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Hail to the chief: an exploration of female chief executives’ successes

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Hail to the chief: an exploration of female chief executives’ successes

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Content Hail to the Chief: An Exploration of Female Chief Executives’ Successes by Danette Nelson Rossier School of Education University of Southern California A dissertation submitted to the faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education May, 2021 © Copyright by Danette Nelson 2021 All Rights Reserved The Committee for Danette Nelson certifies the approval of this Dissertation Jennifer Phillips Themistocles Sparangis Helena Seli, Committee Chair Rossier School of Education University of Southern California 2021 iv Abstract Women over 45 are under-represented in chief executive positions, also known as the C-suite, in for-profit corporate America. The purpose of this study was to explore the individual, organizational and societal influences that have enabled female professionals over 45 to obtain and maintain positions commensurate with their experience and ability despite their disadvantaged age and gender. All participants reported having encountered organizational and external barriers as well as gender and age bias throughout their careers. Mentorship and a push for diversity were cited as facilitating the participants’ successes. The most common advice the study participants offered aspiring female chief executives was to take risks and persevere, along with developing expertise in their profession. Document analysis indicated there may be a correlation between state mandated pro-female legislation and the percentage of women in chief executive roles. Recommendations for practice were proposed for both organizations and women aspiring to achieve chief executive roles. Organizational recommendations were made in order to identify bias and create an equitable environment for all employees. Recommendations for aspiring female leaders were proposed to facilitate successful achievement of an executive leadership role outside of organizational support. Further research is needed to determine where such a link exists, as the potential benefits for organizations, women, and society are tremendous. v Acknowledgements First and foremost, I give my undying gratitude to Dr. Helena Seli, for whom without I would still be formalizing my problem of practice. Having Dr. Seli as a committee chair included the experience of the dynamic duo of Dr. Seli and Dr. Jennifer Phillips, who provided regular monthly meetings to keep us on track, answered our never-ending questions, and injected a lot of levity into our stressed-out writing process. Words can not express my gratitude to both of them. I would especially like to thank Dr. Themistocles Sparangis, who agreed to join my committee when I needed a last-minute change. As my first instructor of the OCL program, Dr. Sparangis helped change my mindset from assuming to discovering. That was an extremely difficult change to make and I am forever grateful to Dr. Sparangis for helping me do so. Next, I want to thank my fellow cohort members for their shoulders to cry on, words of encouragement, and great class discussions. Specifically, I would like to thank Lisa Bagby for being an excellent sounding board and responding to my texts even into the wee hours of the morning; Jessica Walter, who was such a rock-star throughout this process and made sure to reach out every time she hit a dissertation milestone so that I would not fall too far behind; and Kim Crawford, who got me out of the house and into the beautiful daylight with walks along the ocean cliffs discussing our dissertation writing woes. I would also like to thank Dr. Eric Canny, who provided so many words of wisdom and encouragement throughout the Rossier OCL program. And finally, my deepest appreciation goes to the chief executive women who volunteered their precious time to complete my survey and share their intimate experiences. I am extremely grateful to the women who also volunteered for interviews. These incredible women shared their emotional life journeys, including tears and hearty laughs with their wisdom. vi Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1 Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 2 Stakeholder Group of Focus ............................................................................................... 3 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .................................................................... 4 Overview of Conceptual and Methodological Framework ................................................. 4 Definitions........................................................................................................................... 5 Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 6 Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 7 Profile of the C-suite ........................................................................................................... 7 Gender Bias ....................................................................................................................... 10 Ageism .............................................................................................................................. 15 Utilizing Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework with Positionality Theory to Analyze Influences Related to Achieving a C-suite Role ..................................... 18 Female Executives’ Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences .................. 20 Conceptual Framework: Utilizing Gap Analysis to Navigate Challenges and Analyze Influences Related to Achieving a C-suite Role ................................................... 30 Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 33 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 33 Overview of Methodology ................................................................................................ 33 vii Data Collection, Instrumentation, Analysis Plan and Participating Stakeholders ............ 35 Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 47 Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 47 Research Question 1: What are the Organizational and other External Influences that have both Facilitated and Hindered the Female Chief Executives’ Ability to Achieve and Maintain their C-suite Roles? .......................................................... 50 Research Question 2: What are the Common Self-Reported Personality Traits Female Chief Executives Attribute to their Successful Achievement of C-suite Positions? ............................................................................................................................... 59 Research Question 3: What are the Strategic Knowledge and Motivational Factors that Enable Female Chief Executives over 45 to Navigate Challenges Imposed by External and Organizational Factors in Order to Achieve and Maintain C-suite Roles? .................................................................................................................... 65 Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion......................................................................... 79 References ..................................................................................................................................... 92 Appendix A: Survey Protocol ..................................................................................................... 113 Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 118 Appendix C: Artifact Analysis Protocol .................................................................................... 121 Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Research .............................................................. 122 Appendix E: Demographic Data of Study Stakeholders ............................................................ 125 Appendix F: Demographics of Fortune 1000 Companies by U.S. Jurisdiction.......................... 127 Appendix G: List of Advice as Given by Study Participants .................................................... 129 viii List of Tables Table 1: Organizational and External Influences………………………………………………...24 Table 2: Knowledge Influences……………………..…………………………………………...27 Table 3: Motivation Influences…………………………………………………………………..30 Table 4: Data Sources…………………………………………………………………………....35 Table 5: Interview Participant Background Data………………………………………………..49 Table 6: Survey Participants Affected by Organizational Bias………………………………….51 Table 7: Top Ten U.S. Jurisdictions with Fortune 1000 Companies………………….................58 Table 8: Self-Reported Beneficial Personality Traits ………………………................................62 Table 9: Self-Reported Detrimental Personality Traits……………………….............................65 Table 10: Strategies Used to Overcome Obstacles………………………....................................73 Table 11: Advice Offered by Current to Aspiring Female Chief Executives ................................76 ix List of Figures Figure 1: Conceptual Framework: Achieving and Maintaining a C-Suite Position……………..30 1 Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice There is an underrepresentation of women over 45 in chief executive positions, also known as the C-suite, in for profit corporate America. While the chances of being born female are roughly 50% (Weisskopf, 2004), the likelihood of a woman achieving a C-suite position is roughly half of that (Kaplan & Stevenson, 2019). According to a 2014 PEW Research Center Study, 80% of the general population felt women were equally capable of leading organizations as men but felt those running the organizations were not ready to commit to achieving that diversity (Pew Research Center, 2015). As of 2019, women held only 6% of all CEO positions in for-profit companies in the United States (Korn Ferry, 2019), up from 5% in 2018 (Carpenter, 2017), yet accounted for 47% of the workforce (United States Department of Labor, 2011). For those women who are successful, it takes them considerably longer to achieve C-suite roles as their male counterparts. On average, men are promoted to an executive role after working in their profession for an average of 15 years, while it takes women an average of 23 years (Dillard & Lipschitz, 2014). It is at this point in their careers that women start experiencing ageism (Marcus, 2019). Women start experiencing ageism earlier than men, and as they age are perceived as less competent and judged more harshly (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Lipnic, 2018). Given the extended period of time it takes women to achieve executive positions, ageism can make achieving and maintaining a C-suite position even more difficult (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman & Haynes, 2005). Background of the Problem Women occupying the C-suite is relatively new in US history. While there have been outstanding women throughout history breaking barriers, lack of access to higher education (National Center for Education Statistics, 1993) and discriminatory employment practices 2 (Lipnic, 2018; Way, 2018) kept most women from competing for high paying, high status professional positions until the passage of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 (United States Department of Justice, 2015). And while legislation legally opened up opportunities for women, the shift in society has been a work in progress. Throughout history, women have been treated differently than men through traditions, religions, and socialization (Jackson, 1998). These historical patterns have caused both genders to develop divergent gender identities as well as biases of what to expect from the opposite gender (Jackson, 1998). Behavioral differences between women and men in the workplace are fundamentally indistinguishable, yet women are paid less, do not get promoted as often, and are unable to obtain chief executive positions in the same proportions as men (Turban et al., 2017). This implies that the differences between the genders and their ability to lead organizations are purely perceptions, which tends to lead to discrimination against women in the workplace (Turban et al., 2017). This discrimination has kept women from earning the same wages and achieving the same status as their male counterparts (Jackson, 1998; Van der Horst et al., 2017). However, even with legal protections, women are still experiencing issues related to gender bias. The literature related to this problem falls into two distinct categories: gender bias and ageism. Both are explored in detail as part of the literature review in Chapter 2. Importance of the Study While there are plenty of studies regarding gender bias (Eagly et al., 2000; Eklund et al., 2017; Glick et al., 2000; Levesque, 2011; Ridgeway, 2001; Van der Horst et al., 2017) and others regarding ageism (DeNisco Rayome, 2017; Folz, 2017; North & Fisk, 2012; Jaffe, 2018; Lublin, 2017), there is little literature addressing both the gender bias and age discrimination that occur towards women who are attempting to achieve chief executive leadership positions. Multiple 3 studies have demonstrated that having women leaders increases a company’s profitability for a variety of reasons (Dalal, 2018; Gosselin, 2018; Kochhar et al., 2017; Marcus, 2019). When women lead organizations, businesses benefit in the long run through increased profitability, wage equality, and diverse employees (Kochhar et al., 2017; Lippe Davis, 2018; Sherwin, 2014). In addition, having a cognitively diverse workforce, as happens when multiple generations work together, can help advance innovation and increase performance overall (Bersin & Chamorro- Premuzic, 2019). The hiring and retention of experienced female chief executives has a positive impact on corporate planning, as well as attracting other women to the organization and helping diminish the poverty gap experienced by elderly women (Dalal, 2018; Marcus, 2019). Gender inequality is a reliable indicator of income inequality (Kochhar et al., 2017) and income inequality is directly linked to health and life expectancy (Kahn et al., 2000; Kawachi et al., 1999). As women age, they tend to be targeted for both their age and gender, often leading to early retirement (Lipnic, 2018; McLaughlin, 2018). While women have historically lived longer lives than men, in recent years, women are living with more financial difficulties and health issues than men which can be attributed to reduced years in the workforce (Scommegna, 2019). Stakeholder Group of Focus In order to gain the most insight into the key stakeholder group of women over 45, this study focused on women over 45 who have achieved and maintained chief executive positions within successful for-profit US corporations. Fortune magazine’s published 1000 top companies, the Fortune 1000 list (Fortune Magazine, 2020), and Fortune magazine’s 2019 most powerful women list (Fortune Magazine, 2019) were used to gather potential participants in the study. These sources were used because the lists rank the most profitable organizations and women in 4 the United States, which this author assumes constitutes successful. Only women who occupy one of the traditional C-suite roles of CEO, CFO, or COO were contacted because these titles are consistently used across all organizations on the list (Fortune Magazine, 2020). Purpose of the Study and Research Questions The purpose of this study was to explore the individual, organizational and societal influences that have enabled female professionals over 45 to obtain and maintain positions commensurate with their experience and ability despite their disadvantaged age and gender. The scope of this study did not attempt to gain understanding of, or stop, gender and age bias, but to uncover common personality traits and strategies employed by women who have successfully navigated their way through these challenges. The research questions guiding this study were the following: 1. What are the organizational and other external influences, such as legislation, that have both facilitated or hindered the female chief executives’ ability to achieve and maintain their C-suite roles? 2. What are the common self-reported personality traits female chief executives contribute to their successful achievement of C-suite positions? 3. What are the strategic knowledge and motivational factors that enable female chief executives over 45 to navigate challenges imposed by external and organizational factors in order to achieve and maintain a C-suite role? Overview of Conceptual and Methodological Framework A gap analysis framework was used to explore the influences that enable women over 45 to achieve and maintain chief executive roles. Gap analysis was chosen due to its cyclical systematic approach to analyzing current performance against a desired performance goal, which 5 enables one to identify gaps, implement strategies and evaluate results against the performance goal (Clark, 2002). In this study, the gap analytic framework was adapted to study assets rather than gaps. The gap analysis framework examined three key concepts: knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors, or KMO (Clark, 2002). This study explored female chief executives’ knowledge, motivation, and external and organizational influences via mixed methods consisting of a survey, interviews, and artifact analysis. Definitions The key terms related to this study are listed below. ADEA: The Age Discrimination Act of 1967, which prohibits any type of employment discrimination based on a person’s age, applying to those aged 40 and older. Ageism: The discrimination against a person due to their age. (North & Fiske, 2012). Capacity: The ability to flourish within a certain time and context (James, 2015). Corporate America: A phrase used to describe both public and private for-profit businesses that operate in the United States (Adcock, 2019). C-suite: A term used to describe those in the uppermost group of executives within an organization, such as Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer, and Chief Operating Officer (Hader, 2010). Gender Bias: Explicit or implicit bias towards one gender over the other (Bohnet et al., 2016) Gender Roles: Expected behaviors associated with a particular gender (Eagly et al., 2000; Levesque, 2011; Ridgeway, 2001). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act: This amendment of Civil Rights Act of 1964 makes illegal the act of discriminatory employment practices due to gender (United States Department of Justice, 2018). 6 Title IX of the education Amendments of 1972: This amendment prohibits any higher institution who receives federal funding, or funding from all the people, from discriminating against some of the people in a manner that would cause differential treatment and impact, or retaliation (United States Department of Justice, 2015). Organization of the Dissertation This dissertation is separated into five chapters. Chapter One provides an introduction and overview of the problem, including an overview of the framework, methodology and key concept definitions. Chapter Two is comprised of an expanded literature review and conceptual framework. Chapter Three introduces the study, including methodology, research questions, a brief background of the researcher, data sources, and the limitations to the scope of study and the identified delimitations. Chapter Four presents the findings of the study. Chapter Five reviews the findings, presents recommendations, limitations, and suggested areas for further research. 7 Chapter Two: Literature Review There are a few recurring themes in literature that were explored in this literature review, namely that women are not promoted to chief executive positions as often as men (Ibarra et al., 2013), women’s behavior is judged more harshly than men when exhibiting traditionally male behaviors in the workplace, such as aggression and confidence (Andrews, 2016; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman & Hays, 2005; Ridgeway, 2001), and as women age, they are pushed out of their positions and experience more difficulty finding new positions (Lipnic, 2018; Marcec, 2018; Neumark et al., 2017). The literature review begins with a general outline of C-suite positions, and then explores the different barriers women face when trying to gain access to them. The second half of this review delves into the concept of gap analysis using the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences’ framework followed by the overall conceptual framework. This study focused on literature relating to women who chose to pursue chief executive roles and did not cover women who chose not to pursue them or decided to leave the workforce. Profile of the C-suite The C-suite represents the senior most positions of an organization an employee can occupy, the chief executive positions. A wide range of C-suite positions exist depending on the organization, from chief executive officer to chief cultural officer, however, this study focuses only on the three traditional C-suite positions found in all large for-profit corporations: chief executive officer, chief financial officer, and chief operating officer. Technical skills and expertise are usually required for an individual to rise through an organization, those who achieve C-suite positions usually do so by demonstrating strong leadership and social skills (Frangos, 2017; Groysbert et al., 2001; Hader, 2010). Women make up roughly 50% of the 8 workforce, yet a large gap remains in their representation in upper management (Gaines-Ross, 2015; Gates, 2019; Holmes, 2019). While a review of available research shows that companies benefit by having women in chief leadership positions, the number of women in C-suite positions lags behind the number of men (Blumberg, 2018; Holmes, 2019; Marcec, 2018b; Trehan, 2019). Advances Towards Gender Equality Women have made significant advances to achieve gender equality since the beginning of the 20 th century. At the beginning of the 20 th century, 75% of employed women worked as farming and domestic servants, with the only professional roles available to women being teaching and nursing (Caplow et al., 2001). At the end of World War II, three million women lost their jobs as a result of soldiers returning home (Women’s Bureau, 1946). The Women’s Bureau (1946) recorded that out of every 100 women working, 84% were the heads of their households while at the same time facing a scarcity of jobs, and age and wage discrimination. By the end of the century, women made up approximately 50% of management positions, but men still outnumbered women in executive leadership (Caplow et al., 2001; Pew Research Center, 2018). Lack of female executive leadership was so pervasive that in 1990 the United States Department of Labor formed a task force called The United States Federal Glass Ceiling Commission to study organizational barriers qualified women face due to gender bias (Cornell University ILR School, 2008). Until 1996, there had never been a female CEO on the Fortune 500 list (Pew Research Center, 2018). As of 2020, white males accounted for 72% of the Fortune 500 companies’ executive leadership team (Fortune Magazine, 2020; Jones, 2017). From 2013 through 2016, the percentage of female CEOs increased a mere 1.9% to 5.6% (Marcec, 2018a), with 2017 reaching 9 the historical apex of 6.4% (Carpenter, 2017). However, by 2018, the number of women in these roles started to decline, with only 4.8% of women occupying CEO positions (Pew Research Center, 2018). Data show that the men who occupy C-suite positions do so earlier in their careers than women (Naijipoor-Schuette & Patton, 2018). The average age range of all CEOs is between 45 and 65 (Naijipoor-Schuette & Patton, 2018) with men achieving this position 15 years into their careers as opposed to 23 years for women (Dillard & Lipschitz, 2014). Of the women who do achieve a C-suite position, the majority work in the financial industry, at 31%, although only 5% of women occupy the role of CEO (Korn Ferry, 2019). A History of Advancements for Gender Equity While laws and societal mores worked to oppress women in leadership, there have been trailblazers throughout history who have helped break the opposition women face. Before 1860, women did not have the right to own land, earn wages, obtain custody of their children, or attend college (Library of Congress, n.d.). In 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott launched the Women’s Rights Convention which lead to the passing of reform laws in 1860, giving women the right to gain custody of their children, own property and participate in business transactions (Library of Congress, n.d.). In 1864, Lucretia Mott co-founded Swarthmore College which was one of the earliest co-educational colleges (Swarthmore College, 2019) where Alice Paul graduated, who went on to introduce the first version of The Equal Rights Amendment in 1923 (Alice Paul Institute, 2018). The Equal Rights Amendment, which took 50 years to pass Congress, never reached sufficient ratification, although it spawned multiple federal antidiscrimination laws giving women equal rights (Library of Congress, n.d.). The work of these early trailblazers opened the door for women in business. In 1889, Anna Bissell became the first female CEO in the United States, after taking over the Bissell 10 carpet cleaning empire upon the death of her husband (Much, 2018). Anna Bissell was one of the first business owners to prioritize her employees over profits by providing workers compensation and pension plans (Carpenter, 2017; Gu, 2017). In 1972, Katharine Graham of the Washington Post was promoted to CEO, eventually becoming the first female CEO of a Fortune 500 company in 1996 (Carpenter, 2017; Zweigenhaft & Domhoff, 2011). Graham was also the force behind publishing the Pentagon Papers, leading to the resignation of President Nixon (Zweigenhaf & Domhoff, 2011). In 2009, the first female to female CEO succession occurred at Xerox, which also ushered in the first black female CEO, Ursula Burns, to lead a Fortune 500 company in US history (Carpenter, 2017; Floyd, 2016). In recent history, government legislation has been designed to ease discrimination against women, such as The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.). The Equal Pay Act of 1963 prohibits wage discrimination based on gender, closing a loophole in the 14 th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, ratified in 1868. The 14 th Amendment, which grants citizenship and therefore equal protections under the law to all who were born or naturalized in the United States (Library of Congress, n.d.), except for woman (Kaplan & Hamati-Ataya, 2014). In 2018, the state of California enacted first of its kind legislation with a law requiring public companies headquartered in California to have at least one woman on their board of directors. Companies with five member boards are required to have two women, and boards with six or more directors must have at least three women. Ninety percent of public companies were compliant by the end of 2019 (Groves, 2019). Gender Bias Within the United States, there is a long history of gender bias when it comes to executive leadership leading to gender inequity (Glick et al., 2000). Some researchers argue that 11 gender is extremely important due to gender role identities and the psycho-social expectations of that identity (Eagly et al., 2000; Eklund et al., 2017). Gender roles refer to the social expectations of emotions, attitudes, and behaviors associated with their particular gender identity (Eagly et al., 2000; Eklund et al., 2017; Levesque, 2011; Ridgeway, 2001; Van der Horst et al., 2017). Through the interactions of children with their communities, it is thought that children learn their expected gender roles, thereby shaping their behaviors as they mature into adulthood (Eklund et al., 2017; Eagly et al., 2000). However, contradicting research maintains that societal expectations enforce people to conform to their perceived gender identity (Eagly et al., 2000). Women have been historically perceived as emotional, while men are considered more stable and therefore taken more seriously (Samulowitz et al., 2018; Van der Horst et al., 2017). Shared cultural beliefs of a population foster the behavior between the sexes, creating the stereotypes assigned to men and women (Biddle, 2018; Eagly et al., 2000). Typecasting of Women As of 2017, the Pew Research Center survey found that Americans are still somewhat divided on whether gender traits are determined by biology or society (Parker et al., 2017). Women advance to mid-management roles more quickly than men, but it appears their career trajectories stall due to both external and internal biases against women’s ability to lead an organization (Lublin, 2017; Ossola, 2019). Recurring stereotypes in literature fill a spectrum from the negative, such as women are too emotional, to the positive sounding notion that women are better caregivers (Glick et al., 2004; Ridgeway, 2001). There is a body of existing literature that details why women do not want to go into leadership. According to some research, women are not ambitious (Gino & Wood Brooks, 2015; 12 Janzen, 2018), see leadership roles as an extra burden (Janzen, 2018) and do not want to have to choose work over their children (Jaffe, 2018; Janzen, 2018). Other sources say women do not want the added stress and choose to avoid situations where they’ll receive negative feedback (Chakraborty & Serra, 2018; Jaffe, 2018). A few researchers were confident that women follow a pattern of choosing relationships over power (Chakraborty & Serra, 2018; Gino & Wood Brooks, 2015; Kramer & Harris, 2019) with the assumption that they would have to become more masculine and aggressive to succeed, and need to distance themselves from other women (Kramer & Harris, 2019). The bottom line for this body of work is that women do not see themselves as leaders (Chakraborty & Serra, 2018; Jaffe, 2018; Janzen, 2018; Kramer & Harris, 2019; KPMG, 2015). On the opposite end of the spectrum are the stereotypes promoting reasons why women as a whole make better leaders than men. There is a large body of work that suggests women are actually better leaders because they are nurturing, humane, and humble (Chin, 2019; Faccio et al., 2012; Ridgeway, 2001; Saint-Michel, 2018; Zenger & Folkman, 2012). Female chief executives are thought to value relationships more than men and are considered to possess a natural ability of making everyone feel valued (Chin, 2019; Dalal, 2018; Hyder, 2019). Supposedly, women naturally possess the skills of persuasion and negotiation, empathetic listening, and are intuitive (Chin, 2019; Dalal, 2018; Hyder, 2019). All stereotyping, whether well-meaning or not, perpetuates traditional gender roles and leads to societal pressures and expectations for each gender to conform to their role (Ridgeway, 2001). Women Held to a Different Set of Standards Women leaders are confronted with different expectations than men (Andrews, 2016; Pew Research Center, 2015; Zheng et al., 2018). Women are expected to maintain a pleasant 13 appearance, control any aggressive behaviors, and be concerned for others (Doyle, 2020; Ezzedeen et al., 2015; Pew Research Center, 2015; Wolf, 2014; Zheng et al., 2018). However, women displaying these traditional feminine behaviors within an organization are not taken seriously and therefore not considered for leadership roles (Ezzedeen et al., 2015; Chamorro- Premuzic, 2019). When women display behaviors that are traditionally associated with men, such as dominance and control, they are described as hostile or too aggressive (Doyle, 2020; Ezzedeen et al., 2015; Ridgeway, 2001; Saint-Michel, 2018; Zheng et al., 2018), as experienced by Carly Fiorina, former CEO of HP, “…from the time I arrived until long after I left HP, I was routinely referred to as either a “bimbo” or a “bitch”— too soft or too hard…” (Zheng et al., 2018, p. 1). Within a group of men and women with similar backgrounds, men are more often rewarded with leadership positions than women (Badura et al., 2018; Chamorro-Premuzic, 2019; Gruber et al., 2018). Badura et al. (2018) found that the organizational setting was the largest indicator of which gender rose to the top. In their study, Badura et al. (2018) discovered that the gender gap was larger in traditionally male dominated environments, such as a science lab, or when time restraints were an issue. Women are evaluated more harshly when their positions do not match their gender stereotypes (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2019; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Gruber et al., 2018; Sabharwal, 2013). Women are more likely to be seen as responsible for failures, while men are more likely to be seen as responsible for successes once they hit the executive level of leadership (Sabharwal, 2013). In addition to being expected to behave in a particular manner associated with their gender, women are often judged more critically for their appearance (Gruber et al., 2018; Ossola, 2019; Wolf, 2014). A study in Germany showed that women with higher attractiveness are 14 considered more competent than women who are not, while a man’s attractiveness does not have as much of an impact (Gruber et al., 2018). When a woman’s performance was judged by her peers, those deemed attractive were given higher ratings regardless of actual results (Gruber et al., 2018). For women, unlike men, being overweight more oftentimes than not, means being hidden from public facing positions, passed over for promotions, and receiving less pay (Marcus, 2019; Wolf, 2014). In-Group Favoritism There are many theories in literature as to what may be causing this effect. In addition to the ideas presented above, there is an additional common theme, the pipeline theory. The theory holds that as more women enter management, more women will eventually rise to the ranks of executive leadership (Ezzedeen et al., 2015; Kroeber et al., 2019). However, the number of women in middle management over the last 30 years has been equivalent, if not more, than the number of men, and yet the number of women in executive leadership has not reached the same representation (Eagly et al., 2000; Ezzedeen et al., 2015; Fernandez & Rubineau, 2019; Glass & Cook, 2015; Kroeber et al., 2019; Saharwal, 2013). Qualified women are plentiful, so the lack of women in chief executive positions must be attributable to other causes. One theory to explain the majority of men in the C-suite is that companies minimize risk by restricting executive leadership access from those who are different from the current company demographics, i.e., not white men (Ezzedeen et al., 2015). This is a form of in-group favoritism, which is the desire to hire others who exhibit the same traits as those making the choice (Glass & Cook, 2016). Some research suggests that this type of favoritism is an inadvertent byproduct of using employee referrals and social networking as recruitment tools, based on the assumption that the fewer number of women in executive positions results in fewer referrals (Fernandez & 15 Rubineau, 2019). In-group favoritism was found to be one of the main causes of age discrimination (McNamara et al., 2016). For example, as the older worker ages, they no longer resemble the majority, or the in-group, and become the “other”, who then are perceived differently (McNamara et al., 2016). As the “other”, they are considered as having negative attributes, which impacts their job stability (Grant, 2011; McNamara et al., 2016). Ageism The 2017 SHR Foundation Thought Leaders Solutions Forum on Harnessing the Power of a Multigenerational Workforce found that many employers are gravitating away from older more experienced workers towards younger workers, with the perception that younger workers will be more energetic (DeNisco Rayome, 2017; Folz, 2017). The Forum revealed that there are four basic myths about age differences in workers: 1) younger people perform better, 2) it is too expensive to employ experienced employees, 3) leaders are making age diversity a high priority, and 4) older people are taking jobs from younger ones (DeNisco Rayome, 2017; Folz, 2017). The Forum revealed that only 64% of companies have diversity and inclusion awareness programs in place, and only 8% of them include ageism (DeNisco Rayome, 2017; Folz, 2017). The Forum also agreed that while younger people have a higher ability to process information quickly, older people have a higher ability to recognize patterns and make quicker decisions based on their wisdom and experience (Folz, 2017). Recently, a new trend has emerged wherein age is being perceived as a disability (North & Fisk, 2012). The suggestion is that as people age, they not only begin to accept the stereotypes of the aged but begin to act them out as well (North & Fiske, 2012). The implications are that it is the fault of the aging person for being discriminated against. Recent research, however, shows 16 that a lack of support, lack of confidence, and hostile work environments are the real culprit to women backing down from leadership opportunities (Jaffe, 2018; Lublin, 2017). Gender Impact on Effects of Ageism Studies conducted on age discrimination have found that older women are discriminated more than men in general and across all ages (Lipnic, 2018; Neumark et al., 2017). From 2007 to 2012, the unemployment rates for older workers, increased from 20% to 50%, with older women remaining unemployed almost twice as long as older men (Lipnic, 2018; Neumark et al., 2017). The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) reported that from 1990 to 2017 there was a 15% increase in age discrimination cases from women and a 18% decrease from men (Lipnic, 2018). The EEOC also found that age discrimination laws had a beneficial effect for men, but was only marginally beneficial for women (Lipnic, 2018). Women experience a unique type of discrimination, which targets them for being both female and old, called intersectional discrimination (Lipnic, 2018; McLaughlin, 2018). The EEOC found that women start experiencing age discrimination at the age of 50, a full 15 years earlier than men (Lipnic, 2017). Due to this intersectionality, women have a harder time protecting themselves from this gendered discrimination due to the practice of the Supreme Court blocking defendants from claiming both ADEA and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act violations within the same court case (Lipnic, 2018; McLaughlin, 2018). Given that age discrimination laws benefit men far more than they benefit women, a change is needed to combine both age and sex discrimination laws in order to combat this issue (Lipnic, 2018; McLaughlin, 2018). Women over the age of 50 comprise the fastest growing sector of consumer spending in the United States (Lippe Davis, 2018) while gender inequality correlates to a decrease in the 17 variety of consumer goods targeted towards the aging female population (Kochhar et al., 2017). Retaining aging women in leadership positions can provide invaluable insight for marketing to this growing demographic (Marcus, 2019). A study of 13,000 organizations covering 70 countries, conducted from 1991 through 2017, found an increase in gender equity has a positive increase in the economy (International Labour Organization, 2019). The turning point for increased profitability appears to be when women occupy 30% of senior executive positions (International Labour Organization, 2019). Having immediate access to a variety of perspectives, whether they be male or female, young or old, can be very beneficial when it comes to strategic planning, and subsequently attracting high performing talent (Dalal, 2018; International Labour Organization, 2019; Kochhar et al., 2017; Marcus, 2019). Necessity of Women Retaining Employment Hiring and retaining experienced female chief executives benefits corporate planning, attracts other women to the organization, and helps diminish the poverty gap experienced by elderly women (Dalal, 2018; Marcus, 2019). Gender inequality is a reliable indicator of income inequality (Kochhar et al., 2017). This is an important aspect to address given that women have reported either feeling coerced or forced into retirement starting in their early 50s (Gosselin, 2018; Marcus, 2019). Studies also show that age discrimination is more prevalent for women seeking employment than men (Neumark et al., 2015). When people over the age of 50 leave their executive positions, roughly 10% find comparable positions, leaving many to work multiple part-time jobs to cover lost wages (Marcus, 2019). While increasing profitability is an important argument for achieving gender equity in the C-suite, retaining older female chief executives is important for the well-being of both women and our society. In 2017, an analysis of the U.S. Census Bureau’s official report was conducted 18 for estimates of poverty under both poverty measures for adults ages 65 and older, based on data for 2017 and three-year averages of 2015 to 2017 (Cubanski et al., 2018). The data revealed that 7.2 million, or the equivalent of 14.1%, of adults the ages of 65 and older are living in poverty and that the rates of living below the poverty line are higher for women (Cubankski et al., 2018). This results in 4.2 million older women living in poverty compared to 2.7 million men, and almost half of older women, 46.5%, have incomes 200% below the poverty level of $23,512 as of 2017 (Cubankski et al., 2018). Understanding the factors that have both enabled and hindered other women over 45 to achieve and maintain their positions is crucial to not only the women who are struggling, but to society as a whole, as supporting impoverished senior citizens becomes a civic issue. Utilizing Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework with Positionality Theory to Analyze Influences Related to Achieving a C-suite Role This study used Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis as a framework to explore female executive leadership strategies to achieve and maintain C-suite roles. Gap analysis is a cyclical systematic process to analyze deficiencies and determine what changes are necessary to increase performance (Clark, 2002). Per Clark and Estes (2002), there are three main categories of performance gaps: knowledge (K), motivation (M), and organizational or external influences (O), that comprise the KMO framework. Organizational and external influences are those forces outside of the stakeholders’ control that impede their performance (Clark, 2002). Internal influences, or those that a person has control over, are motivation and knowledge (Clark, 2002) which are directly influenced by organizational and external factors (Zak, 2017). The concept of gap analysis is to identify a goal, conduct an analysis of the current status, use the KMO 19 framework to assess what needs to change in order to achieve those goals, and then assess the situation again to see if any gaps still exist. This study was designed to explore the influences that have both helped and hindered successful female chief executives in achieving their career goals, specifically their knowledge and motivation used to navigate organizational and external influences, via mixed methods consisting of surveys, interviews and artifact analysis. Particular focus was given to the female chief executives’ knowledge, or metacognitive aspects, and what role they played into their success. This study explores what contributed to women executives’ self-efficacy, with the assumption that in order to persist in these leadership roles, they must have sufficient self- efficacy. Organizational and external factors such as state and federal legislation, corporate affirmative action and mentoring programs, retirement policies, and internal hiring and promotion policies were reviewed as to whether they have either facilitated or impeded the female executives’ ability to achieve a chief executive role. While the literature reviewed demonstrated there were many organizational factors that create barriers to women’s success, there exist many successful women whose knowledge and motivation can be studied for influences that impact stakeholder capacity, factors which are under their control, as well as identify organizational influences that appear to be beneficial to their success. In order to begin a gap analysis, one needs to understand their positionality within the organization. Given that leadership styles are not gender specific (Kezar & Lester, 2010; Ridgeway, 2001), this is an important first step of the process. Positionality theory posits that identities exist across a spectrum and are influenced by external factors such as social, political, gender, and sexuality (Kezar & Lester, 2010). To begin to analyze knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences one experiences in the workplace, one needs to understand how their 20 identity affects their thought processes and how that can potentially bias their perceptions (Kezar & Lester, 2010). As a person engages in social interactions, their positionality may change (Kezar & Lester, 2010). This is an important concept that fits well with gap analysis. As women use gap analysis to help strategize the advancement of their careers, the process will more than likely cause a shift in their positionality and the same knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences will affect them differently. Female Executives’ Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences According to Clark and Estes (2008), the three main causes of gaps in performance are organizational and external barriers, motivation, and knowledge influences. For this study, the assumption was that the stakeholders already possess the necessary declarative and procedural knowledge, as well as leadership skills, to earn and maintain a chief executive role. This study was an exploration of potential strategic knowledge that can be used by the stakeholders to navigate the challenges they face while pursuing C-suite roles within their organizations. This section dissects several influences in each category that affect the stakeholder. Organizational and External Influences Organizational and external influences have a significant impact on women’s ability to advance to and maintain chief executive roles. While knowledge and motivation are key to the success of a woman’s advancement to the C-suite, the organization is the framework of the path to success. This framework is made up of the organizational and external settings and organizational and external models (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The model refers to the implicit influences such as the shared values and behaviors of those in the organization, and both the collective and external culture of its people, while the setting refers to explicit influences such as defined operational structures and practices (Schein, 2010). 21 Organizational Culture An organization’s culture is a byproduct of its employees (Bureau for Employers’ Activities, 2017; Schein, 2010). Culture is born out of the artifacts, values and assumed values of the people who work within an organization and can vary from department to department (Schein, 2010). Artifacts are the factors that can be easily surmised by a person from outside of the organization (Schein, 2010). These are the physical environment, employee interactions and behaviors, and the organization’s published mission and vision (Schein, 2010). Each individual employee’s values also shape the culture of the organization and include the employee’s thought processes and attitudes (Schein, 2010). If a majority of employees share the same values, then the organization’s culture will ultimately reflect those values (Schein, 2010). Employees’ assumed values, or biases, especially those in leadership positions, have a large impact on their organization’s culture. Those in decision making roles may not be aware of their biases but express them in their decision making, culminating in a biased organizational culture (Bureau for Employers’ Activities, 2017; Schein, 2010). Research shows unacknowledged biases cause miscommunication, devaluing employees, and reduced motivation (Kezar & Lester, 2018; Zak, 2017). A culture of gender and age bias is common in organizations and difficult to prevent (Bureau for Employers’ Activities, 2017). The most common areas where biases have a large effect on the careers of women are performance evaluations, pay, project assignments, promotional opportunities (Bureau for Employers’ Activities, 2017), and recruiting (Bureau for Employers’ Activities, 2017; DeNisco Rayome, 2017). The United Nations Development Program found that worldwide, 53% of men and 43% of women believe men make better leaders than women (UN Women, 2020). Organizational biases keep women from opportunities for 22 training and advancing their careers (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Ivona & Ferris, 2016). When chief executives depart their companies, many recruiters attempt to replace them with someone of a comparable background through networking and enticing experienced employees away from other organizations (Charan, 2016; Stamarksi & Son Hing, 2015). Given that women are underrepresented in chief executive roles, they will naturally be underrepresented in potential candidate pools to fill vacant positions when using this approach. Organizational recruiting, hiring, and advancement practices related to diversity and inclusion help foster a safe environment for women (Jain-Link et al., 2020), however, organizations that market themselves as diverse and inclusive often fall short when examined for age discrimination (DeNisco Rayome, 2017; North & Fisk, 2012; Ossala, 2019). For example, Facebook, which has a female CEO and is lauded for their diversity and inclusion programs, has faced multiple class action suits regarding the lack of visibility of their job postings to workers over 40 (DeNisco Rayome, 2017). With data collection capabilities, job ads and postings can be targeted to specific demographics, which results in behind the scenes discrimination and biased internal hiring practices. In order to mitigate biases, companies need to actively incorporate age diversity and inclusion measures within their employment practices. For women over 45 seeking executive leadership roles, the organization’s culture can either create a barrier or clear a path to that position. Company cultures that value the knowledge and advanced skills an older, more experienced employee can provide will see value in filling executive positions with older employees. For company cultures that value youth, older workers may not have access to executive positions, which is a common occurrence in the technology industry (DeNisco Rayome, 2017). It is imperative that women over 45 acknowledge their 23 organization’s barriers so they can strategically position themselves. This study examined the common barriers faced by successful executive women and their strategies to overcome them. External Influences Gender equality is a critical component of economic growth (World Bank Group, 2019). While women have many legal protections regarding discrimination, the law does not always support a woman’s ability to work. Often the onus to care for family members falls on women. The federal Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which allows for both parents to take time off to care for family members, only applies to those who work for businesses that employ over 50 employees, and only if that person has worked 1240 hours over the course of a year (United States Department of Labor, n.d.). Disparate state policies regarding parental leave contribute to this gendered responsibility. As of 2020, only four states have laws in place that allow leave for both fathers and mothers (Milkman & Applebaum, 2011). This study explores how state and federal level legislation related to gender discrimination have impacted opportunities available to women. While laws can mandate that women are installed into executive branches and require reporting of diversity measures, these measures are not necessarily aligned to an organization’s culture. Throughout recent history, an effort to combat discrimination has been made by both federal and state governments by enacting legislation to improve corporate governance (116 th Congress of the United States, 2019; Harvard Law School, 2019). Beginning in 1943, when the government encouraged businesses to pay men and women equally (Women’s Bureau, 1946) to the most recent developments by the SEC requiring diversity disclosures (Harvard Law School, 2019) and the Improving Corporate Governance Through Diversity Act of 2019 (116 th Congress of the United States, 2019), the government has been attempting to enforce a culture of diversity. 24 However, traditions and social expectations of gender roles affect not only career opportunities available to women, but also the choices women themselves make (Charles et al., 2018; England et al., 2020; Levesque, 2011). Research has found that local discriminatory practices impact not only career opportunities available to women, but her beliefs about gender roles as well. However, changing geographical locations can diminish this impact (Charles et al., 2018), again stirring the debate about whether gender roles are learned or enforced by society. This study examines how societal perceptions of male versus female behavior affected opportunities offered to the participants in this study as well as the career choices they have had to make based on societal perceptions about gender roles. Table 1 shows a summary of the organizational factors that affect women’s ability to advance within an organization. Table 1 Organizational and External Influences Influence Category Influences Cultural Model Influence 1 Organizational values and beliefs about aging and gender impact older women’s employment and promotional opportunities. Cultural Setting Influence 1 Organizational recruiting, hiring, and advancement practices related to diversity and inclusion can facilitate or impede an older woman’s ability to advance to a C- suite position. External Influence 1 Governmental policies related to gender discrimination can impact opportunities available to women. 25 Knowledge Influences Since every organizational environment is different due to the emergent properties of culture (Schein, 2010), the stakeholder group needs to learn how to be successful within a particular organizational environment. For the purposes of this study, it was assumed that the stakeholder group already possesses leadership skills and the procedural knowledge necessary to perform their chosen chief executive position. The knowledge this study attempted to discover was the strategic knowledge of how best to navigate the unique challenges encountered by women pursuing a C-suite role, or simply put, strategic knowledge. Strategic knowledge is a high-level knowledge utilizing metacognition and conditional knowledge to determine the best course of action (Gruber, 2013). Metacognitive Knowledge Metacognitive knowledge refers to a person’s beliefs about themselves in relation to others, tasks, and their environment (Flavell, 1979). It is important for communication, self- instruction, self-control and problem solving (Flavell, 1979). Metacognition is comprised of self- reflection, self-regulation and self-awareness (Flavell, 1979; National Research Council et al., 2000; Schraw & Dennison, 1994), which acts as a feedback loop to further develop metacognitive development (Bandura, 2012). This continual process occurs while learning and performing tasks (Borkowski, 1996) and develops slowly over time (Schunk, 2019). Stakeholders can utilize the feedback loops of metacognition to develop and assess their effectiveness in pursuing their goal of a chief executive position. Metacognition allows a person to make judgements about the difficulty of learning something new, one’s confidence ability to learn, and determine their perceived level of comprehension, which leads to self-regulation (Borkowski, 1996). Self-regulation allows a 26 person to adjust and develop their strategies by assessing changing demands prior to engaging in the activity (Borkowski, 1996; Schunk, 2019), which is an essential skill of a chief executive leader. This study explored the commonalities in strategic knowledge exhibited by women who have demonstrated successful ascension to the C-suite. Conditional Knowledge Conditional knowledge is understanding of when and why to use a particular skill or strategy in environments and situations outside of the context in which it was learned (National Research Council et al., 2000; Schunk, 2019). Conditional knowledge is an important facet of self-regulation (Schunk, 2019) as it provides the ability to gauge the effectiveness of a strategy in advance. For this study’s stakeholders, successful achievement of a C-suite role required not only their leadership skills and metacognitive knowledge, but also possessing the ability to quickly assess appropriate strategies depending on the challenges they face while navigating their organizations. For women aspiring to be chief executives of their organization, the metacognitive process will help her develop a strategic plan to use within her organizational culture, monitor her progress, self-correct any strategies that are not helping her ascension through the organization, and evaluate her own progress throughout her career. Table 2 presents the corresponding knowledge influences and types. 27 Table 2 Knowledge Influences Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Ability to change strategies as demands and requirements change while pursuing a chief executive position. Metacognitive Ability to assess potential strategies in varying contextual situations. Conditional Motivational Influences People have an inherent desire to be effective that compels them to act, sustain their efforts, and determine the extent of effort required (Clark & Estes, 2008) which forms the basis of motivation. Lack of motivation is often the greatest barrier to achieving success (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation results from experience and interactions with others and their environment and one’s beliefs about themselves (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation can be broken down into three manifest behaviors: 1) active choice, which is the choice to pursue a goal, 2) persistence in pursuing a goal when faced with obstacles, and 3) the mental effort one exerts to finding solutions to achieve their goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). As Bandura (1977) noted, mental states are important to the learning process. This study specifically explored the mental states that contributed to successful female chief executives’ motivation in terms of expectancy outcome and self-efficacy, with the assumption that in order to persist in achieving leadership roles in spite of pronounced barriers, women must have sufficient motivation. 28 Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy plays a key part in personal development, the ability to adapt to a changing environment, and the ability to identify and make necessary changes to achieve goals (Bandura, 2012). Specifically, self-efficacy affects a person’s belief that they are capable and effective within their careers (Bandura, 2012) and impacts their strategic thinking, setting goals, and the course of action chosen to achieve them (Bandura, 2000). Self-efficacy is shaped through one’s lived experiences of successes and failures, experiences related to expended effort of each, and positive or negative reinforcement received (Schunk, 1991), which makes a high level of self- efficacy crucial for women pursuing a C-suite position in light of the extra challenges they face. Roughly as many women as men begin their careers with the expectation and desire to achieve an executive role, however, many decide the extra burdens placed on them as women are insurmountable (Jaffe, 2018; Jagannathan, 2019). Women are less likely than men to have a clear idea of how to achieve a C-suite role as men (Jagannathan, 2019), however, the foundation of self-efficacy asserts that one has some control over shaping events and ultimately their success through their behavior, interpersonal influence and their environment (Bandura, 2012). A large number of women beginning their careers end up feeling there are unseen barriers holding them back (Andrews, 2016; Pew Research Center, 2015; Zheng et al., 2018). Women with perceived deficiencies in their self-efficacy are likely to view any further effort made in pursuit of a chief executive role as futile while women with elevated self-efficacy will continue their efforts, believing in their ability to find ways to navigate around obstacles (Bandura, 2012). Perceived efficacy has a direct impact on outcome expectations (Bandura, 2012). 29 Outcome Expectancy Outcome expectancy is the belief that one’s efforts will bring desired success (Clark & Estes, 2008) and a that one is capable of achieving their goals (Ambrose et al., 2010), thereby becoming a motivational force. A person needs to believe that their effort will pay off in order to decide to allocate their efforts to a goal, while perceived efficacy plays a direct role in coping skills and the ability to adapt to changes (Bandura, 2000, 2012). For women over 45 who experience multiple barriers to entry into the C-suite, it is crucial they believe their ability to succeed in order to persevere in challenging environments. Outcome expectations determine women’s chosen course of action to achieve their goals (Bandura, 2002). A person needs to believe that goal attainment is possible in tandem with their belief that they are capable of successfully performing their roles (Ambrose et al., 2010; Bandura, 2012). This study explored the levels of self-efficacy and outcome expectations of women who have demonstrated success in achieving and maintaining chief executive roles. Table 3 presents the two key takeaway motivational influences that are explored in their impact on women’s career path towards a chief executive role. 30 Table 3 Motivation Influences Motivation Construct Motivation Influence Self-Efficacy Women’s belief in their capability to achieve a chief executive role within an organization promotes sustained motivation to work around barriers when encountered. Expectancy Outcome Women’s belief that should they perform as expected and demonstrate necessary skillsets; they can expect to be hired for and maintain a chief executive position. Conceptual Framework: Utilizing Gap Analysis to Navigate Challenges and Analyze Influences Related to Achieving a C-suite Role The conceptual framework of gap analysis enables the study of women over 45 to gain insight into their progress and develop strategies to achieve and maintain chief executive positions within their organization despite their disadvantageous gender and age. When women enter hostile organizational environments, they need to utilize strategic knowledge and motivation to overcome organizational and external challenges in order to reach their goals. This section presents a conceptual framework of this process to help the reader gain understanding of the study. Goals can be used as a guide to determine an appropriate course of action determined by situational analysis. Goals shift over time depending on how we frame prior performance in relation to current performance status (Lewis, 2019). There is a constant cycle of interaction 31 between organizational and external factors with women’s increasing strategic knowledge and levels of motivation. As presented in the literature review, as a woman advances in her career towards a chief executive position, she can encounter extraordinary obstacles due to her gender and age. The combination of KMO influences have a direct impact on a woman’s success. Some organizational and external factors may help a woman excel while others create setbacks. Following a systematic approach to evaluate current performance achievements against the ultimate goal of achieving and maintaining a C-suite position can help women identify and implement potential solutions and provide tools to evaluate the corresponding results against goals. This cycle should continue over the course of a woman’s career to not only achieve her goal but evaluate her performance in order to remain successful within the role by neutralizing oppressive organizational influences (Ambrose et al., 2010; Bandura, 2012; Clark & Estes, 2008; National Research Council et al., 2000). Figure 1 provides a visual conceptual framework of the organizational, external and knowledge influences affecting an older woman's ability to achieve and maintain a chief leadership position. 32 Figure 1 Conceptual Framework: Achieving and Maintaining a C-suite Position 33 Chapter Three: Methodology The purpose of this study was to ascertain the strategic knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors common among successful chief executive women over the age of 45. The data collected from this study has the potential to provide key insights to other women at the beginning or middle of their careers, seeking to reach a chief executive position. This chapter begins with a presentation of the research questions guiding the study, followed by an overview of the data collection methodology. The next section presents an in-depth analysis of the data collection methods used. The final section of this chapter examines the responsibility of the researcher and limitations and delimitation of the study. Research Questions 1. What are the organizational and other external influences, such as legislation, that have both facilitated or hindered the female chief executives’ ability to achieve and maintain their C-suite roles? 2. What are the common self-reported personality traits female chief executives contribute to their successful achievement of C-suite positions? 3. What are the strategic knowledge and motivational factors that enable female chief executives over 45 to navigate challenges imposed by external and organizational factors in order to achieve and maintain a C-suite role? Overview of Methodology A case study of successful female executives was performed using a mixed methods participatory-social justice design (Creswell & Creswell, 2017) to give a voice to the stakeholders who have successfully navigated the challenges women face, and use their knowledge and experience to help women over 45 pursuing a C-suite position to gain strategic 34 knowledge. Data was collected from a purposeful sample consisting of female chief executives of successful for-profit U.S. corporations. Fortune magazine’s published 1000 top companies, the Fortune 1000 list (Fortune Magazine, 2020) and Fortune magazine’s 2019 most powerful women list (Fortune Magazine, 2019) were used to recruit potential participants for the study. These sources were chosen because the lists ranks the most profitable organizations and powerful women in the United States, which this author assumes is an indication of success. Only women who occupy one of the traditional C-suite roles of CEO, CFO, or COO were contacted, because these titles are consistently used across all organizations on the list (Fortune Magazine, 2020). An explanatory sequential mixed methods study design (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016), employing three data collection methods, was used. An initial quantitative survey was sent to all the women on the Fortune 1000 list (Fortune Magazine, 2020) and the Most Power Women list (Fortune Magazine, 2019) in order to collect as much data as possible in a short amount of time. The survey was also used as a recruiting tool for those who wished to volunteer for an interview. Qualitative interviews followed in order to gain an in-depth look at challenges women face and the strategies successful chief executives have used to navigate them. Finally, qualitative data collection in the form of artifact analysis was conducted to examine organizational and external policies in order to frame the responses of the participant. Table 4 provides an overview of data collection sources and their corresponding questions. 35 Table 4 Data Sources Study Questions Survey Interview Artifact Analysis 1. What are the organizational and other external influences, such as legislation, that have both facilitated or hindered the female chief executives’ ability to achieve and maintain their C-suite roles? X X X 2. What are the common self-reported personality traits female chief executives contribute to their successful achievement of C-suite positions? X X 3. What are the strategic knowledge and motivational factors that enable female chief executives over 45 to navigate challenges imposed by external and organizational factors in order to achieve and maintain a C-suite role? X X Data Collection, Instrumentation, Analysis Plan and Participating Stakeholders This study used an explanatory sequential data collection method using a purposeful sample (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016) of women who have been successful at navigating organizations to achieve chief executive roles. An initial survey was utilized to collect data and recruit interview volunteers. One on one interviews were conducted to collect qualitative information about knowledge and motivational strategies used by the participants in their own voice. Artifact analysis was conducted to determine the organizational and external influences affecting the interviewees. 36 Survey Quantitative surveys were used initially to collect quantitative data and recruit volunteers for one-on-one interviews. The survey technique was chosen because of its effectiveness to gather as much information as possible in a short amount of time as well as a to serve as a recruiting tool for interview participants. The survey was accessible through an emailed invitation. The invitation included a link to the Qualtrics platform, which was chosen for its ability to provide anonymous participant identities and responses. Participating Stakeholders A purposeful sample (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016) of women who occupy chief executive positions within successful for-profit US corporations was used in order to gain the most insight into the key stakeholder group. Fortune magazine’s published 1000 top companies, the Fortune 1000 list (Fortune Magazine, 2020), and Fortune magazine’s 2019 most powerful women list (Fortune Magazine, 2019) were used to gather names of potential participants. Contact information for all women holding the role of CEO, CFO, and COO was collected along with the names of their respective companies. Survey invitations were emailed to all names collected, and interviews were conducted with the volunteers from those who completed the survey. The age of the participant was not used as a determining factor of eligibility to participate in the survey, as it would be very difficult to ascertain the age of a potential participant and women of all ages who have achieved a chief executive role have the potential to provide insights helpful to the study. Biological gender was not a determining factor of this study as anyone who presents as a woman will encounter the same bias and challenges as a biologically determined woman. The researcher assumed that anyone appearing as a woman who pursued and achieved a chief executive position has the potential to provide valuable information to the study. 37 Instrumentation A short anonymous survey was used to collect quantitative data using the online survey tool Qualtrics. Qualtrics was chosen for its ability to capture anonymous responses. Maintaining anonymity was assumed to help generate participation responses by mitigating potential feelings of invasion of participant privacy due to the sensitive nature of the questions (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). The length of time to complete the survey averaged about 10 minutes. A short survey was used to counteract potential survey fatigue, which results in the participant abandoning the survey before completion (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Both open and closed-ended questions were utilized in order to gather the most diverse responses, as each type of question can yield entirely different responses (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Closed-ended multiple-choice questions were used at the beginning of the survey to determine the participants’ level of motivation, metacognition, and experience along with their perceptions of the level of organizational support they have received. The answers to these questions provided the opportunity to make a quick comparison across all respondents, in which common patterns linking levels of knowledge, motivation and organizational factors became apparent. Open-ended questions were kept simple to minimize the mental effort of the respondent in processing the prompt. While closed-ended questions could have provided quicker responses, due to the exploratory nature of the study, using only closed-ended questions would have limited the potential responses (Robinson & Leonard, 2019), while the purpose of the study was to determine common responses. Data Collection Procedures Survey invitations were emailed to the names of all women holding the role of CEO, CFO, and COO. The initial email invitation and subsequent reminder emails were sent on 38 Tuesdays at 10am for total period of 30 days. This day and time choice was chosen based on the research conducted by major marketing platforms that determined this is the optimum time to send solicitation emails (CoSchedule, 2018). When a respondent completed their survey, Qualtrics recorded the information and provided a visual comparative analysis across all respondent answers. This was helpful in determining emerging patterns. At the completion of the survey, all participants were invited to participate in an interview via a link in Qualtrics that was not connected to their interview responses. Volunteer participant information was collected on a Google doc, at an external location. The complete survey protocol can be located in Appendix A. Data Analysis The analysis plan followed generally accepted analysis guidelines (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) in order to derive meaning from the collected data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data analysis commenced with responses gathered from the quantitative surveys. Survey responses were assigned codes corresponding to the participants knowledge, motivation, and both organizational and external influences, using Excel as a tool to record, store, code, and sort the findings, identifying both expected and surprising results. Codes were assigned for the following: 1) participants’ geographical regions, which were used to determine external factors, 2) participants’ positions and titles within the organization to track anomalies in expected percentages of women occupying the traditionally low female occupied positions of CEO and COO versus the higher percentages of women who occupy the CFO position, and 3) open-ended question responses were given arbitrary codes to determine the most common response themes emerging from the data, using the same codes for responses collected from the qualitative interviews. Responses from the survey were used to determine needed additional open-ended questions during the interviews (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Descriptive statistic tools were 39 used to analyze results of the survey (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Data was reported in both narrative and visual forms, including tables, figures, and graphs. Validity, Reliability, Credibility, and Trustworthiness The survey was used to gather both quantitative data and qualitative themes. With quantitative data, the validity and reliability of the data presented can be an issue. Validity and reliability refer to consistency and stability of research results over time and the accuracy of the results in representing the population (Bashir et al., 2008). External validity threats are the errors the research makes when drawing conclusions about the data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). An internal validity threat existed for this study in the potential for the researcher to apply conclusions from that data to all women (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To mitigate this threat, the researcher attempted to restrict conclusions to women executives only. Peer debriefing, the use of another person not connected to the study to review study procedures and interpretations, was also be utilized to ensure validity of the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Internal validity threats were posed through the participant experience, in the form of procedures and treatments, that had the potential to affect the researcher’s ability interpret the data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To maintain credible and reliable responses, the same survey questions were presented to all participants. Given the survey also included qualitative data collection, credibility concerns could have arisen (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The open-ended questions of the survey posed both credibility and trustworthiness issues. To derive accurate findings from the survey responses, the final coding parameters were determined based on the overall study responses received before coding was started (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, pp. 199-202). Field notes precise, detailed descriptions, interview transcripts provided verbatim participant responses, and participant 40 review was utilized at the end of each interview to ensure the accuracy of interviewer’s synthesis of themes (Bashir et al., 2008). The multiple collection methods of this study allowed for triangulation of data to ensure credible and trustworthy results (Bashir et al., 2008). All emerging themes were presented regardless of results that may prove contradictory to researcher expectations. Interview After each survey was completed, participants were invited to participate in an interview. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using open-ended questions to gather qualitative information about the participants’ knowledge, motivation, and both organizational and external influences during their careers, captured in their own voice. The duration of the interviews were between 30 and 60 minutes, using a list of open-ended questions and conversational prompts. At the termination of each interview, the interviewer synthesized her perception of themes and strategies discovered and repeated them back to the interviewee to review for accuracy and allow for additional comments. Participating Stakeholders A purposeful sample (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016) of women over 45 who occupy chief executive positions within successful for-profit US corporations was used in order to gain the most insight into the key stakeholder group. Biological gender was not a determining factor for the interview, as anyone who presents as a woman will encounter the same bias and challenges as a biologically determined woman. The researcher assumed that anyone appearing as a woman who pursued and achieved a chief executive position has the potential to provide valuable information to the study. After completing an initial survey, interviews were conducted utilizing the volunteers collected after completion of the survey. 41 Instrumentation Qualitative one-on-one interviews based on the concept of narrative inquiry (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) were conducted. This method was chosen to explore the experience of the participant in her own words, which has the potential to contribute to analytical strategies for women embarking on the same career path. The last question of the survey provided participants a link to an unconnected external Google Form to collect contact information for those who wished to participate in an interview. Interview participants were contacted using their preferred means of contact. Interviews were scheduled at a time convenient to the participant and conducted remotely via Zoom due to COVID-19, a highly contagious viral outbreak that caused people all over the world to refrain from in-person meetings. The Zoom platform was selected for its ability to minimize geographical obstacles, while also providing transcripts, video and voice recordings of the interview itself, as well as providing the participant the ability to anonymize their identity. For those participants who choose not to anonymize their identity, all identifying information was scrubbed from the transcripts before the data was saved to the researcher’s storage media. Audio and video recordings were only made with the explicit permission of the participant after verbally reviewing the informed consent policies from the researcher. None of the participants declined the option to have a recording made of the interview. All recordings, whether digital or audio, were destroyed once they were no longer needed for the purposes of this study. Data Collection Procedures The data collected included personal histories, thoughts, perceptions and experiences of the participant using a semi-structured format of 16 open-ended questions to determine background, levels of metacognition and motivation of the participant, as well as any special 42 organizational or external influences not covered in the initial survey. The detailed interview protocol is presented in Appendix B. The researcher asked semi-structured questions, allowing for long, elaborate responses from the participant. The participants were prompted for additional information if the responses were limited or short. In addition to collecting participant responses, the researcher took notes based on observations made during the interview. Data Analysis The analysis plan followed generally accepted analysis guidelines (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 197). The one-on-one interviews provided qualitative data for this study. Interview transcripts were hand coded to identify common themes in participant responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 20216), using Excel as a tool to record, store, code, and sort the findings, identifying both the expected and surprising. Transcripts of the interviews and interviewer’s notes were used to code the data. Data analysis commenced with responses gathered from the quantitative survey. Using the same codes applied to responses from the survey, codes were assigned corresponding to the participants knowledge, motivation, and both organizational and external influences for the following: 1) participants’ geographical regions, which were used to determine external factors, 2) participants’ position and title within the organization to track anomalies in expected percentages of women occupying the traditionally low female occupied positions of CEO and COO versus the higher percentages of women who occupy the CFO position, and 3) open-ended question responses to determine the most common response themes emerging from the data, using the same codes used for responses collected from the surveys. Credibility and Trustworthiness To maintain credible and trustworthy research findings, credibility of the data was verified through member checking, in which the researcher summarized the participants’ 43 responses back to the them (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), the same predetermined interview questions were presented to all participants, and the final coding parameters was determined based on the responses received, before coding was started (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). All emerging themes were presented regardless of whether the results proved contradictory to researcher expectations. The data collected for this study included personal histories, which were validated through triangulation techniques (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) of an audit trail, and multiple methods of collecting data by using interviews and publicly available information such as company biographies and SEC databases (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 2020). Peer examination of transcripts and conclusions were employed to ensure credibility (Bashir et al., 2008). Artifact Analysis The final method of data collection was the use of artifact analysis of the interview participants’ organizations that ran in conjunction with the survey and interview. Artifact analysis is the use of materials and documents related to the study subject to gain a deeper understanding (Given, 2008). A review of corporate documents for this study provided some context for the organizational influences. The researcher reviewed participant provided documents such as hiring policies, stated anti-harassment policies, and the participants’ corporate websites to gather participant biographies, corporate mission statements, and geographical locations. The researcher used the geographical locations to analyze state and local government policies regarding gender and age discrimination to provide external and societal influences on the study participants. 44 Data Collection Procedures As potential interview participants volunteered for an interview, a search of their state and local government legislation was used to determine the external influences, as well as a review of their corporate websites and LinkedIn company profiles, followed by participant provided documentation relating to organizational influences. The document search scope was utilized to examine documentation for influences relating to affirmative action policies, hiring and promotional policies, and any public records pertaining to lawsuits or settlements involving gender relations and age discrimination. The detailed artifact analysis protocol is presented in Appendix C. Data Analysis The use of both public and private organizational documents and artifacts, in addition to the survey and interview responses, provided insight into how successful women over 45 were able to adapt their knowledge and skills to their particular organizational and external circumstances. These documents and artifacts also served to provide the foundation in which to analyze participants’ perceptions of their experiences within the organization to ensure factual reporting of participant responses (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). The same coding as used in the survey and interview analysis corresponding to the participants knowledge, motivation, and both organizational and external influences, was applied in the document analysis. The results were coded in Excel with the qualitative themes and quantitative data of the survey and interview results in order to compare and contrast the data. Ethics and Role of Researcher First and foremost, the role of the researcher is to act as the primary data collection instrument (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 205; Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). It is incumbent of the 45 researcher to contribute positively to the research study by representing facts accurately, maintaining professional, non-leading interactions with the study participants, and presenting unbiased results (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Ethical challenges had the potential to occur throughout the course of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher outlined the methodology, research questions and data collection plans in advance for submission to the Institutional Review Board for approval, which was established to protect human study subjects (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). During the course of the study, the researcher reviewed the study’s purpose and data use with each potential participant, via a landing page for the online survey and verbally during the one-on-one remote interviews, stating that participation was voluntary and consent could be revoked at any time. Potential participants were reminded of the confidentiality of their participation at the beginning of the data collection and informed that all identifying information would be removed from recorded data. The researcher of this study maintained a transformative worldview (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), giving critical importance to the study of the lived experiences of marginalized members of society and the strategies they use to persist, challenge the status quo, and ultimately thrive. While the researcher has no connection to participants or data collection platforms, as a member of the stakeholder group who may be affected by the outcomes of the study, she had the potential to impact participant responses, misinterpret results, and present biased study results (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In order to mitigate these potential biases, reflexive memos were kept to document personal impressions and thoughts that occurred to the researcher during the data collection process that may have impacted interpretation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), as well as member checking (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 108) by verbally reviewing notes and 46 the researcher’s interpretation of the interviewees’ responses during and at the end of the interview. 47 Chapter Four: Findings A field study of female chief executives was conducted in order to discover common organizational influences that impacted successful chief executive females over 45 years of age, as well as their shared motivational traits and strategic knowledge that both facilitated and hindered their successes. Multiple methods of data collection consisted of surveys, interviews, and document analysis. Surveys were sent out first in order to collect as much data as possible in a short amount of time. The survey was also used as a recruiting tool by providing an anonymous link for those who wished to volunteer for an interview. Qualitative interviews followed in order to gain an in-depth look at challenges women face and the strategies successful chief executives have used to navigate them. Finally, qualitative data collection in the form of artifact analysis was conducted to examine organizational and external policies in order to frame the responses of the participant. Participating Stakeholders In order to gain the most insight into the barriers older female leaders face when trying to achieve a C-suite position, this study focused on female chief executives over 45 years of age who have achieved and maintained positions within successful for-profit US corporations. Fortune magazine’s published 1000 top companies, the Fortune 1000 list (Fortune Magazine, 2020), and Fortune magazine’s 2019 most powerful women list (Fortune Magazine, 2019) were used to gather potential participants in the study. These sources were used because the lists rank the most profitable organizations and women in the United States. Only women occupying C- suite roles of CEO, CFO, or COO were contacted because these titles are consistently used across all organizations on the lists (Fortune Magazine, 2019, 2020). Complete demographic data of the study stakeholders can be found in Appendix E. 48 Survey Participants The total number of female chief executives listed using both the Fortune 1000 list and Fortune magazine’s 2019 most powerful women list was 217. Out of the 217 female chief executives identified, 12 had retired in March 2020, when the COVID-19 virus caused shutdowns across the country, and valid emails could not be located for 26 of them, leaving a total of 181 survey invitations emailed. Out of the 181 female chief executives who were emailed survey invitations, 87 held the position of CEO, nine held the position of COO, and 85 held the position of CFO. Thirty-three surveys were started and abandoned before completion, 27 surveys were completed, and 147 survey invitations received no response. Of the 27 participants, 18 were over the age of 45 and were invited to participate in a Zoom interview via an anonymous link. Interview Participants Of the 18 survey participants invited to interview via an anonymous link, ten women initially volunteered, although one did not respond to emailed scheduling attempts and another indicated she was too busy to participate. Eight female chief executives ultimately participated in Zoom interviews. Two of the interviewees held the position of Chief Executive Officer (CEO), two held the position of Chief Financial Officer (CFO), and four held the position of Chief Operating Officer (COO). The industries represented by the interview participants were consumer goods, entertainment, financial services, non-profit social services, hospitality, and health care. The longest held position was 21 years with the shortest held position being 1.75 years. Six of the eight female executives were hired into their positions, while the other two held increasingly senior positions within their respective companies until reaching their chief 49 executive position. Table 5 provides an overview of the background data of the eight interview participants. Table 5 Interview Participant Background Data Participant Role Industry State Years at Current Company Years in Current Position Previous Position 1 CEO Consumer Goods CA 7 7 Executive Director 2 CEO Financial Services CA 21 21 Legal Admin 3 CFO Non-Profit CA 1.75 1.75 Director of Finance 4 CFO Entertainment CA 21 5.5 Executive VP & Treasurer 5 COO Entertainment CA 8.5 8.5 TV Commercial Producer 6 COO Hospitality CA 25 25 Manager 7 COO Health Care FL 3 3 CEO 8 COO Consumer Goods ID 35 2.5 Executive VP of Operations 50 Research Question 1: What are the Organizational and other External Influences that have both Facilitated and Hindered the Female Chief Executives’ Ability to Achieve and Maintain their C-suite Roles? All survey participants reported encountering organizational and external influences that both facilitated and hindered their ascension to the C-suite. The first section breaks down the three common organizational barriers that emerged across all respondents’ answers. The second section examines the recruiting, hiring, and advancement practices reported by the interview participants. The final sections review the influences external to the organization that potentially affect a woman’s ability to achieve a C-suite role. Organizational Values and Beliefs Impact Female Leaders’ Success All survey participants agreed that their organizations provided opportunities equally to women and men. The majority of participants, 92.6%, reported that their organizations provided the resources they needed to be an effective leader. While almost all of the participants, 96.3%, reported that their current organizations fostered a positive working environment, the majority of survey respondents reported some form of hardship due to organizational values and beliefs. Gender bias was reported by 92.6% of participants. Age bias was reported by more than half of the survey participants, 51.9%, however, their ages were unknown due to the anonymity of the survey. Table 6 displays the breakdown of biases reported by the survey participants. 51 Table 6 Survey Participants Affected by Organizational Bias (N = 27) Affected by Gender or Age Bias Agreed Neither Agreed nor Disagreed Disagreed n % n % n % Gender 25 92.6 1 3.7 1 3.7 Age a 14 51.9 6 22.2 7 25.9 a Survey participants’ ages were unknown. Detrimental Organizational Values and Beliefs The majority of the survey participants reported they had been detrimentally affected by practices that reflected the values and beliefs of their organizations. Twenty-five out of 27 participants reported experiencing organizational biases that valued men over women in the form of access, policies, and representation. Over one half of the survey participants and seven of the eight interview participants also reported being detrimentally affected by ageism within their organizations. The main themes that emerged from the study are that the “boys’ club culture” oppresses female leaders’ ability to advance, organizational cultures place more value on men than women, and that youth is valued over experience. However, the study participants experienced that attitudes towards female leaders are changing for the better. Boys’ Club Culture Stifles Female Leaders’ Advancement. The most notable form of gender bias experienced by the participants was in the form of a “boys’ club culture” which excluded women from participating in events and dismissive attitudes towards of the female 52 leaders’ voices and opinions. The participants reported that business strategies were discussed off-site at events from which they were excluded. One survey respondent stated she was “not invited to lunches, golf, shooting, or networking events due to gender.” Interview Participant 7 described her experience with the boys’ club as follows, “I found it difficult to establish and maintain relationships with male colleagues - I'm not into American sports and I do not play golf…conversations that would happen naturally during a golf game I would not be part of.” Interview Participant 7 missed further opportunities for professional development due to the boys’ club camaraderie, “At times I saw male colleagues regularly going to lunch together and not stopping to ask me if I would like to join…this made me an outsider and not part of the natural flow of conversation or ideas or opportunities.” Interview Participant 2 experienced dismissive attitudes whenever she presented new ideas or attempted to be included in management discussions, “Oh, these cute girls, you know, that kind of thing.” One survey respondent described the bias against women with her experience working within the boys’ club, “Often times I would voice an opinion, only to be shot down. A few minutes later a male member of the team would say the exact same thing and his opinion would be met with praise.” Interview Participant 7 found that the boys’ club culture was self-perpetuating, not necessarily because the male leaders did not believe in the abilities of female leaders, but because they had faith in the abilities of men: I will say that boys’ club … network…that's who they will go after…, even before the job description is written, they know who they want… It'll be somebody just like them… it's not because they don't want to take the risk, because they want to do something bigger and better, and they know that this person can handle that and they don't have to invest their time. 53 Participant 4 explained that she believed this phenomenon was present in her organization due to the fact that all of male executives had wives that were not employed outside of the home, therefore, the male executives did not relate to women. Regardless of the causes of the boys’ club culture, the experience shared by the study participants was that it created a culture where men’s abilities and opinions were valued over those of women within the organization. Organizational Cultures Value Men Over Women. Many survey respondents described organizational cultures where men were valued over women. . More than half of the women, 18 of the 27 survey respondents, reported that they experienced double standards within their organizations, one for men and one for women. Interview Participant 2 related that she had to present ideas as coming from a male coworker in order to have them be taken seriously. One survey respondent said, “I had to work harder to get my voice heard. If I made a mistake, it was seen as a much bigger mistake than my male peers.” Other respondents reported cases of sexual harassment and hostility directed towards female employees. As one participant reported, her “former company had rampant sexual harassment with little repercussions for perpetrators.” When asked if she had experienced any gender bias in her organization, one survey respondent replied, “It was the 1980's - the environment was full of too many examples - propositioned; told I didn't need to make as much as my male counterparts (they had a wife and kids to feed), etc.” Another survey respondent reported her experience, over 30 years of gender bias: Being ridiculed for being pregnant (1991), being asked if I would leave to take care of my child (1992), being groped in elevators, being spoken to in derogatory terms (1980's- 1990's), cat calls (80's-90's), being told I was 'like a guy' (until mid-00's), being the only woman in the room and being made to feel unimportant. 54 Interview Participant 4 found that organizational bias was not always intentional. She described having many discussions with the CEO of her organization who told her he believed that women could do any of the jobs in their organization. She thought he felt that way because he had been married to professional women, so she asked him to “think about all of your direct reports… not a single one of them has a working spouse. And they look at the world differently, so they don't look at women as being peers. And he … said, ‘oh, you're right.’" While gender bias has seemed relatively overt within organizations, women have also reported instances of bias as they aged. Youth is Valued Over Experience. Over one half of the survey respondents reported experiencing biases as they aged. As one respondent stated, “People want my experience and wisdom, but they don’t necessarily want a grandmother.” Another posited, “People don’t think people in their 60’s can do anything.” Respondents described ageism occurring around 40 years of age, “Working in technology is a relatively ageist arena – particularly when you pass early 40s.” While interview Participant 5 reported being worried about her ability to maintain her COO position, “I hear it everywhere. I'm a little panicked, yeah, you get aged out by the time you get to 60, you know, you're out... Maybe I could count, maybe, three women in their 60s still in their positions.” Interview Participant 7 said she encounters ageism regularly at her organization: I've seen that in the hiring people making comments, to make sure she's like a younger woman because they want someone who looks good or knows that there is also the discrimination against women with technology because they figure, you know, when you're older, you don't want to learn anything new or you don't want to learn the software. I try to stay ahead and be like the most software savvy because I don't want it... 55 I feel like when people figure out or find out my age, they're going to think, oh, she's never going to get this, or we need somebody with fresh ideas. And so, I do extra to, to stay ahead of that. One survey participant reported taking drastic measures to counteract ageism, “I had multiple plastic surgeries to keep me looking young. You can say I’m vain, but I do know age discrimination exists, especially in women.” Interview Participant 2 comments sum up the culture of ageism, “When I was a little girl, there were no…old women on the news. There were old men, Walter Cronkite, but there was no gray-haired equivalent female. There clearly is age discrimination…I would like to see our culture changed entirely.” Attitudes Towards Female Leaders Are Changing. Every woman interviewed believed that organizational cultures are starting to change. As Participant 1 stated, “People see the value of having a woman leader that people, customers, connect to…the emotional component that women bring that men don’t necessarily have.” Participant 2 indicated a belief that women are taking control by “self-defining.” Participant 3 reported a drastic change within her organization, “I see there are more women in our organization, for sure, than there are men.” Participant 5 stated, “it’s gotten better, the entertainment industry has tried to make adjustments to it, but it still has a long way to go.” Participant 8 believed that society as a whole is changing, “What's maybe more interesting is society is changing…I think it's changing. I feel like there's so much more opportunity, I think people are making intentional choices…to choose women…because they do recognize the value that is added.” Impact of Recruiting, Hiring, and Advancement Practices The interview participants were asked what organizational practices facilitated their rise to their chief executive positions. The participants identified two practices related to recruitment, 56 hiring and advancement within their organizations that supported them and combated bias: a.) internal organizational mentorship and b.) the active recruitment of women due to a cultural shift to focus on diversity, equity, and inclusion. When asked what their current organizations offer to help combat bias, the interview participants responded with one practice or the other. Four of the eight participants responded that their organizations offer mentoring programs. Participant 1 shared her organization’s practices: We're always having those conversations about where do you want to go, and giving everybody the opportunity to always move up. And for me, I'm always doing that with our younger girls that are working here. Like, what do you want to do for your career? How can we position you to really? Because, one of my other goals has always been that we would be a place for young people, a platform for them to launch their lives. One survey respondent relayed a belief that her success was facilitated by mentorship, “Who you work for is more important than where you work or what you do. I've had amazing mentors and would not have been nearly as successful without them.” Participant 4’s described her organization offering a mix of both formal and informal mentoring programs: Some of it is some of it is formalized and then there's a lot of these kind of informal mentoring programs. I personally like the informal mentoring ones because they don't have a beginning and an end because, you know, you see something in the person, or the person reaches out to you and there's a connection. It's not sort of a forced interaction, but I think some of those that are more organic yield better results. Participants 2, 3, and 6 responded that their organizations focus on hiring diverse staff. When asked why she believes diversity is important to the success of an organization, Participant 2 shared: 57 I heard a woman speak once that I thought had a fantastic mantra…for diversity. And that is, if auto designers had had women at the table when they were designing cars, there would be a place for us to put our purse. And that is why diversity is so important. That we had diversity and age, which I mean, I hired a woman who was sixty-eight. I hired men. As I said, I hired different ethnicities. I hired a gal who had just graduated from college and majored in H.R. I mean, these all bring different voices to the table that help you understand the world that you're in, and if you are only trying to sell to something that you picture, you're only going to have a small amount of the pie. You get a bigger piece of the pie when you have more diversity at the table. And I think that is a success factor. Findings Related to External Influences Even though gender-based discrimination is prohibited under federal law (United States Department of Justice, 2018), document analysis revealed that 21 out of 52 U.S. jurisdictions have legislation enacted to promote job and pay equality between men and women. A review of the top ten jurisdictions with the highest number of Fortune 1000 companies showed no correlation between number of Fortune 1000 companies and percentage of female chief executives - nor was there a direct link between the percentage of the female population and the percentage of female chief executives. There does, however, appear to be a relationship between pro-female specific legislation and percentage of female chief executives. Out of the top ten jurisdictions with Fortune 1000 companies, all had pro-female legislation with the exception of Texas and Ohio, which, while having a large number of Fortune 1000 companies, had the lowest percentages of female chief executives. Four jurisdictions with the highest amount of Fortune 1000 companies also had the highest percentages of female chief 58 executives: California, New York, Illinois, and Pennsylvania, respectively. All of the Oregon Fortune 1000 companies had female chief executives. A complete list of Fortune 1000 companies by U.S. jurisdiction can be found in Appendix F. Table 7 provides a list of the top ten U.S. jurisdictions with Fortune 1000 companies. Table 7 Top Ten U.S. Jurisdictions with Fortune 1000 Companies Jurisdiction % Female Population a Pro-female Specific Legislation? # Fortune 1000 Companies # Fortune 1000 Companies with Female C-suite % of Fortune 1000 with a Female C-Suite TX 50-51% No 103 9 9% CA 50-51% Yes 102 47 46% NY 51-52% Yes 88 22 25% IL 50-51% Yes 67 16 24% OH 51-52% No 56 4 7% PA 51-52% Yes 51 12 24% NJ 51-52% Yes 45 7 16% VA 50-51% Yes 35 7 20% FL 51-52% Yes 30 5 17% GA 51-52% Yes 30 7 23% a Population data collected from https://www.marketwatch.com/story/10-reasons-single-men- should-move-to-the-northeast-2014-06-26 59 According to both survey and interview participant responses, both organizational and other external influences impacted the female chief executives’ ability to achieve and maintain their C-suite Roles. Respondents indicated that a “boys’ club culture” keeps women from accessing the necessary conversations that will facilitate their ability to both achieve and retain a chief executive position. Women who have achieved a C-suite position reported having encountered organizational cultures that value men’s ideas more than women’s and hold women to a different standard than men. All study participants reported that they have seen evidence that the culture evolving for the better in regard to gender bias. Findings also indicate there may be a correlation between gender specific legislation and the proportion of women in chief executive positions. Research Question 2: What are the Common Self-Reported Personality Traits Female Chief Executives Attribute to their Successful Achievement of C-suite Positions? A total of 20 personality traits were reported by the survey and interview participants as helpful to the achievement of their C-suite positions. The top five reported traits enabling women to achieve a chief executive position were being authentic, a lifelong learner, a hard worker, being a people person, and being an innate leader worked for them. There was no one trait reported as the crucial personality trait attributed to success, but rather a mix of traits, as reported by one survey participant, “authenticity, vision, strategic thinking, a true love of leadership, people, and learning.” Authenticity was the most mentioned personality trait that both survey and interview participants felt contributed towards their success. One survey participant reported that “self- awareness and authenticity is key” to achieving a C-suite position. Another survey participant stated that authenticity is helps others understand they can rely on you, “be authentic and always 60 honest so people can totally rely on you.” One survey participant described authenticity as the key to supporting your team, “have a voice, do not be meek, own your position… let people who work with and for you know who you are.” The second most self-reported personality trait mentioned was the importance of being a lifelong learner. As one survey participant reported how important learning was to her career, “create learning agility - put yourself into a variety of roles and take risks that will stretch and challenge you; you learn the most when you are uncomfortable and build resilience that will make you far more successful later.” Another participant reported that learning helped her achieve a C-suite role and recommended to others, “push yourself so you learn to have confidence – confidence will allow you to lead others.” Another survey participant said she learned the most through listening and applying what she learned, “listen, listen, listen!” “Tenacity, grit, and being a hard worker” were the personality traits Participant 1 reported as having contributed to her career success. In fact, being a hard worker was reported by all eight interview participants as being a personality trait integral to their successful ascension to their chief executive roles. According to Participant 1, “people very much discount hard work, but hard work is super important... you’ve got to be willing to do what other people check out and don’t do.” Being a people person was another personality trait reported by all interview participants as being beneficial to achieving a chief executive position. Participant 5 relayed that “being sociable, genuinely loving people, and being willing to listen” were the personality traits that brought her success. Participant 8 reported that the personality traits that helped her achieve her role were “learning from others, being trusting, speaking up for herself, and being a people person. I really do love people!” Participant 6 described herself as “naturally happy, I like 61 people, I love to have fun, I make people feel special.” When Participant 6 was asked if she feels that these traits also helped her remain successful once in the role of COO, she responded “yes, you can’t bring staff down, you need to keep everyone up.” Leadership as a personality trait was reported by seven of the survey participants. One participant describe an innate leadership trait as “servant leadership – genuine caring about others, how to help them be their best; willingness to listen to all levels, [and] a trusted partner.” Another participant describe the traits leading to her success as “a true love of leadership, people and learning.” All study participants agreed that the personality traits that enabled them to achieve their chief executive roles also helped them remain successful once in the role. Table 8 displays the self-reported beneficial personality traits as recorded from the survey. 62 Table 8 Self-Reported Beneficial Personality Traits Personality Trait Frequency of Mention Authenticity 10 Lifelong learner 9 Hard worker 8 People person 8 Leader 7 Strategic 5 Trusting 4 Open to criticism 3 Positive attitude 3 Confident 3 Good listener 3 Advocating for self 2 Competitive 2 Unflappable 2 Tenacious 2 Insightful 1 Passionate 1 Fearless 1 Stoic 1 Resilient 1 Note. Responses from the 27 completed surveys, which included interview participants. 63 Additionally, the interview participants were asked which personality traits they felt created barriers toward achieving a chief executive position. Not self-promoting was reported by all eight of the interviewees. Participant 8 gave the following example that echoed what was reported by all the other interview participants: I feel like my results should tell the story. I've got success. Look at my numbers, look at my earnings. Look at the people that have been promoted underneath me. Don't you get it? I'm awesome. But for me to go out there and find a way to tell my story… tell my successes in a way that's authentically who I am, that's something I had to find difficult… I was lucky enough to come up in a company… where most of the people kind of got to know you over time, even as we got bigger. I was lucky enough to have some exposure, right? So, people knew what I was capable of, knew my history. This is a great example today where I have a new CEO that came from outside our company. He doesn't know me from Adam. He can see results, but he doesn't know that. So, I've had to find my voice a little bit and find ways to share with him my successes in a way that doesn't make me uncomfortable because I'm not a look what I did kind of person. Participant 4 was passed over for her organization’s Chief Financial Officer position after 15 years of employment, “I'm supposed this big, aggressive person., but… I was never demanding on my own behalf… I probably should have been made CFO in 2010, but another person was put in that role.” After the male CFO left the organization, Participant 4 described how she started self-promoting and put herself up for the CFO position, which, at the time of the study, she had held for 5.5 years. The second most common detrimental personality trait to advancing in leadership reported by half of the interview participants was the inclination to defer to the men in their 64 organizations. Participant 1 said that early in her career, she would defer because she “didn’t want a wrestling match.” She described her behavior as follows: It's not that I agreed with him, but because of the strength of his point, I would maybe defer to that…when maybe I needed to stay in there a little bit longer…and be comfortable. That what I have to say is very valuable to what's going on. So, I'm really learning that a lot more right now as the CEO. Three participants reported that their egos held them back early in their careers. Participant 2 described a time early in her career when working with a business consultant her failing firm had hired, she asked him what he thought caused companies to need his help. He told her “it's really the CEO. They often have an ego that doesn't allow them to make the best decisions. I've never had to turn around a company that had a board of advisers." As soon as Participant 2 became the CEO, she hired a board of directors and subsequently enjoyed 21 successful years until her retirement. Table 9 displays the self-reported detrimental personality traits that chief executive females reported as hindering their success. 65 Table 9 Self-Reported Detrimental Personality Traits Personality Trait Frequency of Mention Not self-promoting 8 Deferring to men 4 Big ego 3 Too forgiving 2 Militant 2 Lack of confidence 2 Not listening 1 Indecisive 1 Rash decisions 1 Note. Responses from the eight interview participants. The study revealed that there is not one particular trait that female leaders felt facilitates or inhibits the ability to achieve or maintain a chief executive position. Being authentic, a lifelong learner, a hard worker, a people person, an innate leader were the most commonly personality traits. Personality traits alone did not propel the study participants to their current chief executive positions, strategic knowledge and motivation were reported as equally important to their successes. Research Question 3: What are the Strategic Knowledge and Motivational Factors that Enable Female Chief Executives over 45 to Navigate Challenges Imposed by External and Organizational Factors in Order to Achieve and Maintain C-suite Roles? This section presents the motivational factors and strategic knowledge that participants reported an enabling them to achieve and maintain their C-suite roles. The motivational findings 66 are presented first, followed by the strategic knowledge that was utilized by the study participants to both achieve and maintain their chief executive roles. The last data presented in this section is the advice the participants would give to other women beginning their careers. Motivation-Related Findings All participants involved in the study reported facing obstacles on their path to achieving a chief executive role. In this section, findings based on their outcome expectancy are presented first. Next, findings related to the participants’ self-efficacy in relation to their leadership ability are presented. In all cases, the participants reported that they did not let the obstacles impact their ability to achieve and maintain their chief executive roles. Female Chief Executives’ Belief in their Ability to Achieve Goals when Encountering Obstacles All study participants reported that they possessed the ability and skills to maintain their chief executive roles in the face of obstacles. When asked how they were able to stay motivated to achieve their chief executive roles, a wide variety of answers were reported. Interview Participant 2 reported that gratitude helped her stay motivated, “I think it’s such a gift and such an incredible opportunity that I’m grateful for every day.” Participant 3 reported that the end goal of achieving her chief executive role kept her motivated, “I think that keeps you focused because if you don’t have a goal, you’re not, there’s nothing to focus on. And so, it directs and drives everything we do.” Money kept Participant 3 motivated, when asked if she always knew she wanted to be a chief executive she said, “not necessarily. I mean, I wanted, I knew I wanted to make a lot of money, but now I see that that’s the only way to do it.” Participants 5, 6, and 7 mentioned believing that they fell into their roles by the nature of their personalities. As Participant 7 reported, 67 I was approachable and…my ability to listen to the male counterparts…allow[ed] me to shine and rise. I think that was 100% part of why I was able to race through the ranks. I had an insatiable ability to listen, to truly understand what was happening, so it just opened the door. The challenge and diverse nature of her career kept Participant 8 motivated to achieve a chief executive role: I was lucky enough to get in, both because I asked or because I was asked to do some different things literally every two to three years. I was changing roles which, which, which I think any time you change a rule, you're like, OK, I've got to learn this. We're going to dive in to figure this out. That was my strategy with my plan here. And I think that helped me keep, to keep interest. And it also gave me a nice sampler platter, if you will, of different functions across the company so I could learn where I was strong, learn where my passion was in, and learn where I needed to grow. All interview participants believed they would be successful in chief executive roles before they achieved them. Women’s High Levels of Self-Efficacy in their Leadership Ability All study participants reported having faced hardships due to their gender and age while serving as chief executives of their organizations. Many reported having to become more confident to achieve their roles, as one survey respondent reported that she had to “find my voice, learn to acknowledge that I have earned my way to where I am.” Others survey respondents reported having to make “hard decisions” in their personal life in order to maintain them. As one survey participant reported, “I don’t let those obstacles get to me, I just keep going 68 on, marching forward. Discrimination and prejudice exist in the world. It’s up to each individual to fight their own battles.” One survey respondent reported that she is able to lead through obstacles by being “smarter, more confident, be poised, speak really well and articulate, have opinions backed up with facts, smile a lot, kill them with charm, don't give up.” Another survey participant reported that she emphasizes her “experience and skills and brings a positive attitude” while trying not to show her fears. One survey respondent reported that demonstrating “intellectual vibrancy and drive that matches any age” is how to lead through obstacles. Knowledge and Skill-Related Findings All study participants reported learning and adjusting strategies as they advanced in their careers. The first findings presented are in regard to self-evaluated strategic behavior changes that were needed as the participants progressed in their careers. Next, participants’ reported strategies for overcoming organizational hardships are present. And finally, advice is presented from the chief executives for other women hoping to achieve the same type of success. Women are Able to Self-Evaluate Strategic Behavior and Adjust When Needed All study participants reported having to continuously evaluate their strategic behavior and adjust when needed. Nineteen of the 27 survey participants reported having to change their behaviors in order to achieve their chief executive roles while 17 reported having to change their behaviors in order to maintain their roles. Of the changes reported, guarded speech and guarded interactions topped the list for achieving a chief executive position. One survey respondent said she needed to “say the right things to people all the time.” Another explained that “it’s important to model the behavior you want, control your temper, and listen carefully to those around you. 69 You can’t act impulsively and singularly.” Learning to take the time to think before speaking was reported by a majority of the study participants: I think before I speak - I make sure that I am purposeful with things that I say and don't act with anger or passion. This includes written correspondence. I had a couple of situations early in my career where I spoke impulsively, and I found that the damage from that was hard to overcome. In addition to guarded interactions, study participants reported having to learn to listen in order to ascend to a chief executive position. One survey participant shared how she realized she needed to make changes: [E]arly in my career where I was asked to share my opinion with the [government agency] Administrator. My view was not aligned with his and when he asked my opinion, I shared my views based on facts and data with my strong passion for my direction. He told my boss, “I snapped at him.” At first I was upset, frustrated as he asked for my opinion. Then after reflecting, I realized I may never have changed his view but my forward approach and putting him in a defensive mode probably wasn’t the best way. To this day, I still believe he never would have taken my advice, but my approach was wrong and needed to change. I believe this has helped me become a much better leader. The majority of study participants reflected on the importance of behaving as a leader, specifically, being careful of what they were saying and being aware of their impact on those they lead. Several respondents reported they felt they always needed to be “on” and never let their guards down. One survey respondent commented, As a leader your people are always looking at you and it is important to lead by example. At times you may not want to do something, or you might want to relax in a meeting - 70 however if your people see that you aren't taking something seriously then they will take your lead. As a leader and an executive to some extent you are 'always on'. Another survey respondent struggled with interacting with former peers once achieved her position, “I had to change and evolve my relationships with former peers. I also realized that my leadership "wake" increased tremendously. I was no longer allowed to just weigh in -- my voice carried more weight than I anticipated.” The weight of the leadership position was echoed by another respondent who reported having to change her behaviors once in the position, she had to “become more demanding. Learn my impact - what I ask for gets done - I just need to ask... until people learn what my expectations are. All leaders have their own benchmarks and you have to adapt. Learn political savvy.” Another respondent had to learn to “tailor messages to audience style and preferences – Board/Investors versus Organization.” The study participants reported having to continuously reflect on their environments and audience in order to develop beneficial strategies to overcome obstacles. Commonly Reported Strategies for Overcoming Obstacles There were seven total strategies reported by interview participants that were employed when faced with organizational obstacles: changing companies, reaching out to others, perseverance, learning to live with them, speaking up, and working harder, change approach to interacting with organization. Most of the respondents reported a mix of strategies, as one survey respondent stated, “Work hard. Dive into projects. Take risks. If you are not uncomfortable than you are not learning.” Changing companies was a strategy employed by some of study participants when encountering obstacles to their success. Responses ranged from a simple “decided to move to 71 another company” and “I changed companies, I ignored them, I kept moving forward” to two of the participants reporting that they ended up starting their own companies in order to achieve a chief executive position. One survey respondent explained her decision, saying “I left and started my current company because I wanted a company with a completely different culture.” The second most mentioned strategy to overcome obstacles encountered while attempting to achieve a chief executive position was to reach out to people outside of the organization. One survey respondent described reaching out for mentorship and support, “[I] actively sought out mentors and sponsors that provided me with good ideas on how to overcome challenges.” Another participant, interview Participant 1, described reaching out socially to people outside her organization to gain a little distance, “It’s teaching me a different way of relating that is probably good, being able to turn off the whole business side, which I tend not to do.” Interview Participant 8 described her perseverance as managing “through the challenges.” One survey respondent credited teamwork as helping her persevere in the face of organizational obstacles: I kept raising my hand, pushed myself to the table and shared my views. Then I had to deliver results time and time again. And it was my team that helped as we had a shared vision and we stretched one another. A saving grace throughout my career - teamwork which I learned in my early years at [government agency]. When I made a mistake, It was my perseverance and my determination to prove myself and not let them win that resulted in success. Many times, it felt easier to give up but that is not my character. My family always said follow your dream and if that is your passion, don’t give up. Be true to yourself as you are the one who must look at yourself in the mirror so don’t compromise your values and don’t let anyone tell you, you can’t. 72 Five of the interview participants reported they weren’t able to overcome the organizational obstacles, they just learned to live with them and accept it. Interview Participant 2 stated that she did not overcome the barriers she encountered in her organization, she “just lived with it.” Interview Participant 3 responded in kind when asked how she overcame the barriers she faced in her organization, “didn’t, getting used to it.” Interview Participant 5 said her organizational obstacles caused her to divorce, stating “Well, it cost me marriage, I think. Because it requires a lot of focus, dedication, and long hours. And so, it’s a difficult thing to do and raise a family.” Interview Participant 8 stated that she experienced many organizational challenges on her way to achieving her COO role, so she and her husband decided not to have kids. Speaking up was reported as a strategy employed by respondents not only to achieve a leadership position, but also to remain authentic, with one survey respondent reporting that she turned down a VC deal because she “refused to let a man who doesn’t value women affect [her] in any way.” The same sentiment was shared by another survey respondent who said she “had to be forthright in ensuring that I could take the time I needed to maintain balance. At times I had to make tough decisions on career – which worked out well.” One survey respondent took a gentle approach when speaking up in order to educate those around her while trying to “stay true to values, [I] kindly correct mis-assumptions.” Another survey respondent followed a more overt tact: I spoke up and would say I just said that five minutes ago. So how is what X is saying different from my opinion, or I would say Hold on. Before anything gets agreed, I also have an opinion/comment that needs to be heard. In the beginning, this made me 73 uncomfortable, but after a while, it made all the men uncomfortable that I had to continue to remind them that I was also a member of the team. After speaking up, adjusting their approach was a strategy reported by four survey respondents each. One survey respondent who adjusted her approach to her obstacles took a competitive approach, “Be tough, be firm, be respectful, let it look like you don’t care, smile a lot, don’t let them know you will do everything to prevail and beat them out,” while another survey respondent chose to separate emotion from her obstacle strategies, “You need to put emotion and ego aside and focus on results. Sometimes you must adjust your approach depending on the circumstances. Don't be distracted by emotions like anger, envy, resentment. These just zap energy and waste time.” Table 10 lists the strategies reported by study participants that they used to overcome organizational obstacles. Table 10 Interviewee Strategies Used to Overcome Obstacles Strategy Frequency of Mention Change companies 9 Reach out to others 7 Persevere 6 Learn to live with them 5 Speak up 4 Work harder 4 Adjust approach 2 74 It’s worth noting that 13 of the 27 survey respondents mentioned that it was important to become an expert in their fields. As one survey participant reported, “I early on noted the value that is placed on being an expert. I then worked very hard to get a reputation as being an expert in my field and this…included taking on extra projects or presentations, travel etc.” In addition to achieving a reputation as an expert in their fields, hard work and perseverance were commonly reported strategies among the study participants. Female Chief Executives’ Recommendations for Other Female Professionals The study participants were asked to offer advice to other women hoping to achieve a chief executive role. Although there was no one definitive piece of advice given, the most common advice offered was a mix of the following: take risks, work hard, develop expertise, find mentors, persevere, build relationships, remain confident, invest in your personal development, and stay focused on your goals. One study respondent’s advice encapsulates these themes: Reach for the stars. Raise your hand and get outside your comfort zone. With that said, deliver on your competencies, and declare where you want to go (may not be your end goal but don’t wait to be tapped on your shoulder or allow others to define your direction). Build strong teams which means you have to be a great team player, and always lead with the power of vision. Let others see your strategic side. Another participant recommended to “continue to grow and look for challenges…stay focused on the results, raise your hand. You have a seat at the table - - participate fully and thoughtfully.” A few of the participants mentioned the importance of staying calm, providing advice such as “think twice before firing back an email.” Interview Participant 5 explained that in order to stay calm, you need to open to and learn: 75 Be approachable and be willing to listen to criticism and learn from it. BE willing to understand, and this is a tough one, that no matter what comes at you, understand that it is not you. It doesn't reflect who you are as a person. So, when any negative comes at you or any block or roadblock comes your way, I think you have to understand the roadblock isn't coming from you. Stay calm. One survey respondent advised to “forget the micro-aggressions - Focus on the big picture. and if it isn't working where you are - understand what you have to do and sometimes it means changing companies - you are in charge of your career!” Continuing to work on personal development was a common theme in the advice offered. “Be intellectually curious. Learn as much as you can. Don’t be afraid of change – change is good and gives you new opportunities.” Finding a mentor or coach was given as a way to continue personal growth: Work with a wide variety of leaders - your style will be a mosaic of all the people you work with; the ones you admire and the ones less so create learning agility - put yourself into a variety of roles and take risks that will stretch and challenge you; you learn the most when you are uncomfortable and build resilience that will make you far more successful later. Find great mentors/sponsors who will help you see and address your blind spots; it's important to have direct feedback and people that will coach you to step up your game when you need it; that "personal board of directors" is a critical asset through to being a CEO. In addition to continuing one’s personal growth and finding a mentor, taking risks was mentioned multiple times. One survey respondent pointed out, 76 If you are reading this research you clearly want to grow. Work hard. Ask for what you want. Be willing to take risks and make yourself uncomfortable (in a good way). Surround yourself with people smarter than you. You will be ready for more before you think you are. And if all else fails, as one survey respondent advised, “wake up and start over.” A full list of the advice given can be found in Appendix G. Table 11 displays the advice themes and frequency of mention provided by the study participants. Table 11 Advice Offered by Current to Aspiring Female Chief Executives Advice Themes Frequency of Mention Take risks 9 Work hard 9 Develop expertise 8 Find mentors 8 Persevere 6 Build relationships 5 Project confidence 5 Invest in personal development 5 Stay focused on goal 5 Act with integrity 3 Have a positive attitude 3 Stay calm 3 Develop self-awareness 1 77 Summary There were clear commonalities across the study participants’ responses. All participants reported having encountered organizational and external barriers along their path to achieve a chief executive role. Almost all participants reported that their organizations provided the resources they needed to be successful in maintaining their roles and fostered a positive working environment. However, the majority of participants also reported experiencing gender and age bias. The aspects of organizational culture that hindered the participants' success were boys' club mentality and a preference for men and younger employees within the organization, although all participants felt that organizational and social cultures are changing in ways that will facilitate women's successful achievement of a chief executive position. Mentorship and a push for diversity were cited as facilitating the participants’ successes. Document analysis did not reveal a correlation between the number of Fortune 1000 companies and percentage of female chief executives employed, nor were there obvious correlations between gender population sizes and the percentage of female chief executives but did indicate that there may be a correlation between pro-female legislation and the percentage of female chief executives. The personality traits reported most often as beneficial to achieving a chief executive role were being authentic, having a desire to learn, being a hard worker, being a people person, while not self-promoting or advocating and deferring to men were reported as detrimental. All participants reported that they possessed the ability and skills to maintain their C-suite role in the face of obstacles. The participants reported that gratitude, setting goals, and a desire for money were some of the factors that kept them motivated. All participants reported that they were able to overcome obstacles by developing their expertise, confidence, and working hard. 78 All participants were confident in their ability to self-evaluate and adjust their strategic behaviors as needed. The survey respondents revealed that in order to achieve their chief executive roles, they needed to maintain “guarded speech” and interactions with coworkers. The behaviors reported as needed to maintain a chief executive role were “behave like a leader” and “think before you speak.” The most commonly reported strategies for overcoming organizational obstacles were to adjust approach, change companies, accept the obstacle, persevere, reach out to others, speak up, and work harder. The most common advice the study participants offered aspiring female chief executives was to take risks and work hard, along with developing expertise, seeking out mentors, and persevering. Chapter Five presents a review the findings, along with recommendations, limitations, and suggested areas for further research. 79 Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion The purpose of this qualitative study was two-fold: give a voice to the stakeholders who have successfully navigated the challenges female leaders face while advancing their careers and apply the knowledge and experiences of successful female chief executives to help women over 45 pursuing a C-suite position gain a strategic advantage. This chapter presents a review of the study findings in the context on extant literature, followed by recommendations for both an organization and aspiring female leaders. Next, the limitations and delimitations of the study are presented, followed by suggestions for further research and the conclusion. Discussion of Findings The findings of the study were in-line with existing literature regarding organizational culture, and gender and age bias. The sections below review the undue barriers that organizational culture and practices create for female leaders and the double standards that apply to female leaders. And finally, ageing creates an additional barrier to female leadership. Organizational Culture has a Direct Impact on Female Leaders’ Success Almost all study participants reported that their organization’s culture and deferential treatment towards promoting men created barriers to their success. While research shows that companies benefit by having female leadership, women are still underrepresented in executive leadership positions (Bloomberg, 2018; Holmes, 2019; Marcec, 2018b; Trehan, 2019). Two main theories have emerged as to the cause of this origin, which were confirmed by the study findings: in-group favoritism (Glass & Cook, 2016), which participants experienced as being excluded from a boys’ club; and men are rewarded with leadership positions more often than equally qualified females (Badura et al., 2018; Chamorro-Premuzic, 2019; Gruber et al., 2018). 80 This study’s data demonstrated that being excluded from an organization’s boys’ club, consisting of the organization’s male leaders, made it difficult for female leaders to establish relationships with male counterparts, gain access to decision makers, be included in impromptu strategy meetings, and kept male colleagues from viewing female leaders as peers. A consequence of the in-group favoritism, or the boys’ club mentality, was that the female executives were often passed over for promotions. While the findings did not suggest the organizations were intentionally discriminating against women, this form of employee leadership development left qualified women unable to gain access to executive leadership roles. These two findings combine to create an environment where men are promoted to executive roles more often than women, confirming previous research findings that organizational cultures directly impact female leaders’ success (Badura et al., 2018). Female Leaders are Held to a Different Set of Standards Gender stereotypes influence how female leaders’ behaviors and actions are perceived, creating a different set of standards for men and women. Female leaders are judged harshly when their positions do not match their gender stereotype (Chamorro-Premuzic, 20019; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Gruber et al., 2018; Sabharwal, 2013), leading to a double standard for female leaders (Andrews, 2016; Pew Research Center, 2015; Zheng et al., 20018). The study found that female leaders felt they had to keep up their guard up when interacting with others within their organizations and made a point of not showing weakness or emotion due to potential backlash. The women of the study had to balance appearing too aggressive and controlling while trying to personify the traits their organizations expected of a leader. In addition to conforming to their perceived gender roles in terms of behaviors and actions, study participants also reported that they had to maintain their looks, with one 81 participant reporting she felt compelled to undergo multiple plastic surgeries in order to retain her position. Research has shown that appearance plays a large role in female leaders’ success while having a nominal effect on men’s (Gruber et al., 2018; Ossola, 20019; Wolf, 2014) confirming that female leaders are held to a different standard than their male counterparts. Ageing Creates Additional Barriers to Female Leaders’ Success Study participants reported the need to appear and act younger than they were. More than half of the survey respondents reported being concerned about their ability to retain their positions as they age. Female leaders are targeted for being both female and older, creating additional barriers as they age due to intersectional discrimination (Lipnic, 2018; McLaughlin, 2018). There is a perception that younger workers will be more energetic (DeNisco Rayome, 2017; Folz, 2017) and perform better (Folz, 2017). In-group favoritism also comes into play as women age. As women no longer resemble younger workers, considered the in-group, they are perceived as having negative attributes (Grant, 2011; McNamara et al., 2016) which impacts their job security. The study findings confirm this sentiment. Recommendations for Practice Hiring and retaining female leaders in chief executive positions benefits organizations (International Labour Organization, 2019). As such, three recommendations are proposed for both organizations and female leaders based on key findings. The recommendations for organizations are presented first, followed by the recommendations for female leaders. Recommendations for Organizations The study findings demonstrated that organizational culture played a direct role in the barriers female leaders faced when attempting to achieve and retain chief executive positions. The first set of recommendations proposed are aimed at identifying bias and creating an 82 equitable environment for all employees. The recommendations proposed for organizations are to perform a gap analysis to identify gender gaps, develop a mentoring network, and finally, create opportunities for employees to develop leadership skills. Recommendation 1: Perform a Gap Analysis to Identify Gender Gaps Companies may believe they provide their employees with equal opportunities, yet research shows leadership gender gaps remain prevalent in society (Caplow et al., 2001; Pew Research Center, 2018). Given that an organization’s culture is derived from its employees (Schein, 2010), well-meaning organizations may be unconsciously biased in favor of or against a particular gender (Dashper, 2019). Gendered preconceptions of the ideal leader may be hidden within an organization’s recruiting, hiring, and advancement practices. Performing a gap analysis of an organization’s culture can help them identify the gaps between their perceived or ideal culture and their actual culture. The gap analysis process ( Clark & Estes, 2008) entails the following steps: 1. Identify areas for improvement and establish KPIs to determine when a goal has been reached. 2. Create quantifiable benchmarks utilizing industry leaders’ achievements of the goal. 3. Quantify internal achievements. 4. Identify internal gaps by subtracting the organization’s achievements from those of industry leaders. 5. Monetize the benefit of closing the gap. 6. Determine specific goals that should close the gap. For the purposes of identifying gender gaps, organizations should review their recruiting, hiring and advancement policies. While quantifying industry leaders’ achievements in these 83 areas would help to set benchmarks, research indicates that economic benefits appear once female leaders occupy at least 30% of an organization’s senior executive team (International Labour Organization, 2019). Using a 30% occupancy rate for female leaders will help quantify internal achievements, set goals, and begin to determine the economic benefits of closing the gender gaps. Recommendation 2: Develop a Cross-Gender Mentoring Network for Employees This study found that mentoring had a positive impact to the success of female chief executives. Mentoring can help employees navigate their organization’s culture and political landscape, in addition to helping develop employees’ skills and increasing their potential to advance within their organizations (Leck et al., 2012). Both literature and the study findings indicated that female leaders have difficulty gaining access to male counterparts (Ang, 2019; Dashper, 2019), which inhibits developing relationships, accessing impromptu strategy meetings, and ultimately, the capacity to advance their careers. Research shows that both genders benefit from cross-gender mentoring relationships (Ang, 2019; Dashper, 2019). The aspiring female leader benefits by gaining access to company resources, networking, and potential sponsors to support their careers (Ang, 2019; Dashper, 2019; Leck et al., 2019) while male leaders benefit by an increased awareness of the struggles and barriers women encounter within their organizations (Dashper, 2019). Recommendation 3: Create Opportunities for All Employees to Develop Leadership Skills The study found female leaders have had to change their behaviors in order to conform to both gendered expectations as well as what was expected as a leader. Many organizations understand the benefit of developing leaders from within their own ranks. Oftentimes the criteria for choosing which employees are chosen to develop depends on how well they fit the 84 organization’s concept of an ideal leader (Ang, 2019; Dashper, 2019). Based on the study findings, it is recommended that organizations consider creating opportunities for all their employees to develop their potential leadership skills, not just those employees who resemble the organization’s idea of a successful leader. In doing so, the organization is creating equity and removing early career barriers to aspiring female leaders as well as accessing previously untapped potential. Recommendations for Aspiring Female Leaders Three recommendations are proposed for female leaders to facilitate their achievement of an executive leadership role outside of organizational support. The first recommendation is to build their own network of mentors. The second recommendation is to strengthen their leadership self-efficacy. And the final recommendation is to develop the art of self-promotion. Recommendation 1: Build a Network of Mentors As the study found, mentoring had a direct correlation to the success of female chief executives, aspiring female leaders who aren’t provided with organizational mentors can still benefit from a network of mentors. While women who have access to organization specific mentors benefit by learning how to navigate the innerworkings of their organizations (Ang, 2019; Dashper, 2019; Leck et al., 2012), external mentoring networks can also provide a multitude of benefits (Entrepreneur, 2016; Leck et al., 2012). Mentoring is thought to provide transformative learning through a process that transforms both the mentor and mentee through self-awareness, self-development, and self-actualization (Zanchetta et al., 2017). Mentors can help their mentees develop their leadership potential by increasing self-confidence and helping mentees develop critical thinking skills (Zanchetta et al., 2017). Aspiring female leaders can reach out to social leaders, professionals in their fields, and even leaders in their own 85 organizations to find mentors. By cultivating a diverse network of mentors, female leaders can gain access to a variety of others’ experiences, obtain critical feedback, and gain access to new networking contacts that they may not otherwise experience within their own organizations (Entrepreneur, 2016). Recommendation 2: Strengthen Leadership Self-Efficacy All study participants reported they had high levels of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to a person’s confidence in their own abilities and effectiveness (Bandura, 2012). The foundation of self-efficacy asserts that one has some control over shaping events and ultimately ensuring their success through behavior, interpersonal influence, and their environment (Bandura, 2012). Self-efficacy impacts one’s strategic thinking, setting goals, and the choice of action taken to achieve goals (Bandura, 2000), hence, it follows that projecting confidence, developing expertise, focusing on goals, and perseverance were the key words of advice offered by the study participants, which are all behaviors directed by one’s self-efficacy. Research has shown that women with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to identify themselves as leaders and overcome setbacks in their careers (Isaac et al., 2012). There are several ways for a female aspiring leader. One such is through the use of Bandura’s observational learning. In observational learning, one selects a model to observe and learn from, depending on their needs and self-efficacy beliefs, and then recreates the observed behavior (Salkind, 2008). By observing and modeling the behavior of successful leaders, an aspiring female leader increase her self-efficacy. Another way to increase self-efficacy is by mastering the subject matter, which works to strengthen one’s belief in their abilities (Salkind, 2008). And finally, understanding the value one brings to their role with help an aspiring female leader gain confidence as she helps further the organization’s goals (Mejer, 2017). 86 Recommendation 3: Develop the Art of Self-Promotion The study findings revealed that women tend not to self-promote and instead prefer to let the quality of their work speak for them, which conforms to current literature indicating that women are less likely to self-promote than men (Dashper, 2019; Exley & Kessler, 2019; Marcus & Olinsky, 2015). Self-promotion is about building relationships and communicating the value of one’s performance without bragging (Neild, 2020). Participants of the study became aware of the need to self-promote after being overlooked for promotions and other opportunities for advancement. Several studies noted that lack of self-promotion could be due to what is called the “spotlight effect” (Gilovich et al., 2000), which is a scenario where people feel they are in the spotlight when they attempt to self-promote, overestimating the amount of attention being received and ultimately making the self-promoter hyperconscious about what they are saying (Bond, 2017; Neild, 2020). One strategy to address hyperconsciousness is to practice self- promotion until it feels natural (Exley & Kessler, 2019). Another option is for aspiring female leaders to model the self-promoting behavior of an admired leader. Observational learning and practice will help the female leaders feel less self-conscious while attempting to further their careers. Limitations and Delimitations Every study comes with inherent limitations and delimitations. Limitations are factors that impact the study that the researcher has no control over (Simon, 2010). The significant limitations of this study were time and scheduling constraints of the participants, insufficient participation, and social desirability bias. Delimitations are the study design choices the researcher makes that determine scope, participants, research questions and data collected (Simon, 2010). For this study, the significant delimitation was the chosen demographic for the 87 sample population, which included leaders of the top 1,000 most profitable organizations in the United States, making them relatively unreachable. The choice of this sample population led to significant limitations to the study. The actual time available to collect, analyze and present the results of the study was limited by the availability of potential participants and the timeliness of their responses. The pool of potential participants was comprised of chief executive leaders of large companies with unknown time constraints. This was taken into consideration when designing the study. While one-on-one interviews were the desired data collection instrument, the uncertainty of access to potential participants and the need for data collection influenced the decision to use a survey as the initial data collection instrument. Given that the purposeful sample pool required for this study was already limited in numbers, and was unknown to the researcher, gaining access to these high-profile executives presented a challenge. The initial sample population was given 30 days to respond to the survey before the contingent, potentially more accessible population was contacted. While the initial potential participants were chosen for their undeniable success, leading high profile, highly profitable corporations, the research questions could be satisfactorily answered using less affluent or visible participants. In order to capture meaningful self-reported data that was used to form theories, it was imperative that participants answer truthfully. Social desirability bias occurs when respondents change their actual responses to those they feel will present them in a better light (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). This type of bias is common when participants have to provide self-reported histories and traits (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). This bias can also occur when sensitive information is requested, when participants want to present programs or interactions contributing 88 to positive changes, or when they are worried about their anonymity (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Socially desirable responses provide low quality data and skew results (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). While one solution to mitigate this bias is to use closed-ended questions, closed- ended questions allow for a limited range of responses and would have limited the ability to collect the wide breadth of responses required for this study (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). To reduce the occurrence of this bias, the researcher reminded the participants of the importance of the study and resulting potential contributions to women on similar career paths, in addition to providing assurances that all recorded data was scrubbed of identifying factors. The delimitations of this study were the choice of sample population, research questions and objective of the study. All the limitations of this study were a direct result of this choice of sample population of female chief executives over 45. Chief executives are fairly inaccessible given the demands of their schedules and administrative staff whose job it is to filter who gains access. However, this population group was required in order to answer the research questions. Recommendations for Future Research As women age, they tend to be targeted for both their age and gender, often leading to forced early retirement (Lipnic, 2018; McLaughlin, 2018). Gender inequality is a reliable indicator of income inequality (Kochhar et al., 2017) and income inequality is directly linked to increases in poverty and decreases in health and life expectancy (Kahn et al., 2000; Kawachi et al., 1999). The findings of this study indicated a potential link between state specific pro-female legislation and an increase in the percentages of female chief executives in Fortune 1000 companies. Assuming the percentages of female chief executives within Fortune 1000 companies are representative of all organizations in the same geographic area, further research is warranted to determine if such a link does in fact exist, which would have wide ranging implications. 89 Additionally, it would be intriguing to determine if the same type of correlation exists between state legislation and age discrimination as well. Not only could the number of female executive leaders increase, thereby reducing the barriers for all professional women, but pro-female legislation could be enacted to reduce the burden on society by reducing the poverty gap currently experienced by elderly women (Dalal, 2018; Marcus, 2019). Conclusion The purpose of this study was to explore the individual, organizational and societal influences that have enabled female professionals over 45 to obtain and maintain positions commensurate with their experience and ability despite their disadvantaged age and gender. The scope of this study did not attempt to gain understanding of, or end, gender and age bias, but to discover the self-reported common personality traits and strategies employed by women who have successfully navigated their way through these challenges. A gap analysis framework was used to explore the influences that enable women over 45 to achieve and maintain chief executive roles. Gap analysis was chosen due to its cyclical systematic approach to analyzing current performance against a desired performance goal, which enables one to identify gaps, implement strategies and evaluate results against the performance goal (Clark, 2002). In this study, the gap analytic framework was adapted to study assets rather than gaps. The gap analysis framework was used to examine three key concepts: knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors, or KMO (Clark, 2002). This study explored female chief executives’ knowledge, motivation, and external and organizational influences via mixed methods consisting of a survey, interviews, and artifact analysis. There were clear commonalities discovered across the study participants’ responses. All participants reported having encountered organizational and external barriers along their path to 90 achieve a chief executive role. The majority of participants reported encountering gender and age bias throughout their careers. The aspects of organizational culture that hindered the participants' success were the “boys' club mentality” and a preference for men and younger employees within the organization, although all participants felt that organizational and social cultures are changing in ways that will facilitate women's successful achievement of chief executive positions. Mentorship and a push for diversity were cited as facilitating the participants’ successes. All participants indicated they had to overcome organizational barriers due to gender bias and revealed the need to adjust their behaviors in order to succeed. All of the participants were confident in their ability to self-evaluate and adjust their strategic behaviors as needed, signifying a high level of self-efficacy. The most common advice the study participants offered aspiring female chief executives was to take risks and work hard, along with developing expertise, seeking out mentors, and persevering towards their goal of achieving a chief executive role. Recommendations were proposed for both the organization and aspiring female leaders. The recommendations made for organizations addressed the common cultural barriers study participants faced. The recommendations were for organizations to perform a gap analysis to identify gender gaps in their organization that may lead to biased recruiting, hiring and advancement policies, to develop an internal cross-gender mentoring network in order for both genders to benefit from the experiences of the others that may otherwise have been unknown, and finally, to create leadership building opportunities for all employees, not just those who appear to match the organizations’ perceived traits of a leader. The recommendations proposed for aspiring female leaders were to take advantage of the benefits of mentoring by building their own networks outside of their organizations, strengthen their self-efficacy so that they may 91 follow the advice given by the study’s participants, and learn the art of self-promotion in order to create leadership opportunities. Document analysis indicated there may be a correlation between state mandated pro-female legislation and the percentage of women in chief executive roles. Further research is needed to determine where such a link exists, as the potential benefits for organizations, women, and society are tremendous. 92 References 116th Congress of the United States. (2019, November 20). Related bills - H.R.5084 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Improving corporate governance through diversity Act of 2019. Congress.gov | Library of Congress. https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th- congress/house-bill/5084/related-bills?r=6&s=1 Adcock, S. 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In The new CEOs: women, African American, Latino, and Asian American leaders of fortune 500 companies. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 113 Appendix A: Survey Protocol Email Template: Dear (potential participant), My name is Danette Nelson and I am a doctoral student as USC, my background can be viewed at www.linkedin.com/in/danette-m-nelson. I am passionate about exploring the challenges we as professional women face in advancing our careers, as well as the strategies successful women like you have used to persist and challenge the status quo in order to succeed. I am conducting a survey as part of a research study to increase understanding of the common influences that have enabled women to achieve and maintain C-suite roles. I am contacting you because you have been identified on the Fortune 1000 list as holding a chief executive role in a successful organization. The purpose of this study is to explore internal, organizational, and societal factors that affect women’s success in navigating challenges during their career advancement. I would be appreciative if you could complete a short survey about your experiences. The survey should take no more than 10 minutes and there are no right or wrong answers. Your honest responses will be the most helpful to the study. You may skip any question you do not wish to answer, and you may stop the survey at any time. All responses are anonymous. If you agree to participate in the survey, please click "Continue" below: and can be found here <survey hyperlink> Your participation is completely voluntary, and you can choose to skip any questions you are uncomfortable answering. All the information you share with me will be kept 114 completely confidential with your name and all identifying information removed from the data collected. The survey will remain active for the next thirty days. For more information about this study, please contact me by phone at 310 480-3716 or email me at danetten@usc.edu. Thank you Danette Nelson Study Title: An Exploration of Female Chief Executives’ Path to Success Survey Questions: Question Open or Closed? Level of Measurement. (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) Response options (if close-ended) RQ Concept being measured (from emerging conceptual framework) 1 I feel I am able to motivate employees to perform to the best of their ability. Closed Ordinal Strongly agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Strongly disagree 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 2 I feel I am able to determine which leadership style is the most effective in varying situations. Closed Ordinal Strongly agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Strongly disagree 3 Knowledge: metacognition, the ability to self- evaluate behavior and adjust accordingly 115 3 My organization provides me with the resources I need to be effective. Closed Ordinal Strongly agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Strongly disagree 1 Organization: company policies that can enable or obstruct 4 My organization provides opportunities for women to work in all career paths within the organization. Closed Ordinal Strongly agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Strongly disagree 1 Organization: company policies/environment that can enable or obstruct 5 People in my organization treat each other well. Closed Ordinal Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Neutral, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree 1 Organization: company policies/environment that can enable or obstruct 6 Due to my gender, I have experienced hardships in my career that I have had to overcome. Closed Ordinal Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Neutral, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 116 7 If you indicated “agree,” could you provide some examples? Open Nominal 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 8 Could you explain how you overcame the hardships? Open Nominal 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 9 Due to my age, I have experienced hardships in my career that I have had to overcome. Closed Ordinal Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Neutral, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 10 If you indicated “agree,” could you provide some examples? Open Nominal 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 11 Could you explain how you overcame the hardships? Open Nominal 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 12 I have had to make major adjustments to my behaviors in order to be considered for a leadership role. Closed Ordinal Strongly agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Strongly disagree 1, 2 Knowledge: metacognition, the ability to self- evaluate behavior and adjust accordingly Organization: organizational culture 13 What major adjustment did Open Nominal 2 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in 117 you need to make? one's abilities to achieve goals 14 I had to make changes to my leadership style once I achieved a chief executive position. Closed Ordinal Agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Disagree 3 Knowledge: metacognition, the ability to self- evaluate behavior and adjust accordingly 15 If you indicated “agree,” what changes did you make and why? Open Nominal 3 Motivation: self- efficacy, the belief in one's abilities to achieve goals 16 What do you feel are the personality traits that most enabled you to succeed in your career? Open Nominal 3 Knowledge: metacognition, the ability to self- evaluate behavior and adjust accordingly 17 What advice would you share with women who are just beginning their careers? Open Nominal 3 Knowledge: metacognition, the ability to self- evaluate behavior and adjust accordingly 18 Are you over the age of 45? Closed Nominal Yes, No Background, Identifying Stakeholder Respondent 19 Would you be willing to participate in a virtual one-on- one interview? Please use this confidential link to provide your contact information. Hyperlink to Google Form Interview participant recruitment 118 Appendix B: Interview Protocol Thank you for meeting with me today and helping with my study. The purpose of this study is to explore what factors have enabled women over 45 to achieve and maintain C-suite roles. The study will be exploring internal, organizational, and societal influences. Your name and all identifying information will be removed from the data collected today. Your responses will be summarized and combined with other responses to determine common factors that enable or hinder women’s success. This interview should not take more than an hour and we can stop at any point. With your permission, I’d like to record your responses to ensure accuracy in my summarized results. No one other than me will have access to the recording, and it will not include your name or organization. Your participation is completely voluntary, and you can choose to skip any questions you are uncomfortable answering. RECORDING STARTED 1. How long have you been with your current company? (background) 2. How long have you been in this position? (background) a. What was your previous position? (background) 3. Would you mind giving me a brief history of your rise to this position? (background) 4. What organizational factors do you feel helped you achieve your success? (RQ1; 119 organizational factors) 5. Where there any organizational factors you felt held you back? (RQ 1; organizational factors) 6. What personality traits do you feel helped you become so successful? (RQ 2; metacognition) a. Do you feel these same traits have help you remain successful in this role? b. If not, what traits does someone in your position need? 7. What personality traits do you feel hinder a person’s ability to reach a chief executive position? (RQ 2; metacognition) 8. Have you had to make any major behavioral changes in order to achieve a chief executive role? (RQ 3; motivation) a. If yes, what changes did you have to make? b. What prompted you to make these changes? 9. Has achieving a chief executive role caused any hardships in your personal life? (RQ 3; motivation) a. What were they? b. What did you do to overcome them? 10. Did you always know you wanted to lead an organization? (RQ 3; motivation) a. If yes, what kept you focused? b. If not, why did you pursue this role? 11. What advice would you share with other women who are hoping to achieve the same kind of professional success? (RQ 3; metacognition) 12. Does your organization offer any programs aimed at mentoring staff? (RQ 1; 120 organizational factors) a. What are they? 13. Do you feel attitudes towards women leaders are changing? Why or why not? What evidence of change do you see in your organization? (RQ 1; organizational factors) 14. Some literature shows women over 45 start experiencing age discrimination. Have you observed any instances of that, either personally or towards others? (RQ 1; organizational/societal factors) a. How would you describe it? i. What was the outcome? 15. Would you be willing to share your company employment and hiring policies with me? (RQ 1; organizational factors) a. Can be a handbook or internal HR documents regarding hiring, retirement, internal promotions. We have completed all the questions I had. Is there anything you would like to add? Would you like to receive a summary of our interview to review for accuracy? If you have any questions or want to add anything that we did not cover today, please email me. Thank you again for your time. 121 Appendix C: Artifact Analysis Protocol Documents to be collected for analysis in the study are:  Participant provided employee handbooks. (RQ 1; organizational influences)  Participant provided company policies. (RQ 1; organizational influences)  Participants’ state labor and employment laws. (RQ 1; external influences)  Participants’ company’s website. (background; triangulation)  LinkedIn company profiles. (background; triangulation)  Securities Exchange Commission filings (Background; RQ 1; external and organizational influences) Document prompts:  Any verbiage specifically relating to gender and age-based policies or legislation. (RQ 1; external and organizational influences)  Any verbiage related to gender interactions such as anti-sexual harassment policies, reporting policies, and anti-retaliatory language. (RQ 1; external and organizational influences)  Any references to litigation resulting from gender or age biases. (RQ 1; organizational influences) 122 Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Research STUDY TITLE: Hail to the Chief: An Exploration of Female Chief Executives’ Path to Success PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Danette Nelson FACULTY ADVISOR: Dr. Helena Seli, Ph.D. You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to explore the influences that have enabled you as a female professional over 45 to obtain and maintain positions commensurate with your experience and ability. I hope to learn the common practices successful chief executive women have used to achieve success and their recommendations for women who are both at the beginning and mid- career who could use guidance to achieve C-suite roles. You are invited as a possible participant because you have been identified as a woman occupying a chief executive position. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT If you decide to take part, you will be asked to complete a survey that takes 5-7 minutes to complete. The last question provides the opportunity to participate in a one-on-one interview that 123 will last about 45 minutes and take place via the Zoom platform or telephone, participants’ choice. While all identifying information will be removed from the saved recordings, you also have the opportunity to decline having your video or audio recorded. You have the opportunity to end the interview at any time. CONFIDENTIALITY The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used. After transcripts are made of interviews, all video and audio recordings will be destroyed. No identifying information will be used on interview transcripts. The transcripts will be kept on a secure cloud drive for a period of three years after study completion, according to IRB requirements. There is a small risk that people who are not connected with this study will learn your identity or your personal information. This could happen if the researcher’s calendar or computer is hacked before interview transcripts are made, however a firewall has been set up to protect the data. 124 INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any questions about this study, please Danette Nelson, danetten@usc.edu, 310-480- 3716. IRB CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu. 125 Appendix E: Demographic Data of Study Stakeholders Stakeholder Positions CEO COO CFO All (207) 101 49% 12 6% 94 45% Contacted (181) 87 48% 9 5% 85 47% Interviewed (8) 2 25% 4 50% 2 25% COVID-19 Retirements (12) 10 5% 2 1% Abandoned Completed No Response Survey Responses 33 16% 27 13% 147 71% Interview Participants by Job Position CEO COO CFO TOTAL Total Participants: 2 1% 4 2% 2 1% 8 4% Participants by State: CA 2 25% 2 25% 2 25% 6 75% ID 1 13% 1 13% FL 1 13% 1 13% 126 Study Stakeholders by State CEO COO CFO TOTAL AR 1 0% 1 0% AZ 1 0% 4 2% 5 2% CA 30 14% 1 0% 16 8% 47 23% CO 1 0% 1 0% CT 2 1% 2 1% 4 2% DC 1 0% 1 0% 1 0% 3 1% DE 1 0% 1 0% FL 2 1% 1 0% 2 1% 5 2% GA 4 2% 3 1% 7 3% HI 1 0% 1 0% IA 1 0% 1 0% ID 1 0% 1 0% IL 6 3% 2 1% 8 4% 16 8% IN 2 1% 3 1% 5 2% KY 2 1% 2 1% LA 2 1% 2 1% MA 3 1% 6 3% 9 4% MD 1 0% 2 1% 3 1% MI 2 1% 2 1% 4 2% MN 3 1% 3 1% 6 3% MO 4 2% 4 2% NC 3 1% 1 0% 4 2% NJ 4 2% 1 0% 2 1% 7 3% NY 12 6% 2 1% 8 4% 22 11% OH 1 0% 1 0% 2 1% 4 2% OR 1 0% 1 0% 3 1% 5 2% PA 6 3% 6 3% 12 6% RI 1 0% 1 0% SC 1 0% 1 0% TN 1 0% 1 0% T X 4 2% 5 2% 9 4% VA 3 1% 1 0% 3 1% 7 3% WA 2 1% 2 1% 4 2% WI 1 0% 1 0% 2 1% 100 48% 13 6% 94 45% 207 100% Note. States with double digit female chief executives within a Fortune 1000 company are in bold. 127 Appendix F: Demographics of Fortune 1000 Companies by U.S. Jurisdiction Jurisdiction % Female Population a State Pro-female Specific Legislation? # Fortune 1000 Companies # Fortune 1000 Companies with Female C-suite % of Fortune 1000 with a Female C-Suite AK 47-48% No 0 N/A N/A AL 51-52% No 5 0 0% AR 50-51% No 8 1 13% AZ 50-51% No 13 5 38% CA 50-51% Yes 102 47 46% CO 49-50% Yes 20 1 5% CT 51-52% Yes 26 4 15% DC 51-52% Yes 6 3 50% DE 51-52% Yes 2 1 50% FL 51-52% Yes 30 5 17% GA 51-52% Yes 30 7 23% HI 49-50% Yes 2 1 50% IA 50-51% No 5 1 20% ID 49-50% Yes 3 1 33% IL 50-51% Yes 67 16 24% IN 50-51% Yes 18 5 28% KS 50-51% Yes 4 0 0% KY 50-51% Yes 8 2 25% LA 51-52% No 4 2 50% MA 51-52% Yes 26 9 35% MD 51-52% No 12 3 25% ME 51-52% Yes 0 N/A N/A MI 50-51% Yes 29 4 14% MN 50-51% Yes 28 6 21% MO 50-51% Yes 25 4 16% MS 51-52% No 1 0 0% MT 47-48% No 0 N/A N/A NC 51-52% Yes 27 4 15% ND 48-49% No 2 0 0% NE 50-51% No 11 0 0% NH 50-51% No 2 0 0% NJ 51-52% Yes 45 7 16% NM 50-51% Yes 0 N/A N/A NV 49-50% Yes 8 0 0% NY 51-52% Yes 88 22 25% OH 51-52% No 56 4 7% 128 OK 50-51% No 12 0 0% OR 50-51% Yes 5 5 100% PA 51-52% Yes 51 12 24% PR 47-48% Yes 2 0 0% RI 51-52% Yes 7 1 14% SC 51-52% No 5 1 20% SD 49-50% No 0 N/A N/A TN 51-52% No 22 1 5% TX 50-51% No 103 9 9% UT 47-48% No 4 0 0% VA 50-51% Yes 35 7 20% VT 50-51% Yes 2 0 0% WA 50-51% Yes 16 4 25% WI 50-51% Yes 23 2 9% WV 50-51% No 0 N/A N/A WY 48-49% No 0 N/A N/A Totals: 1000 207 a Populate data collected from https://www.marketwatch.com/story/10-reasons-single-men-should- move-to-the-northeast-2014-06-26 129 Appendix G: List of Advice as Given by Study Participants Work hard and learn hard. Don't believe the lies that society tells you that women are less than. IF you work hard people don’t see your gender. Wake up and start over :D Negotiate pays, acknowledge your values, invest in your resume, be your best and not by working too hard. Be smart, companionate, help the team to grow and succeed. Continue to grow and look for challenges. Leave the victim behind and look for the opportunities in the chaos. Stay focused on results. Raise your hand. You have a seat at the table -- participate fully and thoughtfully. Develop an expertise that you refine and master. Have a voice. Do your homework, listen, have a point of view, do not be meek, and own your positions. Be genuine and let people who work with and for you know who you are, what your values are, and how you will support your team. And develop a strong team, you are only as strong as your team. Reach for the stars. Raise your hand and get outside your comfort zone. With that said, deliver on your competencies, and declare where you want to go (may not be your end goal but don’t wait to be tapped on your shoulder or allow others to define your direction). Build strong teams which means you have to be a great team player, and always lead with the power of vision. Let others see your strategic side. Work with a wide variety of leaders - your style will be a mosaic of all the people you work with; the one you admire and the ones less so Create learning agility - put yourself into a variety of roles and take risks that will stretch and challenge you; you learn the most when you are uncomfortable and build resilience that will make you far more successful later Find great mentors/sponsors who will help you see and address your blind spots; it's important to have direct feedback and people that will coach you to step up your game when you need it; that "personal board of directors" is a critical asset through to being a CEO Be humble and learn. Bigger companies can be a great place to learn professional competency. Push yourself so you learn to have confidence - confidence will allow you to lead others Don't use your sex as a crutch. Be confident in your abilities and don't allow people (male or female) to walk all over you or doubt those abilities. Work hard. Never ever give up. Be a team player. Be authentic and always honest so people can totally rely on you. 130 Listen, Listen, Listen! Willing to change, apply what you learn, think twice before firing back an email, forget the micro-aggressions - Focus on the big picture. and if it isn't working where you are - understand what you have to do and sometimes it means changing companies - you are in charge of your career! If you are reading this research you clearly want to grow. Work hard. Ask for what you want. Be willing to take risks and make yourself uncomfortable (in a good way). Surround yourself with people smarter than you. You will be ready for more before you think you are. Who you work for is more important than where you work or what you do. I've had amazing mentors and would not have been nearly as successful without them. Be intellectually curious. Learn as much as you can. Don't be afraid of change - change is good and gives you new opportunities. Find what you love to do and build your career around it. If you feel that your voice is not being heard, remind people that you are also a member of the team, you have a role to play. It’s hard. Work hard. Dive into projects. Take risks. If you are Not uncomfortable than you are not learning. Position attitude makes people want to work with you. Be the subject matter expert. Find a mentor. You will never be successful without help. Identify their signature strengths and play them confidently, add tangible value to people around themselves Go on the journey, remain confident, expect bumps and failures, and realize that is just part of life and of any journey. Focus on the end goal. Don't rush to the role I would say don't rush it, get experience that you think is going to contribute to your role. If that's your if you feel that your calling, I, I feel it really worked in my favor to think from scratch rather than trying to emulate a model that has been primarily designed by men and men do what they do. I mean, they have had we've had a successful economy basically because of male driven businesses. So, I'm not criticizing them. But I think there's more than one way to be successful as a business owner or executive. And that's what diversity is all about. work hard, strive for excellence, demonstrate expertise, ability to learn new things, adapt to new environments, be willing to take risks but don't be reckless. 131 …always demonstrating the ability to learn new things, adapt to new environments, be able to re prioritize things because the business world can change pretty quickly. show up early, stay late, do your homework, and listen. Do not give up, you're going to get out. You're good. Be approachable, yet you have your personal boundaries. Be approachable and be willing to listen and be willing to also accept criticism and learn from it. BE willing to understand, and this is a tough one, that no matter what comes at you, understand that it is not you. It doesn't reflect who you are as a person. So, when any negative comes at you or any block or roadblock comes your way, I think you have to understand the roadblock isn't coming from you. Stay calm. be positive, work hard, don't give up, do what makes you happy. If you believe in something, do not take no for an answer. I'm saying, those who are starting very early on in the career and has aspirations, one is do not be prideful, probably will not get you anywhere being very open and transparent and willing to learn, admitting something if you have done a mistake, if you do not know all of those things are critical, and then having that key eye on wanting to learn something new. Every day, every day, the world is changing Work hard, act with integrity, be willing to take risks and be uncomfortable So surround yourself with people smarter than you is great because it helps your total business, but it also gives you time to step back and get a different lens on the world and think about some larger things.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nelson, Danette Marie (author)

Core Title Hail to the chief: an exploration of female chief executives’ successes

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/25/2021

Defense Date 04/23/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cross gender mentoring,female chief executives,gender bias,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Seli, Helena (committee chair), Phillips, Jennifer (committee member), Sparangis, Themistocles (committee member)

Creator Email danettenet@msn.com,Onebusyone2001@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-449623

Unique identifier UC11668950

Identifier etd-NelsonDane-9536.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-449623 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-NelsonDane-9536.pdf

Dmrecord 449623

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nelson, Danette Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA