when the marginalized immigrant student population experiences
inequitable writing outcomes compared with their native, predominant student population
(Knaus, 2009). Ivanic (1998) explained that immigrant students find writing difficult because
they do not feel comfortable portraying their identity and self in academic discourse. The
challenges associated with the acculturation process of immigrant students and the
dehumanization of the non-White culture within the education system create challenges for
immigrants to accommodate to English writing in the host country, a skill required to fulfill
academic expectations (Yan & Berliner, 2011). Identifying this problem is important because
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

70
doing so allows the administrators and faculty at community colleges to understand the need to
be more multiculturally conscious (Borjian & Padilla, 2010). Furthermore, awareness of the
problem should help improve immigrant students’ writing success, allowing students to develop
better ways to navigate their voice in academic writing.
The purpose of this study was to illuminate immigrant Armenian students’ voices and to
understand their perspectives and backgrounds in determining how these influence their voice in
the development of a writing identity. This study also examined the experiences of immigrant
Armenian students and the strategies they use to communicate during academic writing in a
primarily White-based curriculum. The research specifically offered Armenian student narratives
about how they, as immigrant Armenian students, overcome the hurdles they encountered with
academic writing. Furthermore, the researcher sought to identify tools that current practitioners
can utilize to help students in the acculturation process and to better students’ writing. Two
research questions guided this study:
1. How do the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian
students influence their voice in the development of writing identity?
2. What strategies do immigrant Armenian students employ at community colleges to
navigate the demands of academic writing?
This study aimed to select individuals who were likely to shed light on the challenges and
experiences of immigrant Armenian students claiming to have struggled with their academic
writing. This purposeful method of selection allowed for the participation of immigrant
Armenian students who would not otherwise have a platform from which they could be heard.
The study also identified immigrant Armenian students who experienced obstacles during the
acculturation process in the host society. In addition, the researcher incorporated the critical race
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

71
theory to highlight counter-storytelling as a method to create meaning, via the provision of a
platform for oppressed voices (Solorzano & Yosso, 2002).
An outline of the findings is detailed in this final chapter. In addition, this chapter will
highlight the implications for practice, including how community college faculty can increase
their knowledge of the effects the acculturation process can have on immigrant students’ writing
identity development. Furthermore, this chapter will touch on how community colleges can
develop workshops in which immigrants would be introduced to the writing style of the
predominant culture. Finally, the study will present implications that could influence future
research, which will be followed by the chapter’s conclusion.
Summary of Findings
The desire to find one’s writing identity and the need to navigate the demands of writing
coupled with the process of acculturating to a new host society are tasks that challenge many
immigrant students. Researchers have highlighted that immigrants do not have equal access to
opportunities in various aspects of their lives, including education, but nonetheless are expected
to succeed academically and resemble the predominant culture (Ngo, 2008). The implementation
of effective practices in education is apparent when school systems explore the various cultural
experiences of students with varying backgrounds. Awareness of these experiences and ease in
the process of acculturation helps build a foundation to improve the cultural pedagogy (Scruggs,
2009).
The study’s participants aligned the challenges of identifying and finding their writing
identity to a number of common themes, which included the constant struggle to become English
proficient and to adjust to the United States writing structure. Four study participants viewed
reaching a goal of English proficiency as an impossible task. Furthermore, the daunting
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

72
undertaking of adjusting to the United States writing styles exasperated the ability for immigrant
students to find their voice or writing identity. When questioned on the strategies that were
employed by immigrant Armenian students to navigate through the demands of academic
writing, the students proclaimed the importance of goal setting and seeking help. As explained
by Zimmerman & Schunk (2011) setting goals and striving to reach those goals was an important
foundation in academic success. Despite the setbacks, the participants found that setting
measurable goals allowed them to navigate through the demands of writing. Moreover, seeking
help was valued as an important strategy toward the immigrant students’ successes of getting
through the demands of writing.
Implications for Practice
Based on the participants’ detailed narratives, there were two implications for practice
that were inherently evident. The first implication is that faculty at community colleges should
become more knowledgeable of the challenges associated with the acculturation of immigrant
students. Faculty can be trained to increase their awareness of the effects these challenges may
pose on immigrant students’ writing identity. This new knowledge will allow for faculty to be
more sensitive to the perspectives and experiences of immigrant students as the students
transition into new societal thinking and adapt to the writing identity of the host society. Second,
immigrant students, with the assistance of community colleges, should increase social capital to
enhance academic writing. An increase and improved social capital are advantageous for
immigrants seeking for assistance when navigating through the demands of writing.
Increase Faculty Knowledge of Acculturation Challenges
An emerging concern that was made evident throughout the interviews was that faculty
members for English courses were not in tune with the challenges that immigrant students face
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

73
while attempting to acculturate to the host society. Knowledgeable faculty, in this realm, is
essential to maintaining positive retention rates, improved learning, and academic progress
among immigrant students (Teranishi, Suárez-Orozco, & Suárez-Orozco, 2011). Despite the
scant extant research on the qualifications of effective faculty members who serve immigrant
students, experts strongly recommend hiring faculty who are equipped at working with
immigrant students (Teranishi, Suárez-Orozco, & Suárez-Orozco, 2011). Faculty knowledge and
engagement concerning the students’ culture and backgrounds could be a catalyst that improves
student academic confidence in classroom participation and writing development.
Community colleges play a major role in the educational pipeline and serve as the
academic point of entry for many immigrants and students of color (Chang, 2005). Cohen and
Brawer (2003) highlighted that community colleges enroll nearly 50 of the most
underrepresented student populations, including African Americans, Indians, and Southwest
Asians. Due to the effect community colleges have on the marginalized student population, it is
critical to provide faculty with the appropriate knowledge concerning immigrants; doing so will
enhance faculty-student interaction. Most immigrants find it foreign to take the initiative to
engage and communicate with their instructors (Rendon, 1994), making it even more vital for
faculty members to actively establish an interactive relationship. The participants were clear in
explaining that they were unfamiliar with the American writing practices and expectations at the
community college level. The faculty at SCC can be trained through specialized courses and
meetings to improve their working knowledge of the challenges their students may be facing,
both in academic learning and in writing. The increase in knowledge and improved faculty-
student connection can help institutions make informed decisions about methods for English
writing instruction.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

74
Mullaly (2002) mentioned that the “myth of opportunity” brings to the surface an
additional insight when we try to understand the mindset of faculty when viewing immigrants.
Immigrants are expected to resemble the predominant culture as they acculturate and adjust to
the identity and the norms of Whiteness in the United States (Ngo, 2008). However, one problem
with this scenario is that fairness is peddled in an unfair society and overlooked are the
advantages or resources not equally available to all individuals (Mullaly, 2002). Immigrants
experience integral rates of poverty and social alienation contradicting the myth of opportunity
(Mullaly, 2002). The immigrant student population, similar to the general immigrant population,
is slow to acculturate and tends to preserve their cultural viewpoints. This results in the
immigrants experiencing disorientation and uncertainty as values conflict with the host society
(Der-Karabetian, 1997). Improved faculty knowledge of the aforementioned challenges faced by
immigrant students while acculturating to societal and educational norms of the predominant
culture can in turn positively influence the instruction of immigrant students.
Social Capital to Enhance Academic Writing
Participants spoke of the importance of seeking help; they identified it as a valued
strategy to navigate the demands of academic writing. They came to understand the need to work
with family members and tutors to be successful in their English courses. With this knowledge,
immigrant students should work to build and improve their social capital to further expand their
network. The increased network would likely provide essential channels of assistance when other
attempts at finding help have been unsuccessful.
Yosso (2005) defined social capital as one’s network and community resources from
which both instrumental and emotional support can be used to navigate society’s institutions.
The attempts to improve one’s social capital, equating to a broader network, can provide
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

75
immigrant students the additional resources needed to navigate the demands of writing.
According to Kao (2004), immigrant students have less access to social capital in comparison
with their native-born counterparts. An understanding of this disadvantage, for the marginalized
immigrant student, increases the importance of improving and expanding the social network
required when seeking help.
Community colleges can create and promote programs and develop initiatives through
which immigrant students can build the social support and networks they desire. “I am always
looking for help,” proclaimed Art when questioned about the strategies he implemented when
seeking his writing identity. Art was able to contact his social network of peers and tutors;
however, community colleges should also provide marginalized students like Art additional
options and suggestions about where to access help. Enhancing social capital and increasing
social support network might lead to the confidence minoritized immigrant students require to
unearth their writing identity.
Recommendations for Research
Having conducted this study and a thorough analysis, I have several recommendations for
future research. First, further research should examine how distinctive English writing
workshops tailored for the immigrant student can play a role in the development of students’
writing identity. The second recommendation for research highlights the need for further analysis
of the role academic self-efficacy plays among immigrant students. The final recommendation
for research could investigate the causes and effects of writing anxiety amongst immigrant
students.
Through the perspective of immigrant Armenian students, this study sought to determine
the challenges students faced when confronted with academic English writing at the community
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

76
college level. With the acquired narratives of marginalized immigrant students, I identified
opportunities and strategies to combat the challenges related to unearthing a writing identity.
Issues centered on acculturation and writing structure are clear obstacles hindering the ability of
immigrant students to excel at academic writing. Although participants stated that help was
readily available, further research could explore the effectiveness of the type of assistance that
was rendered and what other channels of aid could have been provided to the students. An
example would be researching the effectiveness of distinctive writing centers or the addition of
workshops tailored toward immigrant students at community colleges. Introduction of these
workshops or renewed attention to the instruction that existing writing centers provide may offer
more detailed implications of strategies that could assist immigrant students who struggle to find
their voice through their writing.
The unmistakable struggles of immigrant students acculturating to the writing styles of
the host culture and finding their writing identity were identified in the study can be attributed to
multiple factors. The participants highlighted self-confidence as an important psychological tool
to be used when facing difficulty navigating English composition. Further research could take
this psychological approach and attempt to formulate an understanding of the effects of academic
self-efficacy on immigrant community college students. Self-efficacy is defined by Bandura
(1997) as an individual’s belief of the success to achieve at a designated level or accomplish an
academic task. Having an in-depth understanding and knowledge of academic self-efficacy
among immigrant students would help identify strategies to further improve these students’
convictions about success and overall confidence in finding a writing identity.
Along with the importance of understanding self-efficacy, the participants identified the
feeling of discomfort and anxiety when they were tasked with an academic writing assignment.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

77
Horwitz and Young (1991) identified writing anxiety as a feeling of stress or fear that individuals
encounter when asked to write in a second language. The need to conform to the dominant
culture continually clashed with the participants’ desire to preserve their own identity. Therefore,
future researchers could try to determine the causes of writing anxiety among immigrant students
and seek to identify strategies to alleviate this angst.
Conclusion
This study highlighted several findings related to the experiences of immigrant Armenian
students as they navigate the demands of academic writing and search for a writing identity. The
students’ narratives demonstrated that a combination of perspectives, cultural experiences, and
backgrounds influenced the development of their writing identity. The perception of feeling
inferior to the predominant race, the need to preserve one’s cultural identity, and the inability to
freely voice oneself were core factors immigrant Armenian community college students
experienced in the development of an identity and voice in academic writing. In an effort to
employ the necessary strategies to navigate the demands of academic writing, the participants
sought help, reminded themselves that family was the overarching reason to strive for success,
and set goals in an attempt to find their missing voice.
Through this research, two implications for research were revealed. The first emphasized
the necessity to increase faculty knowledge of acculturation challenges. Faculty knowledge
regarding the students’ cultures and backgrounds could prove essential to improved learning and
academic progress among immigrant students (Teranishi, Suárez-Orozco, & Suárez-Orozco,
2011). The second implication for research focused on the use of social capital to enhance
academic writing. Improved social capital expands the network from which a participant can
seek help and provides vital instrumental and emotional support (Yosso, 2005). Furthermore, a
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

78
broad social network including peers, tutors, and specialized programs designed by the
community college can help minoritized immigrant students unearth a writing identity.
With the use of the critical race theory lens, this study aimed to highlight the voices of
immigrant Armenian students. The research identified that immigrants do not possess equal
access to educational opportunities (Watt & Roessingh, 2001); therefore, the counter-storytelling
narratives shed light on how immigrant Armenian students navigated the demands of academic
writing. The stories the participants shared signified the reality that a writer’s voice is
characterized as being socially and culturally influenced (Yingli, 2012) and that a writer’s voice
is a written reflection of the writer’s culture (Elbow, 1981). The research sought to describe the
methods or strategies that immigrant Armenian students utilized to overcome the challenges that
existed in finding a writing voice, all while acculturating to the host country. The researcher
hopes that this study sets the groundwork for future work in identifying how oppressed and
marginalized populations can overcome the challenges of finding a writing identity.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

79
References

Akçam, T. (2012). The Young Turks’ crime against humanity: The Armenian genocide and
ethnic cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
Bakalian, A. (2011). Armenian-Americans: From being to feeling Armenian. New Brunswick:
Transaction.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.

Berry, J. (1997). Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34.
Borjian, A., & Padilla, A. (2010). Voices from Mexico: How American Teachers can Meet the
Needs of Mexican Immigrant Students. The Urban Review, 42(4), 316–328.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-009-0135-0
Bruna, K., & Chamberlin, D. (2008). Illuminated by the Shadow: U.S.-Mexico Schooling and
Pedagogies of Place. Multicultural Perspectives, 10(3), 123–132.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15210960802215458
Chang, J. (2005). Faculty Student Interaction at the Community College: A Focus on Students of
Color. Research in Higher Education, 46(7), 769–802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-
004-6225-7
Chen, C. Y., & Razek, N. A. (2016, April). Acculturation and sense of belonging: Engagement
patterns for Indian graduate students in the United States. In Allied Academies
International Conference. Academy of Educational Leadership. Proceedings (Vol. 21,
No. 1, p. 13). Jordan Whitney Enterprises, Inc.
Cohan, S. (2005). A Brief History of the Armenian Genocide. Social Education, 69(6), 333.
Cohen, A., & Brawer, F. (2003). The American community college (4th ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

80
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (1990). Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and
Evaluative Criteria. Zeitschrift Für Soziologie, 19(6), 418–427.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory
(3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
Conrad, C., Neumann, A., Haworth, J. G., & Scott, P. (1993). Qualitative research in higher
education: Experiencing alternative perspective and approaches. Needham Heights, MA:
Ginn Press.
Conway, K. (2010). Educational Aspirations in an Urban Community College: Differences
between Immigrant and Native Student Groups. Community College Review, 37(3), 209–
242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552109354626
Council of Writing Program Administrators, National Council of Teachers of English, National
Writing Project. (2011). Retrieved from http://wpacouncil.org/files/framework-for-
success-postsecondary-writing.pdf.
Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
Costes, B., & Pungello, E. (2000). Acculturation and Immigrant Children: Implications for
Educators. Social Education, 64(2), 121–125.
Cumming, A. (2013). Multiple Dimensions of Academic Language and Literacy
Development. Language Learning, 63(1), 130–152.
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2014a). Critical race theory: The cutting edge. Philadelphia,
PA: Temple University Press.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

81
Delgado, R. & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: An introduction. New York, NY: New
York University Press.
Delgado, R. (1989). Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea for Narrative.
Michigan Law Review, 87(8), 2411. https://doi.org/10.2307/1289308
Der-Karabetian, A.H. (1977). Ethnic orientation of Armenians in Lebanon. Armenian Review,
30 (2), 164-175.
Ede, L. (1989). Work in progress: A guide to writing and revising. New York, NY: St. Martin’s
Press.
Elbow, P. (1998). Writing with power techniques for mastering the writing process (2nd ed.).
New York: Oxford University Press.
Gee, J.P. (1990). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. London, UK: Falmer
Press.
Gee, J. P. (2001b). Reading as situated language: A sociocognitive perspective. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44, 714-725.
Gann, R., Dean, B., & Marquez, J. (2005). Beyond English hegemony: language, migration and
Appalachian schools. Changing English: Studies in Culture & Education, 12(3), 431- 441
Grieco, E. M., Trevelyan, E., Larsen, L., Acosta, Y. D., Gambino, C., De La Cruz, P., ... &
Walters, N. (2012). The size, place of birth, and geographic distribution of the foreign-
born population in the United States: 1960 to 2010. Population Division Working Paper,
96, 1-37.
Gudykunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y. (2005). Communicating with strangers. An approach to
intercultural communication (4
th
ed.). New York, NY. Mc-Graw-Hill.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

82
Hardy, C., Clughen, L., & Hardy, C. (2012). Writing in the disciplines building supportive
cultures for student writing in UK higher education (1st ed.). Bingley, U.K: Emerald.
Hawkes, L. (2014). The development of the social and academic identities of international
students in English-speaking higher education institutions. York St John University.
School of Foundation and English Language Studies BPP University.
Horwitz, E. K. & Young, D. J. (1991). Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to
Classroom Implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hovannisian, R. (1999). Remembrance and denial: The case of the Armenian genocide.
Detroit, Mich: Wayne State University Press.
Hwang, J., Lawrence, J., Collins, P., & Snow, C. (2017). Vocabulary and Reading
Performances of Redesignated Fluent English Proficient Students. TESOL Quarterly,
51(4), 757–786. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.346
Hyland, K. (2005). Representing readers in writing: Student and expert practices. Linguistics and
Education, 16(4), 363–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2006.05.002
Ivanič, R. (1998). Writing and identity the discoursal construction of identity in academic
writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Jaeger, D. (2008). Green Cards and the Location Choices of Immigrants in the United States,
1971-2000. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1698185126/
Kao, G. (2004). Social Capital and Its Relevance to Minority and Immigrant Populations.
Sociology of Education, 77(2), 172–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070407700204
Knaus, C. (2009). Shut up and Listen: Applied Critical Race Theory in the Classroom. Race,
Ethnicity and Education, 12(2), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320902995426
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

83
Kolb, S. M. (2012). Grounded theory and the constant comparative method: valid
research strategies for educators. Journal of Emerging Trends in Education Research and
Policy Studies, 3, 83-86.
Kroll, B. (1990). Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Kurtz-Costes, B., & Pungello, E. (2000). Acculturation and Immigrant Children: Implications for
Educators. Social Education, 64(2), 121–125.
Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers
College Record, 97(1), 47–68.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is critical race theory and what is it doing in a nice field
like education? International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), 7–24.
doi:10.1080/095183998236863
Ladson-Billings, G.J. (1999). Chapter 7: Preparing Teachers for Diverse Student Populations: A
Critical Race Theory Perspective. Review of Research in Education, 24(1), 211-247.
Lamont, M., & Lareau, A. (1988). Cultural Capital: Allusions, Gaps and Glissandos in Recent
Theoretical Developments. Sociological Theory, 6(2), 153–168.
https://doi.org/10.2307/202113
Ledesma, M.C. & Calderon, D. (2015). Critical race theory in education: A review of past
literature and a look to the future. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 206-222.
Lillis, T. & Scott, M. (2007). Defining Academic Literacies Research: Issues of epistemology,
ideology and strategy. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 4(1), 5–32.
Lunenburg, F., & Irby, B. (2008). Writing a successful thesis or dissertation: Tips and strategies
for students in the social and behavioral sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

84
Mangliitz, E., Guy, T.C., Hunn, L. (2006). Who can speak for whom? Using counter storytelling
to challenge racial hegemony, adult education research conference.
http://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2006/papers/32
Martirosyan, Saxon, Wanjohi (2014). Student satisfaction and academic performance in
Armenian higher education. American International Journal of Contemporary Research.
Vol 4. No. 2
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Merriam, S. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis
(1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S., & Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S.B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
McLaughlin, F., & Moore, M. (2012). Integrating Critical Thinking into the Assessment of
College Writing. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 40(2), 145–Year College,
2012, Vol.40(2), p.145–162.
Milner, H. (2010). Beyond a Test Score: Explaining Opportunity Gaps in Educational Practice.
Journal of Black Studies, 43(6), 693–718.
Mullaly, B. (2002). Challenging oppression: A critical social work approach. Australian
Social Work, 56(2), 177–179. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0312-407X.2003.00073.x
Mogelonsky, M. (1997). Natural(ized) Americans. (increase in numbers) (includes a related
article on Americans who leave the country). American Demographics, 19(3), 45–47+.
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

85
Ngo, B. (2008). Beyond “Culture Clash” Understandings of Immigrant Experiences. Theory
Into Practice, 47(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405840701764656
Pattie, S. (1994). At Home in Diaspora: Armenians in America. Diaspora, 3(2), 185–198.
https://doi.org/10.1353/dsp.1994.0021
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3 ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif:
Sage Publications.
Peters, M. (2015). Why is My Curriculum White? Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(7),
641–646
Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits. (1936). Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation.
American Anthropologist, 38. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1289639216/
Reger, J. (2015). Postcolonialism, acculturation, and the writing center. Young Scholars in
Writing, (6), 39-46.
Rendon, L.I. (1994). Validating culturally diverse students: Toward a new model of learning and
student development. Innovative Higher Education 19(1): 33-51
Robbins, S. (2016). Finding Your Voice as an Academic Writer (and Writing Clearly). Journal
of Social Work Education, 52(2), 133–135.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2016.1151267
Rumbaut, R., & Massey, D. (2013). Immigration & Language Diversity in the United States.

Daedalus, 142(3), 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00224

Schwartz, S., Waterman, A., Umaña-Taylor, A., Lee, R., Kim, S., Vazsonyi, A., … Williams,
M. (2012). Acculturation and Well-Being Among College Students from Immigrant
Families. Journal of Clinical Psychology, n/a–n/a. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp21847
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

86
Sam, D., & Berry, J. (2010). Acculturation: When Individuals and Groups of Different
Cultural Backgrounds Meet. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 472–481.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610373075
Scruggs, A. E. (2009). Colorblindness: The new racism? Teaching Tolerance Vol. 1 Issue 36.
Segal, B. (2014). Teaching English as a second language through rap music: A curriculum for
secondary school students. San Francisco: University of San Francisco.
Solórzano, D. & Yosso, T. (2002). A critical race counter story of race, racism and affirmative
action, Equity and Excellence in Education, 35(2), 155–168.
Solórzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2001). Critical race and LatCrit theory and method:
Counter-storytelling. Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(4), 471–495.
doi:10.1080/09518390110063365
Steinman, L. (2003). Cultural collisions in L2 academic writing. TESL Canada Journal, 20(2),
80-91.
Sultana, F. (2007). Reflexivity, positionality and participatory ethics; Negotiating fieldwork
dilemmas in international research. ACME: An international ER journal for critical
geographies 6(3):374R385.
Swartz, E. (1992). Emancipatory Narratives: Rewriting the Master Script in the School
Curriculum. Journal of Negro Education, 61(3), 341–355.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2295252
Takooshian, H. (1995). Armenian American’s immigration to California.

http://www.dec17.org/armenian-americans.html

Teranishi, R., Suarez-Orozco, C., & Suarez-Orozco, M. (2011). Immigrants in Community
Colleges. Future of Children, 21(1), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2011.0009
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

87
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools . New York:
Falmer Press.
Van de Poel, K., & Gasiorek, J. (2012). Effects of an efficacy-focused approach to academic

writing on students’ perceptions of themselves as writers. Journal of English for

Academic Purposes, 11(4), 294–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2012.07.003

Watt, D., & Roessingh, H. (2001). The Dynamics of ESL Drop-out: "Plus Ca Change.

Canadian Modern Language Review, 58(2), 203–222.

https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.58.2.203
Weiss, R. (1994). Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview

studies. New York: Free Press.

Wisell, T., & Champanier, L. (2010). Community Colleges as critical gateways for immigrant
education. Diversity & Democracy, 13(1), 16-17.
Wellington, J., Bathmaker, A., Hunt, C., McCulloch, G., & Sikes, P. (2005). Succeeding with
Your Doctorate (p. 240). SAGE Publications, Customer Care, 2455 Teller Road,
Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243 (Toll Free); Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-
583-2665 (Toll Free); e-mail: order@sagepub.com.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209977
Yan, K., & Berliner, D. (2011). An Examination of Individual Level Factors in Stress and
Coping Processes: Perspectives of Chinese International Students in the United States.
Journal of College Student Development, 52(5), 523–542. Retrieved from
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_college_student_development/v052/52.5.yan.htm

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

88
Ying, Y. (2003). Academic achievement and quality of overseas study among Taiwanese
students in the United States. College Student Journal, 37(3).
Yingli, W. (2012). A descriptional study on differences in L1 and L2 academic writing.

International Journal of English and Literature Vol. 3(5), 112-116.

Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91. doi:10.1080/1361332052000
341006x\
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). (2011). Educational psychology handbook series.
Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance. New York, NY, US:
Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

89
Appendix A: Student Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
1. How do the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian
students influence their voice in the development of writing identity?
2. What strategies do immigrant Armenian students employ at community colleges to
navigate the demands of academic writing?
Introduction: I would like to start off by saying thank you for agreeing to this interview and I
very much appreciate your time. I am a current student at USC and since I have worked with
immigrant Armenian students for several years, I would like to know more about your past
writing experiences in your past college English classes. The purpose of the interview is for my
dissertation. The data I collect from our interview will not be shared with anyone else with your
name or the institutions names. The information you share with me today will be kept
confidential. Do you have any questions for me about the study before we begin the interview
process?
Recorder Instructions: During the interview process, I will ask questions that will help
illuminate your writing experiences in college to assist me in understanding the possible answers
to these questions. With your given permission, I will tape record our conversation. The purpose
of the tape recorder is for me to capture all the details in our conversation. If you choose to
decline being tape recorded, I will just take notes of our interaction. If at any point during the
interview you request that I stop tape recording, you can ask me to stop recording. If at any time
there are questions you wish not to respond to, you are free not to answer them. If you wish to
end the interview at any point in time, please let me know and we will stop the interview. I will
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

90
begin with asking some basic questions, feel free to ask me to skip a question, or stop the
recording. Is that okay with you?
1. How do you identify your gender?
2. How many languages do you speak?
3. How would you identify your race?
4. How much English do your parents speak?
5. What year in college are you?
6. How many years have you been in the United States?
7. Can you name the English courses you have been enrolled in?
8. Based upon your current/past college experience what does it mean to be English
proficient?
9. What writing skills did you have that you think helped you succeed in your English
courses?
10. Which writing skill do you wish were more developed for you that you think would have
made it easier for you to succeed in your English courses?
11. [Potential Follow-Up Question] Can you tell me more about that? Why do you think
these skills would have been more helpful?
12. In what ways do you think these skills may be different because you are Armenian?
13. [Potential Follow-Up Probing Question If the Answer is unclear] Can you walk me
through a time when you realized that?
14. Based on your comments about your writing skills, do you feel you have had a voice in
your writing?
IMMIGRANT ARMENIAN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC WRITING

91
15. [Potential Follow-Up Probing Question If the Answer is Unclear] What do you think
would have helped you develop your writing identity or that voice?
16. In what ways do you think your academic writing impacted your actions and decisions in
college?
17. Do you feel you had to change your classes, study habits?
18. Describe a time you were really stressed with your writing. What skills did you use to
complete your writing assignment?
19. Describe a time when you were stuck navigating your voice while you were completing a
writing assignment. Who or what helped you overcome that struggle?
20. When your writing became difficult at school, how did you handle your workload?
21. If you had to adjust the community colleges writing system, how would you adjust it to
help incoming immigrants to succeed in writing?
22. What are your future hopes for incoming immigrant students in English courses?
23. What kept you motivated to proceed through the challenges of academic writing?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Using a critical race theory lens, this research study sought to understand the perspectives, cultural experiences, and backgrounds of immigrant Armenian students and the way in which these factors influenced their voice through the development of a writing identity. The purpose of this study is to illuminate the silenced voices of the marginalized and underserved immigrant Armenian student population as they searched for a writing identity and looked to further their educational aspirations. The research questions helped to understand how the various experiences had an influence on the students’ writing identity and how the minoritized students employed strategies while navigating through the demands of academic writing. Semi-structured interviews were utilized to promote a counter-storytelling approach where participants provided rich data about their authentic experiences. ❧ The findings from the study disclosed that the participants struggled to write for an academic audience with consideration to their cultural backgrounds and past experiences. Despite being educated in their country of origin and having completed the necessary courses to enroll in regular English classes, the participants did not feel that their writing identity ever fully flourished. Findings from the research make suggestions in ways which practitioners and researchers can enhance writing identity amongst immigrant students in community colleges.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

A critical worldview: understanding identity and sense of belonging of underrepresented students' participation in study abroad

PDF

Grinding harder than a molcajete: a qualitative study of Latina charter school principals

PDF

Equity and access for veteran's students in the California community colleges

PDF

And still we rise: examining the strengths of first-generation college students

PDF

College-educated immigrants' experiences in adult education career technical education programs

PDF

Assessing the impact of the Puente Project on Latino males in California community colleges

PDF

Big dreams: a multi-case examination of institutional support for DACA students in California community colleges

PDF

The impact of teacher perceptions about underrepresented students

PDF

The beauty of resilience: an examination of how continuation high school students overcome daily adversities

PDF

Do the perceptions of the usefulness of academic support services influence ethnically diverse students' help-seeking attitudes and behaviors?

PDF

Student support professionals: drivers of community cultural wealth aligned practices through support programs for first-generation college students of color amidst institutional shortcomings

PDF

Teachers’ experiences and preparedness to teach in an inclusive environment

PDF

College academic readiness and English placement

PDF

Differentiated culturally relevant curriculum to affirm identity for gifted African American students

PDF

""Having the right info"": College readiness as college knowledge among minoritized students in an urban education setting

PDF

African-American/Black students’ experience and achievement in asynchronous online learning environments at a community college

PDF

Concurrent enrollment in English support classes for community college students

PDF

Latino/a college student-athletes: Influences on recruitment, enrollment and degree completion

PDF

Closing the achievement gap for marginalized students using the college-going culture: a promising practices study

PDF

Educational experiences and psychosocial well-being of newcomer Afghan refugee students in California community colleges

Asset Metadata

Creator Keshishian, Narineh Natalie (author)

Core Title Unearthing the silenced voice: immigrant Armenian students’ cultural influences, experiences, and perceptions in navigating a writing identity

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/14/2019

Defense Date 05/08/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Armenian,community college,cultural influence,immigrant,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions,Writing

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hinga, Briana (committee chair)

Creator Email keshishiannatalie31@yahoo.com,narinehk@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-212711

Unique identifier UC11663012

Identifier etd-Keshishian-7773.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-212711 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Keshishian-7773.pdf

Dmrecord 212711

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Keshishian, Narineh Natalie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA