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Breakthrough: an outperforming model continuation school's leadership, programs, and culture case study

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Breakthrough: An Outperforming Model Continuation School’s
Leadership, Programs, and Culture Case Study

By

Ashley Sparks

______________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2020

Copyright 2020 Ashley Sparks

ii

Acknowledgements
I want to express my appreciation and gratitude for the people who supported me during my
entire University of Southern California experience. First of all, my wise father, Eric Sparks, who first
reached out to me to support me in my dream of attaining my doctorate from USC. His continuous belief
in my abilities to overcome obstacles helped get me over the finish line. Secondly, my positive mother,
Mabe Sparks Vetra who has stood by me all my life. Both of whom, expected or demanded excellence. I
owe an enormous debt to my immediate support, my husband Charles and my three joyful sons, Preston,
Hunter, and Caden. They put up with my writing weekends and strange sleeping hours, kept the
household running, and most importantly, would shower me with love when I most needed it. I also need
to acknowledge the numerous friends and extended family that cheered me on during the journey.
The USC Trojan family has extended its support and experience to me numerable times. From
granting me insightful interviews to motivating me to seek to serve in changing opportunities for our
youth. From my first chair, Dr. Stu Gothold, to Dr. Maria Ott, to my final chair committee; Dr. Morgan
Polikoff, Dr. Michael Escalante, and Dr. John Roach, I have been stimulated and prompted to keep on my
path. In my own high-quality school district, Glendale Unified, Trojans as well as co-workers have
reached out to assist, provide opportunities, and cheer me on. My sincere gratitude also goes to thank my
Delta Kappa Gamma Sisters for sharing my enthusiasm for furthering my education and expanding my
knowledge of successful continuation schools.
Finally, I owe all success to my higher power, whom I choose to call God.

Fight On!

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ viii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ...............................................................................................1
Background of the Study .....................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................8
Research Questions and Methods ........................................................................................9
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................10
Limitations .........................................................................................................................11
Delimitations ......................................................................................................................11
Assumptions .......................................................................................................................11
Definition of Related Terms ..............................................................................................12
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................14
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................................16
Research Study Framework ...............................................................................................16
History of Continuation Schools ........................................................................................16
Continuation High School Structures and Educators’ Expectations............................19
Curriculum and Instruction ..........................................................................................21
Accountability ..............................................................................................................22
Continuation School Students ......................................................................................24
Theoretical Foundations on Leadership .......................................................................26
Effective Leadership at High-Performing Continuation Schools ................................27

iv

Programs and Practices in High-Performing Continuation Schools ............................29
Culture and Climate in High-Performing Continuation Schools .................................30
Model Continuation High Schools.....................................................................................31
Conceptual Framework to Understand Model Continuation School Structure .................32
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................35
Restatement of the Problem, Focus, and Research Questions ...........................................35
Study Design ......................................................................................................................36
Sample and Population ......................................................................................................37
Selection Process .........................................................................................................37
Community Profile.......................................................................................................38
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................41
Document Analysis ......................................................................................................41
Staff Interviews ............................................................................................................42
Data Collection and Ethical Considerations ......................................................................43
Data Analysis and Coding ...........................................................................................46
Summary ............................................................................................................................46
Chapter Four: Findings ..................................................................................................................47
Results for Research Question One ...................................................................................47
Interview Results .........................................................................................................48
Document Review Results ...........................................................................................52
Summary of Results for Research Question One ........................................................53
Results for Research Question Two ...................................................................................54
Interview Results .........................................................................................................54

v

Observation Results .....................................................................................................56
Summary of Results for Research Question Two ........................................................59
Results for Research Question Three .................................................................................59
Interview Results .........................................................................................................60
Document Review Results ...........................................................................................61
Observation Results .....................................................................................................62
Summary of Results for Research Question Three ......................................................63
Summary ............................................................................................................................63
Chapter Five: Discussion ...............................................................................................................64
Discussion of Findings .......................................................................................................65
Implications for Practice ....................................................................................................67
Future Research .................................................................................................................68
References ......................................................................................................................................70
Appendix A: Document Review ....................................................................................................84
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ....................................................................................................86
Appendix C: School Site Observation Protocol.............................................................................90
Appendix D: Classroom Observation Protocol..............................................................................92
Appendix E: Observation Protocol ................................................................................................95

vi

List of Tables
Table 1 Demographics and Population in State Continuation Schools .......................................... 7

vii

List of Figures
Figure 1. Applying PUEDES to understand the school culture of a model continuation school . 33

viii

Abstract

This case study analyzed an outperforming, urban Model Continuation School’s
leadership, programs and policies, as well as culture to discover what factors contribute to
their high graduation and attendance rates. The purpose of this study was to furnish
researchers, policymakers, and practitioners with the factors that contribute to this
school’s student success. Data collection involved interviews with the principal as well as
staff members, document review of pertinent information that supported reasoning for the
success at the school, and observations in the classroom as well as on campus. Continuation
students may face numerable obstacles such as high transiency, learning disabilities, low
motivation, substance abuse, behavioral struggles, complications with foster care and/or
criminal justice system that put them at risk for dropping out of high school. Findings from
this case study indicate that the principal’s interpersonal, pragmatic, encouraging,
leadership style has led the staff to devise curriculum based on standards and current
student needs as well as create an atmosphere of high motivation as well as social and
emotional safety. These skills combined with clear, reasonable policies as well as
numerable community and school counselling programs assist in elevating student well-
being. Students at this school are highly motivated to attend school and attain credits
towards their diploma strongly due to the culture of acceptance at this school. This study
furthers positive research in the field of continuation schools and can benefit both
continuation as well as comprehensive high schools in assisting to achieve high student
outcomes and personal success.

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
In the past, alternative education has been precluded and disregarded in conversations
regarding equity and distribution of opportunities, privileges, and funding (Kelly, 1993;
Malagon, 2010; Nygreen, 2013). Alternative schools are often labeled as “gateways,”
“gatekeepers,” or “second-chance schools” due to their open methodologies and procedures
(Kelly, 1993; Nygreen, 2013). While there are some social-emotional and academic advantages
at these schools the detrimental accounts still seem to portray these institutions as “dumping
grounds” for unwanted students (EdSource, 2008; Kelly, 1993; Nygreen, 2013). In educational
research, some narratives cite the education the students receive as “second-class” and thus
conclude that these students will not be academically prepared to pursue further educational
aspirations beyond high school (Muñoz, 2004; Nygreen, 2013; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008).
These narratives label alternative schools by contaminating the dignity of both the students who
struggle with academic success and the staff themselves. The blame is often thrust on educators
while limited attention is given to the barriers they face.
Historically, these institutions have provided opportunities for an underrepresented
population of students (Kelly, 1993; Nygreen, 2013). Pupils placed at these schools are
considered as struggling while attending a regular high school and considered at risk of not
graduating. Although some students and parents select these schools, most students are
involuntarily sent there (Donche et al., 2013). By and large these students are considered either
behaviorally challenged and/or academic failures. Ideally, inclusive acceptance of personality
traits, and guidance towards academic and behavioral success, are the motivation behind the
leadership and the corresponding approaches and procedures found at alternative schools
(EdSource, 2008).

2

Four general types of educational pathways have been created to meet California state
law for providing alternative education to meet the needs of “students vulnerable to academic or
behavioral failure” (EdSource, 2008). The Alternative Education Project has put these schools in
the following categories:
• Continuation schools, which provide opportunities for attendees who are behind in credits
to catch up;
• Community day schools, that serve students with behavior and grave disciplinary issues;
• County-run community schools, which serve expelled or adjudicated youth;
• Independent study programs, which are operated as an educational choice by their
districts (EdSource, 2008).
This study focuses on alternative education, specifically at continuation schools, and the
factors that contribute to an outperforming one. Although research has been conducted on these
schools, less is known about the factors that explain and contribute to their success (Donche et
al., 2013). To create change for the marginalized students who attend these schools, I
investigated and analyzed the possibilities and achievements in these institutions.
California continuation high schools, first vested in 1919, have evolved as one of the
pathways in alternative education. Continuation high schools serve as a way for students who are
at risk of dropping out to earn a high school diploma (California Department of Education
[CDE], 2017e). These schools originated to serve working students and then developed into an
institution to assist poorly adjusted youth. Continuation schools then transitioned into serving at-
risk students (Badenes-Perez & Johnson, 2008). California state law mandated in 1965 that high
schools serving a population larger than 100 students needed to provide continuation schools to
serve at-risk students (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008).

3

The fluctuation of students who arrive and leave these institutions at varied times leads to
discrepancies in attendance data at alternative schools (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012;
Warren, 2016). According to the CDE (2016), during the 2016–2017 academic year, there were
an estimated 441 continuation schools in the state. Student enrollment reports show 60,027
enrolled at these high schools while 116,500 students were served throughout the school year
(CDE, 2017e). The discrepancy between the two numbers occurs because of dropping out,
leaving for family reasons, runaways and the like. Although there are risks associated with the
frequent mobility of this student population, CDE’s intent is to “provide a world-class education
for all students” (CDE, 2017e). Furthermore, students attending continuation high schools, often
between the ages of 16 and 18, come from comprehensive high schools or other locations where
they have generally not experienced academic success. Common reasons for their placement
range from high transiency, learning disabilities, low motivation, substance abuse, behavioral
struggles, and lack of social success (Badenes-Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco et al.,
2008). Occasionally, students are drawn to these schools due to the alternative access to
curriculum and the flexibility in attendance requirements of a minimum of 15 hours a week.
Students also attend through referrals, probation agencies, and as an alternative to expulsion
(Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008).
In response to the many barriers that continuation schools face, including erroneous
perceptions of these institutions as dumping grounds for unwanted students, and to highlight the
exceptional performance of a model continuation school, the current qualitative case study
examined M. Garland Continuation School (a pseudonym). In 2006, M. Garland Continuation
School was identified by the state as a model continuation school serving a diverse group of
students (CDE, 2020). M. Garland Continuation School met the criteria for this study due to its

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high attendance and graduation rates. The school’s graduation rate of 97% is greater than the
state’s overall graduation rate of 81.1% in 2019 and 83% in 2018 (CDE, 2020).
Background of the Study
I had to consider the many factors needed to provide high-quality education and
reformation in continuation high schools. To provide such an education, leaders at these schools
need broad scopes of knowledge and skills to implement transformational changes in culture,
programs, and the students themselves. The accountability procedure at traditional public schools
usually requires data to ensure students are learning. Continuation schools, historically, have not
been held to the same requirements and have often utilized ineffective accountability methods
(Warren, 2016). Consequently, the California State Board of Education, on July 12, 2017,
approved a new measure for accountability. The Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS)
will fulfill the state’s obligation under California Education Code Section 5202(g) which states:
The Superintendent, with approval of the State Board of Education, shall develop an
alternative accountability system for schools under the jurisdiction of a county board of
education or a county superintendent of schools, community day schools, and alternative
schools serving high-risk pupils, including continuation high schools and opportunity
schools (CDE, 2018b, para. 2).
The worldwide and local workplace has transitioned from an industrial market to an
informational one since the 1960s. In 21
st
century learning, the traditional pedagogy of reading,
writing, and arithmetic has transitioned with the incorporation of critical thinking,
communication, collaboration, and creativity (Griffin et al., 2012). Four main domains are
addressed: traditional core subjects and skills, learning and innovation skills, career and life
skills, and digital literacies. If continuation schools are to produce students who can be

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successful socially, emotionally, and behaviorally in our society, as well as be prepared for the
workplace, it is essential they be provided with effective leaders who can provide opportunities
essential to a high-quality educational environment (Daunic, 2013; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Leaders of continuation schools are required to uphold the beliefs and purpose of the CDE to
serve attendees with a world-class education. Principals, who are required by the state to do so,
have to develop their own accountability measures as well as use their own leadership style to
implement them. These factors require extraordinary leadership in serving at-risk students. By
providing and cultivating an environment that nurtures students towards earning diplomas and
preparing them to be both college and career ready, school leaders will ensure student success
(National Education Association, 2010). However, to achieve this success, DePaoli et al. (2016)
and EdSource (2008) note that attention needs to be paid to the low graduation rates at
continuation schools. There is an urgency to research the policies and procedures as well as the
leadership and culture of continuation schools to reveal successful academic and social
development when it occurs.
Increasing opportunities for underrepresented students is a pivotal issue in the United
States (Boykin & Noguera, 2011; Noguera, 2003a). The core of this concern revolves around
gaps in educational opportunities and continuing inequities among student populations. These
inequities are abundant between White American and Black/Latino peers, low-income and
higher-income families, and students requiring aid with disabilities and those without need
(DePaoli et al., 2016; Noguera, 2003a). Thus, California’s continuation schools are required to
serve a diverse group, including students with behavior problems, pregnant or parenting teens,
working students, and those identified as at risk of dropping out (Foley & Pang, 2006;

6

Hernandez, 2017; Kelly, 1993; Warren, 2016). These students might have also experienced the
exclusionary and punitive practice of pushing out students at public schools (Fine, 1991).

7

Table 1
Demographics and Population in State Continuation Schools
Race Female
Enrollment
Percentage
of Female
Enrollment
Male
Enrollment
Percentage
of Male
Enrollment
Total
Number of
Students by
Race
Percent of
Total
Enrollment
by Race
African
American

1,960 3.51% 2,744 4.9% 4,704 8.42%
American
Indian

289 0.52% 367 0.66% 656 1.17%
Asian

Filipino

Hispanic

Pacific
Islander

White

Two or
More
Races

None
Reported

Total
272

136

14,709

148

2,286

442

94

2,1436
0.49%

0.24%

26.31%

0.26%

6.06%

0.79%

0.17%

38.35%
611

373

23,427

181

5,941

657

162

34,463
1.09%

0.67%

41.91%

0.32%

10.63%

1.18%

0.29%

61.65%
883

509

38,136

329

9,327

1099

256

55,899
1.58%

0.91%

68.22%

0.59%

16.69%

1.97%

0.46%

100.00%
*Source: California Department of Education, 2016.

The table above represents the ethnic demographics California found in continuation
schools in the year 2016. Hispanics lead the population drastically with African Americans
coming in second. The high number involving these two ethnic groups is critically important for
many reasons, including curriculum development. In creating a fostering, warm culture, the
students’ racial identities need to be taken into consideration.

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The high number of low-income students of color, combined with the limited research on
these educational institutions, is concerning. To address these concerns, it is imperative to
research these continuation campuses because of the high dropout rates experienced by schools
in our country. Access to a high-quality learning environment is critical to guide the high
numbers of students of color, students with disabilities, English language learners, and low-
income students at these schools towards graduation (DePaoli et al., 2016).
Statement of the Problem
Both continuation and alternative schools continue to be labeled as dumping grounds for
these “throwaway,” “threatening or failing” students (EdSource, 2008; Kelly, 1993; Malagon,
2010; Nygreen, 2013). The quality and focus of these schools vary, and researchers characterize
the aim and implementation of a mid-range of passable quality, attention, and opportunity as
benign neglect (EdSource, 2008). Students who attend these schools characteristically have
encountered numerous hardships, including inconsistent or inadequate housing, family
disruption, problems with immigration, and involvement with the foster care and/or criminal
justice systems a (Malagon, 2010). Current research reveals the many negative situations
encountered by attendees of these schools, including those they faced at comprehensive high
schools, as well as the problems they face outside of school (Kelly, 1993). There is also limited
research on these students’ socio-economic backgrounds, school history, family history,
involvement with social services, probations etc. and the culture of the continuation schools
(Malagon, 2010; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010). These alternative schools have been given a low
priority in academic research despite the need for qualified, dynamic leaders to overcome
barriers at these institutions and create a successful environment. If experienced leaders who

9

share qualities of empathy, positivity, and clarity in implementing a successful, safe culture at
their schools, they can model and assist in addressing these challenges (Rodriguez, 2013).
Successful continuation schools appear to have similar characteristics. The ones that have
strong support from school district leadership have an upper hand (EdSource, 2008). Principals
generally have discretion in hiring a quality, motivated staff, and all set clear academic goals for
students. Much-needed resources, such as supplies, and supplemental staff provide opportunities
for small class sizes. School leaders who take account of students’ special needs and collaborate
with outside organizations supply a pathway for support upon graduation (EdSource, 2008).
Effective continuation schools also have certain academic and disciplinary practices. Exemplary
outcomes are found in schools where leaders and teacher-leaders implement strong practices and
procedures such as clear student intake procedures and imposing order amongst students.
Rigorous standards for faculty and administrators, as the state or district instructs, are expected
(EdSource, 2008). Student performance data is reviewed, and changes are made based on that
information.
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the leadership, culture, and
promising practices and programs of an outperforming high school that has been recognized as a
California Model Continuation High School (MCHS). While a review of current research on
continuation education sets the foundation for this study, this dissertation adds to the relevant
scholarship and research to provide a better understanding of how these factors contribute to
higher educational outcomes for all students.
Research Questions and Methods
The research questions are as follows:

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1. What are the leadership styles and practices found in an outperforming, urban model
continuation school?
2. What programs and practices are implemented in an outperforming, urban, model
continuation school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming, model continuation school?
In this case study, I explored the leadership qualities and styles that propel this
outperforming school. I sought to observe and note the socialization practices at this school,
including relationships among educators, students, and administrators. My investigation also
included the implementation of programs and practices at M. Garland Continuation School.
Significance of the Study
Continuation schools are ignored and often overlooked in education. Per Ruiz de Velasco
et al. (2008), “continuation high schools and the students they serve are largely invisible to most
Californians” (p. 1). There is limited research on these schools, perhaps due to the relatively
small number of students who attend them. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) states that they are the
“understudied sub-sector of secondary education” (p. 8). This study is significant considering the
gravity and increasing need to understand continuation schools. This study focused on the
achievements of a model continuation school, which can conceivably provide the groundwork
for others that serve at-risk or low-performing students. Finally, this case study’s findings benefit
alternative and comprehensive schools alike in discovering programs, practices, and partnerships
that foster a dynamic culture for educating students.
Better interpretation of how these schools’ function, helps to communicate the needs of
marginalized students to researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. With larger
acknowledgement and responsiveness towards serving these students, greater outcomes ensue.

11

As the graduation rates for these students rise, so do their sense of personal achievements for
themselves, their families, and the nation (DePaoli et al., 2016). Ultimately, we can deviate from
the labeling and social exclusion of these students by backing and expanding opportunities for
them.
Limitations
The first limitation of this case study was that it was challenging to simplify the findings
in a non-traditional continuation high school. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) write of the large
variation among continuation schools in different “counties, in different districts within the same
county” (p. 9). The purpose of these schools continues to be to guide students to graduation
(Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). It is important to distinguish what findings would be suitable for
implementation in other environments. The second limitation is that the data gathered from the
school came from only the second half of the academic school year. The time on campus was 2
days, cut down from the planned six, due to the coronavirus pandemic. This may have limited
some of this study’s findings. Thirdly, due to the qualitative aspect of the study, the sample was
small (Creswell, 2014). Therefore, generalizations become challenging if this study were to be
replicated. Finally, the last limitation is the fact that no students were surveyed or interviewed.
Delimitations
One delimitation of the study was to work only with adults at the school site. I did not
interview nor survey students. This did not allow for students’ perspectives on the research focus
to reveal relative data. Lastly, data were collected over a 3-month span.
Assumptions
In this case study, many key assumptions were made. The first assumption was that all
staff at M. Garland Continuation School were highly qualified. It was assumed that all teachers

12

and administrators had the credentials and experience required to work in their positions. The
second assumption was that all participants would answer the surveys and interviews to the best
of their ability. It was assumed that they would be sincere in their responses and trust their
answers would be kept confidential. A third assumption was that the MCHS program denotes a
representation of the most outstanding California continuation schools in terms of preparing
students for life beyond high school and for becoming 21
st
century college and career ready
(CDE, 2017c). Next, there was an assumption that school leaders would coherently express
factors that assist in understanding the culture, programs, and practices of the school. Finally, I
assumed the tools used for data collection would offer impartiality, reliability, and validity.
Definition of Related Terms
The following terms are used throughout the study as defined below:
Accountability: Information regarding how the leadership and staff are meeting the needs
of California’s diverse student population based on measurable methods (CDE, 2017a)
Alternative education: Any of the four types of alternative schools. Alternative Education
is required by California state law to meet the needs of students who are at risk of behavior or
academic failure. These four types are continuation schools, community day schools, county-run
community day schools, or independent studies programs (Austin et al., 2008).
Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM): A state-sponsored accountability
model composed by following the Public Schools Accountability Act (CDE, 1999). Schools
select three indicators following their choices for accountability: expulsion/suspension rate,
attendance, student persistence, writing achievement, reading achievement, math achievement,
high school graduation rate or general education development certificate completion (Austin et

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al., 2008). This system is now outdated and will be replaced by the DASS in the fall of 2018
(CDE, 2018b).
Bolman and Deal’s four frames: Four leadership components identified by Bolman and
Deal (1991) as structural, human resource, political, and symbolic.
California continuation high school (CCHS): Continuation education is a high school
diploma program designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who have
not graduated from high school, are legally required to attend school and are at risk of dropping
out (CDE, 2018a)
Climate: The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a school’s environment, based
upon the physical, academic, and social dimensions (Loukas, 2007).
Culture: The belief and attitude influencing every aspect of a school function (Lewis,
Asberry, DeJarnett, & King, 2016).
Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS): California’s new accountability system
that contains state indicators and standards to help identify a school’s strengths, weaknesses, and
areas in need of improvement, in a dashboard of indicators. This dashboard system replaces the
Alternative School Accountability Model and was implemented in fall 2018 (CDE, 2018b).
Leadership: The influence process facilitated by the school principal that motivates
stakeholders toward the attainment of a common goal or vision (Northouse, 2016).
Marginalized youth: Students of color who are identified as living in poverty and
experiencing socioeconomic or racialized forms of discrimination (Diemer & Li, 2011).
Model Continuation High School: A CCHS recognized by the CDE as a comprehensive
program that provides services to at-risk youth using exemplary pedagogical strategies, flexible
scheduling, and guidance and counselling services (CDE, 2018c)

14

Protective factors: Characteristics provided through a school setting such as supportive
leadership, dedicated staff, school-wide behavior management, and effective academic
instruction which minimizes the risks for youth delinquency (Christle et al., 2005).
Resilience: The ability to demonstrate positive adaption in times of adversity, which is a
dynamic process that can change over time (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013).
Self-efficacy: The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of
action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997).
Social-emotional literacy: The ability to understand and regulate the emotions of self and
others, discriminate between, and use them to guide one’s actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Successful or effective educators: Those who have a positive and direct impact on student
outcomes, as measured by elevated academic achievement scores, incrementally increased by
daily performance measures, visible student motivation and active engagement, strong academic
efficacy beliefs and other constructive social, and behavior or intellectual outcomes (Coggshall,
2007).
Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC): A California School accredited
process which consists of a self-study and site visitation by a group of peers.
Organization of the Study
This qualitative case study is organized into five chapters. I begin with the introduction
and statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and research questions in the first chapter. In
the second chapter, I review current literature that focuses on the historical aspect of continuation
schools, effective leadership in schools, operative programs and policies, and culture. The third
chapter focuses on the methodology: data collection tools, and the rationale that guided my case

15

study. The fourth chapter is a discussion of the findings. In the fifth chapter, I conclude and
discuss implications and recommendations for future practices.

16

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Leaders are held responsible for the programs and procedures found at their continuation
schools as well as for the cultivation of the environment at these institutions. Marginalized youth
who attend high-performing continuation schools, mostly succeed in transforming themselves
into successes through the programs and practices that have guided their education. Thus, as a
way of adding to the extant scholarship available on continuation schools, it was necessary to
observe and document the phenomenon that is occurring at an outperforming model continuation
school.
Research Study Framework
It is vital to understand the research framework for this case study. Besides a rationale, a
framework that articulates and circumscribes the crucial traits of effective leadership assisted in
the way this study approached the examination of model schools. Through a phenomenological
and constructivist lens, I examined the school (and the relevant data) that was chosen for this
study. The evidence documented that these resilient students will be college and career ready by
actively participating in effective 21
st
century pedagogy that meaningfully accounts for their
special circumstances.
History of Continuation Schools
The first public schools developed in the United States were formed with the intent to
give equal educational access to all children. At that time, an equal education was defined as one
in which a person’s parentage and social standing did not dictate what educational achievements
could be attained by any given student (Cable et al., 2009). In 1837, the Secretary of the
Massachusetts State Board of Education, Horace Mann, had decided that all “common schools”
should be standardized (Tozer, et al., 2020). Presently, the American school system has extended

17

significantly to include non-traditional options such as magnet, charter, virtual, alternative, and
vocational institutions.
The first continuation school was established in Wisconsin in 1911 based on German and
British continuation models. The British and German schools, beginning in the 1870s, adapted to
the political, social, and economic needs of the students. These institutions were primarily
determined and defined by the administrative decisions that fell on the principals and educators
to execute; however, the corresponding accountability measures were sparse (Williamson, 2008).
In 1917, the Smith-Hughes Act authorized federal funding for continuation schools across
America (Williamson, 2008). Current literature notes that the demands of the 21
st
century,
including the global embeddedness of economies, have pointed out that many of our educational
approaches, as well as our educators are outdated (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Ruiz de
Velasco et al., 2008; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008).
California’s first continuation school opened in the first decades the 20
th
century. Their
purpose was providing working students with the opportunity for part-time instruction and skills
for the labor market (Kantor & Tyack, 1982; Kelly, 1993; Kliebard, 1999; Nygreen, 2013).
Between 1917 and 1930, education at these schools prepared students for industrial vocation,
citizenship, placement in the workforce alongside helping recent immigrants integrate into
American culture (Kelly, 1993; Williamson, 2008). During that time period, the intent was to
provide opportunities for students to receive a diploma prior to graduation (meaning how they
would finish the required credits for a diploma, prior to the 4-year high school graduation
schedule) (Nygreen, 2013). Many continuation programs provided vocational guidance to
students who already had jobs in finding better employment, thereby decreasing poverty rates

18

and exploitation (Imber, 1985; Mayman, 1933). Thirty-four states and U.S. territories, including
Puerto Rico, had put in place continuation programs (Mayman, 1933; Nygreen, 2013).
After the Great Depression, and with the enactment of child labor laws, the number of
continuation schools declined. Between 1931 and 1944, the purpose of continuation schools
evolved to guiding rather than placing the unemployed and the criminalized, including men of
color and poverty, into productive employment; vocational guidance took precedence. California
was one of the states that also adjusted the purpose of these institutions (Kelly, 1993; Nygreen,
2013; Williamson, 2008). From 1945 to 1964, continuation schools highlighted socialization and
reforming “maladjusted youth” (Williamson, 2008, p.10). The 1950 Handbook on Continuation
Education in California stated:
These [unadjusted students] may be classified as students who are retarded in school,
students with little interest in the school program, students needing remedial work in
certain fields, students with limited physical capacity, students returning to school after
long periods of absence, transfers, late enrollees, students needing special guidance such
as habitual truants, juvenile court problems, behavior cases, health problems, and
students requiring rehabilitation (California State Department of Education, YEAR, p. 3)
During the 1960s, there was an increase in continuation schools, as they attempted to
serve students with even more varying individual needs and situations (Nygreen, 2013).
Continuation schools were now placed in the same grouping as alternative schools. The primary
purpose for these schools, from 1965 to the present day, has been to prevent dropouts and offer
opportunities to improve, if not ensure, graduation (Nygreen, 2013; Williamson, 2008).
The literature reveals continuation schools face complex obstacles. Due to “contradictory,
confusing, and inconsistent” accountability measures required by the state, there are significant

19

variations in quality and experiences as students attend continuation schools (Ruiz de Velasco &
McLaughlin, 2012, p. 6). California’s continuation students are two and one-half times more
likely to drop out than students attending comprehensive high schools (Ruiz de Velasco et al.,
2008). Traditional high schools had shown improvement in dropout rates in the last seven years,
with a graduation rate of 84% in 2018 (CDE, 2017b). Sadly, in 2019, the graduation rate dropped
to 81.1% (CDE,2020b).

Empirical Research on Continuation Schools
Continuation schools continue to be thought of as a dumping ground, being framed as
schools for so-called “bad students”, by researchers, educators, communities, families and
individuals, as well as society (Kelly, 1993). Consequently, Kelly (1993) questions the realistic
possibility of producing an environment for “pushouts, dropouts, and potential dropouts without
stigma” (p. 68). A common assumption, is that continuation institutions are volatile and provide
a “second-class” education. A further stigma is that graduates of these schools are not prepared
for higher education (Kelly, 1993). This narrative is paralleled with how educators at these
schools are viewed. Often, teachers are pushed into these schools to penalize them by their
school districts. To counteract these assumptions, Duke and Griesdorn (1999) state that
alternative education, in any form, should serve students in transforming their perception of
themselves, thereby increasing the possibility for success by eliminating the description of them
as “losers” (Duke & Griesdorn, 1999).
Continuation High School Structures and Educators ’ Expectations
In a study of two continuation schools in California, Kelly (1993) cited two different
experiences of education, that utilized diverse pedagogies in teaching, with the educator sharing
the purpose of implementing a genuine alternative for students. While some want to “[treat]

20

misfits” (p. 65), Kelly argues that there are “developmentalists” who genuinely advocate for an
authentic opportunity for continuation students and value treating the students holistically in
order to meet their needs. However, Kelly labels educators who attempt to deal with behavioral
issues of students by utilizing a treatment-based approach and a controlling manner, as
“traditionalists.” Not surprisingly, these beliefs guide the discipline and the constructivist
approaches found at those schools and privileged by the school leaders. By utilizing the research
found at these different types of schools, Kelly describes how the pedagogy of the administration
running the school is influenced by teaching pedagogics. Kelly identifies two lenses, which he
labels as the “traditionalist” and the “developmentalist” to describe administrative approaches to
pedagogy.
Continuation schools accept marginalized students who do not adhere to the goals of
comprehensive high schools, who are often adversely affected by their low academic
performance and behavior challenges. By reinforcing the academic and behavior expectancy of
traditional schools as well as serving as a place where students are punitively treated, these
schools serve as a safety valve (Kelly, 1993). Thus, the emphasis and consequences of how
comprehensive schools are structured, and of the educators who teach within these institutional
parameters, is shifted to the limitations or failures of the individual student. By this means of
serving the student while segregating to confinement in a safety valve school, the narrative of
labeling these schools continues (Kelly, 1993).
Given the limitations of comprehensive schools that Kelly (1993) identifies, not
surprisingly, he finds that continuation schools are beneficial in servicing the needs of non-
traditional students. By attending to the unique social and academic needs of these students,
continuation schools also serve as a safety net that prevents these students from dropping out of

21

school. A “developmentalist” perspective investigates what did not work for these students in a
comprehensive school, instead of holding students to the same traditional standards that have
been prescribed both socially and academically. Given a proactive approach, developmentalist
educators modify classroom structures and procedures as necessary to meet the needs of their
students.
Kennedy-Lewis (2015) state that traditionalist and developmentalist philosophies as they
apply to continuation schools are often unclear. A much more pertinent concern is that the
continuing marginalization of non-traditional students can cause them to be pushed out by
comprehensive high schools, and worse, possibly push them into the school-to-prison pipeline
(Kennedy-Lewis, 2015). It is critical that proactive measures are taken to help those students
who are struggling in comprehensive high schools, before they reach their failure threshold.
Curriculum and Instruction
Much of the existing literature suggests that the curriculum and instruction continuation
schools provide is “second-class” (Kelly, 1993; Nygreen, 2013). Educators as well as researchers
have concern over low expectations being set by teachers for these students, as well as low
academic standards to begin with (Muñoz, 2004). In a study by Muñoz (2004), one continuation
school with a high concentration of Chicanas, revealed that very few of the students were
graduating or transitioning back to a comprehensive high school. The school’s inconsistent
pedagogy, low academic standards, and the administration's lack of self-evaluation were cited as
contributing factors. Malagon (2010) noted how the literature provided for Chicano male youth
was geared towards topics that it was presumed they would identify with, given their own life
experiences. Perhaps this was a well-intentioned attempt to provide “relevant” topics to engage
the Chicano students, however the course content only resulted in resistance from the students

22

who ultimately refused to engage with the material. In another study by Hurtado and his
colleagues (2015), they noted that curriculum and assignments at continuation schools were
either too difficult or not challenging enough for the students. The field literature informs us of
the need to further investigate the current curriculum and instruction that continuation high
schools provide students.
Accountability
Despite the significant positive results of lessening the dropout rate and assisting
continuation students towards constructive outcomes, California’s current accountability system
does not have measures for short-or long-term performance goals at these institutions. This gap
in the data impedes educators from identifying those schools that are not providing the benefits
these students need, nor assist in securing much-needed resources, interventions, and incentives
(Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). As previously mentioned,
continuation students have high mobility rates, thus impeding the state from collecting data that
demonstrates verifiable progress within this student population (Austin et al., 2008; Ruiz de
Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Generally, continuation students
attend for less than one year, therefore state measures that apply to a 4-year cohort graduation
rate, cannot be utilized for these schools. Furthermore, with the average attendance at
continuation schools being 4 to 5 months, student data on state standardized tests are also not
valid, as the results may reveal more about the student’s learning at their previous school (Ruiz
de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012).
In 2000, the CDE in combination with the 1999 Public Schools Accountability Act
(Williamson, 2008), administered the Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM).
California used the ASAM rather than traditional testing between the years of 2003 and 2009.

23

Due to the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, the ASAM was not completely executed, since the
No Child Left Behind Act had mandated that alternative schools be required to meet the same
adequate yearly progress goals of traditional schools (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017;
Taylor, 2015).
The ASAM program, therefore, became a voluntary reporting system, and details about
student progress varied as they were compared to continuation schools across America. Data
acquired from these schools was limited to the performance of students who had been enrolled
for at least 90 days (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Williamson, 2008). The
ASAM program became totally obsolete during the 2010–2011 school year when Governor
Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed funding for the program. Valid test scores for numerous
continuation school students were no longer enough to receive an accountability report for 2009
to 2013 (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015).
California passed AB 570 in 2013 to give incentive to districts striving to close the
accountability gap (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). At that time, California had adopted the
local control funding formula, which drastically altered the accountability system for schools as
specified in the California School Dashboard (CDE, 2018b). The Dashboard provides
performance indicators and standards to provide clarity for the strengths and areas of
improvement for traditional, K-12 schools. However, the Dashboard does not sufficiently
provide an evaluation of the progress and performance in alternative schools (CDE, 2017b, Ruiz
de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015).
During the first year that the Local Control and Accountability Plan was used (LCAP), in
2014, alternative schools were overlooked (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015).
The critical problem that accompanies this oversight is that the performance indicators for

24

alternative schools would be camouflaged by district or county averages, unless separately noted
in LCAPs. Furthermore, state resources and support cannot be accessed if alternative schools are
overlooked. Thus, intervention will not be funded for our most at-risk students if not documented
(Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008).
Regarding accountability in continuation education, the recommendations found in the
literature suggest the following: a documentation of state-approved pre-and post-benchmarks,
credits earned, one-year graduation rates for seniors, continued use of standardized tests, and
data regarding students’ mobility and success as they transition to and from a traditional setting.
(Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). Accompanying those
recommendations would be public access for all performance data and promising practices to
assist other schools with interventions (Taylor, 2015). A further recommendation is to implement
indicators concerning relatedness, attendance and punctuality; susceptible students; pregnant and
students with children; and lesbian, bisexual, or transgender students. It is also recommended
that a game plan for the identification, placement, orientation, and monitoring measures for all
students for the DASS be implemented (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015;
Warren, 2016).
Continuation School Students
Currently, “a cornerstone of the State’s dropout prevention strategy” (Ruiz de Velasco et
al., 2008, p. 1) are continuation schools. Strong efforts to promote positive graduation rates are
essential due to the aftereffects of not receiving a diploma. High school dropouts are often living
in poverty, are of poor health, unemployed or earning low wages, living with family dysfunction,
suffering from mental illness, and draining America as well as their local community of
resources, correspondingly causing economic strain (Alliance for Excellent Education, n. d.;

25

Anderson, 2014; Bjerk, 2012; Campbell, 2015; Chung, 2015; Gurantz, 2010). An estimate for
the cost society pays for a high school dropout is around $300,000 over their lifetime (Anderson,
2014). The estimated public expenditure for a student enrolled in both elementary and secondary
education in California is roughly $10,000 (Fensterwald, 2017). The usual estimated amount to
imprison a minor is $208,338, and $47,421 for an adult (Henrichson & Delaney, 2012; Petteruti
et al., 2014). Both at the local and national levels, it is in the best interest of all to invest in
researching best practices and procedures, the learning environment, and the leadership practices
at high-performing schools to lower the dropout rate.
Continuation school students overcome innumerable challenges, and despite precise data
on the students and their environments, common themes emerge. As previously mentioned, these
individuals are behind in their credits towards graduation and are at high risk of dropping out
(Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). A health-related study on alternative high
schools from 2010 to 2015 listed these students as being exposed to a higher than normal range
of risk factors that can result in mental health problems and at-risk health behaviors (Johnson et
al., 2016). This study also found that parental involvement and increased monitoring of these
students resulted in lessened drug use and gang involvement (Muñoz, 2004). Studies also found
that continuation schools offer greater amounts of high fat/salty foods possibly affecting the
mental stability of these students. Continuation school students are two to three times as likely to
be in physical fights, use drugs or alcohol (even at school), be truant, and engage in sexually
risky behaviors (Johnson et al., 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales,
2017; Taylor, 2015; Williamson, 2008).
Research on continuation high school students reveals that it is more probable that they
will be involved in the foster care system, consistent alcohol and substance abuse, and/or in the

26

juvenile justice system as well as more likely to participate in physical fights, to have carried a
weapon, and to be gang members (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). A different system for labeling
these students is found in a study of Punta Vista Continuation School by Rios (2017) who found
them categorizing students as a way of sustaining order:
The administration and faculty had a list of character types, folk categories, used to label
Students for the sake of everyone’s safety and to maintain order: The addict, the
Emotionally disturbed, the promiscuous chola (gangster girl), the angry cholo, the
Wannabe (aspiring gangster), and the class clown. (p. 30)
Despite the obstacles and ongoing stigma that continuation students face, research has
shown that effective leaders who implement student-affirmative procedures and policies, as well
as cultivate the learning environment to meet the students’ needs, can provide opportunities for
building self-efficacy, educational success, and resiliency in facing social-emotional issues
(Farris, 2014; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Zolkoski et al., 2016).
Theoretical Foundations on Leadership
It is challenging to delineate leadership into one solid, universal definition (Bush &
Glover, 2014; Leithwood et al., 1999; Northouse, 2016). As Northouse (2016) supposed, there
may be as many definitions of leadership as there are people who have endeavored to describe it.
Although there may be ongoing argument on the definition, there is overall agreement that
effective leadership is multifaceted (Bush & Glover, 2014; Elmore, 2004; Leithwood et al.,
1999; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Yukl,
2002). Rubin et al. (2005) state that a leader has the power to either shed light or cast shadows
onto others. Elmore (2004) proclaims that leadership is an actionable word where the practice of
improvement takes place. Yukl (2002) defines leadership as how it influences people to perform

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and achieve a common task. Northouse (2016) combines descriptive characteristics with actions
and posited the method by which an individual takes the lead to influence others to follow a
collective goal. Becoming an effective leader requires specific skills, both innate and learned
(Northouse, 2016).
Effective Leadership at High-Performing Continuation Schools
Despite the obstacles intrinsic to continuation schools, effective leadership is essential to
a high-performing continuation institution (Badenes-Perez & Johnson, 2008; Bush, 2012; Farris,
2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012;
Sumbera, 2017). Findings in the field literature suggest that 21
st
century skills for higher
education and/or career readiness, as well as a high school diploma, are more likely to be
achieved if leaders implement specific practices (Badenes-Perez & Johnson, 2008; Bush, 2012;
Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Effective principals at
these institutions have distinct goals that align with their vision and mission as well as coincide
with stakeholders’ beliefs. Bush and Glover (2012) found that both high-performing and
outperforming schools had modified course frameworks, short-term curriculum modules, and a
performance-based credit recovery system. These leaders implemented or continued with a data-
driven approach to educational gaps, backward-mapping to the state standards, and providing
options for online learning. These practices are found in transformational leadership which is
comprised of vision, expectations, and goal-seeking outcomes (Podsakoff et al., 1990).
Secondly, there is transparency in the management of students during the intake and
transfer processes that aligns with the goals of the school and is supported by the district
administration (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). This is demonstrated by the placement of
students in appropriate alternative programs to serve their individual needs. Thirdly, by paying

28

consistent attention to data on graduation and transfer rates, as well as attendance, schools can
participate in programs like the MCHS distinction as well as the WASC accreditation process
(Badenes-Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin,
2012; Warren, 2016). Next, by creatively extending the continuation school day beyond the state
requirements of a minimum of three hours, leaders can provide opportunities for direct
instruction, teacher collaboration and planning, and optional curricular activities (Bush, 2012;
Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). These transformational leadership practices can help
support an environment of collaboration, goal-oriented staff, and high expectations (Podsakoff et
al., 1990).
Effective leaders, specifically principals, lead staff in scrutinizing school climate data in
order to cultivate a supporting, safe, and academically driven environment (Bush, 2012). Ruiz de
Velasco and Gonzales (2017) as well as Badenes-Perez and Johnson’s (2008) research
synthesizes that effective continuation schools share components of school connectedness and
caring interpersonal relations between staff and students. These foundations between effective
principals and cited elements complement each other. In a qualitative study by te Riele et al.
(2017) and a mixed-methods study by Brown (2007), whose research targeted alternative high
school settings, concluded that the cultivation of trust and empathy in the school’s culture is
crucial for both staff and students (Brown, 2007). These results support transformational
leadership components of proactively cultivating a positive and engaging culture in educational
institutions (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Northouse, 2016).
Furthermore, high-performing continuation schools employ innovative staff as well as
effective leaders who implement a variety of opportunities targeting practices supporting social-
emotional, academic, higher education, and vocational supports. Local agencies and community

29

businesses are involved with the schools to build lasting associations to meet students’ needs
(Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). These principals
implement restorative, solid systems of positive intervention support for unwanted behaviors and
are both solution-based as well as team-oriented (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Bush,
2012). Finally, the districts of these high-performing schools support them through specific
professional development to serve their needs as well as provide incentives to attract a highly
qualified staff (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017).
Facing the numerous obstacles and barriers to serving the needs of marginalized students
at continuation schools, many institutions become high-performing by implementing the varied
best practices that have been identified in the relevant research and scholarship (Badenes-Perez
& Johnson, 2008; Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Ruiz de Velasco &
McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017).
Programs and Practices in High-Performing Continuation Schools
In examining the programs and practices in high-performing continuation schools, certain
common elements can be traced. School discipline measures focus on positive behavioral
support rather than punitive methods, such as zero tolerance policies. Effective principals in
these high-performing schools think of themselves as coaches guiding the team, maintaining
order, and sustaining an academic focus (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Numerous
teachers as well as students described their school environment as a “family,” treating each other
with respect and care; social and academic achievements were supported and celebrated (Ruiz de
Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). More attention being given to positive behaviors during
instruction, as well as modeling problem-solving skills and conflict resolution, helped cultivate
constructive relationships (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Many of the continuation

30

students have faced the juvenile justice system, foster homes, and punitive discipline in their
comprehensive high schools. Thus, principals and staff are clear and specific about reinforcing
positive behaviors and reiterating expectations in these high-performing continuation schools
(Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012).
Another effective aspect of programs and policies in high-performing continuation
schools are the connections that have been built with local resources, agencies, businesses, and
postsecondary institutions. Proving that the capacity of the school is increased overall by
partnerships that extend beyond the students’ time on campus (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin,
2012). Effective leaders establish relationships with institutions and organizations such as
regional occupational programs, local businesses, and community colleges (Ruiz de Velasco &
McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). In developing opportunities for students to
attend community colleges, meet with advisors, and even sit in on classes, strong, partnerships
develop with these schools. Through local businesses, effective leaders have established options
for students to receive academic credits through internships as well as opportunities for
employment. Local mental health agencies and community-based mental health programs are
utilized to provide extra social-emotional support for students. Outside drug and alcohol
programs and partnership programs are brought in to support addiction recovery. Partnerships
with probation agencies are often used to provide students on probation with further
opportunities (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Furthermore,
direct school district support and strong principal leadership are the most crucial elements
required for high-performing schools (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012).
Culture and Climate in High-Performing Continuation Schools

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Much research has been conducted on the methods utilized by high-performing
continuation schools to aid the exceptional teaching and engaged learning found there (Haycock,
2002). Effective schools assist with external needs such as clothing, food, and supplies
(Haycock, 2002; Noguera, 2003a). With much attention already being paid to cultivating and
improving learning environments, these institutions also rely on outside business relationships to
assist in fostering student achievement at a social level (Noguera, 2003a). Chenoweth (2009)
studied the programs and processes successful schools have utilized, to meet the needs of low-
income and minority youth, and to identify what they have achieved. Chenoweth compliments
school leaders who allow outside groups into their schools to support student achievement. The
climate and culture of a high-performing school is always one of empathy towards students who
may have had previous relationships with educators that were primarily hostile (Ruiz de Velasco
& McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). By cultivating a positive environment,
focusing on student assets and celebrating their successes, an effective leader can support them
in furthering their ongoing progress and achievements.
Model Continuation High Schools
As previously mentioned, effective leaders at continuation school are proactive in their
methods for increasing accountability through WASC accreditation or MCHS distinction to
moderate and compensate for the insufficient state accountability system for their institutions
(Badenes-Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al.,
2008).
The California Department of Education and the California Continuation Education
Association worked together to create the MCHS Recognition Program to identify and award
exemplary continuation institutions (CDE, 2018c). The award is granted to schools providing

32

their at-risk population with comprehensive opportunities such as flexible scheduling, guidance,
counselling, and pedagogical strategies. These recognized institutions provide information that
can assist other continuation high school across California. Schools recognized have been
selected through an application process involving peer-review panel as well as onsite visitation.
Tom Torlakson, the California superintendent of schools, cited these schools as being
“innovative, effective programs” that motivate at-risk youth to work towards their highest
potential (CDE, 2017f). The leaders of these schools have a passionate drive to alter the
trajectories of their students.
Conceptual Framework to Understand Model Continuation School Structure
In the spirit of inquiry, this study utilized the Paradigm to Understand and Examine Drop
out and Engagement in Society (PUEDES), which analyzes the structure-culture-agency
paradigms to understand the social connectedness and interactions of people and how their
connections influence their culture and individuality (Brown & Rodriguez, 2008; Datnow,
Hubbard, & Mehan, 2003; Giddens, 1984; Rodriguez, 2013). Originating in ethnomethodology
(Mehan & Wood, 1975), this PUEDES structure can serve as a means of analysis of how the
restraints or flexibility of public-school institutions can influence their actions. In this case study,
the PUEDES paradigm was utilized to provide clarity on the MCHS culture and identity. Due to
the assumption that at-risk students do not care or value their education and are low-achievers
(Kelly, 1993), the PUEDES model can inform us of possible reasons that continuation students
feel pushed out from comprehensive schools due to the cultural and structural foundations of
these schools.
Applying the PUEDES paradigm to the school that was the focus of this study will yield
clarity on student policies. The central questions that guide this study revolve around the main

33

components of the PUEDES paradigm. Social culture as well as school culture are closely
examined. Observations around campus and in classrooms aid in understanding the dynamic
cultural interactions in these settings. Policies and programs implemented by the administration
as well as teachers were observed and evaluated. Teachers and leaders were interviewed with
questions pertaining to the social status, relevant curriculum, and classroom and school rules.
These factors contribute to the formation of the behaviors, attitudes, feelings, and disposition of
the school that comprises this study. This was done to discern the themes which characterize M.
Garland Continuation School.

Figure 1. Applying PUEDES to understand the school culture of a model continuation school.
Note: Version from Rodriguez (2013).

In studying and analyzing the many factors that continuation schools have to overcome to
assist in ensuring success, various characteristics come to view. According to the PUEDES
framework (Figure 1), there are four basic categories that are addressed and assessed in each

34

individual: Behavior, Feelings, Attitude, and Disposition. In order to assist in fostering a
successful school culture, one should carefully look at critical areas such as classroom culture,
classroom structure, school structure, school culture, social culture, and social structure, since
continuation students are most susceptible to high-risk behaviors as well dropping out of school
prior to graduation.

35

Chapter Three: Methodology
In this chapter, a short summary of the problem, purpose of the case study, evaluation of
the literature, and the research questions are provided. This chapter also includes the research
design behind the study along with an account of the participants, setting, instrumentation, data
collection methods, and data analysis of the findings. The chapter concludes with a summary as
well as a brief look at Chapters Four and Five.
Restatement of the Problem, Focus, and Research Questions
Continuation students who are at risk of not earning their diploma face numerous
obstacles and have urgent and critical needs (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The multi-faceted
institutions that serve these students face many barriers that affect efficacy, due to the low
priority placed on how these schools are administered, accounted for, as well as the scant
research that has been done on them (Villalobos, 2014). In particular, research on the successes
and promising practices to improve these schools is scarce (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008;
Villalobos, 2014). Due to a feeble accountability system, vague legislation, and an
oversimplified mission for these schools, there is inconsistency in administration from school to
school (Williamson, 2008). Finally, forms of state accountability, historically, have not been
effective (Warren, 2016). Despite these existing obstacles, high achievement, measured through
varied methods, has been noted at these institutions and gives us verifiable evidence that there
are places where at-risk students are being provided with a world-class education.
In examining the literature, I summarized the numerous obstacles faced by continuation
schools. Limited research exists regarding effective principal strategies at these schools. In
comparison, traditional, comprehensive schools have much documentation on this topic. The
field research is sparse when it comes to effective continuation school principals and their

36

qualities of leadership (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Leithwood et al., 2004;
Winton & Pollock, 2016). Research that does involve principal leadership in continuation
schools spotlights a few leadership traits, such as implementing consistent discipline policies,
cultivating a team-oriented culture, and utilizing practices and programs that involve outside
agencies and restorative justice (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Therefore,
working off of the existing research, the purpose of my study centers on closely examines the
dynamic phenomenon that makes for an outperforming model continuation school. The
following research questions guided this case study:
1. What are the leadership styles and practices that are found in an outperforming, urban
continuation school?
2. What programs and practices are implemented in an outperforming, urban continuation
school?
3. What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming, continuation school?
Study Design
To attain a more profound understanding of the phenomena of leadership, culture,
programs and practices at a model continuation school, I use a qualitative case study approach.
Qualitative case study focuses on a holistic account of the natural setting and a deep description
of the institution (Yin, 2011). Creswell (2007) states:
Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a
bounded system (a case) or multiple bonded systems (cases) over time, through detailed,
in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g. observations,
interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case
description and case-based themes. (p. 73)

37

Therefore, in the spirit of inquiry described by Yin and Creswell, I sought to gain insight into the
leadership style, the school culture, and the consistent practices and college and career-ready
programs this school utilizes. To discover the answers to this case study’s questions, the main
forms of data collection were school and classroom observations, document analysis, and semi-
structured interviews. During the process, I used field notes and analytic memos to assist in
documenting and understanding the data.
Triangulation yielded data validation. The concept of triangulation is based on the logic
that no single measure of assessment can solve the problem of opposing explanations (Patton,
2002). Multiple data sources, such as observations, interviews, and documents, are utilized and
cross-referenced for triangulation (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002). A deeper understanding of the
information emerged from the analysis of triangulated data.
In addition, comparable to the work of Lawrence-Lightfoot (1983), my focus in this case
study incorporates a methodological approach searching for “goodness” in this model
continuation school. This tactic is an attempt to steer away from the stigmatic and stereotypical
narrative that encompasses most continuation schools’ students and staff.
Sample and Population
Selection Process
The following criteria guided the selection process as I searched for an appropriate
continuation school to focus on for this study:
1. A model continuation school
2. An urban school
3. A high graduation rate, target 90%
4. A large proportion of low-socioeconomic status students

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5. Ethnic diversity among students
6. A principal that has been in service for at least five years
7. A low suspension/ graduation rate
The model continuation school selected for this study met all the requirements and will
be discussed in the next section.
Community Profile
M. Garland Continuation School (pseudonym) is a model continuation school in
Huntonden, California, which lies between the Blackhawk Mountains and the Algonquin Hills.
The population of Huntonden is approximately 52,000 and includes people of various ethnicities.
The racial makeup of the community consists of White (65.6%), Hispanic (25.1%), Black
(2.2%), Native American (.20%), Asian (5.5%), Hawaiian/Pacific (.5%) and other (.9%). The
annual median household income is $75,148 (City of Huntonden, 2019). Huntonden has a low
crime rate in comparison to other cities in the state and is under the jurisdiction of 54 sworn city
law enforcement officers. Educationally, the residents range from high school dropouts (5.90%)
to high school graduates (18.9%), locals with some college but no degree (27.6%), associate
degree recipients (11.2%), and bachelor’s degree recipients (20.2%) as well as graduate or
professional degree recipients (12.3%). The city has two public school districts, Huntonden
Unified and DuPage Unified. Standard test results for the Huntonden Unified School District
show 70% of all students meet or exceed proficiency in English language arts and 59% do so in
mathematics. The city’s major employers include a community college, two hospitals, the
county, an orthodontic supply company, and Huntonden Unified School District (City of
Huntonden, 2019).

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M. Garland Continuation High School Profile
M. Garland Continuation School serves students aged 16 and older. Students are
involuntarily or voluntarily referred to M. Garland by their high school administrator or
counselor from Huntonden High School. Students may attend the school for four to seven
periods per day, dependent upon their unique needs. The students who need special education
services are referred through the individualized education program process. M. Garland attends
to the needs of students who:
• Are significantly behind on credits and is not on track to graduate on time.
• Need more individualized curriculum, instruction, or guidance.
• Are in situations that make it challenging to attend a comprehensive high school.
• Are employed and can only attend for minimal hours each week.
• Have been transferred from the comprehensive high school because of behavior issues or
poor attendance.
In M. Garland’s student handbook, the goal of the school is stated as, “To develop a person who
is willing to accept and display the responsibilities of good citizenship and to become a
contributing member of our society.”
In the 2017–2018 year, the average enrollment at M. Garland was 56 students. The
student-teacher ratio at M. Garland is five students to one teacher. On average, students live
below poverty level, as 9.2% of them qualify for reduced-price lunch and 44.4% qualify for free
lunch. The demographic breakdown of the student population is as follows: 49% Hispanic; 45%
White; 4% Hawaiian/Pacific; 2% 2 or more races (CDE, 2019). M. Garland has had a slowly
declining suspension/expulsion rate. In the 2018–2019 academic year, 13 students were
suspended and none were expelled.

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Instruction at M. Garland is structured around the same standards-aligned curriculum as
provided at Huntonden High School. However, instruction at the school is modified by the
teachers to meet the needs of at-risk students in varied ways, including:
• Smaller class sizes,
• Individual instruction and assistance,
• Emphasis on effort and participation,
• Emphasis on work accomplished while in class rather than outside of class,
• Emphasis on student engagement, discussion and hands-on teaching strategies, and
• Teachers who are trained and dedicated to working with at-risk students.
M. Garland implements a credit recovery program as an online-based curriculum in the
computer lab. Students may complete assignments at their own pace while monitored by a
credentialed teacher. Students who often display poor attendance or lack of effort may be
removed from credit recovery at the discretion of the school administration. Students take
quizzes and tests on campus under the supervision of their assigned teacher.
Students who earn a grade point average of 3.0 or higher and 15 credits or more per
quarter are recognized as recipients of the principal’s honor roll. These recipients are invited to a
community event each quarter, and families are encouraged to attend. Students who meet
graduation requirements may participate in the Alternative Programs Graduation Ceremony. This
ceremony is formal, with participants wearing a cap and gown, and high school diplomas are
granted.
M. Garland’s academic state test scores vary between math and English language arts. In
math, 12% of the students nearly met standards while 38% of the state’s students exceeded
standards. In ELA, 23% of M. Garland students met or exceeded state standards, and 42% nearly

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met these standards in comparison to the state’s 49%. In comparison, at one nearby continuation
school, 20% of student were deemed proficient in English language arts and 9% were deemed so
in math. At another local campus, students were deemed proficient in both subjects at rates of
about 10%.
Consistent guidance counselling is an essential part of measuring the progress of students
at M. Garland. Each senior student will develop a graduation and post-graduation plan to ensure
they will be on track for graduation. Parents and students receive regular updates on their
progress as they fulfill graduation requirements. M. Garland has an outperforming graduation
rate of 95%. It is in the 87
th
percentile of all high schools in the state.
Instrumentation
The methods used to conduct this case study consisted of document analysis that was
started prior to, and continued during, onsite fieldwork, staff and administrative interviews
conducted on site and via phone, and onsite observations with matching checklists. Instruments
were chosen to triangulate data to maximize the study’s validity and reliability. The
uncomplicated instruments served the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding and revealing
rich description that are the hallmarks of a qualitative study. The instruments were specifically
aligned with the research questions for this study.
Document Analysis
Document Analysis began in August 2019 after receiving written approval from the
principal of M. Garland Continuation School. A collection of state data, school flyers, a printout
copy of the school’s website links, and the school’s application for recognition as a model
continuation school were closely examined. This document analysis assisted in triangulating data
when other data sources were cross-referenced for validity.

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Staff Interviews
Qualitative interviewing allows a multi-faceted view of another’s viewpoint and
unobservable traits (Patton, 2002). Patton believes that the quality of the interview is in the hands
of the interviewer, as they are the deciding factor in ensuring quality and that the interview
protocols are appropriately followed. Patton (2002) identified three different types of interviews:
informal conversation, interview guide, and standard open-ended questions. Open-ended
questioning ensures interview standardization. Open-ended questioning also allows the
interviewee an opportunity to elaborate and focus on points of noted interest. There are four
primary reasons Patton (2002) identifies for using uniform and consistent open-ended interviews.
Standardization of the questions ensures that the emergent themes in the responses can be easily
spotted during analysis, which also makes efficient use of time and keeps the researcher’s focus
on the research questions. Lastly, the interview questions can be examined by those who find the
study’s contributions useful (Patton, 2002).
In the first cohort I had been in, under the supervision of Dr. Gothold and Dr. Ott, I had
workshopped with other members the formation of interview questions, document reviews, and
observation formats. For my dissertation, I used the principles I learned at this workshop as a
guideline for finalizing my own questions and research methodologies. In formulating the
interview questions, I took each research question and decided what data would best answer the
question (See Appendix B ). Then I formulated roughly three questions each, for the interview,
in order to answer the research questions.

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New institutional review board (IRB) guidelines mandate that all interviewees be given
the option to participate and to decline to answer any interview question. A letter of consent was
given to all participants as well as a copy for them to keep for their files.

Observations
To achieve a deeper understanding and provide a rich description for this case study, I
designed three different observation checklists. One checklist’s focus was the school site
(Appendix C). What first impressions did the researcher have of leadership upon entering the
setting? Were there formal and informal leaders and what were there traits? What was the first
impression of the professional culture? Another aspect considered in this observation checklist
was that of student support and other stakeholders. To better understand the school’s culture,
documentation of every aspect of this culture was conducted. The second checklist was designed
for the classroom environment (Appendix D). How informational or recreational was the
classroom? What curriculum was being taught and how was it individualized for each student?
To understand the phenomenon of such high graduation rates at this school, I sought to
determine what was being taught and presented to the students. The third observation checklist
(Appendix E) was an observation protocol, more open-ended, that I utilized in staff meetings as
well as with administrators and during student encounters. Who was invited to the event? How
many participants were in attendance and how did they respond to the leaders or teacher-leaders
presenting? By utilizing a variety of observation methods, I was able to gain a greater
understanding of the influence of the principal and staff as well as of the culture of the school
community.

Data Collection and Ethical Considerations

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Before beginning research, Creswell (2014) recommends that researchers reflect on a
code of ethics, such as professional association standards, when attaining permission to perform
the study at the selected school site. During my pre-research on model continuation schools, I
obtained the California MCHS lists from the CDE website (CDE, 2016, 2017f, 2018d) to
compare different model schools to determine which would best fit the criteria of an
outperforming model continuation high school. One aspect that was crucial to my study was that
the school’s principal had to have been at the site longer than five years.
The first contact with the principal of M. Garland Continuation School was in August of
2019. Via email, lines of communication were established and the intent of the case study, the
methodology behind it, and the search for “goodness” (Lightfoot, 2004) was communicated. The
request to study M. Garland Continuation School was met with enthusiasm, as the principal
stated, “Anything I can do to help out youngsters interested in furthering their education and
their career, and I’m all in!”
A timeline for the data collection was established, with initial staff surveys occurring the
first day back from holiday break in 2020. Onsite fieldwork took place in January of 2020.
A researcher’s ethics drive the dependability, reliability, and validity of a study (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). The trustworthiness of the data correlates with that of the researcher who
gathers, analyzes, and presents it (Patton, 2015). A researcher has a direct impact on the
outcomes of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Tuhiwai Smith (1999) recommends that the
researcher reflect on the following questions:
Who defined the research problem? For whom is the study worthy and relevant? Who
says so? What knowledge will the community gain from the study? What knowledge will
the community gain from the study? What knowledge will the researchers gain from the

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study? What are some likely positive outcomes from the study? What are some possible
negative outcomes? To whom is the researcher accountable?” (p. 173)
Those questions were reflected on continuously by the researcher during the study.
Patton (2015) emphasizes the importance of Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) “Ethical Issues
Checklist,” which consists of the following:
1. Explain the purpose of inquiry methods to be used
2. Reciprocity
3. Promises
4. Risk Assessment
5. Confidentiality
6. Informed Consent
7. Data access and ownership
8. Interviewer mental health
9. Ethical advice
10. Data collection boundaries
11. Ethical and methodological choices
12. Ethical versus legal issues (pp. 496–497, Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, pp. 264–265) Ethical
boundaries were utilized during the objective gathering and analysis of the data to reveal this
study’s findings.
These strategies allowed for verification of the credibility and trustworthiness of the
findings. The IRB at the University of Southern California accepted the proposal submitted for
the study. Direct consent from the principal and all participants was acquired to ensure that all
parties participating in this study did so on a voluntary basis throughout the interviews and

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observations (See Appendix B). All participant names were assigned pseudonyms as needed to
keep their true names confidential during the study. Interviews were recorded with permission
from the participants. All interviews were transcribed, and transcripts were destroyed upon the
study’s completion.
Data Analysis and Coding
After collecting all data, Google Highlight Tool was utilized to examine the interview
transcripts and the application for the model continuation school. Themes emerged and were
categorized in detail during open coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). A study of all data began,
creating new codes as needed. Corbin and Strauss (2008) and Corbin et al. (2015) emphasize the
importance of axial coding thereby grouping similar open codes in an effort to create themes.
Finally, in the selective coding process, the main themes were recognized and recorded (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008). During the entire process, the data were triangulated and analyzed to address
the research questions.
Summary
A summary of the study’s research problem, purpose, and a review of the literature was
presented in Chapter Three. The methodology was presented as well as an explanation of the
Google Tool process which assisted in documentation of the themes revealed through the coding.
Chapter Four includes a discussion of the results of the data analysis and specific findings in
correlation with the research questions. Chapter Five emphasizes the usefulness of this study as
well as presents suggestions for further areas of study.

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Chapter Four: Findings
Continuation schools and the staff who teach there continue to be stigmatized as
providing a second-class education for a student population that is often perceived as throwaway
(Kelly, 1993; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The students are marginalized and labeled low-
achievers for not finding success in comprehensive high schools, and most of the field research
identifies continuation students as behaviorally and/or academically challenged (Malagon, 2010).
However, many of these students aspire of earning a high school diploma, and many
continuation schools do support that goal by providing credit recovery options. This chapter
reveals a successful model continuation school that rises above the average. By utilizing the
PUEDES framework, this chapter shows how the culture, leadership, programs, and policies are
specifically related to the success of the school. Finally, promising practices, leadership style,
and school and local community support are all relevant components of this phenomenon.
The research questions I address are as follows: What are the leadership styles and practices
that are found in an outperforming, urban continuation school? What programs and practices are
implemented in an outperforming, urban continuation school? What are the cultural norms in an
urban outperforming, continuation school?
Results for Research Question One
The first research question asked, “What are the leadership styles and practices found in
an outperforming, urban Model Continuation School?” To discern what leadership style the
principal applies in his work at M. Garland, data were collected through interviews, document
review, and observations. I considered compiled data against the literature on principal
leadership styles (CITES). I analyzed the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC)
self-review, the application for MCHS recognition, the parent/student handbook, the parent-

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school compact, the M. Garland Continuation School website, and the principal’s article in the
monthly newsletter.
Interview Results
When I first walked onto the somewhat small continuation school campus, a male student
in sweats assisted me by telling me where the office was. As I approached the office, a rather tall
man was standing in the doorway, wearing an M. Garland jacket and a welcoming, curious
expression on his face. My impression was that he would welcome anyone who approached.
Upon identifying myself, he acknowledged that he was Mr. Longview, current principal of M.
Garland. Mr. Longview then escorted me into the main office and introduced me to the office
manager behind the desk. She was friendly to me as she engaged in paperwork. He motioned to
the right and informed me that his counsellor was in the office there. As we went into his office,
he insisted on having me step in first.
After I went over procedures for the interview, involving recording it and explaining that
pseudonyms would be used for the school, community, and staff, Mr. Longview agreed to
continue. The first questions dealt with background, childhood aspirations, and current student
characteristics. My goal in this was to break the ice and get a sense of what his moral compass
may entail. Coming from a large family, well settled in the educational field, Mr. Longview
dreamed of being a fireman. He has raised seven children, two with special needs, and his wife
holds the position of a K-8 music secretary.
Mr. Longview’s confidence and listening abilities mirrored student goals stated in the
parent/student handbook. When speaking of the students, he told of the diverse plans he had for
them. For example, Mr. Longview went to his district with the idea of creating a section for
struggling middle school students so that they are not so far behind once they get to high school.

49

Secondly, when he spoke of his goals for his students, he said, “Get them across the stage and
keep them out of the papers!” He strongly desires for them to graduate and not get into trouble.
His concern for their personal wellbeing is another leadership trait that is easily discernible.
Thirdly, in regards to his teaching staff and how free they were to make their own
decisions, he left it up to them. He said he encourages innovative thinking in their curriculum
and believes this is integral to students’ success. He trusts that they make intelligent decisions
without waiting for his input. Mr. Longview stated, “Classroom decisions are left up to the
individual teacher.” An example of this is cell phone use in the classroom. Teachers have the
freedom to allow students cell phone use as a reward, as part of their classroom management, or
to not allow them at all. He believes two of the most significant factors in sustaining and
improving student achievement are creating a safe environment for the students and motivation.
Ultimately, he said, decisions on instructional practices are up to him if they are not working for
a teacher in the classroom. Mr. Longview does consult teachers and counsellors in staff meetings
if they have a schoolwide decision to be made.
To further analyze Mr. Longview’s leadership behaviors, I interviewed three teachers.
Throughout these interviews, similar comments were made regarding Mr. Longview’s approach
and general personality. As far as his pragmatic approach to results, Bobby Marshall, member of
the staff for over 22 years, commented on how Mr. Longview has had the experience in
education to be able to “take proactive steps” to solve problems before they arrive. Mr.
Longview reviews students’ educational transcripts from elementary on, in order to recognize
patterns that may have led to lack of academic success. Another teacher, Mr. LeGunn stated that
Mr. Longview “will make decisions to implement research-based practices,” thereby recognizing
the principal has the knowledge to make those choices. The third interview, with Mr. Care, also

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provided evidence of Mr. Longview’s traits of intelligence and critical thinking witnessed by his
problem-solving abilities. In short, Mr. Longview’s first significant leadership trait is
knowledgeable and pragmatic thinking, which results in definitive planned actions.
Mr. Longview’s second key leadership characteristic, as stated by teacher-leader Mr.
Marshall, is his great concern and care for the students. Mr. Marshall stated, “There is a lot of
dysfunction in these students’ homes. He brings a subtle love to them. They feel that and want to
do well by them.” Throughout Mr. Marshall’s interview, he mentioned his deep respect for the
principal and stated that his students respect Mr. Longview as well. He believes that this mutual
respect coming from the students is a main contributor to student success at M. Garland. This
interpersonal leadership trait was also commented on by English teacher, Mr. Care. This teacher
believes that for the principal to be a “role model that students respect” is important and that Mr.
Longview is that role model. Mr. Care stressed the importance of building rapport with both
students and teachers. He stated that, when the students “have the respect, feel how much you
love them, they don’t want to let you down.” He believes that Mr. Longview is “realistic, direct,
and honest,” and the students’ value that. Mr. LeGunn presented yet another perspective on Mr.
Longview’s interpersonal abilities. Like Mr. Care, Mr. LeGunn stated that Mr. Longview could
be direct and clear in his dealings with the students but with a “cool vibe.” He admitted that the
students liked Mr. Longview despite his “firm attitude.” This ties in with teacher-leader Mr.
Marshall’s insight that Mr. Longview’s insight into the students really helped him [Mr. Marshall]
“get them.”
The third of Mr. Longview’s leadership traits was displayed in his allowing staff freedom
in curriculum decisions. When they were questioned on whether Mr. Longview took their ideas
into consideration when making decisions, two the teachers decisively said that Mr. Longview

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completely listened to their input and was open to suggestions. The freedom to use creativity to
bring their curriculum to the students was of great value to them. They both noted that their
students’ success came greatly from their altering their teaching strategies to fit their needs.
Longview’s overall leadership behavior and characteristics emerged from the documents
I mentioned reviewing above, as well as from my interview with him. Based on experience, Mr.
Longview has developed a systematic method of studying students’ educational patterns to figure
out a route for them that will lead to success. This method involves gathering all school
transcripts for each student and searching for patterns in their failures. He also reads all
teacher/administrator comments available. Mr. Longview then challenges negative statements by
asking, “What if more emotional support [counselling] had been given to this student during this
time?” During students’ entrance and orientation weeks, Mr. Longview observes the students and
how they adapt to their surroundings. He then draws on past success with other students and
provides the resources that move these students towards success.
According to Dyer, Gregersen, and Christensen (2011), the innovator’s methodology
consists of four steps. The first is associating, in which brain has to draw on innumerable
associations when thinking about a subject. For instance, Student X would not be thought of as
just a student with so many credits to recover. That student should bring to mind other,
associative factors such as home life, favorite labels, drug/alcohol inclinations and use, and
involvement with the law/counselling, as an example. The next step is the questioning stage,
which occurs when Mr. Longview challenges ideas of why the student strayed from a successful
academic experience. The third step is noted as observational, and Mr. Longview, as stated,
observes students in the early weeks to help him decide how to help them. The final step is
networking to gather resources to benefit the student. Mr. Longview takes this step as he applies

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what he learned from working with previous students and presents school wide learning options,
resulting in high student achievement. Finally, the parent/student handbook describes effective
communication as students’ “respecting themselves and others, speak[ing] and listen[ing]
productively, understanding and adapting to their audience, and present[ing] themselves
confidently.”
Document Review Results
Northouse (2004) notes leaders show integrity by doing the right thing whereas managers
have the ability to do things well. The documents created by Mr. Longview evidence both
management and leadership skills. Under the school rules and regulations section, what is
considered “out of bounds” is clearly stated:
Students are expected to stay in-bounds (blacktop area, cafeteria, classrooms and library
areas) during the school hours. Students are not to be hanging out near the outside area of
the fences or behind trees in the field area. Students who are caught off-campus during
school hours without an acceptable off-campus pass are subject to citation for any
daytime curfew violation, and may be assigned after school detention.
In the parent/student handbook, necessary rules and procedures similar to those above are
evidence of efficient school management. Secondly, goals for interpersonal growth as well as
personal success are available. M. Garland’s school-wide learning outcomes provide a detailed
guide for how students are to be “Responsible Citizens, Independent Thinkers, Scholarly
Students (who inspire others) and Effective Communicators.” The entire document establishes
vision, reviews school goals, and displays qualities that prove to be successful in leadership. Mr.
Longview’s column in the newsletter is meant to inspire students and staff by documenting
monthly student achievements, events, and student-created articles.

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Observation Results
Data collected from observations at the school indicate a leader who is visible in the
environment, supporting the students physically by his presence, socially, and emotionally.
While in the cafeteria during their snack break as well on his personal tour with me on campus,
Mr. Longview knew all students by name and had detailed, friendly conversations with them,
allowing them time in two-way conversations. When we encountered a student, who was not
supposed to be out of class, he was clear in his direction for the student to go back to class but
was in no way demeaning. His interactions with teachers were conversational and relaxed. He
did not present himself as the “boss” of the school.
In one classroom, I observed a teacher delivering a lesson through technology and with a
friendly demeanor. This teacher smiled as they welcomed the students, read to them, and walked
around the classroom to ensure comprehension.
Summary of Results for Research Question One
Principal Longview reflects the traits and behaviors of a transformational leader. Stogdill
(1974) has demonstrated how an individual’s natural traits can enhance their leadership in given
situations. Leaders can be different in “intelligences, alertness, insight, responsibility, initiative,
persistence, self-confidence, and sociability” (Stogdill, 1974). As noted in this section, Mr.
Longview’s knowledge of, and concern for the students, support for his teachers’ implementation
of successful practices, and his respect for teachers’ autonomy can be interpreted as
transformational leadership. Through the document review, interviews, and observations, it was
clear that these factors assist in creating the foundation for M. Garland’s success in terms of
student behavior and academics.

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Results for Research Question Two
The second research question asked, “What programs and practices are implemented in
an outperforming, urban continuation school?” I began my study of the programs and practices at
M. Garland through interviews, document review, and observations.
Interview Results
When interviewing Mr. Longview, he stated the programs and practices are implemented
with the intent of scaffolding the student towards academic and behavioral success. Mr.
Longview’s steps to create an emotionally and physically safe environment for his students
remained an important point he discussed with me. Mr. Longview hired security guards with
friendly, yet firm, dispositions to walk the campus to monitor for any misdoings. Mr. Longview
believes in promoting a culture of trust, so there are no cameras on campus or any visits by drug-
sniffing dogs. There are not even vape monitors in bathrooms. He prefers to follow his policy of
giving citations for vaping and relying on his staff’s close relationships with the students to
monitor that issue. As we stood outside as the students left campus for lunch, I witnessed his
interactions with the students in the calm yet busy atmosphere. His attention to detail about the
students as well as his empathy for even the more behaviorally challenged students was notable.
The teachers interviewed confirmed the success of the Odyssey computer support
recovery program. Mr. Care commented that, “Students are able to access tutorials at home and
then I can see whether or not they have accomplished this”. This sentiment was echoed by other
teachers interviewed and the success of the program from a teacher aspect was confirmed. As I
walked through classrooms, I witnessed students using the program while a credentialed teacher
observed and was available to help. Through this program, students who had once been behind in
their graduation plan can get back on track.

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Document Review Results
The mission statement found in the parent/student handbook provided insight into the
focus at the school:
Our mission is to meet the individual needs of all students and to prepare them for
graduation and the life beyond high school. We will continue to provide a challenging
curriculum, building students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills, with a safe,
caring, and personalized environment.
Other documents also provided evidence of the theme of school safety as well as of critical,
individualized supports for the students. The handbook documents how students can succeed if
they follow the guidelines. It provides information on bell schedules, holidays, instruction and
credits, the attendance policy, the consequences of truancy, suspension/expulsion policies,
resources, and a list of all staff. The most impressive data point found on the school’s website, as
well as in the parent/student handbook, is the school’s code of discipline, which speaks to the
efforts made at the school to provide a safe learning environment. This document notes all
serious/not so serious infractions and the possible consequences of first, second, and third
offenses. The document also states that some disciplinary actions will be left to the discretion of
the teacher or administrator.
The second theme found in school documents and on the website was that of student
support. As presented in the parent/student handbook, in his efforts to modify instruction for at-
risk students, M. Garland is committed to:
smaller class sizes, more individual assistance and instruction, emphasis on effort and
participation, emphasis on work done in class rather than outside of class, emphasis on
student engagement, discussion and the hands-on teaching strategies, and teachers who
are trained and dedicated to working with the at-risk student.

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Students earn credits by quarter by attending 80% of the time with a minimum 70% passing rate.
Students may also partake in the credit recovery program which allows them to work at their
own pace. The program used and facilitated by a certificated employee is “Odyssey.” Students
who have met the graduation requirements may also participate in the Alternative Programs
Graduation Ceremony during which they wear a cap and gown and receive a certificate. There is
flexibility in the requirements for the students to participate in the graduation ceremony.
Occasionally, some students create a post-graduation plan to be able to participate prior to
fulfilling their requirements. Students who earn a grade point average of 3.0 or higher may
participate in the principal’s honor roll, which involves a special community event each quarter.
The school also offers a “grab & go” breakfast for students a half hour prior to the
beginning of the instructional day. Weekly rewards, in the form of an off-campus lunch pass, are
granted to students who have perfect attendance (no period cuts, tarries, or absences). Enrollment
alternatives are also provided, and many on-campus educational experiences are encouraged.
The Regional Occupation Program provides job-skill courses for students who participate in the
extended school day, and a certified teacher runs that program. Enrolling in local community
college courses is encouraged for students to earn credit towards graduation, and the city offers
night school courses for students in their senior year. Students may also acquire a work permit so
that they may attain work experience while maintaining acceptable attendance and grades. The
school district also offers an independent study program.
Observation Results
While making my classroom rounds, I had the opportunity to witness a few students
using the “Odyssey” Credit Recovery Program. The classroom was attended by a certificated
teacher who also teaches current events to the students. One young man was sitting near the

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door, attempting to take a chapter test for Algebra 1 while another student worked on a tutorial
involving English literature. The teacher explained to me that students may access the “Odyssey”
program while at home to complete tutorials and work on assignments. He stated that students
and parents were given an ID, code, and link that work outside the school setting. He let me
know that students were not allowed to take formal tests outside of the classroom and could do
so during the credit recovery period. Students are also allowed to make an appointment to take or
re-take tests during lunch or after-school. He expressed that his classroom was somewhat smaller
that day since two students were absent. During the observation, the teacher read and re-read one
question to the student working on English, then further explained what the program was looking
for in terms of an answer. His only interactions with the student taking the Algebra 1 test was to
confirm that the student had taken the test and had not rushed his answers. In looking at the
teacher screen, I could see what students were working on the program, in what subject, and the
pace they were going. If the student rushed the test, the teacher would be notified. The
“Odyssey” program also times out when students do not participate in less than two minutes.
While I was there, the student that finished his Algebra test offered up that he liked the program
well enough and that it was working for him.
During the classroom period on current events, three students were given various sections
from the New York Times Magazine for Teens and different handouts as well. In the one handout,
students were required to answer questions such as “Who is this article about? What is this
article about? List four facts or opinions from this article. When, Why, and Where did this story
take place” and details on the title, author and source of the article. Another student was working
on a handout where they had to locate and evaluate an editorial cartoon while the third student
had to identify the problem and the solution found in an article. The curriculum was innovative,

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timely, and students were asked to share their findings with the class which gave them a stronger
sense of purpose.
Regarding supportive and rewards programs for the students, there are many activities.
Three of the teachers at this school daily play basketball with the students during break time.
This allows students to bond more closely with their teachers. During my observations, I
witnessed one basketball game in which the students won playing against their teachers. The
camaraderie and laughter was evident during the game. The students, with support from the
staff, also compete in basketball tournaments with other continuation schools which I was not
able to observe do to the shut down from the COVID-19 virus.
M. Garland meets the needs of its students with small class sizes as well as opportunities
for weekly or bi-weekly counselling. Upon admission to M. Garland, students meet with the
school counsellor for two weeks of adapted classes before taking part in the regular schedule.
This time gives students a chance to assimilate to the environment and to learn the rules and
structure of the school day. The counsellor also meets with students once a month to discuss their
ongoing achievements. Students requiring or requesting counselling also have those services
available.
One community organization that has members on campus daily is that of Pacific Clinics
Mental Health. Interns arrive daily to meet and check in with students regarding home, school,
and or other issues. Since only one student on campus has a probation officer, this therapy is
highly recommended by the school to the parents or guardians from whom they almost always
attain approval.
Social-emotional resources are a strong point at M. Garland. The school receives much
support from several community organizations to provide more intense counselling for students

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who may need outside of school counselling. For example, Care Solace helps parents and
students find mental health providers in their area utilizing their available insurance, area of
concern, and distance. The Healthy Minds Program is a district program run by the mental health
counsellor with a significant number of social media accounts. The school also is connected with
a yearly Teen Summit presentation on building healthy relationships.
Yearly, the students participate in the California Healthy Students Survey through which
the district and the school gather information regarding the emotional climate of the school and
possible student needs. All schools in the state complete it. M. Garland participates in a
presentation on suicide awareness and prevention as well to help ensure their students feel secure
and know they can reach out to staff members if need be.
Summary of Results for Research Question Two
Two significant themes resulted from the data analyzed for Research Question Two.
First, programs and policies are designed and implemented to create an emotionally and
physically safe environment. Principal Longview and the teachers believe these programs and
strategies are productive and assist in creating a feeling of self-efficacy for the students in terms
of them being successful. The second theme that emerged is that the programs and policies that
exist and are implemented provide strong student support. Ample opportunities for social-
emotional growth, credit recovery, and celebratory activities for successful students are there and
supported throughout the community.
Results for Research Question Three
The third question asked, “What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming, Model
Continuation school?” To address this question, I began by reviewing and analyzing documents.
In my initial meeting with Mr. Longview, he expressed that continuation schools were “the

60

emergency room of education.” This statement highlighted the importance of this environment to
these students. This may be their last chance to get on the right track for their high school
experience. To help students take advantage of the opportunity, I found that the central theme of
a school environment was geared to be one that fosters collegiality and academic success.
Interview Results
According to Mr. Longview, most parents whose students are brought to M. Garland are
“nervous, think it is filled with bad kids. They don’t want them going there.” Parents and
students later enter a “honeymoon phase” where they love it at M. Garland. After three months,
Mr. Longview notates, “they get settled and they like it.” Mr. Longview stated, “We have a PTA.
What other continuation schools do you hear of that have PTAs? Our parents and community
like us.” Mr. Longview also explained his theory of why students do not succeed in [a
normative] high school. He identified three components that often have adverse effects on
already at-risk students: their “mental health, apathy towards school, and their attention span.”
Consequently, he attempts to foster a culture that is “fun to be at” so that the students can “get
things done.” Activities such as the school prom help promote this fun atmosphere.
He stated that M. Garland “does not give up on anyone” and that he believes their
students will “rise to the occasion” if given support to meet the standards asked of them. This
theory was later echoed by two of his teachers. Mr. Longview stated that the teachers strongly
mold the school climate and culture. In attempting to meet the social needs of all his students, he
says he has “one of each type of teacher” so that the students can always feel they have someone
they can connect to. Evidence for students feeling this way is shown in the Healthy Kids Survey,
in which 60% of the students stated that they feel they would have someone to turn to if they feel

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depressed and hopeless. The teachers interviewed agreed that many of the students want to come
to school if only to get away from their home life.
The principal and his fellow teachers agreed there is a “trust level,” and one simple and
obvious evidence of this was that I found varied groups of students eating with their teachers.
One teacher pointed out that the students he had at school in the past few years were not as
immature as those he has now. He noted they needed more support emotionally than students of
the years past. This sensitivity to the social-emotional needs of the students helped ascertain
another component of the safe school environment. Another teacher stated that the “positive
environment” is like a private school: “only 65 students, less fights.”
One teacher stated how important it was for the staff to give the students “input and
making them feel like they are part of something.” Another teacher observed that, in his
classroom, the students stay motivated due to the higher amount of group work. The students,
“learn from one another” and, in doing so, are more motivated to achieve. Two of the teachers
who also play sports with the students combine classes. The students read novels together, listen
to audio books after, and enjoy the combined classes while achieving.
Document Review Results
The parent/student handbook’s mission statement makes clear the school’s intent to
cultivate a “safe, caring, and personalized environment.” For example, school athletic programs
foster positive, team building cultures in schools and M. Garland is no exception. Participation in
the Alternative High School League for athletics such as flag football, basketball, and softball
builds the “spirit of fun,” as quoted from the school’s website. In addition, many of the social-
emotional programs mentioned in previous sections assist in cultivating the supportive nature of
the school. The mental health community, as well, through their on-campus individual and group

62

counselling, assist in bringing students together to work towards positive goals. Secondly,
striving for success in academics is also greatly supported at the school. Through college
preparation programs, students work towards meeting their personal and academic goals. This
spirit of learning positively influences the culture, leading to M. Garland’s graduation rate of
95% in comparison to the state target of 90%.
Observation Results
The friendly, supportive atmosphere was evident during my observations. While
watching Mr. Care in his English class, it was obvious how much he cared for each student and
they for him. The observation started with punk rock music playing from the screen in the center
of the classroom, which turns out to be Mr. Care’s weekend hobby. After the music ended, Mr.
Care posed a question to the class using a lyric from the song played. He asked how the character
in the book they are reading might feel when faced with the decision of whether he should stay
or leave his home. The students appeared to be highly engaged, raising hands or acknowledging
a fellow student with a smile. The question asked clearly resonated with the students, possibly
because it engaged them on a personal level, causing them to wonder how they would deal with
that choice. Indeed, the discussion turned to students giving their personal feelings—how they
often have the urge to take off, or alternatively, some expressed how they like their home and do
not want to leave. Students read quietly the next section of the book while Mr. Care walked
around and spoke to each of the 10 students in the class. The class ended and, as the students
exited, I witnessed a strong personal bond between teacher and student as he congratulated them
for opening up so much in class.

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Summary of Results for Research Question Three
An important theme arose from the data for Research Question Three, having to do with
the environment at the school. The principal and staff endeavor to create an environment wherein
students’ bond with classmates and staff as they collaborate to ensure academic success for each
and every student. Additionally, students have ample opportunity to interact with staff at school,
with other students through sports, and to freely exchange ideas during group work. Under Mr.
Longview’s leadership, in “the emergency room of education,” the environment is clearly central
to student success.
Summary
In summary, the goal of this chapter was to relay the findings of the data analyzed in
correlation to the three research questions for this study. In Chapter Five, the focus will be on the
implications for further practice relating to the analyzed data.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Given the current, critically concerning dropout rates in California among high school
students, there is a need to evaluate schools with a high graduation rate and to discern the causes
for their success. The impact, socially, emotionally, and financially, on students who do not
graduate can affect their wellbeing throughout their lives. Though many students may strive to
earn a diploma, numerous obstacles can impede their progress. If these students with setbacks do
not receive support and opportunities to earn their high school credits, they face a life of
educational failure. Many students enroll or are assigned to alternative educational programs
such as continuation schools. Many continuation schools have failed to meet the needs of these
students and add to the ongoing failures of already at-risk students. There are model continuation
schools that highlight the positive abilities of these students and provide them with the programs,
staff support, and culture they need for success. The focus of this research study was to examine
what leadership practices, programs, and surroundings exist at an outperforming, model
continuation school. The school studied, M. Garland, assists in fostering students to recover and
earn credits for their diploma.
Chapters One through Four presented a historical view of model continuation schools,
successful leadership styles and formed cultures, the struggles of continuation school students, a
detailed overview of the study, the qualitative research design, and the findings of the study. The
study of the Model Continuation High School used data from three sources: document review,
interviews, and observations. Several themes emerged as a result of the in-depth study of the
leadership styles, programs, and culture. Chapter Five will discuss these findings and provide
overall implications for future programs and practices as well as future research.

65

Discussion of Findings
Numerous themes emerged from the analysis of the data collected in an effort to find
salient answers for the three research questions that guided this study. All of these themes
synchronized with the current research, as identified in the literature review in chapter two. The
themes are: a strong pragmatic leadership style, strong interpersonal leadership skills, classroom
decisions are left to teachers, innovative curriculum is encouraged, an environment of emotional
and physical safety is provided, strong student support exists, and consequently, students are
motivated to attend school and earn credits.
The first theme pertained to leadership style. A manifestation of Dr. Longview’s
leadership style was his study of the incoming student’s background, including transcripts and
teacher notes from previous years. A specific study of what activities, opportunities for
counselling, interventions the student had utilized assists in determining what might have gone
wrong in their education. Once that analysis is complete, possibilities can emerge as to how to
help the student to recover credits and enhance their well-being. Data from the document
review, interviews, and observations regarding attendance, scheduling, and academic programs
and policies assisted in the analysis. M. Garland was found to provide numerous opportunities
for counselling, off-campus lunch rewards, a tobacco assistance program, and interpersonal
opportunities with the staff such as daily basketball with the teachers. Students also have
opportunities to participate in intramural sports such as basketball, baseball, and volleyball.
Students highly motivated to utilize the credit recovery program, Odyssey, have numerous
opportunities to do so.
Continuation high schools become effective, research states, due to their ability to create
successful programs. Principal Longview has stated his goal as being to “get them across the

66

stage” and “out of the papers.” Kim and Taylor’s (2008) research finds that a positive school
environment, involving effective credit recovery programs, can help foster a strong sense of
safety for the student with the opportunity for success. This study’s findings also coincide with
those of Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) and Ruiz de Velasco and McLaughlin (2012). In their
study on over 40 California continuation high schools, the authors found that successful
programs founded partnerships within the community, maintained high goals for students and
high expectations for teachers, and offered innovative current curriculum. D’Angelo and
Zemanick (2009) found that these programs and opportunities assist in greatly improving the
odds that continuation schools achieve success in serving the student populations they serve. As
noted, M. Garland’s numerous successful programs link with the high graduation rate.
A successful credit recovery program utilizes a variety of strategies that prove crucial for
student success. Data from the observations and document analysis evidence the implementation
of effective strategies that recent research has demonstrated to be successful. M. Garland’s
strategies were found to support the students academically, socially, and emotionally.
Strong instructional practices have been found to increase success among continuation
high school students. Bost and Riccomini (2006) documented that effective instruction can be a
strategy useful in credit recovery. Specifically, they state that effective instruction can include
active engagement, scaffolding, and explicit directives. Observations at M. Garland showed
teachers were given control of their environment regarding academics as well as social
interactions. The teachers observed and interviewed, mentioned that they believe student success
in their classrooms comes largely from their freedom to adapt curriculum to meet their needs.
Pyle and Wexler’s (2012) research states that access to an adult is a practice that promotes
student success. M. Garland does this with the credit recovery period, counselling sessions, and

67

open-door policies. M. Garland’s teachers integrate real-world situations and current events with
the needs of their students through innovative curriculum.
Research also indicates that meeting the needs of students involves social support,
academic encouragement, and academic assistance (Rumberger et al., 1990). M. Garland utilizes
strategies to address these areas, with some overlaps among the three areas. M. Garland has
counseling sessions with students once a week, counselling on academic growth, as well as
additional social opportunities such as various lunch clubs. Teachers offer tutoring for students
struggling academically as well, and students take part in intramural sports and athletic events.
Social events such as prom are also a prominent part of M. Garland’s culture.
Implications for Practice
Emerging from the above discussion of the findings based on the themes found through
data analysis, there are several implications for practice. These implications can be applied to
other continuation or comprehensive schools depending on their needs. Important to the
continued success of M. Garland Continuation School would be the continued development of
programs, especially academics and electives, to promote and maintain their already high
graduation rate. A development team could be formed, including student and community
representatives, to continue to develop and expand credit recovery programs.
Secondly, teacher-led teams could lead the development of school wide strategies that
would be enabled to continue despite faculty changes and/or new board policies. Teams could
investigate current research related to best practices to develop a larger knowledge base.
Furthermore, in the spirit of continuing and expanding community-based programs, leadership,
with staff support, could develop more opportunities for students to gain work experience. These
opportunities could help students achieve more confidence through, perhaps, a community-based

68

garden or local clean-up. Students could locate local elementary or middle schools in need of
clean-up or a community-based garden.
Also, using peer models and mentors on staff, new teachers could develop more self-
efficacy while continuing to further hone their own, successful teaching strategies. Further
development of strategies could be taught and utilized in banking days and or staff meetings. In
addition, a wider variety of academic electives based on specific areas of student interest could
be offered. Independent studies and/or after school opportunities for cooking, the arts,
mechanical classes, and or woodworking could provide students with other opportunities than
just college-based careers.
Lastly, leadership could consider meeting with other local successful continuation
schools to create workshops to further develop successful strategies for these schools. This
would allow teachers and staff to share their best practices and strategies in motivating and
educating youth. Along the same lines, graduates of M. Garland could return to the campus to
encourage and promote mentorship for students struggling at the institution.
Future Research
Based on the data collected and analyzed in Chapter Four, there are four
recommendations for future research. First, a larger study involving numerous model
continuation schools, focusing on leadership, programs and practices, should be considered.
With a larger study, more findings and strategies could be synthesized across schools. Second,
further research on continuation and model continuation schools’ resources throughout affluent
and non-affluent districts should be examined to determine their effectiveness. Further research
involving student interviews and surveys is recommended to assist in determining the
effectiveness of programs, leadership, and staff. Fourth, additional research on the long-term

69

effects of successful model continuation schools over time should be conducted to analyze
whether the benefits continue throughout the years. Examining whether some programs change
students in a positive or negative way may yield findings that are applicable to other sites.

Conclusion
Most American students strive to earn high school requirements and earn a diploma for
the opportunity of graduating with their peers; this is as much a social as a material goal. For
numerous reasons, some students find they are unable or not motivated to do so. Successful
continuation schools provide opportunities for these at-risk students to graduate, primarily
assisting them in credit recovery. It is necessary for educational leaders to research programs and
strategies that will ensure success for these students.
Fortuitously, model continuation schools have been successful in providing opportunity
and encouraging motivation for students who are credit-deficient to graduate from high school.
Often, these students can quickly earn enough credits to graduate. These schools have used a
variety of teaching strategies, created and fostered a strong sense of community of support aimed
at reaching this at-risk population. It is imperative to continue to support and study these
programs to analyze how these strategies can be useful not only in continuation schools but
perhaps comprehensive schools as well. These successful schools are often granted the
California state designation of a model continuation high school as well as recognition from the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges, thereby indicating their outperforming status.
Support for these schools as well as a better perspective on the positive qualities of these schools
and students will hopefully bring more resources and emotional support to these at-risk students.
Credit-deficient students can recover from the obstacles they faced with effective leadership,
programs and policies, and cultures.

70

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Appendix A: Document Review
1. What are the leadership styles and practices that are found in an outperforming, urban
continuation school?
● School plan
● District budget/fiscal year
● SARC
● LCAP
● Leadership Team Meeting Notes
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda

2. What programs and practices are implemented in an outperforming, urban
continuation school?
● Master calendar
● Daily schedule
● Mission statement
● School plan
● SARC (school accountability report card)-state mandated
● Curriculum guide
● Parent handbook
● Student handbook
● Staff handbook
● LEA plan (Local education agency plan)
● School site council minutes
● School website
● WASC (Western association of school and colleges) accreditation
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda
● Student work/portfolio
● LCAP
● Attendance rates
● Dropout rates
● Graduation rates
● Discipline records
● Clubs and organizations
● Volunteer/parent volunteer records
● Field trips
● List of faculty
● Fundraiser forms
● Fundraisers
● Grants
● Achievement test scores

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● Recruitment information
● Organization chart

3. What are the cultural norms in an urban, outperforming continuation school?
● Master calendar
● Daily schedule
● Mission statement
● School plan
● Display of student work
● Curriculum guide
● Parent handbook
● Student handbook
● Staff handbook
● School site council minutes
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda
● Student work/portfolio
● Departmental meeting notes/agenda
● Leadership team meeting notes
● Team meeting notes
● California Department of Education
Attendance records
• Demographics
• Retention rates
• School Programs available
● Recruitment information

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
I. Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside to
answer my questions. The interview should take about an hour.
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer any
questions you might have about participating. I am currently a doctoral student at USC and I will
be conducting interviews, surveys, and observations for my research. I have structured my line of
inquiry around organizational practices that narrow the achievement gap in outperforming non-
traditional urban schools.
Thank you for volunteering to participate in this study. I want to assure you that I am strictly
wearing the hat of researcher. This means that the nature of my questions and observations are
not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how you are performing as an educator.
None of the data I collect will be shared with other teachers, administrators, or the district.
I am happy to provide you with a copy of the findings if you are interested. Do you have any
questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have any further questions, I would
like to have your permission to begin the interview.
II. Setting the Stage
1. I am hoping we could start with you telling me a little bit about this year’s students that
you are serving here at the school.
2. Tell me about any specialized training you received to work with the students that you
serve.
3. What are some of the challenges and concerns the students bring to you?
4. How often do you meet with parents/guardians to speak on behalf of students’ academic
growth?
5. What are some of the instructional challenges that students encounter in the school?
III. Heart of the Interview (Interview Questions are directly tied to your Research
Questions)
Interview Questions
Questions RQ#1
What programs
and practices
are
implemented in
an urban
outperforming
nontraditional
school?
RQ#2
What are the
leadership
practices
present in an
urban
outperforming
nontraditional
school?
RQ#3
What are the
cultural norms
in an urban
outperforming
nontraditional
school?
1. Why did you choose to
come to this school, and what
are your experiences here in
comparison to where you
were before?
X

87

2. When others visit your
school, what do you believe
their first impressions are?
X
3. Why do you believe
parents should send their
children to this school as
opposed to the traditional
neighborhood school?
X
4.Why do you feel your
school is able to outperform
traditional schools?
X
5. How significant of a role
do you feel the
principal/students/teachers
play in the molding of the
school culture/climate?
● What other factors do
you feel have an
impact on school
climate?
X
6. How does the school
resolve discipline issues when
they arise?
● How are stakeholders
involved?
X
7. How empowered is the
staff to make decisions in the
best interest of the students
without waiting on the
leadership? Can you give an
example?
X
8. What specific leadership
practices do you believe are
most significant factors that
X

88

sustain and improve student
achievement?
9. How are decisions made
to implement researched
instructional practices at
your school?
X
10. How are resources and
programs used to increase
student academic
achievement?
X
11. What school-wide
programs or rules does your
school implement to
promote student success?
● What was the
process in coming up
with these school-
wide
implementations?
● How are they
implemented?
(Action-Resolution?)
● How are they
measured for
effectiveness?
(Specific
benchmarks?
Numbers?)
X
12. How would you describe
the implementation of
professional programs,
training, and professional
opportunities to grow?
X

IV. Closing Question (Anything else to add)
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I might not
have covered?
V. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is helpful for my study. If I find myself

89

with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact you, and if so, if email is
ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study.

90

Appendix C: School Site Observation Protocol
School _________________________________ Date______________________________
Observer _______________________________ Grade/Subject______________________
Observation duration: ______________________ Time______________________________

RQ 2: What are the leadership practices in an urban outperforming nontraditional
school?
What was your first impression of the leadership?

Please consider the following items to help facilitate your observation:
● Single Leader or Leadership team
● Who are the formal leaders?
● Who are the informal leaders?
○ Where are they; what are they doing
● Traits of leader(s)
● Leadership practice
● Decision making process
○ how does it work; who is involved
● Leadership communication to/from stakeholders
● Leadership interaction with stakeholders
● Stakeholders role
● Clearly articulated mission and goals

RQ 3: What are the cultural norms in an urban outperforming non-traditional school?
What was your first impression of the school site? Staff?

91

In preparation for your observation, please consider the following
Do you see or hear information regarding the following questions/items?
(this is a guide to help facilitate your observation):

Considerations for Professional Culture
● Collaborative practices
● Professional development
● Monitoring of instructional practice for consistency
● Use of data
● Program evaluation
● Common understanding of expectations
● Instruction reflects high expectations
● Student engagement
● Classroom environments

Student Support
● Advertised/promoted supports and resources: physically, socially, and emotional
support
● Service personnel accessible
● Identify/ support students at risk of dropping out, students in crisis, and students who
require intensive assistance
● Identification of students with special needs
● School resources to support diverse academic needs
● Procedures for lunch
● Group work/individual work
● Structure and organization of school
● Student work posted in hallways
● Communication of announcements and programs
● School spirit
● Appearance of campus

Various Stakeholders (Teachers, staff, students, parents, community members, board
members, community partners, etc.)
● Stakeholder engagement
● Feedback opportunities
● Methods of communication
● Partnerships
● Interaction among/between stakeholders

92

Appendix D: Classroom Observation Protocol

Teacher_________________________________ Date______________________________
School _________________________________ Grade/Subject______________________
Observer________________________________ Time______________________________
Observation duration: _____________________

Research Questions
RQ1: What practices and programs are implemented in urban outperforming non-
traditional schools?

Classroom Environment
Student Seating Arrangement (create a diagram of the classroom layout including what
direction students are facing, desk arrangement, tables, open space, instructional centers,
resources, computers, etc.):

Student Demographics:
Male:
Female:
Race/Ethnicity:
Description of classroom wall space:
(Students work to aid in learning, data, standards, posters, what is written on the
whiteboard/chalkboard, code of conduct, etc.)

93

Instructional programs used in classroom
Curriculum:

Resources/Materials:

Instructional practices used by teachers in classrooms:

1. What does the teacher
do?

2. What does the student do? 3. What are the interactions
between teachers and
students?

Stakeholders involvement in the classroom (community partners, aids, tutors, etc.):

94

95

Appendix E: Observation Protocol

Name of Observer Date Time

Location Study

Summary of Observation

Physical Space
Define the physical
space.
· Geographical
· Temporal
· Physical
· Political

Utility: What is the
purpose of
event/setting?

Participant reactions to
physical setting

Other

96

People/Participants
Who are the participants
taking place in
observation/event?
How many participated?

Demographic
information:
· Racial
· Ethnic
· Gender
· Class

What are the roles of
those being observed?
How do you know?

What was each of the
specific participants
doing?
· Group interaction
· Individual actions
· Passive participants
· Active participants

Purpose of Events/Observation
Why is the event taking
place? Are there any
political contexts to be
discussed?

Who was invited to
event? Who was not?

Was there any
discussion of
educational policy?
Why? How so?

97

What are the positions
of the various
participants involved?
· Power dynamics
· Roles

What is being
discussed?

Sequence of Events
Beginning
Middle
End

Observer Role
What am I doing? What
is my role throughout
the observation?

Describe some of my
interactions with other
participants throughout
the observation.

How did my
interaction/presence
affect the observation
participants?

Other

98

Pictures

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This case study analyzed an outperforming, urban Model Continuation School’s leadership, programs and policies, as well as culture to discover what factors contribute to their high graduation and attendance rates. The purpose of this study was to furnish researchers, policymakers, and practitioners with the factors that contribute to this school’s student success. Data collection involved interviews with the principal as well as staff members, document review of pertinent information that supported reasoning for the success at the school, and observations in the classroom as well as on campus. Continuation students may face numerable obstacles such as high transiency, learning disabilities, low motivation, substance abuse, behavioral struggles, complications with foster care and/or criminal justice system that put them at risk for dropping out of high school. Findings from this case study indicate that the principal’s interpersonal, pragmatic, encouraging, leadership style has led the staff to devise curriculum based on standards and current student needs as well as create an atmosphere of high motivation as well as social and emotional safety. These skills combined with clear, reasonable policies as well as numerable community and school counselling programs assist in elevating student well-being. Students at this school are highly motivated to attend school and attain credits towards their diploma strongly due to the culture of acceptance at this school. This study furthers positive research in the field of continuation schools and can benefit both continuation as well as comprehensive high schools in assisting to achieve high student outcomes and personal success.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Sparks, Ashley (author)

Core Title Breakthrough: an outperforming model continuation school's leadership, programs, and culture case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 12/11/2020

Defense Date 12/07/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag continuation school,culture,leadership,model continuation school,OAI-PMH Harvest,outperforming,policies,programs

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Polikoff, Morgan (committee chair), Escalante, Michael (committee member), Roach, John (committee member)

Creator Email ashleysp@usc.edu,asparks@gusd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-410908

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