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African American males in special education excelling in English/language arts with Opportunity to Learn strategies: a gap analysis

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African American males in special education excelling in English/language arts with Opportunity to Learn strategies: a gap analysis

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Content Running head: OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 1

African American Males in Special Education Excelling in English/Language Arts with
Opportunity to Learn Strategies: A Gap Analysis
by
Juliet R. Reed

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 2

DEDICATION
This is for all of the boys of color around America who needs a little more guidance and a little
more support. This is to the boys of color who passed through my classroom with delight,
despondency, confusion, helplessness and awareness. This is to my little/big son of color who
made me realize there is a struggle that exists. It was not as clear until he was pronounced with
an academic disability. The fight was on to get him to learn and accept his shortcomings. To use
those shortcomings as assets to grow in other areas. To not be afraid of failing, but use failure as
opportunity for growth. My boy of color cried (I cried too) because he couldn’t understand why
he couldn’t understand. And I couldn’t explain to him because he was much too young to
comprehend the delicacy of his situation. So we cried. We cried until one right answer out of five
was better than no right answers. Over time all of the answers (or most) of the answers were
feasible, sensible or at least agreeable. He began to see the light. Maturity set in a bit and instead
of being two or three grade levels behind he is now one. The journey is not over. His writing is
horrible and he hates to punctuate. But I am grateful that I persevered as a mother to assist him
with seeing through these formative years. However, for my boys of color whose situation
necessitates a strong facilitator this is for you.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This effort would not have been possible without the hard work of my committee. Thank you to
Dr. Anthony Maddox for the time and talks that you gave. Dr. Pensavalle I appreciate your
expertise and attention to my work. You are beautifully smart and I am appreciative for all you
invested. Thank you, Dr. Anthonia Adadevoh for inspiring me to go forth and tackle such a
challenging work. You are a mentor and an all-around inspiration. Thanks to the work site for
support, time and input. When I was overwhelmed the encouragement saw me through until I felt
low again. Then y’all encouraged me some more. It has been a privilege working with you all.
Further thanks to my USC group, especially the Fab 5 that pushed me all the way to the end.
There was no room for stopping, just some crying, a lot of venting and loads of laughter. To the
Drs. You all are magnificent for your contributions. Lastly, thanks to my family and friends
whose undying love and cheerleading helped me to the finish line. When I thought about
quitting, Rae, you said to me that you were proud of me and to keep on. That is all I needed to
hear. For my babies, Raelun and Dadrien O’Neal. My greatest work ever.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 9
List of Figures 10
Abstract 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 12
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 12
Organizational Context and Mission 16
Organizational Performance Status 17
Overview of the Literature 18
Importance of Addressing the Problem 19
Organizational Performance Goal 21
Description of Stakeholder Groups 21
Stakeholder Group for the Study 22
Purpose of the Project and Questions 22
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 23
Definitions 24
Organization of the Project 25
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 27
Special Education Laws 28
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 28
No Child Left Behind 29
Opportunity to Learn Strategies 31
History 31
Current Research Based Strategies 32
AVID Program 33
Sociocultural Framework and AVID 34
Impact of AVID on Student Achievement 35
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Organizational Problem-Solving Framework 37
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Factors 38
Knowledge and Skills 38
Knowledge Influences 39
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 5

Procedural Knowledge Influences
Teachers Do Not Know Which Strategies to Incorporate 40
Teachers Do Not Know Benchmarking Test Scores 41
Declarative Knowledge Influences
Teachers Need to Know How to Reflect on Their Own 42
Motivation 43
Attribution Theory 44
Stakeholder Attribution Theory 44
Utility Value Theory 45
Stakeholder Utility Value 46
Organizational Influences 48
Distrust 48
Inundated with Initiatives 49
Resources 50
Organizational Culture 51
Conclusion 52
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context 53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 57
Introduction to Chapter 3 57
Purpose Statement 57
Methodological Approach 58
Participating Stakeholders 59
Site and Participant Selection
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale 59
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 59
Interview and/or Focus Group Sampling Criterion and Rationale 60
Interview and/or Focus Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 60
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale 61
Criterion1 61
Criterion 2 61
Criterion 3 61
Data Collection and Instrumentation 62
Interviews 62
Observation 63
Documents and Artifacts 64
Data Analysis 65
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 6

Credibility and Trustworthiness 66
Validity and Reliability 67
Ethics 67
Limitations and Delimitations 69
Conclusion 69
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 71
Participants Description 71
Results and Findings from Triangulation of Data 72
Research Question One 72
Research Question One Interviews 72
Theme 1: OTL/AVID Strategies 73
Theme 2: Training and Development 75
Theme 3: African American Males Realization 77
Observations 82
Theme 1: Student Engagement 82
Summary 85
Theme 2: AVID Strategies 85
Document Analysis 86
Work Samples 87
Benchmark Scores 87
Report Cards 88
Summary 88
RQ1 Data Analysis Summary 89
Research Question One (a) 90
Research Question One (a) Interviews 90
Theme 1: OTL/AVID Strategies 91
Theme 2: Training and Development 92
Theme 3: Self-Motivation/ Self Efficacy 93
Observations 94
Theme 1: Teacher Routine 94
Theme 2: AVID Strategies 96
Document Analysis 97
Work Samples 98
Benchmark Scores 98
Report Cards 99
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 7

RQ1a Data Analysis Summary 99
Limitations 101
Implications and Reflections 101
CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 103
Organizational Context and Mission 103
Organizational Performance Goal 104
Description of Stakeholder Groups 105
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study 105
Purpose of the Project and Questions 106
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 106
Knowledge Recommendations 106
Introduction 106
Declarative (Factual) Knowledge Solutions, or Description of
Needs or Assets 108
Procedural Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets 109
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs
or Assets 110
Motivation Recommendations 111
Introduction 111
Value 114
Self-Efficacy 114
Expectancy Value Motivational Theory 115
Attribution 116
Organization Recommendations 117
Introduction 117
Distrust 119
Communication Barriers 119
Overload 120
Cultural Setting 120
Cultural Models 121
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 122
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 122
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 122
Level Four: Results and Leading Indicators 123
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 8

Level Three: Behavior 125
Critical Behaviors 125
Required Drivers 126
Organizational Support 127
Level Two: Learning 127
Learning Goals 127
Program 128
Components of Learning 129
Level One: Reaction 131
Evaluation Tools 131
Immediately Following the Program Implementation 131
Data Analysis and Reporting 132
Summary 137
References 140
Appendix A Interview Protocol 149
Appendix B Observation Protocol 151
Appendix C Documentation Protocol 152
Appendix D Survey for Immediately after AVID Training Level 1 153
Appendix E Survey for Immediately after AVID Training Level 2 154
Appendix F Blended Evaluation Form: Participant Survey 155
Appendix G Informed Consent/Information Sheet 160
Appendix H Recruitment Letter 162

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 9

List of Tables
Table 1 Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 42
Table 2 Assumed Influences for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues 47
Table 3 Organizational Goals for Stakeholders 52
Table 4 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 107
Table 5 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 112
Table 6 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 118
Table 7 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for Internal and External Outcomes 124
Table 8 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 125
Table 9 Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 126
Table 10 Components of Learning for the Program. 130
Table 11 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 131

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 10

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 AA Males in Special Education Report Card Grades 88
Figure 1.2 Transfer of AVID Strategies Among AA Males in Special Education 99
Figure Y. Framework for Understanding Barriers to African American Males in Special
Education Success Through the Use of Opportunity to Learn Strategies in
English Language Arts 54
Figure Z. AVID Strategy Use Level 4 133
Figure Z.1 Teachers Applying AVID OTL 134
Figure Z.2 Implementing Strategy Use Immediately After Training 135
Figure Z.3 Implementing Strategy Use Four Weeks After Training 136
Figure Z.4 Level 1 Training Engagement, Relevance, and Satisfaction 136

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 11

ABSTRACT
African American males are over populated in special education in American public
school systems. This sub group of students has been marginalized for decades, yet little funding
or programing exists to decelerate this trend. Further, few studies have focused on this specific
subgroup and the factors contributing to their possible achievement in education. The use of
Opportunity to Learn strategies is a viable avenue for African American males in special
education to access education. The purpose of this study is to examine the academic performance
of African-American males in special education at a Southern Middle School. Specifically, it
will focus on the use of Opportunity to Learn AVID strategies in English Language Arts
classrooms. This focus will be done across many educational based factors in an effort to explain
what contributes to academic achievement among this group. Data were collected utilizing
qualitative interviews, observations and artifacts. Qualitative data was organized into themes and
reported with its corresponding research questions. Findings indicate significant differences
between artifacts, observations and interviews, which affect the use of AVID strategies in the
classroom with these students. Based on these findings, several changes may be implemented to
encourage the use of Opportunity to Learn/AVID strategies in the classroom and teacher support.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 12

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The overrepresentation of African American males in special education is a
serious issue in American school systems. These learners are often placed in special education
and not provided the wealth of tools to succeed academically. Learning is achieved through
modes that include hands-on instruction, verbal and auditory directives, the use of technology
and collaboration with others. Often times this sub group is not taught with various modes of
learning. When they are not presented with opportunities to succeed, negative results can occur.
Further, consequences for them involve dropping out or worse imprisoned. This study aims to
examine how African American males end up in special education and why this is a problem.
Specifically, it will determine if the use of Opportunity to Learn strategies infused in the AVID
program can help ameliorate the overrepresentation of African American males in special
education. Several factors ranging from teacher efficacy to student academics will be explored in
an effort to explain how the strategies affect this segment of students.
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
African American males in America are in a crisis. They are dying at alarming rates in the
streets of Anytown, USA at the hands of violence whether it is police brutality or Black on Black
crime. In school systems they are sometimes brutalized from harsh treatment imposed from
stereotyping and objectionable school conditions. According to Noguera (2003), Black males are
imperiled not only in school, but across American culture. Furthering damaging is that, their
sense of self is diminished. In one instance, the constructed identity of African American males is
one of negativity in schools in relation to their academic performance (Noguera, 2003). In
school districts, disparities lie in the grouping of African American males namely because they
exhibit an array of characteristics that may be deemed unmanageable to a classroom teacher. This
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 13
could be because they behave in a negative manner or their actions are deemed inappropriate by
teachers who do not take into account their background. According to Corbett (2015), there are
numerous teachers who do not understand Black culture. Special education is overwhelmingly
filled with children of color. Often the behaviors of African American males led teachers to
recommend them for special education (Kunjufu, 2005; Maydosz, 2014). African American
males in special education may be inappropriately placed, so they may be more susceptible to
unfair treatment in the educational system (Noguera, 2008). The misplacement may contribute to
an increase in disciplinary problems in and out of school and a higher drop- out rate (Maydosz,
2014). Danitris Gaines a special education teacher and reading interventionist with over fifteen
years of experience in public education and policy, supported the notion that through the process
of labeling a student as having special needs and the stereotypes associated with special
education, it is very difficult for a student to test out of special education (D. Gaines, personal
communication, July 24, 2015). Testing out is when students in special education IQ score
increase, the achievement in academics is greater than the standard deviation, or they no longer
meet state guideline scores following a three year servicing period. Alabama state law requires
that students in special education are re-evaluated every three years to ensure they are eligible for
continued special education services. Testing out becomes less of an option because the boys
develop low self-esteem, which keeps them from reaching their academic potential (Noguera,
2003; Weatherspoon, 2006). Noguera (2003) noted that Black males in special education are
heavily disgraced. Negative self-identifiers and the absence of a will for educational attainment
limit these boys. Therefore, they may be ill-prepared to meet the demands of the workforce by
lacking adequate readiness and the confidence to perform, thus furthering the cycle of poverty
(Hibel, Farkas &Morgan, 2010; Kearns, Ford & Linney, 2005; Watkins & Kurtz, 2001).
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 14
Therefore, an intervention to assist them academically and mentally could prove beneficial. The
Opportunity to Learn may be a resourceful way for African American males in special education
to prevail.
The Opportunity to Learn (OTL) means that all school children have the adequate
resources for success in school (Banicky, 2000; NCTE, 2012). Opportunity to Learn is a concept
that encompasses various components needed for students to have a balanced education. A
balance in education includes adequate student to teacher ratio, access to technology that aids
learning and curriculum that is rounded out with electives and courses that accommodates the
various needs and likes of students. This concept includes school conditions, core curriculum,
and instruction to which students are exposed to (Banicky, 2000). There is a clear link between
the Opportunity to Learn and student achievement (Heafner and Fitchett, 2015; Kurz, et al.,
2014). Primarily, the strategies assist with students’ academic learning, enable students to reach
goals and connect to the curriculum. A deeply defined concept of OTL is “the degree to which a
teacher dedicates instructional time and content coverage to the intended curriculum objectives
emphasizing higher-order cognitive processes, evidence-based instructional practices, and
alternative grouping formats” (Kurz, et. al, 2014, p. 27). When students lack the Opportunity to
Learn, there are concerns because they may become more academically challenged than those
who receive Opportunities to Learn. The opportunities are critical for better guaranteeing that
students can receive a quality education while performing well for commissioned educational
structures, such as high stakes tests. Opportunity to Learn strategies are relevant to the problem
of practice because they could possibly provide a way for African American males in special
education to make better gains academically and this could lead to lowering the dropout rate.
“The quality of education children receive dramatically affects students’ “Opportunity to Learn”.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 15
“Closing or at least reducing any opportunity to learn gap is essential if disparities in
achievement are to be lessened” (Noguera, 2011, p. 185).
The achievement gap represents an inequity in academic achievement between minority
and underprivileged students in contrast with White students (Zaleski, 2014). Although there is
no evidence to support intelligence supremacy in relation to race (Chiacchia, 2001) there are
concrete factors that identify background influences, which lead to academic breaches among
Blacks and Whites (Cooper & Liou, 2007). “Black students were more likely than White students
to come from families living in poverty, which is associated with lower educational
performance” (NAEP, 2009, p. 13). Likewise, Blacks/minorities lag behind in comparison to
Whites academically because the former lack the educational access and resources the latter
enjoyed. This makes them (Blacks and minorities) less likely to graduate high school, attend
college, or compete in the job market (Zaleski, 2014). Urban schools house more minorities and
their associated school districts generally have more academic challenges (Kunjufu, 2005; Paige,
Rod, Witty, & Elaine, 2009) than suburban or more affluent school districts (Cooper & Liou,
2007; Zaleski, 2014). According to Heafner and Fitchett (2015) “The gap between achievement
scores for Blacks and Whites remains almost as large as it was in the 1960s and a similar gap
persists for Hispanic students” (p. 2). Even though the gap has lessened, reports show at least a
26 point difference in scores between Black and White children (NAEP, 2009).
Governmental reforms that provide students with Opportunities to Learn exist, which
have helped reduce the gap in achievement. In 1998 President Bill Clinton signed into legislation
GEAR UP, which is a program for minority and under privileged students that create the
Opportunity to Learn (“Obama Education Secretary to Meet with Fattah on Opportunity to Learn
Commission”, 2009). The current achievement gap exists not because of socioeconomic
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 16
differences, but because Opportunities to Learn are not being provided to all students (Banicky,
2000). According to the above article, all American students should be provided with every
possible Opportunity to Learn. This reach is seen beyond K-12 education as college readiness
cannot be obtained if the Opportunity to Learn is not provided. The National Commission on the
Opportunity to Learn exists to curb the achievement gap, so that equity in education is achieved
(Kozol, 2009). When combining the two disparities, the lack of opportunities in education and an
overrepresentation of males in special education, a serious concern surfaces as to how these
issues must be identified and rectified. This project will principally emphasize African American
males in special education programs in secondary school and how Opportunity to Learn
strategies in English/Language Arts may be an indicator of and support for African American
males learning in order for them to move into general education.
Organizational Context and Mission
Southtown Middle School (SMS), is an urban, Title I, public school serving
grades six through eight (6-8). Located in Southern United States, Southtown Middle School was
built in the 1950s. Southtown Middle School was originally designed to serve students in
kindergarten through eighth grade, however, due to community growth and changes in the 1980s,
it became a middle school serving students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. In the late 1990s,
the school was remodeled to improve the band facilities, renovate the main office and
administrative areas, and add a new gymnasium. It is the second largest middle school in the
area. When a new school opened in early 2000, enrollment dropped at Southtown Middle School.
However, a new elementary school was added to the area as a result of another elementary
school closing. As a result, enrollment has increased at the middle school for the 2013/2014
school year. There are currently 599 students enrolled in grades 6-8, with ages ranging from 11-
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 17
14 years. The students are comprised of 54% males and 46% females. Of those enrolled, 97% are
African American, 1% Caucasian and Multi Race 1%. About 80% of the students receive free or
reduced lunch. The current special needs population is currently 25%, with 1% gifted, and 3%
speech language impaired. There are approximately 40 faculty and staff members. The
immediate stakeholders are teachers, administrators, staff and parents. Other stakeholders include
community members, board of education employees, and sponsors.
Southtown Middle School strives to provide a safe, stimulating, inviting and nurturing
environment; where promoting a sense of self awareness and encouraging high academic
achievement for all. Working together and building relationships are paramount. All individuals
are treated with dignity and respect. Students and staff recognize and embrace one another's
differences, curiosity, creativity, and diversity. Stakeholders and the community are empowered
through shared leadership. The school environment is student-centered and the main priority is
teaching and learning. The organization exists to educate children in a safe learning environment.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem at the base of this study is that there is no
intervention model for African American males in special education. Southtown Middle School
reports show that 68% of special education students are African American males. In order to
decrease the current numbers and promote the movement of students (African American males)
from special education back to general education, the Opportunity to Learn strategies will be
implemented as an intervention plan in English/ Language Arts. During the 2014-2015 academic
year, no interventions were made for students to discontinue services in special education, which
represents a 100% gap. If there were students who tested out, transitioned out or listed as
declassified through academic achievement that demonstrated students no longer needed an
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 18
Individualized Education Program, then a 100% gap would not be present. In order to initiate
change, it is necessary that the Opportunity to Learn is utilized in English/Language Arts
otherwise the overrepresentation of African American males may continue. Failure to do so could
result in negative outcomes, such as low school retention rates or worse, drop outs and failure to
move into post- graduation plans.
Overview of the Literature

Numerous studies have suggested the educational system is not immune to bias and this
is possibly illustrated in the disparity between African American males and other races in special
education. According to Corbett (2015), during the 2011- 2012 school year, the Office of Civil
Rights reported that black students made up about 14.5% of all student population, but close to
20% of students are a part of special education. African American males are more likely to be
referred to special education versus Latino/Hispanic students, and Caucasian students (Hing,
2014; Kunjufu, 2005, Russo & Johnson, 1997). The placement of African American males into
special education programs can be attributed to behavioral/disciplinary issues, disability based on
physical impairment, emotional disturbance or the mislabeling of mental retardation (Hing,
2014; Kunjufu, 2005; Maydosz, 2014; Patton, 1998; Russo & Johnson, 1997).
Existing literature suggests that the process of developing and implementing a fair
referral and the initial assessment system by the teacher may contribute to the disproportionate
representation of African American males in special education because of the misunderstanding
or exaggeration of why these referrals were issued (Kunjufu, 2005; Maydosz, 2014). Patton
(1998) argued, teachers’ assessments placed African American youth at a much higher risk of
being wrongly placed into special education (SED). Further, various state and federal testing
holds a racial bias. “Black and white achievement gaps have been portrayed over time;
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 19
undoubtedly, there is a multidimensional gap in achievement shown through performance on
district, state, and national achievement tests…” (Noguera, 2011, p. 3-4). It does not take in
consideration cultural backgrounds, learning levels occurring at different stages in children lives,
and the preconception that all students should be academically parallel based on grade level
(Kearns, et. al, 2005; Kunjufu, 2005; Maydosz, 2014; Russo & Johnson, 1997). The challenges
faced by African American males in public education should be considered as examples of issues
of misrepresentation of minorities in special education. Addressing these issues is critical or
“Black students will continue to hold the record for drop-out rates, low academic achievement,
and lower college attendance rates” (Wheelan, 1991, p.3). Wheelan (1991) confirmed black boys
drop out of high school because of low test scores and are mislabeled at high rates as mentally
retarded or by other special education terms, such as intellectually disabled. Toldson (2011)
stated African American males with disabilities are three times more likely to not finish high
school compared to other races and genders with disabilities. Research suggests, however, that
the Opportunity to Learn can improve the educational circumstances for African American males
in special education and/or intervene before they are placed (Kurz, Elliot, Lemons, Zigmond,
Kloo & Kettler, 2014). “The Schott Foundation and a number of other civil rights organizations
have begun calling for “Opportunity to Learn standards”. The adoption of such standards would
go a long way toward improving the quality of education …” (Noguera, 2011, p. 184).
Importance of Addressing the Problem

It is important to address the problem proposed because implementing strategies focused
on the Opportunity to Learn takes into account a proven program important for helping children
to succeed. There are other interventions and there is little research on using Opportunity to
Learn strategies as a means to move African American males out of special education into
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 20
general education. However, if this organized set of strategies is applied systematically to student
learning, any findings may identify a way to reduce educational disparity and discrimination.
The discrepancy in the Opportunity to Learn is seen mostly between Whites and non-White
students (Banicky, 2000; Heafner & Fitchett, 2015; NCTE, 2012; University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, 2011). Without the Opportunity to Learn, more privileged students will gain access
to quality education and continue to support inequitable education (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). In
other words, the Opportunity to Learn is needed for urban or less privileged students to have
more equitable entry into society through quality education. According to Johnson (2006)
privilege takes place in White themed classifications. This involves a white dominated system
where racism is deep rooted; there is a rivalry for means and an imbalance of power (Johnson,
2006). Such privilege limits non-whites and makes it harder to contend, namely in education.
There are many inequities in education, which consist of (just to name a few) safe learning
environments, highly qualified and diversity trained teachers, access to technological devices and
networking (Kunjufu, 2011; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). These inequities may perpetuate the
overrepresentation of African American males in special education (Kunjufu, 2005; Maydosz,
2014).
Consequences that may be incurred if the lack of equity in the placement of
African American boys in special education problem is not resolved is a higher rate of African
American males left in special education, less attendance in post-secondary institutions, bigger
gaps in educational learning between racial/ethnic groups, and an increase in the pipeline to
prison population (Cooper & Liou, 2007; Hing, 2014; Kunjufu, 2005; Maydosz, 2014; Zaleski,
2014). All of these reasons are compelling to investigate the problem with the hopes of providing
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 21
an improvement model that will positively impact the educational community by enacting
change.
Organizational Performance Goal
Southtown Middle School’s goal is that by December 2017, African American males in
Special Education will have a proficiency rate of 75% in English Language Arts. This means that
numerical data will reflect this percentile score measuring African American males’ progress in
English Language Arts. The use of benchmark tests, report cards and/or classwork grades will
contribute to measurements. This is an achievable goal because it creates a benchmark that is not
currently present and allows for reasonable gains to occur. The performance findings can suggest
that Opportunity to Learn strategies impact the learning of African American males, thereby,
suggesting that if such strategies are used consistently over time, the number of African
American males in special education may decrease. The special education department
established the above goal after a meeting revealed factors leading to African American males
being placed in special education and what academic improvements were possible in order to
reach desired results. The achievement of Southtown Middle School’s goal will be measured by
the results of Opportunity to Learn intervention methods reflected in assessments through
December 2017.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholders for the organization include the administrators, teachers and students.
The administrators’ contributions to the achievement of the goal are through supplying data in
the form of documentation, such as test scores and demographics of students. They are also
responsible for ensuring that teachers attend the AVID workshops and conferences. This directly
affects African American males in special education because when administrators arrange the
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 22
training for teachers, the males are exposed to the strategies provided by the program. Teachers’
contributions to the achievement of the goal are through permitting in-class observations,
offering student work samples, and committing to using Opportunity to Learn strategies.
Teachers are interacting with students in the classrooms and utilizing A VID Opportunity to Learn
strategies during instruction. Students contribute by willingly participating throughout the study
by attempting to understand and utilize the A VID strategies.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The combined strengths of all stakeholders would work together for the
attainment of the overall organizational goal of African American males in Special Education to
be proficient by 75% in English Language Arts. It is important to understand the challenges
faced by Southtown Middle School faculty and staff members as they attempt to implement the
strategies that align with meeting this goal through the consistent implementation of Opportunity
to Learn. Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study will be 8
th
grade English/Language
Arts teachers with a focus on 8
th
grade faculty. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by the
administrators, is that 100% of Southtown Middle School 8
th
grade teachers will implement
Opportunity to Learn strategies in their daily instructional activities. Opportunity to Learn
strategies include activities such as technology use in lesson planning, differentiated instruction,
safe and secure learning environment, maximum academic learning time and interactive learning
sessions.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The gap analysis will focus on stakeholders within the organization, namely teachers and
administrators. Through this analysis, emphasis on gaps in learning of students receiving special
education services and those who are not, and the faculty and staff documentation of grades and
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 23
interactions with minority male students are areas of priority. The analysis will begin by
originating potential or anticipated reasons and then by exploring these analytically to
concentrate on tangible or confirmed causes.

As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What impact might Opportunity to Learn strategies have on the academic
development of African American males currently placed in special education?
a. To what degree will the faculty commit to learn and use Opportunity to Learn
strategies in English/ Language?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis suggests that organizations can rectify performance
problems through explanations and investigations of the gap between desired outcomes and
actual status using a research based method. African American males can benefit from a school
environment that is immersed in peer interactions and a social context with learning. This context
will be implemented in the study. The sociocultural theme identifies a framework that describes
how learning happens optimally in a group context and vaguely happens in confinement
(Pressick-Kilborn, Sainsbury & Walker, 2005; Scott & Palincsar, 2003). Children can better learn
from one another through curricula built for collaboration. The process of learning starts before
the classroom, but meaningful classroom interactions are essential for prolonged educational
growth. Vygotsky postulated that children’s relationship with learning was determined by their
zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Kilborn, Sainsbury & Walker, 2005; Scott & Palincsar,
2003). Learning affects their development and cognitive cycle (Kilborn, Sainsbury & Walker,
2005). Through peer collaboration and teacher assistance, the resulting ZPD better supports
cognition and learning (Scott & Palincsar, 2003). Problem solving is within the context of
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 24
understanding through interaction with peers (Kilborn, Sainsbury & Walker, 2005; Scott &
Palincsar, 2003). This is important to the study because the use of strategies, particularly A VID
strategies employ interactions from peers and teachers.
The methodological framework of the study is qualitative with descriptive statistics.
Realized implicit pressures, as well as organizational and impetus controls that obstruct
organizational goal attainment will be established relative to personal knowledge and related
literature (Clark and Estes, 2008). These influences will be assessed through document analysis
reviews (including and Individualized Education Plans) and interviews. Resolutions that are
research-based will be suggested and assessed within an inclusive approach.
Definitions
Achievement Gap- Achievement gaps occur when one group of students (such as,
students grouped by race/ethnicity, gender) outperforms another group and the difference in
average scores for the two groups is statistically significant (that is, larger than the margin of
error). The achievement gap shows up in grades, standardized-test scores, course selection,
dropout rates, and college-completion rates, among other success measures. It is most often used
to describe the troubling performance gaps between African-American and Hispanic students, at
the lower end of the performance scale, and their non-Hispanic white peers, and the similar
academic disparity between students from low-income families and those with higher economic
status. In the past decade, scholars and policymakers have begun to focus increasing attention on
other achievement gaps, such as those based on sex, English-language proficiency and learning
disabilities.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 25
AVID (Achievement Via Individual Determination)- Advancement Via Individual
Determination, is a global nonprofit organization dedicated to closing the achievement gap by
preparing all students for college and other postsecondary opportunities.
IEP- Individualized Education Plan is a written statement that describes the services and
interventions needed to assist a child with a disability. Every child receiving special education
services must have an IEP.
Opportunity to Learn- The criteria for and the bases of assessing the sufficiency or
quality of the resources, practices, and conditions necessary at each level of the education system
to provide all students with the opportunity to learn the material in voluntary national content
standards or state content standards.
Special Education- Special education means specially designed instruction, at no cost to the
parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, including instruction conducted in
classrooms, at home, in hospitals and institutions, and other settings as well as instruction in
physical education. Special education includes each of the following, if the services provided to
students meet the requirements of:
(i) Speech language pathology services, or any other related service, if the service is considered
special education rather than a related service under State standards;
(ii) Travel training; and
(iii) Vocational education.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion concerning an educational
setting. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the initial concepts of gap
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 26
analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding the
scope of the study. Topics of achievement gap, Opportunity to Learn, and special education will
be discussed. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering elements as well as methodology
when it comes to selection of participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data
and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides findings, based on data and
literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as recommendations for an implementation and
evaluation plan for any solutions.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 27
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Chapter Two outlines the use of Opportunity to Learn strategies, specifically
A VID strategies, which can lead to African American males achieving success in
English/Language Arts (ELA). A look at the research questions informs this chapter. They are:
1. What impact might Opportunity to Learn strategies have on the academic
development of African American males currently placed in special education?
a. To what degree will the faculty commit to learn and use Opportunity to Learn
strategies in English/ Language Arts?
The Advancement Via Individual Determination program transports research-based
strategies and curricula to elementary, secondary and post -secondary institutions. “Yearly, the
A VID organization offers over 30,000 professionals with coaching and approaches that enhance
students’ “critical thinking, literacy, and math skills” amid every academic area” (What is Avid?
2016). Utilization of the program could assist with answering all three research questions.
However, continuously considering the literature will address outcomes. The first segment
focuses on special education history and laws. The second segment focuses on the background of
OTL strategies. The third segment focuses on A VID strategies and the success rate of students
that utilize them in their academics. The research questions guide the study; therefore, the
literature that assists with answering them include: special education history and laws,
Opportunity to Learn strategies in education and problems with African American males’
learning in urban classrooms. The chapter ends with an analysis of African American males in
special education that can use these strategies in ELA from the lens of learning and motivation
literature utilizing the gap analysis dimensions of knowledge, motivation, and organization.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 28
Special Education Laws
Special education laws were put in place to service and protect students with a
myriad of disabilities. There are numerous categories that disabilities can fall under, further,
educational practices needed to include statements that would ensure such students received an
education that was still unbiased. The identification of students with challenges, appropriate
documentation and testing along with written educational plans to accommodate these students
are the basis for all special education laws. Of course, special education laws are detailed by
discussing relevancies to schools, teachers and the learning environment.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was a response to
inadequate provisions made for children with disabilities in public schools and insistence that the
federal government give monies to ensure the education of children with disabilities is suitable
(Lipkin & Okamoto, 2015). A free and appropriate education (FAPE) is the main idea of IDEA as
well as learning taking place in the least restrictive environment (LRE) (Zirkel, 2015; Zirkel &
Hetrick, 2017). In 1975 Congress passed the Education of All Handicapped Children Act law
and in 1990 it was reauthorized as IDEA (Prince, Katsiyannis & Farmer, 2013) so that funds are
given to states to provide services for children with disabilities (Zirkel & Hetrick, 2017). Sates
are mandated to design policies and regulations to prevent over representation or identification of
children by race or disability with a particular impairment (Zhang, Katsiyannis, Ju & Roberts,
2012). The authors further establish if overrepresentations are present then states must review,
revise and restate policies and regulations to reflect IDEA requirements. Students identified with
disabilities through testing and documentation are then required to meet with special education
teachers, general education teachers, parent (s)/guardian(s) and school administrators to create an
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 29
Individualized Education Plan (IEP). The IEP is a legal binding document that describes the
services made available to qualifying special education students. An IEP should serve in a child’s
best interest including the transition into adulthood whereby the interests, abilities and focus for
the child is reflected (Lipkin & Okamoto, 2015). Unfortunately, IDEA does not stipulate states
to promise positive educational outcomes, but specifications that allow students to gain from
special education services (Prince, Katsiyannis & Farmer, 2013). This is quite a statement
considering an expectation of benefiting from special education services is positive outcome (s).
There lie potential problems with IDEA, such as unprepared students for the workforce or
postsecondary education. Particularly, minority students are at a greater risk of suffering such
consequences. Minority students have a higher instance of low academic achievement thus
leading to African American students’ placement in general education classes are minimal;
moreover, scholars declare that IDEA enacted a re-segregation of African American students
(Zhang, Katsiyannis, Ju & Roberts, 2012). The authors continue to assert that minority students
are at a higher risk of staying in a restricted learning environment.
No Child Left Behind
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is law that should support special education. NCLB
claims children in lack would obtain a valuable education that encourage academic achievement
(Gardner, Rizzi & Council, 2014). NCLB requires that teachers use research based strategies in
their curriculum, thus reducing the number of minorities submitted for special education testing.
One of the main components of NCLB is high stakes testing also known as standardized testing.
These tests measure students’ knowledge in various academic subjects, but the score card for
individual schools only reflect the numerical score in math and reading. These subjects are
considered accountability areas. If the passing score is not met according to NCLB then a school
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 30
is deemed failing. This opens up the proverbial can of worms as there are many reasons why
schools fail to make the passing list. Low economic students in urban or rural school districts,
English language learning students, minimal resources both financially and physically deter
schools from making a passing grade. However, the inception of NCLB to help underprivileged
students receive the same type of high quality education that is received by students in more
affluent school districts has not done so. Schools with large numbers of minorities in special
education fall under stipulations that require test scores to resemble passing. Often they do not
and these schools are penalized by receiving sanctions, even though in many school districts the
bill is not fully funded to enable resources to help all children (Darling-Hammond, 2007). The
author further states that students with disabilities are punished by being placed in disparaging
subcategories for not meeting standards. This is not all. While testing is a huge deal, there are
other components under NCLB that does further the cause of children with disabilities. The law
requires schools to make Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) to show compliance in other areas and
they primarily deal with progress based on testing and measurement. In a broader context, NCLB
does not activate or create the skillset or base knowledge necessary for inclusion in the world
(Donnor & Shockley, 2010). If testing is so important then the least it could do is cater to life
development. Directly, NCLB in its state continuously stops African American males from
achieving success in public schools (Donnor & Shockley, 2010).
Even with IDEA and NCLB minority males continue to trail academically (Gardner,
Rizzi & Council, 2014). Nonetheless, there is hope for African American males in special
education. As mentioned before, Opportunity to Learn strategies are designed to help all
children, no matter their academic position. Chiefly, A VID uses such strategies and it is a
research based program. According to Gardner, et al., 2014, the application of experimentally
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 31
authenticated teaching is vital to lessening the achievement gap between minority and majority
children. Hopefully, Opportunity to Learn strategies can assist with African American males in
special education because of their innovative techniques to reach the various learning styles of
students.
Opportunity to Learn Strategies
History
The Opportunity to Learn is not a new term in public education. While it is not an
old mainstay it has garnered some attention because of its different characteristics from research
and development (Elmore & Furhman, 1995). Many lawmakers felt that research and
development was a more logical approach to solving inequities in education. Others felt that
standards and strategies could be used, but not without Opportunity to Learn standards being
available (Elmore & Furhman, 1995). School districts in America exhibit varying amounts of
wealth; albeit, that translates to disparities in access to equal education. It is clear that a school
district’s financial means is somewhat synonymous with student learning. The more money a
district has, the more money is available to support students and teachers. The opposite is clear
for school districts with limited financial means. The less money a school district has the less
there is for students and teachers. This situation created a breach in equitable learning among
school children. Policy makers then sought to provide regulations that could ensure equality in
education. One regulation was the adoption of Opportunity to Learn standards and this stated that
all students would have access to the best education including necessary supplies, such as
textbooks, per student funds, etc. and the like (Elmore & Fuhrman, 1995). During the
initialization of Opportunity to Learn regulations, many concerns were stated. State supervision,
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 32
institutional structures, academic areas (Elmore & Fuhrman, 2005) and simply access to
education seemed to head of the top of the list.
As Opportunity to Learn developed into more of a definitive term in education
where it expands into an affiliation between classroom curricula and student learning (Heafner &
Fitch, 2015), there is recognition that using OTL strategies can impact students’ learning.
Regulations are now realities for school districts that utilize OTL strategies. Heafner and Fitch
(2015) mention OTL is a combination of attributes that identify teaching systems, thinking
processes and other approaches.
Current Research Based Strategies
Cooperative learning is a research based strategy where people learn by working
with others (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 2007). This strategy is well used in K-12 classrooms and
extends to post- secondary education. Cooperative learning lends itself well to social
interdependence theory. Social interdependence theory states that an individual’s goals can be
met through interactions with others (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 2007). This is relevant because
cooperation yields greater achievement, deeper cognition, and motivation for learning (Johnson,
Johnson & Smith, 2007). This strategy could be deemed an Opportunity to Learn strategy.
Engagement strategies demonstrate mental and behavioral descriptions (Jablon &
Wilkinson, 2006) of students. Mentally students are curious about the learning and excited to put
forth effort to learn. While the use of engagement strategies are Kindergarten-fifth grade (K-5),
they are still research based and studies show a strong relationship between constant engagement
and achievement (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 2007). If using these strategies in primary school
makes a difference in children’s academics then a strong tie between accesses to equal education
could exist, particularly for African American males in special education.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 33
Experiential learning is when students learn what they want or express desire to
know (Giesen, 2011). This kind of learning like cooperative and engagement requires students to
interact with one another to receive information. The theory that complements this strategy is
“learning by doing”, which was phrased by education psychologists John Dewey, Carl Rodgers
and David Kolb (Giesen, 2011). The learning amid students is not formally structured and the
encounters are related to life events. Students must adhere to a stringent role as learner/leader
because they are most responsible for higher level thinking while learning. Instructors are
required to oversee students learning while guiding them through query. This learning is not as
mainstream as the other two, but could broaden the scope of Opportunity to Learn strategies.
A VID Program
The Advancement Via Individual Determination (A VID) program is designed to
help children succeed through closing the achievement gap and preparation for college (“What is
Avid?” 2016). There are more than forty states and close to twenty countries that adopted the
A VID program. The program is designed to train teachers on how to integrate proven academic
strategies into the curriculum, assess learning and reflect on the use of the strategies in order to
stay proficient with AVID’s instructional targets. Students are held to a code of responsibility and
willingness for their learning. The program can function as an elective class, whereby selected
students take the one class and receive organizational skills and academic preparedness, or a
school can adopt the whole system and become a school wide AVID site. AVID claims one of
their priorities is to serve students who are not commonly represented, such as minorities or
students with low socioeconomic statuses. Schools with the A VID program improved
accountability scores and minorities experienced academic success (Watt, Huerta & Lozano,
2007). Just as well, one of the first goals of the program is to rally and organize underachieving
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 34
students from minority groups (Bernhardt, 2013). Unlike strategies that may vary from school
age to grade, this system is designed to start in elementary school and continue through college.
While an aligned adoption of the AVID program would make it most optimal, in isolation the
program is still believed to be successful. The goals are united with Common Core Standards,
which are adopted content area guidelines that ensure all students are learning the same thing, at
the same time, in the same grade level regardless of the state. There are 42 states that are
complicit with Common Core Standards, thus; emphasizing mathematics and reading (“Closing
the Expectations Gap 2013 Annual Report on the Alignment of State K-12 Policies and Practice
with the Demands of College and Careers” 2016). This places the program in a position to
market itself as a companion to what school districts are currently offering. Diversity among
students and the acknowledgement of students who commit to the program results in college
applicants much more than schools that do not have the program. A VID uses many strategies and
they can be listed as Opportunity to Learn strategies. The use of the A VID program supports
students’ success. The assistance of teachers that integrate the strategies with fidelity is necessary
and African American males in special education are included as well.
Sociocultural Framework and A VID
The sociocultural perspective is a theoretical framework that identifies strategies that are
beneficial to African American males in special education. According to Steiner and Mahn
(1996), Vygotsky’s theory encompassed a view of special education students. Ideally, special
education students’ learning is designed to meet their needs; however, they learn in multi-faceted
ways. Sociocultural theory identifies the variables in learning and notes that context matters
(Kilborn, Sainsbury & Walker, 2005). African American males could gain from a school
environment that allows them to explore their perceptions of situations. According to Scott and
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 35
Palincsar (2003), minority students perform the lowest on national tests that measure reading,
moreover, literacy learning through the sociocultural framework can guide teachers’ use of
instruction by focusing children’s literacy learning to adapting in various situations. Further, the
use of AVID strategies embodies the sociocultural framework because they both infuse
collaboration, social interaction and cooperative learning for student success.
Impact of A VID on Student Achievement
Several reports are published about the effectiveness of the A VID program in
schools. These reports confer that students who were exposed to the A VID strategies can
experience increased academic achievement. Specifically, A VID targets students in the middle
grades because it is at that time when students are most impressionable academically (Bernhardt,
2013; Huerta, Watt & Butcher, 2013). The use of the A VID program in middle school exposes
students to rigor in academics. Bernhardt (2013) mentions students can perform well in high
school and beyond if exposed to A VID in the middle grades. The program also pushes college
awareness and readiness, especially at the middle school level. According to Huerta, Watt and
Butcher (2013), the program can better students’ academics the longer they are involved in it,
which extends to collegiate ambitions. This means that students who are in middle school and go
through the program benefit much more than those who only go through the program on a high
school level. Students who are mostly underrepresented can profit tremendously from such a
program because it gives access where it was not present before. Bernhardt (2013) references
access to essential educational resources for underrepresented students as an existing opportunity
gap. The A VID curriculum is designed for constant peer collaborations, organizers and self-
reflection. Students have chances to connect through group assignments while building skills that
assist them through high school and college (Bernhardt, 2013; Huerta, Watt & Butcher, 2013;
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 36
Watt, Huerta & Lozano, 2007). A VID also seeks for students to build trusting relationships
among one another, teachers, and parents. The social impact fosters communication and
motivation for students’ success. According to Bernhardt (2013), A VID girds the social
construction of students and advances communal bonds. When families are involved with their
students’ progression in school, the students are most likely to stay on track. The involvement of
parents and guardians galvanizes them to support their children and a thriving A VID program
supports children in this manner.
African American males are deemed most likely to appear on failure lists in
schools across the country; hence, the terms academically impaired, socially imbalanced, and
behavioral disturbance are used as their descriptors (Parker, Eliot & Tart, 2013). Programs
currently exist to teach them and turn around the negative stigmas because African American
males need various avenues for learning. The A VID program is known for primarily targeting
minorities, particularly African Americans (Parker, et.al, 2013). The program is also known for
narrowing achievement gaps (Llama, Lopez & Quirk, 2014) and based on the many facets of the
A VID program, help African American male students (Park, et. al, 2013). A high school in
Baltimore, Maryland chose a select group of African American males to participate and
matriculate through the AVID program. Other programs, like the one in Baltimore, were piloted
in other cities to foster a sense of support academically and socially (Gencer, 2010.) The author
further noted the young males in the program formed a brotherhood. The bonds enabled the boys
to network with role models and expose them to non-routine experiences while under the
tracking of the A VID program. Such circumstances allow for meaningful guidance that African
American males can receive through A VID. In agreement with Gencer (2010), Parker, et. al,
note the African American males in the A VID program appreciated the unity they built with their
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 37
classmates. In North Carolina a small pilot group with African American males placed in A VID
yielded similar results to the study in Baltimore. The males cited close relationships with
teachers that interacted with them while in A VID and a family surrounding with others in the
program (Parker, et. al, 2013). Those positive interactions led to African American males in both
studies to have positive academic gains.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Organizational Problem Solving Framework
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis states organizations can rectify performance problems
through explanations and investigations of the gap between desired outcomes and actual status
using a research based method. Knowledge and Motivation are two of three perspectives that
identify what stakeholders know or need to know and how they feel about getting the job done.
The Organizational aspect identifies how stakeholders are influenced within the workplace. This
context will be implemented for the study. The Knowledge gap exists with stakeholders not
knowing information that is beneficial to them assisting African American males in special
education who have a propensity to learn English Language Arts through Opportunity to Learn
(OTL) strategies. The Motivation for stakeholders exists for them to push students into greatness
and through accepting the value of OTL strategies. The Organizational factors include distrust
and miscommunication from administrators and among the stakeholders. By incorporating
assessments or scorecards to gauge such negative influences, positive feedback and rectification
can occur.
The methodological framework is qualitative with descriptive statistics. Realized implicit
pressures, organizational and impetus controls that obstruct the organizational goal attainment
will be established on personal knowledge and related literature (Clark and Estes, 2008). These
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 38
influences will be assessed by using document analyses review, interviews, and observations.
Resolutions that are research-based will be suggested and assessed in an inclusive approach.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organization Factors
Knowledge and Skills
Many factors contribute to stakeholders’ lack of understanding concerning issues
within the organization. As an educationalist, a sense of awareness of what teachers know and do
not know is a part of the profession (Rueda, 2011). Some issues may be out of sheer ignorance,
while others are correlated with specific reasons. According to Clark and Estes (2008) people can
enhance their knowledge and skills through information, job aids, training and education. Either
way any lack of understanding poses problems that should be addressed. By looking at literature
that discusses the types of knowledge-related influences that are relevant to achieving the
stakeholder goal, there can be some resolution for attainment.
Clark and Estes (2008) assert that organizational goals are needed in relation to
performance improvement. People in an organization must decide how to achieve those goals
and generally education is a factor (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Learning emanates
through experience and causes relevant changes (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Learning arises in
various forms and levels, so work goals should be blatantly conveyed (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Significant learning necessitates the learner to engross in suitable cognitive processes, pertinent
material and structures that support the knowledge (Mayer, 2011). Such learning is vital to
promoting the goal of differentiating knowledge (Rueda, 2011) to the stakeholders.
There are three types of knowledge that influences stakeholders. The first is procedural
knowledge that identifies if a group knows precisely how to accomplish the anticipated objective
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The second type is declarative knowledge, which identifies concrete data,
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 39
such as facts related to test scores, student abilities, or even school policies (Mayer, 2011; Rueda,
2011). Lastly, metacognitive knowledge is based on how a person understands his or her learning
(Mayer, 2011). Through analyzing procedural, declarative and metacognitive knowledge of the
stakeholders, a better picture is painted of why stakeholders have issues in the organization.
Knowledge influences. When thinking about the organizational global goal or
main organizational goal of African American males in Special Education receiving Opportunity
to Learn (OTL) strategies in English Language Arts with 100% implementation, examining the
literature provides a context for understanding this goal. Males are more likely to be placed in
special education; African American males more so than other ethnicities (Hibel, Farkas, &
Morgan, 2010). The authors further say that minority over-representation was highly disputed
and scrutinized since the middle 20
th
century. The prospect of learning is limited in many school
districts, especially those that are urban, English Language Learner dense, and has a low
socioeconomic status (Hibel, Farkas & Morgan, 2010; Rueda, 2011). Just as well, African
American male teens are identified as remedial or Special Education three times the rate of other
ethnicities (Riddick, 2010). Opportunity to Learn strategies are useful because they combine a
plethora of tools that are useful for all students’ achievement. According to Kunjufu (2011), over
80% of special education students are Black/African American males in American school
systems. In addition to African American males’ overrepresentation in special education, they
have low academic achievement and socialize with bottommost learners (Hibel, Farkas &
Morgan, 2010; Riddick, 2010). Opportunity to Learn strategies are also known as engagement
strategies whereby teachers are able to gain and involve the attention of children through various
tactics (Jablon & Wilkinson, 2006). This generation of learners value a mixed environment of
learning that in inclusive of online social connectedness, collaboration, and the use of technology
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 40
to name a few (Eckleberry-Hunt & Tucciarone, 2011). Particularly, Southtown Middle School
uses Achievement Via Individual Determination (A VID) strategies, which are considered
Opportunity to Learn strategies to engage all students. The goal is for teachers to know which
approaches work for instructing various kinds of knowledge and under what conditions to
particular students (Rueda, 2011). In order for the students to receive such strategies, teachers or
the chosen stakeholder group, must engage in the usefulness of these strategies.
Teachers do not know which strategies to incorporate. The first knowledge
influence is procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge is the understanding of a step-by-step
process (Mayer, 2011). Teachers do not know the methodologies that work best for African
American males in special education. In some cases teachers feel they do not know how to help
students that are labeled for Special Education (Rueda, 2011).They need to understand which
strategies are best to incorporate in lesson plans and how to use each strategy in class with
students (Pintrich, 2002). Teachers attend professional development training in order to gain
strategies for classroom use. Within this, teachers need to know how to transfer knowledge from
professional development to classroom action. Professional development ideally is focused on
student learning, data collection, networking, connectedness of instruction and academic
discipline, and pedagogy (Elmore, 2002; National Staff Development Council, 2001). These
various learning models of professional development should encapsulate clear understanding and
explicit directions for use by teachers. Professional development uses several learning
approaches to enhance the growth of instructional skills (National Staff Development Council,
2001). A reason that teachers might not gain such levels of comprehension is their professional
development is not applicable to what they actually teach or need to improve practices (Elmore,
2002). This can create an issue for teachers to exercise new knowledge with students. Often
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 41
teachers have a difficult time with transferring information into practical use (Grossman & Salas,
2011). Teachers need to know which methodologies or Opportunity to Learn strategies are best
to incorporate in classroom instruction for African American males in special education. (see
Table 1).
Teachers do not know benchmarking test scores. Declarative knowledge is factual
knowledge (Mayer, 2011). One of the primary components of gathering declarative knowledge is
from data. Data consists of observations, conferences, quizzes, tests, written responses and other
teacher generated assignments. The development of data exploration and goal improvement can
decide teachers’ level of professional learning (National Staff Development Council, 2001).
According to Hunter (2006), teachers make judgment calls about students’ learning based on
assessments. Benchmarking is a consistent and reliable way of collecting data about student
achievement in intervals without the wait of reports from high stakes testing. According to Hawe
and Parr (2013), “assessments for learning can only be reached when strategies are enacted in
ways that reflect its unitary nature, promote quality outcomes and give students a central role in
their learning” (pg. 210). Data collection allows teachers to gather information about
improvements in student learning and it displays teachers’ professional learning effects (National
Staff Development Council, 2001). The use of Star testing by Renaissance Learning is a
computer-generated test that measures students’ growth in Language Arts. This tool can assist
with teachers’ amassing facts about student academics. So, in turn, teachers who do not know
which African American male students have higher STAR reports in English Language Arts can
have access to that information and this assists with the teachers using OTL strategies according
to the stakeholder goal. (see Table 1). Knowing the facts of which students have higher scores
can assist with the assumption that the better the STAR report scores, the more likely those
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 42
students can move from special education to general education.
Teachers need to know how to reflect on their own. Metacognitive knowledge is the
knowing of foundational thinking and strategies that could be used in various tasks, data of how
and when it can be used, and the awareness of self (Pintrich, 2002). Learners or in this case
teachers must be in charge of their acquisition process (Mayer, 2011). Through various situations
and circumstances teachers must be able to reason. One way for teachers to become introspective
is through learning withitness. “Withitness” is a term invented by Jonathan Kounin in the 1970s
to explain the teacher’s cognizance of what is going on the classroom at all times (Pressman,
2011). This becomes root knowledge of being able to recognize many things about students
including their self-efficacy. Teachers need to know how to reflect in order to gauge their insights
on their teaching effectiveness and African American males learning abilities (see Table 1.1).
This enables the teachers to process mentally whether or not they are properly using Opportunity
to Learn strategies with students. The table below explains the use of knowledge and skills goals
with the stakeholders (teachers); likewise, categorizing the knowledge type and influence along
with an assessment to measure the influence.
Table 1
Southtown Middle School Mission and Knowledge Goals for Stakeholders
Organizational Mission
Southtown Middle School strives to provide a safe, stimulating, inviting and nurturing
environment; promoting a sense of self awareness and encouraging high academic achievement
for all.
Organizational Global Goal
African American males in Special Education will demonstrate academic readiness by 75% in
English Language Arts.
Stakeholder Goal
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 43
By December of 2017, teachers will demonstrate with 100% mastery the use of opportunity to
learn Strategies in classroom curriculum.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
(i.e., declarative or
factual) (conceptual,
procedural or
metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Teachers do not know which
students (AA males) in special
education have higher Star reports
in English Language Arts
Declarative
(Factual)
General education teachers asked
to pull and review Star reports of
all (AA males) in Special
Education

Teachers do not know
which Opportunity to Learn
strategies are best to incorporate in
classroom instruction

Procedural General education teachers asked
to identify three Opportunity to
Learn strategies
Teachers need to know how to
reflect on instructional strategies
and AA male student interactions in
order to understand if OTL
strategies from professional
development are used properly
Metacognitive General education teachers asked
to complete structured
observations of Special Education
students (African American
males)

Motivation
Motivation is a major factor in whether employees produce positive work in an
organization. According to Rueda (2011), motivation is the primary point of performance in any
work related environment. Motivation is an internal desire that one activates in order to be goal
focused (Mayer, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) maintain experiences and perceptions about self,
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 44
colleagues and abilities are the primary notions that affect motivation at work. People are
dynamic, which means they are constantly evolving. Those set of beliefs and perceptions affect
people, which mean motivation should be a driving force. Understanding that motivation is a
necessary component to achieving work related goals, addresses the global goal of African
American males in Special Education receiving Opportunity to Learn strategies in English
Language Arts with 100% implementation. Rueda (2011) ascertains motivation must be ignited
and maintained through internal and external forces. One external force is the job itself. Culture
on a job impacts the level of motivation, so self-efficacy is important (Rueda, 2011). An internal
factor is self-efficacy and the higher it is the better the motivation is in an individual. Teachers,
the primary stakeholders, need motivation in order to convey such strategies to all students,
especially those in special education. Other motivational beliefs that impact the stakeholders are
attributions and utility value. Both constructs will be examined.
Attribution Theory. Attribution theory was created by the late Fritz Heider, but it was
developed by Bernard Weiner. Weiner pinpointed the channels that people go through to form
causal beliefs, which presumes that people are bothered by environmental and personal factors
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Both personal and environmental factors play a part in how
employees perform on a job. Ultimately, motivation is connected to attribution because how a
person perceives an occurrence will affect the future motivation of tasks that are alike
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006). The idea that students are learning a specific standard in
English Language Arts can be attributed to teacher preparation of lesson plans rather than solely
students’ abilities to understand the standard on their own is an example of attribution theory.
Stakeholder Attribution Theory. Teachers are capable of influencing the attributions
students make (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Teachers must realize their position as promoters
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 45
of positive reinforcement to influence attributions that can assist with students’ psyches as it
relates to long-term learning. The main thought for attribution theory as it relates to the primary
stakeholders is: Teachers should feel that students (African American males in Special
Education) are capable of learning in English Language Arts using opportunity to learn strategies
and if they do not acquire any standards for 8
th
grade ELA then it is the teachers’ efforts that
should be evaluated (see Table 2). Teachers should embrace inclusive classrooms because it is a
space for collaboration and confidence in skilled teaching, particularly when the teacher is
capable of using proper learning strategies (Willis, 2007). Clark and Estes (2008) reason mental
effort and determination to obtain necessary skills to get a job done or complete a task must be
established. In essence, teachers embracing that concept will enable them to use Opportunity to
Learn strategies. This also assists with motivation continuance among teachers (stakeholders), so
that attribution is high for students.
Utility Value. Utility value is the by-product of expectancy value motivational theory.
Jacquelynne Eccles and colleagues analyzed goals, behaviors and theoretical models in order to
link causal attributions, achievement, personal interactions and self-efficacy to two major
questions, which identifies the motivation of an individual (Eccles, 2006). Further, work goal
choice or the determination to complete a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008) rests with utility value.
Work goal is decided by the greatness of a task acquiescing into a person’s schema and targets
(Eccles, 2006). School environments demand a sort of value or even professional accountability
that encourages teachers to be responsible to students through strategic planning. Ideally,
teachers possess capability, social connection, and independence --- all primary essentials that
impact the attainment value (Eccles, 2006).
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 46
Stakeholder Utility V alue. One primary Opportunity to Learn strategy that will be a
focal point is the use of AVID’s Writing, Inquiry, Collaboration, Organization, and Reading
(WICOR) component that imposes metacognitive strategies into lesson planning. The main
thought for expectancy motivational theory as it relates to the primary stakeholders is: Teachers
need to see the value in using Opportunity to Learn strategies in ELA for students; especially
African American males in special education (see Table 2). According to Hunter (2006), teachers
assess students based on values which are rooted in morality. Learning activities that have
cognitive strategies are best (Rueda, 2011) and AVID provides such strategies. According to
A VID’s website, “A VID brings research ‐based strategies and curriculum to educational
institutions. The A VID System annually provides more than 30,000 educators
with training and methodologies that develop students’ critical thinking, literacy, and math skills
across all content areas (What is Avid?, 2016). The statement supports the notion that A VID is a
nationally recognized program that offers students Opportunities to Learn. By using A VID’s
strategies, students can become successful; albeit, if teachers behold the utility value of the
program.
In summary, teachers’ motivational influences outline the success of the organizational
global goal. If teachers’ attribution and utility value are strengthened through the use of proper
professional development, cohesive collaboration, and reflectiveness about teaching, then the
success rate of teachers using Opportunity to Learn strategies increases including the application
with fidelity.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 47
Table 2
Southtown Middle School Mission and Motivation Goals for Stakeholders
Organizational Mission
Southtown Middle School strives to provide a safe, stimulating, inviting and nurturing
environment; promoting a sense of self awareness and encouraging high academic achievement
for all.
Organizational Global Goal
African American males in Special Education will demonstrate academic readiness by 75% in
English Language Arts.
Stakeholder Goal
By December of 2017, teachers will demonstrate with 100 % mastery the use of Opportunity to
Learn Strategies in classroom curriculum.
Motivational Indicator(s)
Teachers are not fully supported by administration to uphold rules and procedures, which impedes
the mental effort of fully executing Opportunity to Learn strategies during instructional time.
Assumed Motivation Influences

Motivational Influence Assessment

Attributions- Teachers should feel that students
(African American males in Special Education)
are capable of learning in English Language Arts
using Opportunity to Learn strategies and if they
do not acquire any standards for 8
th
grade ELA
then it is the teachers’ efforts that should be
evaluated.
Written Survey Item: “What are some of the
reasons for African American academic
achievement in your class?”
Utility Value- Teachers need to see the value in
using Opportunity to Learn strategies in ELA for
students, especially African American males in
special education.
Written Survey Item: “It is important to me
to use Opportunity to Learn strategies for
special education students” (Not important at
all- very important)

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 48
Organizational Influences
Just as knowledge and motivation are pivotal factors in solving problems within the
workplace, so are organizational concerns. Clark and Estes (2008) note the impact that all three
have on base reasons for performance issues. Organizational change strategies should be aligned
with what is reasonable and sufficient for each organization. Accordingly, schools should have
their own prescription (Clark and Estes, 2008) for greatness. In addition to the knowledge and
motivation literature previewed, organizational hindrances are high priority sections in
educational settings.
Distrust
Some schools battle with poor climate and ineffective structures. Cultural climate is
considered to be the environment that people work in and it can range from highly negative to
highly positive. Ineffective structures may been apparent when protocols and practices in place
do not properly work for the good of the people in the organization.
Some of the issues, namely poor climate, create a toxic workplace that can severely affect
employees. When organizations push future goals, but neglect to deal with the obstructions and
community building of the present irrelevancy set in (Buckingham and Coffman, 1999.)
Examples of toxic work environments include the formations of cliques, which can lead to
favoritism and the communication of information to select groups. A negative contributor such as
improper communication leads to cliques being formed, which festers into isolation for others.
For some employees, dejection sets in and organizational barriers form. According to
Buckingham and Coffman (1999), people in an organization should trust one another and form
bonds, which enable a positive work environment.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 49
Ineffective structures exist when principals or senior managers are absent on a consistent
basis, inconsistent policies are in effect, efforts to improve processes are shut down, and critical
topics are never discussed. Clark and Estes (2008) state when supervisors are mendacious; trust
is diminished. Inadvertently, academic instructional integrity is compromised. Clark and Estes
(2008) mention negative responses kill performance in an organization. When there is a lack of
trust in leadership the substance of the organization is not sound (Rath & Conchie, 2009). All of
these occurrences lead to a poor professional culture among the employees and in the
organization. Relationships that are built through honesty supersede forced behaviors that occur
through management and leadership (Rath & Conchie, 2009).
Inundated with Initiatives
Many school systems push best practices, trending strategies in education or programs
that may be considered high-tiered for academic achievement. While many of the tactics used in
education to better student performance are useful, but too many at one time can be exhausting
for teachers. Whether it is the school system or school leadership that pushes such an agenda, the
input of teachers could ease some of the strain that is caused from being overloaded. Teachers are
professionals that have the experience and collective responsibility of making decisions (Strike,
Haller and Soltis, 2004). This may include timeliness, collaboration with others, self-regulation
and shared obligations. Teachers’ views about initiative overload oppose leaders who feel that all
things can be done with a yes attitude. According to Firestone and Shipps (2005) when different
accountabilities intertwine with leaders/leadership there is a clash with best practices. A yes
attitude is not the core of initiatives having follow through, yet the thoroughness of choosing the
right few makes the difference. Clark and Estes (2008) propose teams that believe in their
constituents and utilize collaboration elevates persistence toward organizational goals.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 50
Resources
In public education teachers are the most valuable resource. In many urban school
settings teachers are not qualified to give children the best education because they are not
properly educated or trained (National, 2002). In some cases, there are qualified teachers that
benefit from workshops, developmental programs and leadership training courses. However, if
time is not permitted for teachers to grasp information gained from professional development or
the continuous education of a person in a field or career, then the training becomes moot.
According to Dowd and Bensimon (2015) professional development should be useful on many
levels for the greatest impact. The authors also mention faculty and administration should work
together to assess what is working or not in an organization. Marsh (2012) maintains that time
should be allocated to teachers for the use of reviewing and digesting data, so that knowledge
and skills can build on such dialogue. Communication is imperative to teacher self-improvement.
In some instances when seasoned teachers or master teachers are available, then class
sizes are too large for effective teaching to take place. In order for academic tasks to be
completed by students and more individualized instruction can take place, then class sizes should
contain twenty students or less (National, 2002). The collaboration of teachers and administrators
to come up with realistic ideas for cutting class sizes is an issue itself. Firestone and Shipp
(2005) mention leaders can lend to student learning by obligating themselves to assisting
educators with a shared sense of purpose. Even though it is understood that upward
accountability or the conventional relationship of administrator over teacher is present (Burke,
2004), a balanced professional comradery can be achieved if accountability among the
administration is rightfully utilized.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 51
Additionally, funding can be an issue considering more affluent school systems
has better access to college preparatory courses and educational tools, which means that funding
is high. Urban teachers and low income schools lack such funding and often end up with higher
numbers of low income students (National, 2002). This is one of the biggest plights in urban
educational systems. The desire to compete with other school systems that have financial
resources is what urban/low income school teachers’ desire. Teachers look to their administrators
to provide access to such resources, but sometimes teachers are not successful in receiving such
help. Teachers expect their principals to give insight, direction and exemplars (Marsh, 2012).
When administrators cannot or do not provide such resources organizational barriers are formed.
Organizational Culture
The organizational culture is pivotal to employees being productive and feeling
like they have a positive stake in the growth of the organization. Some people hail from thriving
cultures and appreciate the value that comes from an honest and open culture. Others are used to
chaos or creating chaos and carry that negative load. Clark and Estes (2008) states culture is
indicative of work that is accomplished in an organization. Environmental culture can alter the
job surrounding; likewise; so can individuals (Clark and Estes, 2008). When there is conflict
present in the organization that does not get resolved, performance problems ensue (Clark and
Estes, 2008). Particularly, team-based organizations require a strong and positive culture, which
most schools embody. When team-based organizations lack a positive culture, they become
destructive to themselves and the organization (Clark and Estes, 2008). Most school
environments work in teams. Ideally, a great leader would assess the organization to ensure a
positive culture is present and a mainstay.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 52
Educational organizations are immersed in a complex culture and that carries an
emotional tie because dealing with children is high accountability (Rueda, 2011). The added
stress and pressure of meeting strict performance goals based on testing can create a hostile
working environment, especially if there is little unity or shared trust. Teachers want trust to be a
foremost component of school culture, so they can feel safe and a part of what is going on.
When they do not feel as if they have trust then they tend to commit to the minimum
requirements of the job (Rueda, 2011) and will not give their input. For example, if teachers in
an organization feel betrayed by administrators, those teachers do not participate in school
activities. Problems in the schools exist, so addressing them in any context is paramount for
optimal value of the school environment.
Conclusion
Organizational problems exist on both a small and large scale. In order for problem
solving to occur, an organization must be willing to go through a process of improvement
analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008; Elmuti & Kathawala, 2007). Performance gaps have root causes
that can be corrected through knowledge, motivation and skills and organizational understanding
(Clark and Estes, 2008).
Table 3
Southtown Middle School Mission and Organizational Goals for Stakeholders
Organizational Mission:
Southtown Middle School strives to provide a safe, stimulating, inviting and nurturing
environment; promoting a sense of self awareness and encouraging high academic
achievement for all.
Organizational Global Goal
African American males in Special Education will be proficient 100% in English Language
Arts.
Stakeholder Goal
By December of 2017, teachers will demonstrate with 100 % mastery the use of Opportunity
to Learn strategies in classroom curriculum.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 53
Assumed Organizational Influences

Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
There is a culture of distrust in the school
between administration and the faculty,
hindering teaching Opportunity to Learn
(OTL) Strategies.
Survey or interview questions about the
distrust between the faculty and
administration.

Cultural Model Influence 2:
Ineffective communication pervades the
organization; therefore, many teachers lack
the how-to knowledge of implementing
Opportunity to Learn strategies.

Survey or interview questions about the
effectiveness of the communication structure
in the organization and perceived barriers to
communications between teachers and
administrators.

Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Faculty is inundated by new initiatives and
procedures and this keeps them from
investing the time in understanding
Opportunity to Learn strategies.

Review lesson plans to identify OTL
strategies, survey or interview questions
about initiatives and procedures that are
presented.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
There is a lack of support from
administration to incorporate vertical team
meetings during the school day, so that
Opportunity to Learn strategies can be
demonstrated by experienced teachers.

Survey or interview questions about the
importance and effectiveness of vertical team
meetings.

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context
A conceptual frame work is a combination of impressions, hypotheses, academic
stimulus, and compelling notations that structures the problem of practice (Maxwell, 2013). It
also girds the perspective of the researcher so that the researcher can postulate a study through
his or her lens (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The purpose of a conceptual framework is to organize
and guide the study. The knowledge, motivation and organization influencers were identified in a
solo manner. Indeed, they are all tied together to inform the problem of practice and do not
remain in seclusion from one another. To further explain, teachers’ knowledge of African
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 54
American (AA) males in special education abilities in English Language Arts is imperative for
use of Opportunity to Learn Strategies in the classrooms. This is relevant because the number of
African American males in special education can be minimized, but with direct strategies that are
designed for student improvement. According to Kunjufu (2005), African American males in
special education can learn if they are provided a context to thrive in. The motivation to use
strategies that will improve student achievement is present, but support from administration is
imperative to maintain motivation. Opportunity to Learn strategies can improve the conditions of
any student (Kurz, Elliot, Lemons, Zigmond, Kloo & Kettler, 2014). The organization providing
resources and encouragement can impact teachers using OTL strategies effectively and with
fidelity. This in turn can raise English Language Arts scores for African American males in
special education.
African American Males in Special Education Can Succeed Through the
Use of Opportunity to Learn Strategies in English Language Arts
What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes that are barriers to ensuring that African American
males in special education can succeed?

INFLUENCERS
KNOWLEDGE-Teachers need to know several components in order to support AA males in special ed
MOTIVATION-Teachers need motivation in order to carry out the global goal
ORGANIZATIONAL- There is a culture of distrust, miscommunication, and support to assist teachers
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 55

Figure Y. Conceptual Framework for African American Males in Special Education Receiving
Opportunity to Learn Strategies.
The above figure represents the process by which African American males in special
education can receive Opportunity to Learn Strategies through teachers. The first step is for
Overrepresentati
on of African
American males
in special
education
•Males are more likely to be placed in special education; likewise, African American males over
other ethnicities (Hibel, Farkas, & Morgan, 2010; Noguera, 2003; Weatherspoon, 2006).
Causes Problems
for African
American males
• Many African American males in special education are prone to negligence in the educational
system, which may contribute to an increase in negative bevavior in and out of school and a higher
drop- out rate (Maydosz, 2014; Noguera, 2003; Weatherspoon, 2006).
Resolve: Create
an environment
that can change
the disposition of
these students
•School cultures should address the issue by providing equitable facilities and cultivate a positive
self-efficacy for not only AA males, but all students (Kunjufu, 2005; Russo &Johnson, 1997;
Toldson, 2011).
Teachers knowledge about African
Amercan males in special
education
Teachers learn OTL strategies
Teachers comfort using OTL
strategies
Teachers implement OTL strategies
in classes
African American males in special
education increase academically in
ELA classes
Lack of support
from administration
to provide time for
teachers to learn
OTL strategies.

Faculty flooded with
new initiatives, so
limits are placed on
the relevance of OTL
strategies.
CONTEXT OF PROBLEM
Opportunity to Learn
Strategies: AVID strategies can
provide the OTL
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 56
teachers to recognize the students in special education that can succeed in English Language
Arts. Typically, benchmarks are used; hence, Star reporting gives the scores for ELA. Teachers
must then learn Opportunity to Learn strategies. This is a procedural knowledge issue that can be
resolved through proper training for teachers. These strategies assist with all students learning,
but the focus is on African American males in special education. One organizational concern is
the lack of support from administration to provide time for teachers to learn OTL strategies.
Teachers must then be properly trained to use Opportunity to Learn strategies in the classroom.
Through proper training teachers should develop a comfortable position about implementing the
strategies. Another organizational issue with that is too many initiatives minimize the relevance
of OTL strategies. The last step is for African American males in special education to
demonstrate academic gains based on use of Opportunity to Learn strategies. The diagram
displays the relationship between the knowledge and motivation and organization issues that are
present.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 57
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction to Chapter 3
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to investigate the core reasons
for an organizational condition and how the condition can be lessened. According to Moran and
Brightman (2000), measurement is vital for immediate change. The gap analysis was focused on
stakeholders within the organization, namely teachers and faculty. Ideologies from various
paradigms merged to result in an inclusive and intricate approach to transformation (Kezar,
2001). Within the analysis, emphasis on differences in learning of students receiving special
education services and those who are not and the faculty and staff documentation of grades and
interactions with minority male students are areas of priority.
Purpose Statement
The main purpose of this study was to investigate African American males in special
education in eighth grade English/Language Arts (ELA) classes to see if Opportunity to Learn
strategies works well enough for them to be supported in general education; thus, shedding an
Individualized Education Plan (IEP). IEPs are legal documents in education that state the specific
learning goals and necessary assistance that is given to a student in special education. This study
sought to review the use of testing measurements as a way to document any gains or losses in
ELA. The data collection process will include in depth interviews, observations and document
review in the form of Star test scores (Reading Benchmark), report cards, and work samples of
8
th
grade African American males in special education.
The gap analysis model focused on African American males in special education using
ELA as a precursor to general education along with potential knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organizational performance gaps that align with the Clark and Estes’ exemplar. According to
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 58
Moran and Brightman (2000) noting the performance gaps and multiple progressive efforts can
impact organizational change. Research findings from this study could be used by educators and
educational leaders to tackle the high percentages of African American males in special
education and possibly provide some direction and a starting point on how to incorporate
Opportunity to Learn strategies in academic settings.
The analysis began by identifying potential or anticipated reasons for exploring these
organizational problems analytically to concentrate on tangible or confirmed causes.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What impact might Opportunity to Learn strategies have on the academic
development of African American males currently placed in special education?
a. To what degree can the faculty commit to learn and use Opportunity to Learn
strategies in English/ Language Arts?
Methodological Approach
The methodological framework was qualitative with descriptive statistics. Realized
implicit pressures, as well as organizational and impetus controls that obstruct the organizational
goal attainment will be established on research and related literature (Clark and Estes, 2008).
These influences will be assessed by using document analysis, interviews and observations.
Resolutions that are research-based will be suggested and assessed in an inclusive approach.
Chapter 3 describes the two major sections on the methodology: (a) the research design,
and (b) the gap analysis model. The focus of the analysis was to gauge African American males
in special education use of Opportunity to Learn strategies. The second part of the analysis
solidified the assumed causes using qualitative methods and Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
model as a conceptual framework.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 59
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this study were all English Language Arts (ELA) teachers
in the 8
th
grade at Southtown Middle School. The ELA teachers were selected based on the small
number that exists. There were two eighth grade teachers and two seventh grade teachers that
teach ELA in the school. Because the focus is on African American males succeeding in
English/Language Arts, those teachers were chosen directly. A sound and reliable work
relationship exist (Maxwell, 2013); therefore, that group of teachers participated in the study
with promise. The research questions were addressed appropriately because the chosen
stakeholders were a primary focus in the study.
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Teachers in an urban middle school (The study site is an urban middle
school where overrepresentation often occurs; therefore the teachers should teach in the same
environment).
Criterion 2. Teachers with assumed knowledge about Opportunity to Learn strategies
(Opportunity to Learn strategies are vital to the study, so it is necessary for teachers to know how
to use such strategies).
Criterion 3. English/Language Arts teachers that teach African American males in
special education (English Language Arts teachers are the particular classrooms where data about
African American males achievement was collected and the most agreeable group for
participation in the study).
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Convenience sampling was used to select participants. This form of sampling was
used because the stakeholders were accessible to the researcher. According to Maxwell (2013) it
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 60
is most useful to select subjects that are critical to the testing. Teachers were both useful and
critical to the study because they used the Opportunity to Learn strategies and they worked with
the African American males in special education. Teachers, or the primary stakeholders, were
surveyed initially on their views about the use of Opportunity to Learn strategies.
Interview and/or Focus Group Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Does Opportunity to Learn strategies impact students’ learning? (Teachers
can explain the whether or not the strategies work to impact academic grades.)
Criterion 2. When learning Opportunity to Learn strategies, were there any mental
blocks or problems with cognition? (Understanding if Opportunity to Learn strategies were
taught properly is paramount to the success of teachers relaying the strategies to students).
Criterion 3. What were the two most successful strategies used and why? (The most
successful strategies by teachers may indicate what gains students incur, particularly in ELA).
Interview and/or Focus Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling strategy was purposeful where convenience sampling was used. The
participants were readily accessible because they were colleagues, which facilitated interviews. I
sought out teachers who used Opportunity to Learn strategies and the English/Language Arts
department teachers. Because the study was based on the success of students in
English/Language Arts, the teachers selected were those who teach the content. Recruitment
occurred through verbalizing the reason for participation in the study. According to Merriam and
Tisdell (2016), interviews were based upon information which participants were aware. I
interviewed them for the purpose of this project. This was an attempt to build the research around
the participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Further, interviews, which were considered
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 61
meaningful tools for recording descriptive events (Maxwell, 2013) was used to gain a more
personal take on teachers’ perceptions on use of Opportunity to Learn strategies.
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
The appropriate settings for the observations were the classrooms and school
environment. This was a natural place for learning where students would best demonstrate their
abilities academically. The connection was clear because both students and teachers interacted
regularly, so rapport was established with classroom drill. The stakeholders were based in an
urban public school situation. I gained access to the various contexts that the African American
males were in along with the teachers because I worked in the school and established trust based
on teacher-to-student relationships and colleague-to-colleague relationships. Observations took
place before document analysis and interviews because it allowed for question gathering through
watching and later, reflection. The goal was for the participants to not be swayed by the
interviews and questions; therefore, an authentic response to questioning occurred from
interviewing. Document analysis from artifacts of African American males in special education
8
th
grade ELA classes will take place along with interviews and observations.
Criterion 1. African American males in special education understand Opportunity to
Learn strategies through classroom use and engagement (African American males are the focus
of the study and the correlation is the Opportunity to Learn strategies that promote learning. The
level of focus matters in order to impact the research).
Criterion 2. Teachers purposefully use Opportunity to Learn strategies during classroom
instruction. (Classroom instruction is vital because within it OTL strategies can be utilized).
Criterion 3. Teachers manifest their knowledge of African American males in special
education that are achieving through the use of Opportunity to Learn strategies. (Teachers
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 62
identify/demonstrate the learning of strategies that help the students. The credibility and
trustworthiness of this research was contingent on this information).
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The data was collected through a system of triangulation. Triangulation is the use
of multiple instruments to gather information for the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
methods used were interviews, observations and document review. The interviews were
conducted using questions created for the purposes of this study (Appendix A). The observations
were recorded using audio recording and field notes because in order to assess the value of
teachers’ knowledge in the classroom while instructing African American males in special
education then watching both groups interact was imperative (Appendix B). Documents, such as
progress reports, report cards and benchmarking scores were used to measure success, for any of
African American males in special education.
Interviews
Interviews are purposeful conversations (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016) used to collect data in
research. Multiple interviews were conducted with participants and they were face-to face.
Differing perspectives in intervals can provide details, depth and reflection for the researcher.
Weiss (1994) states that interviews provide the innermost thoughts from a participant. The
interviews were structured and unstructured. The first interview, for instance, was informal;
further, the researcher gleaned from the participants in order to later design a formal question set.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state when a researcher knows little from the subject (s) and needs
more information then informal interviews are common. The authors continue to say that
observations work well with unstructured interviews. Formal interviews were conducted using a
semi-structured format. Semi-structured interviews contain questions that are adaptable, guided,
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 63
yet specific to the subjects (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). Such questioning is a good
compromise to loosely- structured and highly- structured interviews (Weiss, 1994). There were
many conceptions that identify the types of interviewing. One particularly, lends itself well to
this study. The neo-positivist conception of interviewing asks strong questions, reduces partiality,
and produces worthy information that leads to clear findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is
important to establish a philosophical preference because it can direct the focus for an
interviewer. The interview questions addressed the research questions by probing for
stakeholders’ interactions with African American males in special education, the use of activities
in the classroom to move African American males out of special education, and the type of
support stakeholders receive. The interviews were conducted in the professional setting that was
comfortable for the participants.
Observation
Observations are another primary source of collecting data (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Observing required concentration and skill; therefore, an observer must prepare.
Observations were also good follow ups for interviews as a way to receive more information that
assisted with better questions for structured interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There were at
least four short observations lasting from 40-50 minutes. The focus of the observations was to
gather data on the interactions of stakeholders in their natural environment. This provided a
“firsthand encounter” (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016) of the participants. Maxwell (2013) states that
observations are an influential way of acquiring knowledge about participants’ actions. The
researcher utilized an audio tape recorder to capture any information that was missed from taking
field notes. During recorded interviews, the context of the conversation was summarized more
efficiently (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Field notes are the main tool used in observations.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 64
According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), field notes are the scripted recollections of what a
researcher witnesses while gathering qualitative information. After notes were taken, they were
written up by the researcher and archived for reflection to plan future observations and/or
interviews. The field notes were extremely detailed in order to provide a clear picture of what is
going on during the observation. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert descriptive field notes
explain the setting, behaviors and participants, so that the reader senses exactly what happened
during the observation. Field notes also contain observer comments where the observer questions
or mentions things that happen during the observation (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam &
Tisdell, 20016). The approach used in observations was observer participant, which means the
participants were aware the observer was present and the observer interacted with participants
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The conceptual framework of the study identified the interplay of
African American males in special education with teachers and how teachers’ knowledge affects
the needs of such males in special education. The observations served the purpose of determining
if teachers’ knowledge can positively influence the learning of African American males in special
education.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents are complete sources of data ready for immediate evaluation
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher collected progress reports and report cards from
classroom teachers. Both documents showed the grades obtained by African American males in
special education and they elicit ideas about achievement in English/Language Arts. These
documents are not manufactured for the sake of the study, but preexists (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016) whether the study involves the use of them. Benchmarks from school tests such as
Renaissance Learning gives detailed scoring of student mastery in the content area. The teachers
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 65
provided the information to the researcher in the form of a printout from the benchmarking
computerized program. Benchmarking rates whether or not the learning that African American
males in special education receive is enough to move them into general education curriculum.
Qualitative research takes into account that scores and grades may not be a complete reflection
of a child’s ability, but it does recognize such documents can reveal the attitudes or beliefs about
the people who keep them (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Using documents in conjunction with
interviews and observations added to the faceted research.
Data Analysis
For interviews and observations, data analysis began during data collection. I wrote
analytic memos after each interview and each observation. According to Maxwell (2013) memos
should be written consistently to bridge thinking with awareness. I documented my thoughts,
concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to my conceptual framework and
research questions. This allowed me to have clearer thoughts in order to make inquiries and
empty head space, hence; creating room for new considerations (Glesne, 2011). Once I have left
the field, interviews were transcribed and coded. In the first part of analysis, I used open coding,
looking for empirical codes and applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework. Open
coding is the rudiment of developing patterns by being unrestricted to ideas (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). This is also considered thematic analysis because connections are made across the various
information sets (Glesne, 2011). The second part of analysis was conducted where empirical and
a priori codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis I
identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual framework and
study questions. I analyzed documents and artifacts for evidence consistent with the concepts in
the conceptual framework.
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Credibility and Trustworthiness

Credibility establishes the research is significant, coherent, and connects to current
research in the field (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Trustworthiness in research positions rigor as an
element of sound postulations for the purpose of the project (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Both
credibility and trustworthiness work in unison to ensure that qualitative research was completed
with fidelity. First, the researcher conducted interviews with participants to collect data. Second,
the researcher observed the participants in their settings that reflect their work habits in order to
gain a realistic view of how participants use strategies. Lastly, the researcher looked at
documents, which enhances the data collection process. Combined, all three forms of data
collection were consistent with triangulation or using several types of data for cross checking to
improve credibility and trustworthiness (Merriam, 1995; Merriam &Tisdell, 2016). The purpose
of triangulation is to rule out that one source is viable for a study’s outcomes (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Before data was written up for final conclusions another form of ensuring
credibility and trustworthiness is member checking. Member checking requires the researcher to
give information from participants back to them in a concise form to examine if what they
provided to the researcher is uniform with their views (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 1995; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Another way to maintain credibility and trustworthiness is with an inventory
that includes transcripts, audiotapes and notes. They were transcribed using a reputable system
for encoding data in qualitative research. As the researcher, it was important to establish there
was an unbiased lens in conducting this study. According to Maxwell (2013), it is better to
understand the researcher’s influences and precepts while conducting the study. The
overwhelming desire to discover if African American males in special education can attain some
success in academics is a compelling reason for the researcher to oversee this study. However, it
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 67
was noted that the setting of the study is a familiar environment to the researcher because it
served as the place of employment to the researcher as well. The researcher revealed to the
participants that they were being observed, recorded and interviewed as to not raise any
suspicions or violate any person. The goal was for the researcher to remain objective and
engaged as researcher and only if necessary observer as participant. As a researcher, observer as
participant allows for full engagement in group activities, but the main role of reporter is
established (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the more
updated notion for guaranteeing trustworthiness is through crystallization. Crystallization is
recognition of the multifaceted responses, angles, and approaches that are used when collecting
data for qualitative research. It is the researcher’s professional stance to utilize such complexity
of crystallization to support the research in an honest and unbiased manner.

Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability is essential to quantitative components in research.
Reliability measures the consistency of a test or tool (Salkind, 2014) and validity is consistency
in the tool or test to do what it says (Salkind, 2014). This research did not place value on either
reliability or validity because it is qualitative research.
Ethics
In order to conduct qualitative research a few things must be covered as to ensure
legitimacy during the process. For one, it is dire to enforce integrity while engaging in the study
because part of the data collection will include dialogue. Informed consent forms are mandatory
before the study starts. Any dialogue between researcher and participant(s) will be private;
therefore, the participant(s) can leave whenever they please with no consequences. According to
Glesne (2011) participants can withdraw from a study. I recruited teachers who used
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 68
Opportunity to Learn to strategies through formal invitation that was consistent with research
protocol for conducting interviews. Second, the participants were safe from harm and danger
because I was required to give my study to the University of California Institutional Review
Board (IRB) and adhere to their guidelines and procedures concerning the safety of the privileges
and wellbeing of the participants in the study. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), IRB is
important to the research process and as a researcher the protection of the subjects is my duty.
Any participant signed a consent form. It was my duty to inform the participants that the study
was of their own volition, so by no means was their personal information revealed. By signing a
consent form, participants received specific information about the study, which enabled them to
decide if they wanted to participate (Glesne, 2011). If participants wished to disengage in the
study they have the right to. I was in no way a supervisor or superior over anyone who chose to
participate. I was a colleague or equal to any participant, which further minimized the notion of
forced engagement in the study. Third, it was my responsibility to gain authorization from
participants to audio record any interview; likewise, I offered copies of the interview in order for
the participants to approve or deny the use of their conversation for the purposes of this study.
Fourth, I conducted observations as a means to collect data. During those observations,
participants were fully aware of being observed. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016) ethical
problems arise when observations happen without prior consent from participants. Lastly, I did
not give any kind of reward, gift or prize for the participation in this study. For this reason, no
participant felt compelled to take part because I was not bribing or forcing them to do so. I did;
however, send an e-card that distinctively gave gratitude for assistance in the study. In
conclusion, participants felt safe and free to engage in the research process because proper forms
were designated by the researcher and they could discontinue the study at any time without
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 69
scrutiny.
Limitations and Delimitations
There is limited data on Opportunity to Learn strategies as it relates to A VID and the use
of them with African American males in special education. The data was missing because
research was not prevalent on this particular subject. While there was much research on African
American males in special education, A VID and Opportunity to Learn strategies, studies have not
used these entities in conjunction. A VID was not a program typically used in the South as
intervention; therefore, its use in Southern urban classrooms was not well documented. Also, the
assumption about special education was interventions were not necessary because students were
labeled as having an IEP and that in a sense became their intervention. The study focused only
on African American males in special education, but the Opportunity to Learn strategies were
beneficial to other ethnicities and gender in special education. The results may still apply
regardless of gender or race. The study was within time constraints, which meant a longitudinal
study revealed a deeper dive into findings. Delimitations extend to having a more extensive
question base during interviews. The questions focused on teachers and their use of OTL
strategies, communication, and interactions with administration, yet few discoursed student
reactions. Observations were done at the time convenient to the teachers, so if more time was
given to full day observations then perhaps, more information could have surfaced. Interviews
were completed at the availability of teachers and time only permitted few interviews. This study
was also considered exploratory research because of unclear identifications on the topic.
Conclusion
In conclusion, in order to identify if Opportunity to Learn strategies helped African
American males in special education this study used qualitative research design methods. This
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 70
chapter identified the sampling, procedures, methods and instruments to collect data. Data
collection resulted in an analysis for finding.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 71
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to establish if Opportunity to Learn strategies,
specifically those incorporated in the A VID program can help African American males in special
education increase their skills in English Language Arts. The focus questions of this study were:
1. What impact might Opportunity to Learn strategies have on the academic
development of African American males currently placed in special education?
b. To what degree will the faculty commit to learn and use Opportunity to Learn
strategies in English/ Language?
Data collected and presented in this chapter reflected to methodology designed to support data
investigating whether the Opportunity to Learn Program provided strategies to enhance the
Language Arts abilities of African American males in special education. Qualitative data was
collected through teacher interviews and transcripts. Themes evolved from the transcripts of
these text transcripts. Qualitative data analysis focused on recognizing recurring and prevalent
themes to answer research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Using the Knowledge,
Motivation and Organization (KMO) framework the assumed causes were evaluated to
determine the verity of those factors. The data results were organized by research question.
Participants Description
All participants in the study were teachers at Southtown Middle School, a public
middle school located in an urban school district in central Alabama. The community the school
resides in is urban and middle class. Of the 24 teachers that worked in the school 12% are not
African American. Also, 21% of the faculty was male and 79% was female. While the majority
of the faculty is A VID trained 33% of the faculty is not, perhaps it was because they were new to
the school or novice teachers. The teachers interviewed were all African American. There were 4
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 72
females and 1 male. The participants held bachelor’s educational degrees with 60% having a
master’s degree or higher. All teachers except one have more than 8 years of teaching
experience. Three of the five teachers interviewed have a background in English Language Arts.
The other two teachers have a background in math and special education. Being A VID trained,
three out of five teachers have four years of summer institutes and professional development and
the other two teachers has two years of summer institutes and workshops.
Results and Findings from Triangulation of Data
Results from Research Question One (RQ1)
The first research question addressed the use of OTL strategies that A VID embodied for
teachers’ use in instructional practice during English Language Arts classes. Through these
classes the measurement of influence from these strategies was gathered through the academic
growth of African American males in special education. First, the results from interviews were
presented, which was followed by a section presenting interview statements. Next, the data from
observations was discussed and lastly document analysis was addressed to complete the
triangulation of data. The section concluded with a narrative summary.
Research Question One
Interviews
Teachers were asked to participate in the study by sharing their experiences through
digitally recorded face to face interviews. There were two teachers who did not teach ELA, but
was a math and special education teacher respectively, along with reading teachers. There were
two teachers who taught on the 8
th
grade level, one teacher who taught on the 7
th
grade level and
two teachers who taught on the 6
th
grade level. During after school sessions, teachers were asked
questions that pertained to A VID strategies, African American males in special education and
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 73
training in the organization just to name a few items. The semi- structured interview audio
recordings were transcribed verbatim through a professional transcribing company. The
information was input using letters as identifiers for the participants. The transcripts were
uploaded into a Microsoft Word document. Transcripts were read several times, coded and
recorded in a codebook. Themes were recognized using the criteria of reoccurring words, phrases
and concepts. Some of the themes that emerged from the interviews were: OTL/A VID strategies,
training and development, and practical use for African American males in special education.
Teachers shared many commonalities among the themes. There were few variations among these
three themes. Literal quotes are taken directly from teacher comments from the interviews to
provide a personal perspective.
Theme 1: OTL/AVID Strategies
One of the interview questions asked what did teachers know about Opportunity
to Learn Strategies. Teachers described what they knew about Opportunity to Learn Strategies.
AJ commented:
“Um, well just, um, the most I know is with the Opportunity to Learn
strategies is that we want to provide children with an opportunity to learn, be it
through technology, be it through providing them with study guides before tests,
uh, a safe clean environment that they feel comfortable in.”
Just the same McG commented:
“Oh, I'm very familiar with Opportunity to Learn strategies. We use them
every day in our classroom, especially, um, as a Title I school, we make use of
them quite often in our instruction as well.”
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 74
This moved the dialogue into teachers describing a lesson where they use OTL strategies.
All teachers felt they used OTL strategies in their lessons. KL commented:
“Mmm, um, top of the head, probably teaching children how to add
integers, um, outside of the rule, we actually take steps. So, whether we're
walking forward or backwards, the step has actually been taken, and that enables
children to know that, um, distance is always positive, regardless of the end
result.”
Similarly TH added:
“Um, like I said before, like if I'm opening up a new, a new lesson, I'll
introduce a new strategy so I can see where the kids are, and I can see where I
need to go with the lesson, so that's when I introduce the Opportunity to Learn
strategy.”
To reinforce that teachers understood what OTL strategies are and could explain the
strategies, another question prompted the teachers to explain the use of OTL strategies to a
student in order for him or her to engage in the lesson. TM commented:
“Okay, I probably would explain that to you by letting you know that we
have a curriculum here at school that you're responsible as a student for
following, and I'm responsible for teaching, and I'm going to provide you with
strategies and ways to access that curriculum to make it easier for you to
understand, and better for you to reach your goals.”
McG followed with:
“Uh, well for most of our students, as Avid students, they understand that
the Avid curriculum is geared toward students in the middle. So, they, they
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 75
understand that these, even though these skills and strategies are normally
reserved for a college prep curriculum, that we are trying to give them to
everybody so that everyone will have the opportunity to be successful, but that
they must individually determine that they want to be successful and use them.
We teach them the strategies, and they're there for them to use, like a toolbox, to
access the curriculum. So I make sure that they know, um, that, by us just giving
them access to these strategies, they still have to do something with them in order
for them to benefit from them.”
The series of questions about Opportunity to Learn strategies allowed teachers to
verbalize their awareness and engagement of OTL strategies within lesson delivery. Further, if
they could explain to a student what OTL strategies were then it stands to reason teachers know
exactly the functions and purposes of OTL strategies.
Theme 2: Training and Development
Another segment of interview questions sought to probe training and development among
teachers. All respondents agreed that training and development was prevalent and beneficial to
them. One question asked was adequate training for A VID strategies. McG said:
“I do, I do. Um, I think I had the added benefit of just teaching A VID
elective for so long, and I really kind of got steeped in the Avid culture and
understanding the procedures and organization part of A VID, and then, I think I
benefited best from that, from learning that part first, and then moving into
teaching critical reading as an A VID teacher teaching critical reading, I can see
the tie in a little bit better than if I was just learning just from my curriculum, you
know what I'm saying?”
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 76
This question addresses initial exposure to A VID training. With most training of any
program strategy the rollout is heavy training to get employees immersed in the buy in.
According to Roach, Kurz and Elliott (2015), teachers’ access to data -led approaches is
imperative for expanding students’ opportunity to learn. However, ongoing periodic training is
what propels the buy- in and get employees involved in actualizing the program or strategy that
is the catalyst for change. The follow up question asked: do you receive consistent training to
stay renewed with implementing strategies? TM replied:
“Yes, ma’am, I do, because we have the A VID Institute yearly, and in
between the institutes we do our A VID Boost online. Um, and Launches and
Boosts is what they call them, so that's our in between study time before we go to
the actual institute yearly.”
McG followed with:
“Yes, I've been to several trainings for AVID. We go to Institute every
summer. We also have Boosts throughout, that we use throughout the year to
refresh ourselves, as well as our Avid library at the school, and, um, I've also been
to what they call Pathways, Avid Pathways, which are smaller, um, training
sessions throughout the school year.”
However, a consenting opinion about ongoing training was documented. A newer teacher
felt that the ongoing training was not provided in an effective manner. TH mentioned:
“Um, I say no because I think, I know the first time that we went to
training it was for like a week, and it was in the summertime, and so by the time
the schools starts and you get in with your kids, and because we serve a under, I
guess an underserved population, you're worried about other things. And so, when
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 77
you're trying to get classroom management and other things like that under
control, the strategies kind of get put on the back burner, and so once you get
control of your classroom, then it's like, "Okay, I learned this in the summertime,
it's time for me to implement it now, I may have forgotten something." So I do
think that there should be like some type of workshop during the beginning of
each semester. Something like that, just so everybody can stay fresh.”
Therefore, training and development is necessary as a continuous entity in the school. A
seasoned teacher may be able to transfer the information gained from summer institutes to
August school openings, but a newer teacher needs refreshers in order to properly use
information gained at summer institutes.
Theme 3: African American Males Realization
Relevant questions at the center of the study are about the strategies invoked during class
instruction assisting African American males in special education. Most importantly, the
teachers’ knowledge of special education and the students who are in the program affect the
manner in which strategies are employed. The responses included minorities in general and to
what extent the A VID program provided growth in academics.
Question: Do you know what an IEP is?
KL: “Sure, an individualized plan for that child's education.”

MCG: “Yes, and IEP is an Individualized Education Plan, um, and it
addresses students who have exceptionalities of, uh, whatever sort, it could be
emotional, it could be academic or cognitive, and it's just a specialized plan to,
um, ensure that they're able to access the curriculum, and it also includes
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 78
benchmarks to, you know, to monitor their progress and make sure that they're
progressing throughout the year.”

TH: “Um, an IEP is a plan, um, that the special education teachers put
together in order for the teachers to know what those particular students need help
with. Um, they basically break down what you should do for your lesson to
accommodate them.”

TM: “Yes, mam. An IEP is an Individualized Education Program. Once a
child is, um, considered at risk, and we think that they need services, they're
tested. If they're found eligible, we write them a plan to target whatever their
lowest areas are so that services can be provided to them to help them be
successful.”

AJ: “Yes, mam. An IEP is an Individualized Education Program. Once a
child is, um, considered at risk, and we think that they need services, they're
tested. If they're found eligible, we write them a plan to target whatever their
lowest areas are so that services can be provided to them to help them be
successful.”

Do you feel that the students who have an IEP are benefiting from Opportunity to Learn
strategies?
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 79
MCG: “I really believe so, yes. Um, I think they are because, as I said,
you know, the majority of our students walk in with deficits. And so, if everyone
is learning a strategy, that may make it easier for you to understand the meaning
of unfamiliar words. A student whose reading level may be well below everyone
else may not feel so self-conscious. If they see everyone is using this particular
strategy, and I'm teaching it to everybody, they're not feeling singled out, like it's
just something for the kids who don't know how to do this or that. It's for
everyone.”

KL: “Um, if implemented properly, yes, I do. I have a child who's, uh, has
a, an IEP, and her expectations are very low, but I met this child at her level, and
she was able to do some of the objectives of the regular children.”

TH: “I do, and I don't in some ways, simply because of the fact that we
have, in certain classes they're a large group of students, and then in certain
classes they're a smaller group, so when we're in a larger group I feel like they get
lost in the class, simply because you're trying to tend to other students, and you
don't want to forget about them, but at the same time you can't just stop and focus
on one if there's 35 and you have to keep moving on with your lesson. So I do feel
like they get lost sometimes.”

The next question addressed whether or not Opportunity to Learn strategies help African
American males in special education. According to McG:
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 80

“Yes, I do. Um, like I've been saying, I think all students benefit from
them. And, um, I know there is some research out there about, um, African
American males and how they're overrepresented in, in uh, special ed, and I think
a lot of that, from what I've read and from what I've seen, comes from behavior
and not cognitive ability. I think our boys and our girls, but our boys are smart
kids, and I think, um, it's the behavioral piece. And one thing I love about Avid is
that it doesn't just address the academic part, but also the hidden curriculum of
what it is that you need to do to be successful in class as far as behavior is
concerned. You know, being confident, being resilient, knowing how to, um,
resolve conflicts in a positive manner, all of those things are addressed in the Avid
curriculum.”
KL commented and then upon revisiting his response he clarified his statement:
“I believe that they can, if they want to. The opportunity is there, but they
have to want to, or be made to want to.”
Interviewer: “I want to go back to the last question. You said that, um,
the African American males can achieve using Opportunity to Learn strategies,
but you said that they have to want to, or they have to be made to want to. What
do you mean by made to want to?”
KL: “That was probably the wrong choice of words. They have to be
encouraged to want to. You have to meet African American males at their levels,
but you have to meet them at the level that you would like to see them go, and
where you would like to see them go, they may be totally clueless, but you have
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 81
to constantly, constantly encourage, um, promote positive behavior, reward, you
know, because, uh, the focus, I don't know, is, is, is, is misdirected, so the
attention has to be given, expectations have to be, uh, you have to have a high
expectation for them, and you can't bend on that. And if they come, they, most
times they try to meet you where you want them to be. Most times.”
AJ agreed with the other two participants by expressing:
“Absolutely. Uh, I believe that they may be one of the, the p- the part of
the special education population, or any school population who could benefit the
most, because of the, the deficits that, that are there, because of the labels that are
there, um, the opportunity to learn strategies could help them more, um, to be able
to, to grasp the curriculum and to understand better, and to kind of help some of
these societal images of them fall off, that I think in a lot of ways can impede their
learning.”
TM also saw the benefit of using A VID in the classroom:
“Absolutely. Uh, I believe that they may be one of the, the p- the part of
the special education population, or any school population who could benefit the
most, because of the, the deficits that, that are there, because of the labels that are
there, um, the opportunity to learn strategies could help them more, um, to be able
to, to grasp the curriculum and to understand better, and to kind of help some of
these societal images of them fall off, that I think in a lot of ways can impede their
learning.”
Collectively, the teachers’ feel that these strategies work not only for African American
males in special education, but all students. Teachers are urged to design appealing instruction
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 82
for all students to increase the opportunity for learning (Elliott, 2016). The opportunities A VID
provided through the program allowed students to become more academically sound; namely,
through responsibility gained by owning their education. A VID also pushed self-assurance and
leadership components in order for students to adopt skills for college readiness. Teachers
believed these elements constituted a better persona, scholastic independence and a unique
approach to learning.
Observations
Observations are a way to unobtrusively learn about a subject or environment. It is also a
way to gain details and descriptions about a subject while he or she is in a comfortable
environment. The main purpose of the observations was to support the interviews. Teachers were
asked if they could be observed during the school day while they were instructing students.
Observations were conducted in two ELA classes using the Observation Protocol (Appendix B).
The first two observations were completed in a 7
th
grade ELA class (Teacher A) and the last two
were conducted in a 6
th
grade ELA class (Teacher B). Notes were taken during the observations
and evaluated using an observation protocol. The information was compiled and organized based
on themes. Themes were recognized using the criteria of reoccurring words, phrases and
concepts. Two themes that emerged from the observations were: Student engagement and A VID
strategies.
Theme 1: Student Engagement
Observation 1 for Teacher A: Students were engaged in a collaborative activity with
teacher. Teacher A read aloud directions for an activity that required students sitting in groups to
work together to get the right answer. The goal was for the group with the correct answer to
shoot their mini white boards in the air first, which in turn made that group the winner of the
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 83
round. Students were excited to quickly discuss the answer they thought to be best in order to be
the first group to respond. The teacher had to stop once to get students back in order because the
competition of being first to have the white board in the air was intense. After a group won the
round, students immediately chattered and again, the teacher had to regain order.
Observation 2 for Teacher A: Students were prepped before taking a chapter test. Teacher
goes through directions. Students are closely following along each section as the teacher reads
and reiterates certain points. Teacher asks if there are any questions. Student 1 asks about the
topic or assignment name. Student 2 asks teacher: “Is that a word we used?” After teacher
answers both students she tells them to begin testing. Students are looking at test documents with
bowed heads, pencils and pens grazing the test sheets as a guide to read word for word. Some
students flip to other pages in the test packet.
Utilizing the Observation Protocol, Teacher A provided teaching materials and used them
when engaging with students in both observations. The students’ attitudes in both observations
were positive and focused on the learning tasks. Teacher A’s attitude in both observations was
diligent and willful toward providing relevant learning tasks.
Observation 1 for Teacher B: Students were quietly testing in groups. They were not
sharing answers, but were sitting in arranged sets of desks. Teacher was grading assignments at a
podium while eyeballing student activity. One student asked a question directly to Teacher B and
it was answered quickly. A few students popped their heads in the direction of the student who
asked the question. It was a distractor to them as they visually wandered around the room before
settling back into test taking. A few students looked bored and disconnected from taking the test.
There were wraps on the desk from a pencil as the student leaned in to concentrate on that
instead of testing. It stopped momentarily before the teacher could address that student. Another
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 84
student head was cocked to one side looking at the wall then the paper then the wall. One last
student was slouched down in the chair with test paper hanging off the desk while he was staring
out the window. Eventually he noticed the paper hanging off the desk and slid it to the middle to
prevent it from falling. Two students completed their test and sat quietly at their desks. The
teacher asked if they were done. Both students nodded their heads in unison.
Observation 2 for Teacher B: Students were sitting in groups while teacher was
conducting a whole group book discussion. A student read a passage from the book. The teacher
asked a question about what the student read. A female student raised her hand and answered the
question. Another student chimed in with an answer. The teacher asked another question based
on the last student’s response. More students’ hands shot up in the air. The teacher called three
names and told each one of them to answer. A boy makes a comment to a girl sitting next to him.
Two girls are side barring about what was said by the second student who had permission to
answer. Teacher B tells the student to pay attention and listen because she might miss
something. The teacher wraps up the class discussion and tells everyone to turn to the
Promethean board to answer questions. The questions related to the text and were culminating
questions from the chapter. A student raised her hand and asked if she could use her notes to help
her answer. The teacher replied yes. Another student leaned over to another student’s desk and
pointed to something on the paper. The student responded and erased what was on the paper. One
student was rumbling through papers on the side of the desk. Next to that student, another one
was dozing off. When the teacher called the dozing student name, she stammered ma’am to the
teacher. The teacher scolded the student for being sleep and told the student to get busy. The
sleepy student fumbled around with binder on the desk and looked toward the Promethean board.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 85
Utilizing the Observation Protocol (Appendix B), Teacher B provided teaching materials
and used them when engaging with students in both observations. The students’ attitudes in
Observation 1 were reserved and obedient. There was a lack of engagement present. There were
too many distractors considering no interactions that were verbal or physical. In Observation 2
students were verbal and enthused about the book discussion. There was some engagement in
this observation as long as students could dialogue, but it seemed to lessen when students had to
answer questions.
Summary
Based on Teacher A and Teacher B student engagement there were divergent interactions.
Teacher A had more control of the classroom presence as far as students being responsible and
alert to what activities were present. This is with a test and daily classroom routines. Teacher B
clearly is a classroom manager of behavior, but does not engage the students fully when testing.
This could be attributed to teacher personality types. Just the same, Teacher A engaged students
with classroom instruction that promotes student engagement, responsiveness and inquiry.
Teacher B did not exhibit those qualities when observed on a non-testing day.
Theme 2: AVID Strategies
Collaborative learning is one A VID strategy that promotes learning. Collaborative
learning can be outlined as a learning state through which students dynamically foster a shared
learning purpose by sharing the attempt to achieve this goal (Janssen, Kirschner, Erkens,
Kirschner & Paas). A VID core opportunity to learn strategies are the use of Writing, Inquiry,
Collaboration, Organization, and Reading (WICOR). “WICOR provides a learning model that
faculty can use to guide students to comprehend materials and concepts, and articulate ideas, at
increasingly complex levels (scaffolding) within developmental, general education and
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 86
discipline-based curricula in their major ("WICOR: A VID’s Foundation for High Engagement
Teaching & Learning", n.d.).”
Observation 1 for Teacher A: The lesson Teacher A presented incorporated A VID
strategies. AVID strategies that were present during the lesson included collaboration, inquiry
and organization. The students collaborated in their small groups using inquiry to discuss the
possibilities of the right answer. They were organized in the use of steps the teacher required
them to use while executing the activity.
Observation 2 for Teacher A: The second observation consisted of the students
completing a reading comprehension test. The AVID strategies that was present during testing
included writing, organization and reading.
Observation 1 for Teacher B: The first observation was of students testing on figurative
language. The AVID strategies present were reading, writing and organization.
Observation 2 for Teacher B: During this observation the students were completing end
of chapter questions. The A VID strategies present were reading, writing and organization.
It is apparent that both teachers incorporate the AVID strategies into their curriculum;
however, it seems that Teacher A engages the students more so than Teacher B. The A VID
program pushes student engagement, yet the Teacher B loses the students in that area.
Document Analysis
Document analysis is the third part of triangulation that connects the research.
Along with interviews and observations, document analysis sought to reinforce or oppose the
revelations from the other two methodologies. It is also a way to inform the project by giving
deeper meaning through files that are interpreted by the researcher. Analyzing documents
encompasses coding information into themes similar to interviews and observations are explored.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 87
The documents procured were from 8
th
grade ELA classes and pulled from African American
males in special education classwork folders. A copy of the latest report cards and benchmark
scores from a summative assessment was gathered from the reading teacher.
Work Samples
Students’ work was collected in order to determine a pattern of achievement based on
grades given on assignments. Three work samples from the English Language Arts class was
taken from students’ portfolios at random and scored using the Documentation Protocol
(Appendix C).
Academic Development: The work samples revealed that assignments given in the first
part of the semester had lower grades. Assignments given later in the semester had higher grades.
An exception is two out of seven students consistently held passing grades on all three work
samples.
Benchmark Scores
The students are required to take benchmarks or tests that measure progress periodically
during the school year. The students are required to benchmark three times during the school
year. The data from the benchmarks should be used to inform teacher lesson planning and
students’ personal engagement with academics. The school district required 2800 for the students
to be deemed proficient in the area of English Language Arts.
Academic Development: Out of seven students only two made the cut with a 2900 and
3100 score with exceeds proficiency. The other five students had lower benchmark scores
ranging from 2100- 2600.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 88
Report Cards
Report cards are given four times during the school year as permanent grades that
are logged and kept in their cumulative files. Students received report cards for the 1
st
9 weeks in
the middle of October. A passing grade in English Language Arts is 60, but proficiency is 70.
Anything 80 and above is considered mastery.
Academic Development: The grades reflected that the majority of the students (5 out of
7) made a grade between 50 and 68. The other two students made a 71 and 73. Figure 1.1 shows
the grades from report cards.
Figure 1.1

Summary
The document analysis displayed the academic levels obtained by African American
males in special education. Clearly, the benchmark scores are lower than desired by the school
district. Even when comparing their scores to the averages of their peers in the 8
th
grade, the
majority of the boys still scored in the “in need of support” range. The report cards revealed that
the boys could do the work and at least achieve a passing grade at the minimal. Some of the boys
achieved a C average and A VID targets the student in the middle. Therefore, learning with these
strategies is possible, yet the translation to benchmarks is not present.
AA Male 1, 63
AA Male 2, 67
AA Male 3, 68
AA Male 4, 68 AA Male 5, 70
AA Male 6, 73
AA Male 7, 50
0
20
40
60
80
AA Male 1 AA Male 2 AA Male 3 AA Male 4 AA Male 5 AA Male 6 AA Male 7
A A Males in Special Education Report Card Grades
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 89
RQ1 Data Analysis Summary
Research question 1 sought to explore to what extent the impact of Opportunity to Learn
strategies might have on the academic development of African American males placed in special
education. According to the interview data, teachers were well aware of what an IEP is and how
it is used with African American males who have one in special education. They also felt that
Opportunity to Learn strategies were very impactful to the education of the males. Teachers also
felt that A VID’s program could help the males academically based on the teachers’ immersion of
training with the program. The teachers stated they were confident with using the strategies in
class instruction to improve the learning acquisition for the males. However, observations proved
contrary to the teacher interviews. While Teacher A used strategies more often for student
engagement, Teacher B did not use strategies as engagement as often. The observations
highlighted what teachers do as opposed to what they say is done. Teacher B is the more
seasoned teacher in number of years teaching and years trained in A VID, yet that teacher was less
impressive in comparison to Teacher A. Teacher A was younger in age, years in the classroom
and being AVID trained. Teacher A observations were consistent with interviews about A VID
strategies in the curriculum. Teachers must have interest in order to successfully use A VID’s
strategies. Teacher A demonstrated interest, which lead to increased student engagement.
Document analysis offered a differing notion from interviews and observations. Benchmarks
showed that students were not meeting the score for proficiency on the 8
th
grade level. The
proficiency score was 2800, but four out of seven males did not come close to the score with 500
or more points less than the proficiency score. One male came close with a 2600 and the
remaining males did exceptionally well with a 2900 and 3100 score. In class assignments sent
mixed messages as well. The male who scored the highest on the benchmark with a 3100 had
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 90
low grades on classwork. On the other hand, a student who scored a 2100 on the benchmark had
high grades on classwork. The report cards are a reflection of grades earned in the ELA class
based on A VID strategy infusion. The highest grade among the males was a 73 with one student
making the grade. The next to the lowest grade was a 63 and the male with a benchmark of 2900
earned that grade. Therefore, teachers are stating the value of A VID’s Opportunity to Learn
strategies while touting the benefits African American males in special education can receive
from them. Through observations and document analysis, there is not consistent proof that
practice of strategies is being implemented with these students.
Results from Research Question One (a) (RQ1a)
The second research question addressed the faculty commitment to using Opportunity to
Learn strategies, especially teachers in the English/Language Arts department. The teachers’
abilities to effectively use the strategies through lesson planning, instruction with students and
team/faculty planning is measured through various methods. First, the results from interviews
will be presented, which will be followed by a section presenting interview statements. Next, the
data from observations is discussed and lastly document analysis is addressed to complete the
triangulation of data. The section will conclude with a narrative summary.
Research Question One (a)
Interviews
Interview questions promoted discourse about the application of Opportunity to
Learn Strategies in faculty classrooms. They also revealed the faculty’s commitment to using the
strategies and the extent to which faculty had buy in with using the A VID program. Teachers
unanimously responded to having a high self-efficacy about incorporating Opportunity to Learn
Strategies in their instruction.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 91
Theme 1: OTL/AVID Strategies
One of the interview questions asked, How often do you incorporate Opportunity to
Learn strategies into your curriculum? Teachers explained the integration of strategies. TH
stated:
“I would say I incorporate Opportunity to Learn every time I start a new unit, or if
I see that they're not understanding something, I'll revamp what I'm teaching and
then do another strategy.”
Three other teachers had the same response. TM, KL, and McG replied respectively:
“Daily.”
“Um, I liked to say daily.”
“Daily.”
Another question asked teachers to, Describe a typical lesson in your classroom where
you use Opportunity to Learn strategies. McG replied:
“Um, okay, for instance, I teach reading. So, if we're reading, um, if we're
reading a text, we use several Avid strategies to access that text. Um, typically, a
college prep curriculum, but with a general ed classroom, um, we'll have quick
writes, we'll have use of media or snippets, excerpts from songs or video to
support the themes in the text. We'll also use, um, I also use audio versions of the
text for struggling readers to follow along so that they're able to comprehend and
access the text as well.”
TH noted:
“Um, like I said before, like if I'm opening up a new, a new lesson, I'll
introduce a new strategy so I can see where the kids are, and I can see where I
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 92
need to go with the lesson, so that's when I introduce the Opportunity to Learn
strategy.”
Both teachers, who are ELA teachers, use AVID strategies in their classes with African
American males in special education. By providing access to various learning tools, these
teachers enhance the acquisition of reading for students.
Theme 2: Training and Development
Training and development is for teachers to be able to impact the academic learning of
African American males. According to Elmore (2002), valuable professional development
emphasizes advancement of student learning.
Question: Could you explain or describe some consistent training that you've received to
implement strategies?
KL: Uh, we go to the yearly trainings that, uh, A VID offers. We engage
within the building, I guess you call it vertical teaming, to discuss strategies that's
working, how they can be implemented across the, uh, curriculum.
TM: Yes, mam, I do, because we have the A VID Institute yearly, and in
between the institutes we do our A VID Boost online. Um, and Launches and
Boosts is what they call them, so that's our in between study time before we go to
the actual institute yearly.
MCG: Yes, I've been to several trainings for Avid. We go to Institute every
summer. We also have boosts throughout, that we use throughout the year to
refresh ourselves, as well as our Avid library at the school, and, um, I've also been
to what they call Pathways, Avid Pathways, which are smaller, um, training
sessions throughout the school year.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 93
It is clear that teachers receive the training necessary to carry out the training.
Administration is not short on investing money and providing resources to keep training relevant
and vigorous.
Theme 3: Self- Motivation/Self Efficacy
When teachers feel they are well prepared in their craft of teaching and class room
management they are more apt to be effective with transfer of curriculum, strategies, goals, and
etc. with students. The more motivation teachers have intrinsically, the higher rate of student
engagement. Teachers’ confidence in their abilities is paramount to their success in the
classroom. Moran and Hoy (2007) state efficacy beliefs are higher if teachers identify teaching
execution to be an accomplishment, which then increases the beliefs that impending
presentations will likely be capable.
Question: How do you feel, or why do you feel you are prepared?
KL: Well, with all the money that's been invested in me training, (laughs),
you know, uh, I don't just go to the training to be going, I go to actually learn. I
engage with, uh, colleagues from across the nation, discussing A VID. You know,
we exchange, um, ideas via email on the regular, and I even look up stuff on the
A VID web, uh, website.
TM: I feel I'm prepared because I have adequate training with the
strategies, how to implement the strategies.
MCG: Yes. Mm-hmm (affirmative) Yeah, I think the training was very
thorough. Um, with the Avid elective, it's hard to explain, it's more of an abstract,
um, curriculum, you know, that hidden curriculum really is ... it-it makes it hard to
articulate it, but because I had to do it for so long, I've been able to kinda, I don't
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 94
know, I hate to use the word indoctrinate, I've been indoctrinated with it, so it's
kinda like, you know, it kinda comes second hand now. But as far as the strategies
for reading, they were very, very explicit in the instruction. So I felt very
confident using those.
AJ: I feel I'm prepared because I have adequate training with the strategies, how
to implement the strategies.
Collectively, teachers feel they have the tools and the self-confidence to teach
Opportunity to Learn strategies, particularly the one that A VID offer. Because teachers have the
proper training and poise, African American males in special education receives instruction that
is taught with fidelity.
Observations
Observations disclosed how teachers initiate Opportunity to Learn to strategies in their
classroom. Faculty commitment to using OTL strategies determines whether or not African
American males in special education receive diverse learning. Using the Observation Protocol
(Appendix B) the teachers were evaluated to gauge if commitment was present. Two themes that
emerged from the observations were: Teacher routine and AVID strategies.
Theme 1: Teacher Routine
Observation 1 for Teacher A: The teacher’s white board was covered with
statements that reflected a routine in the class. The board was divided into compartments:
curriculum objectives, homework, classwork, Essential Question (EQ), A VID Elective EQ,
Standards, Announcements and the date. There was information filled in every section that was
current to the time of the observation. The teacher’s conversation with the class indicated routine
because students knew when to respond and the manner in which they should respond. During
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 95
the activity, the teacher reminded students not to yell out the answer or the consequences would
be that the game would stop. The room became silent, which meant they knew the teacher meant
her statement. The activity was managed with control based on teacher interaction with students
that understood the routine of the classroom.
Observation 2 for Teacher A: There was a test taken but before students tested the
teacher gave explicit directions. The teacher went through every section of the test explaining
what to do. There was a reminder from the teacher to remember what she said about character
analysis. Use what they learned in a previous class discussion to apply to the test. The teacher re-
iterated that talking, laughing or movement would garner a zero on the test. A student raised her
hand to ask a question. The teacher responded and then queried if there were any more questions.
No one responded, so the teacher told students to begin testing.
Utilizing the Observation Protocol (Appendix B), Teacher A had the appropriate materials
for the task during both observations. The classroom was situated with posters, hang-ups and
visuals that represented ELA and promoted positive behavior. Rules were posted for student
achievement, directions for class start up, and emergency procedures. There were also student
work samples available to view and the teacher’s corner where her college experience and
accolades were posted. The students’ attitude toward class routine was positive and engaged.
They followed the routines of the class because the teacher followed a pattern consistently, so
that an established environment for learning could be endorsed.
Observation 1 for Teacher B: The teacher’s Promethean board had the day’s agenda on it.
The white board had the statements that reflected routine in the class. Just as Teacher A, the
board was divided into compartments: EQ, Standards, Homework, Student Objectives and
vocabulary. Even though the students’ were testing, it was apparent there was a routine in place.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 96
Students who were finished sat quietly without talking to others. When a student had a question
he raised his hand instead of yelling out or getting out of the desk. The test itself was routine
because it was an end of chapter test as opposed to a random test. The testing process was
structured, therefore indicating the students were accustomed to the teacher’s routine.
Observation 2 for Teacher B: The students were participating in a class reading activity
where a routine was present. While a student was reading, the students were willingly following
along. The teacher asked questions, which were answered by students in a structured way. They
took turns responding and used the responses of others to further the discussion. Following the
whole group discussion, students knew a written assignment followed. They were able to use
notes taken previously as a guide as well as class dialogue.
Utilizing the Observation Protocol (Appendix B), Teacher B exercised daily routine that
teachers build with classroom procedures. They were posted on the walls and re-iterated verbally
during one observation. Teaching materials were always appropriate and germane to the activity.
The classroom had pictures, diagrams, and reading paraphernalia hanging on the walls. Rules for
classroom interactions and regulation were present. The students’ attitude towards routines was
positive and instinctive. They knew when not to talk, when to collaborate, how to proceed in
discussion without much teacher facilitation.
Theme 2: AVID Strategies
Observation 1 for Teacher A: There were several A VID strategies in use during this
observation. First, the use of writing was used by students to answer questions posed by teacher.
Next, inquiry and collaboration was used by student groups to come up with the correct answers.
These three strategies come from the acronym WICOR, which A VID implements as a basis for
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 97
its program. Also, a direct strategy taken from an A VID teacher resource book, Critical Listening
Other Critical Listening Features, is used to guide the activity.
Observation 2 for Teacher A: During this observation, only two strategies were present.
Writing and reading from WICOR were performed by students during testing. The teacher did,
however, have some A VID strategies posted on the wall.
Utilizing the Observation Protocol (Appendix B), Teacher A incorporated OTL
strategies in tasks presented to the class. Even when they were not presented, they were visual in
the classroom whether written on the board or on posters.
Observation 1 for Teacher B: Two strategies were present during testing. Reading
and writing, which are a part of WICOR were used by students. Just as Teacher A had AVID
strategies plated on the walls and white board so did Teacher B.
Observation 2 for Teacher B: During this lively observation, students used writing,
inquiry, reading and organization from WICOR. The whole group discussion used inquiry and
organization because students’ organized oral responses questioned one another. Students
contemplated answers and referred to their notes if they needed to. The teacher also used the
Whip Activity from an AVID teacher resource book.
Utilizing the Observation Protocol (Appendix B), Teacher B uses A VID strategies during
interactions with students. Even if the strategies are not used during an activity they are available
in the class from posters, diagrams, charts and copy that decorates the classroom.
Document Analysis
Document analysis is the third part of triangulation that connects the research.
Along with interviews and observations, document analysis sought to reinforce or oppose the
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 98
revelations from the other two methodologies. Documents submitted included student work
samples, benchmarks and report cards.
Work Samples
Student work samples demonstrated the use of A VID strategies. Some students
work samples included graphic organizers, also known as foldables. Another strategy in student
work samples from the AVID resource guide was Connotation and Denotation. Every student
work sample pack had a vocabulary test and vocabulary is tantamount to reading comprehension,
writing and inquiry. So, indirectly students are exposed to strategies through vocabulary
acquisition.
Benchmarks
Benchmarks do not directly show use of A VID strategies. However, the indirect
use of strategies is present via scores. Ideally, students that can transfer learning through strategy
use on tests are deemed successful partakers of the A VID program. If that is the case then two out
of seven boys successfully made the transfer. One out of seven came close and the other four did
make transfer. Scott and Palincsar (2006) noted that minority students are most likely to perform
the lowest on standardized reading tests. This could account for why the need of alternative
approaches to learning is necessary. Figure 1.2 displays the transfer averages among African
American males in special education

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 99
Figure 1.2

Report Cards
Report cards just like benchmarks are an indirect way to measure the transfer of
A VID strategies. The grades suggested whether or not students adopted strategies in order to
improve grades. Based on that, six out of seven students were passing ELA classes, but only two
were considered proficient. The numerical grade of 60 or above was a passing grade, yet 70 or
above was considered proficiency. Based on report cards all but one student was passing ELA
with the fusion of A VID strategies.
RQ1a Data Analysis Summary
Research question 1a sought to explore faculty commitment to Using Opportunity
to Learn Strategies and the impact it might have on the academic development of African
American males placed in special education. According to interview data teachers used
A VID/OTL strategies on a daily basis. Teachers described a lesson where they weaved in
strategies and commonly introduced strategies within a new lesson. Teachers were comfortable
with using strategies because they all agreed that proper training was provided to them at the
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
Proficient Close Little
Transfer
2 1 4
28% 14% 57%
Tranfer of A VID Strategies Among AA Males in Special
Education
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 100
yearly institutes that A VID conducts. Teachers had access to online boosts, an in-school AVID
library and at least two teachers mentioned AVID Pathways, which are small professional
developments that occur in local cities. As a result of the training teachers felt confident in
conveying the strategies practiced during institutes to students during class instruction.
Nonetheless, while observing both teachers they visually displayed A VID strategies throughout
their classrooms. Both teachers used A VID strategies during class activities included routines
which A VID ties into their program. The document analysis gave a countered view from
interviews and observations. The analysis revealed that students were barely passing let alone
achieving proficiency. The benchmarks were lower than district standards and negatively impacts
the school overall success. There was an immediate breakdown of what teachers do and what
students do. If the grades and benchmarks were cursors of the commitment faculty have to using
strategies, then it shows average use. This was very opposite to what teachers chronicled and
observations established. The adage is data don’t lie, but does that mean that teachers lie?
Data findings from this study denote that AVID strategies work for African
American males in special education. The degree to which teachers are using them to impact the
males’ academics is the issue. Some teachers were consistently using the strategies to enrich
their educational experience, but other teachers were not consistently using the strategies. The
influence of using the strategies was far greater when all faculty commit to using the strategies. A
few interview responses revealed that teachers wanted administration to model what they wanted
to see in teachers’ classes during instruction. Another teacher stated that sometimes things were
forgotten between trainings and refreshers should be offered to regain lost information. These
reasons could contribute to why students were not getting rigorous use of AVID strategies. Daily
uses of strategies were as simple as taking Cornell Notes, but if teachers are not enforcing the
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 101
steps of Cornell Use then the strategy becomes ineffective. This can be problematic when the
purpose of the A VID program was to become advanced users of the curriculum. Those schools
that are advantageous at incorporating A VID can become demonstration sites and mentor
schools. While becoming a demonstration site is far reaching, teachers can make improvements
to what they were doing with the use of AVID strategies.
Limitations
The limitations of this study were 1.) Only African American males in special
education that were deemed highbrow were included in the study. Several other males in special
education were autistic, have Down Syndrome or too low academically to see a difference in the
learning. 2.) A newer set of benchmark scores were released shortly after data collection
concluded and they could have revealed a marked increase because they were taken at much later
point than the scores used for this research. Those scores may have indicated more A VID
strategy use.
Implications and Reflections
The implications of the data findings continue a conversation on African
American boys partaking in the program to build them academically, socially and
intrapersonally. Nevertheless, it starts a new conversation about the use of the program to
directly assist with this segment of students. Many programs and curriculum are out there for the
benefit of ushering them into general education. But this program too, is useful and it can be
used with all students. Schools and districts do not have to invest in many programs to
accomplish what the A VID program can for whole school value. The debate is with how to
ensure that teachers foster continuity with the A VID program. During interviews, teachers
applauded administration for their efforts at providing extensive and expensive training, but did
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 102
not feel that administration was always supportive of other needs. Such needs included vertical
team meetings during school hours to exchange best practices with A VID strategies and lesson
planning, professional learning communities that highlighted master teachers of A VID strategies
and faculty meetings where teachers routinely practiced A VID strategies with one another. There
were other suggestions provided but these were the most mentioned.
There were many AVID trained teachers that left the school at the start of this
school year because they felt undervalued and mistreated by the administration. This is yet
another reason that A VID is not followed through by all teachers. New teachers must replace the
teachers that left and the buy in from new teachers is sketchy because it is unfamiliar to them.
Administration then becomes a hindrance to the use of A VID strategies to teachers no matter how
many institutes they attend. Mechanisms should be placed to bridge the disconnection between
the faculty and administration in hopes of cultivating a more amicable working environment.
This could lead to a lower turnover rate of teachers, more support for strategy use and greater
gains for students engrossed in the A VID program, especially African American males in special
education. According to Noguera (2003) African American students’ performance is contingent
on the support and reassurance that is garnered from teachers. This solidifies the notion that
teachers require strong anchors that will further the goal of not only complete AVID program
use, but teaching with other Opportunities to Learn provided through positive leadership.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 103
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND SOLUTIONS
Organizational Context and Mission
Southtown Middle School (SMS), is an urban, Title I, public school serving grades six
through eight (6-8). The school is located in the Roelake area, a sub-community in Central,
Alabama. The school was named for a man who served in the City, as well as president of the
local brewery company. Because of his prominence in the community and his personal
commitment to excellence, it was deemed appropriate to name the school in his honor.
Southtown Middle School was originally designed to serve students in kindergarten through
eighth grade, however, due to community growth and changes in the 1980s, it became a middle
school serving students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. In 1998, the school was remodeled
to improve the band facilities, renovate the main office and administrative areas, and add a new
gymnasium. It is the second largest middle school in the area. When a new school opened in
2002 enrollment dropped at Southtown Middle School. However, a new elementary school was
added to the area as a result of another elementary school closing. As a result, enrollment has
increased at the middle school for the 2013/2014 school year. There are currently 599 students
enrolled in grades 6-8, age ranges from 11-14. The students are comprised of 54% males and
46% females. Of those enrolled, 97% are African American, 1% Caucasian and Multi Race 1%.
About 80% of the students receive free or reduced lunch. The current special needs population is
currently 25%, 1% gifted, and 3% speech language impaired. There are approximately 40 faculty
and staff members.
The immediate stakeholders are teachers, administrators, staff and parents. Other
stakeholders include community members, board of education employees, and sponsors.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 104
Southtown Middle School strives to provide a safe, stimulating, inviting and nurturing
environment; where promoting a sense of self awareness and encouraging high academic
achievement for all. Working together and building relationships are paramount. All individuals
are treated with dignity and respect. Students and staff recognize and embrace one another's
differences, curiosity, creativity, and diversity. Stakeholders and the community are empowered
through shared leadership. The school environment is student-centered and the main priority is
teaching and learning. The organization exists to educate children in a safe learning environment.
Organizational Performance Goal
Southtown Middle School’s goal is that by December 2017, African American males in
Special Education will have a proficiency rate of 75% in English Language Arts. This means that
numerical data will reflect this percentile score measuring African American males’ progress in
English Language Arts. The use of benchmark tests, report cards and/or classwork grades will
contribute to measurement. This is an achievable goal because it creates a benchmark that is not
currently present and allows for reasonable gains to occur. The performance findings can
determine if Opportunity to Learn strategies findings affects the learning of African American
males, thereby, suggesting that if the strategies are used consistently over time the use of these
strategies might decrease their numbers in special education. The special education department
established this goal after a meeting revealed what factors led to African American males being
placed in special education and what academic improvements were possible in order to reach
desired results. The achievement of Southtown Middle School’s goal will be measured by the
results of Opportunity to Learn intervention methods reflected in assessments through December
2017.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 105
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholders for the organization include the administrators, teachers and students.
The administrators’ contribution to the achievement of the goal is through supplying data in the
form of documentation, such as test scores and demographics of students. They are also
responsible for ensuring that teachers attend the AVID workshops and conferences. This directly
affects African American males in special education because when administrators arrange the
training for teachers the males are exposed to the strategies provided by the program. Teachers’
contribution to the achievement of the goal is through allowing observations, giving work
samples, and committing to using Opportunity to Learn strategies. Teachers are interacting with
students in the classrooms and utilizing A VID Opportunity to Learn strategies during
instruction. Students contribute by willingly participating throughout the study by attempting to
understand and utilize the A VID strategies.

Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study
The combined strengths of all stakeholders will work together for the attainment of the
overall organizational goal of African American males in Special Education to be proficient by
75% in English Language Arts. It is important to understand the challenges faced by Southtown
Middle faculty and staff members as they attempt to implement the strategies that align with
meeting this goal through the consistent implementation of Opportunity to Learn. Therefore, the
stakeholders of focus for this study will be English/Language Arts teachers with a focus on 8
th

grade faculty. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by the administrators, is that 100% of
Southtown Middle School 8
th
grade teachers will implement Opportunity to Learn strategies in
their daily instructional activities. Opportunity to Learn strategies include activities such as
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 106
technology use in lesson planning, differentiated instruction, safe and secure learning
environment, maximum academic learning time and interactive learning sessions.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The gap analysis will focus on stakeholders within the organization, namely teachers
and administrators. Through this analysis, emphasis on gaps in learning of students receiving
special education services and those who are not, and the faculty and staff documentation of
grades and interactions with minority male students are areas of priority. The analysis will begin
by originating potential or anticipated reasons and then by exploring these analytically to
concentrate on tangible or confirmed causes.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What impact might Opportunity to Learn strategies provide through the
English Language Arts curriculum and the academic development of African
American males in special education?
a. To what degree can the faculty commit to learn and use Opportunity
to Learn strategies in English/ Language Arts within the guidelines stated under
organizational goals?
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences

Knowledge Recommendations

Introduction. The knowledge influences in Table 4 represent the whole list of assumed
knowledge influences and the likelihood of high validation based on knowledge influencers that
are most often stated in relation to achieving the stakeholders’ goal from informal interviews and
supported by the literature, even though data collection is not yet complete for this project.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 107
Mayer (2011) states factual or declarative knowledge can be observed in a person’s behavior and
can be true for teachers using A VID strategies in the classroom and in lesson plans.
Table 4 indicates the anticipation of these influences having weight and justification for
achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 4 also shows the recommendation for these plausible
influences based on academic origins.
Table 4
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge Influence:
Cause, Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers do not know
which students (AA
males) in special
education have higher
Star reports in English
Language Arts (D)
HP Y Creating schemata
helps learners to
organize declarative
knowledge in a
domain (Schraw,
Veldt, & Olafson,
2009)
Provide training to teachers
whereby they learn how to
access STAR reports from
online systems
Teachers do not know
which opportunity to
learn strategies are best to
incorporate in classroom
instruction (P)
HP Y Procedural knowledge
increases when
declarative knowledge
required to perform
the skill is available or
known. (Clark et al.,
2008).
Provide training to teachers
that clearly identifies the
steps for selecting three
opportunity to learn
strategies

Teachers need to know
how to reflect on
instructional strategies
and AA male student
interactions in order to
understand if OTL
strategies from
professional development
are used properly (M)
HP Y Metacognitive
knowledge assists with
finding solutions and
promotes the use of
thinking about things
(Rueda, 2011).
Provide training with
demonstrations of reflective
practices, literature that
describes how to use
reflection and modeling from
trainers that employ the use
of reflection

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 108
*Indicate knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations:
(D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
Declarative knowledge solutions or description of needs or assets. Declarative
knowledge, or factual knowledge, is known as facts/details that a person is aware of or familiar
with to obtain basic understanding (Rueda, 2011). Declarative knowledge aids stakeholders in
awareness of African American males in special education academic status, especially in English
Language Arts. Declarative knowledge is also relevant for procedural knowledge to be effective.
Teachers must know how to access STAR reports from an online system. These reports reveal the
academic standing of African American males in special education. A training will be provided
for teachers to learn how to access the STAR reports. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
training is necessary when a task necessitates a higher intensity of expertise. To further enhance
training, situational and personal interest should be developed in order to increase the likeliness
of teachers embracing the training. Situational interest is temporary and triggered by the
environment and personal interest is triggered internally (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Because the
stakeholders, teachers, are in the school environment that is the setting for the study, some
interest in garnered. However, personal interest must be invested in order for teachers to fully
actualize the training because of heightened engagement and moderates short term situational
interest against extensive proficiency (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Through explicit training of the
STAR system online and clear explanations of why accessing the information is important,
teachers’ personal interest is piqued.
According to Sturmer, Konings & Seidel (2012), declarative knowledge base is
necessary for teaching practices that extend far into teachers’ careers. The teachers in this
organization are seasoned, so they have a declarative knowledge base that informs their
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 109
professional decisions. Teachers are able to plan and deliver relevant instruction, make meaning
of students’ cognitive approaches, and signify if authentic teaching is taking place (Sturmer,
Konings & Seidel, 2012). The study identified teachers in educational programs that were
exposed to video courses about effective teaching in real classroom contexts developed a strong
declarative knowledge base. When teachers are exposed to necessary content early, they are more
likely to retain and build their declarative knowledge base.

Procedural knowledge solutions or description of needs or assets.
Procedural knowledge is the “know how” necessary to complete particular actions
(Rueda, 2011). Procedural knowledge aids teachers to use the most efficient Opportunity to
Learn (OTL) strategies with African American males in special education. There are many OTL
strategies that teachers are aware, yet pinpointing the strategies that work best with students
requires specific insight. The strategies for specific use are Advancement Via Individual
Determination (A VID) strategies and within those are the ones that are most useful to African
American males in special education. Training will be provided for teachers to select the proper
A VID OTL strategies to use. According to Clark and Estes (2008) training affects how
professional knowledge is structured. Teachers need recommendations and reaction (Clark &
Estes, 2008) in order to recognize and employ the most engaging strategies. By providing
training to teachers that clearly define the procedures to secure three AVID strategies, this skill
can be obtained.
According to Smedley and Sutton (2007), goal structured prompts enables people to
obtain a high level of procedural knowledge. Creating direct and explicit instructions for use of
the best A VID strategies will aid teachers with their procedural knowledge. Also, teachers
schemata are already in use because they are familiar with computer based programs; therefore,
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 110
flexibility in learning steps to gather data is completed with facile. The authors noted in their
study that cognition effort affects procedural learning. With teachers already possessing
declarative knowledge about the computer based program, their cognition is not constrained.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions or description of needs or assets. Metacognitive
knowledge is insight into one’s thinking (Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive knowledge aids
stakeholders in reflection on OTL strategies and AA male student interactions in order to
understand if OTL strategies from professional development are used properly. Teachers should
be able to process their thoughts regarding OTL strategy use in order to determine if the
strategies in use are valid. If the strategies are not working with students then teachers must
recognize they are not and change strategy use. According to Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006)
people that self -regulate or regulate cognitive patterns, actions, and reason during constructed
knowledge, achieve preferred outcomes. Part of the reflection is for teachers to gauge their
interactions with African American males in special education and decipher if those students are
benefitting from strategies chosen. Compelling criticism leads to learning rewards (Nicol &
Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). According to Sitzmann & Ely (2011), outside feedback is imperative
for learning to happen. Information about reflection and training will be provided to teachers.
According to Clark and Estes (2008) information helps people to utilize methods learned
previously that can be applied in specific contexts. Teachers receiving literature that discusses
reflection practices, training that demonstrates how use to use reflection and modeling from
trainers will prepare stakeholders for use of metacognition.
Sitzmann and Ely (2011) discovered that self-regulation allows others to perform tasks
personally and gain the skills and knowledge to triumph in organizations. The teachers should be
able to self- regulate in order to acquire the skills to teach African American males in special
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 111
education. With self- learning on the rise, employees’ requisite is to evaluate their knowledge
needs and where to get the proper instruction (Sitzmann & Ely, 2011). This is exactly what
teachers are faced with doing in order to ensure what OTL strategies they are using generate the
best results for African American males in special education. Miscalculations also play a vital
part in feedback because when people are given the chance to make mistakes, it energizes
metacognition to contemplate on the reasons for the errors (Sitzmann & Ely, 2011).

Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Motivation is a major factor for people completing tasks in an
organization. The lack of motivation causes organizational pitfalls that limits or halts production,
goals or growth. The research identifies motivation as a lifestyle that is obtained from others that
thrive in the same space (Rueda, 2011). If this is so, then motivation can be deemed a social
construct whereby one person’s motivation affects another. For this reason, looking at
motivational problems in an organization is central to addressing root causes to obstacles.
The motivation influences in Table 5 illustrate a veritable record of assumed motivation
influences, even though data collection is not finished for this research. The probability of the
assumed motivation influences validation is positioned on the most often indicated influence
from stakeholders gained from formal interviews. The motivational influences are substantiated
by relevant literature and evaluation of motivation theory. Mayer (2011) states motivation is
effort, engagement, and integration of mental processes. Clark and Estes (2008) categorize
motivation in three ways: choice, persistence and mental effort. Choice is genuine engagement in
organizational targets. Persistence is staying committed to targets even when obstacles present
themselves. Mental effort means sustaining the right amount of confidence to complete
targets Teachers are valuable commodities in schools, but in this context they would be
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 112
priceless if they honed their skills. The assumed causes seem to lie in mental effort and choice,
which prevents teachers from fully committing to the use of A VID strategies with African
American males in special education. By referring to Table 5, the motivational influences have a
high probability for validation and are considered high priority for realizing the stakeholder’s
goal. Table 5 displays the recommendations for these impacts established on theoretical
principles.
Table 5
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need,
or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No (V, HP,
N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers do not know
how to properly use
AVID strategies because
the transfer of modeled
strategies does not
register, connecting the
strategies to curriculum is
lost, and feedback is not
given to critique
strategies that are
attempted.
HP Y Effective
observational learning
is achieved by first
organizing and
rehearsing modeled
behaviors, then
enacting it overtly
(Ambrose, 2010).

Model effective
strategy use, including
“how” and “when” to
use particular
strategies (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide opportunities
for people to practice
skills and for transfer
(APA, 2015).

Provide performance
feedback during
learning (Mayer,
2011).

Provide Training in which an
instructor models strategy use
assists learners in practicing
select strategies and finally
supervises use of strategies in an
authentic class setting.
Teachers do not value the
planning of strategy use
for student engagement.
HP Y Task performance is
increased when
rewarded (Skinner,
1957; Clark & Estes,
Provide opportunities for team
meeting to collaborate and learn
from peers.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 113
2008)

Be explicit about
value and relevance of
the learning task for
the learner (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).

Include rationales
about the importance
and utility value of the
task (Pintrich, 2003).

Teachers lack interest in
the academic condition of
AA males in special
education
HP Y Individuals who do
not perceive any
support in their
environment “tend to
be hopeless”
(Ambrose, 2010).

Integrate personal
interests or common
interest (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).

Be explicit about
value and relevance of
the learning task for
the learner (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).
Provide weekly data meetings
that discuss this particular group
academics and review literature
(articles, videos, books) that
emphasize AA males condition
in public school systems
Teachers put little value
on the use of AVID
strategies because what
they already know or
formerly used “worked”
for them; therefore,
learning to use strategies
properly is of least
importance
HP Y Provide sufficient
scaffolding and tools
to facilitate learning
and performance, then
gradually withdraw
scaffolds as learning
progresses and
performance improves
Scott & Palinscar,
2006).

Provide worked
examples (Kirshner et
al., 2006; Mayer,
2011; Van Gerven et
al., 2002)

Self-efficacy is
increased as
individuals succeed in
a task (Bandura,
1997).

Provide detailed work sessions
where teachers can see the use
of strategies from beginning to
end with step by step instruction
on how to deliver strategies.
Teachers will demonstrate
knowledge of strategies by re-
teaching strategies in a mock
classroom.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 114

Value. Teachers put little value on the use of A VID strategies because what they already
know or formerly used “worked” for them; therefore, learning to use strategies properly is of
least importance. The literature gives suggestions to provide sufficient scaffolding and tools to
facilitate learning and performance, then gradually withdraw scaffolds as learning progresses and
performance improves (Scott & Palinscar, 2006) and provide worked examples (Kirshner et al.,
2006; Mayer, 2011; Van Gerven et al., 2002).
Because teachers’ value is low for using A VID strategies, Clark and Estes (2008) mention
values affect the action people take and persevere through roadblocks. If teachers can increase
their value for the strategies, then they could learn the ones that are critical for student
success. People value anything that assists them and disregard what does not (Clark & Estes,
2008). Specifically, utility value is the usefulness of a task a person believes will achieve a goal
(Rueda, 2011). Teachers need to believe or have utility value for the A VID strategies. The
teachers at Southtown Middle School can grow to value AVID strategies through concentrated
training that focuses on them learning strategies and re-teaching them to exhibit proficiency.
During training, the presentation of facts and statistics about African American males in special
education coupled with the success rate of AVID strategies with students could encourage the
value teachers place on learning the strategies. Also, watching videos or tutorials that exhibit
teachers using the strategies with students could boost the utility value.
Self -Efficacy. Teachers do not know how to properly use A VID strategies because the
transfer of modeled strategies does not register, connecting the strategies to curriculum is lost,
and feedback is not given to critique strategies that are attempted. According to the literature,
effective observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing modeled
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 115
behaviors, then enacting it overtly (Ambrose, 2010), model effective strategy use, including
“how” and “when” to use particular strategies (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006) and provide
opportunities for people to practice skills and for transfer (APA, 2015). Lastly, provide
performance feedback during learning (Mayer, 2011).
The belief of self- efficacy is that people judge themselves based on their abilities
(Pajares, 2006). Teachers in the school need to feel that they are capable of using the proper OTL
strategies that will positively impact African American males in special education. Some teachers
believe that they can use the instructional tools of past and that A VID strategies are of little
importance. The lack of importance is prevalent because they may not know how to properly
implement strategies in the classroom; therefore, they revert to using what is comfortable.
According to Pajares (2006) self-efficacy determines if people can change their thinking and
action. To help teachers change their thinking about the use of AVID strategies, the provision of
worked examples (Kirshner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2011; Van Gerven et al., 2002) to use in class
will be provided and training in which an instructor models strategy use, assists learners in
practicing select strategies and finally supervises use of strategies in an authentic class
setting. This will stimulate teachers’ self -efficacy about learning and retaining the use of
selected A VID strategies. Self-efficacy is increased as individuals succeed in a task (Bandura,
1997).
Expectancy Value Motivational Theory. Teachers do not value the planning of strategy
use for student engagement. Yet, the literature states that task performance is increased when
rewarded (Skinner, 1957; Clark & Estes, 2008), be explicit about value and relevance of the
learning task for the learner (Schraw & Lehman, 2009) and include rationales about the
importance and utility value of the task (Pintrich, 2003). According to expectancy motivational-
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 116
value theory, teachers’ beliefs about learning OTL strategies confidently and to the extent to
which they believe the strategies are worth learning become the primary concepts for
understanding the behaviors and outcomes (Eccles, 2006). Because motivation is imperative to
learning (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016), intimate value is what people liken to learning (Eccles,
2006). There are a few teachers who value the use of the strategies and are motivated to using
them confidently to gauge the outcome of students’ learning. This could be because a group of
teachers see results through students’ work samples, informal discussions with students and
collaboration with other teachers. According to Eccles (2006), people need to feel they are
needed and considered relevant in social settings. Therefore, a main goal is to get all teachers
involved by capitalizing on their strengths.
It is recommended that teachers will be engaged in team meeting and content
meetings, so they can receive attention and small group instruction. This allows teachers to
connect with trainers and one another in order to bounce ideas around, ask questions and even
reflect on what they do know in order to activate their motivation and value for OTL strategies.
Learning from peers perpetuates connectedness and commitment to staying involved.
Attribution. Characteristics of an attribution affect a person’s motivation toward an
activity or goal (Meece, Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Attribution theory discusses why people
respond contrastive to the same thing (Rueda, 2011). There are teachers that are motivated to use
the strategies and there are teachers who are unmotivated. All teachers are being exposed to the
same professional development and instruction on the use of strategies, yet some are receptive to
using the strategies and others say they are receptive with little evidence to prove they are. The
recommendation is to increase teacher effort to learn and use OTL strategies with proper
feedback.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 117
According to Meece, et. al, (2006), when communication about effort is appropriate a
person is more likely to be motivated to strive for more in the future. Teachers need guidance in
order to make progress with the use of OTL strategies. Detailed work sessions that provide
substantial information that is participative and collaborative will assist them with gaining the
skills needed to transfer in the classroom with students.

Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The organization influences in Table 6 symbolize the whole list of
assumed organization influences and their possibility of validation grounded on the maximum
declared organization influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal obtained from formal
interviews. Even though data collection is not completed for this project, support from the
literature review and the analysis of organization and culture theory reinforces assumptions.
According to Clark and Estes (2008) goals in an organization must have proper alignment,
adequate means, and buy in from workers. Improvement and achievement in schooling demands
deep analysis that delves into dynamic backgrounds, explicit structures, and procedures
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Therefore, the authors identify cultural models and cultural
settings as paradigms by which organizational structure must occur to accomplish the mission
and goals. As such, as indicated in Table 6, some organizational influences have a higher chance
of being validated, which means there is an elevated primacy for achieving the stakeholders’
goal. Table 6 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on theoretical
principles.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 118
Table 6
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
There is a culture of
distrust in the school
between administration
and the faculty,
hindering teaching
Opportunity to Learn
(OTL) Strategies.
HP Y Identify
environmental
influences that affect
behavior. (Tuckman,
2009)

The four primary
characteristics
followers describe in
the “best” leader are:
trust, compassion,
stability and hope
(Rath & Conchie,
2009). Vision = hope.
Conduct whole school
meetings to reinforce school
comradery and open lines of
communication.

Do what you say you are
going to do; keep your
commitments
Ineffective
communication
pervades the
organization; therefore,
many teachers lack the
how-to knowledge of
implementing
Opportunity to Learn
strategies.
HP Y Organizational
performance
increases when
individuals
communicate
constantly and
candidly to others
about plans and
processes (Clark &
Estes, 2008
Conduct whole organization
meetings to
build communication by
reiterating the vision, mission
and goals.
Cultivate a culture of
participation in professional
development that focuses on
OTL strategies that include
practice and feedback.
Faculty is not satisfied
with new initiatives and
procedures, which
keeps them from
investing the time in
understanding
Opportunity to Learn
strategies.
HP Y Job satisfaction
increases when all
organization
stakeholders agree on
culture, mission,
goals, and resources
required to achieve
goals (Clark & Estes,
2008)
Slate only a select number of
OTL strategies to use and
eliminate any initiatives that
are not necessary in order for
faculty to focus on AVID.
There is a lack of
support from
administration to
incorporate vertical
team meetings during
the school day.
HP Y Organizational
performance
increases when top
management is
continually involved
in the improvement
process (Clark &
Estes, 2008)

Schedule consistent time for
vertical and content team
meetings.
Opportunity to Learn
strategies can be
HP Y Organizational
performance
Arrange time for trained
teachers with excellent
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 119
demonstrated by
experienced teachers.

increases when
processes and
resources are aligned
with goals
established
collaboratively
(Clark & Estes, 2008)

transfer skills to conduct
workshops to demonstrate
OTL strategies including
handouts, mock classroom
settings and scaffold of lesson.

.

Distrust. There is a culture of distrust in the school between administration and the
faculty, hindering teaching Opportunity to Learn (OTL) Strategies. One way to deal with an
environment of distrust is to identify environmental influences that affect behavior (Tuckman,
2009). The recommendation to ameliorate this issue is to conduct whole school meetings to
reinforce school comradery and open lines of communication through creating response portals
people use to leave suggestions or concerns. They are addressed at every whole school meeting
with faculty/staff with the intentions of building trust, problem solving, and transparency.
Leaders should be able to unify and build their workers in order to dispel distrust and other
negative feelings.
According to Conchie and Rath (2008), leaders that are unaware of their ability to rally
people, yet berate them ends up with a chaotic workplace and disgruntled employees. The
leadership does a poor job of unifying the faculty and many times offends workers. The faculty
defense mechanism is to disengage from school initiatives, duties and sometimes one another.
Therefore leaders can build trust through capitalizing on the strengths of each faculty, which can
cause growth personally and within the organization (Conchie & Rath, 2008).
Communication Barriers. Ineffective communication pervades the organization;
therefore, many teachers lack the how-to knowledge of implementing Opportunity to Learn
strategies. Organizational performance increases when individuals communicate constantly and
candidly to others about plans and processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). The recommendation for the
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 120
organization is to conduct whole organization meetings to build communication by reiterating
the vision, mission and goals. The recommendation is to build a culture of participation in
professional development that focuses on OTL strategies that include practice and feedback.
Administrator- worker relationships with positive communication encourage integration
and impartiality (Okoro & Washington, 2012). When administrators strive to build and maintain
healthy relationships within the organization then misunderstandings and shortfalls in work are
less likely to take place. Work environments that embrace communication especially through
eliminating communication barriers, providing constant feedback, training workers to escalate
output and accelerating invention supports problem solving (Okoro & Washington, 2012).
Overload. Faculty is not satisfied with new initiatives and procedures. This keeps them
from investing the time in understanding Opportunity to Learn strategies. Job satisfaction
increases when all organizational stakeholders agree on culture, mission, goals, and resources
required to achieve goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). The recommendation is to slate only a select
number of OTL strategies to use and eliminate any initiatives that are not necessary in order for
faculty to focus on A VID.
When workers feels overwhelmed in an organization they can withdraw from duties and
one another. Mental pressure includes angst, over exertion, time and resource constraints (Jensen,
Patel & Messersmith, 2011). Burnout occurs and organizational goals are not met. Workers
should feel a sense of autonomy of the job because if they feel like they can control the workload
they less likely to experience mental stressors (Jensen, Patel & Messersmith, 2011).
Cultural Setting. First, faculty is overwhelmed with directives and this keeps them
from investing the time in understanding Opportunity to Learn strategies. Second, there is a lack
of support from administration to incorporate vertical team meetings during the school day, so
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 121
that Opportunity to Learn strategies can be demonstrated by experienced teachers. This leads to
strained working environments where teachers feel inadequate to carry out specific goals and
properly perform work duties. Thrashing occurs or the jumbling of a myriad of tasks with no
fruitful production (Clark & Estes, 2008) and this is what the faculty experiences. According to
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), cultural settings are groups that convene to interact on a
consistent basis to achieve something whether it is in the home, school, community or family
unit. Therefore, the work environment is a willful gathering of people that plans to succeed in
school goals. The conflict arises when the setting is tainted with work overload or
communication barriers. The faculty could benefit from value streams where the work processes
are identified, understood and implemented in an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Understanding cultural context allows us to be less perplexed, unbothered and apprehensive
(Schein, 2004).
Cultural Models. There is a culture of distrust in the school between administration and
the faculty, hindering teaching Opportunity to Learn (OTL) Strategies. Also, ineffective
communication pervades the organization; therefore, many teachers lack the how-to knowledge
of implementing Opportunity to Learn strategies. The mood in the organization is less than
optimistic, convoluted with mixed messages and dismal because of these barriers.
Cultural models are allocations of mental perceptions that entail how, why and when
things operate in the world; furthermore, the manner or physicality is inclusive and common
explanations that explore participants and purpose (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This
definition of a cultural model explains the atmosphere that is set in the school. The mentality of
most people in the organization is the same based on barriers that caused a rift in interpersonal
relationships that led to problems with instruction. Clark and Estes (2008) assert that team
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 122
building through training can help with gaining trust through the change process. The faculty can
benefit from a culture shock that is the antithesis of what is currently experienced. Culture is
hard to change, yet cultural evolution can occur (Schein, 2004).

Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards and that, by doing
so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are
both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this “reverse
order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: a) first,
the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) next, the
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and c) finally, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of Southtown Middle School is to educate children through providing
opportunities for growth, learning and collaboration. The students in the school come from
diverse backgrounds; many being urban environments. Some children come with academic
readiness, but many are not well equipped for middle school. Southtown Middle School’s goal is
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to become a model school for A VID program use, but it must first start with teachers mastering
program. The problem of practice is the overwhelming amount of males in special education.
Through investigation, it is conjecture that the use of an intervention could ameliorate this
issue. The stakeholders’, which are the teachers, are in the best position to utilize the program
and strategies, work on communication barriers in the organization, and tackle overload of
learning new information.
This research evaluated the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational
impediments that hamper teachers from using the proper skills/strategies to abet African
American males in special education. The offered solution, thorough training with the A VID
institute, follow-up support through the school and board of education, and encouragement for
consistency in completing tasks, should generate the aspired outcome-- a decrease in the number
of African American males is special education and an increase in faculty use of strategies and
teamwork.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators

Table 7 exhibits the suggested Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for Southtown Middle
School. If the internal outcomes are satisfied as predicted based on the training and
organizational support for teachers’ use of OTL strategies in the classroom, then the external
outcomes should also be produced.

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Table 7
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Parents see students’
achievement rise.
The increase in parents
lauding student progress.
Track frequency of parent
comments, calls and e-mails
2. Southtown being the pilot school
for AVID in school district becomes
a demonstration site for others to
model
2a2. The increase in other schools
inquiring about program
Track frequency of visits from other
principals, school board members or
teachers from schools in the district

2b2b.The increase in other schools
sending their
teachers/administration to AVID
summer institutes
Track the number of schools that
send their faculty to AVID Summer
Institutes
3. School board recognizes the
effectiveness of AVID strategies in
Southtown Middle School
3a. The increase in funding for
continued teacher training in AVID
3a. Compare the cost of other
training programs or professional
development against AVID training.

3b. The increase in funding for
AVID programming and materials

3b.Compare the cost of other
training programs or professional
development against AVID training.

3c. The increase in the number of
schools that house the AVID
program
3c. Compare the schools that utilize
the AVID program against schools
that do not.

Internal Outcomes
5. Increase AVID strategy use by
faculty
5. The frequency of strategy used in
classroom instruction.
5. Track data from classroom
observations that document strategy
use.
6. Increase collaboration among
faculty
T 6. The number of meetings held
amongst faculty to collaborate/share
strategy use.
6. Gather data monthly on meetings
held with description about
meetings.
7. Decrease communication barriers
between faculty and administration
7a. The number of complaints made
to supervisors.
7a. Weekly meetings with faculty to
assess complaint volume

7b. Positive/negative feedback from
administrators.
7b. Set aside regular times for 1:1
conversations (“Pull up a chair,”)
between new teachers and
administrators.

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Teachers in Southtown Middle School are the stakeholders
completing training to be able to provide A VID Opportunity to Learn Strategies to all students,
but specifically African American males in special education. The first critical behavior is that
faculty must complete AVID training to learn which OTL strategies are best for use during
classroom instruction. The second critical behavior is to monitor training and use of AVID
strategies during classroom instruction. The third critical behavior is ensuring collaborative
meetings are taking place among workers to share strategies. The distinct methods, metrics and
time for each of these outcome behaviors appear in Table 8.
Table 8
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Complete AVID training
to learn which OTL
strategies are best for use
during classroom instruction
The number of
selected strategies
for use

1a. The administrators choose 2
schoolwide AVID strategies for all
teachers to use.
1a. Check for
strategy use in
classrooms bi-
weekly.

1b. Department head choose 2
strategies for use
1b. Review for
strategy use bi-
weekly.
2. Monitor training and use
of AVID strategies during
classroom instruction
The number of
lesson plans in a 9
week period that
reflects strategy
use.
2a. Administrators/Department heads
check lesson plans for use of
strategies during instruction.
2a. Lesson plans- bi-
weekly check

2b. Administrators complete
classroom observations for use of
strategies.
2b. Classroom
observations – twice
a month.
3. Ensure collaborative
meetings/activities are taking
place among workers to
The number of
meetings set by
department chairs
3a. Department chairs/ team leaders
will schedule meetings to share,
discuss, model strategies/activities.
3a. Team Meetings –
weekly.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 126
share strategies and team leaders.

Department chairs-
bi-weekly.

3b. Department chairs will schedule
vertical meetings with content areas
through administrators.
3b. Department
chairs schedule
through
administrators –
monthly.

.

Required drivers. Teachers’ success partially rides on administrators supporting
teachers through constructive feedback that discuss the use of strategies in class during
instructional time. Teachers also need administrators to support collaborative efforts during the
school day by providing blocked time and substitutes for vertical/ departmental meetings.
Rewards should be noted for executing performance goals with fidelity, which supports African
American males in special education. Table 9 displays the recommended drivers to support
critical behaviors of teachers.
Table 9
Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3
Etc.
Reinforcing

Professional development boosts are completed in a timely
manner to support learning.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Workshops on Professional development learning are presented
to faculty by all to share new information and refresh consistent
information.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meetings/department meetings with new and experienced
teachers to discuss best strategy use.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Use internal social media to reinforce communication outside of
team meetings.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meeting to troubleshoot collaboratively and for additional
training.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Encouraging

Collaboration and peer modeling during team meetings. Weekly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from administrators. Ongoing 1, 2, 3
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Rewarding

Performance incentive when benchmarks show increase in
scores
Every 9
weeks
1, 2, 3
Public acknowledgement, such as a mention at
faculty meetings, when teams lesson planning reflect AVID
strategy use
Weekly 1, 2, 3

Monitoring
Supervisor can create opportunities at school/community/board
meetings to share A VID stories
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Administrator can ask faculty to self-report their confidence and
self-efficacy in job-related tasks
Two months
after training
1, 2, 3
Team Lead/ Department Lead can assess the performance of the
learner. Frequent, quick checks can help the organization
monitor progress and make adjustments if results do not match
expectations at that time
Monthly 1, 2, 3

Organizational support. The organization will support the considerations by providing
continuous support through observations with timely feedback, professional development that
includes refresher courses on A VID strategies, time set aside for vertical and departmental
planning, resources to further implement A VID strategies and destroying communication
barriers. Communication is one of the strongest attributes in an organization that shapes the
culture. The culture is most important because it drives the pulse of organization whether
positive or negative. Therefore, if the culture is positive, teachers can be receptive to information
that is necessary for the goals to be met.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, most notably
the A VID professional development, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Recognize the A VID strategies used in the organization with 100% accuracy
(D)
2. Classify and interpret the types of A VID strategies and activities (D)
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 128
3. Generate a list of strategies that work well in the classroom outside of
mandatory use strategies (D)
4. Coordinate effective planning meetings to exchange information about strategy
use (P)
5. Integrate the appropriate strategies for use in classroom activities. (P)
6. Create an appropriate timeline for benchmarking (P)
7. Plan and monitor their work to conform to educational state guidelines. (P, M)
8. Indicate confidence that they can use A VID strategies in class accurately and
within the context of their lessons. (Confidence)
9. Value the accuracy and timeliness of lesson plans. (Value)
10. Value the planning and monitoring of their work. (Value)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with an
intervention program that describes details and provides training on OTL strategies that will be
used during classroom instruction. The learners, teachers, will engage in a summer institute will
intensive training and follow workshops throughout the school year. The program is blended,
consisting of multiple e-learning modules. The first set of modules must be completed before
summer institute and the remaining modules also known as boosts are completed during the
school year at designated times.
During the asynchronous e-learning modules, learners will be provided with
access to the A VID website. A job aid of key terms and references that A VID uses most often
will be provided. The modules discuss and give examples of key terms. It also gives the user (s)
an opportunity to apply terms in a virtual context. Learners can complete the modules at their
own pace as to master the content. If questions are answered incorrectly learners can re-try to
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 129
answer until the correct answer (s) is chosen. This is a self-study process for learners to prepare
themselves for summer institute and then later for boosts that are personal use.
During the in person sessions or professional training and development, the focus
will be on learning and applying what learners have learned during the online interactive videos
and content in the face to face sessions. The sessions provide textbooks, binders, teacher guides
and other supplemental that is needed to later use strategies in classroom curriculum. There are
authentic applications of strategy use, discussions, peer modeling, and teachable moments among
the participants. The trainers are current or former teachers who use/ have used the training in
real life contexts with students. They share the value and benefits of using the materials with
students and the importance of modifying the materials if necessary for students to properly
grasp concepts and strategies.
Components of Learning. Declarative knowledge means knowledge that is factual and
learners often know this type of knowledge on a job. Using declarative knowledge is a way to
troubleshoot issues in an organization. Evaluation for both declarative and procedural knowledge
is imperative when being instructed. Learners should appreciate the coaching as an essential to
recently learned knowledge and skills on the job. Nonetheless, they should be self-assured that
they can thrive in working knowledge and skills on the job. Learners should be compelled to
commit to using skills obtained through assurance from training on knowledge and skills. As
such, Table 10.1 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 130
Table 10
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

Knowledge checks using multiple choice. In the asynchronous portions of the
course during and after video
demonstrations.
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair, think,
share” and other individual/group activities.
Periodically during the in person
workshop and documented via
observation notes.

Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

During the asynchronous portions of the course using
scenarios with multiple-choice items.
In the asynchronous portions of the
course at the end of each
module/lesson/unit
Demonstration in groups and individually of using the
job aids to successfully perform the skills.
During the workshops. .
Quality of the feedback from peers during group sharing During the workshops.
Individual application of the skills with authentic A VID
strategies.
At the end of the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment survey
asking participants about their level of proficiency
before and after the training. .
At the end of the workshop.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Instructor’s observation of participants’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the benefit of what
they are being asked to do on the job.
During the workshop.
Discussions of the value of what they are being asked to
do on the job.
During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Survey items using scaled items Following each module/lesson/unit in
the asynchronous portions of the
course.
Discussions following practice and feedback.

During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Discussions following practice and feedback.

During the workshop.
Create an individual action plan.

During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 131
Level 1: Reaction
Table 11
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement

Data analytics, such as level of
completion, in the learning management
system
Ongoing during asynchronous portion of
the course.
Completion of online
modules/lessons/units
Ongoing during asynchronous portion of
the course.
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the workshop
Participation in course context During the workshop
Attendance During the workshop
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
Relevance

Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and the
professional development and/or summer
institute

Course evaluation A week after the summer institute
Customer Satisfaction

Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and the
workshop

Course evaluation A week after the summer institute.

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During the online learning
portion of the course, the learning analytics tool in the system will collect data about the start,
duration, and completion of modules by the participants. These data will indicate the
engagement with the course material.
For Level 1, During the in person workshop, the instructor will conduct periodic
brief pulse-checks by asking the participants about the relevance of the content to their work and
the organization, delivery, and learning environment. Level 2 will include checks for
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 132
understanding using OTL strategies that are used for that purpose among the faculty in
responding to questions and collaborative engagement using the content.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Close to four weeks after
training, leadership will conduct a survey with scaled items using the Blended Evaluation
approach to gauge, from the participators’ perspective, satisfaction and relevance of the training
(Level 1), confidence and value of applying their training (Level 2), application of the A VID
training and support of the program (Level 3), and the expanse of their performance as it relates
to the A VID program use in the professional environment.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for teachers is measured by the AVID strategy use in classrooms and
lesson plans. Every week teachers will be tracked by their lesson plans through the number of
strategies used/ listed in their lesson plans. The number of times the strategy usage is absent from
the plans will be reported by administration. The chart below will report the data on these
measures as a monitoring and accountability tool. Other dashboards will be created to monitor
Levels 1, 2 and 3. They are listed below.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 133

Figure Z.
The Level 3 goal of faculty applying A VID OTL strategies training in classroom settings
will be measured weekly over a four week period. These data will be reported using line graphs
comparing 7
th
and 8
th
grade faculty in English Language Arts.

8th grade Strategy Usage
0
1
2
3
4
5
8th grade Strategy Usage
7th grade Strategy Usage
Absent Strategies

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 134

Figure Z.1
The Level 2 goal of educating and training faculty on knowledge, procedural skills,
attitude, confidence, and commitment in using their development will be measured at the end of
their training. A follow- up survey will be given four weeks later. This data will be reported by
faculty in 8
th
grade and 7
th
grade ELA classes using bar graphs showing fluctuations in each of
the five areas listed below.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
8th Grade Strategy Use
7th grade Strategy Use
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 135

Figure Z.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Knowledge
Procedural Skills
Attitude
Confidence
Commitment
other faculty including
administrators, counselors
7th grade
8th grade
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 136

Figure Z.3
The Level 1 goal of identifying the satisfaction and relevance of the training for the
faculty will be measured immediately in the training, at the end of trainings and shortly
thereafter. These data will be conveyed using line graphs displaying levels of engagement,
satisfaction, and relevance of the training. It is shown in asynchronous and face to face training
sessions listed below.

Figure Z.4
0 2 4 6 8
Commitment
Confidence
Attitude
Procedural Skills
Knowledge
8th grade
7th grade
Other faculty including
administrators,
counselors
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Asynchronus 1 Asynchronus 2 Summer
Institute
In House Follow
Up
Engagement
Relevance
Satisfaction
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 137
Summary
The use of the New World Kirkpatrick Model assisted with the planning of organizational
training for employees with the use of a backward design. The outcome is most important and
from there desired performance is outlined. The training followed the guidelines of what
indicators were most pivotal to the stakeholders’ goal. This incorporated the use of Level 4
identified in the Kirkpatrick Model. The training design is to follow the faculty goal of using
A VID OTL strategies with 100% effectiveness while experiencing major modifications within
this process. The training incorporated both the stakeholder and organizational goals in order for
maximum usefulness to take place.
The implementation of the training required the necessary procedures for training to be
effective. The behavior is key during implementation. This means how much of the training can
be applied to the job (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). I needed to ensure the training was
reflective of the needs for participants and feasible for the implementation phase. The evaluation
is a mixture of understanding if participants learned anything valuable and worthwhile; likewise,
the response of participants to training is relevant. Surveys were created to measure these
varying levels. They served to inform me of areas faculty may need improvement or where
participants gained improvement. The New World Kirkpatrick model was utilized to understand
if the overall organizational goal of using A VID OTL strategies with African American males in
special education as a precursor to move them into general education was substantiated.
Implementation and evaluation both supported the results while ensuring that the goals were
properly aligned.
The training program I crafted should benefit the organization and stakeholders. Training
by itself is not enough (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Because training by itself is not
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 138
enough, using the New World Kirkpatrick Model in a structured way should allow the
anticipated results. The model is a great fit for the organization because it assisted with in depth
analysis of complex organizational issues that I am able to dissect. I am very pleased with the
outcome of this model as the prescribed formula delivers.

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 139
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OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 149
APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
Interview Questions
Explanation: I chose these questions because they speak to knowledge, motivation, and
organizational identifiers that relate to the research topic. These are open ended questions that
promote dialogue.
1. What do you know about opportunity to learn strategies?
2. How often do you incorporate OTL strategies into your curriculum?
a. Describe a typical lesson in your classroom where you use OTL strategies.
3. Suppose I was a student in your class. How would you explain the use of OTL strategies
to help me engage in the learning?
4. Do you think adequate training was provided for A VID strategies?
a. Why or why not?
b. Do you receive consistent training to stay renewed with implementing strategies?
5. Do you feel as if you are prepared to use the A VID strategies?
a. If not, what can be done to help prepare you?
b. If so, why do you feel you are prepared?
6. Some people would say that using OTL strategies take too much effort. What would you
say to them?
7. What do you know about the special education population in the 8
th
grade?
a. Do you know what an IEP is? If so, could you explain?
b. Are you aware of any of your students who have an IEP?
c. Do you feel that the students who have an IEP are benefitting from OTL strategies?
d. What can you do, if anything, to better prepare the students with an IEP?
e. Do you feel as if African American males in special education can increase
academically from the Opportunity to Learn strategies?
8. How does the administration support or not your efforts to use OTL strategies? Support
means providing resources, observing and giving good feedback, discuss data.
a. Is there anything they could do or continuously do to support your efforts of using
OTL strategies?
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 150
b. What if a friend worked here at your school? What would the communication be
between him or her and the administration?
c. Would the friend feel supported in completing tasks?

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APPENDIX B
Observation Protocol
Teacher: Date:

1 - Description of the classroom:

2 - Teaching aids/materials (per activity/task if appropriate):

3 – OTL strategies used (per activity/task if appropriate):

4 - Illustrate people such as students, teacher (s) and others who are present during the
observation including their attitudes toward the subject matter and the teacher:

5 - Notable non-verbal behavior:
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APPENDIX C
Documentation Protocol
1. Does the document show student’s academic improvement/achievement? Y or N
2. Is student (s) learning based on AVID strategies apparent in document? Y or N
3. Is the document reflective of student’s potential? Y or N
4. Did the student fill out the document in its entirety? Y or N
5. Is there a grade (s) on the document? Y or N
6. Does the document reflect summative grades? Formative grades? Y or N
7. Is there a marker that indicates increases or decreases of learning? Y or N

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 153
APPENDIX D
Survey for Immediately after AVID Training Level 1
1. I took responsibility for being involved in this program (Engagement)
–Very satisfied
– Somewhat satisfied
– Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
– Somewhat dissatisfied
– Very dissatisfied
2. This program held my interest (Engagement)
–Very satisfied
– Somewhat satisfied
– Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
– Somewhat dissatisfied
– Very dissatisfied
3. The site team presentations contributed to my learning experience. (Relevance)
–Very satisfied
– Somewhat satisfied
– Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
– Somewhat dissatisfied
– Very dissatisfied
4. The information from content meetings will help me at work. (Relevance)
–Very satisfied
– Somewhat satisfied
– Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
– Somewhat dissatisfied
– Very dissatisfied
5. I would recommend this program to other colleagues in the school system. (Customer
Satisfaction)
–Very satisfied
– Somewhat satisfied
– Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
– Somewhat dissatisfied
– Very dissatisfied

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 154
APPENDIX E
Survey for Immediately after AVID Training Level 2
1. I can use this information to help me plan engaging lessons. (Procedural)
– Strongly disagree
– Disagree
– Neutral/Neither agree nor disagree
– Agree
– Strongly agree
2. I can recognize and use three AVID strategies or more. (Declarative)
– Strongly disagree
– Disagree
– Neutral/Neither agree nor disagree
– Agree
– Strongly agree
3. I can monitor my use of AVID strategies. (Confidence)
– Strongly disagree
– Disagree
– Neutral/Neither agree nor disagree
– Agree
– Strongly agree
4. I can work with colleagues to exchange/gain information. (Attitude)
– Strongly disagree
– Disagree
– Neutral/Neither agree nor disagree
– Agree
– Strongly agree
5. I can use the AVID program confidently in class with students. (Confidence)
– Strongly disagree
– Disagree
– Neutral/Neither agree nor disagree
– Agree
– Strongly agree

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 155
APPENDIX F
Blended Evaluation Form: Participant Survey
1. How confident are you that you will be able to apply what you have learned back on
the job? (Circle one rating)

0…..1…..2…..3…..4…..5…..6…..7…..8…..9…..10
Not at all confident Extremely confident

Comments:

What other feedback would you like to share?

2. How committed are you to applying what you learned to your work? (Circle one rating)

0…..1…..2…..3…..4…..5…..6…..7…..8…..9…..10
Not at all committed Extremely committed

Comments:

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 156

What outcomes are you hoping to achieve as a result of your efforts?

Instructions: Thinking about the course you completed 3 months ago, please indicate to
what degree you agree with each statement using this rating scale:
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree N/A = Not Applicable Please
use “Comments” to provide a brief explanation or further feedback.
The course itself:
1. I was clear about the purpose of the course before I attended 1 2 3 4 N/A
2. I was clear about what was expected of me after taking the course 1 2 3 4 N/A
Comments:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
Practical application
3. I am successfully applying what I learned in the course 1 2 3 4 N/A
4. If you answered “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” to Question 3, what are the most
significant reasons? (Check all that apply)
__ My past experience

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 157
__ The course itself

__ Extra help from course instructors

__ Help from my co-workers

__ Help from my immediate supervisor

__ A good system of accountability

__ Formal or informal recognition for my efforts

__ My own efforts and discipline to apply what I learned

__ Referring back to the course materials

__ Additional training

Comments:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
5.If you answered “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree” to Question 4, what are the main
reasons? (Check all that are true)
__What I learned is not useful for my job

__ I have been told not to use it

__I don’t remember what I learned

__I have too many other things to do

__I got stuck and did not know how to find help

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 158
__It is too difficult to apply

__I have not been encouraged to apply it

__There are no incentives for me to apply it

Comments:_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________
Overall
6. The course was a worthwhile use of my time 1 2 3 4 N/A
7. I am already seeing positive results from this course 1 2 3 4 N/A
8. I am expecting positive results from this course in the future 1 2 3 4 N/A
Comments:_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________
9. What suggestions do you have that would make you better able to apply what you
learned?
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 159
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________

10. Please provide a specific example of how the course has helped you achieve positive
results in your area.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________

We would like to conduct a short interview with a number of you to get more details. If
you are willing to help us, please provide your email address so we can contact you to make
convenient arrangements. Thanks.

Name: ______________________________________
Email: _______________________________________

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 160
APPENDIX G
Informed Consent/Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los
Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

African American Male Students in Special Education Can
Excel in English/Language Arts with Opportunity to Learn
Strategies: A Gap Analysis

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people
who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand your experiences with using opportunity to
learn strategies, especially the ones learned from AVID Institutes.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate in the study, you will be asked to fill out a survey which is
anticipated to take about five minutes. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want
to, click “next” or “N/A” in the survey to move to the next question. You will also participate in a
semi-structured interview lasting approximately thirty minutes. Guiding questions will be asked
but the interview will be conversational and follow-up questions may be asked as well. The focus
group questions will be audio recorded. You do not have to answer any questions if you do not
want to. If you do not want to be taped, you will not be able to participate in the study.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with the researcher will not be
affected whether you participate or not in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
You will not be asked to identify yourself in the survey or the focus group. The focus
groups will be facilitated by the researcher, but will not at any time during the focus groups act
outside of being the researcher. You will have the right to review and edit the audio recordings or
transcripts. Only the professional transcriber will have access to the audio recordings. The audio
tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. The transcripts will be stored on
password protected computers in a secure office.
OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 161

The researcher and any outside research company along with the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP
reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research projects

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following
individuals:

Principal Investigator
Juliet Reed
Email: julietre@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN 162
APPENDIX H
Recruitment Letter

January 1, 2017

Future Participant
1124 Five Mile Road
Birmingham, AL 35215

Re: African American Males in Special Education Excelling in English/Language Arts with Opportunity to
Learn Strategies: A Gap Analysis

Dear: Future Participant

I am inviting you to participate in a research study about African American Males
in Special Education who Use Opportunity to Learn (OTL) Strategies in English Language
Arts. This study is being conducted by Juliet Reed at the University of Southern
California. This study will examine the relationship between African American males in
special education and the use of OTL strategies. Specifically, the use of AVID strategies
will be documented as they are the primary OTL strategies used in the organization.

I am contacting you because you are a teacher of African American males in the
organization and you are trained to use the strategies. Because of these qualifications,
this makes you eligible for participation if you so choose to. If you previously agreed to
take part in this study or asked for more information concerning this study, it does not
require you to participate in the study.

Your formal consent involves you in the study. The researcher will contact you
once you agree to take part in the study. If you would like additional information about
the study, please call Ms. Juliet R. Reed at 205-243-0179.

Thank you again for considering this research opportunity.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract African American males are over populated in special education in American public school systems. This sub group of students has been marginalized for decades, yet little funding or programing exists to decelerate this trend. Further, few studies have focused on this specific subgroup and the factors contributing to their possible achievement in education. The use of Opportunity to Learn strategies is a viable avenue for African American males in special education to access education. The purpose of this study is to examine the academic performance of African-American males in special education at a Southern Middle School. Specifically, it will focus on the use of Opportunity to Learn AVID strategies in English Language Arts classrooms. This focus will be done across many educational based factors in an effort to explain what contributes to academic achievement among this group. Data were collected utilizing qualitative interviews, observations and artifacts. Qualitative data was organized into themes and reported with its corresponding research questions. Findings indicate significant differences between artifacts, observations and interviews, which affect the use of AVID strategies in the classroom with these students. Based on these findings, several changes may be implemented to encourage the use of Opportunity to Learn/AVID strategies in the classroom and teacher support.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Reed, Juliet R. (author)

Core Title African American males in special education excelling in English/language arts with Opportunity to Learn strategies: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 08/09/2018

Defense Date 04/26/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African America males,AVID,lack of motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,opportunity to learn,organizational change,school climate,Special Education,strategies,support,Teachers

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Maddox, Anthony (committee chair), Adadevoh, Anthonia (committee member), Pensavalle, Margo (committee member)

Creator Email cinnabar252003@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-63339

Unique identifier UC11668784

Identifier etd-ReedJuliet-6708.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-63339 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ReedJuliet-6708.pdf

Dmrecord 63339

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Reed, Juliet R.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA