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Spirituality in the workplace: a gap analysis of Omega Marketing

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Content Running head: SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 1

Spirituality in the Workplace: A Gap Analysis of Omega Marketing
by
Philip Jay Armel

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Philip J. Armel

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 2

Acknowledgements

While this dissertation bears the single name of the student, the process of arriving at the
final product was accomplished through the efforts and support of many people. The list of
family, friends, and educators who helped me along this journey is long, and I am truly blessed
for having each and every one of them in my life. My goal is to acknowledge my appreciation to
those who walked even a single step with me on the journey of the past 32 plus months. But
should I forget anyone who accompanied me on this journey, I apologize right now for my
oversight.
First and foremost, I wish to acknowledge YWHW, the creator of all that is good. It is
the teachings, tenets, and precepts contained within His Holy Writ that led me to this juncture of
my life and my curiosity about the topic of study.
To my wife Stuart, you are a blessing from the Heavenly Father, and this work is as much
a part of you as it is of me. You were there through daunting times, the late nights/early
mornings, and the moments of epiphany, joy, and gladness. I could never have accomplished
this dissertation without your love, support, and understanding. I love you!
To my daughters, Hilary Jaye and Stefanie, all that I have done in life, including this work, is to
make you proud to be my daughters. I love you both more than you will ever realize!
To Dr. Melora Sundt and Dr. Kathy Hanson, thank you for hosting the VOWW! The
weekend of brainstorming, chapter outlining, and initial writings in the rolling hills outside of
Frederick, MD was crucial to setting me on the right path.
Sincere heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Julie Slayton, whose mentorship and guidance helped get me
through some of the toughest times and to the finish line.
Special thanks also go the Dr. Mark Matson, of Milligan College. Words will never
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 3

express the deepness of my gratitude for the blessing you have been to me over the past few
years. Thanks are also due to Dr. Jim Weber of Duquesne University. Your faith and confidence
in me gave me the courage I needed to take the leap of faith that has led to this moment.
To my committee members, Dr. Corinne Hyde (committee chair), Dr. Omar Ezzeldine,
and Dr. Kimberly Ferrario, thank you. Your guidance in helping to pare down what began as an
elephant size topic into one that was manageable and more digestible was invaluable. This
manuscript bears the fruit of your labors.
Thanks, are also due to my Cohort 3 family; it was you who were in the trenches with me
on a daily basis, who lifted me up when I struggled, and who provided words of encouragement
when I needed them most. I completed this program on the shoulders of true giants. I am
forever in your debt. # NoDoctorsDown and Fight On!
Last but certainly not least, my humble thanks go out to the following, really amazing,
individuals:
Neil Raper, whose wordsmithing ability is truly a gift from YWHW. Remember,
sometimes a full moon is not a thing of beauty.
Mark Raines, for your tireless support and the mental breaks you provided.
Mark Gustafson, your ability to keep me grounded and focused on what is most
important in life, and for helping me stay true to myself is like none other. From the bottom of
my heart, thank you!
Coach Tom Myers, for constantly reminding me it's all about the journey and the
concepts of higher and deeper.
Chet Bridger, you always seem to have the right words at the right time my dear friend,
so now let’s go get us a lemman liiime Gatorade.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 4

Finally, to the baristas at the Starbucks on 127 in Hickory, NC: your tall, nonfat, extra hot, white
chocolate mochas, stirred, with light whip, and your smiling faces blessed me through this
journey in ways you will never know.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 5

LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
1 Organizational Performance Goal 19
2 Knowledge Influences Including Types, Assessment and Proposed
Solutions
45
3 Motivation Influences 50
4 Qualitative KMO Survey Items 63
5 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 95
6 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 100
7 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 103
8 Outcomes, Metric, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 107
9 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Leadership 109
10 Required Drives to Support the Practice of Spirituality in the
Workplace Critical Behaviors
110
11 Components of Learning for the Program 115
12 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program

116

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 6

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page
1 Importance of Religion in One’s Life by Region (2014) 18
2 Interaction of Stakeholder’s Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context Framework Design Model
53
3 Is the Practice of One’s Spirituality in Your Workplace Important to
Your Organization?
76
4 Staff’s Perception of the Organization’s Leadership Comprehension of
Spirituality as Defined for This Study
78
5 Does the Organization’s Formal Leadership Value a Particular Belief
System (teachings and tenets) Over Others?
81
6 Spirituality in All Facets of Life is Important 84
7 Do You Draw Upon the Teachings of Your Religious Beliefs to do
Your Job?
86
8 Do you Believe You Are to Draw on the Teachings and Tenets of a
Religious Belief to do Your Job?
86
9 Staff’s Perception of Organizational Leadership’s Knowledge of
Spirituality
88
10 Perceived Importance of Spirituality in the Workplace to the
Organization
89
11 Spirituality and Ethical Business Practices 90
12 Staff Members Responses to Training Chart 119

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 7

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 10
Chapter 1: Introduction 11
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 11
Background of the Problem 13
Importance of Addressing the Problem 15
Organizational Context and Mission 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups 21
Purpose of the Project and Questions 23
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 23
Organization of the Project 24
Definition of Terms 25

Chapter 2: Review of Literature 27
Introduction 27
Spirituality Defined 27
What is Spirituality? 27
Specific Definition of Spirituality for this Study 30
Tools for Improving Workplace Performance and Employee Conditions 33
Improved Employee Performance 34
Improved Organizational Effectiveness 36
Adds to Diversity in the Workplace 37
Ethical/Unethical Decision Making as a Personal Choice 38
The Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework 40
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 41
Knowledge and Skills 41
Motivation 46
Expectancy Value Motivation Theory 46
Attribution Theory 48
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 8

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ 51
Knowledge and Motivation, and the Organizational Context

Chapter 3: Methods 54
Research Questions 54
Participating Stakeholders 55
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale 56
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 56
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale 57
Data Collection and Instrumentation 58
Survey 58
Observation 59
Documents and Artifacts 61
Data Analysis 62
Credibility and Trustworthiness 64
Ethics 67
Limitations and Delimitations 69

Chapter 4: Results and Findings 71
Summary of Data Collection Strategies 72
Participating Stakeholders 73
Conceptual Framework 73
Results 74
Formal Leadership Behavior Did Not Impede the Practice of Spirituality 74
in the Workplace (Organizational Factors)
The Organization Valued the Practice of Spirituality 75
The Organization's Leadership Comprehended Spirituality 77
as Defined for This Study
The Organization Allowed the Practice of Spirituality 79
Without Regard to Religious Orientation
No Pressure to Appear Religious or Spiritual 81
No Formal Policies That Would Impede or Support the Practice of Spirituality 81
Staff Members' Own Comfort with the Practice of Spirituality in the Workplace 82
Spirituality is Important in All Facets of Life 83
The Practice of Spirituality Has Value and Benefits 84
for Practitioners and the Organization
Drawing Upon Teaching and Tenets Aid Job Performance 85
Leadership Knowledge and Skill-set(s) and Motivational Factors 87
The Practice of Spirituality and Ethical Business Practices 89
Conclusion 91

Chapter 5: Recommendations 93
Purpose of the Project and Questions 93
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 94
Knowledge Recommendations 94
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 9

Declarative Knowledge Solutions 96
or Description of Needs or Assets
Procedural Knowledge Solutions 97
or Description of Needs or Assets
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions 98
or Description of Needs or Assets
Motivation Recommendations 99
Sociocultural Theory 101
Attribution Theory 101
Organization Recommendations 102
Cultural Model 104
Behavioral Theory 105
Cultural Setting 105
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 106
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 106
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 106
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 107
Level 3: Behavior 109
Critical Behaviors 109
Required Drivers 110
Organizational Support 112
Level 2: Learning 113
Learning Goals 113
Program 113
Components of Learning 114
Level 1: Reaction 115
Evaluation Tools 117
Immediately Following the Program Implementation 117
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation 117
Data Analysis and Reporting 118
Summary 120
Recommendation for Future Research 122

References 124

Appendices
Appendix A: Survey Items 136
Appendix B: Observation Protocol 138
Appendix C: Informed Consent/ Information Sheet 140
Appendix D: Recruitment Letter 142

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 10

Abstract
In today's rapidly changing environment, enterprise leaders, organizational members, and change
agents are seeking answers to give their organizations a competitive edge. At the same time,
staff members are seeking a means to incorporate their whole person in the workplace. This
paper explores the role, benefits, and detriments that the practice of one’s spirituality in the
workplace brings to an organization, specifically Omega Marketing. In order to place this
phenomenon in greater context, this subject will be viewed through the lens of as a problem of
practice within the Omega Marketing organization. Next, a literature review on the practice of
spirituality in the workplace is discussed. Focus is then placed on the Clark and Estes (2008)
KMO model for performance solutions, which is utilized as the underpinning of this study. After
providing insight into the necessary knowledge and skill-sets, the motivational factors, and the
organizational factors that affect the practice of spirituality in the workplace, specifically Omega
Marketing, the focus shifts once again to the methodology of this study, which is qualitative
inquiry using an opened survey emailed to current and former employees of the organization.
Finally, Kirkpatrick’s (2016) four levels of evaluation model was used to develop
recommendations for the organization, and future studies on the topic.
Keywords: workplace spirituality, vocation, whole person, spirituality benefits

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 11

Spirituality in the Workplace a Gap Analysis of Omega Marketing
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Introduction of the Problem of Practice
In today’s fast-paced and ever-changing business and social environments, enterprise
leaders, organizational members, and change agents are seeking answers to give their
organizations a competitive edge. At the same time, staff members are seeking a means to
incorporate their whole person in the workplace. Greater diversity in the American culture of the
21
st
century brings with it greater challenges, and this fact is demonstrated in the headlines of
newspapers and on the evening news of major television networks in the United States from the
late 1980’s to the present day. A few national examples are the actions taken by executives and
staff members at Enron and WorldCom in the late 1980’s to the decisions made at Wells Fargo
and Bank of America as recently as early 2017, all which have caused fiscal, psychological, and
even physical harm to stakeholders. For example, according to Thomas (2002), during the early
months of 2001
as Enron’s stock price and debt rating imploded because of loss of investor and
creditor trust, methods the company used to disclose (or creatively obscure) its
complicated financial dealings were erroneous and, in the view of some,
downright deceptive. The company’s lack of transparency in reporting its
financial affairs, followed by financial restatements disclosing billions of dollars
of omitted liabilities and losses, contributed to its demise. The whole affair
happened under the watchful eye of Arthur Andersen LLP, which kept a whole
floor of auditors assigned at Enron year-round (p. 21-22).
Enron is not the only example of business decisions that had a negative
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 12

effect on stakeholders. On June 25, 2002, it was revealed that WorldCom, the second
largest long-distance telecommunications company, overstated earnings for 2001 and
earnings in the first quarter of 2002 by more than $3.8 billion; this news stunned financial
analysts and negatively impacted financial markets (Lyke & Jickling, 2002). During this
same time period, mortgage lenders, in an effort to comply with the Clinton
administration’s decision to increase homeownership, created and offered home loan
products to individuals and families who previously would not have qualified for a home
loan through existing mortgage lending standards (Bader, 2008; Hardaway, 2009;
Immergluck, 2011; Robinson & Nantz, 2009). This eventually led to the sub-prime
mortgage crisis of 2007-2008, in which vast numbers of homeowners lost their homes
due to the inability to make their payments (Wallison, 2009). In 2016, business
decisions on the part of employees at Wells Fargo led to the unauthorized opening of new
accounts for current patrons, without their knowledge or approval, in order to meet
organizational goals and to garner financial reward (Tayan, 2016; White, 2016). The
business decisions that led to these and similar events over the past 30 to 40 years have
led both legislators and academics to search for long-term solutions to unethical business
decisions that, in the short term may increase profit, but in the long term, cause harm to
clients and/or stakeholders. However, unethical business decisions are not just those that
are grand in nature. They encompass decisions on a lesser level, like taking home from
the workplace a ream of copy paper, ink pens, or even ink cartridges for one’s personal
printer. Ethical decisions affect all facets of one’s life. Research on the “whole person”
as an asset to organizations, which includes the subcategory of the practice of spirituality
in the workplace, indicates that the practice of spirituality in the workplace can play a key
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 13

role in helping leaders [and staff members] make ethical decisions that do not harm
stakeholders (Hicks, 2002; Phipps, 2011; Sheep, 2006; Vitell, 2010).
Background of the Problem
When leaders do not adhere to a moral value system that is transparent and visible
to the organization’s stakeholders, it is difficult for employees to maintain trust in the
business decisions those leaders make (Friedman, 2006; Goodpaster, 1993; Uslaner,
2008; Uslaner, 2010). In turn, this can contribute to an organizational culture that places
little or no value on ethical behavior in the workplace (Sims & Brinkman,
2002). Evidence highlights that failing to engage employees in “good citizen behaviors"
(Trevino & Weaver, 2001, p. 656) can lead to business decisions that do harm to others.
In 2002, the United States Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) and in 2010
passed the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act in an effort to
address this phenomenon.
The rationale behind SOX is the changing of corporate culture to protect all
stakeholders from decisions by business leaders that inflict harm (Rockness & Rockness,
2005). According to INVESTOPEDIA (Staff, 2017) the goal of the Dodd-Frank Act is to
prevent another great recession like that in 2008, which caused the loss of wealth for
many years. The Dodd-Frank Act created a number of new government agencies whose
mission it is to oversee various aspects of the banking system and to decrease risks to
stakeholders of the United States financial system through the following guidelines:
● Make the financial system more transparent and accountable
● Prevent institutions from becoming too big to fail
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 14

● End government bailouts funded by taxpayers
● End risky and abusive financial services practices
However, this legislation did not have the intended effect on all stakeholders. Early
research has suggested that the Dodd-Frank and SOX legislations both failed to meet
their intended goals (Bainbridge, 2010; Chaffee, 2010; Wilmarth, 2010), of which one
goal was to protect stakeholders from similar events caused by poor business decisions
from happening in the future.
A little less than a decade later in 2016, events of the Wells Fargo Account
Scandal (in which employees opened new accounts in existing account holders’ names
without their knowledge) demonstrated that government intervention via the mechanism
of laws had little effect on unethical decisions/behaviors by leadership and employees of
this particular publicly-traded American corporation. Weaver, Trevino, and Cochran
(1999) have theorized that an organization’s ethics program will not be taken seriously
and may be viewed by employees as window dressing when leadership does not model
the desired decisions that do not harm stakeholders.
Academics concerned about this phenomenon started investigating possible solutions that
looked at the individual. Poor decisions in a business context can negatively impact individual
and organizational performance and can result in the inability to meet organizational goals
(Forsythe, 1992). Research unveiled that an individual’s spirituality can be an important factor
in one’s ability to make informed, ethical business decisions. Giacalone and Jurkiewicz’s (2003)
study of 162 employees “indicate that [the] degree of individual spirituality influences whether
an individual perceives a questionable business practice as ethical or unethical” (p.86). To help
understand this phenomenon, The Academy of Management, which was formed in 1936 by a
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 15

group of educators to advance the philosophy of management, created a new group in 1999 for
their membership to explore how spirituality and religion can influence organizational dynamics
and affect management outcomes. The group is called Management, Spirituality and Religion
(MSR), and since its launch has grown to 600-plus members (Management, 2017). In what
follows, I will be exploring the nexus between morality/spirituality, and the ability of an
organization to establish a culture that not only allows-- but also values-- the benefits of the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace as a tool to gain a competitive edge for Omega
Marketing, while at the same time protecting stakeholder interest.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Anecdotal reports suggest that staff members and clients have left Omega
Marketing because of the unethical decisions made and implemented by some in the
organization's formal leadership. These decisions seem to have created a dual culture for the
organization; one culture is based on the concept of secularism, and the other culture is based on
a belief system shared by other members in the organization. This shared belief system is based
on the practice of one’s spirituality, which includes seeking the transcendent and doing no harm
(Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Smith & Marranca, 2009). The trends of unethical decisions, the
existence of dual cultures within the organization, and the resulting fallout from such decisions
and culture can and should be reversed. One tool that can possibly aid in facilitating these
desired changes is allowing staff to practice one’s spirituality in the workplace.
Evidence is mounting that a “spiritual movement,” which is helping to bring about
positive change, is taking place in organizations (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000, p. 134). Lund,
Dean, and Safranski (2008) note that spirituality in the workplace can bring many sought-after
organizational outcomes which include but are not limited to increased employee devotion to the
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 16

organization, which translates to less turnover, a more positive view of their role with the
company and the company in general, which helps to increase job satisfaction, increased ethical
behavior, and happier employees, which by default increases employee productivity (p.
360). According to Bierley, Kessler, & Christensen, (2000), there is also a positive correlation
between spirituality in the workplace and an organization’s ability to learn. The problems
created by the absence of spirituality in the workplace are important to solve because by solving
these problems, a corporation and its employees can gain a competitive advantage in the
marketplace and stakeholder trust. According to Crossman (2015), spirituality in the workplace
(SAW) is a key component to close the gap and “disconnect between values and beliefs in
developing decision making strategies” (p. 373) and the establishment of a unified organizational
culture. As one will see later in this paper, research on the practice of spirituality in the
workplace has identified a few negative effects of a lack of spirituality in the workplace. These
negative effects include, but are not limited to, low employee morale, low confidence in
leadership due to the fact that followers do not feel the freedom to express themselves, the
breakdown of trust between leader and followers, loss of trust from clients in the organization,
and the loss of production time due to leadership’s blockade of spiritual expression in the
workplace (De Klerk, Boshoff, & Van Wyk, 2106; Garcia-Zamor, 2003; Karakas, 2010; Roof,
2015).

Organizational Context and Mission
Omega Marketing (pseudonym), is a limited liability corporation, located in Virginia and
North Carolina. The focus of the organization is on local marketing solutions that drive revenue
for small and medium size businesses with consultants who live and work in the local
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 17

marketplace. This organization also has a real estate division whose primary function is to assist
first time home buyers (this division is a very limited part of this study). Omega Marketing
consultants provide real-world solutions that drive measurable results via the following
advertising mechanisms:
1. Mail solutions, which include coupons, loyalty cards, flyers, and other print pieces: on-
envelope ads or solo direct mail campaigns
2. Digital marketing which includes business profile pages, website development, blogs,
search engine marketing, search engine optimization, and social media marketing
3. Advanced performance tracking tool
4. Analytic reporting
5. Call tracking
Founded in the mid 1990’s, the company achieved the distinguished honor of being named
the franchise of the year within the past decade (out of more than 180 franchisees worldwide).
Omega Marketing currently employs staff members across three departments: administrative,
sales, and support staff. According to their website, Omega Marketing’s stated mission is to the
local partner of choice of local business owners, to provide those owners quantifiable results
through the utilization of cutting-edge solutions from their team of impassioned consultants who
work hard and smart and enjoy driving customers to their client’s doors. In the normal course of
business, there is an expectation that both parties will act in a professional and ethical
manner. This means that Omega Marketing (at least on its website) espouses publicly its desire
to be ethical and moral in its dealings with all stakeholders.
In an effort to provide a little more context in which the organization exists, it is important to
note that Omega Marketing operates in the southern region of the United States of
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 18

America. This fact may lead to understanding any potential disconnects between the
organization’s culture and that of its employees and clients. In 2014, the Pew Research Center
Religious Landscape study contacted more than 35,000 people across the nation, and the findings
from this study illustrate that people who live in the South place more importance on the role of
religion (spirituality) in one’s life than any other region of the United States (see Figure 1). This
practice, by default, would be instrumental in helping to form their identity and the culture of the
surrounding communities where Omega Marketing operates.

Figure 1

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 19

Table 1
Organizational Performance Goal

Organizational Mission
Omega Marketing’s organizational mission is to partner with local businesses, to help them meet
and/or exceed their goals with respect to gaining and/or maintaining market-share in an ever-
evolving economic climate, and to provide them with quantifiable results and cutting-edge
solutions from our team of impassioned consultants who enjoy driving customers to their doors
and work harder and smarter than our competitors.
Organizational Global Goal
The organizational global goal is to have an organizational culture that inspires all staff members
in their chosen vocation and drives excellence in the performance of their individual duties. The
goal of the organization is to rebuild trust with staff members and the local business community,
in order to reverse the current trends of declining revenue and the loss of employees by October
31, 2018. The measure of success will be to increase revenue by 10% and to reduce employee
turnover by 5% or less in any given year).
Stakeholder Goal

The stakeholder goal for this study is that the leadership (both those in formal roles and those
in informal) will work with staff to build an organizational culture that drives an individual’s
passion for his/her job and his/her client’s success while encouraging the practice of one’s
spirituality in the workplace.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 20

Omega Marketing’s goal, according to their website, is to partner with local business
owners and managers, to help them meet and/or exceed their goals with respect to gaining and/or
maintaining market-share in an ever-evolving economic climate, and to provide them with
quantifiable results and cutting-edge solutions from their team of impassioned consultants who
enjoy driving customers to their doors. This translates to increasing through the door client
touches for those businesses that invest their advertising dollars with Omega Marketing and
increasing clients for Omega Marketing’s individual sales staff members. The increase in foot
traffic varies for each client. Increased foot traffic for Omega Marketing’s clients is
accomplished through three advertising mediums: monthly co-operative direct mail pieces, social
media, and website optimization. Each innovative solution component has its own individual
measurement metric. Increased customer/client base for each sales member is measured on a
weekly basis with comparisons to a 3-year history of each sales staff member’s assigned area,
new business growth in the region, plus any capital improvement costs that are necessary to
cover. Omega Marketing’s annual goal for FY 2016 is an increase in net income of 14%, and the
annual goal for FY 2017 is currently projected at 18% year over year growth. FY 2018 projected
net growth is in the early planning stages and is expected to fall within 14% to 18% year over
year.
The Vice President of Strategic Planning, Dallas Richmond (pseudonym), in co-operation
with the organization’s President, Denver Dinwiddie (pseudonym), COO Charlotte Henrico
(pseudonym), and the sales staff established the annual sales projections in a three-day off-site
meeting early in the 4
th
quarter of the prior year. Adjustments to the sales staff revenue goals are
made monthly based on changes in the local economic environment. The final determination of
whether Omega Marketing’s clients and sales staff members achieve their specific sales goals
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 21

will be measured by monthly benchmarking reports through May 2018. By allowing staff
members to practice their spirituality and to seek the transcendent through their vocation, Omega
Marketing leadership can add another tool that can have a potential positive impact on meeting
their stipulated goals by the 4th quarter of 2018.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
A stakeholder group is a group of individuals who directly contribute to and benefit from
the achievement of the organization’s goal. Following is a partial list of Omega Marketing
stakeholders and how they contribute to the achievement of Omega Marketing’s organizational
performance goals. Omega Marketing’s stakeholders include the sales, administrative and
production staffs, the local small- to-medium size businesses who trust Omega Marketing’s
portfolio of products to drive new and repeat customers through their doors, the homeowners
who receive, open, and respond to the advertising of their clients, along with the United States
Postal Service workers and Internet aficionados who deliver their clients’ messages. Finally,
since Omega Marketing’s franchisor is a publicly traded company, it is the stockholders who
invest their monies with the corporation, trusting they will receive a return on their
investment. From this list of stakeholder groups, which is by no means exhaustive, I will focus
on the sales and administrative staff, the businesses that trust Omega Marketing to increase their
bottom-line, and the homeowners. The sales staff is the backbone of the organization. Without
their successes, Omega Marketing would cease to exist. The sales staff’s efforts are the
foundation upon which the organization is built. They seek out the business owners who want to
grow sales and revenue, design the marketing campaign, and facilitate the contractual agreement
between the small to medium business owner and Omega Marketing. Next are the local business
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 22

owners who are looking to maintain and grow market share. These business owners have an
abundance of advertising media to choose from to get their message into the hands and minds of
the consumer, yet they trust Omega Marketing to deliver sustainable results month-in and month-
out. They are the corporation’s greatest assets, especially when they share their successes with
other business owners looking to increase business. Their recommendation(s) provide credibility
to Omega Marketing’s branding message and provide the sales staff with referral leads. Lastly,
the stakeholder group that ties this package up is the homeowner. Omega Marketing’s marketing
products are designed with a specific demographic in mind: homeowners ages 25-64 with an
average household income of at least $40,000, often with two children. These are the customers
their clients indicate that will spend the most with dollars with them. Without the homeowner’s
acting on their clients’ messages, Omega Marketing would need to reinvent its business model.
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, I have selected one stakeholder group as the focus of this study: Omega Marketing’s
leadership. Leadership is the main implementer of the culture of an organization. It is their
words and deeds (behaviors) that signal to all other members of the organization what is and is
not acceptable/permissible behavior. Furthermore, leadership plays a key role in the
organization achieving its mission. It is important to note that for the purposes of this study,
there currently exist two forms of leadership within the organization: formal, which includes the
owner of the company, the Director of Sales, and the Chief Financial Officer, and informal,
which resides with the staff members whom their peers have identified as possessing their same
value constructs.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 23

Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the role that the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace plays on and organizational influences that may
interfere with that practice and ethical business decisions as they align with Rhodes’s Six
Components of a Model for Workplace Spirituality (2006). While a complete gap analysis would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis
are all members of Omega marketing’s leadership (formal and informal). The analysis will focus
on causes for this problem due to gaps in the areas of staff members’ knowledge and skills,
motivation factors, organizational factors, and leadership disconnect. The analysis will begin by
generating a list of possible or assumed causes and then by examining these systematically. As
such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. To what extent is the organization meeting its goal of encouraging and supporting the
bringing of the whole person to the workplace, and specifically, the practice of an
individual’s spirituality in the workplace?
2. What are the knowledge and skills, motivational factors, and organizational factors
related to achieving the organization’s goal?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
This study will utilize Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model, a systematic, research-
based template that assists organizations in clarifying their goals and identifying the required
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences necessary to meet organizational goals, as
the conceptual framework for evaluation purposes. The methodological framework is a
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 24

qualitative case study of Omega Marketing with descriptive statistics. I have generated the
assumed influences of knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational factors that impact
the organization’s ability to achieve its goal(s) through my research of related literature and
personal knowledge. These influences were explored through my efforts using an open-ended
styled survey, ethnography, literature review, and content analysis. Finally, I have recommended
and evaluated research-based solutions through comprehensive means.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the key
concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about the practice of spirituality in
the workplace and ethical decision making in a business context. The organization’s mission,
goals, and stakeholders have been identified through research by the author of this study. An
introduction to the review of the evaluation framework has been provided by the researcher as
well. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding the scope of the
study. The current literature review focuses on the following topics: spirituality defined, effects
of spirituality in the workplace, ethical/unethical decision making a personal choice, spirituality
in the workplace as tool to close the gap between values and beliefs, and engagement of
spirituality in the workplace. Chapter Three details the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences to be examined as well as methodology when it comes to choose of participants, data
collection, and analysis. Chapter Four details the findings of the study, and Chapter Five
presents recommendations and solutions to the problem of practice based on Clark and Estes
(2008) KMO framework and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) four levels of learning. Chapter Five will also
present recommendations for future studies on the topic.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 25

Definition of Terms
Business Ethics: “Business ethics is moral rules, standards, codes, or principles which provide
guidelines for right and truthful behavior in [all] situations” (Lewis, 1985, p. 382).
Ethnography: the study and systematic recording of human cultures; also: a descriptive work
produced from such research (Ethnography, n.d.).
Morality: principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad
behavior; a particular system of values and principles of conduct, especially one held by a
specified person or society (Morality, n.d.).
Secularism: The term secularism was coined at the time of the European Enlightenment to
demarcate aspects of society that are separate from religion. Currently, it is used in several
different senses. It is a word that refers to (a) secular humanism and atheism, occasionally to (b)
the social process of secularization, and finally to (c) a political state-driven project seeking the
separation of state and religion. This entry is concerned solely with the third sense, with political
secularism.
Broadly speaking, political secularism, anywhere in the world, means a separation of
organized religion from organized political power inspired by a specific set of values. In this
general sense, secularism is a universal normative doctrine. It does not follow, however, that it
comes in one form for all conditions; its constitutive elements can be differently interpreted, thus
giving rise to multiple secularisms (Anheier & Juergensmeyer, 2012).
Thus, for this study, secularism is defined as indifference to or rejection or exclusion of
religion and religious considerations; a belief system of political or social philosophy that rejects
all forms of religious faith and worship, practiced by an individual in the workplace.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 26

Spirituality: Consistent with Ashforth and Pratt’s definition as outlined by Phipps (2012), for the
purposes of this work, the term spirituality will refer to the human desire for connection with the
transcendent, the desire for integration of the self into a meaningful whole, and the realization of
one’s potential; the interconnectedness with a higher power which corresponds to religiousness
(Liu & Robertson, 2011, p. 42). This would include the teachings and tenets that specify a
practitioner is to do no harm to other individuals (Smith & Marranca, 2009).
Transcendent: (of God) existing apart from and not subject to the limitations of the material
universe above or beyond the range of normal or merely physical human experience, Synonyms:
mystical, mystic, transcendental, spiritual, divine, metaphysical
(https://www.google.com/search?q=morality+definition&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-
8#q=transcendent+definition)
Whole Person: the engagement of a person’s body, heart, mind, and spirit in their daily life
activities. retrieved from:
http://web.princeton.edu/sites/publicsafety/Leadership%20Course%20-July%2028-30.pdf
Workplace Spirituality (WSP): “a framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture
that promotes employees’ experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating
their sense of being connected in a way that provides feelings of compassion and joy” (Giacalone
& Jurkiewicz, 2003, p. 13).
Vocation: a sacred aspect of work found in the teachings of most major religions; particular
occupation, business, or profession; calling; a strong impulse or inclination to follow a particular
activity or career; a divine call to God’s service to the Christian life; a function or station in life
to which one is called by God (Sheep, 2006, p. 359).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 27

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Spirituality in the workplace as a modern academic pursuit is a relatively new
phenomenon. Due to the overwhelming interest in this topic by academics and business
professionals, circa 1999 the Academy of Management created an interest group domain
Management, Spirituality, and Religion (MSR).
The purpose of this new domain is to explore how spirituality and religion can influence
organizational dynamics and affect management outcomes, [especially] in the realms of
meaning at work, the impact of spirituality and spiritual leadership in the
workplace…[and] the distinctive elements of individual religious and spiritual beliefs that
cultivate inner awareness and promote wisdom for the common good. (Academy of
Management, 2015)
This chapter will provide a look at what the extant literature on the topic of spirituality in
the workplace, with particular focus on what spirituality is, the specific definition of spirituality
for this study, the effects of spirituality in the workplace (SAW), ethical/unethical decision
making as a personal choice, the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytical Conceptual Framework
and how it relates to the organization of study (Omega Marketing), and spirituality in the
workplace as a tool to close the gap between values and beliefs.
Spirituality Defined
What is Spirituality?
The phenomenon of spirituality and its correlation to workplace leadership has attracted a
significant amount of attention from researchers and management practitioners over the course of
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 28

the last two and half decades, which has led to differences in definitions. Dent, Higgins, and
Wharff (2005) point out that due to the infancy of this field of study there are multiple
definitions amongst scholars as to what spirituality is. In an effort to bring clarity, Dent, Higgins
and Wharff (2005) coded eighty-seven articles on the topic and identified eight emergent
categories: (a) definition, (b) connectedness to religion, (c) marked by epiphany, (d) teachable,
(e) individual development, (f) measurable, (g) profitable/productive, and (h) nature of the
phenomenon.
For this study, we are concerned with Dent, et al., (2005) definition of spirituality, and
how spirituality is connected to religion. Based on the research of Dent et al., (2005), many of
the academics in the fields of management, spirituality and religion define spirituality as the
individual search for direction, meaning, inner wholeness and connection to others, to non-
human connectedness, and [most important for this study] to a transcendent (see definition in
chapter on). Furthermore, Dent, et al., (2005) point out that the majority of academics in the
field agree that the definition of spirituality includes “a search for meaning, reflection, inner
connectedness, creativity, transformation, sacredness, and energy” (p. 633). In conjunction with
Dent, et al., (2005), a closely-related concept of this study is spiritual leadership, which
according to Fry (2005) is “the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically
motivate self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and
membership” (p. 17).
Gibbons (2000) posits that these values, attitudes, and behaviors which motivate oneself
and others while providing spiritual survival are extremely important to a vast majority of the
world’s population, which includes 95% of Americans believing in God. This majority was
reflected in a 2010 Pew Research poll that revealed 80% of Western Europe considers
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 29

themselves Christians; moreover, there are 1.5 billion Buddhists in the world and 1.6 billion
Muslims throughout the world (Desilver & Masci, 2017), all who are seeking the transcendent in
one form or another. This phenomenon cannot be overlooked by business leaders as they shape
the culture of their organization. It should be noted that empirical data from the research of
Elkins, Hedstrom, Hughes, Leaf, and Saunders (1998) revealed that even those who reject the
concept of spirituality in a traditionally organized religious context still seek to develop their
spirituality. To date, there appear to be limited empirical studies on the practice of non-
organized spirituality in the workplace.
Kauanui, Thomas, Rubens, Sherman’s (2010) literature review contrasted religion and
spirituality. Their research began with the concept or notion of spirituality embodying a
religious perspective that is associated with the Divine, but ended up with a final definition that
echoed the thoughts of Dalai Lama XIV (XIV, 1999) that have a foundation in four concepts:
1. finding meaning and purpose in life
2. living an integrated life
3. experiencing an inner life
4. being in community with others
Rust and Gabriel’s (2011) effort to further pare down the definition of spirituality found
in the extant literature on the subject, deemed it necessary to make the concept of spirituality
measurable and used the work of researchers who shared similar understandings of spirituality to
help find and ultimately define a common definition that is boiled down to four very distinctive
behaviors or properties.
Those four behaviors or properties, according to Rust, et al., (2011) are as follows:
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 30

● Spirituality originates inside an individual’s inner consciousness (Guillory, 2002;
Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002; Turner 1999).
● There is a sense of connectedness to others; the universe; all things including self,
clients...town, state, country, planet and universe (Kale & Shrivastava, 2003;
Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002; Zumeta, 1993).
● Work that gives meaning and purpose is foundational to spirituality and is the
driving factor in helping the search for meaning and value in what one does and
experiences (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Graber, 2001; Milliman, Czaplewski &
Ferguson, 2003; Mitroff & Denton, 1999; Zohar, Marshall, I., & Marshall, I,N.,
2000).
● Finally, there is a connection to a “higher power” or the ‘beyond,’ a striving for
the presence of or a relationship with God (Kale & Shrivastava, 2003; Niederman,
1999; Green, 1987).
The disconnect between the definitions of what spirituality is, or is not, largely depends
on the researcher’s and practitioner's worldview. But, as the research on the phenomena of the
practice of spirituality in the workplace continues to unfurl within the academic community and
more specifically, within the Academy of Management, the definition of spirituality from an
academic standpoint is beginning to take shape in a concrete manner that makes it easier to
comprehend. As such, we will look next at how spirituality is defined for this study.
Specific Definition of Spirituality for this Study
In this section, I will be providing a definition of spirituality for the purposes of this
study. As noted above, the review of the literature in spirituality and more specifically, the
practice of spirituality in the workplaces reveals a wide array of definitions. To streamline one’s
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 31

understanding of the topic, one must understand spirituality as defined in its original context
many millennia ago. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-22 BC) is one of the earliest teachers
on the subject of spirituality. According to Hare (win20
14), in Eudemian Ethics (1249b5-22), Aristotle deems that the goal of a person’s life is service to
and contemplation of the gods. Benefial, Fry, and Geigle (2014) noted that in the sixth century,
St. Benedict (c.480-543 AD) shared his rules for monastic life, which placed emphasis on the
integration of work and prayer. His teachings advocated that work and prayer were
complementary to one another in the formation of one’s spirituality on the path to holiness. This
view is echoed in the teachings of Martin Luther (1483-1546 AD), who proclaimed “that all
people, whatever their calling should seek perfection in their work, attaining holiness through the
discipline of working faithfully” (Benefial et al., 2014). Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003)
defined workplace spirituality as:
A framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’
experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being
connected in to others in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy (p. 13)
Tourish and Tourish (2010) noted that spirituality in the workplace is created when
leadership creates a vision that allows organizational members to experience a sense of calling in
their lives that provides meaning and makes a difference (p.213). Consistent with this line of
thought is that of Reaves (2005), who concludes there is a strong correlation between spiritual
values and practice(s); citing that values have long been considered spiritual ideas (i.e. integrity,
honesty, and humility). And values, the principles that are foundational for intrinsic motivation
and attitudes (Elizur, 1984), also refer to a person’s beliefs, views, feelings, thoughts, and
attitudes about what is right and preferable at work and situations that happen in life (Furnham,
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 32

1990; Frankl, 1984). This then suggests that one’s spirituality will aid in the process of making
ethical business decisions. In an effort to define further the construct of spirituality in the
workplace, we view the concept through Liu and Robertson’s (2010) lens, who posit there are
three factors that are distinctive in nature, but yet congruent to one another. These factors are
“interconnection with a higher power, interconnection with human beings, and interconnection
with nature and all living things” (p. 42). The most important aspect per Liu and Robertson
(2010) is the interconnection with a higher power, and as such, is related to religiousness.
Along this same line of thought, Phipps (2012) suggests that spirituality refers to “the
concern with or connection to a transcendent being and often includes an individual’s search for
an ultimate purpose in life” (p. 179). Phipps’ (2012) definition is also consistent with that of
Ashford and Pratt (2003), who posit there are three dimensions to spirituality in the context of
one’s workplace:
● connection with something greater than oneself (transcendence)
● integration of the different aspects or portions of one’s life (holism)
● the search for and realization of one’s potential (growth)
Therefore, for the purposes of this work, the term spirituality will refer to the human
desire for connection with the transcendent, the desire for integration of the self into a
meaningful whole, and the realization of one’s potential (Ashford & Pratt, 2003; Giacalone &
Jurkiewicz, 2003; Liu & Robertson, 2010; Phipps, 2012).
This definition raises the question, what role/effect/implication(s), if any, does the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace have for both the practitioner and the organization,
especially in the context of ethical decision making? The search for answers to this question will
be the focus of the next section.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 33

Tools for Improving Workplace Performance and Employee Conditions
Research over the past decade has unveiled that the practice of one’s spirituality has
positive implications for not only the employee, but for the organization as well. This section
will focus on four of the positive benefits associated with the practice of one’s spirituality in the
workplace
• improved employee performance;
• improved organizational effectiveness;
• adds to diversity in the workplace; and
• ethical/unethical decision making as a personal choice.
The seminal study on Spirituality at Work (SAW) by Ashmos and Duchon (2000), which
will be referred to as practice of spirituality in the workplace for this study, identified increasing
evidence that spirituality is making its way into many organizations and is responsible for
transforming them from “rational systems” of rules and order (p. 134) into an organization that
puts more emphasis on “meaning, purpose, and a sense of community” (p. 134). This is due in
part to one’s workplace becoming the center of community for many people; it is replacing the
sense of community that once was provided either by one’s neighborhood, church, civic
organizations and/or families (Conger, 1994). The workplace is now seen as the main source for
meeting one’s needs which are part and parcel of Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs. These
human needs from the lowest order or ranking to the highest order or ranking according to
Maslow (1954) are physiological needs, physical safety, social belonging, esteem, self-
actualization, and self-transcendence. The quest for meaning and purpose at work has also
brought with it the fundamental goal of “living in harmony with others” (Ashmos & Duchon,
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 34

2000). By default, then, one can make the argument that making ethical decisions that do no
harm to others plays a large role in “living in harmony” with our fellow mankind and can be seen
as a positive benefit associated with the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace. This
benefit alone can be considered justification enough for the practice of one’s spirituality in the
workplace, but the practice of spirituality in the workplace can have more positive effects for
both the individual practitioner and the organization (Alford & Bebensee, 2010; Ashar & Lane-
Maher, 2004; Crossman, 2015; De Klerk, Boshoff, & Van Wyk, 2006; Gupta, Kumar, & Singh,
2014; Hernández López, L., Ramos Ramos, R., &; Ramos Ramos, S, 2009; Karakas, 2010;
Ming-Chia, 2012; Reave, 2005; Rhodes, 2006; Roof, 2015; Rust & Gabriels, 2011; Salehzadeh,
Khazaei., Kia Lashaki, Dolati, & Balouei Jamkhaneh, 2015).
Improved Employee Performance
Research has identified that there is a clear correlation between one’s practice of
spirituality in the workplace and three elements which help improve employee performance
intrinsic motivation, commitment, and goal setting (Battista & Almond, 1973; De Klerk,
Boshoff, & Van Wyk 2006; Elliot & Dweck, 1988; Locke & Latham, 1990; Pinder, 1998;
Sargent, 1973).
Research by Karakas (2010) indicates the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace
leads to increased productivity, performance, and profitability. This increase in productivity,
performance, and profitability is directly related to four correlated factors of an individual
practicing his or her spirituality in the workplace:
● an increase in employee well-being
● the development of a sense of meaning and purpose
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 35

● the realization of a sense of community and interconnectedness
● a person's loyalty/attachment/belonging to one’s workplace
Empirical research on spirituality in the workplace is heavily focused on the potential
benefits that SAW can bring to both individuals and organizations. But, empirical research by
Karakas’ (2010) also points out four potential concerns/challenges/ problems with the practice of
one’s spirituality in the workplace that organizational leadership needs to be aware of:
● the danger of proselytism,
● the issue of compatibility,
● the risk of spirituality becoming a fad or a management to manipulate employees,
and
● the legitimacy problem the field of spirituality at work faces in theory, research
and practice.
The absence of research on the negative attributes of the practice of one’s spirituality should not
be interpreted as indicating there are no negative attributes, but rather the primary focus of
research on the practice of one’s spirituality is the positive attributes this practice brings to the
workplace.
Now, I offer one final thought on how the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace
can improve employee performance. This practice develops principles of values that are
foundational to ethical business behavior (which would include ethical business decisions),
promotes vocation, builds a community that values and cultivates inclusion, allows for creativity,
provides a platform for contribution to the betterment of mankind, and places an emphasis on
sustainability by reviewing negative and unintended consequences of business decisions
(Rhodes, 2006).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 36

The practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace leads to the overall wellbeing of an
employee, provides a sense of meaning and purpose, develops community and
interconnectedness, and provides a foundation on which to make ethical business decisions that
“do no harm to others.” All these attributes of the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace
can aid to also improve organizational effectiveness. It should be noted at this point, that there
are elements within each organized spiritual practice that hide under the cloak of their
religion/spirituality to actually “do harm to others,” which would include doing harm in the
workplace. Two prime examples in the past decade are those practitioners who are aligned with
extreme Islam (ISIS) and the folks from Westboro Baptist church located in Topeka, KS.
Improved Organizational Effectiveness
A growing body of literature substantiates the claims that the practice of spirituality in the
workplace has positive benefits for the organization. In their seminal study, Mitroff and Denton
(1999) discovered that when spirituality is practice in the workplace, five positive benefits occur
for the organization:
• the deployment of full creativity, emotions and intelligence in staff members,
• the organization get more from employees and vice versa,
• the creation of (and maintaining of) an ethical and truly caring organization for all
stakeholders,
• harnessed spiritual energies leads to an ethical and profitable organization over the long
haul,
• limits greed.
More recent studies have revealed even more positive benefits of the practice of one’s
spirituality in the workplace that help to improve organizational effectiveness. These benefits
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 37

include, but are not limited to, faster organizational growth, increased efficiency, enhanced
organizational performance, improved communication, a greater sense of team and community,
the creation of a new workplace culture, increased employee retention, a support network for
tough/trying times, a culture of sharing and caring that when effectively implemented flows out
to all of the organization’s stakeholders (suppliers, customers, and shareholders), and the
creation of higher morale amongst staff members (Garcia-Zamor, 2003; Hernández, Ramos, &
Ramos, 2009). Therefore, the practice of spirituality in the workplace can help to negate
complacency, provide a tool for creativity, and help to create a culture of ethical behavior. A
newly-formed culture can have a positive effect on the ethical/unethical choices an individual
makes, by providing an extra layer of organizational accountability for employees when
occasions arise that may tempt one to make an unethical decision.
Empirical research has unveiled that the practice of spirituality in the workplace can add
to the diversity of the organization, which researchers have posited provides a competitive
advantage in the marketplace (Hicks, 2002; King & Holmes, 2012; Thomas & Ely, 1996). This
will be the focus of the next section.
Adds to Diversity in the Workplace
Leadership, management practitioners, and researchers alike claim diversity in the
workplace is good for business. A study by Thomas and Ely (1996) published in the Harvard
Business Review pointed out that most individuals understand diversity in the confines of the
workplace as increasing the representation of different identity classes of society-- race, gender,
and nationality-- just to mention a few. Thomas and Ely (1996) discovered that this
understanding had a limiting effect on the benefits of diversity in the workplace. Therefore, they
posited that leadership in organizations need to understand diversity as the “the varied
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 38

perspectives and approaches to work that members of different identity groups bring” (p.
2). This would include those individuals who perceive that the practice of spirituality in the
workplace is part and parcel of who one is; thus, allowing those individuals who are spiritual to
bring their ‘whole-self’ to the workplace will help them to connect more completely with the
work they do (a vocation instead of just a job). Thomas and Ely (1996) revealed that employees
frequently make decisions and choices at work that draw upon their cultural background/identity-
group affiliation (p. 9). When leaders of an organization understand diversity in this light (more
holistically), they will be able to acquire its full benefits. But, for diversity to bring about the
positive changes posited by researchers, leadership must demonstrate support for and model the
required behavior associated with the practice of spirituality in the workplace and convey strong
support. (Thomas & Ely, 1996; Jayne & Dipboye, 2004). These actions on the part of leadership
help to clear the way for improved employee performance. Thus, leadership must understand the
benefits the organization can reap when an employee brings one’s whole person to the
workplace. A key area where employee performance can benefit from diversity and the practice
of spirituality in the workplace is in the realm of ethical decision-making.
Ethical/Unethical Decision Making as Personal Choice
Research over the past six decades has repeatedly revealed that leaders are the primary
influencers of ethical conduct in organizations (Barnard, 1952; Schmidt & Posner, 1983; Hitt,
1990; Jansen & Von Glinow, 1985; Vallance, 1995). While this is still a foundational concept in
the management literature, recent research demonstrates that there is a direct correlation between
one’s spirituality and one’s perception as to whether a questionable business practice is ethical or
unethical. In their seminal work on the influence of spirituality on unethical business activities
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) discovered “the decision to raise one’s ethical standards
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 39

remains a personal choice” (p.86). This finding is congruent with those of Forsyth (1992), which
indicated that moral judgements [ethical decisions] are the result of one’s moral philosophy and
is deeply linked to values held by the community [cultural background] which forms their being.
This would then suggest that when a person practices his/her spirituality in the workplace, he/she
is bringing those tenets with them that have informed their understanding of what “doing harm”
to another looks like. At this point, I feel I must eliminate any appearance that I may be
conflating spirituality, morality, and ethics, I point to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2014), which elucidates that
etymologically the term ‘moral’ comes from the Latin mos, which means custom
or habit, and it is a translation of the Greek ethos, which means roughly the same
thing, and is the origin of the term ‘ethics’. In contemporary non-technical
use…the terms are more or less interchangeable…morality is a set of customs and
habits that shape how we think about how we should live or about what is good
human life (p. 1).
When there are no definitive guidelines to making ethical business decisions,
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) posit that “personal spirituality impacts ethical
decision-making in the workplace” (p.88). Geh and Tan (2009) elucidates that religious
faith [not just Christianity] and the resulting spirituality from the practice of the tenets
found in one’s religiosity are the “foundations of ethical decision-making” (p. 291). To
bring this all together, the next section will look at the Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual
framework model which examines the stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) influences that may impact the performance gap(s) of one’s
practice of spirituality in the workplace and its impact on ethical decision-making.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 40

The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provides a system of analysis that scrutinizes and then elucidates
organizational and stakeholder performance goals. This analysis then helps to identify gaps that
exist between the actual performance level of the organization and/or individual and the
stipulated performance goal. After identifying the gap(s), the Clark and Estes (2008) model
examines the stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences that may
impact the performance gap(s). Research by Krathwohl (2002) has broken down the necessary
knowledge and skills needed to ascertain whether stakeholders have the capacity to understand
how to achieve a performance goal into four categories or types: (a) factual; (b) conceptual; (c)
procedural; and (d) meta-cognitive. Research has also identified three motivational influencers
that can lead to meeting goals: (a) choosing to think carefully about goal achievement; (b)
continuous effort in working towards goal attainment; and (c) the mental effort required to
accomplish one’s goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). There are key dimensions of
motivation one needs to consider when analyzing performance gaps (e.g. competence and self-
efficacy, attribution and control beliefs, intrinsic motivation, and value and goals) (Rueda, 2011,
p. 40). Lastly, the organizational influences on stakeholder performance that should be
scrutinized are the work processes utilized by the organization, resources, and workplace culture
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
The elements of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model that will be focused on below
in relation to Omega Marketing’s leadership’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational
requisites meet their performance goal of reducing employee turnover. In the first section, we
will address the assumed influences on the stakeholder performance goal in the context of
knowledge and skills. Next, we will consider the assumed influences on the attainment of the
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 41

stakeholder goal from the perspective of the motivation lens. Finally, I will explore the assumed
organizational influences on achieving the stakeholder goal will be conducted. Each of the
assumed stakeholder influencers (knowledge, motivation, and organizational) on performance
will be investigated via the methodology discussed in Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
This section provides a review of scholarly literature that focuses on knowledge-related
influences that are relevant to the achievement of Omega Marketing’s stakeholder goal of having
leadership (both formal and informal) work with staff to build an organizational culture that
drives each employee’s passion for his/her profession and their client’s success, thereby reducing
employee turnover to 5% or less per year. According to Clark and Estes (2008), there are two
key reasons as to when it is important to examine knowledge and skills in problem solving:
“when people do not know how to accomplish their performance goals and…when [one]
anticipate[s] future challenges will require novel problem solving” (2008, p. 58). This literature
distinguishes influences that are pertinent to providing a solution to closing the gap in Omega
Marketing’s stakeholder goal.
Knowledge influences. Research by Krathwohl (2002) identified four knowledge types that are
critical to an organization seeking to identify and close performance gaps: declarative (includes
both factual and conceptual elements), conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Declarative
factual knowledge consists of fundamental information an individual must know that acquaints
one with a given field/profession and is key to providing solutions to problems associated with
that given filed/profession. Declarative conceptual knowledge can be described as the
interdependence of the fundamental elements and the larger structures that provide the ability for
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 42

them to work together. This includes the knowledge of “classifications and categories; principles
and generalizations; theories, models, and structures” (p. 214). Procedural knowledge is the
knowledge of how to do something. Included in this category are basic methods of inquiry,
specific task-oriented skills, techniques, and methodologies, and the standard(s) that govern the
use of these skills, techniques and methodologies. Metacognitive knowledge involves
knowledge about cognition, which is the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding via
the mechanisms of a person’s thoughts, experiences, and senses. Baker (2009) has described it
as “thinking about thinking” (p. 1). Metacognitive knowledge is knowing the depth and breadth
of one’s own knowledge. According to researchers, it is a key element in stimulating transfer of
learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).
A review of scholarly literature relevant to Omega Marketing’s stakeholder goal has
produced several knowledge influences. Each knowledge influence will be categorized by its
specific knowledge type. This is important, for it will help one to understand how, when, and
where to apply the concept to Omega Marketing’s stakeholder problem of getting leadership
(both formal and informal) working with staff to build an organizational culture that drives each
employee’s passion for his/her profession and their client’s success, thereby reducing employee
turnover to 5% or less per year.
Knowledge influence 1. Leadership must understand what motivates individual sales staff
members to be passionate about their vocation. Research by Gupta, Kumar, and Singh (2014)
posits that organizational success is predicated on the effectiveness of the organization’s
employees, and this effectiveness is a direct result of employee job satisfaction. They cite
numerous influences on employee motivation (i.e. an employee's practice of spirituality in the
workplace, the requirements of the vocation, pay, supervision, co-workers), but their study
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 43

identified that “enjoyment of the work is almost always the one most strongly correlated with a
high level of job satisfaction.” (p. 79). Therefore, it is important that the influencers who aid in
providing enjoyment of the work-- the concept of vocation and the practice of one’s spirituality
in the workplace-- need to be of primary focus.
It is then critical for Omega Marketing’s leadership to invest in acquiring the knowledge
that will enable them to not only identify motivators of each employee, but also to acquire the
knowledge of how to implement the usage of said motivators effectively.
Knowledge influence 2. Leadership needs to know how to influence the corporate culture,
so it will lead to impassioned employees. By knowing how to influence corporate culture so that
culture leads to impassioned employees, leadership lends itself to the happiness that employees
feel toward their life and their achievements, reduces job overload, and provides job satisfaction,
which then aids staff members in accomplishing leadership’s goals (De Klerk, Boshoff & Van
Wyk, 2006; Garcia‐Zamor, (2003); Geh & Tan, (2009).
Altaf and Awan (2011) noted that the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace aids
in achieving a level of satisfaction through factors that may provide fulfillment of needs/desires
of employees. They suggest there are seven elements leaders should utilize to effect spirituality
in the workplace as a mechanism to influence corporate culture: creativity, communication,
respect, vision, partnership, energy, and flexibility. It becomes essential that leadership provides
both support and a comfortable working environment that enables employees to achieve their
targets (goals) successfully.
Knowledge influence 3. Leadership needs to possess a comprehensive understanding of the
influencers on their decision-making process. Baker defines metacognition as “thinking about
thinking…it is the knowledge component that encompasses what one knows about cognition,
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 44

including knowledge about oneself as a learner” (2009, p. 1). Research has confirmed that what
the leader brings to the task influences the way decisions are made (Phipps, 2012). Phipps’
metacognitive framework describes
[H]ow the personal spiritual beliefs of a top-level leader operate in strategic decision
making like a schema to filter and frame information. This function is mediated by the
leader’s constructive development and meta-belief and moderated by the organizational
context and leadership style. This framework provides a starting point for considering the
many expressions of spirituality in organizations and serves as a foundation for a multi-
level theory of spirituality and leadership. (p. 177).
By having more awareness of what influences their decision-making process, Omega
Marketing’s leadership can then begin to understand their personal bias that can chill staff
members’ passions for their vocations.
Table 2 shows and categorizes each knowledge influence into knowledge type, the
method to be utilized to assess the knowledge influence, the learning solution principle and the
proposed solution for each. This is an important construct for understanding the different
influences on Omega Marketing’s leadership that affects achieving the organization’s
stakeholder goal.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 45

Table 2
Knowledge Influences Including Types, Assessment and Proposed Solutions

Knowledge
Influence
Knowledge Type
(i.e., declarative
(factual or
conceptual),
procedural, or
metacognitive
Knowledge
Influence
Assessment
Learning
Solution
Principle
Proposed
Solution

Leadership needs
to possess a
comprehensive
understanding of
the influencers
on their decision-
making process

Declarative –
Factual
and
Metacognitive

Utilization of an
open-ended
question survey
that ask
stakeholder to
reflect on what
they do, what
they think, why
they think what
they think, and
ask leaders to
self-evaluate.

Leadership needs
to know how to
influence
corporate
culture, so it will
lead to
impassioned
employees
Procedural
and
Metacognitive
Use of
observation to
determine
strengths and
weaknesses in
this area

Leadership needs
to understand
what motivates
individual sales
staff members to
be passionate
about their
vocation
Declarative-
Factual
Use a survey
with each staff
member

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 46

Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) theorized that motivation is the key area of focus for
organizational success, even if the organization currently has no gaps between organizational
goals and performance. There is a plethora of peer reviewed literature on motivation-related
influences. This section focuses on a review of literature that is germane to the realization of
Omega Marketing’s stakeholder goal of leadership (the franchise owners and the director of
sales) creating an organizational culture that drives each employee’s passion for his/her
profession and their client’s success; thereby reducing employee turnover to 5% or less per year.
Eccles (2009) theorized that people are motivated to a more optimal performance level
when they are occupied with tasks and/or activities they find meaningful and enjoyable. A brief
overview of the general motivation literature will include how the literature defines motivation
and look at why motivation is an important construct to closing performance gaps. This section
will also provide a brief review of the literature on Expectancy Value Motivational Theory
(Eccles, 2009) an Attribution Theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Understanding these
motivational constructs are paramount in helping Omega Marketing's leadership to close the
current performance gap identified above.
Expectancy Value Motivational Theory. At its roots, expectancy value motivational
theory (EVMT) helps a person to answer two very profound questions: Can I do the task at-
hand? and Do I want to do the task at-hand? (Eccles, 2009). The answer to these two questions
plays an essential role in predicting how effectively an individual will perform a given task.
EVMT provides four constructs that to help Omega Marketing’s leadership answer the question
of “do I want to do the task at-hand?” They are intrinsic interest, attainment value, utility value,
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 47

and perceived value (Eccles, 2009). For the leadership at Omega Marketing, the answer to the
aforementioned questions will determine their motivation level(s) for implementing a culture that
grows employee passion for the vocation and how to become a company that values spirituality
in the workplace as a driver of employee passion.
Omega Marketing Leadership motivational construct 1. Leadership - (both formal and
informal) should establish a culture that drives employees ’ passion about their chosen
vocation. Of the four constructs, utility value, which for our purposes is defined as “how well a
task fits into an individual’s goals and plans or fulfills other basic psychological needs” (Eccles,
2009, p.3), highlights a high priority for Omega Marketing’s leadership team. If it is not, then
the value of tackling the challenge of closing the gap that exist in desired and actual employee
passion will not be high enough to motivate their endeavor. To wit, leadership needs to
understand the full depth of potential and actual revenue losses that would be created should they
fail to establish a culture that meets staff members needs and thus drives their passion for their
vocation.
Sales staff members have a minimum requirement of 15 business sales calls during a
normal day. These sales calls take the form of one of four types: an introductory visit, a fact-
finding visit, a solution visit, and service after the sale visits. As of December 2016, an average
business solution plan generates $798 in revenue for Omega Marketing. An average Omega
Marketing sales staff member, once properly trained closes approximately 2.5 business solution
plans a day. This equates to 12.5 sales a week, 50 sales a month, 600 sales a year. Based on the
minimum sales requirements, every week that a sales staff position is vacant, Omega Marketing
loses at a minimum $9,975.00 in revenue. This translates to $39,900 during a typical 4-week
sales cycle month. As of the date of this writing, Omega Marketing currently has 5-6
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 48

vacant/underperforming sales staff positions; the projected revenue loss for this snapshot in time
is $199,500. After fixed expenses of 65%, Omega Marketing has a projected profit loss before
taxes of $69,825. By recognizing the utility value in allowing an employee to utilize/bring the
whole person in the workplace, Omega Marketing leadership can foster an organizational culture
that benefits not only its employees, but also has the potential to eradicate bottom line revenue
losses created by an employee’s lack of passion for his/her current role and situation with the
company. Omega Marketing’s leadership needs to be motivated to address the organization’s
current culture as a problem.
Attribution Theory. Anderman and Anderman (2009) suggest that attribution theory is
an effort to provide a rationale as to why certain events take place and that an individual may use
attributes such as feelings, beliefs, emotions, and intentions to help explain them. According to
Weiner (1985, 2005), it is important to note that whatever one believes is the perceived cause of
an event, that perception will then affect one’s future motivation in the engagement of similar
task. Weiner’s Model of Attributions provides three dimensions that affect an individual’s
motivation of doing a task or an activity: locus, stability, and controllability.
Weiner (1985, 2005) posits that the locus dimension is an indicator of either an external
or internal causal factor to an individual. Specific to Omega Marketing’s culture, an external
factor would be ownerships rules/regulations on the practice of spirituality in the workplace and
the effect it has on a staff member’s passion about their vocation, such as an event that a staff
member has little or no control over (i.e. leadership discouraging prayer in the office). An
internal locus would be a staff member’s perception that he/she lacks the ability to be passionate
about their chosen vocation, even considering rules/regulations that are in place to engender
one’s passion about his/her vocation. Weiner’s (1985, 2005) stability dimension dictates that a
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 49

causal factor is stable when it is a permanent attribute and unstable when the causal factor is a
temporary attribute (i.e. I will never learn to play the guitar because I lack the desire vs. I am not
able to learn to play guitar because my wrist is broken). Finally, the controllability characteristic
of Weiner’s Model of Attributions denotes that the cause of an event is understood to be in the
control of an individual. It should be noted at this point, that the “only internal attributions are
controllable” (Anderman & Anderman, 2006, p. 2).
Omega Marketing Leadership motivational construct 2. Leadership - (formal and
informal) should feel that the lack of a congruent culture that drives employee passion is due
to their own efforts at creating the desired organizational culture rather than the employee's
lack of ability. Clark and Estes (2008) stress that motivation is what prompts an individual to
action, is a decisive element that keeps an individual moving toward a goal or target and
provides guidance on how much effort needs to be expended. Their Three Facets of Motivated
Performance is derived from this philosophy. The elements/indices/ types of motivational
procedures in this motivation model are active choice, persistence, and mental effort.
Attribution theory suggests that Omega Marketing’s leadership can benefit from understanding
they can influence the organizational culture [positively or negatively] by understanding the
feelings, beliefs, and/or intentions that drive or motivate those in the organization.
Omega Marketing’s leadership needs to make an active choice to focus on the elements
of culture that drives staff members’ passion for their vocation. Clark and Estes (2008) point out
that an individual’s intention does not qualify as action. One such element, according to De
Klerk, Boshoff, and Van Wyk (2006) is “meaning in life” (p. 339). According to their study of
six South African organizations (705 potential subjects and 458 respondents) there was a
significant correlation between “sense of meaning in life, positive work orientations, career
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 50

commitment and work motivation…[their] work points to a spiritual source of work motivation
and commitment” (p.319). Omega Marketing’s leadership may intend to have an organizational
culture that drives staff member passion, but until they make an active choice to pursue elements
that drive that culture, specifically by seeking to understand the role spirituality plays in staff
member motivation and then removing barriers to its practice, their own motivation is highly
questionable.
It is not that the Omega Marketing’s leadership lacks ability (an internal focus) to make
active choices to pursue elements that drive the desired organizational culture, but whether their
actions align with the proclamations regarding active choices that implement a culture that drives
staff members’ passion for their vocation. Table 3 shows the assumed motivation influences and
methods of assessment that will be used during the study.
Table 3
Motivation Influences

Assumed Motivation
Influences
Motivational
Influence Assessment
Motivational
Solution Principle
Proposed Solution

Attributions

Leadership -
(formal and informal)
should feel that the
lack of a congruent
culture that drives
employee passion is
due to their own
efforts at creating the
desired organizational
culture rather than an
employee’s lack of
ability.

Written Survey

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 51

Values

Leadership -
(formal and informal)
should want to do
more to establish a
culture that drives
employee’s passion
about their chose
vocation.

Written survey and
observations

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posit that a conceptual or theoretical framework (for our
purposes these two terms are interchangeable) is “the underlying structure…or frame of [a]
study” (p. 85) that helps one to understand a given phenomenon. As a reminder, the phenomenon
of this study is the role of spirituality in ethical business decision making. Furthermore, Maxwell
(2013) denotes that a conceptual framework is “a theory… that is constructed not found…by
critically [examining] each idea or research finding to see if it is a valid and useful module for
construction of a theory that will adequately inform your study” (pgs. 40-41). The goal of a
conceptual framework is to help in the understanding of what is going on [in your study] and
more importantly why (emphasis mine). Merriam and Tisdell note that the framework of a study
“will draw upon the concepts, terms, definitions, models, and theories of a particular literature
base” (2016, p. 8).
I will be focusing on Omega Marketing’s organizational cultural settings, the
organization’s cultural models, and leadership’s (both formal and informal) knowledge and
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 52

motivational factors. I believe these elements have a direct effect on Omega Marketing’s
leadership ability to implement spirituality in the workplace and in making more ethical business
decisions. Organizational cultural setting is defined for our purposes as unnecessary or
restrictive rules, policies, or barriers that preempt staff members from utilizing their “whole
person” (Sheep, 2006) in the workplace and where staff members do not see role models in their
leaders due to leadership unethical decision making. The Organizational cultural models that will
be the basis of this study are as follows: Is leadership resistance to change, thereby creating a
culture that stifles innovation among staff members and the lack of trust – where staff members
do not feel leaders act in an honest manner which creates a culture of mistrust. While I presented
each of the above influencers independent of each other, I recognize that they do not remain in
isolation from each other. I am going to demonstrate the way I believe Omega Marketing’s
Organizational cultural settings and Organizational cultural models interact with Omega
Marketing's leadership knowledge and motivational factors. To accomplish this, I will address
the following research questions which will guide this study:
1. To what extent is the organization meeting its goal of supporting the whole person in
the workplace and specifically, the practice of an individual’s spirituality in the
workplace?

2. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors related to
achieving the organization’s goal?

Omega Marketing’s (OM) leadership knowledge and motivation interacts with its
organizational cultural settings and organizational cultural models to guide their ability to
support and build an organization that values the role of spirituality in the workplace and the
positive effect this practice can have on the process of making more ethical business decisions.
Figure 2 demonstrates how OM’s Leadership knowledge types and motivations are
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 53

influenced within the realm on the organization’s cultural settings and cultural models.
Leadership’s knowledge types (factual, procedural, and metacognitive elements) and motivation
factors (expectancy theory and attribution theory) are directly affected by the organization’s
cultural settings and cultural models, which then determine whether OM’s leadership can meet
its organizational goal of building an organizational culture that values the role that spirituality
plays in the workplace as an aid to making more ethical decisions for all in the organization.

Figure 2. Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational
Context Framework Design Model

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 54

CHAPTER 3: METHODS
The need for employees to bring their whole person to the workplace is of critical
importance to achieving and surpassing organizational performance goals. Furthermore, the
need for ethical leaders and ethical business decisions are just as critical in shaping an
organizational culture that values the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace and
safeguards all stakeholders from harm. As demonstrated in the last chapter, research has
revealed that organizations can benefit from allowing staff members to bring their “whole
person” into the workplace, and that the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace can result
in ethical decisions that do no harm to another in a business context. In this chapter, the Clark
and Estes (2008) conceptual framework model will be utilized to help shed light on and help
describe the influences of the knowledge and skills, motivational factors, and organizational
factors that impact the organization in relationship to the issue of the practice of one’s spirituality
in the workplace and the role it may play on ethical decision-making. I will be presenting the
research design and methods for data collection and analysis that will provide insight into the
following research questions that are the focus of this study:
Research Questions

1. To what extent is the organization meeting its goal of bringing the whole person to the
workplace and specifically, the practice of an individual’s spirituality in the
workplace?

2. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors related to
achieving the organization’s goal?

This chapter will first define who the stakeholder population for this study is, and then
this section will be followed by sections which address the criterion and rationale for both the
survey instrument and observation instruments that are to be used for this study, the means of
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 55

data collection, how the collected data was analyzed, what steps were taken by the researcher to
insure credibility and trustworthiness of the study, followed by sections on the ethical
considerations, and limitations/delimitations that were particular to this study. This chapter will
conclude with appendices that have the questions that were included in the on-line survey, an
observation protocol worksheet that was used in the field, an informed consent/information sheet
provided to participants, and a sample recruitment letter.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus for this study were leaders (both formal and
informal), current staff members with at least six months tenure with the organization, and
former staff members (those who have left the organization within the past 24 months) of the
Omega Marketing. Tradition stipulates that a leader should be a charismatic and/or an
authoritarian figure (Senge, 1990), but for this study the criteria for those identified as leaders
had to align with Senge’s (1990) concept of leadership in a learning organization:
Leadership in learning organizations centers on subtler and ultimately more
important work. In a learning organization, leaders’ roles differ[s] dramatically from that
of the charismatic decision maker. Leaders are designers, teachers, stewards. These
roles require new skills: the ability to build shared vision, to bring to the surface and
challenge prevailing mental models, and to foster more systematic patterns of thinking.
In short, leaders in learning organizations are responsible for building organizations
where people are continually expanding their capabilities to shape their future. (p. 9)

This included the franchise owners, the director of sales, the lead of the admin support
staff and any staff member whose skill set(s) aligned with Senge’s (1990) criteria as defined
above.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 56

Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Staff members (both former and current), which included owners of the
franchise, who aligned with Senge’s (1990) construct of leadership.
Criterion 2. Staff members (both former and current) who had been with the
organization at least six months. Personnel who had at least six months of service to the
organization played an important role in shaping the culture of the organization. Former staff
members who held positions of both formal and informal leadership roles within the past 5 years
were contacted by me via email to participate in this research. They provided a historical
perspective on the culture of the organization.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling strategy was a non-probability or purposeful sampling. Merriam and
Tisdell (2015) indicate that purposeful sampling is “based in the assumption that the investigator
wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which
the most can be learned” (p. 96). Therefore, a sampling target list was constructed (the sample
frame) for this study. The maximum number of participants for this study was 20 individuals.
The goal was to have 16 individuals provide rich, in-depth information that would inform the
study. Had the response(s)/feedback from the initial pool failed to provide rich/in-depth
information, more individuals from the pool of 20 would have been contacted by me until the
saturation point of potential respondents was reached. A “due by” time was included in the
narrative of the email. Had a non-response bias arisen, then members of the non-targeted group
would have been sent a survey to meet the desired sampling size. A sample size of 7 out of a
population of 10 with a confidence level of 95% would provide a 21% margin of error.
Pazzaglia, Stafford, and Rodriguez (2016) posit that a confidence level of 95 is the most
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 57

desirable. The only way to have reduced the margin of error would have been to increase the
sample size, but this would have left no room to adjust for non-response bias. Note that the
above process aligns with the five-step process for selecting a sample and administering a survey
as outlined by Pazzaglia, et al. (2016, p. i):
Step 1: Define the population.
Step 2: Specify the sampling procedure.
Step 3: Determine the sample size.
Step 4: Select the sample.
Step 5: Administer the survey.

Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Observed members of the Executive Leadership Team as they conducted
training and interacted with staff members over the course of one week, both in the office and
out in the field. This was to collect data on whether the executive leadership team openly
demonstrated and modeled spirituality to staff
Criterion 2. Observed sales staff as they interacted with one another in the office, en
route to sales/consultation calls, and during lunchtime. I looked to see if the sales staff, at any
point throughout the day, invoked the practice of spirituality. I collected data on what
circumstances provoked the practice of spirituality and included possible reasons why subjects
were not practicing spirituality during the observations.
Criterion 3. Observed interactions of admin support staff with the executive leadership
team and the sales staff in the office and during lunchtime interactions. I specifically looked for
evidence of the practice of spirituality by admin support staff both in and out of the workplace.
Maxwell (2012) indicates that the researcher is the research instrument in a qualitative
study, and as such, a person’s eyes and ears are the tools used to gather data and to make sense of
what is taking place (p. 89). I used a less-structured approach to observation so that I could
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 58

focus on the phenomenon being studied. As the Director of Sales, I already had a relationship
established with everyone in the 3 groups described above. There was no significant difference
in my daily interactions, except for possibly taking longer to write notes (which staff members of
Omega Marketing are accustomed to seeing me do). I planned for my observation time frame to
be approximately 2 days and will take place after the survey, so I could see if responses collected
in that forum aligned with modeled behavior in the workplace arena.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The data collection and instrumentations method that I used for this study were a 20-
question open-ended survey (Appendix A), observation of the current staff (Appendix B), and
collection of documents and artifacts. According to Fink (2013), a survey would provide data
quickly and would require fewer resources. The findings provided by the survey offered insights
that were organization- specific and helped to answer the two research questions listed above.
Observation of the current staff members provided insights on “specific incidents” (Weiss, 1994,
p. 71) that were related to the two research questions listed above. Finally, the collection of
documents and artifacts provided insight into the organization’s policy, procedures, and culture
regarding the above research questions.
Survey
The structure of the survey was ten standardized open-ended questions combined with ten
Likert style questions which were carefully crafted for wording; the organization of the questions
guided those being surveyed through the same sequence. Wording of the questions were the
same for all respondents to ensure consistency and credibility (Patton, 2002). This format aided
in keeping the surveys both credible and trustworthy. Furthermore, per Krueger and Casey
(2009), open-ended questions “just beg for explanations, descriptions, or illustrations” (p. 37).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 59

Although open-ended questions were posed in an asynchronous manner, the stylings of the
questions still aligned with Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016, p. 118) framework. Questions on the
surveys were posed in a manner that was easy for the respondents to understand and reflected
his/her worldview. The survey included the six types of questions contained within Merriam and
Tisdell’s model:
1. Experience and behavior questions.
2. Opinion and values questions.
3. Feeling questions.
4. Knowledge questions.
5. Sensory questions
6. Background questions
Furthermore, contained within the Merriam and Tisdell (2016) framework of good questions,
there were questions that fell into one of five topics/categories to aid in answering the three
research questions of this study: meaningful work, sense of community, organizational values,
personal spirituality, and job satisfaction. Before the observations and surveys began, all
participants were given the required confidentiality agreement and the option to stop the survey
at any time, had they felt the need, without fear of reprisal.
Observation
For this study, the only observations that I conducted were during my daily comings and
goings over a 7 -10-day period within the confines of my role with the organization. According
to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), this made me an inside member of the group, a complete
participant, and required special efforts on my part to minimize the effects this could have on the
setting. Each current staff member was given both the option not to participate as well as a
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 60

confidentiality agreement prior to the observation. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posit that is it
better for researcher observations to occur in the location that is natural to the phenomenon,
instead of a location where the phenomenon does not occur. This provides the researcher a
firsthand account (much more reliable) of what is happening with the phenomenon that is being
studied, instead of a secondhand account (less reliable). During the two weeks that were set
aside for observation, I focused on the following interactions: staff-to-staff and organizational
leadership-to-staff. To be more precise, I focused on activities and interactions, conversation,
and subtle factors (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) that indicated the practice of spirituality (i.e. verbal
or silent prayer, reading Holy Writ, group prayer that invokes the transcendent) and the
integration of the “whole person” in the workplace.
According to Fairholm (1996), “[T]here is a part of us that is not just physical, a part that we are
comfortable calling spirit…[i]t affects our identity; our values; our memories; our sense of
humor. It integrates guiding principles of wholeness, relationships, inner wisdom, and inner
authority” (p. 11). This is part of a person’s being that is what completes one, makes one whole.
This wholeness of being is what employees seem to be craving in the workplace. They do not
want to be just a number. They want to bring their entire self, the “whole person” into the
workplace. Leadership experts at Franklin Covey (2008) call this notion “The Whole Person
Paradigm” and note from the viewpoint of the leader “that you, as a leader, see people as “whole
people” – body, heart, mind, and spirit” … [thus enabling] them to offer their best (p.1).
Research by Chalofsky and Krishna (2009) indicates that, to find meaning at work, “people need
to bring their wholes selves (mind, body, emotion, and spirit) to work” (p. 195). They also
discovered that “for those people who felt adrift spiritually, their work and the workplace ceased
to be a source to find deeper meaning, satisfaction, and connection” (p.195)
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 61

To pay special attention to these subtle ways employees practiced spirituality in the
workplace, I kept a journal that was used to collect information throughout the day, and this
information was transcribed either by myself or a professional stenographer into field notes.
These field notes included, but were not limited to, descriptions, quotes, and observer comments
to form the database for analysis; some of the data was possibly speculation on the part of the
observer as to what was actually taking place.
Documents and Artifact
I collected documents and artifacts that were relevant to the foundation of this study. The
pros of using this method of data collection are that it allowed a researcher to triangulate data
and that data may not be available via any other methods. A downside to this method of
collecting data is the lack of ability to probe for further information on questions that may arise.
Had it become necessary to collect documents and/or artifacts, what would have needed to be
collected by the researcher were financial documents, human resource records, possibly policy
and procedure manuals, and any physical material that consisted of objects found in the study
setting (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To obtain the documents/artifacts that were germane to the
organization, I would have needed to get permission from the owner of the franchise and any/all
staff members (both current and former). Regarding any physical material/objects found in the
study setting, I would need to document those in my field notes.
Once documents and artifacts were found and accessed, I verified their authenticity,
which was a key part of the research process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 176). Artifacts on
display in the workplace environment provided insight into whether individuals within the
organization openly demonstrated their spirituality. Organizational documents, specifically those
containing financial and human resource information, could possibly shed light on unethical
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 62

business decisions and could have provided a baseline for future studies if the practice of
spirituality in the workplace becomes part of the cultural model. The most useful documents and
artifacts would have been those that were an outward display of a person’s practice of spirituality
(i.e. Holy text, calendars with Holy text, symbols and images related to spirituality).
Data Analysis
Frequencies were calculated because the stakeholder group is fewer than 20 individuals,
and the percentage of stakeholders who agreed (responded yes) will be presented in relation to
those who disagreed (responded no) (see Table 4 below).
As researcher, I conducted descriptive statistical analysis on the survey results. Eleven
specific items on the survey addressed the knowledge and skill sets, motivational factors, and
organizational factors (KMO) factors per the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. Table
4 lists the questions that helped to uncover KMO data on the perceived importance of the
practice of spirituality to both the individual and the organization, perception of co-workers
spirituality, leaderships comprehension of the practice of spirituality, respondents’ comfort
demonstrating spirituality in the workplace, how the practice of spirituality affects job
performance, the organization’s support of the practice of spirituality in the workplace, and the
perceived importance the practice of spirituality has on ethical business practices.

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Table 4 Qualitative KMO Survey Items

Question Yes

Number of
Respondents/
Percentage
No

Number of
Respondents/P
ercentage
Is the practice of spirituality in all facets of your life
important to you?
10
(83.33%)
2
(16.67%)
Is the practice of one’s spirituality in your workplace
important to your organization?
7
(58.33%)
5
(41.67%)
Are there non-spiritual people in your organization? 7
(58.33%)
0 (5 responded
“I don’t
know.”)
Does your organization’s leadership understand
spirituality as defined for this study?
9
(69.23%)
4
(30.77%)
Do you feel comfortable demonstrating your spirituality
in your workplace?
12
(92.31%)
1
(7.69%)
Do you draw upon the teachings and tenets of your
religious beliefs to do your job?
13
(100%)
0
Do you believe you are expected to draw on the
teachings and tenets of a religious belief to do your job?
7
(53.85%)
6
(46.15%)
Do you believe that the organization’s formal leadership
values a particular belief system (teaching and tenets)
over any other?
5
(34.46%)
8
(61.54%)
Does your organization’s formal leadership allow
employees to practice their individual spirituality
regardless of their religious orientation?
13
(100%)
0
Do you feel pressure to appear religious or spiritual? 0 13
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 64

(100%)
Do you believe it is important to be spiritual in order to
enact ethical business practices?
5
(38.49%)
8
(61.54%)

I applied thematic coding to the qualitative survey questions, observational data, and the
documents and memos that were collected. I wrote analytic memos throughout the day during
the observation phase to chronicle evidence while it was still fresh. This evidence included my
thoughts about what was transpiring, my concerns, and my initial conclusions in relation to my
conceptual framework and research questions. Once I left the field, analytic memos were
transcribed and coded. In the initial coding phase, I utilized open coding to analyze the textual
content. I looked for empirical codes, then labeled concepts and developed categories as they
that emerged from the data. Finally, I used axial coding, which is the process of relating codes
(categories and concepts) to each other to determine the two most overarching categories that
emerged from the data. The two categories arose from the results: 1) the organization’s formal
leadership behavior does not impede staff’s practice of spirituality in the workplace and 2) each
respondent’s own comfort with demonstrating his/her spirituality in the workplace. This process
also involved analyzing documents and artifacts for evidence that was consistent with the
concepts contained in the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In this section I discuss how I worked to increase/maintain the credibility and
trustworthiness for the qualitative components of this study. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posit
that ethical investigation is paramount to a study that is trustworthy. Patton (2015) surmised that
the researcher credibility (training, experience, and intellectual rigor) and the exacting standards
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 65

employed are what help to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of a qualitative research
study. Per Patton (2015), rigor is the product of rigorous thinking in practically every aspect of
the study, including methods and analysis. The methods and analysis used in this study included
triangulation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and persistent observation. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) note that triangulation is well known to qualitative researchers and an acceptable
method to establish trustworthiness.
To accomplish trustworthiness and credibility, triangulation utilizes “two or three
measurement points” (Merriam & Tisdell 2016, p. 244). To meet this requirement, I utilized the
following multiple methods of data collection: a 20-question survey emailed to current staff
members and former staff members (those who left the organization in the past year) and a 2-day
(9.5 hours each day) observation of current members in the workplace setting. These two
methodologies were successive and took place within a 21-day period to help provide a better
picture of what was happening in the organization. During this same time frame, documents and
artifacts were collected to enhance the survey and observation portions of the study to collect
deep and rich information.
The next component that was used to establish credibility and trustworthiness was peer
debriefing/peer review. To accomplish this, my dissertation chair (Dr. Corinne Hyde),
committee members (Dr. Omar Ezzeldine and Dr. Kimberly Ferrario), and Dr. Julie Slayton (a
Rossier School of Education professor of clinical education) were provided a copy of the
manuscript at different times throughout the course of this study. Their feedback was crucial in
determining if the findings from the data were plausible.
As the researcher, I recognized my personal bias regarding my beliefs about the positive
attributes of the practice of spirituality in the workplace. To help negate this bias and to further
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 66

ensure credibility and trustworthiness, the decision was made to bypass the “a priori coding”
(pre-conceived concepts) approach to interpreting the data collected for this study. Instead, I
employed a thematic/emergent /grounded coding approach to content analysis, which allowed
themes and patterns to emerge from the data themselves.
A third element of this study to help ensure its credibility and trustworthiness was the
utilization of negative case analysis. The modern field of study of spirituality in the workplace is
a rather new phenomenon. The Academy of Management created the Management, Spirituality
and Religion category for researchers, academics, students, and business executives circa 1999.
Most literature focuses on the positive elements of spirituality in the workplace (SWP). To help
elucidate all sides of SWP theory, I provided findings from a literature review that incorporated
the negative aspects of SWP.
One final measure to ensure credibility and trustworthiness of this study was the
persistent observation of the organizational staff members by the researcher. I took field notes
and catalogued them for additional data reference and to balance observation with personal
reflections of events that occurred in the workplace setting. Suggestions on effective field notes
by Taylor and Bogdan (1984) were integral to this portion of data collection. These suggestions
included paying attention, shifting from a “wide angle” to a “narrow angle” lens (focus on one
person, activity, or interaction), looking for keywords in people’s remarks, concentrating on first
and last remarks in each conversation, and having a mental playback of remarks and scenes
during breaks in observing. All suggestions were incorporated into the way I conducted my
observations.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 67

Ethics
The format of this study is qualitative in nature; as such, I focused on both meaning and
understanding to answer the above research questions (Merriam, 2009). According to the
guidelines of the Institutional Review Board, the researcher’s main responsibilities are to do no
harm and obtain informed consent. Regarding doing no harm to the participants in this study, I
practiced the following concepts outlined in the research of Rubin and Rubin (2012, pp. 85-92):
1. Show Respect – this means communicating in a straightforward manner; sharing
with all participants the nature of the study; not being deceitful; being prepared
when I interact with them; providing the human subjects with results of the study.
2. Honor Promises – I have kept and will continue their information confidential.
3. Don’t Pressure – I did not pressure the subjects to answer questions they were
uncomfortable answering, and if they so choose to leave the research study, I did
not pressure them to stay.
Per Glesne (2011), informed consent is necessary to ensure the participants are aware that
their participation is voluntary, all discussions/information collected will be kept confidential and
they can withdraw at any point without penalty. To ensure the safety of the participants, I
submitted my study to the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB)
and followed their rules and guidelines regarding the protection of the rights and welfare of the
participants in this study. To obtain informed consent, I provided all participants with a consent
form that was transmitted to them electronically (via email) and asked them to return their
acknowledgement via the same method. The informed consent form notified the participants that
participation was strictly voluntary, and they could withdraw from the study at any time along
the process if they so desired; their data and their participation was and still is confidential and
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 68

protected to the best of my ability; all data is being stored and secured in a locked file cabinet. I
reminded participants that I would not provide any incentives so as not to coerce them. At the
end of the data collection period, I sent participants them a thank you note and entered their
email addresses into a drawing for a chance to win a $50 gift card from either Starbucks, Red
Lobster, or similar food establishment as a token of my appreciation for taking part in the study.
The lack of incentive was put in place as a measure to minimize the appearance of coercion,
while the thank you note and gift card drawing (which is not announced prior to participation in
the study) served as my way of acknowledging their time and effort in sharing their information
and experiences.
This study was conducted at Omega Marketing (OM), an advertising, consulting, and real
estate firm, where I was a co-owner and managing partner at the time the study was being
conducted. My potential interests in the results of this project were to ensure that I and the other
partners were not missing any element of leadership found within the constructs of the Clark and
Estes KMO model of selecting “right performances” (2004). Due to the current size of the
organization, all members were aware that I was back in school, working toward my
Organizational Change and Leadership doctoral degree, and that this study was a part of the
requirements for successful completion of the program. To alleviate any potential confusion as to
which role I was serving in at any given time, I notified potential observation candidates of the
two-week window that my observations were to take place. I provided all participants a
participation agreement prior to the collection of data, but I did not identify who was going to be
observed to keep their actions as near to normal as possible. This step also helped to minimize
the potential for staff to feel coerced or pressured to participate.
This topic of this research study had the potential to invoke personal biases from the
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 69

researcher. The most important bias that was taken into consideration was that I participate
actively in the practice of my own spirituality in the workplace and saw it as an effective tool to
help inform ethical decision making. Therefore, I guarded against the assumption that all
participants of this study possessed my worldview. Glesne (2011) warns qualitative researchers
not to become advocates or champions for one’s cause, or to take a position on the issue. It was
decided that this concept was then to become a guiding principle of this study, do not become an
advocate, but go where the research leads.
Limitations and Delimitations
Although I have given much thought and reflection as to the limitations of this study
(those things I could not control), the following list of potential limitations is by no means to be
construed as completely thorough. The first limitation (things I could not control) was the
truthfulness of the respondents to the survey questions and any changes to their normal behavior
due to my presence in the role as researcher during the 2-day observation period.
The second limitation was the size of the available pool of participants from the
organization of study. Omega Marketing is a small “Mom and Pop” size organization with no
more than 30 staff members at any given point in its history. Another limitation that is closely
related to the size of the organization was the researcher’s close (intimate) relationship to the
organization and study participants.
The next, and possibly the most important limitation was the region of the United States
in which the organization operates and where the study was conducted. As pointed out in the
Pew Research Study (2014), the percentage of people who identified the importance of religion
in one’s life as very important or important had a significant variance based on region.
Several limitations arose during the 2-day observation period. These included but were
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 70

not limited to the staff members who were present for work during this time-frame, the staff
members interactions with one another and/or their clients, and the artifacts that were openly
displayed in staff members’ cubicles during the artifact collection phase.
When it came to staff members’ perceptions of the leadership’s understanding of
spirituality (as defined for this study), a key limitation was the accuracy of the staff member’s
knowledge regarding the knowledge formal leadership possessed regarding spirituality.
A final consideration with regards to limitations is the OCL EdD program time
limitations to conduct the study for the student/researcher to finish the program and graduate
within the prescribed time-frame.
Delimitations of this study (the things I could control) include but are not limited to the
number of days officially allocated for the observation portion of the study and notifying staff
members as to when I was in the role of researcher and hence, not acting in my normal role as
Director of Sales/Managing Partner to run the business. With respect to the collection of data, the
following delimitation were identified: the number of survey questions, their wording, and the
order on which the appeared, the researcher not conducting follow-up interviews to gain further
clarification of data collected during all three phases of data collection (the survey phase, the
observation phase, and documents and artifacts collection phase) for the study, and triangulation
of the data to ensure study credibility and trustworthiness. In retrospect, of all the potential
delimitations for this study, the most important was keeping my personal bias to the positive
attributes of the practice of spirituality in the workplace and life in general at top of mind
through constant reflection and allowing the data to speak for itself.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 71

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Omega Marketing (OM), like many other organizations and corporations in America
today, is searching for methods to gain a competitive advantage over their competition, while not
crossing a threshold into unethical business decisions and actions that do harm to others. At the
same time, staff members are searching for meaning in their lives (meaningfulness). This gap
analysis study analyzed the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences identified in
the research as contributing to the organization (OM) meeting its desired goal of staff member’s
bringing the whole person to the workplace and specifically, the practice of an individual’s
spirituality in the workplace. This study is two-fold in scope. The first purpose is to discover if
the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace can be valuable to both the organization and
staff members. The second purpose is to determine what role, if any, the practice of spirituality
in the workplace (specifically Omega Marketing) can have on increasing organizational
performance and aiding staff members in one’s search for meaning in life/vocation. [JA1] To this
end, two questions guided this study, they are:
1. To what extent is the organization meeting its goal of supporting employees’ ability to
bringing their whole person to the workplace, which includes the practice of one’s spirituality?
2. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors/values related
to achieving the organization’s goal?
Results and findings are rendered in this chapter by assumed causes within the KMO framework,
using Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge and skill sets, motivation factors, and organizational
factors (KMO).

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 72

Summary of Data Collection Strategies
To collect data, a 20-question open-ended survey was sent to current (those with at least
6-months tenure with the organization) and former members of the organization (those who have
left the organization in the past 2 years). This effort was followed by a 2-day on-site visit that
included observation of staff members to unveil behaviors that might be consistent with the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace, and the collection of documents and artifacts that
could shed light on the organization’s role in either supporting or impeding the practice of
spirituality in the workplace.
The survey was constructed by the researcher with assistance from a peer and based on
assumed influences. There was a 93.75% (15 out of 16) response rate to the 20-question survey.
The survey was conducted using Qualtrics, a web-based survey tool. Due to the small sample
size and as a precautionary measure to protect the respondent’s identity, no demographic
questions were included in the survey. The survey was equally divided between Likert-type
scale questions (10) and open-ended questions (10).
The documents analyzed included the organization’s policy and procedure manual and
memos from the formal leadership to staff members that covered FY 2016-2017. These
documents were analyzed through the lens of the Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO model to seek
evidence of organizational support of the practice of spirituality in the workplace.
Staff members were observed 2 (9.5 hour) days in both the office and field environments
with clients to gain insight as to whether staff members and/or leadership exhibited behaviors
that would be indicative of the practice of spirituality in the workplace. A site assessment was
also conducted during this same period to determine if there were artifacts in each staff
member’s cubicle that would indicate whether a person might be a practitioner of spirituality.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 73

Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders of this study included formal leadership consisting of four
persons, and 12 staff members, which included sales and support staff. In total, 13 current staff
personnel and 3 former staff personnel (those who left the organization within the past 12
months) participated in the survey and on-site observation.
Conceptual Framework
The results of this study fall into three categories: knowledge and skill-set(s),
motivational factors, and organizational factors, which at first appear to be three very distinct
categories. But, I will be presenting the organizational factors that affect the practice of
spirituality in the workplace first, followed by the knowledge and skill-set(s), and motivational
factors of the KMO model as a single category. I am presenting the data in this manner, so I can
stay as true as possible to the concept of the whole-person paradigm, which is “the engagement
of a person’s body, heart, mind, and spirit in the daily life activities” (FranklinCovey, 2007, p.1).
Simply stated, this means all parts of one’s life are integrated and not categorized,
departmentalized, or divided into separate elements. A person whose life is defined by and
through the practice of spirituality, is also motivated (by this knowledge and understanding) to
follow the teachings, tenets, and precepts in harmony with their spiritual beliefs. Seen through
this lens, one must comprehend that the knowledge of spirituality is then a prerequisite for
spirituality to be motivational. Furthermore, the messages a person receives, through the
organizational cultural settings and cultural models, contribute to the notion of whether one
openly engages in the practice of spirituality in the workplace. This view aligns with Schein’s
(2010) concept of cultural models and settings, in which he posits that organizational culture is
the basic assumptions shared by a group of individuals about how the world is (and should be).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 74

Therefore, employees’ understanding of the organization’s cultural settings and model
determines their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and even their explicit behavior. Presenting
results in any other manner for this gap analysis would lessen/degrade the importance of the
whole person paradigm. Due to the context of this topic, knowledge and skillset(s), and
motivation cannot stand alone. Finally, I will close by presenting the survey respondents’
perception of the role spirituality has on ethical business practices and decision-making process.
Results
Survey data collected from 16 participants revealed that Omega Marketing was not fully
meeting its goal of empowering staff to practice their spirituality in the workplace. This
depiction of “not fully meeting” was developed by combining survey responses about how the
staff members perceived the organization’s attitude toward the practice of spirituality in the
workplace and whether the staff members felt comfortable practicing their spirituality in the
workplace. Two categories arose from the results, 1) the organization’s formal leadership
behavior does not impede staff’s practice of spirituality in the workplace and 2) each
respondent’s own comfort with demonstrating his/her spirituality in the workplace. Both findings
are addressed in the next section.
Formal Leaderships’ Behavior Did Not Impede the Practice of Spirituality in the
Workplace (Organizational Factors)
The primary finding to emerge from the data was that overall, leadership did not impede,
and in fact seemed to value, the individuals’ ability to practice spirituality in the workplace.
More specifically, five themes surfaced from the data regarding the staff’s perceptions of the
organization’s formal leadership’s behaviors that communicated they valued the practice of
spirituality and did not impede staff members from the practice of one’s spirituality in the
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 75

workplace. They were as follows:
1. The organization valued the practice of spirituality.
2. The organization’s leadership comprehended spirituality as defined for this
study.
3. The organization allows the practice of spirituality without regard to
religious orientation.
4. There is no organizational pressure to appear religious or
spiritual.
5. No formal policies that would impede or support the practice of spirituality
were uncovered.
Each of these themes are discussed in order in the following section.
The Organization Valued the Practice of Spirituality

First, most of the organization’s staff denoted that the organization valued the practice of
spirituality in the workplace. More precisely, 58.33% of respondents indicated that they believed
the practice of spirituality in the workplace was important to the organization. Whereas, 41.67%
indicated that the practice of spirituality in the workplace was not important to the organization
(see figure 3).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 76

Figure 3

In addition to the survey responses, there were other indicators that staff members believed the
practice of spirituality was important to the organization. Seventy-five percent (8 of 12) of the
cubicles used by staff members and in the office of the Director of Sales contained one or more
artifacts that reflected the practice of one’s spirituality. For example, staff members displayed
Holy Writ in the form of the Old and New Testament, The Torah, several 365 days calendars that
contained scripture verses, motivational material with quotations from spiritual leaders (i.e., the
Dalai Lama, Jesus, and Buddha), a ceramic cross, and a crucifix. The presences of these
artifacts, openly displayed, suggest an unspoken affirmation by the organization for the staff
members’ practice of spirituality within the confines of workplace. The open displaying of the
artifacts indicated that those staff members believed the organization was neutral or supportive
with respect to the practice of spirituality in the workplace and there would be no repercussions
from leadership. Schein (2010) revealed “the most intriguing aspect of [organizational]
culture…is that it points us to phenomena that are below the surface, that are powerful in their
impact…[culture] creates within us mindsets and frames of reference…[and]observable events
(p. 14). Three of Schein’s (2010) phenomena are as follows:
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 77

● espoused values
● habits of thinking, mental models, and/or linguistic patterns,
● shared meanings. (p.15)
All three of these cultural phenomena were evidenced in the actions and artifacts associated with
the organization’s Director of Sales. This person was arguably someone in a position of power
and whose actions reflected what was and was not acceptable regarding the organization’s
culture. Thus, the display of artifacts in his office that were indicative of the practice of
spirituality in the workplace (a calendar with Biblical quotations, and the openly displayed daily
devotional guide The Upper Room) and the unforced, natural bowing of his head during an
informal prayer gathering in the main office area gestures to staff members, at a minimum, there
is an acceptance of the practice of spirituality in the workplace without repercussions (at least
from him).
The Organization’s Leadership Comprehended Spirituality as Defined for this Study
The second theme that surfaced regarding formal leadership’s behaviors that
communicated they valued the practice of spirituality was staff’s perception as to whether the
organization’s leadership comprehended spirituality as defined for this study (see page 18 for
definition). Most respondents (69.23%) denoted that formal leadership did comprehend
spirituality as defined for this study (see figure 4). In addition, approximately one-third of the
respondents (30.77%) indicated that the organization’s formal leadership did not understand
spirituality as defined for this study. These survey results were corroborated during the 2-day
observation phase of the study. One way in which the organization demonstrated it understood
spirituality as defined for this study was seen in the occurrence each morning where the Director
of Sales and the Administrative Support Manager (members of the organization’s
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 78

leadership team) conducted what appeared to be a brief reading/study from a small pamphlet
sized booklet The Upper Room. This brief 5-minute endeavor in the organization’s front office
contained reading of scripture, a “thought for the day,” and ended with verbalized prayer
straightforwardly evoking “Our Heavenly Father.” As staff was entering the office, they took
notice of what was taking place, thus, providing validation to most of the respondents’
perceptions that (at least part of) the organization’s leadership comprehends spirituality as
defined for this study. Schein (2010) noted that “observed behavioral regularities when people
interact” (p.16) implies cultural integration and stability. These observed actions by
organizational leadership validate a culture supportive of the practice of spirituality in the
workplace and help to answer one of the guiding research questions for this study: To what
extent is the organization meeting its goal of supporting employees’ ability to bring their whole
person to the workplace, which includes the practice of one’s spirituality? Thus, a cultural
model was being provided to staff members that indicates to some extent the practice of
spirituality was allowed and supported.

Figure 4

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 79

The Organization Allowed the Practice of Spirituality Without Regard to Religious
Orientation
The third theme that surfaced from the data regarding the staff perceptions of the
organization’s formal leadership’s behaviors that communicated they valued the practice of
spirituality and did not impede staff members from the practice of one’s spirituality in the
workplace was that 100% of respondents believed that the organization’s formal leadership
allows staff to practice their individual spirituality without regard to one’s religious orientation.
Said another way, in the context of the work environment, it appears Omega Marketing’s formal
leadership was not biased toward one faith or tradition. This finding indicates that the
organization’s formal leadership had communicated, in some fashion, that it was okay to practice
one’s spirituality in the workplace to all staff members. Evidence of this perceived non-bias was
revealed during the 2-day observation period when artifacts of 3 different religious traditions (a
ceramic cross, a crucifix, a copy of the Holy Bible (New International Version), and a copy of
TANAKH The Holy Scriptures; The New JPS Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew
Text) were in clear view. Additional support for the notion that the organization’s formal
leadership allowed staff to practice their individual spirituality without regard to one’s religious
orientation took place late on the second day of observation. Near the end of the official
workday, a female staff member indicated to her colleagues that she could use their prayers. She
indicated a family member had just recently been diagnosed with cancer. Six co-workers
gathered around her cubicle. Four prayed out-loud, while two kept their heads bowed for an
extended period after the closing of the final verbalized prayer. The Director of Sales was present
at the time and did not interfere with the actions of staff that was taking place. His silence and
behavior during this timeframe may be viewed as affirmation of (his) support for staff’s practice
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 80

of spirituality in the workplace. The Director of Sales actions aligns with Schein’s (2010) notion
about cultural model formation, in which individual intentions become group consequences. The
stipulated goal of the organization is to build a culture where staff can bring the “whole person”
to work, which includes the practice of one's’ spirituality in the workplace. By not interfering, as
a person of power within the organization, the Director of Sales communicated (whether
intentionally or not) non-verbal acceptance of the group’s behavior, thus, becoming another
organizational factor that demonstrated positive movement toward a culture that allows the
“whole person” in the workplace.
In addition, there were four recorded instances where staff’s language shed light onto
their belief that it was permissible to practice their spirituality in the workplace without
consequences. The most notable instance occurred during the ride-along with sales staff member
Louise. As she was wrapping up a sales call, she said to the client “I hope to see you Wednesday
night at Bible Study, we are in the book of John.” Louise’s unconcealed, deliberate invitation to
Bible Study demonstrated that she did not feel inhibited about sharing her spiritual nature and
religious affiliation with her clients or perceive that there would be any negative consequences to
deal with from the organization. Her actions are consistent with Schein’s (2010) concept of
cultural settings and fall within the concept of “Rules of the Game,” where “unwritten rules for
getting along in the organization (to be accepted) are learned” (p. 15).
In conjunction with the above theme, almost two-thirds of the respondents (61.54%)
indicated they did not believe that the organization’s formal leadership valued a belief system
(teachings and tenets) over any others (figure 5). This further validates the notion that formal
leadership was not biased about an individual’s practice of spirituality.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 81

Figure 5

No Pressure to Appear Religious or Spiritual
The fourth theme indicated that “there is no pressure to appear religious or spiritual.”
One hundred percent (100%) of the respondents acknowledged this fact. This seems to indicate
the organization had no concrete standing in either direction as to the importance of the practice
of spirituality in the workplace. Furthermore, when asked “Do you believe that the
organization’s formal leadership values a particular belief system (teachings and tenets) over any
others?” 61.54% (8 out of 13) of the respondents answered no (figure 5). Their responses
suggested that Omega Marketing’s formal leadership was taking a neutral stance about
pressuring staff members to the practice of spirituality in the workplace. This apparent neutral
stance might have been in direct conflict with meeting the stated desired goal of staff members
bringing the whole person to the workplace and specifically, the practice of one’s spirituality.
Clarity in messaging on the part of Omega Marketing’s leadership would resolve any potential
conflict.
No Formal Policies that Would Impede or Support the Practice of Spirituality
Finally, a review of the organization’s policy and procedure manual, and available
memos from formal leadership to staff during FY 2016-2017 revealed no formal written policy
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 82

that would impede or support an individual in the practice of spirituality in the workplace. The
uncovering of this theme is important as it speaks to the management of the organization’s
culture. The organization’s silence in written policy could indicate that it was leaving the choice
to practice spirituality in the workplace up to each individual, based on his/her comfort level of
displaying this trait of their “whole person”
Staff Members’ Own Comfort with Practicing Spirituality in the Workplace
The second finding that surfaced from the data was that staff members had varying
degrees of comfort when it came to the practice of their spirituality. As indicated earlier, staff
members were searching for meaning in their lives (meaningfulness). Just because a person is
not an extrovert (an outgoing, overtly expressive person) when it comes to the practice of one’s
spirituality in a public setting, does not mean that person does not want to bring their “whole
person” to the workplace and practice his/her spirituality in a manner that is comfortable for
him/her. In 1921, psychologist Carl Jung first presented the concept of differing personality
traits, what we know today as extroverts and introverts. Jung (1921) posited that each personality
type obtained stimulation, energy, and motivation in very differing ways. An extrovert prefers
the external world of things, people, and activation (by being with people and participating in
high energy activities), whereas, a person given to an introverted persona draws his/her energy
from within oneself. Simply stated, an introvert prefers his/her internal world of thoughts,
feelings, fantasies, dreams, and more (Cain, 2013; Jonkman, 2013; Kahnweiler, 2013).
Therefore, this section provides insight regarding the knowledge and skill-set(s) and motivational
factors related to achieving the organization’s goal and begins with insight into attribution
theory.
Attribution theory, a motivational theoretical framework developed by Weiner (2005),
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 83

suggests a person’s motivation is directly attributable to their knowledge. For this reason, a
spiritual practitioner’s actions/behaviors are directly attributed to one’s knowledge (the
teachings, tenets, and precepts) of spirituality.
As indicated in the conceptual framework portion of this chapter, a person whose life is
defined by and through the practice of spirituality, is also motivated (by this knowledge and
understanding) to follow the teachings, tenets, and precepts in harmony with their spiritual
beliefs. When viewed through this lens, one must comprehend that the knowledge of spirituality
is then a pre-requisite for spirituality to be motivational. As such, must be viewed in light of this
wholeness. The knowledge and skill-set(s), and motivational factors that were revealed by the
survey results were as follows: spirituality is important in all facets of life, the practice of
spirituality has value and benefit for practitioners and the organization, and practitioners draw
upon teaching and tenets of their spiritual tradition to aid job performance.

Spirituality is Important in All Facets of Life
An overwhelming majority of survey participants (83.33%) indicated the practice of
spirituality was important in all facets of their life (figure 6). Fryberg and Markus (2007) noted
that cultural models are comprised of culturally based ideas and practices that are manifested,
enacted, and incorporated in everyday life. This notion is also congruent with Schein’s (2010)
element of organizational culture: Group Norms. Thus, this shared norm is a critical knowledge
and motivational factor in helping Omega Marketing’s leadership develop a culture that supports
and encourages the practice of spirituality in the workplace.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 84

Figure 6

Those who perceived themselves to be spiritual deemed that this characteristic/attribute/trait was
the foundation of their being (who they are as an individual). Fittingly, practitioners derive some
sort of value or benefit to the “whole person” through the practice of spirituality.
The Practice of Spirituality Has Value and Benefits for Practitioners and the Organization
Survey respondents identified numerous values and benefits from the practice of
spirituality for both self and the organization, thus providing the impetus to incorporate the
bringing their “whole person” and by extension, practice of spirituality in the workplace.
Respondents indicated the following as benefits for both the practitioner and the organization:
1. A moral compass (guidance in decisions one makes) in all aspects of life.
2. Builds trust that co-workers will do no harm to others.
3. Provides a feeling of never being alone.
4. Provides peace, comfort, clarity, calm, and joy, especially in the midst of life’s
challenges and stressful times.
5. Provides a sense of direction and focus for each day.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 85

6. A worldview that provides a model to obtain balance in life.
7. The perspective that no matter what happens all will be well because He’s [God/the
transcendent being/Higher Power] got my back.
8. The practice of spirituality solidifies one’s integrity.
9. The practice of spirituality helps ensure decisions are to the mutual benefit between me
and others.
10. Guides one to be honest and to tell the truth at all times.
11. The practice of spirituality dictates how one deals with customers, co-workers, and
competitors daily.
12. Provides a time of reflection and lens in which to view a very difficult situation.
13. A resource to fall back on that is bigger than oneself and the government.
14. Helps me to make decisions that do no harm to others.
Hence, this ethos (the characteristics and attributes, which are manifested in the beliefs and
aspirations of a practitioner of spirituality) provides the underpinnings for the workplace culture
Omega Marketing is striving to achieve. This is a culture that sets the organization apart and
gives it a competitive advantage in the marketplace. This competitive advantage arises when
staff members who self-identified as spiritual draw upon the teachings, tenets, and precepts of
one’s spiritual tradition.
Drawing Upon Teaching and Tenets Aid Job Performance
Finally, there was unanimous agreement that all respondents (100%) draw upon the teaching
and tenets of their religious beliefs to do their job (Figure 7).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 86

Figure 7

More than half (53.85%) believe they are expected to draw upon the teachings and tenets of their
religious belief to do their job (Figure 8).

Figure 8
Expectancy theory of motivation describes how individuals are motivated to choose one
behavior over another when there is a positive relationship between one’s effort, performance,
and the resulting desired outcome (Eccles, 2006; Vroom, 1964). Omega Marketing’s leadership
needs to understand the concept of bringing the “whole person” to work, which includes the
practice of spirituality, and the correlation between drawing on the teachings, tenets, and
precepts of one’s spiritual traditions and job performance is the driving force behind of 100% of
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 87

survey respondents who answered the question: Do you draw upon the teachings and tenets of
your religious beliefs to do your job? This finding is also validated by Bandura and Wessels’s
(1994) motivational theory of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy beliefs are instrumental in how one
thinks, feels, motivates oneself, and behave. A strong sense of self efficacy is critical to
enhancing human accomplishment and one’s sense of well-being (Bandura & Wessel, 1994).
Leadership Knowledge and Skill-set(s) and Motivational Factors
For the organization to meets its goal of staff members bringing their whole person to the
workplace that includes the practice of one’s spirituality, leadership needs to understand how the
staff members view themselves. An overarching theme that emerged from the data to help
inform leadership about the staff members’ worldviews were that the knowledge and motivation
components of spirituality identified in this study seemed to have been integrated by the
practitioner(s) to make sense of their essence, who they were as individuals (being) and what
they did (actions). Thus, the practice of spirituality is central and foundational to who they are
and organization.
A final theme to emerge from the survey data was leadership is sending mixed messages
to staff members about the organization's expectations and leaderships’ knowledge in the
following areas:
a) Knowledge about spirituality.
b) Is the practice of one’s spirituality in your workplace important to your
organization?
Schein (2010) posits that to achieve a desired culture, “[leadership] must seek deeper, more
complex anthropological models… [which are] a wide range of observable events and
underlying forces (p. 14). Survey results indicate this at a minimum is lacking.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 88

When queried about leaderships’ knowledge of spirituality as defined for this study,
almost 1/3 of respondents indicated leadership did not comprehend spirituality as defined for this
study (Figure 9).

Figure 9

Schein (2010) further put forward the notion that cultural understanding is desirable for all
members of an organization, but “it is essential to leaders if they are to lead” (p. 22). Survey,
observation, and collected artifact data indicated staff members have engaged in the practice of
spirituality in the workplace. Therefore, since that is one of the stated goals of the organization,
leadership must “articulate publicly [their support of] principles and values that the group claims
to be trying to achieve” (Schein, 2010, p. 15). To align themselves with the constructs of an
effective cultural setting (the beliefs, opinions, and religious aspects of an organization),
leadership must present a clear, unified message, and based on survey results, that has not been
occurring.
The disconnect in messaging about culture was also seen in the respondents’ responses to
the question: Is the practice of spirituality in your workplace important to your organization?

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 89

Figure 10
Figure 10 illustrates staff member perception in response to the aforementioned question.
Over 40% of respondents indicated that the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace
was not important to the organization.
The Practice of Spirituality and Ethical Business Practices
The final theme brought to light by the survey results was staff members didn’t
universally associate the practice of spirituality with ethical business practices.
58%
42%
Perceived Importance of the Practice of
Spirituality in the Workplace to the
Organization
Yes No
Is the Practice of One's Spirituality
in Your Workplace Important To
Your Organization?
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 90

Figure 11

While the majority of respondents reported the practice of spirituality was important in all facets
of one’s life (83.33%), they drew a distinction between ethical business practices and the practice
of spirituality. An overlap of over 38% of respondents indicated they believed it is important to
be spiritual to enact ethical business practices. Over 61% believed a person can enact ethical
business practices without being spiritual. Respondent “E” provided some intriguing insight as
to why this condition exists. He /she shared the following additional thoughts to help the
researcher understand the role that the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace brings to the
workplace culture (survey question 20): “I suspect that many times, we don't see that spirituality
is what drives someone. Many are private about this. I think, too, as I've gone through this survey
that many decisions and actions are probably based in spirituality and not defined, or even
recognized, as such. When I started this survey, I said I don't consider myself all that spiritual;
however, I realize that I have aligned myself with an organization that strives to achieve
something that is rather spiritual, by nature. That makes the presence of and use of spirituality
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 91

much more natural and accepted than if I worked in environment where goals were strictly
financial and not about people.” The knowledge of this data point is critical for Omega
Marketing’s Leadership as they try to implement a corporate culture that values, encourages, and
supports the “whole person” and does no harm to others.
Conclusion
The topic of the practice of spirituality, especially in the workplace, can be contentious in
a world that seems to embrace a society that is secular in nature. But, the practice of spirituality
in the workplace brings values and benefits that can give an organization a competitive
advantage in the marketplace. More importantly, the practice of spirituality in the workplace is
an intrinsic motivator, a tool for leadership to use to effect positive change. According to the
literature, values [and beliefs] are intrinsic motivators that enable an individual to perform a task,
while at time the same “deriving satisfaction from the accomplishment of that task (or job) …
One feature that sets the practice of spirituality from other intrinsic motivators is that it [places
more] emphasis on the congruence of the task with our beliefs, objectives, and anticipated
rewards” (Chalofsky & Krishna, 2009, p.194).
For those individuals who deem that the practice of spirituality is important in all aspects
of one’s life, this concept works itself out daily. The notion of people needing to bring one’s
“whole person” (mind, body, heart, and spirit) to the workplace is crucial in aiding one to find
meaning in work. The practice of spirituality in the workplace brings with it a culture that, when
properly implemented, can give the organization a competitive advantage in the marketplace, and
more importantly, can cultivate individuals who perform at their very best due to a deeper level
of motivation than the traditional intrinsic values (Chalofsky, 2003). The organization is
partially meeting its goal of supporting and encouraging staff members in bringing their “whole
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 92

person” to the workplace and specifically, the practice of an individual’s spirituality in the
workplace. Furthermore, leadership needs to acquire more knowledge about spirituality,
motivational theory (expectancy theory and attribution theory) and provide better communication
to staff regarding the organization’s goal.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 93

CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS
In the first chapter the researcher outlined the organizational problem of practice
concerns and the research questions this study aimed to address. Chapter two provided a review
of the literature relevant to the practice of spirituality in the workplace, with a primary focus on
the benefits this practice provides for the individual practitioner and the organization. Chapter
three outlined the methodology for this study which was the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework model. Chapter four presented the results of the gap analysis starting with the
organizational factors data points, followed by the combined knowledge and skill-set(s), and
motivational factors results. Chapter five presents recommendations of practice in the areas of
knowledge and skill-set(s), motivational factors, and organizational factors that are context-
specific. The recommendation section is followed by the integrated implementation and
evaluation plan. The chapter concludes with a description of how the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) will be used to implement recommendations and to
evaluate their effectiveness. The New World Model has four levels of training evaluation that
start with the desired answer, result, or outcome and work backwards through the levels of
behavior, learning and reaction. Operational use of the Kirkpatrick model by Omega
Marketing’s leadership will provide information as to whether the organization is meeting its
goal of incorporating the ‘whole person’ into the workplace, and specifically the practice of an
individual’s spirituality in the workplace. The researcher begins this chapter with a brief review
of the purpose of the project and the guiding research questions.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the role that the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace plays and the organizational influences that
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 94

interfere with ethical business decisions as they align with Rhodes’s Six Components of a Model
for Workplace Spirituality (2006). While a complete gap analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis are all
members of OM’s leadership (formal and informal). The analysis will focus on causes for this
problem due to gaps in the areas of staff members’ knowledge and skill, motivation, and
leadership disconnect from stakeholders. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible
or assumed causes and then by examining these systematically. As such, the questions that
guide this study are the following:
1. To what extent is the organization meeting its goal of supporting the whole person
in the workplace, and specifically the practice of an individual’s spirituality in the workplace?
2. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors/values
related to achieving the organization’s goal?
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences in Table 5 represent the complete list of assumed
knowledge influences and their probability of being validated based on and supported by the
literature review, and Clark and Estes (2008), who suggest that declarative knowledge about
something is often necessary to know before applying it to classify or identify, as in the case of
leadership ability to influence the organizational culture so that it provides an environment that
incorporates the practice of an individual's spirituality in the workplace and thus have a staff of
employees who are passionate about their vocation. As such, as indicated in Table 5.1, it is
anticipated that these influences have a high probability of being validated and have a high
priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 5.1 also shows the recommendations for
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 95

these highly probable influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)

Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)

Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Leadership does not
understand the
value and benefits
that the practice of
one’s spirituality in
the workplace can
bring to the
organization (D)
N Y Learning and
motivation
are enhanced when
learners have
positive
expectancies for
success
(Pajares, 2006).
Provide information
with empirical data
on the benefits of
the practice of one’s
spirituality in the
workplace and the
benefits that brings
to the organization
Leadership needs to
know how to
influence corporate
culture, so it will
lead to impassioned
employees (P)
HP Y Procedural
knowledge increases
when declarative
knowledge required
to perform the skill
is available or
known. (Clark et al.,
2008).

Provide job aid on
the how to develop
an organizational
culture that will lead
to impassioned
employees
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 96

Leadership needs to
reflect on their own
ability to model
motivation
principles of ethos
for individual staff
members to help
members to be
passionate about
their vocation (M)
Y Y Social interaction,
cooperative learning,
and
cognitive
apprenticeships
(such as reciprocal
teaching) facilitate
construction of new
knowledge (Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).
Provide education
on motivation
theory to increase
leadership's capacity
to motivate staff
members to be
passionate about
their vocation
D)eclarative; (P)rocedual; (M)etacognitive

Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Declarative
knowledge is gained by a person when one understands the interrelationships between the basic
components within a larger structure that enables those components to function together
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Declarative knowledge is knowledge about concepts, theories,
and principles. The data revealed that the organization’s formal leadership does not understand
the value and benefits that the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace can bring to the
organization. For the current gaps in declarative knowledge to close, formal leadership at
Omega Marketing must grasp the relationship between values and benefits that the practice of
one’s spirituality in the workplace brings to the organization and overall employee satisfaction
with one’s vocation. The term spirituality refers to the human desire for connection with the
transcendent, the desire for integration of the self into a meaningful whole, and the realization of
one’s potential, as well as the interconnectedness with a higher power which corresponds to
religiousness (Liu & Robertson, 2011, p. 42). The practice of spirituality in the workplace
would include the implementation or living out the teachings and tenets of one’s tradition, which
includes, but is not limited to, seeking the transcendent and doing no harm to other individuals
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 97

(Smith & Marranca, 2009).
Research by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) has revealed that it is challenging for those
trying to learn new concepts, theories, or principles to make important connections between
those elements and the bigger scheme of ideas mirrored in an expert’s knowledge of a field or
specialty. Providing education with empirical data and training on the benefits of the practice of
one’s spirituality in the workplace and the benefits that practice can bring to the organization
may be an effective solution to closing gaps in declarative knowledge.
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that people need to be furnished with education when
challenges or circumstances are novel, as in the current situation with the practice of spirituality
in the workplace at Omega Marketing. Education and training conveys analytical and conceptual
knowledge and equips individuals with the tools that they need to handle problems and develop
creative solutions. It is critical to bestow declarative knowledge in a manner that allows formal
leadership at Omega Marketing to make sound connections to the benefits of the practice of
spirituality in the workplace. This also supports garnering an employee's satisfaction with his or
her vocation. If not, this knowledge will become static and will not transfer to implementation,
and more importantly, a new habit (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bransford & Swartz, 1999).
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Procedural
knowledge is the knowledge of “how-to-do” (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) and occurs once a
person is provided with precise directions, demonstrations by subject matter expert(s), and
shepherded practice. The data revealed that OM’s formal leadership lacked procedural
knowledge on how to influence/implement a corporate culture that will lead to impassioned
employees. The data revealed that OM’s formal leadership lacked the procedural knowledge
about how to influence the corporate culture so that it would lead employees who are
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 98

impassioned about their vocation. Procedural knowledge increases when the declarative
knowledge required to perform the skill is available or known. (Clark et al., 2008).
Individuals in formal leadership roles need job aid(s) and training on how to develop an
organizational culture that will lead to impassioned employees. Clark and Estes (2008) posit that
training is the best way to equip people with “how to” knowledge. Training, coupled with
printed job aids (for ease of reference), informative feedback, and practice provided by topic
expert(s) will help OM’s formal leadership to achieve the desired organizational goal.
The goal of professional development for OM’s formal leadership should be to acquire
the needed procedural knowledge that will aid staff in becoming more passionate about their
vocation. For staff learning to take place because of formal leadership training, it is imperative
that the formal leadership effectively transfers the knowledge and skills that they have acquired
(Joyce & Showers, 2002). This transfer of knowledge and skills is unlikely to take place with a
one-time seminar or workshop, especially if the knowledge and/or skill is complex, and the
concept being taught is new (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Scott, Webber, Aitken & Lupart,
2011; Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W. Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. L, 2007). Learning
and motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for success (Pajares,
2006). Telling people about a new concept or strategy is not enough for the lesson to last; they
must also digest and implement the how- to- do- it on a regular basis. Hence, training on the
how to develop an organizational culture that will lead to impassioned employees that will
transfer, must include development of knowledge, the modeling of the desired skill set(s),
practice of the desired skill(s), and mentor coaching (Joyce & Showers, 2002).
Metacognitive knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Research in the
field of metacognitive knowledge indicates that metacognitive knowledge is a crucial element in
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 99

learning. Scott and Palincsar (2006) suggest that social interaction, cooperative learning, and
cognitive apprenticeships (such as reciprocal teaching) facilitate construction of new knowledge.
Pointrich (2010) provides further clarity of what metacognitive knowledge is by pointing out
metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of general strategies that might be used for
different task, knowledge of the conditions under which these strategies might be used,
knowledge of the extent to which the strategies are effective, and knowledge of the self.
(p. 219)

By increasing their metacognitive knowledge, and understanding of what motivates everyone on
staff, OM’s formal leadership can help their staff members to become passionate about their
vocation.
Veenman and Verheij (2003) discovered that metacognitive skills could have universal
application to different undertakings and disciplines or subjects. Thus, by providing education
and training on motivation theory in the specific areas of extrinsic motivation, intrinsic
motivation, expectancy value theory, and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, OM’s formal leadership
can increase their capacity to motivate staff members with the right tools [which are contained
within these academic areas] (Zimmerman, 1998) to be passionate about their vocation. This
newfound metacognitive knowledge needs to be supported with procedural knowledge, the ‘How
To” knowledge, to motivate members of the organization.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The motivation influences in Table 6 represents a list of assumed motivation
influences and their probability of being validated based on the most frequently mentioned
motivation influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during informal interviews and
supported by the literature review and the review of motivation theory. Clark and Estes (2008)
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 100

suggest that there are three indicators of motivation in task performance – choice, persistence
and mental effort. Choice is going beyond intention to start something. Persistence is continuing
to pursue a goal in the face of distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying new
knowledge to solve a novel program or perform a new task. A review of the literature on
Spirituality in the workplace indicated there are motivational benefits that this practice brings to
both the individual and the organization in meeting goals. Two key concepts that these benefits
are situated within are sociocultural theory and attribution theory. As such, Table 6 exhibits some
motivational influences, which have a high probability of being validated and have a high
priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 6 also shows the recommendations for these
influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation

Leadership
perceives no value
in the practice of
spirituality in the
workplace
(sociocultural
theory)
N Y Social
interaction,
cooperative
learning, and
cognitive
apprenticeships
facilitate
construction of
new knowledge.
(Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).
Show individuals how
academic
disciplines/professions
conceptualize the
world

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 101

Staff members
attribute their
success to the
practice of
spirituality in the
workplace
(attribution
theory)
Y Y Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the
learner
values the task
(Eccles, 2006).
Materials and activities
should be relevant and
useful to the learners,
connected to their
interests, and based on
real world tasks.

Sociocultural theory. Omega Marketing’s formal leadership perceives no value in the
practice of spirituality in the workplace. Scott and Palincsar (2006) found that social interaction,
cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships facilitate the construction of new knowledge.
This finding in the context of sociocultural theory points out that to change a person’s
understanding, one must gain new knowledge. Thus, this researcher’s recommendation is to
show Omega Marketing’s formal and informal leadership how academic disciplines/profession
conceptualize the world regarding the benefits that practicing one’s spirituality in the workplace
brings to an organization (providing them with new knowledge).
Clark and Estes (2008) posit that a person’s positive beliefs [perceptions] play a major
role in increasing performance. Benefiel, Fry, and Geigle (2014) noted that “for many, faith is
what shapes and informs their value system, ethics, character, leadership, and attitude toward
work” (p. 177). Furthermore, Cacioppe (2000) suggest that the successful organizational leader
in the 21
st
century will be “comfortable with their own spirituality…will know how to nurture
spiritual developments in others” (p. 48).
Attribution theory. Omega Marketing’s staff members attribute their success to the
practice of spirituality in the workplace. Eccles (2006) points out that learning and motivation
are enhanced if the learner values the task. Therefore, materials and activities [which promote
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 102

learning and motivation] should be relevant and useful to the learners, connected to their
interests and based on real-world tasks (Pintrich, 2003). The recommendation is to continue and
further enforce the practice of spirituality in the workplace as a motivator. Leadership needs to
demonstrate its comprehension of and acceptance of the role spirituality plays in the daily lives
of staff, and the benefits this motivation tool brings to the organization as well.
Benefiel, et al (2014) have noted that scholars have linked the practice of spirituality in
the workplace “to a wide variety of organizational functions and practices, [and] the major
emphasis so far has been on the positive impact of the practice of spirituality in the workplace on
organizational reality” (p. 175). A primary reason this recommendation works is provided by
Cacioppe (2000), who notes that by addressing the needs of the individual [those attributes found
in the practice of spirituality in the workplace], employees and leadership alike are ‘bringing
greater productivity to the organization and opening up a whole new dimension to our lives (p.
51). This would seem to suggest that the attributes staff members value which are found in the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace play a key role in motivating staff to excel in their
assigned duties and task.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The organization influences in Table 7 represent the complete list of
assumed organization influences and their probability of being validated, based on the most
frequently mentioned organization influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goals during
informal interviews and supported by the literature review and the review of organization and
culture theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organization and stakeholder goals are often
not achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that
are not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 103

propose two constructs about culture – cultural models or the observable beliefs and values
shared by individuals in groups, and cultural models, or the settings and activities in which
performance occurs. Thus, both resources and processes and cultural models and settings must
align throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. As such, as
indicated in Table 7, some organizational influences have a high probability of being validated
and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 5.3 also shows the
recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or
Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Leadership is not
intimately familiar
with the
organization and
how it is perceived
in the community at
large

(cultural setting)
HP Y Effective leaders
are aware of the
organization’s and
its community’s
historical and socio-
cultural context.
(Chavez, Duran,
Baker, Avila, &
Wallerstein, 2008)
Be intimately
familiar with your
organization and
how it is perceived
in the community
at large.

Consider the
organization’s
mission and how
this mission aligns
with those in the
surrounding
community.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 104

Leaders are not
engaged in
analyzing the
complex social and
political elements of
the organization and
therefore their
values are not
aligned with the
organization's
culture.
(cultural model)
N Y Leaders whose
espoused values are
not in sync with the
organization's
culture will have a
difficult time
leading (Schein,
2004).
Examine the
interrelationships
between the social
and political
elements of the
organization.
The environment in
the office setting is
not conducive to the
practice of one’s
spirituality in the
workplace
(behavioral theory)

N Y Changes in the
environment can
affect behavior.
(Daly 2009;
Tuckman 2009)

Create an
environment that
fosters desirable
behaviors.
(Tuckman, 2009

There are two
cultures that exist
within the
organization that are
not congruent
(cultural setting)
HP Y Job satisfaction
increases when all
organization
stakeholders agree
on culture, mission,
goals, and resources
required to achieve
goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008)
Interview each
staff member to
garner an
understanding/per
ception of the
culture, mission,
goals, and
resources to
ensure
organizational
alignment

Cultural models
Cultural settings
Cultural Model. Formal leadership at Omega Marketing is not engaged in analyzing
the complex social and political elements of the organization, and therefore, their values are not
aligned with the organization's culture. Schein (2004) suggests that leaders whose espoused
values are not in-sync with the organization's culture will have a difficult time leading. This
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 105

suggests that formal leadership within the organization needs to analyze the complex social and
political elements of the organization and align their values to effectively lead.
Clark and Estes (2008) note that evaluation [analysis] is paramount to supporting one’s
judgements. In this case, the judgement would concern the complex social and political elements
that define the organizational culture at Omega Marketing and whether their espoused values are
in -sync with the organization’s. This reflective process is an opportunity to create alignment
between espoused values and praxis (Farina, 1989). By examining the interrelationships
between the social and political elements of the organization, Omega Marketing’s formal
leadership can better align cultural values for all stakeholders. Better alignment of cultural values
will, in-turn, provide the benefit of increased organizational effectiveness in the workplace.
Behavioral theory. Onsite observation revealed that the office environment at Omega
Marketing is not conducive to the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace. Daly (2009)
and Tuckman (2009) indicate that changes in the [workplace] environment can affect behavior.
Both the organizational environment and resulting behavior created by it can be viewed as an
organizational barrier which has a negative effect on performance.
Clark and Estes (2008) point out that organizational culture “affects all attempts to
improve performance” (p. 103). Therefore, it is necessary for Omega Marketing’s formal
leadership to consider “the specific organizational culture” (p. 30) to build an environment that is
conducive to the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace, thus, removing any barriers to
peak performance that misaligned cultures produce.
Cultural setting. Two cultures exist within the organization that are not congruent with
one another. Clark and Estes (2008) posit that job satisfaction increases when all organization
stakeholders agree on culture, mission, goals, and resources required to achieve goals. Hence, it
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 106

is incumbent upon Omega Marketing’s leadership to have quality discussions and interviews
with each staff member to garner an understanding/perception of the culture, mission, goals, and
resources from their perspective to ensure organizational alignment.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards and that, by doing
so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are
both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this “reverse
order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: a) first,
the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) next, the
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and c) finally, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Omega Marketing exists to help local business owners with their marketing efforts to
maintain and ultimately grow their business. To do this Omega Marketing’s leadership needs to
develop a culture that inspires all staff members in their chosen vocation. This is partially
accomplished by allowing each staff member to use and develop his/her whole person, which
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 107

drives excellence in the performance of their individual duties. The goal of the organization is to
rebuild trust with staff members and the local business community.
This project examined the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational barriers
that prevent staff members from bringing their whole-person into the workplace and utilizing
one’s spirituality in the daily execution of their assigned duties. The proposed solution, is for
formal leadership to first understand the role and benefits that the practice of spirituality in the
workplace brings to the organization, then to change the organization's culture to reflect this new
understanding which should produce the desired outcome – an organization that values the
spirituality in the workplace and the associated benefits this practice brings.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 8 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for Omega Marketing. If
the internal outcomes are met as expected through the learning of new knowledge gained from
empirical data presented in the job aides and training, then the desired organizational culture that
allows the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace should also be realized.

Table 8
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

The stakeholder goal for this study is that the leadership (both those in formal roles and
those in informal) will work with staff to build an organizational culture that drives an
individual’s passion for his/her vocation and his/her client’s success while encouraging the
practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 108

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcome
Alignment of the corporate
culture with the spiritual
values/beliefs of the
surrounding community

Number of community
reports related to Omega
Marketing’s cultural
adoption of a more spiritual
culture
Data received from survey
sent out with monthly
statements to random
businesses and qualitative
interactions with community
members in the chamber and
local service organizations
Client's experience deeper
trust in the organization
Number of clients who
stopped doing business with
the organization due to a
lack of trust in either a staff
member or the organization,
who resume doing business
with the organization based
on the organization's cultural
change
Feedback (both solicited and
unsolicited) from clients that
indicates increased trust in
our organization's culture

Internal Outcomes

Leadership shares their
knowledge of the benefits of
the practice of spirituality in
the workplace for the
organization with staff
Number of leaders who can
define spirituality in the
workplace
Gain new knowledge on the
topic of spirituality in the
workplace by reading
articles, books, and literature
that contains empirical data
Increased facilitation of
communication by
leadership including praise
of staff for their practice of
spirituality in the workplace.
Number of daily observable
actions by staff members
that indicate spirituality in
the workplace is embraced.
Monitoring daily, inter-
personal and electronic
communications
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 109

Leaders value the practice of
one’s spirituality in the
workplace
Number of employee
turnover based on
spirituality in the workplace
Exit interview surveys with
HR department.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the leadership (both those in formal
roles and those in informal roles) who work with and among staff. The first critical behavior is
that Omega Marketing’s leadership will support and encourage staff in their practice spirituality
in the workplace. The second critical behavior is that leadership reinforces staff values that align
with the practice of spirituality in the workplace. The third critical behavior is that leaders reward
staff when their behavior aligns with the spiritual values of the community that are consistent
with overarching teachings, tenets, and precepts associated with the practice of spirituality. The
specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appear in Table 9

Table 9
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Leadership

Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Leaders support and
encourage staff in their
practice of spirituality.
Number of positive reports
from staff about leadership
disposition toward
spirituality in the
workplace

Qualitative data collected
from employee debriefings
Assessment of
qualitative data over the
course of 180 days.
2. Leaders reinforce staff
values that align with the
practice of spirituality in
the workplace
Number of times staffs’
actions align with
tenets/teachings/principles
of the practice of
spirituality in the
workplace

Qualitative data collected
through personal interactions
and observations
Ongoing - assessment
of staff behavior in the
both the office and field
environments
3. Leaders rewards staff
when their behavior aligns
with the spiritual values of
Number of incidents
where staff members do
no harm to others and
Recognition in weekly staff
meetings
Weekly
acknowledgement of
staff’s orthopraxy
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 110

the community that are
consistent with
overarching teachings,
tenets, and precepts
associated with the
practice of spirituality.
exhibit kindness to their
co-workers and clients

Required drivers. Leadership plays an important role in creating an organizational
culture that supports the practice of spirituality in the workplace and is responsible for holding
staff members accountable when their actions and behaviors are not congruent with orthopraxy.
Staff members require the support of leadership to help create an organizational culture that
values the concept of vocation and the practice of spirituality in the workplace. As such,
leadership is responsible for the implementation of processes and systems that reinforce,
monitor, encourage, and reward performance of critical behaviors. Table 10 shows the
recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of Omega Marketing’s leadership.
Table 10
Required Drivers to Support the Practice of Spirituality in the Workplace Critical Behaviors

Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid including glossary of
terms and concepts on the
practice of spirituality in the
workplace
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Job Aid including information
and empirical data on the
benefits of the practice of
spirituality in the workplace
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Job Aid on how to develop an
organizational culture that
leads to employees
impassioned about their
vocation
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meeting to troubleshoot
collaboratively and for
additional training on desired
organizational cultural.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 111

Encouraging
Collaboration and peer
modeling during team
meetings and individual
debriefings.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
360-degree feedback and
coaching from leadership and
staff
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Formal recognition of staff’s
achievements
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Public acknowledgement,
such as an ad in the local
newspaper or a 30 second
spot on the local radio station
when the individual or team
rise to help others in the
community through the
practice of spirituality in the
workplace
Ongoing/Quarterly depending
on the level of action
1, 2, 3

Monitoring
Leadership can set aside a
specific time for staff to share
success, worries, and
concerns
Daily 1, 2, 3
Leadership informally
inquiries about staff members
day, activities, successes and
challenges
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Leadership monitors the
organizational culture and
makes necessary adjustments
if actions/values are
misaligned with the values
contained in the practice of
spirituality in the workplace
and the overriding spirituality
of the communitye (i.e. love
others as yourself, being
truthful, being kind, and doing
no harm)
Ongoing 1, 2, 3

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Organizational support. For Omega Marketing to establish an organizational culture
wherein leadership (both those in formal roles and those in informal) will work with staff to build
an organizational culture that drives an individual’s passion for his/her vocation and his/her
client’s success while encouraging the practice one’s spirituality in the workplace, it is
recommended that the organization’s leadership needs to support all stakeholders critical
behaviors in the following five aspects:
1. Be intimately familiar with the organization and how it is perceived in the community it
serves and share those observations with staff on a regular basis.
2. Consider the organization’s mission and how the execution of this mission aligns with the
socio-cultural context of the surrounding community and the practice of spirituality in the
workplace.
3. Constant engagement in analyzing the complex social and political elements of the
organization to ensure that the organization's policy and procedure align with the practice
of spirituality in the workplace.
4. All stakeholders play an instrumental part in the success of achieving an organizational
culture that values the practice of spirituality in the workplace, hence each is responsible
for their effort in creating a workplace environment where the desired culture can grow
and flourish.
5. Leadership on a regular basis needs to formally and informally check-in with staff to
garner an understanding/perception of their view of the organization's culture to ensure
that only the desired culture exists within the organization that align with the
foundational elements contained within spiritual traditions. There is alignment between
the espoused culture and the actual culture of the organization.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 113

Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After successfully understanding the practice of spirituality in the
workplace, the organizational leadership (both formal and informal) will be able to:
❖ Create an atmosphere where the staff will be encouraged in their practice of
spirituality in the workplace by making the office environment friendly to and accepting
of the staff’s actions in this realm. (Procedural Knowledge)
❖ Design for implementation of an individual professional development plan for each staff
member that will encourage the practice of spirituality in the workplace. (Procedural
Knowledge)
❖ Reinforce the staff’s values that align with the desired outcomes produced by the
practicing one’s spirituality in the workplace. (Conceptual Knowledge)
❖ Monitor both staff and leadership behavior to ensure alignment with the spiritual values
of the community. (Declarative Knowledge)
❖ Judge with confidence that leadership (both formal and informal) understands the
benefits and detriments that of the practice of spirituality in the workplace brings to the
organization. (Confidence)
❖ Value the central tenets and precepts of the POS and the benefits those behaviors bring
brings to the organization. (Value)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved on an
ongoing basis to ensure the organization’s culture continues its adoption of the practice of
spirituality in the workplace as a tool to increase performance. The organization's leadership
(both formal and informal) will create an atmosphere/culture based on the tenets of the practice
of spirituality in the workplace found in scholarly articles and empirical data on the topic. A key
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 114

component of this organizational culture improvement program is the continual reflection by
leadership (especially those in positions of senior leadership) on the progression of the
organization’s values to ensure continual alignment with the free practice of spirituality in the
workplace. Furthermore, it is incumbent during and after the initial organizational culture
change to an organization that garners the benefits and value that the practice of spirituality can
bring to the organization and staff members that leadership reinforces those benefits and values
on an ongoing basis. This will include the monitoring of both staff and leaderships behavior and
leadership judging with confidence the benefits and detriments that of the practice of spirituality
in the workplace brings to the organization. Finally, and most important to the success of this
learning program, is that leadership (both formal and informal) values the benefits that the
practice of spirituality brings to the organization.
Components of learning. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) provide a framework of four
types of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive) that learners may be
expected to acquire to determine and/or clarify learning objectives. Demonstrating declarative
knowledge is often a necessary precursor to applying the new knowledge one has acquired to
solve problems. For leadership at Omega Marketing, it is important to evaluate learning from all
four knowledge types that are being taught that were mentioned above. It is essential that
learners value learning as a precondition to applying newfound knowledge and skill sets.
Furthermore, they must also demonstrate confidence in the application of their newly discovered
knowledge and skills in and be fully committed to using them in the workplace to be successful.
Table 11 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 115

Table 11
Components of Learning for the Program.

Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share” and other individual/group
activities.
Periodically during the staff review process
and documented via observation notes.

Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration in groups and individually of
using the job aids to successfully perform the
skills.
During the workday.
Quality of the feedback from peers during staff
meetings and daily peer interactions

During the workday.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Observation of participants’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the benefit
of what they are being asked to do on the job.
During the workday.
Discussions of the value of what they are being
asked to do on the job.

During the workday.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions and feedback.

During the workday.
Retrospective pre- and post-assessment item. After the implementation kickoff event.

Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback.

During the workday.
Create an individual action plan.

During the workday.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item.
During and after the final consultation.

Level 1: Reaction
Table 12 shows the method(s) or tool(s) and the timing for level one evaluation of the
intervention in the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, (2016) for Omega
Marketing. Leadership and staff will be measured on their reactions to training on the benefits
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 116

and implementation of the practice of spirituality as a new cultural model for the organization
based on three criteria: 1) engagement, which according to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
“refers to the degree to which participants are actively involved in and contributing to the
learning experience...how present and attentive participants were during the training” (p. 17).
2) Relevance, which is the depth and breadth to which leadership and staff will have an
opportunity to use what they have learned (application). Lastly, it is 3) customer satisfaction that
reflects the overall feeling that leadership and staff have towards the training/lessons. Through
the reflection process on engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction, one can determine if
the training needs to be adjusted, enhanced, or if it is meeting the desired outcome(s).
Table 12
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.

Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation by facilitator During all consultation meetings
Content evaluation Weekly through the end of the consultation
agreement
Relevance
Detailed pulse-check with participants via
phone and email check-ins and discussion
(ongoing)
Daily checks to ensure leadership and staff are
applying the tenets of the practice of
spirituality in the workplace in the everyday
work duties

Leadership and Staff Satisfaction
Course evaluation Weekly during the duration of the agreed upon
consulting timeframe
Brief pulse-check with participants via in-
person, phone, and/or email check-ins and
discussion (ongoing)
Daily checks during the duration of the agreed
upon consulting timeframe to ensure
leadership and staff are applying the tenets of
the practice of spirituality in the workplace in
the everyday work duties
Course evaluation via phone call check-ins Weekly during the duration of the agreed upon
consulting timeframe

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 117

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. The facilitator of the
organizational culture change program on the practice of spirituality in the workplace will have a
three part follow-up process to collect information on the following areas: procedural knowledge
(whether or not the participant can do it); attitude (participant believes the project/endeavor is
worthwhile; confidence-(participant's) think he/she can do it; commitment- is all staff committed
to the practice of spirituality in the workplace; are staff members engaged; is the organizational
cultural change relevant; and customer satisfaction. The three- part process will include, but is
not limited to, in-person observation and validation, phone calls to all staff members, and follow-
up emails.
For Level 1, during the in-person workshop, the instructor will conduct periodic brief
pulse-checks by asking the participants about the relevance of the content to their work and the
organization, delivery, and learning environment. Level 2 will include checks for understanding
using games or competition among groups in responding to questions and scenarios drawn from
the content.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Ongoing, for approximately
two months (60 days) after the completion of training and consultation with leadership and staff
members on the practice of spirituality in the workplace implementation of the training, the
consultant/facilitator will administer a survey containing open and scaled items using the
Blended Evaluation approach to measure, from the participant’s perspective, satisfaction and
relevance of the training (Level 1), confidence and value of applying their training (Level 2),
application of the training by leadership and co-workers (Level 3), and the extent to which their
performance and their level of happiness about their vocation has been affected (Level 4).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 118

Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of the organization is two-fold. First, leadership needs to demonstrate
that it values the practice of spirituality in the workplace. Secondly, staff members will be
happier about one's vocation. To determine whether these expectations have been met, there will
be daily check-ins with all staff either in-person, via phone call, or email by the
consultant/facilitator and/or organizational leadership. There currently is a strong interpersonal
relation that exists between current leadership and staff. These strong relational ties help to
ensure that staff and leadership are being honest in the communications with one another.
Three key questions will be asked to help with data analysis:
1. Does the level of results meet expectations in movement toward an increase in the
leading indicator(s) and the desired outcomes?
2. If expectations are not met, why? (This is to help identify the root causes for not meeting
expectations).
3. If expectations were met, why? (This is to help formulate a plan on how to propagate the
positive findings as promising practices and to share the outcomes using the Success
Case Method for other interested parties).
A chart (figure 12) will be used to record staff member responses for a period of up to 60 days
after the conclusion of the consultation/training program. Similar charts will be created to
monitor Levels 1,2, and 3.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 119

Figure 12
Staff Members Responses to Training Chart

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 120

Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model informs enlightens the implementation and
evaluation plan of this study (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The four levels of their model
for training and evaluation was utilized to ensure that leadership (both formal and informal) at
Omega Marketing have the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support necessary to
facilitate the required changes to help the organization instill a culture that values the practice of
spirituality in the workplace. A comprehensive training approach should be utilized to achieve
the greatest impact. This approach will include mentoring by formal leadership, management of
staff through the walkaround approach daily, and weekly staff meetings. This training model and
program helps organizational leadership with the identification of necessary outcomes, metrics
and method(s) to measure the results of the desired outcome(s) that are key to achieving the
organization’s goals. Next, the program establishes the critical behaviors that need to be
assessed to determine if the participants are utilizing what they learned once they returned to
their daily activities on the job. Additionally, learning outcomes are identified, and leadership
(both formal and informal) is evaluated on their learning and knowledge, attitude, commitment,
and confidence during and after the training. As a final point, methods to assess how leadership
and staff are reacting to them have been developed to determine their level of satisfaction,
engagement, and relevance of the training. To maximize the program results, it is critical that the
facilitator and organizational leadership evaluate, reflect on, and analyze data collection on
during and after the implementation of the program. For each of the four levels of the New
Kirkpatrick World Model (reactions level of learning, level of behavior, and results) this section
will answer three key questions as they pertain to data analysis: “Does the level of …. meet
expectations? If not, then why not? and If so, then why?” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 121

As leadership moves through the designed steps, should the level of reaction and learning
not meet expectations then the facilitator, organizational leadership, and staff members need to
identify the reasons/issue and changes need to be made to the program. It is recommended that
the facilitator and/or organizational leadership perform detailed pulse-check with participants via
phone and email check-ins and discussion(s). This step will aide in identifying what the
reason/issue is and help address the concern(s) that are raised (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
When expectations are met for Level 1 (reactions) and Level 2 (learning), a pulse check is also
recommended to ensure continued engagement (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
After the coaching, mentoring and training is completed on issues/topics/concerns
associated with Level 3 (behavior) and Level 4 (results) and expectations are not met, it is
essential to communicate with all to discover what are the issues with the required drivers and
critical behaviors (Level 3) that are not being employed. At the same time, it must be asked why
the leading indicators and desired results (Level 4) are not moving forward (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The facilitator can and should solicit feedback via phone/email check-ins
and/or in-person discussion(s) to ascertain what behaviors would allow the staff and leadership
to move forward to achieve their desired performance goal(s). When the desired levels of
behavior and results meet expectations, then it is incumbent upon leadership (both formal and
informal) to identify what course(s) of action(s) are taking place and share that information with
others in the organization to increase performance across the board.
Finally, it is important to provide a final report on the training outcomes to all
organizational members. Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, (2016) posit that organizational support is
the key component that determines the success of any new initiative, and to drive performance
and results. Thus, by providing a final report, all organizational members can see how the
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 122

change effort is affecting performance. To fully engage leadership and staff members,
Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick (2016) point out that it is important for the evaluation report(s) to be
compelling and address the following topics: efficiency, relevance, and credibility of the
program.
Recommendations for Future Research
There are several gaps in our knowledge around the encouragement and support of one
bringing his/her “whole person” to work, and more specifically, the practice of spirituality in the
workplace that follow from the researcher’s findings, and would benefit from additional
research:
1. The establishment of a moral ethos began many millennia ago; as society
continues to move farther away from those initial understandings, further research
might compare and contrast how staff members are acquiring knowledge of
spiritual and ethical behavior as related to the workplace and how they can be
more thoroughly incorporated into the culture of the organization.
2. It would be helpful to capture further qualitative data on drivers that are spiritual
in nature (the characteristics of a spiritual workplace) but, are not so readily/easily
recognized as such in the context of business.
3. Another knowledge gap that arose from the findings of this study is whether the
practice of spirituality leads to increased organizational productivity and how to
measure this concept.
4. A final relatively narrow, but important question that was identified after the
collected data was examined was the following: does the practice of spirituality in
the workplace move the culture and focus of the organization from a bottom-line
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 123

driven organization to one that is bottom-line aware? This entails shifting focus
from a purely profits standpoint to one that focuses on the “whole person” first,
while still making a profit.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 124

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SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 136

APPENDIX A

Survey Items

1. Is the practice of spirituality in all facets of your life important to you?
2. What benefits does the practice of spirituality bring to your life in general? Please
explain.

3. What benefits does the practice of spirituality bring to you in the workplace?
Please explain.
4. Is the practice of one’s spirituality in your workplace important to your organization?

5. How, if at all, do staff members in your organization practice spirituality in the
workplace? Please explain.

6. Are there non-spiritual people in your organization?
7. If so, how do you think the feel about your spirituality? Please explain.
8. Does your organization’s leadership understand spirituality as defined for this study? (see
definition above).

9. Do you feel comfortable demonstrating your spirituality in your workplace (e,g., taking a
moment of silence, hanging a calendar with religious teachings and tenets on it)?

10. Do you draw upon the teachings and tenets of your religious beliefs to do your job?
11. Do you believe you are expected to draw on the teachings and tenets of a religious belief
to do your job?

12. What benefits, if any, does the practice of spirituality in the workplace bring to your
organization? Please explain.

13. Do you believe that the organization’s formal leadership values a particular belief system
(teachings and tenets) over any others?

14. Does your organization’s formal leadership allow employees to practice their individual
spirituality regardless of their religious orientation?

15. Do you feel pressure to appear religious or spiritual?
16. Where does that pressure come from? Please explain.
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 137

17. Do you believe it is important to be spiritual in order to enact ethical business practices?
18. How do you ensure you are engaging in ethical business practices (e.g., laws/regulations,
personal codes, religious teachings and tenets, etc.)?

19. What type of role, if any, do you think the practice of spirituality should have in the
decision-making process?

20. Is there any additional information you could share that would help me to understand the
role that the practice of one’s spirituality in the workplace brings to your workplace
culture?

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 138

APPENDIX B
Observation Protocol
Omega Marketing Leadership and Staff Observation
(To be Completed During Observation)
Staff Member Code ____________________
Observer ____________________________
Date ________________________________
Type of Activity Observed:
󠄀 Office Setting 󠄀 Field Ride Along 󠄀 Client Visit 󠄀 Ad-hoc Staff Mtg
(lunch/coffee)

Activity Description:

1. Time Spent on observing: Start End Total_____
2. Activity:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Did anyone’s actions resemble the practice of spirituality? 󠄀 Yes 󠄀 No
Action Description
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

In a narrative, describe the activities taking place in the work environment. Focus
on leader to staff member, and staff member to staff member interaction as well
as activities of others in the setting. A narrative requires that you directly quote
the leader/staff member. Additionally, you should document staff member
engagement in response to the leader, as well as individual or group work and
non-work activities.

TIME_________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 139

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

TIME_________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

TIME_________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 140

APPENDIX C
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, Ca 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Spirituality in the Workplace: A Gap Analysis of Omega Marketing
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Philip Jay Armel under the
supervision of Dr. Corrine Hyde at the University of Southern California because you are
currently employed or have previously been employed within the past two years by the
organization of this study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take
part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about
anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This research study aims to understand what role, if any, the practice of one’s spirituality in the
workplace may have on ethical decision making. Unethical business decisions bring harm to all
stakeholders, a primary goal of this study is to gain knowledge and insight as to whether
practicing one’s spirituality in the workplace can bring about sustained changes in leadership and
employee behaviors that will negate unethical business decisions.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to complete an online survey which is
anticipated to take no more than 15 minutes to complete and to allow the researcher to observe
you in your natural work environment over the course of a 10-day period. In regard to the online
survey, you do not have to answer any questions you do not want to, click “next” or “N/A” in the
survey to move to the next question. You may exit the survey at any time without fear of
repercussion.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

You will be entered into a drawing for a $50 Amazon gift certificate for participating in the
study. The drawing will be held at the end of the study and the winner will be notified via email.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 141

whether you participate or not in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any identifiable information collected in connection with this study, either through the on-line
survey or notes taken during the observation process will remain confidential and stored in a
locked file cabinet in the researcher’s home for a period not to exceed 5 years. Your responses
will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. At the completion of
the study, direct identifiers will be destroyed.

The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the following
research personnel:

Principal Investigator Faculty Sponsor

Philip Jay Armel Dr. Corinne Hyde
3470 Trousdale Pkwy. 3470 Trousdale Pkwy.
Los Angeles, CA 90089 Los Angeles, CA 90089

828.217.5999 (c) (213) 740-0224 (o)

jayarmel@charter.net chyde@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 142

APPENDIX D

Recruitment Letter

Date

Re: Spirituality in the Workplace: A Gap Analysis of Omega Marketing Study by Jay Armel

You are receiving this email because you have been identified as either an employee, former
employee, or owner of the organization that is at the heart of my study. I would greatly
appreciate it if you would agree to participate in an online, open-ended interview survey of
approximately 15-20 questions. Your feedback is instrumental to me understanding the role
one’s spirituality plays in making ethical business decisions. This study is being conducted by to
fulfill part of my dissertation requirements. All information you submit will be kept completed
anonymous and only the myself and my dissertation committee members will have access to it.
You will be receiving an email from me in approximately __days, with the potential of a follow-
up call or email, if clarification is needed on any answer you provide. Participating in the on-line
portion of this study does not obligate you to further participation. You may opt out of any
future contact by calling or emailing me (see contact information below).
Thank you in advance for considering this research opportunity and helping me understand how
one’s spirituality interacts with ethical business decisions.
All participants will be entered into a drawing for a $50 Amazon gift card.

Jay Armel

Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
31 Heron Cove Loop
Hickory, NC 28601
Email:
armel@usc.edu
or
gon2tup@aol.com
Cell: 828.217.5999

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Asset Metadata

Creator Armel, Philip Jay (author)

Core Title Spirituality in the workplace: a gap analysis of Omega Marketing

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/12/2018

Defense Date 03/06/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,spirituality benefits for the workplace,vocation,whole person,workplace spirituality

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hyde, Corinne (committee chair), Ezzeldine, Omar (committee member), Ferrario, Kimberly (committee member)

Creator Email armel@usc.edu,gon2tup@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-5998

Unique identifier UC11668931

Identifier etd-ArmelPhili-6238.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-5998 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ArmelPhili-6238.pdf

Dmrecord 5998

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Armel, Philip Jay

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA