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Teacher role in reducing the achievement gap: an evaluation study

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Teacher role in reducing the achievement gap: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP: AN EVALUATION STUDY

by
Yael Bozzay

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2018

Copyright 2018 Yael Bozzay
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP ii
Dedication & Acknowledgements
For the abilities He has gifted to me and the grace and undeserved mercy with which He
has blessed me, I thank God who is my rock and my fortress. For encouraging those abilities and
instilling in me a drive to cultivate areas that did not always come easily and believing I could do
anything I set my mind to do, I thank my parents. For the countless hours reviewing my writing,
for guiding my study, and for always pushing me to do my best work, I thank my chair, Dr.
Artineh Samkian. For serving on my committee and ensuring my dissertation was worthy of a
USC doctorate and of calling myself a colleague, I thank my committee Dr. Jennifer Crawford,
Dr. Mark Pearson, and Dr. Artineh Samkian. For their understanding when I was a little less
peppy after a late night of research or writing, and for keeping me grounded on a daily basis, I
thank my team – you know who you are.
Last, and definitely most importantly, for the inspiration to persevere, for their belief in
their mom, and for their grace when I had a deadline, I thank my children. My loves, you have
been supportive, encouraging, and gracious. You can do anything you set your heart to do, and I
will always be there to support and encourage you, as you have encouraged me. Do what you
love and life will be a blessing. As you travel through life, seek out the challenges that help you
to grow, take risks and fail fast and often so you learn and experience the most of what life has to
offer, and persevere in both that which you are passionate but also in that which challenges your
thinking. Be curious. Be humble. Be a champion for social justice. Live with integrity. And
above all, honor God in all you set your heart and mind to do. And to Joshua who asked almost
every night, “Don’t you have some work to do?” No, I do not. It is finished! Now on to the
next adventure…
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP iii
Table of Contents
Dedication & Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Introduction of the Problem of Practice .............................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 1
Organizational Performance Goal ...................................................................................... 3
Related Literature ............................................................................................................... 6
Importance of the Evaluation ............................................................................................ 10
Description of Stakeholder Groups ................................................................................... 11
Teacher Performance Goals .............................................................................................. 12
Stakeholder Group for the Study ...................................................................................... 14
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................... 15
Methodological Framework .............................................................................................. 16
Definitions ........................................................................................................................ 18
Organization of the Project ............................................................................................... 18
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 20
Influences on the Problem of Practice .............................................................................. 20
The Clark and Estes Analytical Framework ..................................................................... 33
Teacher Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences .................................... 34
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP iv
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Teacher Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context ..................................................................................................... 47
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 56
Chapter Three: Research Methods ................................................................................................ 57
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 57
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 63
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 64
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 65
Ethics ................................................................................................................................ 66
Limitations and Delimitations .......................................................................................... 69
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 71
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 72
Results and Findings ......................................................................................................... 74
Research Question 1: Current Practice ................................................................. 74
Research Question 2: Teachers’ Knowledge and Motivation ............................... 92
Research Question 3: Organizational Influences on Teacher Practice ............... 105
Synthesis ......................................................................................................................... 125
Chapter Five: Implications for Practice, Recommendations for Practice, and Future Research 126
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................. 127
Recommendations for Practice ....................................................................................... 129
Future Research .............................................................................................................. 142
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 143
References ................................................................................................................................... 145
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP v
Appendix A: Survey Protocol ......................................................................................... 159
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................... 166

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP vi
List of Tables
Table Title
1 Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals……. 14
2 Assumed Knowledge Influences and Knowledge Types………………………... 36
3 Assumed Motivational Influences……………………………………………….. 42
4 Assumed Organizational Influences ……………………………………….……. 47
5 Survey Participation by Department…………………………………………..… 73
6 Measures of Central Tendencies by Department………………………………... 75
7 Site Measures of Dispersion………………………………………………….….. 76
8 Department Measures of Dispersion………………………………..…………… 76
9 Summary of Knowledge Influences, Findings, and Recommendations……….... 131
10 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations…………….………. 134
11 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations…………….…..… 137

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP vii
List of Figures
Figure Title
1 Concept Map…………………………………………………………………….. 49
2 Frequency of site disaggregation of common assessment data by race/ethnic
demographics………………………………………………………………..……

82
3 Frequency of departmental disaggregation of common assessment data by
race/ethnic demographics………………………………………………...………

83
4 Frequency of differentiation of instruction specifically for Black students……... 87
5 Frequency of differentiation of instruction specifically for Black students by
department……………………………………………………………………..…

87
6 Teacher beliefs related to instructional practices……………………….……….. 93
7 Teacher confidence levels with creating common assessments, analyzing data,
and differentiating instruction………………………………………………..…..

95
8 Commonly used strategies teachers used to differentiate instruction…………… 97
9 Teacher confidence with supporting Black students in their classroom……….... 99
10 Frequency with which teachers participated in conversations related to closing
the achievement gap………………………………………………………..…….

109
11 Where most of the conversations related to the achievement gap occur on
site…………………………………………………………………………......….

110
12 Staff perspectives on the sufficiency of professional development opportunities
provided by both the site and the district in order for teachers to ensure equity in
their classrooms………………………………………………………..………….…

111
13 How teachers perceived their collective abilities were highlighted at the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP viii
site………………………………………………………………………….....…. 114
14 Value teachers placed on having a colleague who could help them……….……. 114
15 Degree to which teachers felt they had the support they needed on campus in
order to create common assessments, analyze data, and differentiate
instruction……………………………………………………………….……......

117
16 Staff’s perceived need for professional development related to creating common
assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating instruction……………...……...

121
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP ix
Abstract
This study used the Clark and Estes analytical framework to identify the teacher
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting teacher ability to meet the
organizational goal: By June 2019, ABCHS (a fictitious name to ensure anonymity) will reduce
the achievement gap for Black students by 8%, as measured by CAASPP standardized
assessments. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which teachers were
meeting an intermediate goal. This goal was that by June 2018, 100% of teachers in Professional
Learning Communities had created course-alike common assessments, were disaggregating data,
and were differentiating instructional practices based on this data to meet Black student
instructional needs. The study employed a convergent parallel mixed methods design that used
quantitative results from an all staff survey as well as qualitative findings from interview data of
stakeholders from each of the core academic departments. The study highlights the importance
of common assessment data, disaggregating data, and then using that data to differentiate
instruction specifically for Black students and considers the elements within the organization that
either facilitate or inhibit goal attainment. Results and findings suggest the need for staff
professional development in relation to common assessments, disaggregating data, and
differentiating instruction specifically for Black students. The study concludes with implications
and recommendations for future research to support a reduction in the achievement gap.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 1
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Access to high-quality K-12 public education for Black students continues to be a
persistent problem in America, despite Brown versus the Board of Education (1954) which
sought to end inequity caused by segregation. Furthermore, Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
sought to provide equitable access to career and college readiness and to ensure all students,
regardless of race, socio-economic status, disability, zip code, home language, or background
have equal access to a Free and Appropriate Public Education. However, the growing
achievement gap remains, and the goal grows more out of reach each year for large populations
of students (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Despite attempts at desegregation, statistics
reveal school segregation levels comparable to 1968 (Frankenberg, 2003). This segregation
occurs not just based on school demographics but also as a result of inequity of educational
practices and reduced educational opportunities afforded to Black students at school sites.
Despite the current disparities in the educational system, teachers have an opportunity to
have a direct impact on providing equity in educational opportunities for underrepresented
students. However, teachers lack knowledge and skills to meet Black student needs, they often
have low self-efficacy in meeting these students’ needs, and they do not attribute Black student
success to their instructional practices. By establishing stakeholder goals for teachers aligned
with organizational goals that center around equity for all students, educators can establish equity
in their classrooms and meet the needs of their Black students.
Organizational Context and Mission
The ABC Unified School District (ABCUSD), a pseudonym, is a high performing school
district in southern California serving over 30,000 students. It is one of the largest school district
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 2
in the county and serves a diverse student population of over 90 languages. One of five
comprehensive high schools in the district, ABC High School (ABCHS) serves a student
population of over 2,200 students. Of these students, non-white students make up 50% of the
population – Asians 18%, Hispanics 13%, Filipino 7%, African American/Black 4%, and Others
8% (ABC Unified School District: Single Plan for Student Achievement, 2016). The campus
also boasts a robust linguistic heritage of over 44 languages and 22 cultures (ABC Unified
School District: School Accountability Report Card, 2016). The teaching staff of 95-100
teachers is not so diverse, however, with 86% of the staff reporting as Caucasian (ABC Unified
School District: Single Plan for Student Achievement, 2016).
Site diversity provides both opportunities and challenges. During ABCHS’s 2013
Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) accreditation process, the site considered
areas of strength and areas of growth during the accreditation cycle. The site created focus
groups targeting several areas: curriculum, instruction, assessment and accountability, and school
culture, and support for student personal and academic growth. As a result of the WASC self-
study process and the analysis of multiple quantitative and qualitative measures, the focus groups
identified three areas of growth, one of which was to better support the needs of underperforming
students by centralizing an intervention process targeted at reducing the achievement gap for
underrepresented student populations (ABC Unified School District: Single Plan for Student
Achievement, 2015). While the goal is to reduce the achievement gap for all students, the Single
Plan for Student Achievement, a part of the WASC report, highlights specific targets for the
Black student population due to a significant gap in standardized test scores that will be
addressed later in this chapter.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 3
The achievement gap has been a focus area for over a decade at ABCHS, as the site
strives to ensure the district goal of all students learning. The school’s mission is aligned with
the aforementioned district goal: All students mastering knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be
successful, contributing members of a diverse global society. The site’s mission focuses on all
students; however, an achievement gap remains despite district and site organizational goals
which focus on ensuring the success of all students.
Organizational Performance Goal
The goal of ABC High School was to reduce the achievement gap for Black students by
8% by June 2019. In 2016, 77% of Black students met/exceeded standards in English Language
Arts compared to 83% at the school and 30% met/exceeded standards in math compared to 66%
at the school. The site administration revised existing goals to align with ABC Unified School
District’s five district-wide LCAP goals, one of which focused on closing the achievement gap
for all underrepresented subgroups, including Black students whose assessment scores revealed
an achievement gap. Achievement of the goal was primarily measured by achievement on
California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) standardized testing.
Advanced Placement (AP) participation & pass rate, University of California entrance
requirement (UC a-g) completion, Career and Technical Education (CTE) pathway participation,
California English Language Development Test (CELDT), attendance rates, and survey data
provided multiple measures to determine growth toward closing the achievement gap; however,
CAASPP was the primary measure for the purpose of this study. While Black students made up
only 4% of the students at ABCHS, because they were a small percentage of the population, they
were historically underserved. For administration and staff, the unified focus on reducing the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 4
achievement gap created a heightened awareness at all levels - district, site, and in Professional
Learning Communities (PLCs).
During the 2015-2016 school year, teachers at ABCHS created tangible SMART goals
for the first time in over a decade. Each Professional Learning Community (PLC) created two
goals - one on addressing the eleventh grade California Assessment of Students Performance and
Progress (CAASPP) English and math claims across disciplines and the second on reducing the
achievement gap. That year CAASPP scores increased in math from 61-66% and in English
from 70-83% from 2015 to 2016. While scores for African American/Black students increased
in English from 52% to 77% meeting/exceeding standard, they decreased from 62% to 30%
meeting/exceeding standards in math. Similar gaps for Black students existed when considering
other data points. For example, while 71% of students met CSU/UC a-g requirements in 2016,
only 60% of Black students met these requirements. Furthermore, while 97% of students
graduated from ABCHS in 2016, only 91% of African American/Black students graduated (this
was the lowest graduation rate for any ethnic demographic with more than one student
graduating). African American/Black students also saw a greater percentage of their population
suspended than any other, as ABCHS suspended 5.5% of the African American/Black population
during the 2015-2016 school year (site average was 1.1%).
Despite low math CAASPP achievement scores and high suspension rates, African
American/Black students had the highest attendance rates and lowest chronic absentee rates of
any demographic on campus. While the site’s 2015-2016 attendance rate was 96.6%, African
American/Black student attendance rate was 97.6% (an increase of .8% from the previous year).
Black students also had the lowest chronic absentee rate of 4% (site rate was 6%). These
promising statistics suggest that Black students came to school; however, despite the fact that
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 5
they were at school, they were not as successful as their non-Black peers. African
American/Black students were no less capable of being successful than their white peers, yet the
statistics suggest they were not as successful at ABCHS as they could have be.
While academic achievement was the primary measure of Black student success for the
purpose of this study, stakeholder feedback provided non-academic data crucial to identifying
factors contributing to or inhibiting student success. The following measures provided non-
academic data to determine the extent to which the school was meeting student needs: school
effectiveness survey (taken by parents), Healthy Kids Survey results (taken by students), and the
senior student survey. These surveys provided important data (both quantitative and qualitative)
to help the site determine focus areas to meet the needs of students at ABCHS, but more
specifically the needs of the Black student population.
The Healthy Kids Survey data suggests that as a whole, students, parents, and staff
appreciated the diversity of the student population and that students and parents felt that students
were safe on campus. Senior data collected at the end of the 2015-2016 school year highlighted
that students felt safe and cared about on campus. ABCHS’s qualification as a No Place for Hate
School in 2015-2016 and as one of the safest schools in the county suggests that students on
campus generally felt safe at school. Anecdotal data from administration suggests that while
Black males may have experienced the most disciplinary suspensions, teachers and staff had
positive relationships in the classroom with those suspended. The positive environment on
campus created an opportunity for student success. The reports from stakeholders would suggest
the environment at ABCHS was primed for student success, and while there were improvements
in some areas, outcomes were inconsistent.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 6
As a result of the continued achievement gap, ABCHS focused its attention on one focus
area for the 2016-2017 school year – reducing the achievement gap for Black students in all
disciplines and through all measured points. The site’s goal was to work collectively to reduce
the achievement gap by ensuring each PLC had a viable performance goal targeting the
achievement gap in place each year until the site eliminated the gap for African American/Black
students.
Related Literature
Reducing the achievement gap and ensuring equity of access to high quality instructional
practices for Black students has become a focus nation-wide. While district goals provide focus
for school site creation of organizational goals to reduce this gap, it is the policies and practices
in place that directly determine stakeholder success (Rumberger & Palardy, 2005). The
alignment of site policies and practices to organizational and stakeholder goals is imperative to
their success in reducing the achievement gap for Black students. However, as a result of the
achievement gap and the policies and practices that perpetuate it, Black students face lower
graduation rates and less college and career readiness (Lochner & Moretti, 1994).
Segregation, as well as de facto/site-based tracking of Black students, creates systems
that reduce access to high quality instruction and highly qualified teachers (Aud, Fox, & Kewal
Ramani, 2010; Goldhaber, Lavey, & Theobald, 2015; Mickelson, 2001). Furthermore, studies
show that teachers in segregated schools or teachers who teach in lower academic tracks often
hold lower expectations of Black students (Figlio, 2005; Lynn, Bacon, Totten, Bridges, &
Jennings, 2010). Much of this is due to the racial stereotyping Black students experience in the
educational setting (Chambers, 2009; Figlio, 2005; Lucas & Berends, 2002; Lynn, Bacon,
Totten, Bridges, & Jennings, 2010) which further leads to disproportionate disciplinary practices
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 7
(Rocque & Paternoster, 2011) as well as access to fewer resources thereby perpetuating the
achievement gap (Chambers, 2009; Mikelson, 2001).
Aud, Fox, and Kewal Ramani’s (2010) study found that in schools that are half Black,
students have significantly less access to high-quality math instructors. Their study of 2007-
2008 national data noted that 25% of secondary mathematics teachers who taught in schools with
at least half Black enrollment had neither a certification nor a college major in mathematics,
compared to 8 percent of such secondary mathematics teachers who taught in schools with at
least half white enrollment. Likewise, in their study of Washington’s public schools, Goldhaber,
Lavey, and Theobald (2015) found gaps in teacher quality for disadvantaged students at virtually
every level from elementary through secondary school. Their analysis noted inequitable
distribution of quality teachers for socioeconomically disadvantaged students, underrepresented
minority students, and academically at-risk students. Despite the knowledge that teacher quality
is a key predictor of student success, Black students experience an inequitable distribution of
quality teachers that continues to widen the achievement gap.
Further exacerbating the issue are teacher beliefs about Black students. Low teacher
expectations of Black students perpetuate the achievement gap. Rosenthal and Jacobson’s
(1992) study found that when teachers thought their students would show growth in “intellectual
development,” the students showed growth, evidence of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Their study
showed that when teachers thought specific students were “growth spurters” based on their
scores on the Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition (a fictitious test), the first grade students
gained upwards of 27 points on IQ tests over the course of the year, compared to a control group
who gained 12 points. Furthermore, when teachers perceived a name to be “Black,” they had
lower expectations of those students (Figlio, 2005). The study revealed that students with Black
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 8
names score two-thirds to three-quarters of a national percentile lower on mathematics or reading
scores. Lynn, Bacon, Totten, Bridges, and Jennings’ (2010) research shows that even in schools
that are primarily Black, Black teachers cite external factors such as student behavior/attitude,
parental involvement, and community forces as causes for lower student achievement rather than
taking ownership of student learning. In this study of a 99% Black school with over 50% Black
staff, over 50% of the Black male population dropped out, transferred, or graduated at the bottom
of the class. Though research shows that teacher expectations of student abilities have a direct
correlation with student success, little has changed with regard to reflection on practice to reduce
the gap (Figlio, 2005; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1992). While desegregating schools reduces the
achievement gap, even in schools where desegregation has occurred, systems are in place that
perpetuate this gap (Chambers, 2009; Lucas & Berends, 2002).
Even in non-segregated schools, racial stereotyping of Black students results in tracking,
unequal access to resources, and disproportionate discipline. Lucas and Berends’ (2002) study
of 948 schools found that the more racial-ethnic and socioeconomically diverse the school, the
more de facto tracking. They found that in schools that had four or more racial-ethnic groups,
three-fourths of the students enrolled in the same level course across subjects. Likewise,
Chambers’ (2009) study found that Black students are often misidentified/tracked based on
teacher expectations and denied access to high quality instruction and resources. Lower track
students in this small study found a “receivement” gap in the services they could access – teacher
quality, work environments, and classroom management styles – because they were seen as not
able to achieve at the same levels as their higher track counterparts thereby maintaining their
status on the lower track. Rocque and Paternoster (2011) suggest that this racial stereotyping not
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 9
only leads to de facto/site-based tracking but also to racial discrimination and disproportionate
disciplinary practices, which leads to student disengagement from school at an early age.
Losen, Hodson, Keith, Morrison, and Belway (2015) found Black student suspension
rates are three times higher than that of their white peers, causing loss of instruction. In their
study of 2011-2012 national data, 3.5 million students were suspended, 1.55 million were
suspended more than once, and the average suspension lasted 3.5 days. This equated to a loss of
18 million days of instruction. Black students at the secondary level received 23.2% of these
suspensions. Hilberth and Slate (2012) further note that school absences decrease Black
students’ ability to be successful in school, thereby increasing the achievement gap between
Black and White students. In their analysis of 2008-2009 data from Texas Education Agency
and the 2010 State of Texas Public Education Information Management System report, they
found that Black students in Texas middle schools received in-school suspension at more than
twice the percentage of their representation in the overall student sample population. Townsend
(2000) argues that schools place Black students who regularly miss instruction into lower
academic track, which has a “domino effect” of further increasing the achievement gap. Her
study suggests that students in these tracks also experience lower quality instruction and access
to fewer resources. Schools segregate/track and treat black students differently than their white
counterparts. This stems from the aforementioned racial stereotyping as well as behaviors
exhibited by Black students that are considered culturally appropriate in the Black community
but which do not align with behavioral expectations in school settings. Since teachers are
unaware of these cultural differences, they see students as disruptive or defiant which leads to
disciplinary consequences (Rocque & Paternoster, 2011).
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 10
This segregation and lack of social justice reveal a growing concern noted in the research
about the achievement gap and how systems are in place that perpetuate this gap. Rumberger
and Palardy (2005) found that school policies and practices have a direct impact on reducing
gaps for disadvantaged students. Teacher cultural competence training, using multiple-measures
to assess students for proper academic placement, as well as a focus on issues of social justice
are just a few key focus areas to build capacity of a staff to reduce the gap. The negative effects
of not proactively reducing the achievement gap for Black students by creating policies and
practices that ensure their success promise to perpetuate the achievement gap. Establishing
organizational performance goals focused on reducing the gap and ensuring stakeholder goals
align creates opportunities to student success. However, not only must organizational and
stakeholder goals align, but policies and practices must support those goals to ensure appropriate
measures of accountability to meeting them.
Importance of the Evaluation
ABC Unified School District included a new focus on the importance of college and
career readiness for all students, while maintaining a focus on excellence. A high performing
district, ABCUSD did attain a high level of excellence, though some populations attained higher
levels than others. The ABCHS mission furthered this belief as it noted in the school’s entry the
belief that all students can learn. In 2016-2017 administration challenged teachers that if we
believed all students could learn, we needed to establish SMART goals and an action plan that
focused on the achievement gap to ensure that all students received equitable opportunities to
learn at high levels. Thus far, however, despite the district’s goal, vision, and mission along with
the school’s belief that all can learn, not all students attained the same levels of achievement in
the district or at the school site. Since Black students were a historically underrepresented
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 11
population at the site, and since the district and site were committed to reducing the achievement
gap, the site needed to consider the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
may have perpetuated this gap.
It was important to evaluate the organization’s performance in relationship to the
performance goal of reducing the achievement gap each year. The negative impact of the
achievement gap on the individual, on the institution, and on society as a whole created a
problem that needed to be addressed both at the site as well as at the national level. The lack of
equity for Black students revealed a serious issue of lack of social justice. As a historically
underrepresented population both in schools and in society, educational institutions have both a
professional and moral obligation to provide equitable opportunities for Black students.
Providing every student with an equal education is not providing him or her with equity in
education. Until educational systems provide equity for students, society will continue to see the
ramifications of the achievement gap in lack of opportunities for Black students post-high school
and the perpetuation of injustice. Evaluating the organization’s performance enables
stakeholders to gather formative data that can be used to assess the organization’s programming
decisions that positively affect student progress, increase opportunities for equity in education,
and reduce the existing achievement gap.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Among the primary stakeholders who directly contributed to ABCHS’ organizational
goal were students who identify as Black/African American upon enrollment in school, their
parents/guardians, and teachers. First, Black students had the most to gain or lose as a result of
the site’s achievement of the goal to ensure they were college and career ready and had equitable
access to high quality education. They directly contributed to the organization’s performance
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 12
goal, as their success on achievement was critical to meeting the organizational goal.
Parents/guardians were also important stakeholders because they also contributed to student
academic progress; their input to site staff provided feedback that could be used to ensure student
academic, social, and emotional needs were met on campus.
Through instructional practices as well as by creating an inclusive, supportive, and
differentiated classroom environment, teachers had a direct impact on student achievement, and
were thus a third important stakeholder group. Teachers are instrumental to student achievement
(Darling-Hammond, 2000; Heck; 2009; Levine & Marcus, 2007). Teachers ensure students are
prepared to complete college entrance requirements, take and pass rigorous courses and CTE
pathways, and engage students in the educational process. Furthermore, through their
Professional Learning Communities (PLC), teachers are able to collaborate to plan instruction to
meet individual learning needs, to create standards-aligned common assessments, to disaggregate
assessment data to differentiate instruction, and to share effective practices thereby reducing the
achievement gap for target populations. This positions teachers to have a direct impact on
student learning and on the reduction of the achievement gap for Black students; therefore,
teachers were the stakeholder for the purpose of this study.
Teacher Performance Goals
In alignment with district LCAPP goals and site SPSA goals, PLCs created SMART
goals with a focus on closing the achievement gap for Black students. Through the WASC
accreditation process, PLCs committed to creating at least one common assessment per semester;
however, implementation of and accountability for creating those assessments was inconsistent
across campus. Some departments were further along with the creation of common assessments
than others were, and some did not have even one common assessment. As a result, the teacher
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 13
performance goal was to ensure 100% of all teachers in PLCs had course-alike common
assessments, disaggregated the data, and differentiated instructional practices based on this data
to meet Black student instructional needs, as identified in the PLC’s SMART goals.
Moon (2005) argues that in order to properly differentiate to support student learning,
assessment must occur at three stages: before instruction begins to plan instruction, during
instruction to guide instruction, and after instruction to evaluate instruction. Preassessment
provides teachers with a baseline so they can engage in decision making and planning of
instructional activities (Moon, 2005). This assessment helps to identify individual students’
academic strengths as well as areas for growth. This information allows teachers to differentiate
instructional practices in order to ameliorate student weaknesses and ensure mastery (Brookhart,
1994; Moon, 2005). Formative assessments throughout the instructional process allow teachers
to adjust instruction and provide scaffolds to ensure students integrate knowledge into their
existing framework (Lambdin & Forseth, 1996; Moon, 2005). Summative evaluation, at the end
of a unit of instruction, allows teachers to identify mastery of learning goals and objectives and,
if units build upon each other, serves as a preassessment for the upcoming unit (Moon, 2005).
In order for teachers to be able to differentiate instructional practices for Black students,
they needed to have data to support their instructional choices. However, since state common
assessment were only administered during junior year, teachers had little quantitative data to
support instructional decisions and little or no opportunities for data-driven decision making or
data-driven discussions in PLCs. The creation of common assessments administered by teachers
in PLCs provided some teachers with common data to consider when engaging in PLC
discussions about data driven decision making and strategies for differentiating instruction to
support Black student learning and the organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 14
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
All ABCHS students, through comprehensive programs, will master the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes essential for success as respectful, ethical, contributing members of the school and a
diverse global society.
Organizational Global Goal
By June 2019, ABC High School will reduce the achievement gap for Black students by 8%, as
measured by CAASPP standardized assessments.
Teacher Goal Student Goal Parent Goal
By June 2018, 100% of
teachers in Professional
Learning Communities will
create course-alike common
assessments, disaggregate data,
and differentiate instructional
practices to meet Black student
instructional needs.
By June 2019, 100% of Black
students will participate in
meetings with their academic
counselors at least twice per
year.
By June 2019, 100% of parents
and guardians of Black
students will participate in a
yearly parent survey to provide
feedback on the effectiveness
of the school to meet student
academic, social, and
emotional needs.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While all stakeholders played a part in meeting the site’s goal of reducing the
achievement gap for Black students by 8% by June 2019, this study focused on evaluating where
the ABCHS teaching staff was with regard to meeting their performance goal of creating course-
alike common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instructional practices to
meet Black student instructional needs. Therefore, the stakeholders for this study were the
ABCHS teaching staff who had a direct impact on the creation and use of common assessments,
the analysis and disaggregation of data, as well as the differentiation of instruction for Black
students to reduce the achievement gap. Prior to that year, there were no course-alike team
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 15
performance goals, little accountability, and no requirement from administration for course-alike
teams to administer common assessments.
Teachers created Professional Learning Community (PLC/course-alike) goals at the
request of administration in order to improve alignment with district LCAP goals. Teachers
were instrumental in creating, revising, and helping to ensure students and teachers met these
goals. Through the creation of assessments that identified individual students’ academic
strengths as well as areas that needed additional support, teachers could target instructional
practices that focused on providing differentiated instruction for Black students. Teacher
instructional practices and PLC collaboration had a direct impact on students learning
opportunities in the classroom which helped to meet these goals. However, failure to achieve the
goals further perpetuated the achievement gap, caused the school to not meet the goals of Every
Student Succeeds act (ESSA), as well as raised questions about equity of access at the site.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
ABC High School had a goal of reducing the achievement gap by 8% in CAASPP
standardized assessments by June 2019 for under-represented, Black students. The purpose of
this project was to evaluate the degree to which teachers were meeting an intermediate goal.
This goal was that by June 2018, 100% of teachers in Professional Learning Communities had
created course-alike common assessments, were disaggregating data, and were differentiating
instructional practices based on this data to meet Black student instructional needs. The analysis
focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the
organizational goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). While a complete performance evaluation would
have focus on all ABC High School stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders
focused on in this analysis were the teachers at ABC High School. The goal of the study was to
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 16
use the data gathered to complete a gap analysis and provide recommendations for the
organization to meet its goals.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. By June 2018, to what extent were 100% of teachers in Professional Learning
Communities creating course-alike common assessments, disaggregating data, and
differentiating instructional practices to meet Black student instructional needs?
2. What did teachers know and what were they motivated to do in relation to creating
common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction for Black
students in order to achieve the organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap?
3. What was the interaction between the existing site schema/beliefs, professional
development opportunities, mastery experience and teacher knowledge and motivation to
create common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate instruction for Black
students?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
This study employed a convergent parallel mixed methods design which allowed for
concurrent gathering of quantitative and qualitative data to be analyzed separately and then
merged (Creswell, 2014). Cross-sectional survey data of the approximately 90 teachers on
campus were used to test Clark and Estes gap analysis approach that asserts teacher knowledge
and motivation as well as organizational culture will influence Black student achievement on
standardized assessments at ABCHS. In addition to surveying the entire staff to identify broad
trends, an interview of core subject area teachers provided more in-depth responses in order to
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 17
gain insight into their perspectives (Patton, 2002). The tentative plan for the interview was to
explore teachers’ perception of their role in reducing the Black student achievement gap at
ABCHS, as well as their perception of how organizational influences affected their ability to
meet their goal of reducing the achievement gap. The reason for collecting both quantitative and
qualitative data was to develop a complete understanding of the research problem by converging
quantitative and qualitative data and comparing the two data sets. This was important because
the survey provided information from the majority of the staff that could be standardized and
easily quantified to reveal broad trends; however, the open-ended interview questions of a
representative sample of the staff (at least one teacher from each of the five core departments)
provided interviewees the opportunity to expand upon responses and share about their
experiences within their respective departments (Patton, 2002). It was important to have both
because surveys did not explore personal experiences or enter into another person’s perspective
as did the interview (Patton, 2002).
Interpretive qualitative research provided a more holistic approach to data analysis as I
attempted to construct meaning from the data gathered (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Employing
tenets of critical race theory, I also explored the organizational elements and institutionalized
philosophies present that may have influenced the role of teachers in the outcomes we see related
to the achievement gap (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). From this critical research perspective, I
sought to identify areas within the organizational culture and context that either facilitated or
hindered teachers’ ability to engage in practices that would produce more equity for Black
students. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive
manner at the end of the study.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 18
Definitions
While a complete definitions list would incorporate various perspectives on the terms
included, for the purposes of this study, the following definitions highlight how the terms are
used in this study.
Achievement gap: Any gap in academic attainment between various populations of students.
For the purposes of this study, the achievement gap considers the disparity for Black students as
identified by the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP).
Black students: The term Black students is used in this study to include students from the
African Diaspora or any student who identifies as Black.
Equity: Equity is the ability to equalize the opportunities for people. While equality provides
the same for every person, equity provides differentiation in order to ensure equality for every
person.
Differentiation: Differentiation is a tool to ensure equity by altering instructional practice to
meet the needs of the target population.
Underrepresented students: Underrepresented students includes populations of students who
are disproportionately fewer in number relative to the number in the general population (i.e.
racially, ethnically, socioeconomically, etc.).
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize the documentation of this study. This chapter
provided the reader with the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion
about reducing the achievement gap for underrepresented student populations. The problem of
practice, organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as framework for the project
were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of the current literature surrounding the scope
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 19
of the study. Teacher knowledge and motivation as well as organizational influences related to
meeting stakeholder goals and global organizational goals will be addressed. Chapter Three
details the research methods when it comes to choice of participants, data collection, and
analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are presented. Chapter Five provides implications
for practice, highlights recommendations for practice, and concludes with recommendations for
future study.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review examines the possible causes of the gaps in service to Black
students at ABC High School resulting in the continuation of the achievement gap despite efforts
to reduce it. The review begins with a brief history of segregation and lack of access nationally.
This is followed by a review of the teacher role, as the primary stakeholder, in reducing the
achievement gap for Black students. The review continues with the Clark and Estes analytical
framework, and, specifically, the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
teachers’ ability to reduce the achievement gap for Black students. This section presents an in-
depth discussion on scientifically based methods to reduce the achievement gap. The review
then turns to current research on the importance of the teacher in creating common assessments,
disaggregating and using data, and differentiating instruction as well as the importance of culture
on meeting the organizational and stakeholder goals. Following the research literature, the
review concludes with the conceptual framework, which highlights the interaction between
teacher knowledge and motivation and the organizational context.
Influences on the Problem of Practice
Segregation and Lack of Access to Education
A Brief History of School Segregation. Despite attempts to reduce school segregation
through various court rulings, Black students have experienced a history of segregation in the
American school system which has created an achievement gap. From 1950-1980 students in
schools experienced desegregation; however, desegregation of Black students has receded to
levels not seen in three decades. In 2003, statistics reveal school segregation levels comparable
to 1968 (Frankenberg & Orfield, 2003). One of the leading causes of the achievement gap in
segregated schools is the lack of quality instruction and highly qualified teachers in segregated
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 21
schools (Aud, Fox, & Kewal Ramani, 2010; Goldhaber, Lavey, & Theobald, 2015; Mickelson,
2001). Furthermore, in schools that are not racially segregated, Black students are
disproportionately tracked into lower level and special education courses where they experience
low expectations of their abilities, thereby reducing opportunities afforded to them and further
segregating them in society (Chambers, 2009; Figlio, 2005; Lucas & Berends, 2002; Lynn,
Bacon, Totten, Bridges, & Jennings, 2010). In addition to various types of segregation
experienced by Black students, white students experience privileged access to greater
opportunities to learn even in desegregated schools (Mickelson, 2001). According to the US
Department of Education (2016), the achievement gap is growing and opportunities for Black
students grow more out of reach each year. As a result of the lack of opportunities afforded to
them, Black students face lower graduation rates and less college and career readiness (Lochner
& Moretti, 2004).
Current Segregation in Schools. Segregation in schools exists through lack of access to
higher levels of educational opportunities, lack of highly qualified teachers, and lower teacher
expectations/beliefs about Black students. While overt segregation persists in many schools, in
those where racial segregation is less obvious, de facto segregation remains prevalent. De facto
segregation occurs because of racial stereotyping which results with the placement of Black
students in lower academic track classes or with their disproportionate placement in special
education classes (Lynn, Bacon, Totten, Bridges, & Jennings, 2010). For example, Chamber
(2009) conducted a qualitative case study of seven male African American high school students
tracked in English and math classes over the course of a semester. Students were included or
excluded from participating in various classes and school activities and their “access” to similar
classes as their white counterparts was not available to all of them (Chamber, 2009).
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 22
Not only is access to higher level classes reduced for Black students, but Goldhaber,
Lavery, and Theobald (2015) found that teacher quality was also inequitably distributed across
every indicator of student disadvantage (socio-economic status, underrepresented minority, low
prior academic performance). Their research suggests that Black students experience a lack of
access to high quality instruction and highly qualified teachers, further reducing opportunities for
Black students and perpetuating the achievement gap. Likewise, Rumberger and Palardy (2005)
found that Black students experience inequity of educational policies, practices, and reduced
educational opportunities. Their research found that teachers’ beliefs about their Black students
lead teachers to providing fewer opportunities for them.
Lynn, Bacon, Totten, Bridges, and Jennings (2010) found that teacher beliefs about
student abilities affect their ability to teach those students. Their research found that when
teachers believed students were capable, teachers’ self-efficacy increased and they were able to
support Black students learning; however, when teachers did not believe students could meet
expectations, teachers were not successful in helping Black students to succeed. Rumberger and
Palardy (2005) studied the impact of student composition on academic achievement in high
school and found that teacher expectations of student ability was a key factor in determining
student success. Similarly, Rosenthal & Jacobson (1992) found that teacher beliefs about
students were a sort of self-fulfilling prophecy. They found that teachers treated Black students
differently than their white counterparts did, and, as a result, their Black students fulfilled the
negative stereotypes, did more poorly than their white counterparts did, and perpetuated the
achievement gap.
Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1992) research provides an example of why Critical Race
Theory is imperative in the educational system. In his book, The invisible Children: School
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 23
Integration in American Society (1978), sociologist Ray Rist concludes that in order to achieve
in a white, middle class school system, minority students must negate or make invisible their
humanity or else fall prey to the aforementioned stereotypes. However, the tenets of Critical
Race Theory (CRT) provide solutions for implementation of culturally relevant practices. First,
CRT highlights realities of racism and how racism privileges whites and disadvantages people of
color. Second, through voices of people of color who tell stories of their shared history as “the
other,” it critiques social hierarchies of the dominant culture. Third, it critiques liberalism and
the idea that change can occur without change to existing social structures. Fourth, CRT argues
that much of civil rights legislation, rather than reducing effects of racism has actually benefitted
the white population (Ladson-Billings, 1998; Nebeker, 1998). While not all of the tenets of CRT
outlined above will be considered for the purpose of this study, the principles of CRT highlight
the importance of differentiated instructional practices in the classroom to mitigate the negative
effects of racism, stereotypes, and existing classroom structures. By implementing principles of
Critical Race Theory, adopting culturally relevant teaching practices, and acting as cultural
brokers for students of color, teachers differentiate instructional practices thereby playing a key
role in reducing the achievement gap.
Teacher Role in Reducing the Achievement Gap
Teachers are the biggest in-school predictor of student academic achievement (Darling-
Hammond, 2000; Heck; 2009; Levine & Marcus, 2007). When teachers attribute student success
to what they do in the classroom, and when what they do in the classroom is as a result of a
collective effort to support students, student achievement is increased (Goddard, 2001). Teacher
ability to create standards-aligned common assessments and use data in order to differentiate
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 24
instruction is paramount to affecting the change necessary to reduce the achievement gap (Moon,
2005).
Instructional practices that disproportionately benefit minority students directly influence
the in-school achievement gap (Bensimon, 2017; Wenglinsky, 2004). Data are necessary in
order for teachers to be able to identify how they can differentiate instructional practices to
provide equity for Black students (Moon, 2005). However, studies suggest that teachers are ill
prepared to create assessments and need professional development in order to do so (McMillan,
2003; Nadelson, et. al., 2014; Wolf, et. al., 2007). Being part of a team in the creation of
assessments and in the discussions about how to analyze data and differentiate instruction
empowers teachers and creates a sense of collective efficacy as a department that furthers
teachers’ individual self-efficacy (Dixon, et. al, 2014; Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
When teachers believe that they are directly responsible for Black student learning and maintain
a high level of self-efficacy, they seek out opportunities to do so, they persist in doing so, and
they make the mental effort required to be successful (Bandura, 1997; Clark & Estes, 2008;
Eccles, Wigfild & Schiefele, 1998; Pajares, 2009; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). In order to reduce
the achievement gap for Black students, teachers must believe they are directly responsible for
equity in their classrooms and for the reduction in the achievement gap of their Black students
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011; Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011). In
the next part of this chapter, the three main roles of teacher as suggested by Darling-Hammond
(2000); Dixon, et. al., (2014); Goddard (2001); and Moon (2005) are presented.
Assessment and Data. Common formative assessments allow teachers to gather
valuable data which can help identify gaps in learning and instruction (Guskey, 2007; Moon,
2005). Benjamin Bloom’s (1971) research found that formative assessments should be used as
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 25
learning tools to identify students’ learning difficulties. As a diagnostic of student areas of
strength and weakness, assessments provide teachers the opportunity to target instructional
practices (Bloom, 1971). Bloom argues that formative assessments help students track their
learning progress as well as guide them in the correction of learning errors. Teachers can
mitigate areas of weakness by differentiating instruction to ensure mastery of learning (Bloom,
1971).
In order to do this, Seely (1995) argues that teachers must move from a testing culture to
an assessment culture, where the purpose of assessment data is to improve instructional practice
thereby improving student learning. Jamentz (1995) suggests that teachers should use
assessments to improve student performance by: a) identifying standards and creating
meaningful assessments, b) using assessments to improve instruction, c) helping students
become users of assessment data to gauge individual learning, d) using assessments to positively
affect the learning environment. Stiggens and DuFour (2009) support these findings and posit
that teachers should use formative assessments to identify what students should learn, to improve
teachers’ instructional practices, and to allow for reteaching of concepts to reach struggling
students.
While much of the aforementioned research highlights the importance of assessments for
differentiation and mastery of learning for all students, Darling-Hammond (2000) argues that
teachers must value assessment and be willing to differentiate instruction based on disaggregated
assessment data in order to ensure success for Black students. However, Daniel and King
(1998), supported by several other studies, found that teachers lack an adequate knowledge base
regarding testing and measurement procedures and need training in order to be able to do so
(McMillan, 2003; Nadelson, Pluska, Moorcraft, Jeffrey, & Woodard, 2014; Scales, 1993; Wise,
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 26
Lukin, & Roos, 1993; Wolf, Viger, Jarvinen, & Linksman, 2007). Wolfe, Viger, Jarvinen, and
Linksman’s (2007) research found that teachers must know the standards, feel confident they can
align with standards, and believe those standards are reasonable instruction and assessment
targets. Collaboration in the creation of assessments provides multiple perspectives to ensure
assessments meet the high standards required to provide relevant feedback for learning.
Furthermore, common assessments allow teachers to collaborate in how to best support
individual student learning struggles. Knowledge, motivation, as well as organizational supports
for professional development in the creation and use of common assessments are imperative to
support Black student learning.
Assessments constitute a vital component of the instructional cycle of planning, teaching,
assessing, re-teaching, and reflection. According to Stiggins (1991), assessment may make-up as
much as one-half of a student’s school day. However, research suggests that as many as 47% of
pre-service teachers feel their teacher training has ill prepared them to create assessments
(Scales, 1993; Wise, et. al., 1991). Similar results from veteran teachers are echoed in many
studies and suggest that teachers are ill prepared to create assessments and need professional
development in order to do so (McMillan, 2003; Nadelson, et. al., 2014; Wolfe, et. al., 2007). As
a result, assessments often test fact and recall rather than higher order thinking skills which
teachers emphasize in the classroom (Cohen & Hill, 2000; Daniel & King, 1998). The
misalignment between teaching higher order thinking skills during instruction and testing fact
and recall creates misinformation about student abilities when using data to drive decision-
making and instruction. Therefore, teachers need professional development and training in order
to be able to develop common assessment that will yield the results required to mitigate students’
learning difficulties by differentiating instruction.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 27
In order to be able to create assessments that provide necessary data to support students,
teachers need specific procedural knowledge. They need to be able to identify essential
standards that need to be assessed, and they need to know how to create questions at various
levels of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002). Several studies have found that
teachers need training to develop a better understanding and knowledge of standards in order to
increase the value they place on the standards (Nadelson, et. al., 2014; Wolfe, et. al., 2007).
Furthermore, teachers need to know how to employ Webb’s Depth of Knowledge to ensure that
questions push students beyond fact and recall to deeper levels of understanding and application
of learning (Martone & Sireci, 2009). By working collaboratively in their professional learning
communities (PLCs), teachers can vet questions and appropriate responses as well as share ideas
about how to differentiate instructional practices (Dixon, Yssel, McConnell, & Hardin, 2014).
Through the collaborative process, teachers build their self-efficacy which further spurs their
work (Dixon, et. al., 2014). Furthermore, collaborating in the analysis of assessment data allows
teachers to improve their metacognitive knowledge, determine personal areas of instructional
strengths and weaknesses, and then collaborate with colleagues to improve their teaching
practices.
Teacher knowledge and skills with creating standards-aligned common assessments that
target essential standards and with using assessment data to differentiate instruction are
imperative to mitigate gaps in student learning and in meeting of stakeholder and organizational
goals. These knowledge and skills will help to create an environment where Black student needs
are identified through assessment and they receive appropriate instructional supports to ensure
equity in the classroom, which in turn will reduce the achievement gap.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 28
Differentiating Instruction. Differentiating instruction to meet the needs of all students
has been the basis for much research over the last several decades. In 1995, Ladson-Billings’
research resulted in a pedagogy she termed Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP). CRP sought to
provide “responsive” and “relevant” teaching and learning opportunities for students and
highlight the language, literacies, and cultural practices that theorists had considered important to
bridge access gaps that many students faced in their classrooms. Her theory provided a
breakthrough to much of the discussion about supporting all students in the 1970-1980s. Paris
(2012) later proposed the necessity of Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy (CSP) to challenge the
monocultural and monolingual educational system that exists in favor of cultural pluralism and
cultural equality (Paris & Alim, 2014). Paris’ focus was to move away from a deficit model to
one that embraces the linguistic and cultural attributes of students and use those attributes to
support their learning. Paris’ focus on differentiating instruction with a lens on equity and social
justice furthered the tenets proposed by Ladson-Billings’ CRP by pushing for a more sustaining
practice. By valuing and highlighting elements within their cultural heritage as a resources
rather than a deficit, teachers build rapport with students as well as increase student motivation
(Paris, 2012). Much of this work highlights the need for teacher knowledge about various
elements of differentiation, increasing teacher motivation to differentiate, as well as providing
organizational scaffolds such as professional development in order for teachers to better
differentiate instruction for Black students.
Tomlinson and Jarvis (2009) noted, “Differentiation is an approach to curriculum and
instruction that systematically takes student differences into account in designing opportunities
for each student to engage with information and ideas and to develop essential skills.”
Differentiated instruction provides students specific learning activities that work best for them
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 29
based on their strengths, interests, and styles, which allows students to access the curriculum
(Dixon, Yssel, McConnell, and Hardin, 2014). Dixon, et. al., (2014) research found that when
teachers engage in professional development opportunities that teach both the philosophy as well
as strategies about differentiation teacher self-efficacy is increased. Furthermore, their research
found that self-efficacy is increased even more when that professional development is followed
with opportunities to engage in collaborative practices related to differentiation. Dixon, et. al.
(2014) note that collaborative discussion and practices related to differentiation increased teacher
self-efficacy which also increased teacher willingness to engage in differentiation practices in
their classroom. These findings are important because they reveal the importance of the
professional development to improve practice as well as highlight the collaborative nature of
teaching.
Darling-Hammond’s (2000) research found that teacher knowledge plays a significant
role in the implementation of educational reform. Wenglinsky (2004) furthers these findings
with a lens on closing the racial achievement gap by reforming instructional practices.
Wenglinsky (2004) argues that by using instructional practices that disproportionately benefit
minority students, teachers directly influence the in-school achievement gap. However, in order
to be able to identify how to change instruction to meet Black student needs, teachers need to
know what needs to be changed and how. As previously mentioned, common formative
assessments allow teachers to collect data to be able to identify gaps in learning (Guskey, 2007;
Moon, 2005). Using that knowledge to differentiate instructional practices disproportionately
supports Black students and has a direct impact on reducing the achievement gap (Darling-
Hammond, 2000; Wenglinsky, 2004).
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 30
While procedural knowledge is most important for creating common assessments and
analyzing data, metacognitive knowledge is a vital factor to a teacher’s ability to differentiate
instruction (Mayer, 2011). McMillan (2003) found that teachers cited beliefs and values as the
most influential on assessment decisions. McMillan (2003) further noted that teacher philosophy
of education had a significant impact on the decision-making process related to assessment and
instruction. Tucker, et. al. (2005) found that culturally sensitive professional development
encouraged metacognition about beliefs and biases. By reflecting on one’s beliefs and biases,
teachers are able to identify how to adjust their teaching to better differentiate instruction.
Teacher ability to consider assessment results and reflect about their ability to implement
differentiation strategies to meet the unique learning needs of students, play a key role in
reducing the achievement gap. When teachers are metacognitive, they are more willing to
engage in learning opportunities which build their self-efficacy which, in turn, increases their
willingness and ability to differentiate instruction (Dixon, et. al., 2014; McMillan, 2003).
Teacher motivation to engage in differentiation is directly connected to their self-
efficacy, which can be further increased through professional development opportunities
provided by the organization (Dixon, et. al., 2014). Professional development that requires
teachers to be metacognitive about their practice has benefits for both instruction as well as
improving Black student self-efficacy. Research by Tucker, Porter, Reinke, Herman, Ivery,
Mack, et. al. (2005) found that teachers build their own self-efficacy when participating in
culturally sensitive teacher self-efficacy training. Their study found that the information teachers
glean from such training provides teachers with knowledge and skills to help underrepresented
culturally diverse students build their own self-efficacy in the school setting as well. By
gleaning knowledge and skills through culturally sensitive professional development, teachers
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 31
learn how to be metacognitive about their teaching practices, thereby increasing self-efficacy and
improving teachers’ ability to differentiate instruction for Black students (Tucker, et. al., 2005).
Building an Organizational Culture. Education is a collaborative process, and building
a culture of collaboration is imperative to ensuring students learn (Dixon, et. al., 2014).
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) provide teachers the opportunity to engage in
collaborative discussion about teaching and learning. The PLC conceptual framework focuses
on collaboratively developed mission, vision, values, and goals; collaborative teams to achieve
common goals; and a results focus as seen through continuous improvement (Eaker, DuFour, &
DuFour, 2002). The PLC model focuses not on making sure students are taught but that students
learn (DuFour, 2005). Hewitt and Weckstein’s (2011) research found that not only do PLCs
provide the opportunity for professional discussions about teaching and learning, but more
specifically, they provide teachers the opportunity to be change agents and establish a much
needed culture of differentiation.
Teachers must accept responsibility for students’ learning and even more so for learning
of underrepresented student populations (Bensimon, 2017). For teachers to accept this
responsibility, teachers must attribute student success to teacher instructional practices (Goddard,
2001). Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2009) argue that teachers often attribute student learning to
student factors rather than to teacher factors; however, they argue that this is a mistake. Teachers
must believe that what they do or do not do matters. Underrepresented students have few, if any,
“cultural brokers” to support their success in the educational area (Miller & Endo, 2005;
Quiocho & Rios, 2000; Villegas, Strom, & Lucas, 2012;). Unless teachers take responsibility for
their role in ensuring Black students success, Black students will continue to experience the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 32
disconnect between their educational experiences and their opportunities for success post-high
school.
The collective nature of teaching requires collaboration in the instructional process in
order to meet student learning needs (Dixon, et. al., 2014). Bandura (1993) argues that average
school achievement is significantly and positively related to teacher collective efficacy. This
collective efficacy is built through mastery experience gained by setting measurable goals and
working collectively to meet those goals (Goddard, 2001). Goddard (2001) found that being part
of a team in the creation of assessments and in the discussions about how to differentiate
instruction empowers teachers and creates a sense of collective efficacy as a department that
furthers teachers’ individual self-efficacy in supporting student learning. In order to meet their
performance goal, teachers must collaborate in the creation of common assessments, in the
analysis and discussion about data, as well as sharing practices that help to support
differentiation (Moon, 2005). Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) provide an
opportunity to build this collaborative culture of accountability for student learning (Dixon, et.
al., 2014). Through collaboration, teachers can share their individual experiences to build their
collective efficacy at meeting Black student needs (Dixon, et. al., 2014).
When teachers attribute student success to what they do in the classroom, and when
what they do in the classroom is as a result of a collective effort to support students, student
achievement is increased (Goddard, 2001). Establishing an organizational culture that values the
collective efforts toward accountability and accepts responsibility for reducing the achievement
gap is imperative to the success of collaboration. Teachers must not only have the knowledge
about how to reduce the achievement gap, but they must have the motivation to do so as well as
the organizational policies, practices, and collective values in place to ensure they are successful.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 33
The Clark and Estes Analytical Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide a framework to identify problems in performance caused
by a gap between stakeholder goals and performance levels within an organization. The
framework highlights three critical areas to consider when assessing performance problems in an
organization: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization/institutional factors (Rueda,
2011; Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge influences play a critical role in helping employees
meet goals, as they identify what stakeholders need to know in order to reduce the gap. In
addition to knowledge and skills, three indicators of stakeholder motivation further support goal
attainment: active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011;
Rueda, 2011; Schunk, et. al., 2009). Combined with knowledge and skills, these motivational
factors create a vital connection to better understanding stakeholder motivation to meeting goals
and identifying motivational issues that may contribute to the gap such as teacher self-efficacy
and attribution (Rueda, 2011). The final element of the framework, organization/institutional
factors, identifies how policies, practices, and culture of the organization may contribute to the
gap in performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This chapter will identify each element of the Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework –
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational/institutional factors – that may be a cause
of the achievement gap for the underrepresented Black student population at ABC High School.
In relation to knowledge, this chapter will consider teachers’ procedural and metacognitive
knowledge requirements and the potential gaps in their ability to create common standards
aligned assessments and use the data from those assessments to differentiate instruction for
Black students. In relation to motivation, this chapter will consider teacher self-efficacy in
meeting the needs of their Black students as well as how their attributions may perpetuate the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 34
achievement gap. Finally, this chapter will consider the organizational elements, such as cultural
settings and models, that may further contribute to the gap.
Teacher Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Employee aptitude at acquiring and applying knowledge and skills to meet goals is
imperative to increasing productivity, meeting performance goals, and improving the
organization’s success (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Stakeholders must have both factual
as well as conceptual knowledge about the job duties in order to know what to do (Krathwohl,
2002). However, their knowledge about what to do is but one element of knowledge and skills.
They must be able to apply this knowledge at the procedural level and know when and how to do
their tasks (Aguis & Kraiger, 2009; Clark, 2017; Grossman & Salas, 2011; Krathwohl, 2002).
This procedural knowledge is the most critical, as it requires knowledge of the action and
decision steps to ensure success (Clark, 2017). Stakeholder ability to acquire and transfer
knowledge into practice through the application of their skills within the organization will ensure
they meet their goals (Carpenter, 2012; Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). The
following sections will review the general theory on knowledge influences. The specific
knowledge elements related to teachers’ ability to create standards aligned common assessments
and then use the data to differentiate instruction to reduce the achievement gap were explained in
the section above titled Teacher Role in Reducing the Achievment Gap.
Knowledge Influences. Knowledge influences play a critical role in helping employees
meet goals. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) identify four types of knowledge: factual
knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Factual knowledge includes knowledge of the basic elements
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 35
of any discipline, contexts, or domains (i.e. terminology; specific details and elements)
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Conceptual knowledge includes the knowledge of the
interrelationships among the basic elements (i.e. classifications and categories; principles and
generalizations; theories, models, and structures) (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Procedural
knowledge refers to knowing how to do something (i.e. subject-specific skills and algorithms,
subject-specific techniques and methods, and criteria for determining when to use appropriate
procedure) (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). According to Clark (2017), the procedural level of
knowledge that is the most critical to performance, as this provides not only the knowledge of
what to do but also the when and how to do it.
Metacognitive knowledge refers to an individual’s awareness of their cognitive
processing and control of that processing (Baker, 2009; Krathwohl, 2002; Mayer, 2011; Rueda,
2011). Self-regulation is the result of metacognitive awareness as well as metacognitive control
and it is imperative for application of metacognitive knowledge (Mayer, 2011). Metacognitive
knowledge allows one to know what is known and how it is known it as well as what is not
known and how to acquire that knowledge (Baker, 2009; Mayer 2011; Rueda, 2011). While
employees need each type of knowledge to meet goals, this study will focus on procedural and
metacognitive influences that directly affect instructor ability to meet organizational and
stakeholder goals. The procedural and metacognitive aspects of knowledge focus on how
teachers do what they do as well as why the make the choices they do to ensure Black student
success.
Table 2 identifies the knowledge influences relevant for this study. These influences will
be used to understand better how knowledge affects instructor willingness to create common
assessments and modify instructional practices to ensure Black student success.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 36
Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences and Knowledge Types
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
Teachers need to know how to create
standards-aligned common assessments.

Teachers need to know how to differentiate
instruction.

Teachers need to self-evaluate their own
effectiveness with differentiating instruction
for Black students based on assessment results.
Procedural

Procedural

Metacognitive

Motivation
A fundamental aspect of educational success for both students and teachers, motivation
guarantees that a person wants to and will apply learning and knowledge (Rueda, 2011). It is the
second of three elements - knowledge, motivation, and organization – that must be considered
when evaluating performance problems and solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Both
internal (cognitive and affective) as well as external (social, cultural, etc) influences affect one’s
motivation (Rueda, 2011). There are three indicators of motivation: active choice, persistence,
and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011; Schunk, et. al., 2009). These
motivational and cognitive factors create a vital connection to better understanding motivation,
especially when one is part of a group. Once thought to derive primarily through individual
cognition, more recent studies of motivation suggest the importance of sociocultural influences
on motivation (Graham & Hudley, 2007; Hudley & Daoud, 2007; McInerney & Van Etten, 2001,
2002; Pajares, 2007; Salili & Hoosain, 2007). The notion that motivation is not solely an
individual construct but also part of a collective belief system between members of an
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 37
organization highlights the importance of social contexts to engaging motivational practice
(Bandura, 2000).
Social context provides a lens through which to understand motivation. Clark and Estes
(2008) highlight the importance of the social context and identify four key elements to increasing
motivation: a) building personal and team confidence; b) beliefs about organizational and
environmental barriers to achieving goals; c) the emotional climate at the workplace; d) the
personal and team values for their performance goals. These elements to increasing motivation
highlight both the individual as well as the collective nature of motivation in a workplace. On an
individual level, metacognition creates awareness as well as an ability to control and improve
one’s learning. However, motivation pushes one to, in the light of new learning, make a change
(Mayer, 2011). The individual element is vital to both individual as well as collective
motivation. The sociocultural element of motivation suggests that individuals play an important
role in creating a group motivation (Rueda, 2011). Individual agency is important but collective
human agency and people’s shared beliefs in their collective power to institute results and effect
change are paramount in group motivational investments, staying power in face of problems, and
performance results (Bandura, 2000). This is of utmost importance for teachers when creating
goals to support Black students, disaggregating common assessment data, and differentiating
instruction.
While there are several motivational theories and constructs, this study will focus on
attribution and self-efficacy. Research has found that teachers are instrumental in reducing the
achievement gap for Black students (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Heck; 2009; Levine & Marcus,
2007). Ensuring that teachers attribute Black student learning to teachers’ instructional practice
and ensuring they are efficacious will empower teachers to reduce the achievement gap for Black
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 38
students. These influences on motivational theory will be used to examine a) instructors’ beliefs
that Black student learning is directly related to their instructional practices (planning, teaching,
assessing, and re-teaching) as well as b) instructors’ belief that they are capable of engaging in
culturally responsive educational practices to differentiate for their Black students. Being able to
meet the needs of Black students requires both the acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as
self-efficacy beliefs to put these skills into practice (Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011).
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy theory is rooted in the beliefs that individuals possess
about their abilities to learn or perform (Pajares, 2009). Social cognitive theory argues that the
self-efficacy beliefs that people hold about their abilities are vital to human agency and to
motivating them to act, to persevere, and to exert the mental effort required in the face of any
task (Bandura, 1997; Clark & Estes, 2008; Eccles, Wigfild & Schiefele, 1998; Pajares, 2009;
Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Through the interpretation of mastery experience, vicarious
experience, social persuasions, and psychological reactions, individuals form their self-efficacy
beliefs (Pajares, 2009). Those who have a greater self-efficacy use more cognitive and
metacognitive strategies in the creation of these perceptions, thus affecting both the knowledge
and motivational aspects of performance (Pajares, 2009). These, in turn, when perceived either
positively or negatively affect a person’s motivation (Bandura, 2000). Since motivation and,
subsequently, self-efficacy are both individual and social constructs, it is important to build the
collective-efficacy of the team to ensure collective agency (Pajares, 2009). According to
Graham and Weiner (1996), self-efficacy is one of the best predictors of behavioral outcomes,
and collective efficacy is paramount to a team/department’s success at achieving goals.
Teacher self-efficacy. Teacher self-efficacy is paramount to their ability to meet their
goals. Bandura’s (1977, 1982, 1986) research states that a goal is achievable if stakeholders
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 39
believe that with effort and appropriate supports they can succeed. Ashton and Webb (1986) as
well as Gibson and Dembo (1984) further Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy to conceptualize
teacher self-efficacy as the beliefs teachers have about their ability and skills to create
meaningful learning experiences for students. When teachers believe they can be successful at
meeting Black student needs, they are more apt to persevere and to seek out supports to do so.
However, Van den Berg (2002) notes that any changes in educational practices/polices challenge
a teacher’s professional identity. When this occurs, teachers experience cognitive dissonance
that challenges a teacher’s self-efficacy and even the collective efficacy of a site (Van den Berg,
2002). Experience, and, more specifically mastery experience, is one of the most powerful
factors influencing teacher perceptions of collective efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Goddard, 2001;
Pajares, 1997; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Past successes raise teachers’ beliefs in collective
capabilities whereas failures undermine them (Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
However, Ladson-Billings (2000) found that many teachers do not have experience working with
Black students and therefore lack the self-efficacy needed to support them adequately. Pang and
Sablan’s (1998) study found that many teachers did not feel that they could adequately teach
Black students. With years of mastery experience revealing that the achievement gap has not
lessened, much work must be done to empower teachers and raise their self-efficacy in meeting
the needs of Black students.
The educational reform needed to close the achievement gap is derived from teacher self-
efficacy in doing so. Dixon, Yssel, McConnell, and Hardin’s (2014) research found that teacher
self-efficacy with differentiating instruction increased when the organization provided
professional development opportunities for how to do so. Being part of a team in the creation of
assessments and in the discussions about how to differentiate instruction empowers teachers and
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 40
creates a sense of collective efficacy as a department that furthers teachers’ individual self-
efficacy (Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares, 2008). When teachers believe that they are
responsible for Black student learning and they feel efficacious in their ability to create
assessments and use that data to differentiate instruction, they seek out opportunities to do so,
they persist in doing so, and they make the mental effort required to be successful.
Attribution theory. Attribution theory stems from an individual’s desire to understand
the environment and why things occur (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011). Both
environmental factors (characteristics of home, school, work) as well as personal factors (prior
knowledge/experience) influence the attributions that people make (Weiner, 1985, 2005). A
person’s perception of the cause of the event, regardless of the reality, affects future motivation
toward engaging in a similar task. Three causal dimensions of attributions include locus,
stability, and controllability (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Locus refers to perception of the
event as internal (contingent on own behavior) or external (outside individual’s control).
Stability considers whether the cause is stable (i.e. failure due to ability) or unstable (i.e. failure
due to lack of effort) across time (permanent vs. temporary) and situations (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011). If the stable cause is positive, it leads to expectations for future
success; if unstable, it leads to negative expectations for future success (Anderman & Anderman,
2009). Controllability refers to whether the situation is perceived as being under control of the
individual; only internal attributions are controllable (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). When
people believe that they have an internal locus of control, when they believe results can be
changed, and when they believe their effort caused success, they are motivated to choose, persist,
and put forth mental effort required for the task/situation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Clark
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 41
& Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011). Therefore, improving teacher attribution will
increase teacher motivation to close the achievement gap.
Teacher attribution. When teachers attribute student success to what teachers do/do not
do rather than to external factors, that is when teachers have control over student learning.
Schunk (1989) suggests that many teachers attribute student success to student factors rather than
to teacher factors (i.e. teacher knowledge of culturally sensitive instructional strategies).
Attributing Black student learning to teaching practices and to teacher effort is empowering for
teachers, but it also requires that teachers take ownership for the achievement gap.
Maintaining an internal locus of control empowers teachers to affect change. Instructional
practices are wholly controlled by the teacher, and when teachers attribute Black student learning
to instructional practices, teachers see themselves as directly responsible for student learning
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011). Likewise, teachers must realize student learning
is directly related to unstable causes (i.e. teachers’ effort as causing student learning) rather than
blaming stable factors, students, students’ home environment, or peer influences (Gibson &
Dembo, 1984). When they do so, and have confidence in so doing, teachers persist longer in
their teaching efforts, provide greater academic focus in the classroom, and provide various types
of feedback (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). They believe they are why students fail or succeed, and
they act in ways that ensures student success because student success equates with their own
personal success as an instructor. While this holds true for all teaching and learning, it is of
utmost importance for Black students who have been historically underrepresented and have
lacked opportunities in the educational system. Teachers must believe they are directly
responsible for equity in their classrooms and for the reduction in the achievement gap of their
Black students through differentiated instructional practices. Teacher attribution of Black student
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 42
learning to instructional practice as well as teacher self-efficacy in meeting Black student
learning needs increases the likelihood that teachers will meet their goal. Teacher motivation to
support Black students and their desire to ensure equity in their classrooms will create an
environment that supports social justice which promises to support Black student achievement.
Table 3 identifies the assumed motivational influences identified as part of this literature
review. These influences will be used to understand better how motivation affects instructor
willingness to create common assessments and modify instructional practices to ensure Black
student success.
Table 3
Assumed Motivational Influences
Assumed Motivational Influences
Attribution: Teachers should believe that Black student learning is directly related to their
instructional practices (planning, teaching, assessing, and re-teaching).

Self-efficacy: Teachers should believe that they are capable of creating common assessments and
then differentiating instruction for their Black students.

Organization
General Theory. An organizational culture can be analyzed through the cultural models
and cultural settings that exist within the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural
settings include employees, their tasks, the procedures and rationale for completing tasks, and the
social context wherein these tasks are performed (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural
models include shared mental schema and normative understandings within the organization
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). By analyzing the cultural models and cultural settings, as well
as the interaction between the two, schools can increase organizational effectiveness toward
meeting performance goals.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 43
Cultural Model Influences. Cultural models are difficult to change because they are
often deeply rooted in the belief systems of individuals or groups within the organization
(Schein, 2010). Individuals must experience cognitive dissonance in their belief systems in order
for a desire for change to occur (Argyris, 1994; Collins, 1998). However, in the absence of
cognitive dissonance, leaders can build on existing schema or create ceremonies and events to
alter culture and instill change within an organization (Cameron, 1991; Hedberg, 1981). Social-
cognition models suggest that leaders can reframe thinking and interpretation to help individuals
make sense of change (Harris, 1996). Cultural change theorists such as Schein (2010) further
this change concept and suggest the importance of the collective nature of organizations and that
change occurs through creation of shared meaning. The cultural model influences that follow
highlight the importance of change efforts for both individuals as well as the group in order to
effect organizational change.
Cultural Model Influence 1(inhibitor). Change efforts challenge existing practice and
create a “learning anxiety” (Schein, 2010). Teachers may feel that changing practice suggests
that what they have been doing is incorrect and therefore requires change. Their sense of
identity is imbedded in their practice and a change to practice challenges their identity (Schein,
2010). Likewise, creating common assessments removes a teacher’s autonomy and his or her
identity as an individual. Furthermore, as previously noted, there may be a lack of knowledge
and skill in the creation of assessments that may contribute to teacher’s overall unwillingness to
create those assessments (McMillan, 2003; Nadelson, et. al., 2014; Wolfe, et. al., 2007).
However, the collective nature of teaching and learning requires a change in practice. In the
absence of data, little can be accomplished and repeated, as data validates practice. However,
when teachers are able to work collaboratively to resolve learning issues of Black students by
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 44
looking at data and what data reveal about required changes in instructional practice, teachers
can reduce the achievement gap. In order to encourage this practice the organization need to
explain the rationale for the changes necessary and include teachers in the change process.
Cultural Model Influence 2 (inhibitor). In education, there is a common belief that doing
right by all students will equally benefit all students. Bensimon (2017) challenges this
philosophy and argues that in order to achieve equity, Black students must receive instructional
services that disproportionately support their learning. In order to reduce the achievement gap
for Black students, teachers must believe they are directly responsible for equity in their
classrooms and for the reduction in the achievement gap of their Black students (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011; Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011). Ensuring teachers
are adequately equipped with the knowledge and skills to increase equity as well as the
motivation to do so will improve cultural proficiency, increase social justice, and ultimately,
increase the likelihood of the organization meeting its goal.
Cultural Setting Influences. The context in which cultural models exist plays a
significant role in an organization’s ability to meet performance goals. In education, some
aspects of the context are stable and seldom change. However, when a change occurs, resistance
often ensues, especially when teachers are not a part of the decision making process
(Zimmerman, 2006). Likewise, when there has been little perceived success with change efforts,
teachers are unlikely to be willing to make a change, especially when the change is collective in
nature. As previously noted, mastery experience is one of the most powerful factors influencing
teacher perceptions of collective efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Goddard, 2001; Pajares, 1997; Usher
& Pajares, 2008). Past successes raise teacher’s beliefs in collective capabilities whereas failures
undermine them (Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The cultural setting influences that
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 45
follow highlight the importance of building collective capacity in order to effect organizational
change.
Cultural Setting Influence 1(facilitator). Professional development is a key factor in
improving instructional practices and reducing the achievement gap. In order to grow
professionally and meet the need of Black students, organizations need to provide teachers with
professional development opportunities related to creating common assessments, analyzing data,
and differentiating instruction. Dixon, Yssel, McConnell and Hardin (2014) argue that
professional development opportunities that support improved differentiation require teachers to
engage in both learning about philosophies and strategies of differentiation but also engage in
coaching and practice opportunities to do so. They argue that these types of professional
development opportunities help teachers gain experience through the mastery experience of
others (i.e. coaches) who can support their work. By doing so, teacher self-efficacy to meet
individual student needs is increased and the achievement gap for Black students is reduced
(Dixon, et. al, 2014). The collective nature of this type of professional development not only
supports individual teachers but also helps to shape organizational culture and willingness to
make changes. Zimmerman (2006) argues that when teachers are part of the decision making
process [i.e. they are making changes themselves because of their professional development
experiences], change efforts are more successful.
Cultural Setting Influence 2 (facilitator). Sharing mastery experience related to common
assessments, data analysis, and differentiation are essential to the collective nature of teaching
and learning. Cultural assumptions are rooted in group experience and in the failures/successes
of those in the group (Schein, 2010). Since individuals are motivated by mastery experience of
others and of the group, it holds that they would be reticent to move toward common
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 46
assessments if they are not common practice within an organization. However, change occurs
because those within the organization see the need for change (Kezar, 2001). When teachers see
that others are successfully implementing practices, they are more willing to engage in those
same practices. In addition, as mentioned previously, when teachers engage in collaborative
discussions, receive feedback about their own differentiation practices, and collaborate on the
creation of shared lessons, they draw on each other’s mastery experience and build their own self
efficacy (Dixon, et. al., 2014). Moving from a cellular mode of instructional practice to one in
which collegiality and collaboration become the norm promises to yield “reculturing” needed to
change existing philosophies (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). In order to effect change, the
organizations need to highlight the successes of those engaging in promising practices.
Organizational culture plays a significant role in ensuring both stakeholders and the
organization meet their goals. By identifying the cultural model influences and cultural setting
influences within the organization, leaders can create systems to mitigate the negative influences
on organizational culture to ensure teachers meet their goals and Black students experience
equity, social justice, and a reduction in the achievement gap.
Table 4 identifies the assumed organizational influences which were used to understand
better how cultural models and cultural settings influence teachers’ ability to meet goals and
ensure Black student success.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 47
Table 4

Assumed Organizational Influences

Assumed Organizational Influences
Cultural Model Influence 1 (inhibitor)
Resistance toward change: The organization needs to explain the rationale for change and
include teachers in the change process.

Cultural Model Influence 2 (inhibitor)
Belief that by doing right by all, doing right by Black students: The organization needs to train
teachers on the difference between equality and equity.

Cultural Setting Influence 1 (facilitator)
Professional Development: The organization needs to provide professional development in the
creation of assessments, analysis of data, and differentiation of instruction.

Cultural Setting Influence 2 (facilitator)
Mastery Experience: The organization needs to identify experts/models to support teachers in the
creation of common assessments, data analysis, and differentiation.

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Teacher Knowledge and Motivation
and the Organizational Context
The conceptual framework provides an underlying structure that frames the study and is
iterative and subject to revision throughout the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual
framework includes concepts or theories that inform the study (Maxwell, 2013). These theories
inform the conceptual framework which provides the lens with which researchers study
phenomena (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In essence, the conceptual framework is the theory that
presents the ideas and beliefs the researcher has about the phenomena being studied (Maxwell,
2013).
The conceptual framework for this study was constructed based on my review of existing
literature, knowledge of the organization, as well as concepts or theories. It was shaped by the
social and theoretical location as well as by the lens of the researcher (Maxwell, 2013). The
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 48
Clark and Estes (2008) analytical framework and the KMO psychological theory provided a
structure and frame for the study. While previous sections within the chapter provided insight
into the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences independent of each other, this
section demonstrates how these elements interacted with each other. Figure 1 that follows is a
concept map that illustrates the connection between the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences and how they interacted to help support the achievement of the
organizational goal and the teacher goal.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 49

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 50
Interactions between Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
The concept map provided a frame for my initial assumptions about the interaction
between knowledge, motivation, and the organizational elements affecting teacher attainment of
goals. Teacher knowledge and motivation are nested within the larger organizational frame, as
the knowledge and motivational issues presented in the concept map are directly affected by the
cultural settings and cultural models of the organization within which the stakeholder is located.
There is a direct connection between the teacher knowledge and motivational factors, as
indicated by the three arrows in a circle that suggest that the knowledge and motivational factors
both work together and affect each other within the organization. It was assumed that the more
knowledge teachers gained, the more motivated they would be to work toward the goal; likewise,
the more motivated they were, the more likely they were to further their knowledge. In essence,
it was assumed that there would be a synergy between knowledge and motivation. Results and
findings identified that teachers lacked knowledge and therefore motivation to support Black
students specifically; however, teachers were motivated to support all students, so they needed
knowledge about how to support Black students specifically. Within the organizational context,
there exist both facilitators as well as inhibitors to organizational change through goal
achievement. Professional development and mastery experience (represented by the shaded
boxes on the right and left of the concept map) were assumed to facilitate the changes needed to
increase teacher knowledge and motivation, represented by the solid arrows in the concept map.
Results and finding identified these as necessary to teacher attainment of goals. Teacher beliefs
and resistance to change were assumed to act as inhibitors to change efforts. The dotted arrows
to professional development and mastery experience from these inhibitors suggest that if
professional development and mastery experience were not maximized to mitigate the negative
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 51
effects of inhibitors, these inhibitors would continue as powerful negative forces in change
efforts. It was assumed that resistance to change was an inhibitor to goal attainment; however,
results and findings suggest that teachers may not be as resistant to change as originally thought.
Organizational facilitators. Professional development and mastery experience provide
teachers with a strong foundation upon which to pursue their performance and organizational
goals. Providing teachers with professional development opportunities related to creating
common assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating instruction based on assessment results
promises to increase teacher self-efficacy in identifying and meeting individual student needs
thereby reducing the achievement gap for Black students (Dixon, Yssel, McConnell, & Hardin,
2014, 6). Likewise, mastery experience provides teachers with successful models and colleague
supports to encourage these efforts.
Professional Development. Professional development provides teachers with the
requisite knowledge and motivation to create common assessments and differentiate instruction.
In relation to knowledge, teachers need to know how to create common assessments and how to
evaluate their own effectiveness with differentiating instruction based on the assessment results
(Darling-Hammond, 2000; Jamentz, 1995). Success with these influences is directly related to
the professional development provided by the organization. In other words, if the organization
does not provide the professional development to build the capacity of teachers to create
common assessments and to differentiate instruction, there would be no guarantee that they
would have this knowledge. This interaction is represented by the two arrows that leads to the
two types of knowledge from the professional development box, situated in the outer ring
representing the organization. In relation to motivation, professional development provides the
requisite training to ensure teachers are equipped to engage in culturally responsive educational
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 52
practices that differentiate for their black students (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011;
Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011). If they do not receive this training, there is no
guarantee teachers would have necessary knowledge to do the work or to be motivated to engage
in the work of differentiating their instruction. Dixon, et. al. (2014) research argues that in order
to be effective, professional development should provide not only philosophy as well as
strategies but also a coaching or collaborative component in order to provide teachers the
opportunity to engage in effective practice with feedback. The collaborative nature of such
professional development increases teacher self-efficacy which increases implementation of
principles learned during professional development (Dixon, et. al., 2014). This interaction is
represented by the arrow that leads to the second motivational element from the professional
development box, situated in the outer ring representing the organization.
Mastery experience. Mastery experience provides teachers with models who have
successfully implemented the desired practice. In relation to motivation, teachers need to believe
Black student learning is related to instructional practice and that they, as teachers, are capable of
engaging in culturally responsive educational practices by differentiating instruction for Black
students (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011; Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker,
2011). Success with these influences is directly related to the organization’s ability to build
collective efficacy and build on mastery experience of staff through PLCs. In the PLCs, teachers
are able to share their successes at supporting their Black students as well as collaborate when
they experience difficulty meeting Black student needs. In other words, if teachers lack models
who successfully implement the practice or if they lack professional opportunities to learn how
to do so successfully, there is no guarantee they would be motivated to pursue the changes
necessary. This interaction is represented by the two arrows that lead to the two types of
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 53
motivation from the mastery experience box, which is situated in the outer ring representing the
organization.
Organizational inhibitors. A general resistance toward change and the belief that doing
right by all students is doing right by Black students were two assumed cultural models and
perceived inhibitors to the organization’s successful implementation of strategies that support
attainment of goals (Bensimon, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2007; Wenglinsky, 2004).
These two inhibitors are related to the cultural settings and affected teacher knowledge and
motivation influences.
Resistance to change. Within the organizational setting, it was assumed that there was a
general resistance to change, as the site had undergone many changes over the last five years.
Each time administration mentioned the possibility of a new change, it was met with resistance
by many on staff, so administration had been reticent to require the practice of common
assessments. In relation to teacher performance goals, this overarching cultural model was
exacerbated by the lack of perceived mastery experience in order to support the creation of
common assessments by teachers who did not realize several of their colleagues already engage
in the practice. Furthermore, research has shown that teachers are ill prepared to create
standards-aligned common assessments (McMillan, 2003; Nadelson, et. al., 2014; Scales, 1993;
Wise et. al., 1993; Wolfe, et. al., 2007). While there were some teachers at ABCHS that used
common assessments, there had been little focus to implement the practice across the site, which
minimized the opportunity for teachers to share their experiences with colleagues about their
creation of these assessments as well as how they used the data. The collective efficacy derived
from such collaboration would further teachers’ knowledge and motivation to pursue the work
(Bandura, 1997; Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Without strong models and proper
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 54
training/professional development, it was thought that teachers would be resistant to participate
in creation of common assessments and in differentiating instruction based on the results of those
assessments. This interaction is represented by the two dotted arrows that lead from the
professional development box and the mastery experience box to the resistance to change box,
situated in the outer ring representing the organization. In order to mitigate this inhibitor, the
organization needs to explain the rationale for change and include teachers in the change process.
When teachers feel like their voice is important in the organization and that they are heard, they
are more willing to pursue the goals of the organization and the changes needed to accomplish
those goals. Therefore, although it was initially thought that teachers were resistant to change,
survey and interview findings suggest that teachers may be more willing to change than
originally thought.
Beliefs. There was a general belief within the organization that doing right by all
students would equally support all students. However, research has shown that is not the case
(Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2007). In relation to Black students, research has shown that in
order to achieve equity and thus close the opportunity gap, instructional practices need to
disproportionately benefit Black students academically (Bensimon, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 2006;
Milner, 2007; Wenglinsky, 2004). This is a basic tenant of Critical Race Theory, which argues
that in order to achieve equity of underrepresented students, those in power need to leverage
opportunities for underrepresented students who often enter into the educational arena at a deficit
(Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
However, in order to be able to do so, teachers need to be efficacious in their role and in
their ability to meet the needs of Black students (Ashton & Web, 1986; Gibson & Dembo, 1984;
Tucker, et. al., 2005). Teachers need to attribute student success to teachers’ instructional
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 55
practices (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Rueda, 2011; Schunk, 1989)
and engage in professional development opportunities increase their feelings of self-efficacy
(Dixon, Yssel, McConnell, & Hardin, 2014, 6). Through the mastery experience of colleagues,
teachers can build on collective efficacy to determine how they too can use instructional
practices that create opportunities for Black students and achieve equity. In other words,
teachers need to believe that they can and need to provide Black students with disproportional
opportunities in order to meet performance goals. This interaction is represented by the two
dotted arrows that lead from the professional development box and the mastery experience box
to the resistance to change box, situated in the outer ring representing the organization. In order
to mitigate this belief, the organization needs to train teachers on the difference between equality
and equity to ensure instructional practices disproportionately benefit Black students
academically (Bensimon, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2007; Wenglinsky, 2004).
The organizational elements either had a positive or negative effect on teacher knowledge
and motivation and subsequent attainment of teacher performance goals and organizational
goals. Inhibitors, represented by dotted lines in the concept map, were originally thought to have
a negative role in goal attainment as it was assumed that they detracted from the focus on the
goal; therefore, minimizing their effect through facilitators was an important aspect of goal
attainment. However, results and findings from the survey and interview suggest that teachers
were actually more open to change than originally thought. When teachers maximize the
opportunities afforded through facilitators such as professional development and mastery
experience of colleagues in the creation of assessments, data analysis, and differentiation of
instruction, there is a greater likelihood that they will experience success at meeting their
performance goals as well as the organizational goal.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 56
Conclusion
Chapter two explored the literature pertinent to the problem of practice of reducing the
achievement gap at ABCHS and considered the stakeholder role in doing so. This included a
review of the history of segregation and lack of opportunity for Black students in the United
States. Three key areas of the study highlighted the importance of teacher knowledge and
motivation related to common assessments, analysis of data, and differentiation of instruction in
order to meet Black student’s academic need. This literature review also highlighted the Clark
and Estes Gap Analytical Framework and reviewed the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences pertinent to the problem of practice. These influences suggested the
importance of creating a culture of collaboration and teacher self-efficacy in meeting the needs
of Black students; increasing professional development opportunities for teachers to build
knowledge to create assessments, analyze data, and differentiate instruction; as well as creating
an organizational culture to support the work. Finally, a conceptual framework examined the
interaction of teacher knowledge and motivation and the organizational context that needed to
work together in order to meet both the organizational and teacher performance goals. These
provided a background and context for the research methods of the study that are detailed in
Chapter Three.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 57
Chapter Three: Research Methods
This chapter reviews the sampling recruitment criteria and rationale as well as the
recruitment strategy and rationale for the interviews and surveys that were conducted as part of
this study. It then outlines the data collection and instrumentation processes, data analysis, as
well as reviews potential issues of credibility and trustworthiness. This section also includes an
overview of the validity and reliability of the survey as well as ethical considerations and
limitations and delimitations of the study. The research questions that guided the study were as
follows:
1. By June 2018, to what extent were 100% of teachers in Professional Learning
Communities creating course-alike common assessments, disaggregating data, and
differentiating instructional practices to meet Black student instructional needs?
2. What did teachers know and what were they motivated to do in relation to creating
common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction for Black
students in order to achieve the organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap?
3. What was the interaction between the existing site schema/beliefs, professional
development opportunities, mastery experience and teacher knowledge and motivation to
create common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate instruction for Black
students?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
Teachers at ABCHS were the stakeholder population of focus for this study which
employed inter-method mixing for data collection (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). The census
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 58
sampling began with a survey of all teachers at the site in order to ensure representation of all
stakeholders and saturation of information. Concurrently, a purposeful sampling strategy with an
interest in obtaining variation across departments was included to obtain participants for
interviews who could provide additional insight to the study. The survey provided an overall
picture of and identification of key themes from a larger sample of teachers while the interviews
provided depth/insight from a subset of those teachers.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The participants chosen for this study were teachers employed at ABCHS
during the study. Including all teachers provided saturation of information, internal
generalizability of findings, and access to all teacher perspectives at the site.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The survey occurred at the beginning of the data collection process and concurrently with
interviews. I introduced the study at an all staff meeting and invited all teachers to participate in
the survey. This resulted in a high response rate and data representative of all departments on
campus. Taking Fink’s (2013) advice that making a survey anonymous encourages participation,
the survey respondents in this study were anonymous. To ensure anonymity, the link to the
survey was sent in an email and there were no questions asked in the survey that would allow a
person to be identifiable.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Teachers selected were from each of the five core academic departments
(English, social science, science, math, and world language) on campus to ensure a maximum
variation sample and perspectives from across the organization.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 59
Criterion 2. Teachers selected had taught at least three years at the site to ensure they
understood the cultural models and settings which may have influenced the knowledge and
motivation of teachers.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Teachers were recruited by the third party, a teacher on special assignment (TOSA),
completing the interviews. Prior to the data collection process, the TOSA identified teachers
based on the criteria listed above so that if teachers indicated they were interested in participating
in the interviews she would contact those on the list. At the all staff meeting teachers were
invited to email the TOSA to participate in an interview. Furthermore, if they elected to complete
the survey, they were again invited to participate in the interview. Based on responses to the
request for an interview, she interviewed at least one to two teachers from each of the core
subject area departments. The goal was to identify a minimum of five teachers of the ninety on
campus who had been at the site a minimum of three years so that they had an understanding of
their colleagues, department, and the organization as a whole. In the end, eight teachers were
interviewed by the TOSA.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Both interview and survey data were gathered as part of this study. Due to the sensitive
nature of the researcher-participant relationship (as evaluator and evaluatee), both the survey and
the interview participation were anonymous to the researcher. The survey was used with all
teaching staff to get a quantitative measure of teacher knowledge and motivation related to the
problem of practice, as well as teacher perspectives on the organizational influences that either
facilitated or inhibited teacher ability to meet the stakeholder goal. The survey allowed for
anonymous data collection as well as provided an opportunity to identify where the staff was
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 60
with regard to knowledge and practices related to assessments, data analysis, and differentiation.
The interviews provided further depth into teacher perspectives about the problem of practice. It
was anticipated that together the survey and interview would corroborate findings from each
instrument and highlight key themes at the site.
Surveys
The quantitative instrument for this research project was a survey, as it allowed for
efficient, anonymous collection of standardized data. In order to encourage a high response rate,
I introduced the study and survey during a staff professional development day so that teachers
had time that day to complete the survey in the privacy of their classroom or at the teacher’s
convenience and in a setting of the teacher’s choice (i.e. at home, in the classroom, etc). I
followed up this meeting with an email that included a link to the online survey, which began
with a short consent they had to agree to in order to participate. The survey window was open
for two-weeks during which teachers received one email reminder about the survey and an
invitation to participate in the in-person interviews. Since some of the questions were more
complex and sensitive in nature, the survey provided a level of anonymity to the respondents,
which likely made them feel more comfortable answering the questions.
According to Fink (2013) a variety of responses should be considered for data collection,
and so questions included categorical, ordinal, as well as numerical or contiguous responses.
These types of multiple-choice questions were more efficient and provided more reliable data
(Fink, 2013). Survey items also included yes-or-no answers as well as rating scales. The survey
included minimal open-ended questions, as they could be difficult to analyze and interpret (Fink,
2013). However, open-ended responses were included in the interview portion of the study.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 61
Fink (2013) suggests that both 4-point forced choice method and 5-point Likert-type
scales provide important categorical data. The 4-point scales force teachers to either agree or
disagree, as remaining neutral is not an option with some questions; however, 5-point scales are
generally provided when a teacher may not have an opinion on an issue and neutrality is an
acceptable response. A 7-point scale was used rather than a 5-point scale in order to narrow the
extent to which teachers agreed or disagreed with the question in an effort to gain more
specificity of research data. Continuous numerical scales provide specific numerical responses
to be able to identify site averages while ordinal questions allow for rough estimates as well as
identifying the order of importance of categories. Therefore, both types were used in order to
obtain data necessary for the purpose of this study.
Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence sections were included to ensure all
elements of the conceptual framework were addressed through the survey instrument. For
example, knowledge questions addressed teacher knowledge and comfort with creating common
assessments, use of data, and ways they differentiated instruction. Motivation questions
addressed each of the three elements (creating assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating
instruction) and considered the degree teachers attributed student success to their own practice as
well as their own feelings of self-efficacy in doing so. The questions related to organizational
influences focused on availability and use of facilitators/supports such as professional
development and mastery experience (or mentors).
Interviews
Interviews were conducted by a third party who underwent CITI Certification. I also
trained the third party in the interview process. As Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest, in order
to engage in a successful interview, one must practice; therefore, I conducted several mock
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 62
interview questions using the interview guide with the interviewer prior to having her complete
interviews with staff. Since a third party conducted the interviews, the study employed
standardized open-ended interviews to ensure standardization (Johnson & Christensen, 2014;
Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). The qualitative interview provided in-depth information about the
“participant’s thoughts, beliefs, knowledge, reasoning, motivations, and feelings about a topic”
(Johnson & Christensen, 2014). By deepening the study through interview, the goal was to
acquire additional insight into the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
affected teachers’ ability to meet their performance goals and the organization’s ability to meet
its global goal of reducing the achievement gap for Black students.
The formal interviews included teachers from each of the core five departments on
campus (English, social science, science, math, and world language). The interviews included
standardized open-ended questions to allow teachers to expand upon responses, as these were
one-time only interviews lasting approximately 45-60 minutes with no follow-up
interviews/questions. Due to the limited time allotted for the data collection process, in-person
interviews were held concurrently with the survey rather than in a sequential manner. A
sequential process with interviews following a survey would have provide opportunity to identify
themes present in the survey to further guide creation of questions for the interview; however,
the open-ended nature of interview questions allowed teachers to provide extended responses and
further understanding of key themes.
Holding the interview in the teachers’ classrooms ensured the environment was more
comfortable for the teacher and provided anonymity to the researcher; this encouraged the
teachers to be more willing to share their thoughts. The interviews were conducted during the
teachers’ prep period or at a time most convenient for the teacher and were held during the same
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 63
two-week time period as the survey of all teachers. The interviewer took hand written, scripted
notes and shared those notes, which included no identifiers, with the researcher immediately
after the interview. The interviews were not recorded in order to ensure anonymity. The notes
were retained until the dissertation was approved and then the notes were shredded.
The structured questions included in the interview focused on the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that affected teachers’ ability to meet their stakeholder goal. The
interview questions included a balance of knowledge, motivation, and organizational focused
questions related to the three elements of the stakeholder goal: creation of common assessments,
analysis of data, and differentiation of instruction. Furthermore, as Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
suggest, there needs to be a variety of types of question (hypothetical, devil’s advocate, ideal
position, and interpretive) in order to probe deeper into teacher thinking. Some teachers did not
have much experience with differentiation, so hypothetical and ideal position questions got them
to what they would do. Interpretive questions were more challenging to create, since the
interview questions were structured. The goal was to be able to glean as much detailed and
descriptive data from responses to questions in order to better understand teacher knowledge and
motivational influences necessary to meet the stakeholder goal as well as the organizational
elements that may inhibit as well as facilitate teacher ability to meet goals.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted on both the quantitative data collected through the
anonymous survey of all teachers as well as on the qualitative data collected through the
anonymous interviews of several teachers from each of the core academic subject areas. The
survey included ordinal, interval, nominal, and ratio items and was analyzed using descriptive
statistics to determine measures of central tendencies. The notes taken during the interviews were
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 64
coded for themes and memos were used throughout the coding and the analysis process. The
survey and interview data sets allowed for review of common themes related to teacher
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors affecting assessment, data analysis, and
differentiation by teachers and PLCs at the site.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Due to the sensitive nature of the researcher-participant relationship (as evaluator and
evaluatee), survey and interview participation was anonymous. As such, surveys were provided
to teachers to complete as either paper-pencil or online via a link emailed to all teachers. Notes
taken by the third-party interviewer were reviewed by teachers prior to being turned in to ensure
there were no identifying marks (to ensure anonymity) and to ensure teacher thoughts and
perspectives were appropriately documented in the interviewer’s notes. This was purposely
designed to maximize teacher willingness to share openly their perspectives on the problem of
practice without fear of judgment or retribution. This hopefully also increased researcher
integrity in the eyes of participants and ensured trustworthiness of data analysis.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) argue the importance of validating data through one of
several methods including triangulation of data. The study included triangulated methods and
multiple data sources (survey and interview). Lack of documentation and artifacts to support
teacher work with creating common assessments, disaggregating and analyzing data, and
differentiating instruction prohibited these from being a viable data source. Fielding and
Fielding (1986) argue even data that is triangulated can lack validity and have the same biases
and sources of invalidity. They further argue that in order to reduce this threat, one must
triangulate with an eye on validity threats, not just on selection methods. Therefore, while I did
not triangulate based on data, I did triangulate with a focus on validity threats.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 65
Maxwell (2013) argues the importance of mitigating validity threats such as researcher
bias and reactivity. Researcher bias was reduced through rich interview data, review of multiple
sources of data, as well as by considering alternative interpretations of the data (Maxwell, 2013).
Reactivity, or influence of researcher on setting or individuals, was significantly reduced by the
use of the anonymous nature of survey and interview questions (Maxwell, 2013), although
completely eliminating all influence of the researcher was not possible. As a result of my
position of power within the organization, I may have personal bias, due to my inside knowledge
of teachers and the organization. I needed to make sure that I remained aware and reflective of
these biases and the possibility of bias in my analysis of data. In order to mitigate these, I
reviewed initial data with the third party interviewer if there were questions or concerns to
ensure survey and interview data reflected similar themes and understandings of teacher
knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements that may have affected attainment of teacher
goals.
Validity and Reliability
According to Salkind (2017) in order to ensure a quality of quantitative research,
instruments must meet validity and reliability measures. Reliability ensures that the instrument
of quantitative measurement provides consistency in measurement; whereas, validity ensures that
the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure (Salkind, 2017). Salkind (2017) argues
that instrument reliability can be measured through test-retest reliability, parallel forms
reliability, interrater reliability, and internal consistency reliability. For the purpose of this study
and to increase likelihood of survey reliability, instructions were standardized, teachers took the
survey in a setting of their choice so as to minimize distractions when completing the survey, and
the survey was offered to all teachers at the site. In relation to validity measures, Salkind (2017)
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 66
highlights the importance of content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity. For the
purpose of this study, content validity of questions was used to ensure items assessed teacher
ability to create common assessments, analyze data, and differentiate instruction. Furthermore,
research from the literature informed the creation of survey and interview items to ensure
questions generated responses relevant to the study.
Since the survey used for the study was not based on an existing survey, I tested the
survey by having several teachers at a separate site complete the survey. In so doing, I hoped to
be able to identify any questions that may have presented conflicting responses, confusion for
survey takers regarding how to respond, or responses that were not anticipated. As a result I
reworded/restructured questions to clarify meaning and ensure responses provided relevant
information. To ensure confidence in the sample, the survey was completed anonymously by all
staff at the site. Since the nature of the research was in alignment with district, sites, and PLC
goals, high teacher participation was expected. While there may have been bias inherent in non-
responses due to teachers being unsure of how to respond or unwilling to share their opinions,
the qualitative data derived from interviews helped to mitigate and to identify reasons for non-
responses to the survey.
Ethics
According to Patton (2015), the “trustworthiness of the data is tied directly to the
trustworthiness of those who collect and analyze the data” (qtd. in Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Conducting ethical research with integrity was of utmost importance to me in the course of my
study. As an administrator at the site, I had much to lose if my research did not comply with
ethical principles or respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Glesne (2011) argues that poor
quality research and unethical research practices harm the credibility of research as well as
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 67
professional opportunities within the organization and relationship between researcher and staff.
Since staff saw me as a leader within the organization, I needed to make sure the survey and
interview questions both honored them and their existing work while also achieving the goal of
identifying areas where the organization may need to better support their ability to reduce the
achievement gap and support Black students.
As an administrator in a supervisory role, I ensured anonymity for teachers who
participated in the survey and interviews and strived to “do no harm.” To accomplish this, the
survey was anonymous and the interviews were conducted by a third party. To ensure
participant confidentiality, the third party took notes and omitted names of people, courses
mentioned, and any information they believed would identify the interviewee. Interviewees were
invited to review notes to ensure there was no identifying information within the notes that they
would want omitted.
Furthermore, since there may have been some psychological implications for teachers as
a result of engaging in the study, I wanted to mitigate them to ensure I “do no harm.” Teachers
may have felt dissonance between their perceived ability to meet their Black students’ needs and
their actual ability to do so when considering the questions posed during the survey or interview.
Therefore, I was conscientious when I constructed both sets of questions to ensure I did not
offend or disparage my participants.
I had a vested interest to make sure the information gleaned from the survey and
interview provided valuable information to inform future professional development needs as well
as procedures and practices at the site. Therefore, I needed to make sure as many teachers as
possible participated in the survey and in the interviews and hoped the confidential nature of the
survey and interview encouraged participation. Furthermore, I needed to maintain positive
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 68
working relationships with teachers to ensure my continued success as an administrator at the
site as well as a researcher, so I needed to make sure teachers felt positively about their
experience with the survey and interview process. As an administrator, I was positioned with a
certain level of power within the organizational hierarchy, and in order to maintain good
standing within the organization, I needed to ensure the highest levels of integrity with the
research process.
With this in mind, I provided all participants with an information sheet at the
commencement of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Glense (2011), informed
consent is imperative to ensure participants knew the study was voluntary, their responses would
be confidential as would their identity, and that they had the right to withdraw from the study
without penalty. To ensure safety of participants in the study, I submitted my study to the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) and followed its rules and
guidelines for ethical research practices in relation to the participants in my study. Though I did
not record interview responses, I ensured the third party interviewer omitted names and any
identifying information prior to submitting interview notes to me. These notes were not emailed
or shared with others; they were handed over to me on the same day of the interview and stored
at my home for the duration of the research process. Prior to the interview, the third party
interviewer reminded participants that participation in the study was voluntary and that they
could end the interview at any time so as not to coerce them; however, at the conclusion of the
research process, I had the interviewer provide a small token of my appreciation to those who
participated in the interviews.
As I moved forward with data collection, analysis, and reporting, I needed to be mindful
of my biases as a result of working in a position of power within the organization. I had
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 69
knowledge of existing practices within each department, and I needed to make sure that I did not
allow my current knowledge to prejudice or misinterpret the survey or interview responses. I
needed to assume each response was accurate and honest and consider the extent of my
perceived knowledge of existing practices. While I thought I knew, I learned that I did not know
everything and that my assumptions were not always accurate. I needed to be open to that
possibility. This was an ethical issue because I needed to ensure I did not use my existing
knowledge and position of power within the organization to alter my interpretation of the
perspectives of those within the organization.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were several limitations to this study. First, the data collected for the survey and
interview was self reported, and I trusted that respondents reported truthfully. Second, while
observations of PLC meetings, department meetings, and classroom observation would have
provided for the triangulation of data and provided insight into current practices related to
creation and use of common assessments, discussions related to disaggregation of data, and
implementation of differentiation strategies, this option was not be pursued for this study due to
the anonymity needed to avoid a conflict of interest, perception of coercion, and a risk to
participants who reported to me as their evaluator. Third, there were no opportunities to observe
teachers engaging in professional development related to talking about race and their ideologies
surrounding support of Black students.
There were several delimitations to this study. These delimitations include the Clark and
Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Framework which focused on the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on the problem of practice. Furthermore, my survey and interview
instruments focused on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affected
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 70
teacher ability to create common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate instruction.
The survey did not contain open-ended questions so as to be able to obtain standardized
responses. The interview included standardized open-ended interview questions to ensure
standardization (Johnson & Christensen, 2014; Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). Another delimitation
was that this was an evaluative study of teachers at one site, so the results may not be
generalized.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 71
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
ABC High School has a goal of reducing the achievement gap by 8% in CAASPP
standardized assessments by June 2019 for under-represented, Black students. The purpose of
this project was to evaluate the degree to which teachers are meeting an intermediate goal. This
goal is that by June 2018, 100% of teachers in Professional Learning Communities have created
course-alike common assessments, are disaggregating data, and are differentiating instructional
practices based on this data to meet Black student instructional needs. The analysis will focus on
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the intermediate
stakeholder goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). While a complete performance evaluation would focus
on all ABC High School stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders for this analysis
were the teachers at ABC High School. The goal of the study was to use the data gathered to
complete an analysis and provide recommendations for the organization to meet its goals.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. By June 2018, to what extent were 100% of teachers in Professional Learning
Communities creating course-alike common assessments, disaggregating data, and
differentiating instructional practices to meet Black student instructional needs?
2. What did teachers know and what were they motivated to do in relation to creating
common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction for Black
students in order to achieve the organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap?
3. What was the interaction between the existing site schema/beliefs, professional
development opportunities, mastery experience and teacher knowledge and motivation to
create common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate instruction for Black
students?
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 72
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
This study employed a convergent parallel mixed methods design which allowed for
concurrent gathering of quantitative and qualitative data to be analyzed separately and then
merged (Creswell, 2014). Data analysis was conducted on both the quantitative data collected
through the anonymous survey of all teachers as well as on the qualitative data collected through
the anonymous interviews of eight teachers from each of the academic subject areas. The survey
was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The interview notes taken during the interviews were
coded for themes. These data sets allowed for review of common themes related to teacher
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors affecting assessment, data analysis, and
differentiation by teachers and PLCs at the site.
In order to explore the results and findings for each research question, each research
question was addressed separately. Within the analysis for each research question, I
incorporated the results from quantitative survey data as well as the findings from qualitative
interview data and synthesized the results and findings as they pertained to the respective
research question. Therefore, this chapter is organized by research question.
Participating Stakeholders
During the two-week window for data collection, eight teachers, at least one from each of
the core academic content areas (English, social science, math, science, special education, world
language, visual and performing arts), elected to participate in the interview. During this same
two-week window, the anonymous survey was distributed electronically to the entire teaching
staff of 88 teachers, and 76% elected to participate in the survey. If considering only academic
content area teachers (i.e. non-PE teacher responses), then 82% of all academic teachers
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 73
participated in the survey. Teachers received one email half-way through the survey window to
request that they complete the survey if they had not yet done so. Table 5 displays the rate of
response in each department as well as the raw number of participants from each department and
what percentage of the survey they represent. The departments with the most participation in the
survey were English, Science, Visual/Technical/Performing Arts, and Special Education/
Collaboration. These are departments for which I am the administrator or with which I have a
close relationship due to regularly participating in individual teacher IEP meetings. The
departments with the least amount of participation in the survey were math, world language,
physical education/health, and social science (departments with whom I interact less frequently).
The differences in department willingness to participate in the survey may be due to the level of
interaction and connection that I have with each of the respective departments. During this same
two-week window, eight teachers (at least one from each of the academic departments) elected to
participate in the anonymous interview. For the purpose of this study, I considered the responses
as a site as well as disaggregated that data by department to determine if there were differences
among departments.
Table 5.
Survey Participation by Department

Department
Science
English
SPED/Collaboration
Visual/Tech/Performing Arts
Social Science
Math
World Language
Physical Education/Health

Rate of Response
100%
92%
83%
78%
73%
59%
50%
28%
% of Survey
(# of Teachers)
19.4% (12)
17.7% (11)
16.1% (10)
11.3% (7)
12.9% (8)
16.1% (10)
6.5% (4)
3.2 (2)

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 74
Table 5. Survey participation by department. Rate of response identifies the percentage of
teachers from each department that participated in the survey. % of Survey (# of Teachers)
identifies both the raw number of participants from each department and what percentage of the
total population of survey participants they comprise.
Results and Findings
Research Question 1: Current Practice
The first of four questions of this study focused on current practice: By June 2018, to
what extent were 100% of teachers in Professional Learning Communities creating course-alike
common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instructional practices to meet
Black student instructional needs?
Common Assessments. Common formative assessments allow teachers to gather
valuable data that can help identify gaps in learning and instruction (Guskey, 2007; Moon,
2005). As a diagnostic of student areas of strength and weakness, assessments provide teachers
the opportunity to target instructional practices (Bloom, 1971). However, Daniel and King
(1998), supported by several other studies, found that teachers lack an adequate knowledge base
regarding testing and measurement procedures and need training in order to be able to do so
(Scales, 1993; Wise, Lukin, & Roos, 1993; McMillan, 2003; Wolf, Viger, Jarvinen, & Linksman,
2007; Nadelson, Pluska, Moorcraft, Jeffrey, & Woodard, 2014). The study sought to determine
how many teachers gave common assessments and how frequently they were doing so.
In order to answer the first part of this first question of this study (the extent to which
teachers in PLCs were creating course-alike common assessments), participants responded to
question seven on the survey. The question measured the extent to which teachers used common
assessments by asking teachers to respond to the following survey question, “How many
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 75
common assessments do you give each year?” Participants were asked to answer the question
with a numerical value. Of the participants, 57 of 66 participants (86%) responded to the
question. While the average overall was eight assessments, with a median and mode of four,
departments such as math, science, Physical Ed/Health, SPED/Collab, and VTPA generally used
common assessments more frequently than did English, social science, and world language (see
Table 7). The large discrepancy between the mean and median within some departments that are
identified in Table 6 suggests that there are some teachers who indicated that they administer
many common assessments while others indicated that they seldom, if ever, used common
assessments. The data suggests that in departments such as English, science, social science, and
world language, there was more consistency in frequency of use of common assessments;
however, in departments such as math, VPTA, SPED/Collaboration there was greater
discrepancy in frequency of use of common assessments. This suggests that in some
departments teachers in PLCs are working more closely to align assessments, whereas in
departments such as VTPA and SPED/Collaboration, where there are more singletons, there is
greater variation in results. These, however, do not account for the variation in math responses,
other than that there are several teachers in math who teach higher level and specialty singleton
classes, so that may account for the greater variety in responses noted for math.
Table 6
Measures of Central Tendencies by Department

English Math
PE/
Health Science
Social
Science
SPED/
Collab VPTA
World
Lang

Mean 3 12 7 11 4 8 13 4
Median 4 10 7 8 4 4 10 4
Mode 4 2 N/A 10 5 0 4 4
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 76
Table 7 depicts a large variance, standard deviation, and range of responses at the site
suggesting there were some discrepancies between teachers as to how frequently they
administered common assessments. Table 8 further highlights the variance, standard deviation,
and range of response more specifically among the math, science, SPED/Collab, and VTPA
departments suggesting that within the respective departments there was also significant
variation between teachers.
Table 7
Site Measures of Dispersion

Variation

Standard
Deviation

Min

Max

Range
101.9743108 10.09823305 0 50 50

Table 8
Department Measures of Dispersion

English Math PE/Health Science Social
Science
SPED/
Collab
VTPA World
Lang

VAR 5.34 108.69 n/a
1
184.07 9.48 176.7 145.7 1
STDEV 2.31 10.43 n/a 13.57 3.08 13.29 12.07 1
MIN 0 2 7 0 1 0 2 2
MAX 8 30 7 50 10 40 36 4
RANGE 8 28 0 50 9 40 34 2

These data suggest that there were teachers in departments such as English, science, and
special education who did not administer common assessments while there were colleagues in
those same departments who used common assessments more frequently. The most consistent in
their use of common assessments was the world language department wherein all teachers who

1
One PE teacher responded to this question, so there is no standard deviation or variance in
responses to be reported.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 77
completed the survey used common assessments between two to four times per year. This
variation within department data may be due to the fact that not all teachers within the PLC gave
the common assessment as it is written. Findings from interview data suggested that the majority
of teachers altered the common assessment to better measure what they covered in their
respective classes (to be presented below). This may also be the reason that some teachers
indicated that they gave common assessments while others indicated that they did not. It is
possible that some teachers did not understand the importance of giving common assessments
and therefore loosely applied the term to their practice. Furthermore, the district and site do not
mandate the use of common assessments, and teachers have had no training in how to create or
implement them with fidelity.
In addition to the quantitative data derived from the survey of all staff, interviews of eight
teachers (at least one from each of the following departments: English, social science, math,
science, world language, special education, visual and performing arts) provided further insight
to site use of common assessments. Of the eight teachers interviewed, three did not give
common assessments since they were teaching singletons (i.e. the only teacher teaching that
course of study). The visual/performing arts teacher stated that he had to be “more
individualized because the content is different than my colleague but the layout of assessments is
the same. We discuss the struggles we are having and what assessments we’re using.” The
second visual/performing arts teacher agreed and stated, “We collaborate but each VAPA [visual
and performing arts] area does their own assessments in particular; we do give/get feedback and
bounce ideas off of each other.” This suggests that teachers valued the collective wisdom of
their PLC and strived to provide students with comparable learning and assessment experiences
in the visual and performing arts. However, the nature of their respective course content
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 78
precluded them from using common assessments. The social science teacher, who also taught a
singleton, indicated that he does “very little” with common assessments. These three teachers
taught singleton classes, so their responses were in alignment with the fact that they had no
colleague with whom to align assessments directly.
Teachers from two other departments said that they gave common assessments in their
respective departments but adjusted the common assessments to reflect more closely what they
covered in their respective classes, suggesting they did not, in fact, give common assessments.
The math teacher stated that in her department,
We look at assessments that the program provides and then we look at each section
objective for each unit. We put a common assessment together for our team…we
collaborate via email or in class to see what needs to be added or deleted… Each of us
tweaks the test to what we personally emphasized in our class.
While teachers in the math department indicated in the survey that they gave common
assessments, interview data suggested that they actually gave similar assessments, but they were
not truly common assessments because there were “tweaks.” As such, disaggregating data
within the department could not provide the department the data that it needed in order to have
discussions about how students were doing in the course, as not all students within the course
took the same common assessment. The English teacher stated that in her PLC “a quarter of
assessments were from the CSU Expository Reading and Writing units and the other three-
quarters were developed from our own information, taking into account relevancy, creativity,
and ways students can personalize assessments with projects and writing.” These findings
suggest that there was commitment to the importance of common assessments; however, the fact
that teachers modified those assessments for their respective classes made it more difficult to
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 79
look at data across teachers or to look at longitudinal department data as those assessments were
changed based on what the teachers taught during the units preceding the test. The findings from
these interviews suggest that teachers valued the collaborative process for creating similar
assessments; however, most did not, in fact, give common assessments.
The remaining three teachers from two departments noted that they gave common
assessments in their respective departments, with each teacher administering the exact same
assessment as others in their respective PLC. The world language teacher said that the Spanish
teachers “assess at the end of each quarter (orally, written, and old fashioned bubble in reading,
vocabulary, grammar, and culture)…by backwards planning and looking at essential questions.”
Because of the vertical articulation required in world language, the world language teachers
worked very closely to ensure that all students were at the appropriate level since each course
builds on the other directly. Common assessments helped them to better align their curriculum
and assess student learning across courses. Additionally, the science teacher stated, “now I am
more direct in my assessments as opposed to years ago…My colleague and I look at where kids
are confused at previous year and tweak that.” This suggests that these two teachers realized the
importance of common assessments and making sure that they were aligned both with what was
being assessed as well as with measuring what students actually knew and could do. The other
teacher in the PLC echoed this,
We alter assessments made previously to align with current students…We look at a test
and go through it to see if we need to rewrite or take out or add concepts – the last test we
rewrote the free response to make it more clean and broken into specific steps and
rewrote the answer sheet as well to make it more manageable.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 80
This finding suggests that, teachers in this specific PLC worked collaboratively to ensure their
common assessments adequately measured student learning. By adjusting the structure of the
assessment, rather than changing what each one did on their respective assessment, they were
better able to identify what students learned and how they could better support students.
Of the teachers who gave assessments in conjunction with colleagues (i.e. not including
singletons), as previously noted, all collaborated in the creation of assessments and all but two
departments stated that they adjusted assessments to meet the needs of current students. These
findings align with Dixon, Yssel, McConnell, & Hardin (2014) research which found that by
working collaboratively in their professional learning communities (PLCs), teachers can vet
questions and appropriate responses as well as share ideas about how to differentiate
instructional practices. Through the collaborative process, teachers build their self-efficacy
which further spurs their work (Dixon, et. al., 2014). One of the teachers also noted the PLCs
focus on “aligning assessments with a focus on ‘relevancy’.” As a result, the PLC adjusted
several of the assessments so that, while students had to maintain standards mastery, they were
able to personalize projects and writing to increase relevancy for students. These findings are
important because they identify an area for growth for teachers at the site. Since not all teachers
gave common assessments, since many altered their common assessments for their respective
classes based on what parts of a unit they covered/emphasized, and since many assessments were
altered yearly, it was difficult to obtain common data to be able to disaggregate that data both for
the current assessment or to determine any longitudinal effectiveness of instructional practices
that support Black student learning.
The variance identified in the survey data makes more sense after analyzing interview
data. While many teachers noted that they used common assessments, interview findings
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 81
showed that while many departments may have started with a common assessment, most
teachers altered assessments for their respective classes. These findings suggest that there were,
in fact, very few teachers at the site using common assessments with fidelity. These findings
also suggest that though teachers stated they were giving common assessments, they had a very
loose definition of common assessments and very few were actually doing so.
Disaggregating Data. Data are necessary in order for teachers to be able to identify how
they can differentiate instructional practices to provide equity for Black students (Moon, 2005).
Being part of a team in the creation of assessments and in the discussions about how to analyze
data and differentiate instruction empowers teachers and creates a sense of collective efficacy as
a department that furthers teachers’ individual self-efficacy (Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares,
2008; Dixon, et. al, 2014). Therefore, this study sought to determine how often teachers
disaggregated common assessment data by race/ethnic demographics.
In order to answer the second part of the first question of this study (the extent to which
teachers in PLCs were disaggregating data), participants responded to question nine on the
survey. The survey focused on data disaggregation and asked teachers to respond to the
following question: “How often do you look at common assessment data by race/ethnic
demographics?” Participants were asked to answer the question by selecting on a 4-point Likert
scale. Of the participants, 61 of 66 participants (92%) responded to the question. Site data
suggested that the majority of teachers (37 teachers or 61%) disaggregated data by race/ethnic
demographic at least once a year, and many did so at least once a term (an additional 13 teachers
or 21%) (see Figure 2). At the school site, a term would be the equivalent of completion of an
entire course of study, as the site is structured on a 4x4 schedule (i.e. students complete four
courses in the fall and four additional courses in the spring). When considering frequency by
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 82
department, data suggested that science, English, and math disaggregated data by race/ethnic
demographics more frequently than did other departments. These results make sense considering
there are norm referenced standardized tests for each of those disciplines administered each year
and as a site we disaggregate that data at the beginning of each school year; furthermore, each
department is committed to giving at least one common assessment per year for which they are
expected to disaggregate data (see Figure 3 for the results related to how frequently common
assessments are given by department).

Figure 2. Frequency of site disaggregation of common assessment data by race/ethnic
demographics

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 83

Figure 3. Frequency of departmental disaggregation of common assessment data by race/ethnic
demographics
While most departments included at least one common assessment per course, and at
least 91% of teachers disaggregated data at least once a year, 9% of teachers never disaggregated
data by race/ethnicity. This is alarming considering that in order to reduce the achievement gap,
teachers need to monitor assessments in order to know how to best differentiate instruction
(Moon, 2005).
In addition to the quantitative data derived from the survey of all staff, interviews of eight
teachers provided further insight into analysis of data within their respective departments. Of the
eight teachers interviewed, all stated that little or no data disaggregation occurs in PLCs. When
asked about disaggregation of data in PLCs, teachers stated the following: “I can’t remember
doing this,” “we rarely do that,” “we haven’t done that,” “we don’t,” “don’t really do this,” “not
applicable,” and “I don’t.” Two teachers further stated that the only time conversations related
to data disaggregation occurred was at the site all staff data disaggregation in September. While
these findings may suggest that in the survey teachers over-estimated the frequency of data
disaggregation that occurred in their PLCs, most teachers noted that disaggregation of data
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 84
occurred at least once a term or at least once a year, which would be accurate. As a site, we
looked at PLC data at least once each term and at standardized testing data once a year, though a
few PLCs within each department did so more frequently.
When asked what they looked at with regard to data, all teachers stated that when they
looked at their own student data, they were looking for “common misconceptions,” “trends,”
“did the kids get the concepts or not,” and seven of eight noted that they would review or re-
teach specific sections if students got the questions incorrect. However, none of the teachers
stated that they looked at assessment data by race/ethnic demographic. Only two of the teachers
stated that they look at the data in relation to a specific demographic of students. These teachers,
one from the science department and the other from the special education/collaboration
department, said they specifically looked at the data related to how special education students
were doing. One of these two teachers stated that when grading,
[I] give concessions knowing their abilities, give accommodations on their IEP, take late
work/no homework. I give multiple ways to access information and try to hit all
modalities for every lesson and have an activity for kids to ‘do’ things and manipulate
things and let student talk a lot as well and explain reasoning.
The other teacher, who often collaborates with general education teachers, echoed these types of
accommodations and modifications when she stated,
With low achieving students in class and special education students in the classroom we
do activities that allow them to move around so they are ‘doing’ and rarely do direct
instruction because it doesn’t work for these kids…and I allow oral responses and
participation in lieu of written assignments.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 85
These findings suggest that these teachers primarily looked at how their students with
Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) were doing or how their low achieving students were
doing, but they seldom considered other under-represented populations specifically who may
need cultural brokers to support their learning. When asked specifically about supporting
subgroups, another teacher noted that she looked at “EL students, 504s and IEPs…[and used]
custom teaching to treat every student like they have an IEP to the best of my ability.” This
teacher further said that she strives to provide “custom teaching to treat every student like they
have an IEP…because students learn individually.” These findings are important because they
suggest that some teachers understood the importance of disaggregation of data so that they
could better differentiate instruction for students with disabilities.
Survey and interview data suggest that while teachers did look at assessment results, they
were seldom, if ever, looking at disaggregated data by race/ethnicity in their PLCs. According to
the findings from the interviews, when teachers did look at disaggregated data, they were
primarily doing so with regard to students who had legally mandated accommodations or
modifications in their Individualized Education Plans and 504s. This suggests that they were not
specifically considering other under-represented demographics on a regular basis as part of their
PLC cycle. Interview and survey data suggest that teachers reviewed disaggregated data by
demographics when looking at state standardized assessments and course grade reports provided
by administration at all-staff meetings twice a year. However, this practice did not translate into
PLC discussions related to data disaggregation and analysis specifically for Black students.
Differentiating Instruction. Wenglinsky (2004) argues that by using instructional
practices that disproportionately benefit minority students, teachers directly influence the in-
school achievement gap. As previously mentioned, common formative assessments allow
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 86
teachers to collect data to be able to identify gaps in learning (Guskey, 2007; Moon, 2005).
Using that knowledge to differentiate instructional practices disproportionately supports Black
students and has a direct impact on reducing the achievement gap (Darling-Hammond, 2000;
Wenglinsky, 2004). Therefore, this study sought to determine how and how frequently teachers
differentiated instruction specifically for Black students.
In order to answer the third part of the first question of this study (the extent to which
teachers in PLC were differentiating instructional practices to meet Black student instructional
needs), participants responded to question 11 on the survey. The survey question focused on
frequency of differentiation and asked teachers the following question, “How frequently do you
differentiate instruction specifically for Black students?” Participants were asked to answer the
question by selecting a response on a 4-point Likert scale. Of the participants, 62 of 66
participants (94%) responded to the question. Site data suggested that most teachers did not
differentiate instruction for Black students as only 18 (27%) indicated that they differentiated
instruction for Black students to some degree (see Figure 4). When considering frequency by
department, data suggested that there were at least 1-2 teachers in seven of the eight departments
that differentiated instruction at least once a month or more (see Figure 5). Teacher reported
data suggested that there was some mastery experience at the site that could be used as a
resource to further promote differentiation of instruction for Black students.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 87

Figure 4. Frequently of differentiation of instruction specifically for Black students

Figure 5. Frequency of differentiation of instruction specifically for Black students by
department
In addition to the quantitative data derived from the survey of all staff, interviews of eight
teachers provided insight into differentiation of instruction. All but one teacher stated that they
used common assessment data in order to differentiate instruction. These results are interesting
because survey and interview questions from the previous section suggested that teachers did not
disaggregate assessment data by demographic for instructional purposes; however, they indicated
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 88
that they differentiated instruction. Of those who indicated that they differentiated instruction,
they identified how they do so. For example, two teachers stated that they provided multiple
ways to access the information and/or assess learning. The science teacher stated she did so by
“allowing students to demonstrate what they know other than by writing” and another stated “[I]
have kids ‘do’ things and manipulate things and I let students talk a lot as well and explain
reasoning.” While these differentiation strategies are helpful to all students, neither of these
teachers identified how they differentiated instruction for Black students specifically. The visual
and performing arts teacher stated that he had different levels do different work by “having low
and high students play different parts and modifying for lower students and have higher students
play more difficult pieces”, while the social science teacher stated he “retaught by thinking how
did I originally do it and then try to use a different technique…as well as using real world
examples in case study as opposed to the more ‘academic look’.” The math teacher used a
rotation of learning stations and stated that, “myself, academic tutors are in charge of different
groups reteaching different concepts.” These findings again suggest that teachers in several
departments were, in fact, differentiating instruction to some degree for all students; however,
they were not doing so with the intention of specifically supporting Black students as their
differentiation was primarily focused on student ability and their strategies were generic, lacked
specificity, and were equally applicable to all students.
Of the eight teachers, all stated that they differentiated for all students, three stated that
they specifically differentiated for special education students, and none identified that they
differentiated specifically for Black students. In relation to differentiation, teachers shared the
following: “I differentiate based on performance level not socioeconomic status, race, or
gender,” and “I have never differentiated based on race, just on data not necessarily because they
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 89
were African American or Latino.” These findings suggest that teachers did not focus on race as
a criterion for differentiation. Two other teachers echoed this belief, “I don’t think I do anything
different for one ‘color’ of student – I differentiate for all,” and “[I differentiate the] same as I
would differentiate for anyone else. It is a level playing field for all. Same methods used for all
students.” These comments suggest that while many teachers stated that they believe that
differentiating instruction was good practice, they did not do anything different to specifically
support Black students. These findings are not surprising considering the previous findings
related to how teachers disaggregated data. They did not specifically disaggregate data with a
lens on specific racial/ethnic demographics, and the findings for differentiation were similar.
Despite the fact that they said that they differentiated equally for all students, several
teachers noted doing something different for students with an Individualized Education Plan
(IEP). Three teachers, from science, special education/collaboration, and math, noted
differentiating specifically for these students and said that they “give concessions knowing their
abilities/IEP accommodations” and that they do so with “low achieving students in class and
SPED…that allows them to move around [so they] are ‘doing’ and rarely do direct instruction
because it doesn’t work for these kids.” These teachers realized the need for differentiating
instruction for students with specific mandated IEP or 504 accommodations, but they did not put
these same principles into practice for Black students who faced similar academic struggles.
This suggests that teachers’ practices surrounding differentiating instruction were not necessarily
grounded in research or educational theory but on their own beliefs about differentiation, about
who needs differentiation, and on educational mandates per IEP and 504 requirements. This
finding highlights the necessity for the organization to provide training for teachers about the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 90
importance of differentiating instruction specifically for Black students, as they do for students
with mandated IEP and 504 plans.
While none of the teachers noted differentiating specifically for Black students when
talking in general about how they differentiate instruction, when asked more specifically to
provide an example of a time when they differentiated for Black students, three of the eight
teachers were able to recall specific differentiation; the other five reiterated that they differentiate
equally for all students. Of the three who provided an example, the English teacher stated that
she differentiated instruction by providing “freedom as far as topic, project theme, book choice
so they can work on something they enjoy and are passionate about,” the math teacher stated that
she differentiated by being “positive with and giving one-on-one attention to ‘jump’ start him on
the activity,” and the world language teacher said that, “it’s about creating relationships…it’s
about how I’m interacting with that child and making an effort with that child and parent.”
These examples suggest that there were some teachers on campus making an effort to
specifically differentiate for Black students. These teachers would serve as models of mastery
experience for their PLCs as well as the site, though even they would benefit from professional
development as the differentiation they provided was not necessarily specific to Black students.
In relation to their PLCs, all but one teacher noted that PLCs help them in relation to
differentiating instruction because they serve as a place to “share best practices” and talk about
“how to make activities more accessible.” However, one of the teachers stated that
differentiation is “not a common talking point” in their department. Much like the data
surrounding PLC use of common assessments and disaggregation of data, the findings suggest
that while teachers shared ideas with each other, those ideas were not grounded in evidence from
data so decisions were often not data-driven. Likewise, the findings suggest that while they may
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 91
have shared ideas, those ideas were not specifically targeted at better supporting Black student
learning.
These findings suggest that while teachers in general used common assessments to some
extent, they seldom disaggregated data by race/ethnicity, and few differentiated instruction
specifically for Black students. From the survey data in math, science, and special education
classes, however, several teachers indicated that they differentiated instruction at least once a
week. This is most likely because the math and science departments taught several sections of
collaboration classes. These classes were co-taught by a content area teacher and a special
education teacher, so there was more knowledge related to how to specifically differentiate for
special education students as their accommodations were pre-identified by the IEP team. These
collaboration classes were populated with approximately one-third of students with an IEP and
required significant differentiation of instruction, as did the special education classes. Due to the
laws surrounding IEP requirements for these students, their teachers were required to provide
specific pre-identified accommodation and differentiated instruction.
It is promising that some differentiation practices were used on campus, though
differentiation was not common practice across all departments or for specific populations of
students, other than for special education students. However, research has shown that in order to
achieve equity and reduce the achievement gap, Black students must receive instructional
services that disproportionately support their learning (Bensimon, 2017). In order to reduce the
achievement gap for Black students, teachers must believe they are directly responsible for
equity in their classrooms and for the reduction in the achievement gap of their Black students
(Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011; Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011). In
this next section, I will present the findings that identify the knowledge and motivations teachers
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 92
had in order to use common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate instruction in order
to meet the organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap.
Research Question 2: Teachers’ Knowledge and Motivation
The next series of four survey questions (questions two-five) begins to answer question
two of this study which focuses on the knowledge and motivation domains: What did teachers
know and what were they motivated to do in relation to creating common assessments,
disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction for Black students in order to achieve the
organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap?
Beliefs are the foundation to practice. When teachers believe that they are directly
responsible for Black student learning and maintain a high level of self-efficacy, they seek out
opportunities to do so, they persist in doing so, and they make the mental effort required to be
successful (Pajares, 2009; Clark & Estes, 2008; Bandura, 1997; Eccles, Wigfild & Schiefele,
1998; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). In order to reduce the achievement gap for Black students,
teachers must believe they are directly responsible for equity in their classrooms and for the
reduction in the achievement gap of their Black students (Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker,
2011; Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011).
In order to determine the extent to which teachers believed in the importance of common
assessments, disaggregation of data by race/ethnicity, and differentiation of instruction, the
survey posed four statements to which teachers were asked to select a response on a 7-point
Likert scale. The following were the four statements: Q2: Common assessments provide
important data regarding how a student is doing in class. Q3: Data from common assessments
allows teachers to better modify instruction to support student learning. Q4: It is important to
disaggregate data by ethnicity to determine how students from different populations are doing.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 93
Q5: Tailoring instruction for students is important to ensure they can access the curriculum. The
questions identified in Figure 6 below suggest that 87% of teachers believed that common
assessments were important to determine how students were doing in class, 90% of teachers
believed that data from these assessments allowed teachers to better modify instruction to
support student learning, and 97% believed that tailoring instruction for students was important
to ensure they could access the curriculum.

Figure 6. Teacher beliefs related to instructional practices
While the results from questions two, three, and five which identified teacher beliefs
about their practices were promising, the response to question four was concerning. The
consistency in responses for questions two, three, and five, may suggest that teachers were
responding in ways that may be socially acceptable. However, question four targeted teacher
beliefs regarding the importance of disaggregating data by ethnicity. Results suggest that 25% of
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 94
teachers who responded to the survey did not believe that disaggregating data by ethnicity was
an important practice. This finding is important because it reinforces teacher practices noted in
the previous section wherein it was found that while most teachers indicated that they gave
common assessments at some point during a course, they seldom disaggregated data by ethnicity.
Furthermore, these results are concerning because it suggests that at least a quarter of the staff
did not believe that looking at data by ethnicity was an important, yet 97% indicated that it was
important to tailor instruction for students (another socially acceptable response). It is likely that
these teachers believe that treating students differently because of ethnicity is singling them out.
While their intention may be an attempt at equality and being nonbiased, by being “colorblind”
they are actually showing racial bias (Bonilla-Silva, 1997; Bonilla-Silva & Dietrich, 2011;
Feagin, 1993; Frankenberg, 1993; Jones, 1007). Their “colorblindness,” may be inadvertently
perpetuating the gap they are attempting to reduce. Without data to determine how to best tailor
instruction, it is unlikely that teachers have the knowledge they need in order to best tailor
instruction for Black students.
The next series of questions continued to answer question two of the study and focused
on teachers’ feelings of self-efficacy in their ability to create common assessments that targeted
essential standards, to analyze data from assessment in order to adjust instruction, and to use that
data in order to differentiate instruction for Black students. The survey posed three questions to
which teachers were asked to select a response from “not confident” to “very confident” on a 4-
point Likert scale. The following were the three questions: Q6: How confident do you feel in
your ability to create common assessments that target essential standards? Q8: How confident
do you feel in your ability to analyze the data derived from assessments in order to make
adjustments to instruction? Q10: How confident do you feel in your ability to analyze the data
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 95
derived from assessments in order to differentiate instruction for Black students? The questions
identified in Figure 7 below suggest that teachers experienced varying levels of confidence in
creating assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction to support Black
students. The good news is that 92% of teachers felt some level of confidence in their ability to
create standards-based assessments, and 98% felt some level of confidence in their ability to
disaggregate data. The area of most concern resided with question 10, which identified teachers’
confidence in their ability to differentiate instruction based of disaggregated assessment data (see
Figure 7).

Figure 7. Teacher confidence levels with creating common assessments, analyzing data, and
differentiating instruction
Teacher responses suggest that 30% of teachers were not confident in their ability to
differentiate instruction for Black students, and an additional 37% wavered in their confidence
level. Only 32% of teachers felt confident or very confident in their ability to use disaggregated
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 96
common assessment data to differentiate instruction. This data set further supports the findings
from the previous two question sets, the first of which noted that 25% of teachers did not believe
disaggregating data was an important practice, and, the second of which noted that only 27% of
teachers actually differentiated instruction for Black students (see Figures 4 and 6). These data
were consistent with interview data, as three of eight teachers interviewed were able to identify
specific differentiation they used with Black students and five stated they had never
differentiated specifically for Black students but did so equally for all students. Results and
findings suggest that teachers lack knowledge and self-efficacy of how to disaggregate data and
use that data to make instructional decisions to differentiate instruction for Black students
specifically.
In order to further explore teacher knowledge, motivation, and self-efficacy with
differentiating instruction, question 12 sought to determine teacher knowledge and application of
specific strategies used to differentiate instruction in their respective classrooms. This survey
question was crafted using strategies identified by NYU Steinhardt’s School of Culture,
Education, and Human Development’s Metropolitan Center for Urban Education. The question
identified seventeen culturally responsive differentiation instructional strategies. The five most
commonly used strategies at the site included assessing students in multiple ways (71%),
students collaborating with other students and the teacher to solve problems (59%), multiple
instructional arrangements (51%), multiple perspectives on ideas and events sought out (48%),
and time used flexibly based on student needs (46%) (see Figure 8).

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 97

Figure 8. Commonly used strategies teachers used to differentiate instruction
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 98
Question 13 identified how many strategies teachers used on a daily basis to differentiate
instruction for Black students. The average number of differentiation strategies used by most
departments was 1-2 strategies. In PE, world language, and social science, the average number
of strategies used was 3-4. Two teachers, one in math and one in VTPA, identified 5-6 strategies
that they used on a daily basis to differentiate instructional strategies for Black students. While
teacher ability to identify strategies they use in the classroom is promising, the patterns noted in
the previous series of questions suggests that while teachers may provide differentiation
strategies in the classroom, they are not necessarily doing so intentionally, especially with regard
to their Black students. While the question asked teachers to identify strategies they used for
Black students, teachers may have been identifying strategies they used in their classroom for all
students, and not specifically Black students. Interview data supports this conclusion, as only
three of eight teachers were able to identify specific examples of differentiation with a Black
student and five indicated that they do not differentiate for Black students specifically but for all
students. However, when provided a list of differentiation strategies in the survey, all teachers
were knowledgeable about and able to identify strategies that they use in their classroom. This
may be due to the fact that during the interview teachers were not prompted with specific
differentiation strategies that they may have used, and therefore, they did not consider them
when responding to the interview question.
Questions 14-17 attempted to further identify teacher self-efficacy and motivation with
supporting Black students in the classroom. The questions were ordinal in nature and posed as
statements: Q14: Black students succeed or struggle because of what I do in the classroom. Q15:
I create effective common assessments that allow me to support student learning. Q16: I
effectively use common assessment data to identify students’ specific needs. Q17: I effectively
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 99
differentiate instruction. While most teachers believed that they created common assessments
that allow them to support student learning (89%), that they used data from those assessment to
identify students’ specific needs (84%), and that they effectively differentiated instruction (90%),
29% disagreed to some extent that Black students succeed or struggle based on what they as a
teacher did in the classroom (see Figure 9).

Figure 9. Teacher confidence with supporting Black students in their classroom
These results suggest that teachers were generally confident in their abilities to support
students, yet 29% did not believe Black students succeeded or struggled because of what they did
in their classroom. This suggests that these teachers attribute student success or struggles
learning to outside factors. This is alarming, considering that research has shown that teacher
attribution of student learning to teacher practice leads to achieving goals (Pintrich, 2003;
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 100
Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011; Clark & Estes, 2008). However, these survey
results are not surprising when considering the interview findings that follow.
Interview data provided additional insight into teacher beliefs about their role in Black
student learning. The social science teacher stated that he did not believe Black student learning
was directly related to teachers’ instructional practice and argued that, “I disagree. It’s too
simplistic to say that because a student is Black a practice won’t apply to them. It’s more
complicated than that. I don’t like a broad stroke.” This statement again reinforces the belief
that doing right by all students is doing right by Black students and that teachers do not need to
do anything differently in order to support Black students. Likewise, in relation to Black student
learning being directly tied to a teacher’s instructional practice, two other teachers (visual and
performing arts and science) stated, “that’s what all students need” and “that’s true for all
students” suggesting that the role of the teacher in relation to Black students was no different
than for other students.
However, several other teachers had a different perspective. The other visual and
performing arts teacher believed, “it’s my job to be equitable to the standards which may not
happen in other core subjects,” and the English teacher shared,
that’s why I use numerous methods of teaching in my class – small group, large group
and my assessments are racially neutral because students get to pick topics for projects. I
don’t use standardized tests because it puts African American students at a disadvantage.
While the concepts of trying to be “equitable to the standards” and not using standardized tests
because they put “African American students at a disadvantage” were made with good intent,
these practices alone were insufficient to ensure teachers adequately supported Black students, as
they were not data-driven nor was there any data to suggest that these practices were effective.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 101
The science and math teachers both echoed the importance of creating a positive class climate,
making sure students felt safe, and establishing positive relationships. They stated the
importance of “having a connection with the student,” “feeling safe,” and creating opportunities
for “working together in groups with a good mix of students who will help them and make them
feel safe.” While these practices were important for all students, the fact that teachers saw it as
their role to create these opportunities for Black students was promising, and suggests that
teachers realize the impact that their practice has on student learning.
To further explore teacher self-efficacy with supporting Black students, the interview
included several questions about teacher perception of their role in meeting Black students’
needs as well as what teachers believed were the causes of Black student success/struggle in their
class. Teachers held a variety of beliefs about their role as a teacher for Black students. One
teacher believed her role was to “provide a safe, respectable learning environment.” However,
this was not specific to Black students but for all students. Four teachers believed in creating
equal opportunities for students. One of the teachers shared that she believed her role was to
“meet them at their level and do my very best to ensure all students attain the same level of
academic and social success” while the second teacher stated her role was to “provide them
accessibility.” The third stated that his role was to “provide the same opportunity to be
successful as a student who had a private teacher” and the fourth indicated her role was to “make
sure everyone has the same opportunities and same benefits.” Again, not all of these roles were
specific to working with Black students but to working with all students. Two teachers
suggested the importance of relationships. One teacher stated that she does her “best to connect
with students, provide positive learning environment, get them to reach their potential, and gain
confidence,” while the other stated that she believed her role was to “be a second mom/school
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 102
mom/multi-ethnic mom.” Again, these were roles they would apply for all students, though they
identified them as strategies used with Black students. When asked how their role would be
different when supporting Black students, one teacher responded with “try to give the best
education possible” and all others noted that it was the same as the previous answer. This
suggests that teachers lack knowledge about the importance of their role in supporting Black
students specifically. This further supports previous results and findings that while teachers
believed they were differentiating instruction, 25% were not doing so specifically for Black
students because they did not believe they should differentiate for Black students specifically.
Teachers were also asked to identify what they thought were the reasons students
succeeded or struggled in their respective classes. Several teachers noted the classroom
environment as a cause of success. One teacher stated that in class she “treat[s] everyone fairly
and equally,” yet to reduce the achievement gap equity is required. Another teacher indicated
that her class is “open, unbiased, and a safe place to take risks,” which likely helped all students
feel comfortable in her class. Another teacher indicated that she “builds personal relationship as
a tough, strong mom,” and her attempt to connect with students as more than just their teacher
likely made all students feel more comfortable in her class. Another teacher indicated that,
“combined social and emotional support and my open and transparency about my struggles
personally, socially, and economically as well as academically” helped her students be more
successful in class. This teacher’s personal connection and vulnerability with students likely
created an environment wherein students too could be vulnerable and feel safe. Another teacher
stated that she works to “find common interests with them, working with the strengths they have
and helping them feel successful.” Likewise, the attempt to connect with students was likely to
increase student connections with their teacher and with the class. In general, teachers identified
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 103
a safe, positive classroom environment and an attempt to connect with students as causes of
student success. In essence, teachers credited student success with internal factors such as the
classroom environment that were in the teacher’s control.
The most common reason teachers felt their Black students were not successful was
because of outside factors. Three teachers noted family/home life and lack of that support. One
teacher stated, “lack of home support and relevance issues (how is this subject relevant to my
life?)” which suggests that she believed an outside factor was the biggest reason her Black
students were not successful. Another teacher said that “[Black students’] home situation may
not be as fortunate as their peers and parent involvement may be lower than peers.” Again this
teacher noted outside factors as the primary factor for lack of Black student success. Two
teachers noted social norms/expectations as inhibitors, one of whom stated that “society/world is
a tough place to grow up African America because they can’t focus on practice because there are
many social norms set up over decades that ‘lock people into places’.” This teacher also
identified outside factors over which he had no control. Three teachers indicated that Black
students did not struggle in their classes any more than other students and one teacher stated, “I
feel like my students are treated fairly and with respect. I get really close with students of all
ethnicities.” While these teachers may not have thought that their Black students struggled in
their classes, there is an achievement gap at the school that may suggest otherwise. The belief of
these last three teachers was the most concerning because while Black students may or may not
have struggled in their respective classes, these teachers did not identify any internal or outside
factors that may have caused their Black students to struggle.
The results related to teacher beliefs suggest that teachers attributed Black student
success to internal factors and struggles to outside factors. While the classroom environment is
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 104
an internal factor that teacher attribute to student success in their classes, teachers did not
mention their instructional practices as contributing factors to Black student success in their
classes. However, instructional practices are wholly controlled by the teacher, and when
teachers attribute Black student learning to instructional practices, teachers see themselves as
directly responsible for student learning (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Rueda, 2011).
Likewise, teachers must realize student learning is directly related to unstable causes (i.e.
teachers’ effort as causing student learning) rather than blaming stable factors, students, students’
home environment, or peer influences (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). When they do so, and have
confidence in so doing, teachers persist longer in their teaching efforts, provide greater academic
focus in the classroom, and provide various types of feedback (Gibson & Dembo, 1984).
Results in this section related to differentiation of instruction highlighted one of the
cultural model inhibitors: the belief that doing right by all students is doing right by Black
students. Bensimon (2017) challenges this philosophy and argues that in order to achieve equity,
Black students must receive instructional services that disproportionately support their learning.
Furthermore, Ladson-Billings’ Culturally Relevant Pedagogy sought to provide “responsive”
and “relevant” teaching and learning opportunities for students and highlight the language,
literacies, and cultural practices that theorists had considered important to bridge access gaps that
many students faced in their classrooms. However, Ladson-Billings (2000) found that many
teachers do not have experience working with Black students and therefore lack the self-efficacy
needed to support them adequately. Results and findings from the study suggest that while
teachers may in general be motivated to support Black students, they lack knowledge about how
to do so and they lack knowledge of the importance of differentiation in better supporting their
Black students. While this study asked teachers to identify differentiation strategies used in the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 105
classroom, there was insufficient data to be able to identify strategies that teachers used
specifically with Black students, as both results and findings suggest teachers lacked specific
strategies to support Black students specifically.
In order to reduce the achievement gap for Black students, teachers must believe they are
directly responsible for equity in their classrooms and for the reduction in the achievement gap
of their Black students (Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011; Anderman & Anderman,
2009; Rueda, 2011). However, some teachers lack the fundamental knowledge as to how to best
support Black students, in part, due to lack of professional development provided by the
organization in order to support the work of reducing the achievement gap for Black students.
The section that follows highlights the organizational influences on teacher practices that help or
hinder teacher ability to meet the stakeholder goals.
Research Question 3: Organizational Influences on Teacher Practice
As evidenced from the lack of teacher knowledge or value placed on disaggregating data
and differentiating instruction specifically for Black students, results and findings suggest there
was an organizational element that perpetuated this. In order to better understand teacher
knowledge and motivation and their interconnectedness with the organization, additional
questions were administered as part of the survey which attempted to identify organizational
causes of the gaps in knowledge and motivation. The results and findings from the survey and
interviews help to answer research question three: What was the interaction between the existing
site schema/beliefs, professional development opportunities, mastery experience and teacher
knowledge and motivation to create common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate
instruction for Black students? To understand the organizational influences on teachers’
practice, a review of the conceptual framework guiding this study is informative.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 106
A Review of the Conceptual Framework. The conceptual framework for this study
(presented in Chapter Two) identified four elements within the organization, two which were
believed to be inhibitors and two believed to be facilitators to meeting the stakeholder goal. The
two facilitators, cultural settings, theorized that the organization needed to provide professional
development and that the organization needed to highlight mastery experience to build collective
efficacy. These facilitators were found to be essential supports to meeting stakeholder goals, yet
as forthcoming results and findings suggest, they were lacking both at the site and district levels.
The two inhibitors, cultural models, were that the organization needed to train teachers on the
difference between equity and equality (due to teacher beliefs that doing right by all students was
doing right by Black students) as well as that the organization needed to explain the rationale for
change and include teachers in the change process (due to a perceived resistance to change). The
first cultural model, training teachers on the difference between equity and equality, was
identified by several teachers as a need in the findings, as interview findings suggest that there
was a prevailing belief at the site that doing right by all students would adequately support Black
students. Findings also suggest that the second cultural mode, resistance to change, was not as
prominent of a factor within the organization as originally theorized. The effect of these
perceived inhibitors will be reviewed in the forthcoming results and findings.
The second cultural model, an inhibitor, identified teacher resistance to change as an
inhibitor to meeting the stakeholder goal. It was noted that the school had encountered much
change in the last three years, and it was assumed that this created a resistance to change by
teachers. The interview included three questions to determine teacher receptiveness to change
based on how change had been implemented by administration in the past. Teachers were asked
to recall a past change at the site, their involvement, and administration’s communication
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 107
throughout the process. Teachers recalled three different major changes at the site. One teacher
recalled going from having no professional development time to having weekly PLC time; this
was seen as a favorable change and supported by teachers. The teacher shared, “teachers were
heavily involved in topics, time, and meeting with teachers to collaborate…[I] loved the extra
planning time with friends…[it] supported the PLC cycle ad encouraged collaborative data
collection and analysis.” Another teacher recalled the creation of a teacher-lead professional
development team, which was well-received by staff, because it gave teachers a voice; however,
this teacher said, “many thought it was admin ‘pawning it off’.” While they valued the change,
this teacher’s comment and feeling that administration was “pawning it off” highlights distrust in
administration that is likely due to high administration turnover and experience with poor
leadership from years past.
Responses from other teachers indicated that they felt administration included them in the
change process. Six additional teachers recalled the site change from a semester school to a 4x4
school. Of the six, one was hired as a result of the change and was not a part of the decision to
make the change. Another of the six felt the decision was “contrived” though all were in
agreement “something had to change” and that changes were discussed at meetings. The four
teachers who were in favor of the decision felt the three to four year process to create buy-in
from staff, parents, and students through parent forums, focus groups, teacher visits to other 4x4
sites, as well as staff and department meetings and analysis of data was well-communicated and
effectively engaged all teachers in the process. One teacher recalled that “teachers [were] highly
involved…admin helped several parent forums, used professional growth days to go out and visit
schools on a 4x4 system for research purposes and to report back to colleagues.” Another
teacher echoed that “[it] never felt like it was a top-down decision – staff doing research, focus
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 108
groups, and committees…site-based decision involving everyone.” These findings suggest that
while there may still be some existing resentment due to experiences with past administration,
most teachers felt like they had a voice in decisions that were made on campus and were willing
to make changes when they were a part of the process. These interview findings suggest that the
researcher’s initial assumptions about the cultural model that teachers were resistant to change
was not accurate. While there were no survey items related to this cultural model, interview
responses suggest that teachers have been willing to make changes, even though they may
initially be apprehensive about the rationale for change.
The organization plays a critical role in supporting the work that teachers do to reduce the
achievement gap. Dixon, Yssel, McConnell and Hardin (2014) argue that professional
development opportunities help teachers gain experience through the mastery experience of
others (i.e. coaches), which in turn increases teacher self-efficacy to meet individual student
needs and reduce the achievement gap for Black students. Zimmerman (2006) argues that when
teachers are part of the decision-making process [i.e. they are making changes themselves
because of their professional development experiences], change efforts are more successful.
Moving from a cellular mode of instructional practice to one in which collegiality and
collaboration become the norm promises to yield “reculturing” needed to change existing
philosophies (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Therefore, this study sought to determine teacher
desire to engage in conversation related to closing the achievement gap, access to and desire for
professional development, as well as availability of and value placed on mastery experience of
colleagues as a resource.
Organizational Supports and Professional Development. Questions 18-30 identified
organizational supports and professional development available to support the work that teachers
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 109
did in the classroom in order to create common assessments, disaggregate and analyze data, as
well as differentiate instruction. Question 18 asked teachers to respond to the following
statement: “I participate in conversations related to closing the achievement gap.” While data
indicated that most teachers did at some point throughout the school year, there was significant
variation in how frequently teachers participated in conversations related to closing the
achievement gap. Data suggest that 35% reported doing so at least once a year, 27% once a
term, 25% once a month, 10% once a week, and 3% never did so (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Frequency with which teachers participated in conversations related to closing the
achievement gap
To further determine where most of these conversations occur, question 19 asked, “If all
the time you spoke about the achievement gap totaled 100%, what percentage of time do these
conversations happen a) as a whole staff, b) in PLCs, c) when not in an official meeting?” As
identified by responses shown in Figure 11, most conversations related to closing the
achievement gap occurred in whole staff meetings. As a whole staff we reviewed standardized
testing data and grade data broken down by ethnicity as well as wrote and reviewed goals several
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 110
times during the school year in all staff meetings. Once a year (at the beginning of the school
year) we reviewed disaggregated standardized testing data and establish goals, and twice a year
(at the end of each term) we reviewed disaggregated grade data as well as goals related to the
achievement gap. This is likely why 58% of teachers identified that the majority of discussions
related to the achievement gap took place at whole staff meetings.

Figure 11. Where most of the conversations related to the achievement gap occur on site
Questions 20-22 considered the professional development opportunities teachers
participated in and had access to at the site and through the district. Question 20 asked teachers
to respond with a numerical value to the following question: “In the last year, how many
professional development opportunities have you participated in related to closing the
achievement gap?” While responses ranged from zero to ten, the average, median, and mode
responses were all two. Of all respondents, four indicated that they did not participate in any
professional development opportunities related to closing the achievement gap. Questions 21
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 111
and 22 used a 7-point Likert scale response to focus on teacher access to professional
development at the site and through the district (see Figure 12). Teachers were asked to respond
to the following statements: Q21: The site has provided sufficient professional development
related to creating equity in my classroom. Q22: The district has provided sufficient professional
development related to creating equity in my classroom. Questions 21 and 22 identified that
56% of teacher believed the site had provided sufficient professional development and 44%
believed the district had provided sufficient professional development opportunities related to
creating equity in the classroom. These data were aggregated with teacher responses of
“somewhat agree,” “agree,” and “strongly agree.” While approximately 20% remained neutral
on the topic, many teachers felt that they need additional support from the site or district (26%
and 36% respectively) to support the goal of equity in the classroom. These data were aggregated
with teacher responses of “somewhat disagree,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree.”

Figure 12. Staff perspectives on the sufficiency of professional development opportunities
provided by both the site and the district in order for teachers to ensure equity in their classrooms
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 112
These findings are consistent with results from interviews. Of the eight teachers who
were present at the district meeting, only four recalled the district speaker from two years ago
whose focus was on the achievement gap and ensuring equity for Black students, and only one
teacher recalled the mandatory follow-up presentation from the principal that none others
mentioned. The other three teachers could not recall any site or district professional
development related to reducing the achievement gap or ensuring equity. The fact that all of the
teachers attended the training and follow-up meeting yet only four could recall attending
suggests that teachers may not have found the content relevant to their practice.
Of the eight, four stated they had never received any such training, one went to a panel
discussion at a conference, one took a course for her master’s degree, one took a 2-day course
over ten years ago about perspectives on race, and one went to Atlanta five years ago to attend an
At-Risk conference. Of those who received training, one stated that she took nothing away from
the experience. The teacher who attended a conference over ten years ago stated that it helped
him by “trying to look at things from multiple perspectives and knowing that I may not truly
understand what others are going through because I’m not them…but I am there to listen.”
Unfortunately, listening is not enough. Teachers must take newfound knowledge and
understanding and apply that to their instructional practices to better support students
(Krathwohl, 2002; Clark, 2017; Aguis & Kraiger, 2009; Grossman & Salas, 2011; Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006). The teacher who attended the conference stated that it helped her “have
realistic expectations and understand they have different things going on in their lives and gives
a perspective on where they are coming from.” This teacher also stated that “our at-risk students
at this school aren’t the same as other schools because the culture at [ABCHS] is not as in need
as others…we are in a bubble.” As previously noted, the learning brought back from the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 113
conference focused on external factors related to student learning, rather than identifying that
Black students, no matter the school, need additional classroom supports. Finally, the teacher
who took a course stated that it “made me aware of my beliefs and values and how they manifest
in the classroom and made me a better teacher.” This teacher also stated that she had used this
experience to share with students about what they had learned. While she did not go into detail
about how she used what she learned with her students, the fact that she took the learning from
the conference and applied it in her classroom, highlights her as one who was able to articulate
learning from professional development that yielded direct and positive results in her classroom.
These findings suggest that teachers at the site have limited professional development
opportunities to engage in learning about race, equity, and reducing the achievement gap. As
previously noted, teachers at the site lack knowledge about how to best support Black students
and lack professional development opportunities to learn how to do so.
A cultural setting in the conceptual framework identified as a facilitator to meeting
stakeholder goals, professional development was generally valued by teachers at the site. Some
teachers had mastery experience in relation to creating common assessments, disaggregating
data, and differentiating instruction and were resources for colleagues. Though some teachers
felt sufficient professional development was provided, interview findings suggest that little
professional development specifically related to reducing the achievement gap was provided
either at the site or through the district. While professional development was a facilitator to
meeting the stakeholder goal, there was insufficient professional development available for
teachers to do so.
Mastery Experience. Questions 23 and 24 on the survey both used a 7-point Likert
scale response to identify the value teachers placed on collaboration and learning from
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 114
colleagues. Questions 23 focused on the extent to which teachers felt that the site promoted
teachers’ teaching strengths to build confidence in the collective abilities at the site. While 65%
felt that the site did highlight teachers’ strength to build confidence in the collective abilities at
the site, 19% did not feel the site did enough to build collective efficacy (see Figure 13).
However, the data from question 24 highlighted that 85% of teachers valued having colleagues
on site to whom they can go if they had questions about creating common assessment, analyzing
data, and differentiating instruction (see Figure 14).

Figure 13. How teachers perceived their collective abilities were highlighted at the site

Figure 14. Value teachers placed on having a colleague who could help them
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 115
Interview data identified that mastery experience at the site may be lacking, especially in
relation to supporting Black students. Five of the teachers indicated that they would go to
someone in their department or PLC for help with creating common assessments, disaggregating
data, and differentiating instruction, yet only one of eight teachers interviewed was able to
identify a specific person. Two teachers were able to identify specifically which PLC team
(either in their department or in another department) on campus they would approach for help.
One veteran teacher indicated that she would have no idea who to go to for help in any of the
aforementioned areas; however, she indicated that “it would be great to know who on campus is
doing these things really well.” This suggests that even a veteran teacher was not aware of
possible supports on campus, if any, and that there was a need to be able to connect with those
who have mastery experience.
Seven of the teachers indicated that having models of effective practice is helpful. Three
of the teachers mentioned the value of collaboration and stated they valued “interdisciplinary
collaboration,” “ideas from those in other departments,” and “learning from colleagues.” While
they may not have been able to identify who can help them, they valued the support and
knowledge gained from collaboration. One teacher recalled a past practice: “When we had
opportunities to visit other people’s rooms that helped. We should do more of that so that we
don’t get stale.” This opportunity was established by administration for teachers at the site three
years ago and gave teachers the chance to observe those with mastery experience in a specific
area, as teachers would sign up to invite others to observe lessons and specific strategies.
Gleaning from the mastery experience of others built teachers’ collective efficacy at the site, as
teachers implemented the specific strategies they learned from colleagues and later invited others
to observe them as well. Though some may be unaware of the supports, one teacher felt
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 116
empowered because, “there is always a place to go for answers when needed and it comes from a
variety of locations when you go outside of your department to get answers.” Teachers had
resources on campus, yet they were often apprehensive to go outside of their department to
access those resources. This teacher highlighted the importance of doing so, which was also one
of the benefits she noted from classroom observations. The Spanish teacher recalled learning
from the English department and applying that learning: “English teachers gave us a tutorial
regarding reading strategies. Once we did that…this helped students read better.” This occurred
as a result of professional development created by administration, not something the teacher or
department sought out on its own. This increased teacher knowledge of how to better support
students with reading and created a positive association for teachers with regard to the
organization creating professional development opportunities for teachers. While the experience
was positive for both teachers and students, the strategy was not one that specifically supported
Black students.
While these examples suggest that teachers value learning gleaned from colleagues and
that there are some models of effective practice at the site, opportunities to access them occurred
primarily when administration orchestrated opportunities for teachers to do so. In addition, the
examples provided by teachers highlight the fact that mastery experience related to supporting
Black students is lacking on site, as all examples provided were generic supports for all students,
not specifically supports for Black students. It further suggests that the site needs to highlight
the mastery experience of teachers who are supporting Black students effectively and reducing
the gap in their respective classrooms. Finally, the data suggest that the site needs to provide
professional development to further develop mastery of staff and build collective efficacy in
effectively supporting Black students.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 117
In order to identify if teachers had resources, questions 25-27 used 7-point Likert scale
response options to identify the degree to which teachers felt they have the needed staff
resources at the site in order to get help with creating common assessments, analyzing data, and
differentiating instruction (see Figure 15). The questions were posed as statements: Q25: If I
have questions about creating common assessments, I know someone on campus who can help.
Q26: If I have questions about analyzing data, I know someone on campus who can help. Q27:
If I have questions about differentiating instruction, I know someone on campus who can help.
Most teachers believed they had someone on site to help them with creating common
assessments (85%), analyzing data (92%), and differentiating instruction (88%).

Figure 15. Degree to which teachers felt they had the support they needed on campus in order to
create common assessments, analyze data, and differentiate instruction
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 118
These results are promising considering that based on questions 28-30 (to follow), many
teachers felt that they needed additional professional development opportunities in these areas.
The survey results suggest that most teachers felt that they had colleagues on site if they needed
support creating common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction.
These results were not in alignment with interview findings, however, wherein only one teacher
was able to identify a specific person for support. This may be due to the fact that in the
interview teachers were asked to provide a specific name, while in the survey, they were asked if
they knew of someone on campus they could go to for help.
Interview data from questions 26 and 27 identified site and district provided professional
development opportunities for teachers related to creating common assessments, disaggregating
data, and differentiating instruction. Teacher responses were short and generally consisted of
one or two-word responses because there was little professional development provided through
the site or district related to creating common assessments, disaggregating data, or differentiating
instruction. One teacher noted that, “while we are not instructed or taught how to do so, we
definitely are given time to do so in PLCs within our team.” This teacher captured the sentiment
of six teachers’ responses related to professional development for creating common assessment,
disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction. In relation to creating common assessments,
interviewees identified PLC time and professional growth days as the most helpful in creating
them, and one noted PLC release days gave them time to create assessments. Two teachers
stated that the site does “nothing” to support the creation of common assessment and all teachers
noted that the district has provided no support in creating common assessments. In relation to
disaggregating data, the results were similar to that with common assessments. Six teachers
valued PLC time for this, and two of those said professional growth days also supported this
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 119
work, while two indicated there was no support for data disaggregation. All teachers noted that
the district provided no support for the disaggregation of data. Again, the interview responses
were usually short, one or two-word responses, thus not rich enough to provide as evidence in
this findings section.
The results for differentiated instruction were more mixed. While four valued PLC time
for this, two valued professional growth days, and two said there was no site support for
differentiation. One teacher noted using the RtI (Response to Intervention) console for tracking
what works/does not work in order to differentiate instruction for specific struggling students.
Interviewees again noted little or no district support for work related to differentiating
instruction. Two teachers each provided one-word responses: “TLC” and “RTI” as the only
district provided supports for differentiation. TLC is a district option for teacher-led professional
development (small book groups run by teachers) that could be a support for differentiating
instruction. The RtI console is a resource used by the site and created by the district to track
struggling students and identify supports and interventions. The fact that only two teachers
could make any connection, both tenuous at best, highlights that the district has provided
minimal support and professional development for teachers in order to gain knowledge about
differentiation strategies and supports for students.
A cultural setting in the conceptual framework identified as a facilitator to meeting
stakeholder goals, mastery experience was generally valued by teachers at the site. While there
were some teachers on site with experience creating common assessments, disaggregating data,
and differentiating instruction, mastery experience was generally lacking at the site yet teachers
valued opportunities to learn from colleagues. Through the use of professional development, the
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 120
site can build upon the mastery experience of teachers to further develop the collective efficacy
of the teaching staff thereby enabling them to meet stakeholder goals.
Site Schema/Beliefs. The final set of survey questions 28-30 asked teachers about their
perceived need for additional professional development to create common assessments, analyze
data, and differentiate instruction. Teachers were asked to respond to the following statements
on a 7-point Likert scale: Q28: I need additional support/training in creating common
assessments. Q29: I need additional support/training in analyzing data. Q30: I need additional
support/training in differentiating instruction. Of respondents, 38% did not believe they needed
professional development creating common assessments, yet 41% said they did; 48% did not
believe they needed professional development related to data analysis, yet 36% said they did;
and, 47% did not believe they needed professional development related to differentiating
instruction, yet 48% said they did (see Figure 16). Responses indicate there was a clear divide
between those who realized they needed professional development opportunities and those who
did not believe they needed training in the creation of common assessments, disaggregation of
data, and differentiation of instruction.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 121

Figure 16. Staff’s perceived need for professional development related to creating common
assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating instruction
Interview questions 28 and 29 provided insight into teachers’ desire for site and district
led professional development. While six teachers were eager to receive training, two were vocal
about not wanting district managed training and another wanted no training at all. One stated
that “activities we are already involved with are sufficient” and the other that there was “no
professional development needed, just go to conferences not on site.” While they did not want
professional development or at least not site based professional development, seven teachers did
want more professional development opportunities to be made available at the site. Of those
who wanted training, one wanted training to “understand SPED needs and that they can be
successful.” This suggests that teachers need training in order to support various populations on
campus, yet they did not identify needing any training related to supporting Black students. Two
teachers wanted content area specific training. One teacher stated that he would like to hear from
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 122
“experts or consultants,” and the other “how to make it [subject area] more relevant to students –
to ‘their world’.” These teachers’ desire for training from subject area experts and consultants
was likely derived from the lack of funding. Over the last three years, the site has had no
funding to send teachers to outside content-area trainings that they were used to attending years
ago. As a result, most of the training has taken place at the site based on topics of interest as
determined by a survey of staff.
During the interview, and unprompted by the interviewer, four teachers noted the desire
for professional development related to creating equity and specific tools and strategies to ensure
equity in the classroom. These four had various requests. One teacher stated, “We have an
achievement gap. I would like to see what we can do in the classroom…I would like to see tools
to help us.” Echoing this was another teacher who requested “concrete strategies for
teaching/bridging the achievement gap.” Another stated the desire for “equity and equality
professional development training on maintaining fair and balanced teaching, free of personal
feelings, bias; unbiased teaching; student and teacher mental health.” Similarly, another teacher
identified the need for “equality and equity and specific tools and info we can use in the
classroom to differentiate and recognize students who are troubled academically and in other
ways so we can help those students best.” The fact that half of the teachers interviewed
identified the need for professional development related to differentiating instruction is in
alignment with survey results which suggest that at least half of the staff see a need for additional
professional development related to differentiating instructional practices. These findings
suggest that there was time built into the school year where professional development could have
occurred, primarily during the three district professional growth days, during weekly PLC time,
or during release days. However, there was almost no district provided professional
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 123
development for teachers, and the site was left to determine how to best support teacher need for
professional development.
The final interview question (32) asked teachers if money and time were not obstacles,
what would have helped them to best support Black students. While three had nothing additional
to report, five teachers provided further insight. The lack of response from approximately a third
of teachers interviewed suggests that they believed they were adequately supporting Black
students or that Black students did not need anything more than any other student in order to be
successful. However, five teachers suggested supports, either internal or external, that would
have helped them support Black students. One teacher suggested an external support of “more
parental involvement.” This was out of the teacher’s locus of control and assumed external
factors were needed rather than a focus on what the teacher could have done to support students.
Another suggestion included “bringing in an African American educational specialist and having
the chance to ask, ‘What are the three things I need to know to serve this population of students
(assuming they need to be served differently)?’” This question suggests that this teacher had
never even considered that they might have done something differently in order to better support
Black student, nor had they researched or been curious to find this information. Another teacher
suggested “visiting schools where African American students are successful and ask what is
supporting them to be successful.” This teacher’s desire to seek out mastery experience suggests
that he realized that he did not have all the answers and wanted to learn from those who have had
success supporting Black students. The desire to know how to better support Black students and
the desire to seek out mastery experience, coupled with the fact that there has been much
research done on the topic, highlights the lack of knowledge due to lack of professional
development for staff.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 124
Several teachers noted internal factors and assumed an internal locus of control. One
teacher suggested “concrete strategies, understanding the cultural lens of students and
experiences of African American students.” The desire to be more culturally aware, to better
understand student experiences, and to learn concrete strategies were steps toward meeting Black
student needs. This response suggests a desire for differentiation that was lacking in previous
responses. Another noted that she desired,
professional development around understanding the community and culture because I
will never know what it’s like to be a black person, so I always am thinking of ways so I
don’t offend and need help from people in that community so I can better understand.
The desire to receive cultural proficiency training reveals this teacher knew there was a gap in
understanding and highlighted a motivation to understand. Finally, a teacher stated her desire to
hear from the student voice by “having time to have conversations with students being successful
and struggling and students who graduated and ask them what they wish was different and what
could have been done differently.” This final response highlighted an area not mentioned by any
other teacher, student voice. This teacher understood that in order to support a specific
population, you needed to learn directly from that population. These suggestions provide insight
into the teachers’ motivation to support their Black students and their realization that they may
need additional training in order to do so.
A cultural model in the conceptual framework identified as an inhibitor to meeting
stakeholder goals, teacher beliefs that doing right by all students is doing right by Black students
was found to inhibit attainment of the stakeholder goal. While there were teachers who
understood the importance of supporting Black students specifically, the “colorblind” responses
from some of the teachers as part of the data as well findings from interviews suggest that
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 125
teachers need professional development in order to specifically support Black students. Through
the collective efficacy of teachers working together, and seeing the resulting success of those
teachers, it is likely that even the “colorblind” in philosophy can change, as findings suggest
teachers at the site are willing to do.
Synthesis
Through the use of a survey and interviews, results and findings suggest that teachers at
the site need professional development in the creation of and consistent use of true common
assessments, in the purposeful disaggregation of data, and in the use of targeted differentiation
strategies for Black students in order for the site to be able to reduce the achievement gap for this
student population. Teachers further need models of mastery in order to build collective
efficacy. Finally, teachers need training in research-based pedagogy related to differentiation
specifically for Black students in order to dispel cultural models that exist which prohibit
teachers from doing things differently for Black students, thereby perpetuating the achievement
gap. The findings related to teacher desire for professional development are promising in that
while teachers may not have the requisite knowledge about how to support their Black students
specifically, they have the motivation to support students, the desire to know how to do so
effectively, and they are willing to make changes. Therefore, the organization needs to provide
the training teachers need in order to be able to create effective common assessments that yield
viable data that can be disaggregated to identify instructional practices that can be better
differentiated to support Black student learning, thereby reducing the achievement gap.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 126
Chapter Five: Implications for Practice, Recommendations for Practice, and Future Research
The purpose of ABCHS at the time of the study was to ensure all students received access to
a high quality education. In order to do so, one of the site goals was to reduce the achievement
gap for Black students by 8% by June 2019. In order to meet this goal, teachers had an interim
goal of creating common assessments for all PLCs so that they had a common metric for results
that could be disaggregated and then data used to differentiate instruction for Black students.
The questions that guided the study were as follows:
1. By June 2018, to what extent were 100% of teachers in Professional Learning
Communities creating course-alike common assessments, disaggregating data, and
differentiating instructional practices to meet Black student instructional needs?
2. What did teachers know and what were they motivated to do in relation to creating
common assessments, disaggregating data, and differentiating instruction for Black
students in order to achieve the organizational goal of reducing the achievement gap?
3. What was the interaction between the existing site schema/beliefs, professional
development opportunities, mastery experience and teacher knowledge and motivation to
create common assessments, disaggregate data, and differentiate instruction for Black
students?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
In Chapter Four, the first, second, and third research questions were answered regarding
teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements influencing teacher ability to reduce
the achievement gap for Black students at ABCHS. Results were presented through the lens of
the Clark and Estes (2008) framework which focuses on the knowledge and skills, motivation,
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 127
and organizational influences affecting ability of stakeholders to meet the goal. Key results and
findings were analyzed, synthesized, and presented.
This chapter answers the fourth and final project question: What are the
recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources? The chapter begins with implications for practice, then highlights
recommendations for practice, and concludes with recommendations for future study.
Implications for Practice
There are several implications for positive change as a result of this study at the
individual level, organizational level, as well as at the societal level. A review of the literature,
as well as results and findings from this specific study, have shown that teachers need knowledge
about the importance of disaggregating common assessment data in order to make data-driven
instructional decisions so they can better differentiate instruction for Black students.
Furthermore, teachers need motivation in the form of attributing student learning to their
instructional practice as well as self-efficacy in their ability to meet the needs of Black students.
Finally, organizations need to ensure teachers are properly trained and equipped with not only
the technical strategies to adequately support Black student learning in order to reduce the
achievement gap but also with the ideologies that support a “colorconscious” approach to
education. While the study was completed at ABCHS, implications for other sites remain, as the
literature is clear about the need to empower teachers to reduce the achievement gap for Black
students as well as identify how to best support Black student learning. At ABCHS teachers
were shown to need organizational support to empower teachers with both knowledge and
motivation to meet the stakeholder goal of reducing the achievement gap for Black students, as
well as opportunities to further develop “colorconscious” ideologies to support this work.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 128
Knowledge
Results and findings suggest that while many teachers at ABCHS gave regular
assessments, teachers lacked knowledge about the importance of common assessments and using
disaggregated data to differentiate instruction. Furthermore, teachers lacked knowledge about
specific differentiation strategies to specifically support Black students. While results and
findings suggest that some teachers may have attempted to be “colorblind” to create a feeling of
equality, the specific differentiation strategies used to support Back students specifically to
ensure equity were lacking. This suggests that teachers needed professional development in
order to further develop their knowledge and skills with supporting Black students.
Motivation
Results and findings suggest that teachers at ABCHS were motivated to support students
and worked to create supportive environments and relationships with students. However,
teachers may have lacked the knowledge and skills to be able to do so specifically for Black
students, as many attributed student success or struggle to non-instructional factors. This
suggests that teachers may need training about the importance of their role in reducing the
achievement gap as well as opportunities to develop self-efficacy in supporting Black students.
Collective efficacy of the staff can also be built through professional development opportunities
with teachers who have mastery experience with supporting Black students. Furthermore, results
and findings suggest that the organization may need to explore professional development
opportunities from outside the site in order to gain the mastery experience necessary to further
support knowledge and motivation at the site to reduce the achievement gap specifically for
Black students.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 129
Organization
Results and findings suggest that ABCHS needs to develop a comprehensive professional
development plan to support teacher attainment of knowledge and skills about the importance of
disaggregating data from common assessments by race/ethnicity in order to identify how to best
differentiate instruction to support Black student learning. By creating opportunities for teachers
to develop the skills collaboratively, the site can develop the collective-efficacy of the staff to
meet Black student needs and reduce the achievement gap. Furthermore, the site needs to
include professional development related to issues of racial equity. Teachers need to consider
their own ideologies, experiences, and racial privilege and how those interact with their
knowledge and motivation to support Black student learning. By providing teachers professional
development that encourages discourse about race and racial disparities, the organization can
help to mitigate the “colormute” ideologies that exist and bridge a gap to better supporting Black
students by developing “colorconsciousness” (Pollock, 2004).
Recommendations for Practice
Drawn from the results and findings, the proposed recommendations, a comprehensive
training program and related on-the-job supports, should produce the desired outcome – an
increase in the percentage of Black students achieving comparably to their peers as a result of
increased differentiation and supports from teachers and the organization. As such, the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence recommendations follow.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Stakeholder knowledge is a critical component in meeting the
organizational and stakeholder goals. While each type of knowledge – factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive – is essential to meeting any goal, for the purposes of this study,
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 130
the assumed knowledge influences of greatest influence on meeting organizational and
stakeholder goals were deemed to be procedural and metacognitive knowledge. Procedural
knowledge refers to knowing how to do something; whereas, metacognitive knowledge refers to
an individual’s awareness of their cognitive processing and control of that processing
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Table 9 highlights the assumed knowledge influences based on
literature review, as well as Clark (2017) who suggests that procedural knowledge is the most
critical to performance. It further identifies the corresponding theoretical principles which
support the importance of the assumed knowledge influence to the problem of practice and then
highlights the corresponding findings from the survey and interview. Finally, the table includes
context-specific recommendations to support attainment of knowledge and skills required to
mitigate the knowledge gap identified.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 131
Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences, Findings, and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence*
Principle and Citation

Finding
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to know
how to create standards-
aligned common
assessments. (P)
To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply what
they have learned (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).

While teachers may have
created common
assessments, most altered
assessments based on
instruction in their respective
classes.
Provide training that
targets two areas to
increase teacher
knowledge of,
1) Importance of creating
and implementing
standards-based common
assessments with fidelity
2) Importance of using
disaggregated common
assessment data to drive
instructional decisions

Teachers need to know
how to differentiate
instruction. (P)

Teachers must be able to
apply knowledge at the
procedural level and know
when and how to do so
(Krathwohl, 2002; Clark,
2017; Aguis & Kraiger,
2009; Grossman & Salas,
2011; Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Teachers used a variety of
differentiation strategies but
may not have been
intentional in their use of
strategies to specifically
support Black students.
Provide training and
education to increase
teacher knowledge of how
to implement research-
based differentiation
strategies using a lens of
Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy (Ladson-
Billings, 2000).

Teachers need to self-
evaluate their own
effectiveness with
differentiating instruction
for Black students based
on assessment results. (M)

When teachers possess
conceptual, theoretical,
and strategic research-
based knowledge and
skills, then they will be
able to evaluate their
effectiveness and adjust
instructional practices
(Clark & Estes, 2008).

Teachers did not regularly
disaggregate assessment data
to identify how to best
differentiate instruction for
Black students.
Train teachers on how to
self-regulate and reflect on
the effectiveness of their
differentiation strategies
based on common
assessment data through
lens on Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy
(Ladson-Billlings, 2000).

Note: *Indicates knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations:
(D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive.
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Procedural
knowledge refers to knowing how to do something (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011). The data showed that teachers at ABCHS lacked procedural knowledge
about specifically how to create and the importance of implementing standards-based common
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 132
assessments with fidelity and then differentiating instruction based on assessment data
effectively in order to reduce the achievement gap. According to Schraw and McCrudden
(2006), to develop mastery, individuals must acquire component skills, practice integrating them,
and know when to apply what they have learned. Furthermore, teachers must be able to apply
knowledge at the procedural level and know when and how to do so (Aguis & Kraiger, 2009;
Clark, 2017; Grossman & Salas, 2011; Krathwohl, 2002; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Results
and findings suggest that teachers need training and education to increase knowledge of the
importance of data-driven decision making and implementation of research-based differentiation
strategies. Furthermore, teachers need professional development that raises their own awareness
of the importance of differentiation strategies to reduce the racial disparities that exist in the
classroom.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. While
procedural knowledge is most important for creating common assessments and analyzing data,
metacognitive knowledge is vital to a teacher’s ability to effectively differentiate instruction
(Mayer, 2011). When teachers are metacognitive, they are more willing to engage in learning
opportunities which build their self-efficacy which, in turn, increases their willingness and ability
to differentiate instruction (Dixon, et. al., 2014; McMillan, 2003). The data showed that teachers
at ABCHS lacked the metacognitive knowledge about specifically how to self-evaluate their own
effectiveness with differentiating instruction for Black students based on assessment results.
According to Clark and Estes (2008) when teachers possess conceptual, theoretical, and strategic
research-based knowledge and skills, then they will be able to evaluate their effectiveness and
adjust instructional practices. Teachers need training about how to self-regulate and reflect on
the effectiveness of their differentiation strategies based on assessment data. By reflecting on
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 133
one’s beliefs and biases, teachers are able to identify how to adjust their teaching to better
differentiate instruction. Teacher ability to consider assessment results and reflect about their
ability to implement differentiation strategies to meet the unique learning needs of students, play
a key role in reducing the achievement gap.
Tucker, et. al. (2005) found that culturally sensitive professional development
encouraged metacognition about beliefs and biases. Ladson-Billings’ (2002) research also found
that when teachers have the opportunity to engage in Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) they
are better able to meet the needs of diverse student populations. Therefore, it is recommended
that the organization provide teachers with access to professional development that highlights
racial disparities in instructional practice to increase teachers’ metacognition about their own
ideological biases and how those affect their ability to meet Black student learning needs.
Through discussions about racial disparities that exist, teachers are able to identify personal bias
in instructional practices. Coupled with metacognitive practice, these new understandings
provide teachers with the knowledge of areas of practice that may need to be altered in order to
more specifically support Black students in their respective classrooms.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Stakeholder motivation is another critical component in meeting the
organizational and stakeholder goals, as motivation guarantees that a person wants to and will
apply learning and knowledge (Rueda, 2011). Teacher attribution of student learning to
instructional practices and increasing self-efficacy with supporting Black students increases
teacher motivation to close the achievement gap. Table 10 highlights the assumed motivation
influences. It further identifies the corresponding theoretical principles which support the
importance of the assumed motivation influence to the problem of practice and then highlights
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 134
the corresponding findings from the survey and interview. Finally, the table includes context-
specific recommendations to support attainment of elements required to mitigate the motivation
gap identified.
Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation

Finding
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers should believe
that Black student learning
is directly related to their
instructional practices
(planning, teaching,
assessing, and re-
teaching). (Attribution)
Instructional practices are
wholly controlled by the
teacher, and when teachers
attribute Black student
learning to instructional
practices, teachers see
themselves as directly
responsible for student
learning (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009; Rueda,
2011).

Teachers attributed Black
student learning to internal
factors (i.e. classroom
environment) and struggles
to outside factors (i.e. home,
society, etc).
Teacher training should
include models of
mastery so that teachers
will see that colleagues
who have deliberately
altered instructional
practices for Black
students have helped
reduce the achievement
gap.
Teachers need to become
confident that they are
capable of creating
common assessments and
then differentiating
instruction for their Black
students. (Self-Efficacy)

Learning and motivation
are enhanced when
learners have positive
expectancies for success
(Pajares, 2006).

Teachers were efficacious in
supporting all students and
lacked efficacy in supporting
Black students specifically.
Teacher training should
include models of
mastery and targeted
feedback so that teachers
will see that they too are
capable of creating
assessments, analyzing
data, and differentiating
instruction specifically
for Black students.

Self-Efficacy. Being able to meet the needs of Black students requires both the
acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as self-efficacy beliefs to put these skills into practice
(Siwatu, Frazier, Osaghae, & Starker, 2011). Teachers need to become confident that they are
capable of creating common assessments and then differentiating instruction for their Black
students. Results and findings suggest that while teachers were efficacious in supporting all
students, they lacked efficacy in supporting Black students specifically. This would suggest that
providing teachers with credible, similar models who have experienced success, as well as
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 135
providing opportunities to receive targeted feedback, would increase self-efficacy. The
recommendation then is for the organization to provide training that includes models of mastery
and targeted feedback so that teachers will see that they too are capable of creating assessments,
analyzing data, and differentiating instruction. When teachers feel efficacious in their ability to
create assessments and use that data to differentiate instruction, they seek out opportunities to do
so, they persist in doing so, and they make the mental effort required to be successful.
Attribution. While self-efficacy is important for teachers to feel like they are capable of
meeting student needs, attribution ensures teachers feel accountable for doing so. Teachers
should believe that Black student learning is directly related to their instructional practices
(planning, teaching, assessing, and re-teaching). Anderman and Anderman (2009) as well as
Rueda (2011) found that instructional practices are wholly controlled by the teacher, and when
teachers attribute Black student learning to instructional practices, teachers see themselves as
directly responsible for student learning. Results and findings suggest that teachers attributed
Black student learning to internal factors (i.e. classroom environment) and struggles to outside
factors (i.e. home, society, etc). The interesting piece of the finding is that teachers did not
attribute Black student success to instructional practices, despite the fact that research suggests
instructional practices are key to student learning (Anderman and Anderman, 2009; Rueda,
2011). This would suggest that teachers need to see that students do better when their teachers
attribute student learning to teacher instructional practices. The recommendation then is for
teacher training to include models of mastery so that teachers will see that colleagues who have
deliberately altered instructional practices for Black students have helped reduce the
achievement gap.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 136
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. While stakeholder knowledge and motivation are essential to achieving
stakeholder and organizational goals, an organization’s work processes and material resources
play a key role in supporting stakeholder attainment of those goals (Clark & Estes 2008).
Cultural models and cultural settings provide a lens through which to evaluate the elements
within the organization that facilitate or inhibit stakeholders from attaining goals (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). By considering the cultural models and cultural setting independently as
well as analyzing the interaction between the them, organizations can increase their
effectiveness. The cultural settings considered for this study included professional development
and mastery experience, which acted as facilitators in the attainment of stakeholder goals. The
cultural models considered for this study included resistance to change and the belief that by
doing right be all students we are doing right by black students (equality vs. equity), which acted
as inhibitors to the attainment of stakeholder goals. Cultural models are deeply rooted in the
belief systems of individuals or the organization and may be difficult to change (Schein, 2010).
Therefore, reducing the negative effect of those cultural models while simultaneously increasing
the positive effect of cultural settings will help to close the achievement gap. Table 11 highlights
the assumed organization influences. It further identifies the corresponding theoretical principles
which support the importance of the assumed organization influence to the problem of practice
and then highlights the corresponding findings from the survey and interview. Finally, the table
includes context-specific recommendations to support attainment of elements required to
mitigate the organizational gap identified.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 137
Table 11
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation

Findings
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Resistance toward change:
The organization needs to
frame the rationale for
change so teachers feel
included in the change
process. (Inhibitor)
Change efforts challenge
existing practice and
create a “learning anxiety”
(Schein, 2010).

A strong organizational
culture controls
organizational behavior
and can block an
organization from making
necessary changes from
adapting to a changing
environment (Schein,
2004).

Teachers embraced many
changes and were amiable to
change when included in the
process.

Administration needs to
frame the rationale for
change and regularly
communicate the vision
for change so teachers feel
a part of the process.
Belief that by doing right
by all, doing right by
Black students: The
organization needs to train
teachers on the difference
between equality and
equity.
(Inhibitor)
In order to achieve equity,
Black students must
receive instructional
services that
disproportionately support
their learning (Bensimon,
2017).

Teachers generally believed
that doing right by all
students would support
Black students, and findings
suggested some teachers
were “colorblind” in their
beliefs about supporting
students.
Provide training that
focuses on the importance
of valuing diversity and
inclusion, with a focus on
the dangers of a
“colorblind” approach to
instructional practices.

Include department
SMART goals that target
specific supports for Black
students.

Professional
Development: The
organization needs to
provide professional
development in the
creation of assessments,
analysis of data, and
differentiation of
instruction.
(Facilitator)
Dixon, Yssel,
McConnell and Hardin
(2014) argue that
professional
development
opportunities that
support improved
differentiation require
teachers to engage in
both learning about
philosophies and
strategies of
differentiation but also
engage in coaching and
practice opportunities to
do so.

Effective leaders use
disaggregated data to
The district and/or site need
to provide professional
development in the areas of
common assessments,
disaggregation of data, and
differentiation of
instruction.
Provide training and
practice with
feedback in the
creation of
assessments, analysis
of data, and
differentiation of
instruction.

Provide training that
focuses on issues of
racial equity, as
teachers’ ideologies,
experiences, and
racial privilege affect
their knowledge and
motivation to use
disaggregated data to
differentiate
instruction.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 138
make informed
decisions. They track the
impact of their decisions
on equity and access in
organizational practice
(Bensimon, 2005).

Mastery Experience: The
organization needs to
identify experts/ models
to support teachers in the
creation of common
assessments, data
analysis, and
differentiation.
(Facilitator)
When teachers engage in
collaborative
discussions, receive
feedback about their own
differentiation practices,
and collaborate on the
creation of shared
lessons, they draw on
each other’s mastery
experience and build
their own self-efficacy
(Dixon, et. al., 2014).
There were some teachers
on site who had mastery
experience with creating
and implementing common
assessments,
disaggregating data, and
differentiating instruction;
however, these experiences
were not readily shared at
the site with colleagues.
Provide training with
models of mastery
who can share their
experiences with
creating assessments,
analyzing data, and
differentiating
instruction to support
Black student
learning.

Provide opportunity
to work with
colleagues in PLCs
and receive feedback
on their support of
Black students.

Cultural models. There is a belief at the site that by doing right by all students, teachers
are doing right by Black students. However, in order to achieve equity, Black students must
receive instructional services that disproportionately support their learning (Bensimon, 2017;
Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2007; Wenglinsky, 2004). Ladson-Billinngs (1996) argues the
importance of a Culturally Relevant Pedagogy for supporting Black students; however, many
teachers at the site ascribe to a “colorblind” approach, which creates a disconnect between
research and practice. Pollock (2004) further suggests that educators must “race wrestle” as race
is a complex issue in education that requires educators to talk about race rather than be
“colormute” and avoid the discussions that help to bridge understanding of how to support Black
students. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers receive training that focuses on the
importance of embracing and celebrating diversity and creating opportunities for inclusion, that
each department include SMART goals that target specific supports and differentiation strategies
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 139
for Black students, and that teachers assess their own as well as the site’s performance in
meeting Black student learning needs.
Cultural settings. A facilitator to stakeholder goal attainment, the organization needs to
provide increased access to professional development in the creation of assessments, analysis of
data, and differentiation of instruction. Dixon, Yssel, McConnell and Hardin (2014) argue that
professional development opportunities that support improved differentiation require teachers to
engage in both learning about philosophies and strategies of differentiation but also engage in
coaching and practice opportunities to do so. Carter, Skiba, Arredondo, and Pollock (2016)
further argue that in order to address racial disparities, discussions about race need to include a)
an examination of disaggregated data to identify where racial/ethnic differences occur, b) the
contexts and interactions creating those data, c) interventions to mitigate disparities in data, d)
close monitoring of data to evaluate impact on our actions. Therefore, it is recommended that
the site provide training and practice with feedback, along with discussions focused on
disparities, in the creation of assessments, analysis of data, and differentiation of instruction.
This training should include not only the technical elements of data-driven differentiation of
instruction but should also address teachers’ ideologies surrounding supporting Black students
through the process. Teachers must not only know how to do so, but they must value why these
processes are important to support Black students specifically.
Darling-Hammond (2000) argues that teachers must not only value assessment but they
must be willing to differentiate instruction based on disaggregated assessment data in order to
ensure success for Black students. Results and findings from the study suggest that teachers not
only lack knowledge about the importance of common assessments but that they did not have
sufficient knowledge about differentiation strategies to specifically support Black students.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 140
However, findings also suggest that teachers were willing to change, valued differentiation, and
felt the site and district had not provided sufficient professional development. Research by
Tucker, Porter, Reinke, Herman, Ivery, Mack, et. al. (2005) found that teachers build their own
self-efficacy when participating in culturally sensitive teacher self-efficacy training. They also
found that culturally sensitive professional development encouraged metacognition about beliefs
and biases. By reflecting on one’s beliefs and biases, teachers are able to identify how to adjust
their teaching to better differentiate instruction. When teachers are metacognitive, they are more
willing to engage in learning opportunities which build their self-efficacy which, in turn,
increases their willingness and ability to differentiate instruction (Dixon, et. al., 2014; McMillan,
2003). Therefore, it is recommended that professional development focus on culturally sensitive
training that supports teacher attainment of differentiation strategies that will build teacher self-
efficacy. Training needs to identify areas of instruction where racial disparities exist, and then
include opportunities for teachers to have discussions about the data to identify how teacher
ideology, experiences, and racial privilege may affect and bias teachers in supporting Black
students.
Experience, and more specifically mastery experience, is one of the most powerful
factors influencing teacher perceptions of collective efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1997;
Goddard, 2001; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Results and findings of the study suggest that teachers
valued the mastery experience of colleagues, yet some did not know who to turn to for support.
The organization needs to identify experts/models to support teachers in the creation of common
assessments, data analysis, and differentiation. When teachers engage in collaborative
discussions, receive feedback about their own differentiation practices, and collaborate on the
creation of shared lessons, they draw on each other’s mastery experience and build their own
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 141
self- efficacy (Dixon, et. al., 2014). Goddard (2001) found that being part of a team in the
creation of assessments and in the discussions about how to differentiate instruction empowers
teachers and creates a sense of collective efficacy as a department that furthers teachers’
individual self-efficacy in supporting student learning. Therefore, it is recommended that the site
provide training with models of mastery who can share their experiences with creating
assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating instruction to support Black student learning but
also their ideological stance that has made them successful in supporting Black
students. Through the mastery experience of colleagues, teachers can build on collective
efficacy to determine how they too can use instructional practices that create opportunities for
Black students and achieve equity.
Organizational support. In order to support teachers in the attainment of goals, the
organization needs to provide professional development throughout the year. Teachers need
training and feedback in the creation of and importance of using common assessments, in the
disaggregation of data, and in effective differentiation strategies specifically for Black students.
Training needs to include models of mastery so as to build collective efficacy of the staff. All
training needs to be done through a focus on diversity and inclusion, so teachers can assess and
monitor their own performance in meeting Black student learning needs. By doing so teachers’
critical behaviors will be better supported as teachers will begin to understand how what they do
in the classroom directly affects Black student learning, and they will become confident that they
are capable of creating quality common assessments and making data-driven instructional
decisions so as to better differentiate instruction for Black students.
Most importantly, these technical elements of supporting Black students needs to be
nested in the larger conversation of racial equity. Teachers need to be mindful of the colorblind
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 142
approach to education that Black students experience. Teachers need to be provided
opportunities to “race wrestle,” and discussions about race need to be strategic as issues of race
are complex and require opportunites to examine ones own bias, experiences, and ideologies
(Carter, Skiba, Arredondo, & Pollock, 2016; Pollock, 2004). By recognizing the racial
disparities that exist and deliberately working toward mitigating the effects of bias in the
classroom, teachers can more successfully implement differentiation strategies to reduce the
achievement gap for Black students.
Future Research
Historically, Black students have been underserved in public education, leading to the
achievement gap we see today. While there have been attempts to reduce the gap through the
years, many schools have been unable to do so. Based on the results and findings of this study,
as well as through a review of literature, it is recommended that future studies further consider
the following:
 Importance of ideology and discourse related to racial disparities to move from color
muteness to color consciousness.
 Effect of teacher ideology on a teacher’s motivation to support Black students
specifically, and how an organization can align its staff’s ideologies so they are more
culturally responsive.
 How an organization can better capitalize on mastery experience to build not only teacher
self-efficacy but also the collective efficacy of staff thereby supporting teacher learning
related to meeting the needs of Black students.
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 143
 How implementing Culturally Relevant Pedagogy can support professional development
related to differentiation strategies in order to move a staff toward mastery in supporting
Black students.
 While this study was not an ethnography, if doing a future study at the site, it would
include observations and evaluation of site professional development.
Conclusion
This study sought to identify the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
influences that facilitate or inhibit teachers from meeting their stakeholder goal of reducing the
achievement gap for Black students through the use of common assessments, disaggregated data,
and differentiation of instruction. Clark and Estes’ (2008) analytical framework served as the
methodological and conceptual framework for the study. Survey results and interview findings
suggested that teachers lacked knowledge and confidence in their ability to use disaggregated
assessment data from common assessments in order to differentiate instruction. Teachers
identified that they seldom looked at the data from common assessments, and this may be
partially due to the fact that while teachers may work together to create similar assessments,
most were not in fact using common assessments. Survey results and interview findings further
suggested that while teachers may differentiate instruction for students, they did not do so with a
specific focus on differentiating specifically for Black students. Furthermore, results and
findings suggested that while there may be some level of mastery experience on site, in order to
increase collective efficacy of staff, teachers needed professional development in order to know
how to better implement differentiated instructional practices specifically for Black students.
Finally, results and findings suggest that teachers need professional development that focuses on
the importance of racial equity and encourages metacognition of teachers’ ideologies which may
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 144
create a “colorblind” approach to instructional practice. The implication of these findings
suggest that the organization needs to put into place training programs to mitigate the gaps in
teacher knowledge and motivation about how to create common assessments, disaggregate data,
and use that data to differentiate instruction for Black students. The organization further needs to
provide culturally sensitive professional development for teachers so they are better equipped to
identify their own bias, experience, and privilege that may affect their ability to meet the needs
of Black students. Teachers need to wrestle with issues of race rather than ascribe to
“colorblind” or “colormute” ideologies, as race is a complex issue in education; therefore, to
reduce the achievement gap, strategic discussions about disparities in racial equity need to be the
focus of professional development (Carter, Skiba, Arredondo, & Pollock, 2016; Pollock, 2004).
By implementing the recommended solutions, ABCHS may be able to more readily reduce the
achievement gap for Black students and ensure equity in access to a high quality education for
each and every student at the site.

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 145
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TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 159
Appendix A
Survey Protocol
The following will be written on the first page of the online survey:
The purpose of the study is to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that affect Black students’ success at the site. By identifying promising practices as
well as areas the organization can better support teachers in meeting Black student needs, it may
be possible to reduce the achievement gap more effectively. Your perspective is valuable and
will allow me to understand where additional supports are necessary.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. You have a right not to participate. You have a
right to end the survey at any time. You may choose not to answer specific questions. By
beginning the survey, you agree to have your responses anonymously collected as part of this
study.

The first set of questions will ask you about the work that you do in your classroom related
to creating assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating instruction and how valuable
you believe they are to your practice.
1. In what department do you teach the most courses? (English, Social Science, Math, Science,
World Language, Visual/Technical/Performing Arts, Physical Education/Health, Special
Education/Collab)
2. Common assessments provide important data regarding how a student is doing in class.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 160
3. Data from common assessments allows teachers to better modify instruction to support student
learning.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

4. It is important to disaggregate data by ethnicity to determine how students from different
populations are doing in class.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

5. Tailoring instruction for students is important to ensure they can access the curriculum.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

6. How confident do you feel in your ability to create common assessments that target essential
standards? (Common assessments mean assessments given by all teachers in your PLC?)
1 2 3 4
Not Somewhat Confident Very
Confident Confident Confident

7. How many common assessments do you give each year? ____ (insert numerical value)
8. How confident do you feel in your ability to analyze the data derived from assessments in
order to make adjustments to instruction?
1 2 3 4
Not Somewhat Confident Very
Confident Confident Confident
9. How often do you look at common assessment data by race/ethnic demographics?
1 2 3 4
After every At least At least At least
assessment once a quarter once a term once a year
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 161

10. How confident do you feel in your ability to analyze the data derived from assessments in
order to differentiate instruction for Black students?
1 2 3 4
Not Somewhat Confident Very
Confident Confident Confident
11. How frequently do you differentiate instruction specifically for Black students?
1 2 3 4
I usually At least At least At least
do not once a month once a week once a day

12. The following is a list of Culturally Responsive Differentiated Instructional Strategies from
the NYU Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development’s Metropolitan
Center for Urban Education. Select the ways that you specifically differentiate instruction for
Black students?
 Tiered instruction/lessons/centers/products
 Student differences are studied as a basis for planning
 Assessment is ongoing and diagnostic to understand how to make instruction more
responsive to learner need
 Focus on multiple forms of intelligence is evident
 Excellence is defined in large measure by individual growth from a starting point
 Students are frequently guided in making interest-based learning choices
 Many learning profile options are honored
 Many instructional arrangements are used
 Student readiness, interest, and learning profile shape instruction
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 162
 Use of essential skills to make sense of and understand key concepts and principles is the
focus of learning
 Multi-option assignment are frequently used
 Time is used flexibly in accordance with student need
 Multiple materials are provided (as opposed to just one text choice)
 Multiple perspectives on ideas and events are routinely sought
 Students help other students and the teacher solve problems
 Students work with the teacher to establish both whole-class and individual goals
 Students are assessed in multiple ways
13. How many specific strategies can you identify that you use on a daily basis to differentiate
for Black students? 1-2 , 3-4 , 5-6 , 7-8 , 9+

The next set of questions will ask about your confidence with supporting Black students in
your classroom.
14. Black students succeed or struggle because of what I do in the classroom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

15. I create effective common assessments that allow me to support student learning.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

16. I effectively use common assessment data to identify students’ specific needs.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 163
17. I effectively differentiate instruction.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

The last set of questions will ask about organizational supports and professional
development available to support the work you do in your classroom.
18. I participate in conversations related to closing the achievement gap.
1 2 3 4 5 6
I usually At least At least At least At least At least
do not once a year once a term once a quarter once a month once a week

19. If all the time you spoke about the achievement gap totaled 100%, what percentage of time
do these conversations happen
a. as a whole staff? 0-10%, 11-20%, 21-30%, 31-40%, 41-50%, 51-60%, 61-70%,
71-80%, 81-90%, 91-100%
b. in PLCs? 0-10%, 11-20%, 21-30%, 31-40%, 41-50%, 51-60%, 61-70%, 71-80%, 81-
90%, 91-100%
c. when not in an official meeting? 0-10%, 11-20%, 21-30%, 31-40%, 41-50%, 51-60%,
61-70%, 71-80%, 81-90%, 91-100%
The next three questions ask about professional development. For the purpose of these
questions, consider professional development as training opportunities available to all staff (i.e.
all staff meetings, learning wheels, professional growth days, staff meetings with the teacher-
lead professional development team), training at the district office, or training provided by the
site/district with an outside company.
20. In the last year, how many professional development opportunities have you participated in
related to closing the achievement gap? _____ (numerical value)
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 164
21. The site has provided sufficient professional development related to creating equity in my
classroom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

22. The district has provided sufficient professional development related to creating equity in my
classroom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

23. The site highlights our teaching strengths to build our confidence in our collective abilities.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

24. Having colleagues on site who I can go to if I have questions about creating common
assessments, analyzing data, or differentiating instruction is important to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

25. If I have questions about creating common assessments, I know someone on campus who
can help.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

26. If I have questions about analyzing data, I know someone on campus who can help me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 165
27. If I have questions about differentiating instruction, I know someone on campus who can
help me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

28. I need additional support/training in creating common assessments.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

29. I need additional support/training in analyzing data.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

30. I need additional support/training in differentiating instruction.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neither Somewhat Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree/Disagree Agree Agree

TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 166
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
The following will be read to participants before beginning the interview:
The purpose of the study is to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that affect Black students success at the site. Your perspective is valuable and will
allow me to understand where additional supports are necessary.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. You have a right not to participate. You have a
right to end the interview at any time. You may choose not to answer specific questions. No
identifying information will be recorded and your identity will be kept anonymous. You will be
offered the opportunity to review the notes about your responses and you may alter or strike out
any notes from the interview you do not want recorded. If you have not yet done so, please read
the information sheet before we begin the interview.

The first set of questions will ask you about the work that you do in your classroom related
to creating assessments, analyzing data, and differentiating instruction.
1. Tell me about the work that you have been doing in your PLC this year.
2. Describe your process for creating standards-based common assessments?
3. Describe your PLC’s process for creating standards-based common assessments?
4. How often do you use common assessment data, if at all?
5. How do you use common assessment data, if at all?
a. What type of data do you get/look at?
b. How do you go about analyzing that data?
c. How do you look at different subgroups?
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 167
d. What type of discussions do you have about the data? What do your discussions
sound like?
6. Tell me about a recent example of a conversation you had in your PLC about the data you
were examining?
a. What was the conversation about? What was discussed?
7. How do you differentiate instruction based on data derived from common assessments, if
at all?
8. Tell me about a time when you successfully differentiated instruction based on data?
a. What did the data suggest you needed to do?
b. How did you go about differentiating instruction?
9. Can you give me an example of a time when you differentiated instruction for your Black
students? What did that differentiation look like and sound like in the classroom?
10. How do PLCs support the work that you do in the creation of common assessments?
a. Can you provide a specific example?
11. How do PLCs support the work that you do in the disaggregation of data?
a. Can you provide a specific example?
12. How do PLCs support the work that you do in the differentiation of instruction?
a. Can you provide a specific example?
The next set of questions will ask about your confidence with supporting Black students in
your classroom.
13. What do you see as your role in meeting student educational needs?
14. What do you see as your role in meeting Black student educational needs?
15. What do you believe are some of the causes of Black student successes in your class?
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 168
16. What do you believe are some of the causes of Black student struggles in your class?
17. Some would say that Black students’ learning is directly related to teachers’ instructional
practices. What do you think?
a. Probe for planning, instruction, assessing, re-teaching.
18. If different from your previous example, tell me about a time when you felt you did a
good job differentiating instruction.
19. Tell me about a time when you felt like you could have done something differently.
The last set of questions will ask about organizational supports and professional
development available to support the work you do in your classroom.
20. Think about the last time something was changed at this school. How were teachers
involved in that process, if at all?
21. How did the teachers feel about this change?
22. How did the site leadership communicate the rationale for the change, if at all?
23. What training is offered either at the site or in the district about the difference between
equality and equity, if at all?
24. Can you describe any training you have attended about how to ensure equity for Black
students?
a. What was the nature of the training?
b. What did you learn?
c. What have you brought back to your classroom from this training, if anything?
25. How has this training helped you to promote equity in the classroom?
26. Describe the site provided professional development opportunities related to
a. Creating common assessments
TEACHER ROLE IN REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 169
b. Analyzing common assessment data
c. Differentiating instruction
27. Describe the district provided professional development opportunities related to
a. Creating common assessments
b. Analyzing common assessment data
c. Differentiating instruction
28. What type of site professional development do you need more of?
29. What type of district professional development do you need more of?
30. Who at the site can you model after in order to
a. create common assessments?
b. analyze data?
c. differentiate instruction?
31. Tell me a little about how having these models of effective practice empowers you and
builds collective efficacy at the site.
a. Can you provide a specific example?
32. If money and time were not obstacles, what would help you to best support Black student
learning?
33. Is there anything I haven’t asked about that you would like to share?
Thank you so much for your time.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bozzay, Yael (author)

Core Title Teacher role in reducing the achievement gap: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 10/15/2018

Defense Date 09/04/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,black students,collective efficacy,color blind,common assessments,culturally relevant pedagogy,data analysis,data disaggregation,differentiating instruction,differentiation,disaggregating data,equity,instructional practice,mastery experience,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,racial disparity,self-efficacy,teacher role

Format application/pdf (imt)

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Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Samkian, Artineh (committee chair), Crawford, Jenifer (committee member), Pearson, Mark (committee member)

Creator Email bozzay@usc.edu,yael.bozzay@gmail.com

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA