University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Teaching police to teach: enhancing instructional practices in the police training academy

(USC Thesis Other)

Teaching police to teach: enhancing instructional practices in the police training academy

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Teaching Police to Teach: Enhancing Instructional Practices in the Police Training
Academy
by
Staci Heintzman-Yutzie

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2021

© Copyright by Staci Heintzman-Yutzie 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Staci Heintzman-Yutzie certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Stephen James
Helena Seli
Jennifer Phillips, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv

Abstract
Traditionally, police academies do not use training delivery methods based on science (Cordner,
2017; Lum et al., 2016; Schafer & Jarvis, 2017). A lack of evidence-based education and training
practices in policing fails to prepare officers for the field effectively. The purpose of this study
was to understand academy instructors' current knowledge, motivation, and perceptions of
organizational culture and resources regarding the use of evidence-based learning practices in a
centralized police academy in the United States. The study participants were police academy
instructors currently authorized to deliver training at the study site. Data was collected via a
survey, interviews, and classroom observations. The results and findings demonstrated a gap in
the instructors' understanding and use of evidence-based learning practices, variations in
instructional methods perceived value, and a lack of a cohesive instructor development process.
This study provided recommendations developed using Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis and
the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The recommendations
identified are designed to support developing an organizational culture that articulates a clear
vision regarding training and aligns work processes and resources to enhance instructor
knowledge and motivation regarding using evidence-based learning practices.

v

Dedication
To my family, the Adventure Squad. I could not have achieved this without your love and
support. Words cannot express enough appreciation. Jason and Braxton, you have sacrificed
more than anyone while I pursued this dream. Reluctantly, you learned to enjoy plans without
me. You gave me space and understood when I could not give up a weekend of study time to get
away with you. You tolerated me when I had to attend class from Costa Rica, while driving
down the road to Yellowstone, or any other number of inopportune times. Jason, you kept our
household operating while I stared into a computer screen. You kept us fed. You made sure that
our home had the fastest Internet that exists. I am grateful for your support, and I dedicate this
endeavor to you. Now we can go anywhere anytime (almost)!

vi

Acknowledgments
While I spent many hours alone at my computer, this journey was not a solo endeavor. I
owe tremendous thanks to many people who have supported and guided me along the way. None
of this would have been possible without this team of amazing individuals.
I would first like to thank my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Jennifer Phillips. At our
first dissertation meeting at immersion, Dr. Phillips told me she likes work to be turned in early.
Her guidance helped keep me on track, both within my study boundaries and within the timeline,
global pandemic and all! I have immense gratitude for her prompt feedback and copious amounts
of trusted advice.
Next, I would like to thank my dissertation committee members, Dr. Helena Seli (USC)
and Dr. Stephen James (Washington State University). I had a perfectly rounded committee, each
with expertise in different areas of my study. Dr. Seli provided incredible guidance related to
learning and education. Dr. James shared his vast expertise in police research. It is because of
their suggestions that my study grew to include all that it did. Dr. James pushed me to find a way
to include classroom observations by using an unattended video recording to meet the COVID-
19 restrictions. He assured me it could be done and my study would be better for it.
I cannot go without thanking my dear friend, Rich Daniel. From the beginning, Rich
encouraged me to set my bar high. When I was considering applying to two different doctoral
programs, Rich encouraged me to pursue USC. He can never admit this to his mother, a lifelong
Notre Dame fan. Rich has kept me grounded. While always reassuring me that I am a badass and
I’ve got this, he never missed an opportunity to remind me what a nerd I am or to find a way to
insult my intelligence. In return, I have bored him to death talking about my classes and my
research. Now he has to read this dissertation.

vii

I owe thanks to my extended family, my parents Rick and Barb, in-laws Steve and Shelly,
and unofficial family Les and Judy. They have been my constant cheerleaders. Countless times I
heard them say, “You’re almost done!” and “How are we going to celebrate when you’re done?”
Their constant encouragement has meant a lot. It is finally time to raise that glass!
Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to my organization, the Centralized Police Academy, in
my study. It was the Training Division Director who proposed I pursue a doctorate in the first
place. The Director and the Operations Division Director went to great lengths to make sure I
had the necessary support. They allowed me to conduct my research there. Of course, I need to
thank my team, who cheered me on and always reminded me to practice good self-care.
This list is not exhaustive. There are many more people in my life that I owe my
appreciation to. Thank you!

viii

Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xv
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xvi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 2
Importance of Addressing the Problem .......................................................................................... 3
Organizational Context and Mission .............................................................................................. 3
Organizational Goal ........................................................................................................................ 4
Description of Stakeholder Groups ................................................................................................. 6
Stakeholder Group for the Study .................................................................................................... 7
Stakeholder Performance Goal ........................................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Study and Questions ............................................................................................... 8
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework ....................................................... 9
Definitions....................................................................................................................................... 9
Evidence-Based Learning ................................................................................................... 9
Evidence-Based Training .................................................................................................... 9
Field-Training ................................................................................................................... 10
Police Academy ................................................................................................................ 10
Stress-Based Training or Traditional Academy ................................................................ 10

ix

Training Transfer .............................................................................................................. 10
Organization of the Project ........................................................................................................... 10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 11
Police Academy Training in the United States ............................................................................. 12
Purpose of Training........................................................................................................... 12
Training Oversight ............................................................................................................ 12
Attendees........................................................................................................................... 13
Types of Police Academies ............................................................................................... 14
Training Delivery .............................................................................................................. 18
Academy Instructors (Trainers) ........................................................................................ 20
Academy Training Effectiveness ...................................................................................... 22
Research Gap .................................................................................................................... 23
Training Transfer .............................................................................................................. 24
Strategies for Effective Training Delivery ........................................................................ 26
Facilitating Transfer .......................................................................................................... 26
Evidence-Based Learning Summary................................................................................. 37
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework ..... 38
CPA Instructor Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ...................................... 38
Knowledge and Skills ....................................................................................................... 39
Motivational Influences .................................................................................................... 43
Organizational Influences ................................................................................................. 47
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................. 53
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 55

x

Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 58
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 58
Overview of Methodology ............................................................................................................ 58
Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis Plan ................................................................... 60
Instructor Survey ............................................................................................................... 60
Instructor Interviews ......................................................................................................... 65
Instructor Observations ..................................................................................................... 71
Ethics and Role of the Researcher ................................................................................................ 75
The Impact of COVID-19 ............................................................................................................. 78
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 80
Participating Stakeholders ............................................................................................................ 80
Survey Participants ........................................................................................................... 80
Interview Participants ....................................................................................................... 82
Observation Participants ................................................................................................... 83
Research Question One: What is the CPA Instructor’s Knowledge and Motivation Related to
Effective Learning Principles? ...................................................................................................... 84
Knowledge Results and Findings...................................................................................... 84
Motivation Results and Findings .................................................................................... 118
Research Question Two: How Do the Organizational and External Influences Impact the CPA
Instructor’s Capacity to Deliver Training Using Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies? ... 128
Organizational Results and Findings .............................................................................. 129
Interaction Between Organizational Influences and Stakeholder Knowledge and
Motivation ....................................................................................................................... 145

xi

Summary of Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 146
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion....................................................................... 149
Discussion of Findings and Results ............................................................................................ 149
Knowledge Findings Discussion..................................................................................... 149
Motivation Findings Discussion ..................................................................................... 151
Organization Findings Discussion .................................................................................. 152
Recommendations for Practice ................................................................................................... 154
Recommendation 1: Provide a Clear Vision, Performance Goals, and Benchmarks to
Support Successful Organizational Change .................................................................... 155
Recommendation 2: Increase Instructors’ Value for Delivering Training Using Evidence-
Based Learning Methodologies with Fidelity by Describing Realistic Benefits ............ 155
Recommendation 3: Develop Knowledge and Skills Related to Delivering Training Using
Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies through Initial Training and On-Going
Education ........................................................................................................................ 156
Integrated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Recommendations .................. 159
Program Development Steps and Timeline .................................................................... 162
Limitations and Delimitations ..................................................................................................... 164
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................................... 166
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 168
References ................................................................................................................................... 171
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................. 188
Definitions....................................................................................................................... 188
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................. 189

xii

Survey Protocol ............................................................................................................... 189
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................. 197
Interview Protocol ........................................................................................................... 197
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................. 201
Observation Protocol ...................................................................................................... 201

xiii

List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Goals, and Stakeholder Goal 8
Table 2: Knowledge Influences 43
Table 3: Motivation Influences 47
Table 4: Organizational Influences 52
Table 5: Data Sources 59
Table 6: Interview Participants 82
Table 7: Observation Participants 83
Table 8: (Q8) What Does It Mean for Training to Be Evidence-Based?

88
Table 9: (Q8) What Does It Mean for Training to Be Evidence-Based? 90
Table 10: Variation in Instructor Knowledge 94
Table 11: (Q9) Rate your Ability for Each of the Methods 97
Table 12: (Q9) Instructor Strengths: 80% or Greater Reported Ability at
Advanced or Expert

99
Table 13: (Q9) Instructor Weaknesses: 70% or Below Ability at Advanced or
Expert

101
Table 14: (Q9) Methodologies With 8.5-10% of Instructors Reporting No or
Novice Ability

116
Table 15: (Q11) Rate your Degree of Confidence 120
Table 16: (Q10) Instructor Identified Statements with Highest Importance

124
Table 17: (Q10) Instructor Identified Statements with Lowest Importance 126
Table 18: Instructor Perception Regarding Current Training 130
Table 19: Inconsistencies in Instructor Development Process 137
Table 20: Instructor Reports of Insufficient Training 138

xiv

Table 21: Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Assets or Needs as
Determined by the Data

147
Table 22: Integrated Theories, Frameworks, and Models for Inclusion in
Instructor Training

158

xv

List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 55
Figure 2: Academy Instructor Years of Experience 81
Figure 3: (Q17) How Would You Rate Your Understanding of Facilitated
Learning? (Q12) How Often Do You Use an Active Instructional Method?

86
Figure 4: (Q17) How Would You Rate Your Understanding of Facilitated
Learning?

91
Figure 5: Methodologies Identified by CPA Instructors 93
Figure 6: (Q12) How Often do You Use an Active Instructional Method? 96
Figure 7: Observed Application of Principles and Methodologies Over 10
Classroom Sessions

105
Figure 8: (Q9) Instructor Self-Rated Ability to Use Evidence-Based
Methodologies

115
Figure 9: (Q13) Facilitated Learning is Effective for Training Police Recruits,
and It Is Important for Me to Learn New Teaching Methodologies

123
Figure 10: (Q1) Rate Your Level of Satisfaction with the Instructor Onboarding
Process, and (Q3) Rate Your Level of Satisfaction with the Instructor Training
Process

133
Figure 11: (Q5) The Instructor Development Process Prepared Me to Teach for
the Police Program

134
Figure 12: (Q15) I Have Access to the Resources I Need to Teach a Class, and I
Find the Class Resources Useful

135
Figure 13: (Q15) Expectations Are Clearly Communicated 143

xvi

List of Abbreviations

BFD Basic Facilitator Development Course
BRT Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
CLT Cognitive Load Theory
CPA Centralized Police Academy
NWM New World Model
PERF Police Executive Research Forum
POST Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST) commissions

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
A lack of evidence-based practices in police training fails to effectively prepare officers
for the field. Many of the approaches currently used in police training are not well-grounded in
evidence-based practices (Lum et al., 2016; Schafer & Jarvis, 2017). McLean (2020) describes a
precarious position, where external demands to implement police training programs balance on
little research. Training based on fads or myths, rather than on empirical evidence, is a common
problem in training across disciplines (Clark, 2020; Hannum, 2009). Rather than looking at the
empirical evidence, police training academies rely on traditional, yet ineffective, methodologies
(Chappell, 2008; Makin, 2016; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Sereni-Massinger & Wood,
2016; Stresak, 2019). The disconnect between academy training and adequate preparation for the
field is related to training content and delivery (Blumberg et al., 2019; Bykov, 2014; Caro, 2011;
Cordner, 2017). Evidence-based police academy training should include the following elements,
1) What is taught should be as scientifically valid as possible based on crime and police science,
and 2) How it is taught, or instructional methods, should be based on learning science (Cordner,
2017).
The current police-community relations crisis has resulted in a demand for police reform
relating to policies and training (Engel et al., 2020). While training demands often focus on in-
service training, training that occurs within police agencies instead of academies, inadequate
preparation for new officers by training academies has not gone unnoticed. A Department of
Justice investigation into basic police training in Chicago found that one out of six new officers
could not articulate the legal standard for the use of force (Hinkel, 2017). One study found new
officers across the country were unable to demonstrate arrest and control skills they had learned
at the academy within the previous six months (O’Neil, 2019). Growing evidence of this
2

disconnect between academy training and adequate field preparation, in addition to demands for
reform, makes this an important problem to address.
Background of the Problem
The 664 basic police training academies across the United States serve a critical role in
developing 45,000 new officers' foundational skills each year (Reaves, 2016). There is no federal
oversight, best practices, or standardized curriculum for basic police academy training. Each
organization determines the model, content, and delivery for that jurisdiction. In many cases, a
board oversees this process (Bykov, 2014).
Police academy training is grounded in decades of tradition. Traditional academies follow
a stress-based and militaristic model, emphasizing structure and discipline with little regard for
learning (Vander Kooi & Bierlein, 2014; Vodde, 2012). During the Reform Era of policing
(1840-1930), the push toward professionalism led to the adoption of the militaristic structure that
remains part of policing culture today. The traditional training model still incorporates punitive
practices and philosophies designed to increase discipline and regimen (Chappell, 2008;
Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Vodde, 2012). According to a 2016 report from the Bureau of
Justice Statistics, 48% of recruits in the United States receive training in academies that are
primarily stress-based.
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatick (2005) describe people's tendency to do what is familiar and
comfortable, rather than what they know is effective, as resistance to change and a barrier to
effective training. The first police school, the Berkeley School, was created in 1908 and
consisted primarily of a lecture format (Schafer & Jarvis, 2017). Today, academy training still
relies heavily on lectures (Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017). Basic police academy training is
typically delivered by retired or current police officers who serve as instructors (Marion, 1998;
3

Reaves, 2016). Most academies require specialized instructor training or certification (Reaves,
2016). Despite training in more effective methodologies, academy instructors rely on delivery
methods familiar to law enforcement (McCoy, 2006).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
A lack of evidence-based learning practices in police academy training is essential to
address for various reasons. Many consider a police officer's role to be more challenging today
as officers must navigate more physical tools on their bodies, more technology in their patrol
cars, and face more public scrutiny (Blumberg et al., 2019). Deficiencies in training expose
officers, agencies, and the public to risk (Clarke & Armstrong, 2012; U.S. Commission on Civil
Rights, 2019), contribute to the hiring and retention crisis as new officers fail to complete
probation or leave within a few years (Bernstein, 2019; Police Executive Research Forum, 2019;
Reaves, 2016), and negatively impact police-community relations (Department of Justice, 2017).
There is an expectation that academy and field training will prepare new officers for the job's
dynamic and complex nature (Blumberg, 2019).
Organizational Context and Mission
Current demands for police reform place scrutiny on police training primarily related to
topics such as the inclusion of de-escalation and implicit bias training (Engel et al., 2020).
However, little is known about the impact of such training on officer behavior (Lum et al., 2016).
Police academies across the United States have begun examining their traditional training
methodologies and looking to evidence to better inform their practices. In 2017, the Centralized
Police Academy (CPA- pseudonym) began taking steps to revise its training program to reflect a
more evidence-based approach and is the focus of this study.
4

The Centralized Police Academy is one of the 664 basic police training academies in the
United States. Unique to a small group of academies, the CPA is a centralized academy serving
an entire state, including state police, county sheriff’s offices, city police departments, tribal
police departments, university police departments, and a few other specialized jurisdictions.
According to the organization’s website, the CPA's mission is to provide quality public safety
training. Recruits attending the CPA's basic academy are at least 21 years of age, have a
minimum high school diploma or G.E.D, and must be a United States citizen. Recruits must have
been hired by a public safety agency within the state. All public safety agencies in the state must
send their recruits to the CPA to complete their basic training as a requirement for certification as
a public safety officer. Constituent agencies do not pay to send their recruits to the CPA for basic
training. Instead, the state provides funding for academy training. Recruits live on the academy
campus for the duration of their 16-week basic academy. There are typically four cohorts of 40
recruits attending the academy at one time, each staggered in their basic training stage.
According to the January 2020 organization chart, the CPA currently employs 56 full-
time staff members in the Training Division, and 39 of those are in a position that delivers public
safety training. Additionally, the CPA employs nearly 300 part-time instructors. Part-time
instructors may be currently or previously employed in public safety, and some are coming from
the legal, mental health, or other specialized fields.
Organizational Goal
The CPA's goal is that by September 2021, 100% of academy training will be grounded
in evidence-based learning principles rather than tradition. The organization developed this goal
as part of a multi-phase revision process driven by staff and constituent workgroups. The
program revision has served as a means to update the overarching philosophy, course topics,
5

training content, standards for completion, and delivery methodologies. Program development
staff led a series of workgroups, and each workgroup contributed to a part of the program
revision. The workgroup recommendations moved through a series of checkpoints, including
three levels of advisory boards. Development staff are accountable to these advisory boards and
must provide an annual evaluation of the program.
Phases launched in 2018 and 2019 moved the organization closer to the goal of training
grounded in research. However, organizational change, such as a complete philosophical and
methodological program revision, is difficult. External influences, internal resistance,
implementation turmoil, unexpected consequences, and culture can affect the change process
(Burke, 2018). The original goal for final implementation was December 2020. However, the
implementation was delayed due to events occurring in 2020, including the global COVID-19
pandemic, resulting in a two-month shutdown of the academy and more than one year of
operating under modified protocols; a historic wildfire season, resulting in a mass statewide
public safety response and training modifications due to hazardous conditions; and more than
seven months of civil unrest and protests against police brutality stemming from the death of
George Floyd by Minneapolis police officers. While the Centralized Police Academy is not in
Minnesota, national concerns regarding police brutality led to increased interest in police training
and accountability. A special legislative session, multiple government task forces, and a
Secretary of State Office audit commenced examining the CPA and officers' training. The
organization now plans to implement the final phase of the training revision in the summer of
2021. Despite the delay in implementing the final phase, this study analyzes the Centralized
Police Academy's current capacity to transition from traditional, ineffective practices to utilizing
evidence-based learning principles and methodologies.
6

Description of Stakeholder Groups
Multiple stakeholders contribute to and benefit from the CPA's goal of implementing
evidence-based learning practices. The first stakeholder group is constituent agencies.
Constituent agencies are the police organizations around the state, hiring new officers and
sending them to the CPA to receive basic training. Constituent agencies have invested resources
in hiring and sending recruits to the academy. Additionally, they have a vested interest in well-
trained recruits graduating from the academy and moving into field training. Another stakeholder
group is the CPA staff, which includes coordinators and instructors. Coordinators are full-time
staff who oversee a specific training topic, such as the use of force, or training venue, such as the
firearms range. Some coordinators oversee cohorts of recruits. Coordinators arrange training
resources, develop and maintain curriculum, provide some oversight for the CPA instructors, and
provide instruction themselves. The CPA instructors are full or part-time staff who deliver
already developed training to recruits. Coordinators and instructors have received certification
from the CPA to provide training, and their fidelity to the model has a significant relationship to
the organization's goal and presiding mission statement. A third stakeholder group is the recruits.
Recruits are the students attending the academy to receive training. They are the recipients of the
training and the ones held accountable for learning the course material. Recruits contribute to the
achievement of the CPA's goal through participation, feedback, and assessment. Recruits benefit
from the organization's goal when training methodologies support the recruit's successful
completion of academy training, and recruits can transfer knowledge and skills into field
training.
7

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While all stakeholders' joint efforts will contribute to achieving the overall
organizational goal of basing 100% of training on evidence-based practices, it is critical to
explore the Centralized Police Academies' current capacity concerning implementing these
methods. Education research identifies teacher effectiveness as a vital influence on student
achievement (Klassen & Tze, 2014). Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study will be
the CPA instructors. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by the CPA management and leadership
team, is that 100% of CPA instructors will utilize evidence-based learning practices in their
training delivery. Methods include active learning techniques such as facilitating discussions,
small group problem-solving exercises, encouraging elaboration, and providing opportunities for
retrieval practice. The use of active learning techniques also means limited use of lectures,
PowerPoint, and war stories. Failure to accomplish this goal will lead to the delivery of less
effective training. Less effective training could lead to recruits being ill-prepared for field
training. Additionally, less effective training could expose officers and the community to risk
and negatively impact police-community relations.
Stakeholder Performance Goal
Achieving the organizational goal of 100% evidence-based learning practices requires the
CPA instructors to take further steps in development and implementation. Table 1 outlines the
relationship between the CPA mission, organizational goal, and instructor goal.

8

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Goals, and Stakeholder Goal
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Centralized Police Academy (CPA) is to provide quality public safety
training.
Organizational Performance Goal
By September 2021, 100% of academy training will be grounded in evidence-based learning
principles rather than tradition.
CPA Instructor Goal
By September 2021, 100% of CPA instructors will implement evidence-based learning
practices in their training delivery.

Purpose of the Study and Questions
The purpose of this project is to explore the degree to which the CPA has the capacity to
achieve its goal of grounding 100% of its training delivery in evidence-based learning practices.
Despite the Centralized Police Academy working toward this goal since 2017, changes are still
in progress. While a complete evaluation would focus on all of the CPA stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholders focused on in this analysis are the CPA instructors, both full
and part-time. The study specifically focuses on the CPA instructors’ current knowledge and
motivation and the organizational influences, which relate to delivering training grounded in
research. This study serves to inform the organization of existing gaps as they continue working
toward achieving the goal.
9

The questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What is the academy instructor’s knowledge and motivation related to evidence-based
learning principles and methodologies?
2. How do the organizational and external influences impact the academy instructor’s
capacity to deliver training using evidence-based learning methodologies?
3. What are the knowledge, motivational, and organizational recommendations to support
the delivery of evidence-based learning practices?
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework
This study uses Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis as the conceptual framework. Gap
analysis is a process model that helps to clarify and align organizational and performance goals.
The process model systematically identifies the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences and reveals gaps. This study explores the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that impact the CPA instructors' performance in delivering training using evidence-
based learning practices based on both context-specific research and general learning and
motivation theory. The methodological framework is a mixed-methods study consisting of a
quantitative survey, individual qualitative instructor interviews, and classroom observations.
Definitions
Evidence-Based Learning
Learning strategies that are informed by data and evidence supporting its effectiveness.
Evidence-Based Training
Training that draws from data generated by research. Training that is grounded in empirical
evidence.
10

Field-Training
The on-the-job training police recruits receive after completing the academy.
Police Academy
A training school for new police officers.
Stress-Based Training or Traditional Academy
Police training based on the military model. Typically includes intense physical demands and
psychological pressures (Bickel, 2013).
Training
The systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that together lead to improved
performance in a specific environment (Grossman & Salas, 2011).
Training Transfer
The ability of recruits to utilize knowledge and skills learned at the academy in the field.
Organization of the Project
This dissertation is organized and presented in a five-chapter layout. Chapter One
introduced the problem with police training and the organization that will be studied. Chapter
Two will provide a review of the literature related to police training and effective learning
practices. Additionally, Chapter Two will explore the gap analysis factors of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences pertaining to CPA and its stakeholders. Chapter Three
includes the study methodology, participant information, systems of data collection, and
analysis. Data is assessed and analyzed in Chapter Four. Chapter Five concludes with
recommendations for practice and future research.

11

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This section will review the research literature on police academy training. Narratives
describing what police academy training is, where oversight lies, and the attendees of academy
training provide a foundation for understanding the Centralized Police Academy's context.
Additionally, Chapter Two explores various types of police training academies, focusing on two
primary but distinctly different types: the stress-based and the nonstress-based academy.
The literature will explore how police academy training is traditionally delivered. This
includes research on the use of the block format, siloed training, a heavy reliance on lectures, and
the use of war stories in traditional academy environments. Further context is provided on
training delivery with an examination of traditional academy instructors, including the
instructor’s background, the instructor training process, and professional development
opportunities.
Concluding the review on police academy training is an examination of the research gap
regarding academy training effectiveness. A review of training and learning strategies from the
fields of training and education addresses this gap. Learning and education topics introduced
include adult learning, utility value, cognitive load, retrieval practice, contextual interference,
distributed practice, the variability of practice, feedback, and metacognition.
The literature review concludes with an exploration of academy training through the
conceptual framework, gap analysis. Gap analysis provides a framework for a systematic
analysis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences within an organization. This
process helps an organization identify appropriate solutions for performance problems.

12

Police Academy Training in the United States
According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, there are approximately 664 basic police
training academies in the United States (Reaves, 2016). Nearly all of the academies provide basic
training to groups of recruits simultaneously, with graduating class sizes ranging from one to
1,000 (Reaves, 2016). Academy training typically includes an academic or classroom component
and a hands-on or rehearsal component (Blumberg et al., 2019). The average length of basic
police academy training is 840 hours or 21 weeks (Reaves, 2016).
Purpose of Training
Most academies provide or require a period of field training post-basic training,
averaging 521 hours (Reaves, 2016). Despite this additional training time, there is a significant
amount of learning that must occur during basic academy training. Classroom components
typically include foundations of criminal and procedural law to topics such as community
policing. Hands-on training typically includes arrest and control tactics, weapons, and driving
(Blumberg et al., 2019). According to the academy census (2016), recruits spend an average of
168 hours training on weapons, defensive tactics, and self-defense, including 71 hours on
firearms. Additionally, recruits spend an average of 86 hours on legal education, 25 hours on
report writing, 15 hours on communication, and eight hours on ethics and integrity, among other
topics (Reaves, 2016).
Training Oversight
There is no federal oversight or standardized curriculum for police academy training
(Bykov, 2014). A state training board typically certifies the number of training hours and
curriculum (Caro, 2011). According to the International Association of Directors of Law
Enforcement Standards and Training (IADLEST), a non-profit organization focused on
13

promoting excellence in police training and professional standards, State Peace Officer Standards
and Training (POST) commissions set these education and training standards. POST
commissions set state-level minimum standards, including for basic training and officer
certification. POST commissions' role is to ensure that peace officers meet minimum
competency standards and ethical behavior through sensible and effective programs that align
with contemporary standards for officers (https://www.iadlest.org).
All academies in a state must adhere to the standards set forth by their POST
commission. For example, according to their website, California POST (CALPOST) sets the
standards for the approximately 41 academies providing basic police training in California. A
variety of law enforcement agencies, ranging from municipal police departments to POST
commissions, operate academies (Reaves, 2016). As a result of these differences, academies vary
in model and emphasis.
Attendees
Academies vary in how recruits come to attend training at the academy. According to the
website, CALPOST recruits may be affiliated or non-affiliated. CALPOST describes affiliated
students as those who a law enforcement agency has hired. The hiring agency pays for their
training at the academy. Non-affiliated recruits are those described as self-sponsored or paying
for their academy training in hopes of obtaining employment in law enforcement (Commission
on Peace Officer Standards and Training, 2020). Other academies, such as the Oregon
Department of Public Safety Standards and Training, only train recruits who have already been
hired by a law enforcement agency (Oregon Department of Public Safety Standards and
Training, 2020). Still others, such as the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, provide
training to individuals seeking employment (Florida Department of Law Enforcement, 2020), as
14

does the Georgia Public Safety Training Center (Georgia Public Safety Training Center, 2020).
In each of these examples, recruits must pass a written exam following basic academy training to
obtain their peace officer certification.
Types of Police Academies
The Bureau of Justice Statistics conducts a census of police training academies
approximately every four years. The most recent publication from July 2016 describes academies
by their training environments using a scale ranging from “All or Mostly Stress,” “Balanced
Stress and Nonstress,” to “All or Mostly Nonstress.”
Stress-Based Academy
The U.S. Department of Justice Office on Community Oriented Policing describes stress-based
academy training as modeled after a military boot camp. Stress-based academies are sometimes
referred to as paramilitary or traditional academies. Paramilitary drills, daily inspections, intense
physical demands, public discipline, withholding privileges, and immediate reaction to
infractions characterize a stress-based academy (Bickel, 2013). Police training was initially
developed to reform policing by addressing rampant police misconduct and increasing
professionalism (Cordner & Shain, 2011). Today's traditional training model still incorporates
punitive practices and philosophies designed to increase discipline and regimen (Chappell, 2008;
Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Vodde, 2012).
In 2016, 23% of academies reported their training was all or mostly stress-based, with
61% of academies run by state police or highway patrol agencies using this model and colleges
using it the least (Reaves, 2016). According to their website, the Florida Highway Patrol
describes their training academy as paramilitary with strict attention to detail
(https://beatrooper.com). Similarly, the Pennsylvania State Police website identifies the
15

organization as a paramilitary academy, listing military courtesy and discipline as training
elements (http://www.patrooper.com). The paramilitary Baltimore County Police Academy lists
on their website, development of self-discipline, the ability to perform under stress, and a focus
on teamwork as part of training (https://www.baltimorecountymd.gov). A militaristic stress-
based model's perceived benefits include the development of self-discipline, self-confidence, and
command presence (Bickel, 2013). Proponents of the paramilitary format state the model is
proven to be highly effective, has been in existence a long time, and produces an officer who is
highly disciplined, fully functional, physically fit, capable of making decisions, and who follows
directions (Gundy, 2007). There is a lack of research on the effectiveness of stress-based
academy training, as described by proponents. Additionally, there is a gap in the research
regarding the relevance of these outcomes for effective 21st century policing.
In contrast, critics state paramilitary academy training produces defensive and
depersonalized officers, as well as develops maladaptive coping strategies for officers (Conti,
2009). The paramilitary model of academy training emphasizes structure and discipline with
little regard for learning (Vander Kooi & Bierlein Palmer, 2014; Vodde, 2012). Training does
not focus on critical competencies, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and decision-
making (Makin, 2016; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016).
Traditional academies tend to rely on ineffective learning delivery methods (Birzer, 2003;
Chappell, 2008; Ford, 2003; Makin, 2016; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Sereni-Massinger &
Wood, 2016). The paramilitary model does not reflect policing's daily reality; instead, it
produces a warrior ready for battle and ready to follow orders without question (Rahr & Rice,
2015). In this manner, training may develop a culture contrary to the needs of 21
st
century
policing (Bickel, 2013; Birzer, 2003; Chappell, 2008). Stress-based academies train
16

approximately 48% of recruits in the United States, according to the 2016 Academy Census from
the Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Nonstress Based Academy
The U.S. Department of Justice Office on Community Oriented Policing describes nonstress-
based academy training as one that is delivered in a more relaxed academic or collegiate
atmosphere. Nonstress based academies are also referred to as collegiate or academic academies.
The nonstress model emphasizes academic achievement and utilizes administrative disciplinary
procedures instead of punitive practices (Bickel, 2013). Nonstress academy training utilizes a
supportive relationship between instructors and recruits (Reaves, 2016).
In 2016, approximately 18% of academies used a nonstress model, with the majority
operated by colleges and POST agencies and the fewest operated by state police agencies
(Reaves, 2016). Proponents of a nonstress based model identify the importance of recruitment
and hiring. The academy plays a role in attracting educated professionals to the field, as it speaks
to the desirability of such a career choice (Rahr & Rice, 2015). Traditional lecture-style training
may deter nontraditional recruits (Birzer, 2003). Nonstress academies demonstrate a 91%
completion rate, compared to 85% in other types of academies (Reaves, 2016).
Additionally, proponents believe nonstress-based training produces officers who can
better interact with community members and use problem-solving community-oriented policing
approaches (Reaves, 2009). Academic academies align training with adult learning practices and
are more likely to develop critical thinking skills, effective communication, and emotional
intelligence (Blumberg et al., 2019). The Southwestern Community College Police Academy
identifies the importance of character, knowledge, problem-solving, human relations,
communication, and physical skills in its mission statement (https://www.swccd.edu). The
17

Colorado Mountain College Law Enforcement Training Academy website emphasizes
community-oriented policing approaches, teamwork, responsibility, and openness to learning. It
results in credits that recruits can apply toward an Associate’s Degree
(https://coloradomtn.edu/programs/colorado-law-enforcement-training-academy/). Similarly, the
Washtenaw Community College Police Academy website describes their structure as an adult
learning experience requiring self-discipline and ethics and culminating in a college degree
(https://www.wccnet.edu/learn/departments/pscd/programs/ctpa/). Few studies examine the
effectiveness of nonstress-based academy training. Recruits finding greater success in nonstress
based academies include more educated, empathetic recruits (Chappell, 2008) and females
(Reaves, 2009). Critics of nonstress based academies identify the importance of tradition,
including a perception that training any way other than the paramilitary model is coddling,
makes weak recruits, and reduces officer safety (Rahr & Rice, 2015).
Balanced Approach
Little information is available regarding academies that balance stress and nonstress in their
approach. The 2016 Bureau of Justice Statistics academy census was the first year to include a
balanced approach as an option for academies to self-identify. According to The Bureau of
Justice Statistics, balanced academies train approximately one-third of recruits in the United
States (Reaves, 2016). Balanced academies are primarily operated by county police, special
jurisdictions, state POST agencies, sheriff’s offices, 4-year colleges and universities, and
technical schools (Reaves, 2016). Rahr and Rice (2015) identify an officer’s intellect and social
dexterity as critical officer safety tools in addition to physical control tactics and weapons
training. The Washington State Criminal Justice Training Commission website emphasizes
upholding democracy and keeping communities safe, including the values of leadership,
18

integrity, dignity, and accountability (https://www.cjtc.wa.gov). Proponents of a balanced
approach state officer safety is a critical aspect of training, but increasing critical thinking and
decision-making reduces the need for physical force (Rahr & Rice, 2015).
Training Delivery
Just as there is no standardized academy curriculum or other national guidelines, there is
a lack of consensus regarding training strategies (Caro, 2011). Academies tend to base training
decisions on utility or opinion rather than science (Lewinski, 2019). Traditional training
methodologies, including the use of block and siloed training, which will be further discussed in
the following section, as well as dependence on lecture, have been under scrutiny in the research
literature. The call for improving police training includes looking to the literature on learning,
retention, and transfer (Staller & Zaiser, 2018). Police training is increasingly adopting more
evidence-based delivery methods, yet the field still lacks consistency (Cordner, 2017).
Traditional Methods
Research on academy training identifies common practices in training delivery. While
methods such as block and siloed training relate to the overall design or structure, other practices
such as a reliance on lecture and war stories may indicate philosophy or culture and are
represented at the individual instructor level. Critics of these traditional methods identify a lack
of focus on learning and problems with long-term retention.
Block Training. Academy training typically utilizes a block training model. Block
training is a single session of training lasting 60 minutes or more and is usually conducted in a
group format focusing on a particular skill (O’Neil et al., 2019). For example, traditional
defensive tactics training is delivered in large chunks, from hours to days at a time (Lewinski,
2019). Stresak (2019) similarly described classroom presentations delivered in a single setting
19

and lasting hours to days. Practice in this manner is about repetition, completing one task before
moving on to another (Kim et al., 2018; Verhoeven & Newell, 2018; Wu et al., 2011). Research
finds that training in this manner is not effective for learning (Kim et al., 2018; Verhoeven &
Newell, 2018; Wu et al., 2011) and does not lead to long-term retention (Sanli & Carnahan,
2018).
Siloed Training. A second common practice used in traditional academy training is
training knowledge and skills in independent silos rather than integrating them into a holistic
framework (O’Neil et al., 2019; Rende et al., 2015; Stresak, 2019). Applying a skill in isolation
is more straightforward than using that same skill in a broader, dynamic context (Mugford et al.,
2013). This method allows learners to focus their attention on one component skill (Ambrose et
al., 2010). However, recruits could benefit from academy training that integrates skills and
knowledge and more closely resembles the complexities which exist outside of the training
venue (Stresak, 2019). Allowing learners to practice a whole task creates an opportunity to see
how the skill fits into a broader context (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Lecture. Like other fields, traditional police training relies heavily on delivery methods
such as lectures and slides (Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017). Lecture is a one-way transmission
of information from the instructor to the learner that is efficient for large groups and time (Clarke
& Armstrong, 2012). This delivery method does not develop relevant competencies such as
critical thinking and problem solving (Chappell, 2008; Serini-Massinger & Wood, 2016; Staller
& Zaiser, 2018; Vander Kooi & Bierlein Palmer, 2014; Vodde, 2012). Developing critical
competencies could be improved by using adult learning-based methodologies (Hannum, 2009;
Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Vodde, 2012; Werth, 2011). Academies are increasingly
20

adopting more adult learning and problem-based learning methods while reducing the use of
lectures (Cordner, 2017).
War Stories. The literature identifies an additional, yet informal, delivery method
common to traditional academies, the use of war stories. War stories are idealized, often
entertaining tales told by academy instructors about their own past experiences or those of
colleagues (Ford, 2003). These stories subtly become part of the informal curriculum, but they
may conflict with the formal curriculum's learning objectives (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010;
Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017). The use of war stories by instructors is part of the academy
culture and goes back decades. A 2003 study by Ford identified 269 separate war stories
presented to a single academy class. In 2017, Rosenbaum and Lawrence identified anecdotal
observations of police training in several cities, which led to their conclusion that most training is
still delivered using lectures, slides, and war stories.
Academy Instructors (Trainers)
Basic police academy training is typically delivered by retired or current police officers
who serve as instructors (Marion, 1998; Reaves, 2013). According to the 2016 academy census,
academies across the United States employ 15,000 full-time instructors, of which 33% are full-
time, sworn officers permanently assigned to or employed by academies. Another 34% are
temporarily assigned to teach at the academy. Academies also use 23,000 part-time instructors,
with 42% being off-duty sworn officers and 21% being adjunct (Reaves, 2016). The majority of
academies, 75%, require instructors to have experience as a law enforcement officer, with the
average being four years, and another third requires a college degree (Reaves, 2016).

21

Subject Matter Experts
The majority of academy instructors are sworn law enforcement officers with experience
in the field. However, research finds subject matter experts (SMEs) are not necessarily the most
effective sources to deliver content (Hannum, 2009; Harris, 2008). Research from the field of
education found teachers’ content knowledge contributed to an increased ability to align material
with the curriculum but did not significantly impact student achievement, as did teachers with
greater pedagogical content knowledge (Guerriero, 2017). Although factually accurate, SMEs
may bloat training by including too much extraneous content and overloading learners (Hannum,
2009). Although experienced in the field, practitioners may not have a deep understanding of
their experiences, including historical development, prevalence, surrounding dynamics, and
relationship to other issues (Harris, 2008). Additionally, expert performance is intuitive or
automatic, making it challenging to identify the step-by-step instructions needed for a novice
(Hannum, 2009). Instructing requires a skill set separate from that of the practitioner (Hannum,
2009), and most academies require specialized instructor training or certification in addition to
practical experience (Reaves, 2013).
Training and Development
Instructors are required to obtain an instructor certification in the case of at least 96% of
training academies (Reaves, 2016). However, instructor development usually focuses on the
course subject content rather than empirical evidence on what works in delivery (Cordner, 2017).
Some academies provide instructor training on evidence-based delivery methodologies. For
example, according to their website, instructors certified by the California Commission on Peace
Officer Standards and Training must complete the 24-hour Academy Instructor Certification
Course, including training delivery, adult learning, presentation, and facilitation skills. In
22

addition to certification training, 74% of academies provide instructor refresher training (Reaves,
2016).
Research finds that instructor development training availability may not be sufficient to
successfully transition from traditional practices to evidence-based practices. Due to training
schedules, instructors are often unable to devote time to increase their knowledge regarding
learning science (Cordner, 2017). Instructors may be resistant to employing new training
delivery methods over more familiar institutionalized curricula (Cordner, 2017; Makin, 2016).
One study found police academy instructors defaulted to usual practices such as lectures even
after receiving over 60 hours of training in adult learning (McCoy 2006). Instructors may be
concerned about transitioning to a less structured model that feels contrary to a stress-based
academy's military model (Cordner, 2017).
Academy Training Effectiveness
What do researchers and professionals know about police training academy
effectiveness? Clarke and Armstrong (2012) describe effective police training as strategic,
applied, evidence-based, and aligned to the job functions. Some evaluation studies look at the
outcomes of a specific curriculum, such as Chicago’s Quality Interaction Program (Rosenbaum
& Lawrence, 2017) or Florida’s Curriculum Maintenance System (Chappell, 2006). Other
studies look at training programs using a problem-based learning approach, such as in
Washington (Makin, 2016), Idaho (Werth, 2009), and Michigan (Vander Kooi & Bierlein
Palmer, 2014). Others examine specific recruit experiences such as socialization (Chappell &
Lanza-Kaduce, 2009; Conti, 2011; Conti & Doreian, 2014) or coping strategies (McCarty &
Lawrence, 2016; Patterson, 2016).
23

Studies looking at the actual effectiveness of various academy training methods are also
limited in number and scope. Recent studies have examined the differences in effectiveness
between traditional training delivery methods and methods employing more adult or active
learning principles. A study in Massachusetts measured the impact of training methods on
recruits’ self-perceived competence across three training topics (Donohue & Kruis, 2020). A
study in Germany examined the effectiveness of linear and nonlinear training delivery methods
in the retention of knife defense skills (Koener et al., 2020). Training evaluation often looks at
the effects on individuals rather than organizations, and police academy training evaluations are
no exception (Hur, 2017).
Research Gap
There is a lack of research on the overall effectiveness of police training driven by
several factors. First, the profession tends to rely on anecdotal information regarding the degree
of evidence-based training practices currently used in academy training (Cordner, 2017). Second,
there is a gap in the research regarding the actual impact of training on officer behavior (Lum &
Koper, 2017; National Research Council, 2004). Third, training assessments are generally
insufficient and usually consist of a level 1 evaluation in the Kirkpatrick New World Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), such as a recruit’s reaction to the training or a level 2
evaluation on learning (Cordner, 2017).
The Kirkpatrick Four Levels of Training Evaluation include 1) Level 1- Reaction,
defined as the degree to which participants find the training favorable, engaging, and relevant to
their jobs; 2) Level 2- Learning, defined as the degree to which participants acquire the intended
knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment based on their participation in the
training; 3) Level 3- Behavior, defined as the degree to which participants apply what they
24

learned during training when they are back on the job; and 4) Level 4- Results, defined as the
degree to which targeted outcomes occur as a result of the training and the support and
accountability package (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Although levels 1 and 2 provide
useful information regarding the quality of training programs for the training professionals,
levels 3 and 4 provide valuable data related to training effectiveness for stakeholders and serve to
enhance program credibility (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Methods of recruit evaluation
typically consist of a general group assessment, such as whether the overall group appeared to
demonstrate the technique (Lewinski, 2019). Academies need tools for objective measurement
and targeted feedback to improve the transfer of knowledge and skills (James et al., 2018).
Training Transfer
Salas et al. (2006) define training as the systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that lead to improved performance in a specific environment. Applying knowledge
learned through training to the job is referred to as the transfer of training. Research shows that
most knowledge and skills learned in training programs do not transfer to the job (Grossman &
Salas, 2011). Critics have long cited a problem with transfer between academy training and
effective workforce preparedness (Marion, 1998). This disconnect centers around two issues,
academy curriculum content and delivery (Blumberg, 2019; Cordner, 2017). Blumberg
specifically identifies the paramilitary format as an ineffective means of preparing recruits for
community policing and the absence of adult-learning theory principles to develop independent
problem-solvers. Lewinski (2019) attributes the problem with retention and transfer to basing
training decisions upon utility or opinion rather than science, such as block and siloed training.

25

Retention
Despite the high importance and cost of training, the research identifies a lack of long-
term retention and officers' inability to transfer learned skills into novel contexts. In a basic
academy study, researchers found that the average officer can describe how to use a suspect
control technique within months of completing the academy but cannot apply the skill effectively
(O’Neil, 2019). The research literature also identifies problems with the transfer of skills from
training to novel, high-stress situations. Officer performance deteriorates under conditions of
high stress and anxiety (Renden et al., 2014).
Application
Police training academies must evolve training delivery to keep up with policing’s
changing roles (Birzer, 2003; Chappell, 2008; McCoy, 2006; Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016).
Today police are required to be problem-solvers rather than merely enforcers of the law, and this
change in philosophy requires a corresponding change in training delivery (Makin, 2016; Sereni-
Massinger & Wood, 2016; Staller & Zaiser, 2018). Police academy training should develop these
skills (Chappell, 2008; Makin, 2016; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Vander Kooi & Bierlein
Palmer, 2014).
More effective, adult-learning-based delivery methods would better support the
development of critical competencies (Vander Kooi & Bierlein Palmer, 2014; Vodde, 2012;
Werth, 2011). A Randomized Control Trial of 142 recruits in the Chicago Police Academy
identified recruits who received evidence-based training demonstrated more respectful behaviors
during role-plays and showed improved decision-making skills (Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017).
Similarly, an evaluation of ten academy cohorts (448 recruits) attending the Basic Patrol
Academy at the Idaho Peace Officer Standards and Training found that students reported
26

problem-solving training was more effective after changing to a learner-focused delivery method
(Werth, 2011). A Massachusetts study found recruits taught criminal investigation skills in an
active learning environment reported greater perceived competence than those taught using
traditional methods (Donohue & Kruis, 2020).
Strategies for Effective Training Delivery
The body of literature on effective learning and training delivery methods is substantial.
The following section explores foundational theories, such as adult learning and cognitive load
theory, and their relationship to effective instructional practices. Additionally, research from
education and psychology provides robust guidance on instructional strategies to enhance learner
outcomes. The practices introduced include the use of retrieval practice, reflection, and feedback.
Lastly, moving away from the traditional academy training structure, such as block training, can
lead to improved outcomes when replaced with strategies such as spaced, varied, and interleaved
practice.
Facilitating Transfer
The goal of instruction is to develop durable and flexible knowledge and skills
(Helsdingen et al., 2011; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). Soderstrom and Bjork define durable as
knowledge and skills that remain accessible for long periods, even after periods of disuse.
Flexible refers to knowledge and skills that are accessible in various relevant contexts and not
limited to the settings experienced during instruction. Some instructional principles and practices
well documented in the literature include both adult and active learning (Bonwell & Eison, 1991;
Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Knowles, 1980; Meyer, 2011), linking training with perceived utility
value (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Grossman & Salas, 2011; Wigfield et al., 2017), managing
cognitive load (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Chen et al., 2018; Meyer, 2011; Paas et al., 2003;
27

Sweller et al., 2019 ), retrieval practice or the testing effect (Agarwal, 2018; Agarwal & Bain,
2019; Ambrose et al, 2010; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015), interleaving or contextual interference
(Agarwal & Bain, 2019; Kim et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2011 ), spaced or
distributed practice (Agarwal & Bain, 2019; Chen et al., 2018; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015),
variability of practice (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015; Sweller et al., 2019; Wulf & Schmidt, 1997),
opportunities for goal directed practice and effective feedback (Ambrose et al., 2010), and using
feedback to increase metacognition (Agarwal & Bain, 2019; Burke & Hutchins, 2007;
Helsdingen et al., 2011; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015; Shute, 2008). Many of these principles and
practices overlap. The following subsections further explain these principles and practices.
Adult Learning
A theory that is important for academy instructors to understand to deliver effective
training is andragogy, commonly referred to as adult learning. Andragogy, originally defined as
the art and science of helping adults learn, later became just one end of a spectrum regarding
helping learners of all ages (Knowles, 1980). Knowles compared the two ends of the spectrum,
pedagogy, and andragogy, based on the learner's characteristics, including the role of the learner,
the role of the learner’s experience, readiness to learn, and orientation to learning. Knowles
described different maturity points where learners need varying levels of direction, moving
between instructor-centered and student-centered, directed and self-directed, passive, and active.
There has long been support for police training academies to transition to an adult
learning model (Birzer, 2003; Birzer & Tannehill, 2001; Chappell, 2008). Birzer (2003)
identified the benefits of transitioning from the traditional, militaristic academy training
approach to one that helps recruits learn to identify and solve problems. More than a decade
later, Blumberg (2019) asserted that academies that utilize an adult-learning model understand
effective training.
28

Transitioning to more adult learning practices has implications for curriculum design and
training delivery (Clarke & Armstrong, 2012). Knowles (1980) identified the instructor's role in
influencing the learning environment climate, including the importance of demonstrating interest
and respect for learners versus seeing learners as receivers of the instructor's wisdom. Facilitating
effective learning does not rely on one method or approach but instead focuses on meeting the
learner's needs through an understanding of the learning process and facilitation (Vodde, 2012).
Research has identified seven conditions of learning determined to contribute to learner growth
and development. These conditions include the following: 1) The learners feel a need to learn, 2)
The learning environment is characterized by physical comfort, trust, and mutual respect, 3) The
learners perceive the learning goals to be related to their goals, 4) The learners share
responsibility for planning and operating the learning experience, 5) The learner participates
actively in the learning process, 6) The learning process is related to and makes use of the
learner’s experiences, 7) The learners have a sense of progress toward their goals (Knowles,
1980).
Active Learning
Another strategy focusing on the experience of the learner is active learning. Bonwell and
Eison (1991) describe active learning as instructional activities that involve learners in an
activity while thinking about what they are doing. Prince (2004) defines active learning as any
instructional method that engages students in the learning process. Medina (2017) describes the
importance of making learners' thinking visible, allowing instructors to reinforce or remediate
concepts in the moment and provide valuable feedback.
Active learning strategies facilitate higher-order thinking, such as analysis or evaluation
(Tabrizi & Rideout, 2017). Strategies can be applied to enhance learning, even during lectures.
29

Techniques include collaborative problem solving, retrieval practice, reflection, discussion, and
debate of the instructor's questions. Posing open-ended questions along Bloom’s Taxonomy is
one means of utilizing active learning to promote higher-order thinking (Tabrizi & Rideout,
2017). Bloom’s Taxonomy is a framework for classifying educational objectives across two
dimensions, the Knowledge and the Cognitive Process dimension (Krathwohl, 2002). The
Knowledge dimension includes 1) factual knowledge, 2) conceptual knowledge, 3) procedural
knowledge, and 4) metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). The revised Cognitive Process
dimension includes six categories from simple to complex 1) remember, 2) understand, 3) apply,
4) analyze, 5) evaluate, and 6) create (Krathwohl, 2002).
Link Training to Utility Value
Related to condition #3 of adult learning, learners who perceive training to be relevant to
their needs demonstrate higher transfer rates (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Grossman & Salas,
2011). Utility value is usefulness or how a task relates to an individual’s plans (Wigfield,
Rosenzweig, & Eccles, 2017). Instructors who understand the importance of learner perceived
value can help to enhance transfer. Instructors can help learners conclude that the new skills are
credible, related to their job performance, connected to their own need for improving
performance, and can help learners understand the practical application of the new knowledge or
skill (Grossman & Salas, 2011).
Manage Cognitive Load
Another relevant theory for instructors to understand is cognitive load theory (CLT). CLT
began in the 1980s as an instructional design theory based on the cognitive architecture that
allows learners to process information (Paas et al., 2003). Cognitive load is the mental effort
experienced by a learner when completing a task (Clark et al., 2006). Three categories of
30

cognitive load, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane, impact learning in various ways (Sweller et
al., 2019). If considered in police academy training, it could lead to greater learning retention and
transfer of knowledge and skills (Mugford et al., 2011).
Intrinsic Cognitive Load. Intrinsic cognitive load is about the relationship between
element interactivity and working memory capacity demands (Paas et al., 2003). A combination
of material complexity and previous learner knowledge determines intrinsic cognitive load
(Sweller et al., 2019). Learning to apply handcuffs in a static training session is a low element
interactivity task, but learning to use handcuffs during a domestic dispute is a high element
interactivity task and therefore requires greater working memory capacity for recruit officers
(Mugford et al., 2011). Instructors cannot change the intrinsic cognitive load, but through
awareness, they can provide simpler training tasks with fewer interacting elements during
learning phases (Mugford et al., 2011).
Extraneous Cognitive Load. Extraneous cognitive load refers to the learner's required
effort related to how information is presented and the activities needed (Paas et al., 2003). Unlike
intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load can be increased or decreased by varying
instructional practices, such as increasing or decreasing element interactivity (Sweller et al.,
2019). Verbally explaining firearms characteristics rather than visually presenting them is one
example of extraneous cognitive load provided by Mugford, Corey, and Bennell (2011).
Strategies to reduce extraneous cognitive load include scaffolding through worked examples
(Mugford et al., 2011; Paas et al., 2003; Sweller et al., 2019) and spacing training rather than
delivering training in a massed or blocked form (Chen et al., 2017).
Germane Cognitive Load. Unlike the previous two, germane cognitive load enhances
learning. Germane cognitive load is related to how working memory is engaged in the learning
31

process to achieve schema acquisition and automation (Paas et al., 2003). Like extraneous
cognitive load, germane cognitive load is influenced and should be encouraged by the instructor
(Sweller et al., 2019). Having recruits practice skills such as communication in varied scenario
contexts is an example of germane cognitive load, according to Mugford, Corey, and Bennell
(2011).
Retrieval Practice
Another evidence-based strategy instructors can use to facilitate learning and transfer is
retrieval practice. The benefits of retrieval practice, reactivating information stored in long-term
memory, are well documented in the research literature and include developing higher-order
thinking skills, increased learner metacognition, engagement, and other benefits (Agarwal &
Bain, 2019). Learning and retention are enhanced when learners activate and build on prior
knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). Using knowledge in new and different ways serves to
strengthen learning (Agarwal & Bain, 2019).
Instructors can improve retention and transfer by shifting their mindset away from putting
information into a learner's head and recognizing the value of getting information out of the
learner’s head (Agarwal & Bain, 2019). Helpful strategies include the following: 1) Asking
learners “why” questions, 2) Asking learners to describe what they know about a topic, 3)
Drawing connections between topics covered in other courses, 4) Having learners justify their
reasoning, and 5) Providing opportunities for learners to use their knowledge (Ambrose et al.,
2010).
Theorists believe the following strategies, such as contextual interference and distributed
practice, are effective training design features because the learner must forget some of what they
have already learned. Forgetting forces the learner to engage in an active retrieval process before
executing the task, therefore strengthening the memory connection (Boutin & Blandin, 2010).
32

Using testing is another method used to draw information from learners. It can contribute to
learning through a phenomenon known as the testing effect, where tested material is retained
better than non-tested content (Rowland, 2014). However, for testing to be considered an
effective retrieval practice method focused on learning rather than assessment or evaluation, the
research recommends testing to be no-stakes or not graded (Agarwal & Bain, 2019).
Contextual Interference/Interleaving
Another strategy to facilitate learning and transfer is to mix varying concepts into
practice sessions. The concept of interleaving is closely related to distributed or spaced practice,
which is covered next, and the previously covered retrieval practice. Learning is influenced by
the way in which concepts are arranged, such as in a blocked (repetitive) or interleaved (rotating)
format (Albano et al., 2020). Rearranging the order of practice for similar concepts can
significantly contribute to learning and retention (Agarwal & Bain, 2019).
Research by Hall et al. (1994) examined college baseball players' practice format hitting
three different types of pitches, using either a blocked or an interleaved format. The study found
that the interleaved practice led to superior hitting of all three types of pitches under unknown
circumstances, as would be the case in an actual game. Kornell and Bjork’s (2008) study found
college students were better able to differentiate between paintings by various artists using
interleaved practice. A similar study found interleaved practice led to the superior identification
of types of birds (Wahlheim et al., 2011).
Interleaving practice requires learners to choose the appropriate solution among similar
ideas (Agarwal & Bain, 2019). Rohrer (2012) describes how the opposite is the case with
blocked practice, as every problem in the block can be solved using the same strategy, creating a
crutch for the student. Juxtaposing concepts and skills highlights the differences between similar
33

concepts, leading to improved discrimination (Birnbaum et al., 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2008). In
practice, this could look like rearranging examples, questions, or problems (Rohrer, 2012),
presenting similar problems that require different solutions, or mixing old and new skills (Ziniuk,
2020).
Compare the traditional blocked practice format AAAA BBBB CCCC DDDD, where A,
B, C, and D represent the repetitive practice of different concepts, to an interleaved practice
format ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD, where the concepts are mixed. In academy motor skills
training, such as defensive tactics, this could include the practice arrangement of different
takedown types. Rather than having students repeatedly practice one takedown to proficiency
(AAAA), students might also learn a second (B), third (C), and fourth (D) takedown and then
practice them in various orders (ABCD) learning to differentiate the applicability to various
problems. In a classroom setting, this could be the difference between learning a single concept,
such as use of force, to proficiency (AAAA), versus learning and practicing multiple concepts
together, such as incorporating use of force (A) with communication (B), de-escalation (C), and
decision making (D), increasing the ability to select the right solution in an unknown
circumstance.
Using interleaving is not without challenges. Students might dislike the increased
difficulty, resulting in increased errors and a slower pace (Rohrer, 2012). Students may be less
confident in their knowledge and skills following interleaved practice (Kornell & Bjork, 2008).
Transitioning to an interleaved practice can also be counterintuitive for instructors used to a
blocked format. Instructors may question the effectiveness of slower progress and increased
errors (Rohrer, 2012). However, studies find that while individuals who participate in interleaved
practice demonstrate reduced performance during training, they demonstrate superior
34

performance in later retention tests (Kim et al., 2018; Wright et al., 2016). The research suggests
a hybrid approach, where learning is scaffolded first by building a foundation of knowledge,
followed by interleaving practice, might be most beneficial (Agarwal & Bain, 2019).
Distributed Practice
Another strategy to replace traditional block or massed practice is through distributed or
spaced practice (Verhoeven & Newell, 2018). Kornell and Bjork (2008) found that performance
in a spaced condition was superior to performance in a massed or blocked condition despite the
learner’s perception. Additionally, this finding was likely the result of creating a desirable
difficulty. In traditional practice, individuals practice a task without a rest in between sessions.
Conversely, distributed practice provides a rest period that is longer than the duration of the
practice session. Spaced training offers more retrieval practice opportunities over time rather
than cramming learning into one setting (Agarwal & Bain, 2019). A study of a two-hour firearms
training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center consisting of loading, unloading, and
weapon clearing skills followed by a live-fire practice session found that 95% of trainees could
not clear their weapon under stress properly. Comparatively, providing the same instruction
broken down over multiple days resulted in 86% of trainees correctly demonstrating the skill
(Atkins & Norris, 2012). In addition to spacing the training schedule, instructors can utilize the
benefits of spacing by referring back to material previously taught and asking learners to discuss
how it relates to the current topic (Agarwal & Bain, 2019).
Variability of Practice
The conditions of practice for both cognitive and motor-skills training impact learning
and transfer. Training conducted in an environment that closely resembles or is the actual
environment is more likely to transfer to the job (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Police training
35

commonly uses simulation training to help officers learn to adapt to changing conditions (Brown
et al., 214).
Additionally, varying practice conditions contributes to more significant learning and
transfer over constant practice conditions (Brown et al., 2014; Huet et al., 2011; Wulf &
Schmidt, 1997). Changing variables, such as force or duration, within the same movement
structure can enhance retention and transfer (Wulf & Schmidt, 1997). Schmidt’s work on schema
theory provides two necessary elements to learn and perform a motor task. First, a performer
needs to acquire the generalized motor program (GMP) or the action form. Second, the
performer needs to learn the schemata that allow the learner to scale the response to the
environment (Schmidt, 2003). Variations for the same action are available based on scaling
features of the movement called parameters, up or down. Parameters include the speed, duration,
or level of force used (Schmidt, 2003). With practice, including making errors, performers learn
the relationship between parameters and outcomes and how outcomes can be manipulated based
on modifying the parameters. Constant practice is less useful because it does not help the learner
discover the relationship between parameters and outcomes (Schmidt, 1975). In contrast, varied
practice helps the performer develop a broad schema, which better prepares trainees to assess
and adjust to changing conditions in the field (Brown et al., 2014). Huet et al. (2016) suggest that
optimal practice conditions should be highly variable.
Effective Feedback
Another strategy instructors can use to enhance transfer is through practice opportunities
that focus on a specific and clearly articulated goal accompanied by targeted feedback (Ambrose
et al., 2010). Improving performance through practice requires the component of feedback
(Shute, 2008); however, in one-third of cases, feedback results in adverse effects (Kluger &
36

DeNisi, 1996). Feedback is defined by Ambrose et al. (2010) as information given to learners
that guides future behavior, facilitating learning by helping learners understand how they should
direct future efforts. Feedback can identify a performance gap (Shute, 2008), and it can help
reduce learner cognitive load (Paas et al., 2003).
What makes feedback effective rather than ineffective? The locus of attention is an
essential factor contributing to the positive, neutral, or adverse effect of feedback. Kluger and
DeNisi (1996) found that feedback directed at the task contributed to improved performance, but
feedback directed at the person contributed to adverse effects. Additionally, the research
identifies the importance of intentional feedback rather than overwhelming the learner with too
much feedback. Too much feedback fails to articulate a specific area to focus on improving
(Ambrose et al., 2010). Additionally, the timing of delivering feedback should allow the learner
to recognize and correct their own mistakes, allowing them to become independent and self-
regulated learners (Ambrose et al., 2010). Shute (2008) identifies specificity and timing as
essential factors in delivering effective feedback.
The Role of Metacognition in Transfer
Developing learners who are adept at critical thinking and problem-solving calls for
implementing the final strategy, encouraging learner metacognition. Commonly described as
thinking about thinking, metacognition is defined as one’s knowledge of one’s cognitive
processes (Flavell, 1979). Providing opportunities for learners to engage in self-regulation and
monitoring can positively influence learning outcomes (Ambrose et al., 2014; Griffin et al.,
2013). Research finds that learners often do not apply metacognition as part of their learning, but
instructors can use methods to promote this strategy (Ambrose et al., 2010). Metacognition can
be negatively impacted by the timing of feedback when feedback interrupts experience
37

monitoring and shifts attention from internal to external cues (Griffin et al., 2013). Effective
instructor strategies include creating and supporting reflection or self-evaluation opportunities
(Ambrose et al., 2014; Griffin et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2016). Huang et al. (2016) also identify
an instructor's use of open-ended questioning as a tool to encourage learners to think out loud
and extend their thinking. Suggested prompts include the following: 1) Comprehension, helps
learners understand the task or problem goals or main idea by asking, “what is the
problem/task?”; 2) Connection, helps learners understand the task’s deeper relational structures,
focuses on prior knowledge, and articulates thoughts and self-explanations by asking, “what is
the difference or similarity?” and “how do I justify my conclusion?”; 3) Strategy, help learners
plan and select appropriate strategies and monitor and control their effectiveness by asking,
“what is the strategy and why?”; and 4) Reflection, help learners evaluate their problem-solving
processes by encouraging the consideration of various perspectives and values regarding
solutions and processes by asking, “does the solution make sense?” and “am I satisfied with the
way I faced the task?” (Kramarski & Michalsky, 2013).
Evidence-Based Learning Summary
Decades of research from education and cognitive psychology provide numerous
methods to enhance learning. Applying concepts from foundational theories such as adult
learning, active learning, and cognitive load theory can help shift academy instructors’ training
delivery from a traditional to an evidence-based learning approach. Additionally, applying
concepts such as retrieval practice, interleaving, feedback, and metacognition to academy
training delivery can improve learning and retention for recruits. The ability to shift from
traditional delivery methods to these evidence-based learning methods depends on the individual
instructor's knowledge and motivation and various organizational influences.
38

Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework
This study will use Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis as the conceptual framework.
Before an organization can implement performance improvement solutions, it is critical first to
diagnose the cause of the performance gap to identify the correct solution. Gap analysis is a
process model that helps to accurately identify the problem and appropriate solution through a
systematic analysis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences within an
organization. The analysis helps to reveal gaps through the following process: 1) Identify the
goals of the organization, 2) Identify individual performance goals, 3) Determine performance
gaps, 4) Analyze the performance gaps to determine causes, 5) Identify the knowledge,
motivation and organizational solutions to implement, and 6) Evaluate the results.
Education research literature finds that teacher effectiveness is one of the most important
factors in student learning (Klassen & Tze, 2014). This study follows the general steps of gap
analysis to explore the CPA's capacity to achieve 100% of instructors delivering training using
evidence-based training methodologies, which are grounded in what works, by August 2021. An
analysis of the three factors related to performance gaps, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences, will identify performance gaps and present solutions.
CPA Instructor Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
The following sections examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences described in the literature. The exploration of instructor knowledge and skills follows
Bloom’s Taxonomy, specifically declarative, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. The
explored motivation influences related to the CPA instructors include task value and self-
efficacy. Lastly, the organizational influences include external influences such as adapting to the
39

needs of 21
st
century policing and internal influences such as the organization's prioritization of
instructor training and resources.
Knowledge and Skills
This section will examine the research literature on knowledge-related influences related
to the CPA instructors' capacity to deliver training using evidence-based learning methodologies.
An examination of instructor knowledge is an essential component in the problem-solving
process because, according to Clark and Estes, enhancing knowledge and skill is a relevant
solution only under two conditions. The first condition occurs when instructors do not know how
to accomplish their performance goals. This condition indicates the need for solutions such as
training, job aids, or information. The second condition is when instructors are facing future
challenges that will require problem-solving under new circumstances.
Under Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (BRT), knowledge influences are defined among four
types: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive
knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). These types are identified in sequence, beginning with the
concrete and moving to abstract. BRT identifies factual knowledge as the “basic elements a
learner must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it” (Krathwohl, 2002,
p. 214). Factual knowledge includes knowledge of terminology and knowledge of specific details
and elements such as dates, people, and sources of information. Conceptual knowledge refers to
“the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to
function together” (Krathwohl, 2002, p. 214). Conceptual knowledge includes 1) knowledge of
classifications and categories, 2) knowledge of principles and generalizations, and 3) knowledge
of theories, models, and structures. For the purposes of this study, factual and conceptual
knowledge are combined into one type, declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is “how to
40

do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, techniques, and methods”
(Krathwohl, 2002, p. 214). Procedural knowledge includes 1) knowledge of subject-specific
skills, 2) knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods, and 3) knowledge of criteria for
determining when to use appropriate procedures. Lastly, metacognitive knowledge is
“knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s cognition”
(Krathwohl, 2002, p. 214). Metacognitive knowledge includes 1) strategic knowledge, 2)
knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge,
and 3) self-knowledge.
Instructor Understanding of Evidence-Based Learning Principles
The CPA instructors need to know and understand principles of evidence-based learning
as related to effective training delivery. Guerriero (2017) describes in the field of education that
novice to expert teachers’ development moves from the acquisition of declarative knowledge to
the application of that knowledge to teaching. Declarative knowledge is a combination of BRT
factual and conceptual knowledge. In education, this includes knowledge of classroom
management, teaching methods, classroom assessment, learning processes, and learner
characteristics (Voss et al., 2011). Research in police training finds that academies lack
information on teaching and strengthening skills (Blumberg, 2019). Academy instructors either
do not understand or have no awareness of adult learning practices (Basham, 2011). In academy
training, utility or opinion becomes the basis for instructional decisions rather than science
(Lewinski, 2019).
There is a distinction between novice and expert teachers’ ability to apply their
knowledge (Guerriero, 2017). To develop beyond novice, the CPA instructors need to have
procedural knowledge, including knowing how and when to use various practices. Having a
41

deeper understanding of learning theories, such as what it means to be instructor-led versus
student-centered, can enhance training delivery (Birzer, 2003; Chappell, 2008; Hannum, 2009;
McCoy, 2006; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Vodde, 2012). Research finds for teachers to
make informed teaching decisions, they must be able to analyze and evaluate specific learning
episodes in combination with contextual and situational factors (student factors, course goals)
and to connect this with their knowledge of the learning process (Guerriero, 2017). For example,
instructors who understand the different cognitive load types that impact learning can better
understand how to adapt training to effectively manage the load (Mugford et al., 2013).
Instructor Skills Related to Training Delivery Using Evidence-Based Learning Methods
The CPA instructors need to be able to deliver training using evidence-based learning
methods. Expert teachers blend informed decision-making with theoretical knowledge and
practice-based knowledge (Guerriero, 2017). This requires procedural knowledge, including
knowledge of specific skills, techniques, and methods. Procedural knowledge for the CPA
instructors is knowing when and why to use various methods. For example, the CPA instructors
need to know how and recognize when to apply a student-centered methodology rather than an
instructor-led methodology. Other academies have found the use of new strategies challenging.
Instructors are ingrained in traditional delivery methods, and despite enhancing declarative
knowledge, their practice does not always reflect this knowledge (McCoy, 2006). Delivering
training using these practices requires instructors to create opportunities for learners (Weinstein
et al., 2018). Blumberg (2019) described the need for academy instructors to deliver training in a
way that increases recruits’ autonomous decision-making rather than telling them exactly what to
do at all times. This combination of declarative and procedural knowledge of effective teaching
42

is called pedagogical/psychological knowledge, and it is necessary for the optimization of
learning situations (Voss et al., 2011).
Instructor Ability to Self-Assess Knowledge, Skills, and Effectiveness
Just as it is valuable to recruits, the CPA instructors need to assess their knowledge, skill,
and effectiveness in delivering training. This assessment is metacognitive knowledge and
includes knowledge about cognitive tasks as well as self-knowledge. Metacognitive skills are
understanding and control over one’s cognition (Sternberg, 2017). Self-management of cognition
includes instructors planning, monitoring, regulating, and evaluating strategies and skills
(Ozturk, 2017). According to Sternberg (1985), skills include 1) problem recognition, 2) problem
definition, 3) problem representation, 4) strategy formulation, 5) resource allocation, 6)
monitoring of problem-solving, and 7) evaluation of problem-solving. This type of conscious
self-awareness helps instructors challenge their assumptions about student learning and decide
when to change to a more student-centered approach (Ozturk, 2017). Just as comprehension,
connection, strategy, and reflection enhance learning outcomes for students, the CPA instructors
can use these to self-assess, ensure they are adhering to effective methodologies, and meeting
student needs rather than falling into comfortable, less effective practices. Ozturk (2017) found
that only highly metacognitive instructors successfully utilized strategies to increase
metacognition in learners.
Table 2 presents the assumed knowledge influences for instructors at the Centralized
Police Academy.

43

Table 2
Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
The CPA instructors need to understand principles of evidence-based
learning.
Declarative
The CPA instructors need to be able to deliver training using evidence-
based learning methods.
Procedural
The CPA instructors need to be able to assess their own knowledge,
skill, and effectiveness in delivering training.
Metacognitive

Motivational Influences
In addition to knowledge, motivation is a key influence on performance. This section
reviews the literature on motivation and motivation-related influences as it relates to the CPA
instructors. Bandura (1989) described motivation as being rooted in cognitive activity,
particularly in the way people guide their actions, set outcomes and goals, and plan courses of
action. For example, influences driving the amount of energy and attention directed at a task
include the following three questions 1) Can I do this task? 2) Do I want to do this task, and
why? and 3) What do I need to do to succeed at this task? (Fielding-Wells et al., 2017). These
motivation processes are known as active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes,
2008). Active choice occurs when the intention to pursue a goal is replaced by action instead of
avoidance or arguing. Persistence is continuing toward the goal despite distractions, including
other more appealing work goals. Lastly, mental effort is the amount of effort put into a task
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
44

The education literature finds that motivation is strongly connected to teaching
effectiveness, more so than teaching experience, college degrees, certifications, and other
variables (Klassen & Tze, 2014). Two types of motivation found to influence teacher
effectiveness include self-efficacy and achievement value (Klassen & Tze, 2014). This section
will further explore these influences as related to CPA instructor performance.
Instructor Efficacy for Delivering Training Using Evidence-Based Learning Methods
Self-efficacy is defined as a person’s belief in their capabilities to complete various task
demands (Bandura, 1989; Bandura, 2001). Self-efficacy, grounded in social cognitive theory,
builds on the idea that individuals have agency or influence over their behaviors. Individuals
who do not have high self-efficacy are likely to abandon new skills after instances of failure, a
lack of quick results, or if the task requires too much effort (Bandura, 1989). In contrast,
individuals with high self-efficacy determine ways to overcome obstacles and challenges
(Bandura, 2011).
There is a gap in the research literature related to police academy instructors and self-
efficacy. Research does exist in the field of education. Self-efficacy is an important factor in
teacher effectiveness, impacting beliefs about teaching and instructional behaviors (Klassen &
Tze, 2014). Klassen et al. (2011) define teacher self-efficacy as the confidence teachers hold
about their individual and collective capability to influence student learning. Due to the
relationship with effectiveness, self-efficacy should be a consideration in professional
development related to teachers' capacity to self-organize, be self-reflective, self-regulate, and
demonstrate proactive behaviors (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Teacher efficacy supports
implementing new and challenging teaching strategies (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Klassen et al.,
2011). The CPA instructors need to feel confident in their ability to deliver training using
45

evidence-based learning methods with fidelity. Instructor self-efficacy plays a role in the ability
to stick with the changes to the methodology.
Instructor Utility Value for Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies
In addition to self-efficacy, the research identifies the role of an individual’s task value
beliefs in influencing the motivation processes of active choice, persistence, and mental effort
(Wigfield, 1994: Wigfield et al., 2017). Similarly, Clark and Estes (2008) identify values as
preferences that lead individuals to select a course of action and persist. The expectancy-value
theory model identifies four influences on task value, 1) intrinsic value, 2) utility value, 3) cost,
and 4) attainment value (Wigfield, 1994). Intrinsic value is the enjoyment one gains from doing a
task; it relates to deep engagement and long-term persistence (Wigfield et al., 2017). Utility
value refers to usefulness, or how a task fits into an individual's plans (Wigfield, 1994) or in
aspiration of the benefits that come when finished (Clark & Estes, 2008). Utility value is more
extrinsic (Conley, 2011). Cost is something that impacts values, such as things an individual
would need to give up to do a task (Wigfield, 1994) or whether the effort is worth it (Wigfield et
al., 2017). Cost includes emotional states such as fear of failure (Conley, 2011). Academy
instructors may feel they do not have time to integrate practices that are student-centered
(Basham, 2011). Lastly, attainment value is the importance of doing well on a given task
(Wigfield et al., 2017) and is linked with identity (Conley, 2011).
There is a gap in the research literature related to police academy instructors and the
influence of perceived value on motivation. Research does exist in education, identifying a
connection between autonomous motivation, described as the degree to which a teacher exerts
effort and focuses on achieving successful outcomes versus feeling resistance and teacher
engagement (Li et al., 2015). Clark and Estes (2008) highlight the role of task value in workplace
46

performance, describing that people value what they believe helps them and reject what they
believe stands in their way (p. 95). Studies on implementing challenging educational strategies
have found that teachers who do not value the strategy's characteristics are less likely to use the
approach in practice (Andersson, 2018). This same study identified the influences on teachers
who did choose to implement the practice, all recognized utility value or seeing the impact on
student outcomes as a contributing factor. Overall, Andersson (2018) identified high value and
low cost as motivational influences regarding implementing a new teaching strategy.
Changes at the CPA require instructors to shift their practices to reflect teaching methods
grounded in evidence rather than the traditional practices that have long been in place. The CPA
instructors are asked to try something new and shift from an instructor-led to a student-centered
approach. An instructor-led approach has been the methodology traditionally promoted by the
academy, and instructors would have received training on this method. Now instructors receive
training in a student-centered methodology and are asked to implement these practices in the
classroom. Police academy program success is dependent on the instructor’s endorsement of the
philosophy in use (Chappell, 2008). Successfully shifting training methodologies to a more
andragogical approach requires instructors to support and see value in the change (Blumberg,
2019). Table 3 presents the motivation influences for instructors at the Centralized Police
Academy.

47

Table 3
Motivation Influences
Motivation Construct Motivation Influence
Self-Efficacy The CPA instructors need to feel confident in their ability to
deliver training using evidence-based learning methodologies with
fidelity.

Utility Value The CPA instructors need to perceive evidence-based learning
methodologies as effective for training recruits.

Organizational Influences
The third category influencing employee performance is related to the organization itself.
In addition to knowledge and motivation, organizational influences play a role in the CPA
instructors' ability to deliver training grounded in evidence-based practices and achieve the
Centralized Police Academy's goal. Clark and Estes (2008) describe the importance of
examining organizational culture in addition to potential barriers such as inadequate processes,
tools, and resources. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) offer the concepts of cultural models and
settings as a means of organizational analysis. Cultural models are shared understandings of how
an organization works or should work. Cultural models include shared interpretations from the
environment, agreed-upon values, and rules of interaction (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Cultural models are the norms adapted and evolved by a given community and are often invisible
to those inside.
In contrast, cultural settings occur when, over time, two or more people come together to
accomplish something, such as in the workplace (Sarason, 1978). Gallimore and Goldenberg
48

(2001) state that culture exists and is created in settings and by the absence of settings. The
following section will explore a significant external influence (cultural model) on the CPA
organizational culture, the role of a police officer today, and how that influences the role of
academy training. Additionally, this section will explore two cultural setting influences on the
CPA organization, instructor resources, and a clear vision toward recruit learning.
Organizational Training Adaptations to Value the Needs of 21st Century Policing
External factors often influence police academy training. According to Vodde (2012), an
academy’s training philosophy represents the stakeholders' values, beliefs, ideologies,
expectations, and desired outcomes. External forces such as attorneys, politicians, public
opinion, the policing profession, and special interest groups influence police training. Attorneys
push training agendas and training topics, and legislation mandates hours devoted to specific
topics regardless of scientific evidence (Cordner, 2017). Additionally, officers hold on to long-
standing beliefs steeped in tradition and the policing culture (Cordner, 2017). Blumberg et al.
(2019) pose the question: what type of police officer are agencies training?
The needs of 21st-century police officers are diverse and complex. Critics of traditional
police training identify the importance of new officers developing critical competencies such as
problem-solving, critical thinking, and decision-making through academy training (Makin, 2016;
Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016). Others identify the
importance of preparing officers for the increased policing challenges today, such as more
complex tools and increased public scrutiny as a cause for change (Blumberg et al., 2019).
Basham (2014) suggested that transitioning from a stress-based model to an adult learning model
will better prepare officers to operate as part of society rather than separate, better preparing
them to make decisions with the community. The Police Executive Research Forum (2019)
49

identified the degradation of community trust and the importance of recruits possessing the
skillset to navigate this landscape by learning to work with community groups and build trusting
relationships.
Police agencies across the country are experiencing a hiring and retention crisis. A 2019
Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) survey identified a significant concern in the
workforce crisis: whether recruits have the skillset and temperament for policing challenges
today. Necessary skills range from interpersonal communications and empathy to the ability to
utilize technology, such as gathering digital evidence, in addition to traditional law enforcement
skills (PERF, 2019). Today police are required to be problem-solvers rather than merely
enforcers of the law, and this change in philosophy requires a corresponding shift in training
delivery (Makin, 2016; Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016; Staller & Zaiser, 2018). For changes to
take hold in training academies, there must be a culture shift at an organizational level where
police agencies place value on developing these skills (Blumberg et al., 2019). Academies,
including the CPA, must identify and articulate what is important in preparing today’s officers
for the field.
Organizational Priority for Staff Training and Instructor Resources
Internal organizational factors influence performance. Assuming workers are both
knowledgeable and motivated, the system in which they perform is likely the cause of a failure to
perform at an optimal level (Rummler & Brache, 1995). The degree of sustained change and
employee focus is determined by how an organization functions for its members (Schneider et
al., 1996). According to Clark and Estes (2008), internal barriers such as missing or faulty work
processes and inadequate material resources are barriers to successfully achieving performance
goals. Work processes describe how people, equipment, and materials link and interact, while
50

material resources include both the design and availability of tools and supplies for work (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Rummler and Brache (1995) offer the following questions for analysis of
organizational factors modified to examine the impact on the CPA instructors 1) Do the
instructors understand the outputs they are expected to produce and the standards they are
expected to meet? 2) Do the instructors have sufficient resources, clear signals, priorities, and a
logical set of job responsibilities? 3) Are the instructors rewarded for achieving job goals? 4) Do
instructors know whether they are meeting job goals? and 5) Do instructors have the physical,
mental, and emotional capacity to achieve the job goals? As previously identified by Clark &
Estes (2008), if any of the organizational factors are missing or faulty, it could impact
performance.
A crossover with knowledge influences, work processes, and organizational training
models should align (Valle et al., 2000). Employee training is an integral part of sustaining an
organizational change initiative (Burke, 2018), but often organizations underestimate the
capacity for change (Cole, 2013). In education, implementing a new curriculum requires change
and learning for teachers to understand both the content and associated learning goals (Remillard
et al., 2009). Successfully changing academy training to develop recruits’ critical skills more
effectively requires thorough training for instructors (Blumberg et al., 2019). A barrier to using
more effective instructional practices in police training is a lack of appropriate professional
development opportunities related to incorporating adult learning principles into training
(Basham, 2014). Studies have found that even when academy instructors receive training on
more effective methodologies, they often default to more familiar methods (McCoy, 2006).
Human nature defaults to what is familiar and comfortable rather than changing to something
unfamiliar and uncomfortable (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2005). Clark and Estes (2008) identify
51

training as not just a step for transferring knowledge but as a means of transmitting a new
organizational culture to influence and change behaviors.
The Centralized Police Academy needs to prioritize training and resources that align with
the organizational goals and work processes to implement and sustain change. This study
operationalizes prioritizing training and resources by exploring the existing instructor
onboarding, training, and development processes through the lens of the instructors’ experiences.
Additionally, this study will examine the availability and usability of resource materials.
Organizational Vision for Evidence-Based Training
One final organizational influence that both impacts performance and is a necessary
component of a successful change process is identifying and communicating a clear vision that
aligns with goals and processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Dixon (1996) identified a compelling
vision as the first of six factors that contribute to organizational change success, along with
setting clear goals and developing a plan to assess the change's progress. Leaders in transforming
organizations share a vision that is simple, understandable, beneficial, and energy-creating
(Northouse, 2016). Northouse identified the benefits of a clear vision as helping those within the
organization understand how they fit with the direction. It empowers them to be part of the
process. According to Schein (2017), organizational leaders transmit vision through formal and
informal channels. Primary transmission methods include what leaders pay attention to, what is
measured, how resources are allocated, and what is role modeled, taught, or coached. Secondary
methods include the organization's design and structure, systems and procedures, physical spaces
design, and formal statements of philosophy.
There is a lack of research related to police training academies and articulating a vision.
Based on the research literature from other fields, organizations undergoing a change process
52

benefit from clear goals and a shared vision (Clark & Estes, 2008; Dixon, 1996; Northouse,
2016). The organizational change occurring at the CPA involves identifying goals and
articulating a clear vision related to using evidence-based learning methodologies in training
recruits. This study operationalizes articulating a clear vision by exploring the formal and
informal messages that the CPA instructors have received through the onboarding, training, and
development processes regarding the CPA’s training philosophy, values, and beliefs.
Table 4 shows the organization model and setting influences for the Centralized Police
Academy.

Table 4
Organizational Influences
Organizational Influence
Category
Organizational Influences
Cultural Model Influence 1 The organization needs to value the role of the academy in
relation to 21
st
century policing.
Cultural Setting Influence 1 The organization needs to prioritize staff training and
instructor resources.
Cultural Setting Influence 2 The organization needs to clearly articulate its vision for a
transition toward evidence-based learning methodologies as
the foundation of its program design.

53

Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is Clark and Estes Gap Analysis. The
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences interact with one another, moving the
organization toward the goal of having 100% of training informed by evidence-based learning
principles.
This study's overarching influence is how the Centralized Police Academy values the
needs of 21st century policing and aligns training accordingly. External influences, such as the
desired outcome of stakeholders and political influences, play a role in shaping the
organization’s training philosophies. Philosophies shape the decisions regarding the academy’s
model, training content, and delivery methods so that each aligns to meet stakeholders' current
needs. Ensuring alignment with current stakeholder needs requires continual assessment of
models, content, and delivery methods.
The organization’s vision articulates to stakeholders, values and decisions about the
organizational philosophy. The organization’s vision shapes the allocation of resources,
determines what is measured, and strategically focuses attention. The CPA vision articulates to
stakeholders goals and a plan regarding the organizational change. Transitioning the academy to
one that is based on evidence impacts stakeholders in multiple ways. Training staff are expected
to learn new job skills, and a clear vision helps them understand their role in the process.
Additionally, an organization’s attention to internal influences helps to sustain change
initiatives. Attention to work processes, material resources, and alignment with staff training and
development are essential factors. This study focuses on one stakeholder group, the CPA
instructors. The CPA staff needs to learn new skills to implement the change successfully.
Ongoing professional development and support help sustain the change.
54

Aligned with the organization's vision, staff training serves to develop the instructors’
knowledge. These knowledge influences include procedural and declarative knowledge
regarding new and different training delivery methods as well as metacognition. Instructors need
to understand evidence-based learning principles and develop the skills to use the methodologies.
Instructors' ability to reflect upon and self-assess their knowledge and skills contributes to their
ability to deliver evidence-based training.
The final influences in the conceptual framework relate to the academy instructor’s
motivation. The instructor’s self-efficacy, or belief in their ability to learn and utilize new
training methodologies, and the utility value placed on such methods, impacts their performance.
All of these influences contribute to the Centralized Police Academy's capacity to fully
implement evidence-based training, as diagrammed in Figure 1.

55

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the research literature related to police academy
training. Topics included a general understanding of academy training, the purpose, the lack of
standardized oversight, and a description of academy attendees. An overview of the various
types of academies explored stress-based, nonstress-based, and balanced academies and each's
philosophies. The literature related to training delivery was introduced, including traditional
structural methods such as block and siloed training in addition to traditional delivery methods
56

such as the reliance on lectures and war stories by instructors. Academy instructors are often
current or former officers and often subject matter experts. Instructors are typically required to
obtain an instructor certification to teach at an academy.
Additionally, this chapter summarized the research literature regarding practices that
contribute to the retention and transfer of learning. These evidence-based practices include
applying adult learning principles, linking training with perceived utility value, managing learner
cognitive load, providing opportunities for retrieval practice, building contextual interference,
distributing and varying practice, focusing on goal-directed practice, and the use of effective
feedback. This chapter summarized how these practices and methodologies could be used to
develop evidence-based academy training.
Lastly, this chapter introduces the knowledge, motivation, organization (KMO)
framework, and influences related to the CPA instructors. Under declarative knowledge,
instructors need to know and understand evidence-based learning principles. Under procedural
knowledge, instructors need to be able to deliver training using evidence-based learning
methodologies. The last knowledge influence covered is metacognition, or the instructor's ability
to assess their knowledge and skill in delivering training using evidence-based learning
methodologies.
Motivation influences explored in the literature include self-efficacy and the relationship
to the instructor's willingness to stick with new skills and overcome obstacles. Instructor utility
value examines the role of an instructor's beliefs on motivation in relation to instructors adopting
new educational strategies.
The final section examines organizational influences on instructors' ability to deliver
training grounded in evidence-based principles and ultimately achieve the CPA's goal. The
57

research includes an introduction to cultural models and settings. The primary cultural model
explored is the influence of external factors on the CPA organizational culture and how that
influences academy training. Two cultural settings are introduced, the organization’s
prioritization of staff training and instructor resources aligned with a clear vision regarding
training based on the research.

58

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of the study is to explore and understand the capacity of the Centralized
Police Academy instructors to utilize evidence-based learning methodologies to enhance student
learning and ultimately support organizational performance. The stakeholder goal is by
September 2021, 100% of CPA instructors will implement evidence-based learning practices in
their training delivery. This section provides an overview of the study methodology, data
collection procedures, and analysis. Additionally, this section addresses ethics and the role of the
researcher with the Centralized Police Academy.
Research Questions
The study's conceptual framework was Clark and Estes Gap Analysis, which examines
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting stakeholder performance.
The research questions were as follows:
1. What is the academy instructor’s knowledge and motivation related to evidence-based
learning principles and methodologies?
2. How do the organizational and external influences impact the academy instructor’s
capacity to deliver training using evidence-based learning methodologies?
3. What are the knowledge, motivational, and organizational recommendations to support
the delivery of evidence-based learning practices?
Overview of Methodology
The examination of the Centralized Police Academy’s capacity to fully implement
training methodologies that are grounded in evidence on what works rather than tradition was
conducted through a mixed-methods study. A mixed-methods study incorporates data from both
quantitative and qualitative measures (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Sequentially using multiple
59

data collection methods can generate a robust understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting instructors at the Centralized Police Academy. Multiple data
collection methods help confirm what a participant reports about their beliefs about their
practices and their actual behaviors (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). See Table 5 for a depiction of
sources related to research questions.

Table 5
Data Sources
Research Questions Survey Interview Observation
What is the CPA instructor’s knowledge and
motivation related to evidence-based learning
principles and methodologies?

X X X
How do the organizational and external
influences impact the CPA instructor’s capacity
to deliver training using evidence-based learning
methodologies?
X X

60

Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis Plan
In this study, qualitative methods were used to explore quantitative data further. This
method of inquiry is known as explanatory sequential. The first phase of the study was a survey
of the CPA instructors. This was followed by instructor interviews and classroom observations,
which further informed the survey data.
Instructor Survey
In the first phase of the study, an anonymous survey was administered online to
instructors at the Centralized Police Academy. A survey provides quantitative data regarding the
attitudes and opinions of a population (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A survey generates a broad
perspective that can be further narrowed and clarified through individual interviews.
The study’s research questions focused on instructor motivation influences and
organizational influences that impacted instructors' use of evidence-based learning
methodologies. The rationale for using a survey as a data collection method was that self-
reported information such as motivation could be quantifiably measured (Robinson & Leonard,
2019). Additionally, a survey is an effective means to capture data from a large group with
minimal resources (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Using an online survey tool was the best
method for the CPA instructors due to its being economical in both time and resources.
Additionally, using an online tool was most appropriate for COVID-19 mitigation efforts. Most
CPA instructors worked in other areas of the state, coming on-site only to teach a class when
assigned. Many of the instructors worked full-time for a police agency, which would include
varying shifts and workloads. An online survey helped reach a large number of instructors and
allowed them to complete the survey at their convenience. Lastly, because the study focus
included understanding the instructors' perceived value regarding evidence-based training, an
61

anonymous survey may have encouraged willingness and candid responses using a respondent-
centered design (Robinson & Leonard, 2019).
Participating Stakeholders
The population for this study was the CPA instructors. Although the CPA had over 300
authorized instructors across various programs, this study focused on the Basic Police program.
Therefore, typical purposeful sampling ensured insight from the most relevant population
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Sampling criteria included only those instructors who are authorized
to teach for the Basic Police program instead of a different public safety discipline such as
corrections. This single-stage sampling procedure allowed for an invitation to all Basic Police
instructors to participate in the survey, representing the average or typical instructor at CPA.
When the survey was distributed, 266 instructors (N = 266) met the study's criteria and received
invitations to complete the survey.
Instrumentation
The study did not use or adapt an existing survey tool due to the stakeholder population's
unique focus. Still, existing survey resources were used to inform the drafting of survey items
and responses. One such resource was a survey for undergraduate college students who
participate in student-centered learning (Wiggins et al., 2017). The questions from this student
survey informed how to asses a similar experience from the instructors’ perspective. Related
survey items included activity value (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91) and instructor contribution
(Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78) (Wiggins et al., 2017). Another resource was a survey for nursing
professionals to assess factors influencing training transfer (Bai et al., 2018). Related survey
items included the training program's validity, including environment and training methods
(Cronbach’s alpha = .965). Bandura’s guide for constructing self-efficacy scales (2006) was used
62

to construct survey items and responses relating to instructors’ confidence in delivering training
using various instructional methods. A final resource used in the construction of survey response
options was the Likert Scale Examples for Surveys (Brown, 2010).
The online survey was generated using Qualtrics. Survey items were drafted to align with
the study research questions. The survey included closed-ended questions with response items,
including a Likert-type and ranking. While providing a Likert scale midpoint created an
opportunity for participants to overuse the neutral option, not providing a neutral option may
have forced a choice resulting in measurement error; both generate a risk of less useful data
(Robinson & Leonard, 2019). For bipolar rating scales, such as satisfied-dissatisfied or agree-
disagree, a 5-point Likert scale avoided forcing respondents to choose a side where they may
legitimately have a neutral or no opinion (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Where appropriate, a
Don’t Know option was available to differentiate between choices where a participant may
legitimately have no opinion versus not knowing what the question is asking. These values were
dropped during analysis.
Survey questions aligned with the study’s research questions focusing on knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. The question stems included items regarding the
instructors' familiarity and understanding of evidence-based learning principles and
methodologies, their self-reported ability to use these methods, and their self-reported ability to
self-assess. The survey included items to uncover instructors’ self-efficacy in delivering training
using evidence-based learning methods and gleaning an understanding of the value or lack of
these principles. Lastly, the survey included items to gather data on the organization’s processes,
communication, and messaging contributing to the instructors’ experience. Examples of survey
questions included (Q4) As an instructor, I feel it is important for me to learn new teaching
63

methodologies, (Q5) The instructor development process prepared me to teach for the Basic
Police Program, (Q11) I feel confident in my ability to make learning decisions in the moment,
such as when to end a discussion or leave out material due to time, (Q12) How often do you use
an active instructional method, such as a small group activity, problem-solving exercise, or case
study analysis when teaching a basic police class?, and (Q15) As an instructor, I find the class
resources useful. The complete survey instrument is included in Appendix B.
Data Collection Procedures
Based on pilot testing, the survey required approximately 10 minutes for participants to
complete. The survey was cross-sectional, collecting all data at one time. Survey data was
collected online and analyzed in Qualtrics. The data was reviewed prior to phase two of the study
to inform the lines of interview questioning. The CPA instructor database included all instructor
email addresses, which served as the primary means of contact. An email was sent to the
instructor pool via Qualtrics, describing the survey's purposes and voluntariness. Additionally,
the email included a link to the survey for those who volunteered to complete it. The survey
remained open for three weeks.
Data Analysis
Survey data was analyzed in Qualtrics using descriptive statistics, including measures of
central tendency, frequencies, and measures of dispersion. Descriptive statistics describe the
characteristics of a data set (Salkind & Frey, 2020). Also, the following steps were completed.
First, information about the participants was reported, including the number of participants in the
population (N = 266) and the response rate (n = 90). Next, any potential response bias, the effect
of nonresponse of survey data, was analyzed (Fowler, 2014). A descriptive analysis of the survey
data, including measures of central tendency, frequencies, and measures of dispersion followed.
64

Interval data, such as the 1-10 self-efficacy scale, was used to describe the population
using the median (center) and mean (average). For example, on average, instructors feel
completely confident (10) to facilitate a class discussion, versus instructors feel not confident (1)
to run a small group activity. Bandura (2006) recommends analysis of self-efficacy for groups
with low system interdependence utilize the sum of the individual responses rather than an
aggregated holistic index of collective efficacy more suited for teamwork.
Validity and Reliability
The concepts of validity and reliability are essential in quantitative research. Validity
involves checking for accuracy in findings by employing certain procedures (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Validity includes both an internal and external paradigm. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) distinguish the two. Internal validity is defined as the extent to which a relationship can
be inferred between two variables. In contrast, external validity involves the extent to which the
causal relationship applies across different people, settings, and times. Reliability is related to the
researcher's practices, ensuring the approach is consistent (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Like
validity, there is internal and external reliability, which Lincoln and Guba (1985) also
distinguish. Internal reliability is defined as the extent to which researchers collect, analyze, and
interpret data consistently within a study. In contrast, external reliability is the extent to which
other researchers can reproduce a study and its results. This study used multiple strategies to
minimize validity threats.
The first strategy to minimize internal validity threats was related to the construction of
the survey tool. Survey items were drafted to align with the study research questions and
concepts by examining surveys of instructors in other institutions and surveys regarding the
transfer of training. Next, a pilot survey was used to test the relationship between variables. A
65

small group of CPA staff who were not the target stakeholder group, in addition to a small group
of education professionals, participated in a pilot test of the survey. Testing the survey questions
in advance of the study ensured that the survey questions aligned with the research questions.
Additionally, pilot testing allowed for an examination of the question stem and response option
alignment and relevance.
The second strategy was to utilize an external review. In this study, the survey protocol
was reviewed by an external researcher with substantial experience in quantitative research and
my dissertation committee. The reviewers provided feedback and suggestions on question stems,
response options, and the number of response options.
The third strategy to minimize external validity threats was the use of a large,
representative sample. In this study, all of the basic police instructors authorized to teach at the
CPA were invited to participate (N = 266). Including all authorized instructors invited a diverse
perspective. While only using the survey with the same respondents in the future can determine
reliability over time, the survey would likely produce similar results.
Related to reliability, a standardized survey and data collection method was used for all
participants. The survey protocol is provided in Appendix B. Details regarding the study
methods, sample, and research site are described.
Instructor Interviews
In the second phase of the study, CPA instructors were invited to participate in a semi-
structured interview. An interview provides qualitative data in circumstances where behaviors
and feelings cannot be observed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview data was used to gain
a deeper understanding of the quantitative data obtained through the survey.
66

The studies’ research questions focus on instructor knowledge and motivation influences
as well as organizational influences that impact instructors' use of evidence-based learning
methodologies. The rationale for using qualitative interviews as a data collection method is
interviewing is well suited to elicit views and opinions from the participants, and interviews are a
useful tool when participants cannot be directly observed (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Participating Stakeholders
The population for this study was the CPA instructors. The same 266 participants invited
to take the survey were also invited to participate in an interview by contacting the researcher via
email. Fourteen instructors initially volunteered and were offered interview times in the order in
which they volunteered. The goal was to interview eight to ten participants, and eight volunteers
followed through with scheduling an interview. It is unknown if the interview participants also
completed the survey, although all eight received the survey invitation.
Instrumentation
The study interview protocol was semi-structured, including a mix of more and less
structured questions, flexibility, a list of questions to guide the interview, and no predetermined
order (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Due to my role at the CPA, I was familiar with the participant
population and environment. This familiarity helped in crafting meaningful questions.
The KMO gap analysis was the framework for this study (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Interview questions are derived from the three research questions. The questions explored
procedural, declarative, and metacognitive knowledge influences; motivation influences
including self-efficacy and value; and organizational influences, including cultural settings and
models, impacting instructors. The study interest was the participant experiences in relation to
their capacity to accomplish the stated stakeholder goal; therefore, the questions were based on
67

Patton’s six types of questions, including experience and behavior questions, opinion and values
questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and demographic
questions (Patton, 2002). Examples of interview questions included (Q1) What was it about the
Basic Police program that made you want to be an instructor? (Q6) Think about the last class you
taught. Walk me through what you did to prepare for this assignment? (Q7) Think about your
experiences in the classroom. What strategies do you find effective to engage recruits? (Q9)
What do you see as the value of facilitated learning, if any? And (Q13) What kinds of challenges
do instructors face? The interview protocol is included in Appendix C.
Data Collection Procedures
Although in-person interviews and observations would typically be feasible for this
population, due to COVID-19, interviews were conducted virtually using Zoom. Based on
interview pilot testing, interviews were expected to take 1 hour and 15 minutes each, but they
took approximately 90 minutes each in practice. The Zoom platform operated as a recording
device for one-on-one interviews. Audio or video was only recorded with the interviewee's
explicit permission, and the researcher destroyed the recordings once no longer needed for this
study. To protect the interviewee, the recording feature was turned off by default when starting
each meeting with the interviewees until permission to commence recording was obtained from
the interviewee. For any interviewees not comfortable with a Zoom recording, even in an audio-
only format where their video was blank, and the name is masked, permission would have been
requested to record using a phone or other device. Finally, if an interviewee were not to provide
the approval to record the session in any form, the researcher would have taken notes during the
meeting by hand to capture the interviewee’s responses to the protocol questions. Interview
transcripts were generated from the available transcription via Zoom or through the third-party
68

transcription service Rev. Virtual interviews, video and transcription storage, and data analysis
occurred off-campus to help ensure confidentiality and privacy for participants.
Data Analysis
After transcribing the interviews, the data was organized for analysis, including typing
field notes and sorting and arranging data. The process involved looking at the data as a whole to
gauge general ideas and tones. Analysis of interview data included coding the data then
aggregating the data into themes using Atlas.ti and Microsoft Word. Creswell and Creswell
(2018) recommend winnowing data into five to seven themes or categories. Themes are
represented in narrative form in the study findings.
The KMO framework served as the primary source of priori codes in the interview
protocol. Identified codes included instructor knowledge- procedural, declarative, metacognitive;
motivation- self-efficacy and task value; and organizational influences- cultural settings and
cultural models. Additional themes not already considered were identified based on the data
provided by participants.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
For qualitative research to be considered trustworthy, the researcher must demonstrate a
rigorous process was followed. The data's trustworthiness is directly related to the researcher's
trustworthiness, namely, rigorous thinking (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data analysis should be
precise, consistent, and exhaustive, with methods described in enough detail so that the reader
may assess the process's credibility (Nowell et al., 2017). Trustworthiness includes the four
paradigms of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) distinguish the four paradigms.
69

Credibility is related to internal validity or how research findings match reality (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Credibility is defined as research findings that are plausible, believable, and
accurate (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Transferability is compared to external validity. It is defined
as the extent to which findings apply to other situations (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Dependability is the consistency, trackability, and logic of the research design
and process, similar to internal reliability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lastly, Lincoln and Guba
(1985) define confirmability as the ability to track data back to the source via fieldnotes,
interviews, and observations related to external reliability or the ability to replicate findings.
Maxwell (2013) described different processes to address quantitative and qualitative
validity threats. While quantitative approaches are based on the study design, including sampling
and statistical analysis methods, in contrast, qualitative approaches occur after evidence has been
collected. The use of multiple procedures, such as triangulating multiple data sources, member
checking, clarifying researcher bias, presenting discrepant information, and using an external
auditor, are examples of ways to ensure trustworthiness (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Several recommended procedures were included in this study process to ensure
trustworthiness.
A qualitative study requires rich and descriptive data. To ensure quality data, the
interviewer used follow-up questions as appropriate. This encouraged elaborative descriptions
and additional insights from the study participants. The researcher interviewed eight participants,
continuing to collect data until reaching a point of saturation.
The first strategy to improve trustworthiness employed in this study focused on
credibility. In this study, triangulation was used, meaning multiple methods and data sources
were collected and examined. Triangulation helps ensure data quality. The survey, interview, and
70

observation data were compared, looking for recurring themes and cross-checking with one
another. An additional method related to triangulation was to ensure adequate engagement in the
data collection. This meant collecting data from a number of participants with diverse
perspectives. The entire Basic Police instructor pool was invited to participate in the survey,
seeking their collective perceptions and experiences. Instructors across the pool would have
different experiences, and including them all, rather than selecting a sample, would ensure a
robust perspective. The subsequent interview sample purposefully sought variation or diversity,
drawing from instructors with different perspectives, lengths of experience, and different
teaching experiences. An instructor who teaches primarily in the classroom may have a different
perspective than an instructor who teaches primarily in a skills venue, such as the firearms range
or arrest and control tactics mat room. Maximum variation sampling helped provide a thick
description and a detailed description of the setting and findings. It can help others decide if the
research findings might be transferable to a population they are interested in (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Steps were taken throughout the study process to capture and report findings accurately.
These steps are related to dependability and confirmability. Interviews were recorded,
transcribed, and analyzed. A careful data trail was maintained, making an audit of the findings
accessible. Additionally, all findings were reported to demonstrate the findings emerged from the
data and not researcher predispositions. Researcher predisposition is related to the final strategy,
researcher bias.
This study's final trustworthiness strategy examined researcher bias, which is explored
further in the following section. The researcher’s relationship with the Basic Police Program
instructors is an essential consideration in this study. Although not a position of power or
71

authority, such as a supervisory position, my position is influential. I engaged in ongoing critical
self-reflection regarding assumptions, world views, biases, and other relationships that could
affect the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Instructor Observations
In the third phase of the study, the CPA instructors were observed delivering training.
With observations, the data collection takes in the setting where the behavior of interest occurs
and provides a firsthand account of the behavior (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Observations
provide valuable qualitative data when behaviors can be observed firsthand (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Observation results further served to triangulate the data collected through both surveys
and interviews.
Participating Stakeholders
The observation participants included CPA instructors who were delivering basic police
training in the classroom during the observation period. Instructors delivering training in other
venues, such as the mat room, firearms range, driving track, and mock village, were not included
due to the limitations of the collection procedures. These participants came from the same
population (N = 266) of authorized basic police instructors. All participants would have received
an invitation to complete the survey, but whether they completed the survey is unknown. All
participants would have also received an invitation to participate in the interviews. Two of the
randomly selected observation participants had also participated in the interviews. All
participants were sent an email providing information about the study in advance of the
observation period. Due to unexpected circumstances occurring during the data collection period,
there were numerous last-minute changes affecting sessions, including date, time, location, and
72

instructor changes. While all of the randomly selected sessions were recorded, the sessions did
not all occur at the planned times or with the originally scheduled instructor.
Instrumentation
Observations primarily utilized quantitative observation, using a structured protocol to
record incidents of specific instructor behavior related to the research questions. Qualitative
observations supplemented the protocol, particularly concerning the depth or extent of use of
instructional methodologies. Some observed behaviors from the protocol included the following
examples: 1) Instructor helps learners link content to job relevance, 2) Instructor asks learners to
describe what they know about a topic, and 3) Instructor engages learners in a variety of
instructional methods. The complete observation protocol is located in Appendix D.
Data Collection Procedures
Four student cohorts were engaged in training during the data collection period. The four
cohort training schedules were collected, and all classroom sessions taking place during the data
collection window were placed into an Excel spreadsheet. There were 66 separate classroom
sessions taking place during the data collection window. A random number generator was used
to select 10 of the 66 sessions for observation. This process ensured a random sampling of CPA
instructors, student cohorts, and topics. Observed sessions ranged in duration from one to eight
hours. No more than the first two hours of any session was included in the observations.
Observations occurred using a complete observer approach. Due to restrictions from
COVID-19, observations occurred via an unattended video recording rather than in-person.
Cameras with external microphones were set up in the selected classrooms before the session
start and collected upon the end of the session. Each observation was individually stored on a
Secure Digital (SD) card and assigned a reference number.
73

Data Analysis
In this study, the instructional practices were of interest. Data from the observations
provided insight into the consistency of instructors’ self-assessment of their practices and the
extent of practices demonstrated in the classroom. Examining the classroom environment, such
as student role or other factors influencing instruction, helped deepen the understanding of
instructor practices.
After recording the observations, the data was organized for analysis. The researcher
watched each video and took detailed notes. The observation notes included tracking behaviors
identified in the observation protocol as well as a verbal description of the setting, people,
activities, direct quotations, and observer comments. Observation data analysis included coding
the data and generating themes.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In qualitative research, trustworthiness includes four paradigms: credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Lincoln and Guba (1985) define each: 1)
Credibility means findings are plausible, believable, and accurate, 2) Transferability is the extent
to which findings apply to other situations, 3) Dependability is the consistency, trackability, and
logic of the research design and process, and 4) Confirmability is the ability to track data back to
the source or the ability to replicate findings.
Credibility and trustworthiness, related to observations, involve collecting rich data or
detailed notes or videos of the events observed (Maxwell, 2013). To ensure rich and descriptive
data, the researcher observed sessions via video recording. Ten classroom sessions were selected
randomly, varying in topic, length, instructor, and student body. A random selection of events
prevented researcher bias in the selection process.
74

When used as a research tool, observations must be systematic and be subject to rigorous
checks and balances (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the use of an observation protocol
to guide the coding process reduced subjectivity. The inability to conduct observations in person
limited data from the larger classroom context. To ensure credibility and trustworthiness in video
observations, Curby et al. (2016) recommend only coding what is visible on-screen and not
making any inferences about behavior that is happening off-screen.
Reflexivity is the continuous process of reflecting on data gathering and analysis to
ensure researcher bias and positionality do not influence data collection and analysis. As an
inside researcher, there is an opportunity for a deep understanding of the phenomena under study
and the context in which it occurs (Barrett et al., 2020). This understanding can be advantageous
when interpreting the data and relating it to elements discovered in the literature. Positionality
also relates to the selection of research questions. Due to the researcher’s role in the
organization, there was an expectation of seeing some evidence-based learning methodologies
during this study's classroom observations. This study explored the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on instructors in implementing such practices. The practices, or
absence of practices, by individual instructors was not the issue being explored, but rather what
factors contributed to the practices or lack thereof were the study’s focus. This distinction was an
important lens for data interpretation and analysis.
Lastly, as previously identified, triangulation between the survey, interview, and
observation data helped ensure rich, descriptive data and reduced bias in both interpretation and
participant self-report. While the reliance on self-reported knowledge and motivation by
instructors could have contained participants' bias and may not have aligned with their actual
behaviors, the inclusion of systematic observations allows for a more robust study where
75

evidence-based learning methodologies could be examined for actual use and evaluated for
fidelity to the model.
Ethics and Role of the Researcher
Due to the study involving human subject participants, the study adhered to the
institutional review board (IRB) guidelines to ensure the research methods did not pose a risk of
harm to participants during the process. Participants were informed of the study's purpose, and
steps were taken to ensure they understood participation was strictly voluntary. Participants were
provided with information sheets before participation. The Information Sheet can be found in
Appendix E. Participant information was kept separate from any data collected to protect
participants' anonymity from their responses. All findings, positive or negative, were included in
the analysis. Findings are shared with the organization and made available to interested
stakeholders.
An issue of positionality facing the study was that I conducted the study as an internal
researcher. I was a current employee of the Centralized Police Academy. At the time of the
study, I did not serve in a management position and did not provide formal supervision over any
study participants. However, my role in the organization included acting as the change agent and
influential force behind the shift in training methodologies. Additionally, I served as an
instructional developer and had provided basic instructor training for many CPA instructors. This
role placed me in a unique relationship with the CPA instructors who may have had positive or
negative feelings about the changes occurring at the academy and any efforts to prepare them to
make the changes. This positionality may have created concern amongst participants regarding
the anonymity and confidentiality of the data and may have influenced instructor responses
76

(Robinson & Leonard, 2019). As the researcher, I needed to be aware of, account for, and
question my biases and assumptions to mitigate influence.
One consideration to mitigate any possible conflict would have been to use a proxy to
conduct the interviews. Maxwell (2013) identified that it is impossible to entirely eliminate
researcher theories, beliefs, and perceptual lenses from a study. Instead, it is important to
understand how the researcher's values and expectations may have influenced the study. In this
study, the researcher had a deep understanding of the basic police program and was invested in
constant program improvement. The data obtained through this study, positive or negative,
would help drive future program decisions. Any future solutions were dependent on establishing
an accurate understanding of the problem. For example, suppose the data revealed that
instructors did not understand evidence-based learning principles. In that case, that would be a
different problem than the instructor's lack of self-efficacy in implementing the methods. Those
are different problems than an instructor’s lack of utility value for the methods or the
organization’s lack of adequate resources for instructors. Each problem had different solutions,
and strengthening the program would only be possible with accurate data. Due to the value of the
researcher’s understanding of these differences, a proxy was not used. Instead, transparency
efforts acknowledged any potential impact of the researcher's values and expectations.
To mitigate the potential impact of my role as an internal researcher on study
participants, I practiced ongoing self-awareness of any assumptions and biases regarding my
expectations of the instructor's abilities and enthusiasm for the training methods. The
researcher’s position, or reflexivity, describes how the researcher affects and is affected by the
research process (Probst & Berenson, 2014). In qualitative research, the researcher serves as the
primary data collection instrument, making the identification of personal values, assumptions,
77

and biases critical at the outset (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
identified the importance of critical self-reflection by the researcher to examine these
assumptions and biases that may affect the study. As the catalyst for the CPA program changes, I
expected that instructors had bought into the changes. As an instructor trainer, I had expectations
that instructors could deliver training in a way that aligned with evidence-based learning
principles. Although every effort was made to ensure researcher objectivity, these assumptions
and biases may shape how I viewed, understood, and interpreted the data.
To further mitigate conflict, I made great efforts to distinguish my role as a researcher as
separate from my role as a program and instructional developer. This included providing a clear
description of the purpose of the study. It would be used to develop an understanding of the
CPA's capacity to implement change and not as a means to evaluate individual instructor
performance. Communication with participants was conducted using my university email
address rather than my organization email. Strict attention was paid to any ethical issues that may
have arisen. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) provide an ethical issue checklist that my study
followed. Actions included clearly articulating the purpose of the study and stating that the data
would not be used by the organization in any way to impact one’s instructor status. Ensuring and
maintaining the confidentiality of participants was of utmost importance. This boundary was
articulated to managers and leadership to set clear expectations before the start of data collection.
One possible issue that could have arisen would be a manager inquiring about an instructor's
abilities or attitudes after interviewing or observing them, especially if there was any concern
about this person as an instructor. Another example would have included discovering that an
instructor did not meet organizational expectations or would benefit from further training, yet
these were issues I could not share regarding individuals. To further protect participants, I
78

informed management and leadership that I would summarize all of my dissertation findings and
make recommendations that the organization may find useful. Still, I would not be providing
confidential details regarding the participants who volunteered to participate in the study.
A final issue impacting this study's ethics was the greater context under which study
participants were operating. At the time of data collection, that context included the threat of
organizational budget cuts impacting staffing and workload, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic,
significant wildfires resulting in statewide mass evacuations and working in hazardous air
conditions, and nightly civil unrest over national concerns of police brutality. While work at the
CPA continued throughout these challenges due to the nature of the organization’s mission, this
likely impacted participants' health and well-being. These factors may have influenced the
participation and perceptions of the instructors.
To mitigate these issues, I was conscientious of the impact of perceptions and
participants' current environment. I attempted to be thoughtful and sensitive when I sent out
requests for volunteers, how I respected instructor time and boundaries, and how I messaged the
study's purpose. For example, I messaged the purpose as part of a research study rather than an
organizational assessment that may result in decisions about positions.
The Impact of COVID-19
This study's participants were impacted personally and professionally by COVID-19
during the period leading to, during, and after data collection. The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) describe COVID-19 as a novel coronavirus easily spread by respiratory
droplets between individuals in close contact with one another. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), COVID-19 was first discovered in December 2019 after a cluster of
pneumonia-type cases in Wuhan, China, surfaced. WHO declared the virus a global pandemic on
79

March 12, 2020 (Ciotti et al., 2020). By January 1, 2021, COVID-19 had resulted in over
347,000 deaths in the United States, according to the New York Times COVID Tracking Project
(https://covidtracking.com). Additional impacts included school closures, resource shortages, and
economic uncertainty as communities and businesses shut down due to government mandates.
The Centralized Police Academy stopped operations due to positive COVID-19 cases on
campus in March 2020. Due to the CPA being considered essential, the academy resumed
operations in May 2020 under COVID-19 protocols. Operating under COVID-19 protocols
limited the number of individuals on campus and moved training activities into larger makeshift
classrooms or outdoor spaces when possible. The use of part-time staff was significantly reduced
during this time as training modifications were made. Additionally, part-time staff who also
worked as first responders became less available for teaching assignments. Data collection for
this study began in September 2020. By this time, some participants had neither been on campus
nor taught a class for six months.

80

Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this project was to explore the degree to which the CPA has the capacity
to achieve its goal of grounding 100% of its training delivery in evidence-based learning
principles. Multiple sources of quantitative and qualitative data were collected for this study.
Specifically, surveys, interviews, and observation data were collected to understand the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of the Centralized Police Academy
instructors in relation to the stakeholder goal. The study began with an online survey distributed
to 266 CPA instructors. Following the survey, eight instructors participated in semi-structured
interviews. The final data collection component was the random observation of 10 classroom
sessions. Each influence was assessed based on the data and identified as either an asset or a
need. Influences were determined to be a need for the Centralized Police Academy if the data
showed less than 80% understanding, application, or identification by participants. This chapter
describes the study participants and then identifies results and findings first from the survey, then
the interviews, and concluding with results and findings from the observations.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus were CPA instructors, both full and part-time. At the time of
data collection, the CPA employed 226 part-time instructors and 40 full-time individuals who,
among their duties, provide instruction. The study focused on the instructors' knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences related to applying evidence-based learning principles
to their training delivery.
Survey Participants
An invitation to complete the voluntary survey was emailed to 266 full and part-time
Centralized Police Academy instructors. All invited participants had authorizations to teach in
81

the Basic Police program. Ninety participants completed at least part of the survey. Of those who
participated, the majority had been an instructor at the academy for more than nine years (Figure
2). Additionally, most participants (81%) were current or former certified police officers.

Figure 2
Academy Instructor Years of Experience (n = 59)

53%
5%
12%
12%
19%
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
More than 9 years
7-8 years
5-6 years
3-4 years
1-2 years
Less than 1 year
Percent of Instructors
Years of Experience
82

Interview Participants
Invitations to participate in the voluntary interviews were extended to all 266 full and
part-time CPA instructors. Fourteen individuals initially volunteered to participate, and eight
followed through with the interview. Because only 14% of CPA instructors were female, all
interview participants were identified in this study by a gender-neutral number to protect their
anonymity. The majority of instructors at the CPA were part-time (85%). Instructors taught in
various environments. Some taught solely in a classroom setting. Others taught solely in a skills
venue, such as firearms on the shooting range, arrest and control tactics in the mat room,
emergency vehicle operations on the driving track, or scenario application in the mock village.
Some instructors taught in a combination of classroom and skills venues. Interview participants
included full and part-time instructors who taught in various environments, as shown in Table 6.

Table 6
Interview Participants
Instructor Authorized Venues Status
Participant 1 Classroom Part-Time
Participant 2 Classroom and Skills Part-Time
Participant 3 Classroom Part-Time
Participant 4 Skills Part-Time
Participant 5 Classroom and Skills Full-Time
Participant 6 Classroom and Skills Part-Time
Participant 7 Classroom Full-Time
Participant 8 Skills Part-Time

83

Observation Participants
All observations took place in classroom settings due to the inability to conduct COVID-
19 compliant observations in dynamic skills venues. Ten classroom sessions were randomly
selected from the training schedule for observation. All instructors of the randomly selected
sessions agreed to participate in the observations. For COVID-19 observation compliance,
cameras with external microphones were set up in each selected classroom, and the observations
were conducted via the session recording. Observed course topics and instructor status is
described in Table 7.

Table 7
Observation Participants
Observation Course Section Instructor(s)
Observation 1 Legal Part-Time
Observation 2 Patrol Procedures Full-Time
Observation 3 Community Relations Full-Time
Observation 4 Legal Full-Time
Observation 5 Behavioral Health Full & Part-Time
Observation 6 Community Relations Part-Time
Observation 7 Investigations Full-Time
Observation 8 Investigations Full-Time
Observation 9 Officer Wellness Full-Time
Observation 10 Community Relations Full-Time & Guest Speaker

84

Research Question One: What is the CPA Instructor’s Knowledge and Motivation Related
to Effective Learning Principles?
Decades of research from education and cognitive psychology provide numerous
methods to enhance learning. Applying principles explored in Chapter Two, including
foundational theories such as adult learning, active learning, and cognitive load theory, can help
shift academy instructors' training delivery from a traditional to an evidence-based learning
approach. Additionally, applying concepts such as retrieval practice, interleaving, feedback, and
metacognition to academy training delivery can improve learning and retention for recruits. The
ability to shift from traditional delivery methods to these evidence-based methods depends on the
individual instructor's knowledge and motivation and various organizational influences.
Research question one examined the knowledge and motivation of CPA instructors as it related
to these learning concepts.
Knowledge Results and Findings
This study found variation in the CPA instructors’ declarative knowledge of evidence-
based learning principles. In the survey, 18% of participants were unable to identify any
elements of evidence-based training. However, only 73% of instructors reported understanding
these principles, as shown in Figure 3. This contradiction may indicate instructors had a general
familiarity with these principles but lacked a depth of understanding. Similarly, in the interviews,
100% of the instructors described at least three elements of evidence-based learning principles.
For example, all interview participants identified the general importance of engaging students in
learning. However, only 62% of the interview participants identified seven to eight
methodologies, demonstrating a clear understanding of evidence-based learning principles. The
stakeholder goal is that 100% of instructors will implement evidence-based learning methods,
85

requiring understanding the principles. While understanding some of these principles was present
in the data, not all principles were well understood. This variation in understanding indicates a
need to increase instructors' declarative knowledge regarding evidence-based learning principles.
The study found even greater variation in the CPA instructors’ procedural knowledge.
Approximately 60% of instructors reported using an active learning methodology every time or
almost every time they teach, as shown in Figure 3. Another 34% reported occasionally using
such a method, and 5% reported they almost never use such a method. When examining specific
methods, there was greater consistency across single methods but significant variation between
methods. An example of consistency across a single method was 88% of instructors reported the
independent ability to ask a variety of questions, 87% discussed varying degrees of question use
as an effective instructional method in the interviews, and 90% demonstrated varying degrees of
the use of questions in observations. However, in an example of variation between methods,
fewer instructors identified the ability to use more abstract practices to develop higher-order
thinking. Only 66% of instructors reported the ability to help students think out loud, and only
63% reported the independent ability to tell the difference between a student knowing something
and understanding it.

86

Figure 3
(Q 17) How Would You Rate Your Understanding of Facilitated Learning? (n = 59), and (Q12)
How Often Do You Use an Active Instructional Method? (n = 58)

The variations in method use, both within a single method and across methods, indicated
gaps in instructors’ procedural knowledge. The interviews and observations demonstrated strong
use of active and adult learning methodologies (small group activities, question use) but weaker
use of retrieval practice (connecting topics, asking why questions, having students justify their
reasoning). There was a gap between current instructional practices and the goal that 100% of
instructors would implement evidence-based learning practices in their training delivery. The
results indicate a need to increase instructor procedural knowledge to bridge this gap in the use
of methodologies and enhance the extent and depth of use.
The study also found a discrepancy in the final knowledge category, metacognition.
Unlike the previous two knowledge categories that focus on the principles and methods, this
73
60
27
40
U N D E R S T A N D U S E
PERCENT OF INSTRUCTORS
Current Goal
87

category focused on CPA instructors’ self-awareness regarding their instructional practices. The
instructors’ metacognitive findings were based on survey and interview data. While in the
survey, instructors self-assessed their abilities as high across thirty-five indicators of evidence-
based learning methodologies, with 75% rating their abilities as advanced or expert. However,
when questioned about their actual self-assessment practices, 50% described feelings of
uncertainty at times. Additionally, 75% of instructors identified a practice of seeking or desiring
external feedback to guide their practice rather than an internal practice of conscious self-
awareness or self-reflection. The results indicate a need to provide instructors additional support
to increase their metacognitive knowledge to bridge this gap.
Instructors Have a General but Shallow Understanding of Evidence-Based Learning
Principles
The CPA instructors need to understand principles of evidence-based learning. This study
found approximately 85% of CPA instructors were able to identify some elements of evidence-
based learning principles, although only 73% reported understanding them. Knowledge was
stronger when related to less complicated principles and methodologies, such as active learning.
Knowledge was weaker regarding more complex concepts, such as retrieval practice or
metacognition.
Survey. The survey solicited the academy instructors' knowledge of evidence-based
learning principles and methodologies through multiple questions. First, instructors were asked
an open-ended question soliciting their declarative knowledge (Q8), “What does it mean for
training to be evidence-based?” Next, participants were asked (Q9) to rate their ability to utilize a
variety of evidence-based learning methodologies and provided an option to select “I do not
88

know what this is.” Last, instructors were asked (Q17), “How would you rate your understanding
of facilitated learning?”
Instructors were asked to describe what it means for training to be evidence-based.
Responses included some terminology, elements of the concept, and the relationships between
some of the elements. The overall responses indicated that 85% of CPA instructors possess a
general understanding of the concept, as shown in Table 8. Responses included terminology such
as data, research, science-based, and peer-reviewed. Responses included elements and the
relationships among elements referencing improved outcomes, greater effectiveness, and
improved learning and confidence. Responses also indicated a recognition of the difference
between traditional academy training methods and evidence-based training.

Table 8
(Q8) What Does it Mean for Training to be Evidence-Based? (n = 54)
Theme Response
Scientific
Basis
Data to support the methods used. Something to show why these methods
work.

Training materials and delivery methods must be based on measurable and
replicable outcomes.

Proven scientific statistical information.

It is training that has been researched and vetted.

There have been studies completed that show the best method or best
information on how to deliver a topic. These same studies should be able to
be duplicated to verify the same results.

Training must be based on factual information and not based on opinion or
emotion.

89

Effectiveness Training techniques that make that training more effective based on scientific
research of those techniques. i.e., things you can do during training, or things
you can include in training that will make it more effective.

Evidence based means that the course material and subject matter is based on
a need established through analysis of data and statistical information. I
would say that the method of instruction should also be evidence-based in that
it also should fall in line with what science says is the best way to teach based
on students’ ability to learn and retain information.

The training is based on verifiable information with a proven record of
positive results or if the training is new and no prior documentation exists
then the outcomes of the training are measurable and can be replicated.

Designed and delivered in a way proven to enhance learning and confidence.
Evolving
Training
To teach techniques that have a basis of fact. Proven techniques or concepts,
not teaching something “because we've always done it that way.” Keeping up
with new techniques.

Substantive peer-reviewed studies should contribute to content and delivery.
Anecdotes and tradition are not evidence.

Essentially that the instruction is based on studies, research, data collection
and empirical evidence. We have taught based on "what we've done for
years," and that doesn't always work.

It means that we don't just do what we've always done, because that is the
way we've always done it. We test methods, look for new ways to improve,
and institute new practices as better and more improved methods, tactics, etc.
are brought to light.

While 85% of participants demonstrated some understanding of evidence-based learning
principles, 15% did not, as shown in Table 9. While sometimes including evidence-based
learning elements, some instructor responses leaned more heavily on traditional training
practices based on utility or opinion. Only two responses openly indicated no understanding, and
one response dismissed the concept entirely.
90

Table 9
(Q8) What Does it Mean for Training to be Evidence-Based? (n = 54)
Theme Response
Experience
Based
That there is a proven validity for the training you are conducting. I.E., a
training scenario based on a real-life incident.

To me this would indicate the training would be based on researched
methodologies from various sources. The sources should be actual police
agencies using the techniques and methodologies and not some academic
who has never had a real job in their lives trying to tell police agencies
what and how they should be doing things.

Training to reflect conditions that occur in the real world, or are based on
real world situations/results.

To me, it means having real-life experience to show, detail, and explain
why the training works, how to apply it in real circumstances, and the after
effect to show how it works.

Training should be based on real life experience and the technique used to
instruct it should be a proven method that has had success.

Lack of
Understanding
Dunno

I have no idea.

Dismissal of
Concept
Really, this is just the new buzz word in LE. Every 5-8 years there is a
new word that we use to try and sound like a way we have done something
in the past is brand new.

The survey used the term ‘facilitated learning’ to represent evidence-based learning
methodologies, which was more commonly used at the CPA. As shown below in Figure 4, most
survey participants reported their understanding of facilitated learning as “excellent” (28.8%) or
“good” (44%). Only 5% of instructors reported “not knowing” what facilitated learning is or
rated their understanding as “poor.”
91

Figure 4
(Q17) How Would you Rate your Understanding of Facilitated Learning? (n = 59)

Few instructors reported they did not know what specific methodologies were. For
example, only two instructors reported not knowing what creating a trusting learning
environment was (n = 60) or varying practice conditions while working toward the same
outcome means (n = 59). The highest discrepancy was 18 instructors reporting not knowing what
interleaving is (n = 59), indicating less familiarity with non-traditional or more complex
methods.
Interviews. The interviews further explored the CPA instructors’ declarative (factual and
procedural) knowledge of evidence-based learning principles and methodologies. Demonstrating
this knowledge was expected to include knowledge of terminology, elements, and the
0%
5%
22%
44%
29%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
Very Poor
Poor
Average
Good
Excellent
Percent of Instructors
Level of Understanding
92

relationships among the basic elements. Instructors were asked (Q7), “What strategies do you
find effective to engage recruits?” All interview participants spoke about the importance of at
least some evidence-based methodologies, as demonstrated in Figure 5. For example, all eight
interview participants discussed the importance of active student engagement, as described by
Participant 4:
The thing that I like to try to do, and that I think we're all working toward, is to get
students involved in everything we're teaching. It's not a one-way firehose of information.
You've got to get them involved, get them thinking, and having them respond.
Additionally, six participants identified the importance of activities (active learning), use of
questions (active learning), and setting the environment (adult learning), as described by
Participant 5, “It's setting the environment itself. You set the tone that it's okay to be wrong. It's
okay to fail. It's okay to swing and miss. Because in the end, we're going to figure it out
together.” Four participants identified utilizing the students' experiences (adult learning),
developing higher-order thinking (active learning), and managing cognitive load, as described by
Participant 2, “Instead of telling them all 20 things that they didn't do correct, give them a
couple, then when they get that down say, okay, now, consider this the next time. Just kind of
building upon it.” Three participants identified the role of problem-solving (adult learning) and
utility value, as described by Participant 6:
You should ask them why it's important. You already have that information, and when
they tell you why it's important to them, you can go, “yes, see, exactly.” Then you don't
have to be the one trying to convince anybody. They just convinced themselves.
Only two instructors spoke of the importance of developing student’s self-efficacy and
confidence, as described by Participant 6:
93

Not only does it increase their own self-efficacy, adults have to believe that they know
something, that they're good at something. They have to get that praise, and I think that
plays into buy-in. Adults also have to know why they should be even investing in this
conversation.

Figure 5
Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies Identified by CPA Instructors (n = 8)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Engage Students in Learning
Use Group Activities
Ask Students Questions
Create Safe Environment
Use Student Experience
Develop Higher-Order Thinking
Manage Cognitive Load
Implement Problem-Solving
Develop Utility Value
Provide Retrieval Practice
Support Student Self-Efficacy
Encourage Student Reflection
Number of Instructors
94

Observations. Instructor declarative knowledge was not assessed via classroom
observations.
Summary. As demonstrated in both the survey and interview data, CPA instructors
possess some knowledge of terminology and elements of evidence-based learning principles and
methodologies. Still, there is significant variation across instructors, as demonstrated in Table 10
and across methodologies, as demonstrated in Figure 4. In the survey, only 73% of instructors
reported understanding these practices. Understanding is strongest when considering the
relationships among the basic elements, such as learning is enhanced when students are active
and engaged. Instructors tend to favor methodologies such as small group activities and the use
of questions to accomplish engagement. However, instructor knowledge was weaker when
related to understanding concepts such as the role of developing higher-order thinking, managing
cognitive load, developing utility value, creating opportunities for retrieval practice, and the
value of metacognition. Due to this variation in understanding across instructors and
methodologies, instructor declarative knowledge was determined to be a gap. This need is further
addressed in Chapter Five.

Table 10
Variation in Instructor Knowledge of Evidence-Based Methodologies
Clearly
Knowledgeable
(7-8 Methodologies)
Knowledgeable
(5-6 Methodologies)
Superficially
Knowledgeable
(3-4 Methodologies)
Not Knowledgeable
(0-2 Methodologies)
5 1 2 0

95

Instructors’ Skills in Delivery of Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies Vary Widely
Beyond declarative knowledge, the CPA instructors need to have procedural knowledge,
including knowing how and when to use various methodologies. Approximately 60% of
instructors reported using an active learning methodology every time, or almost every time, they
teach, as shown in Figure 6. Instructors described and demonstrated these practices to varying
degrees. For example, all interview participants described the need to engage students, with 87%
describing the use of questions as a means to promote engagement. As participants described
how they use questions, the use varied from simply getting students involved to a more complex
promotion of critical thinking. Similarly, instructors demonstrated this spectrum in questions
used during the observations, ranging from asking questions to define terms (Bloom’s Taxonomy
level 1- Remember) to differentiating between concepts (Bloom’s Taxonomy level 4- Analyze)
(Krathwohl, 2002). The observations found stronger use of methodologies such as active
learning, adult learning, utility value; moderate use of retrieval practice, cognitive load,
distributed practice; and weak use of varied practice, effective feedback, metacognition, and
contextual interference.
Survey. The survey solicited the academy instructors' knowledge of how and when to use
various evidence-based learning methodologies through multiple questions. First, instructors
were asked (Q12), “How often do you use an active instructional method when teaching a basic
police class?” As shown in Figure 6, most instructors reported consistent use of active
instructional methods, such as small group activities, problem-solving exercises, or a case study
analysis. Nearly 19% of instructors reported using such methods every time they taught, while
41% reported use almost every time. Only 5% of instructors reported almost never using such a
method.
96

Figure 6
(Q12) How Often Do You Use an Active Instructional Method? (n = 58)

Instructors were provided thirty-five statements representing evidence-based learning
methodologies and were asked to rate their ability for each using the following scale (Q9): 1) I
do not know what this is, 2) No Ability- I know what this is, but I am not able to do this, 3)
Novice- I know what this is, and I am able to do this with assistance, 4) Intermediate- I know
what this is, and I am able to do this with limited assistance, 5) Advanced- I know what this is,
and I am able to do this with no assistance, 6) Expert- I know what this is, am able to do this with
no assistance, and I can help others do this. As demonstrated in Table 11, means for the thirty-
five statements ranged from novice (M = 3.4) to advanced (M = 5.3), with an overall mean of
intermediate (M = 4.9). These findings indicate most instructors report the ability to use the
various methods with limited assistance.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Never
Almost Never
Occasionally/Sometimes
Almost Every Time
Every Time
Number of Instructors
Use of Methodologies
97

Table 11
(Q9) Rate Your Ability for Each of the Following Statements on a Scale of 1-6 (n = 57-60)
Methodology n Mean SD Range
I am able to identify meaningful examples that add value to
learning.

60 5.3 0.7 3-6
I am able to ask a variety of questions.

59 5.2 0.7 3-6
I am able to deliver feedback that focuses on the task, not the
person.

59 5.2 0.8 3-6
I am able to facilitate a productive group discussion.

59 5.1 0.8 3-6
I am able to help students solve problems.

59 5.1 0.7 3-6
I am able to pull experiences from the students for discussion.

58 5.1 0.8 3-6
I am able to make learning decisions in the moment.

58 5.1 0.8 2-6
I am able to create a trusting learning environment.

60 5.0 1.0 1-6
I am able to teach without lecturing for long periods.

59 5.0 0.9 1-6
I am able to run a meaningful group activity.

59 5.0 0.8 3-6
I am able to encourage a student’s critical thinking.

59 5.0 0.7 3-6
I am able to have learners explain their decision-making.

59 5.0 0.9 3-6
I am able to stay focused on the assigned outcomes.

59 5.0 0.6 3-6
I am able to help students assess their own performance.

59 5.0 0.8 2-6
I am able to make instructional decisions based on the student's
grasp of the content.

58 5.0 0.8 3-6
I am able to help students find value in the topic.

57 5.0 0.7 3-6
I am able to recognize when students need me to move between
an instructor-led and student-centered approach.

60 4.9 1.0 1-6
I am able to move between an instructor-led and student-
centered approach, depending on the needs of the students.

60 4.9 1.0 1-6
98

I am able to determine when a student needs to be able to apply
information rather than just be familiar with or know it.

59 4.9 0.9 2-6
I am able to incorporate opportunities for students to recall what
they have previously learned.

59 4.9 0.8 3-6
I am able to create practice opportunities for learners.

59 4.9 0.8 3-6
I am able to allow learners the opportunity to recognize and
correct their own mistakes without interruption.

59 4.9 0.8 3-6
I am able to help learners see multiple perspectives.

59 4.9 0.7 3-6
I am able to deliver feedback that helps the students close a gap
between their performance and ideal performance.

58 4.9 1.0 1-6
I am able to utilize facilitated learning methodologies.

60 4.8 1.2 1-6
I am able to assess whether students need material to be further
simplified.

59 4.8 0.8 3-6
I am able to tell the difference between a student knowing and
understanding information.

59 4.8 1.0 1-6
I am able to tell the difference between a student understanding
and applying information.

59 4.8 1.0 1-6
I am able to help learners draw connections between concepts.

59 4.8 0.9 2-6
I am able to help learners think out loud.

59 4.8 0.9 2-6
I am able to refrain from telling students how I would solve a
problem or respond to a situation.

59 4.7 0.9 3-6
I am able to integrate content from multiple areas.

59 4.7 1.0 1-6
I am able to vary practice conditions while working toward the
same outcome.

59 4.7 1.1 1-6
I am able to limit feedback to no more than three key points.

58 4.7 1.0 1-6
I am able to deliver training using non-traditional practices such
as interleaving.

59 3.4 1.9 1-6

99

Of the thirty-five methodologies, those indicating strengths, at least 80% of instructors
reporting the ability to utilize a method without assistance (advanced or expert level) are
displayed in Table 12. Identified strengths include linking training to utility value by providing
meaningful examples and helping students find value in the topic. Additionally, active learning
elements, including asking a variety of questions, having students explain their decision-making,
and helping students solve problems, were identified as strengths. Other strengths included
effective feedback by delivering task-directed feedback and the adult learning element of
creating a trusting learning environment.

Table 12
(Q9) Instructor Strengths: 80% of Greater Reported Ability at Advanced or Expert Level
Statement Percentage of Instructors
Identifying as Advanced or
Expert
n
I am able to identify meaningful examples that add value
to learning.
88.3% 60
I am able to ask a variety of questions. 88.1% 59
I am able to deliver feedback that focuses on the task, not
the person.
88.1% 59
I am able to create a trusting learning environment. 86.7% 60
I am able to help students solve problems. 84.7% 59
I am able to make learning decisions in the moment. 84.5% 58
I am able to have students explain their decision-making. 83.1% 59
I am able to stay focused on the assigned outcomes. 83.1% 59
I am able to encourage a student’s critical thinking. 81.4% 59
I am able to help students find value in the topic. 80.7% 57

100

The survey responses also identified weaknesses, statements where less than 70% of
instructors self-identified the ability to utilize a method without assistance (advanced or expert
level). These weaknesses are displayed in Table 13. One area of weakness included retrieval
practice, such as drawing connections and integrating content from multiple areas, with 66% of
instructors reporting the ability to do this. More complex active learning elements were identified
as weaknesses. While instructors report the ability to ask questions, they miss the value of
helping students make their thinking visible to assess learning and adjust strategies.
One evidence-based practice introduced in Chapter Two, providing effective feedback
which is focused on the task, specific, and timely showed conflicting results. While instructors
report the ability to stay focused on assigned outcomes and focus feedback on the task, they are
less able to limit feedback to manage cognitive load, with only 65% of instructors identifying as
able to do this without assistance. Another key weakness is not allowing students to problem-
solve without interjecting or telling them what to do. Students' ability to problem-solve is part of
developing higher-order learning (Tabrizi & Rideout, 2017). Students' ability to self-assess
(metacognition) contributes to the effective transfer of learning from a training environment to
the field (Agarwal & Bain, 2019; Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Helsdingen et al., 2011; Soderstrom
& Bjork, 2015; Shute, 2008).

101

Table 13
(Q9) Instructor Weaknesses: 70% or Below Reported Ability as Advanced or Expert
Statement Percentage of Instructors
Identifying as Advanced or
Expert
n
I am able to integrate content from multiple areas. 66.1% 59
I am able to help students think out loud. 66.1% 59
I am able to limit feedback to no more than three key
points.
65.5% 58
I am able to vary practice conditions while working
toward the same outcome.
64.4% 59
I am able to refrain from telling students how I would
solve a problem or respond to a situation.
62.7% 59
I am able to tell the difference between a student
knowing and understanding information.
62.7% 59
I am able to deliver training using non-traditional
practices such as interleaving.
35.6% 59

Interviews. The interview further explored the CPA instructors' procedural knowledge,
including how and when to use evidence-based learning methodologies through several semi-
structured questions. First, instructors were asked to describe the process they use to prepare for
a teaching assignment (Q6). CPA instructors described similar processes of reviewing the course
content and looking for current supplemental information to bring in, such as a video or news
story. Several instructors described a process of thinking through how they might engage recruits
in the material by pre-identifying some questions to initiate a discussion about the content, as
described by Participant 6, “It's all about thinking through where you want them to go and
102

devising questions that will deliberately get them there. I prep ahead of time with go-to, fallback
questions in order to help prompt the discussion.”
Next, instructors were asked what strategies they find effective in engaging recruits (Q7).
The most common strategy identified by CPA instructors as effective in engaging recruits was
asking questions (87%), as described by Participant 3, “I found it really helped facilitate the
discussion was just say, what else? Who else has something to add? Does anyone have a
different point of view?” The second most identified method instructors find effective in
engaging students was small group activities (75%), as also described by Participant 3, “They
break down into smaller groups, and they're all participating more. They start to work together
better, and you get the people who are less likely to talk in the larger group to be talking and
participating.” Some instructors described how pairing question use and small group activities
together enhances effectiveness. One instructor described engaging the students in small group
demonstrations and then asking the remaining students to discuss and evaluate (higher-order
thinking) the performance. Participant 8 explained, “We let the class ask them questions or give
input on something they missed.”
Although all of the instructors identified the importance of active student engagement,
participants demonstrated varying depths of understanding of how to maximize its use. For
example, some instructors identified the use of questions primarily as a means of encouraging
participation, as described by Participant 2, “This latest thing that I've tried to get them to engage
with me, instead of me telling them the answer, is when someone would raise their hand and
answer, I tossed them a candy.” In contrast, others found value in using questions to help
establish higher-order thinking or even buy-in, as described by Participant 7, “If it's something
where I know they're trying to be resistant or push on me, I ask them back. What do you think
103

about that? I've learned how to turn it around.” Other instructors described in greater detail how
engaging methodologies, such as question use, are used to develop critical thinking and draw
connections among ideas, as discussed by Participant 5:
I say, “what's in the headline news?” I'm looking for anything current that they've seen on
social media or the news that ties into law enforcement, good or bad. Almost always, you
can take whatever the story is and tie it into ethics, emotional intelligence, cultural
competency, or whatever the topic is. I think it warms them up for that critical thinking
piece, where we want them to start thinking I wonder why a 22-year veteran officer
would have said that on Twitter.
Although creating opportunities for retrieval practice, as described in Chapter Two, is an
evidence-based learning practice, it was only described by two out of the eight interview
participants as a method they find effective. In addition to demonstrating adult learning
principles, Participant 8 described how asking questions about previously learned material
creates an opportunity for retrieval practice and enhances student learning. They explained,
“We'll say, stop a minute, think about what we did right here two days ago. What's the number
one thing we're doing when we come in that door?”
Similar to the variation in depth with question use, variation was present with small
group activities as well. While 75% of instructors identified them as an effective methodology,
some instructors view their usefulness as breaking up content, as described by Participant 2, “I
think that's really helpful because sitting down for eight hours or six hours is a bit painful for
them. Making sure they get breaks is important as a strategy.” In contrast, others identified group
activities as a means to develop higher-order thinking. Participant 5 described, “When we can get
the recruits up, moving and thinking in small groups, there's a lot of good that happens there.
104

How can we integrate more examples where we get the recruits to think critically on this topic
and see if they can't create their own solutions?” Others identify group activities as a means to
work through difficult or uncomfortable content, as described by Participant 6:
It seems so cliche, but it is effective, and it's effective for a number of reasons. Small
groups are probably my favorite. For example, if there's something I'm not comfortable
with, content maybe, where we're trying to get, small groups are the best way for us to
get there without me being on the spot to get us there. It takes a little more of that
responsibility off of me. So that's a strategy that I use. That is my fallback when I'm
uncomfortable, when I don't totally know where we're going, or I just want to see. I'm
just curious to see where we're going to get or where we can go. Small groups are a good
way to do that.
Observations. The Centralized Police Academy instructors’ procedural knowledge,
including how and when they use various evidence-based learning methodologies, was explored
through 10 randomly selected classroom observations. The researcher was interested in
identifying the presence of instructional principles and methodologies. Principles and
methodologies included the application of adult learning principles, active learning, developing
student utility value, managing cognitive load, providing opportunities for retrieval practice,
using contextual interference, distributing practice, varying practice, providing effective
feedback, and encouraging student metacognition. The CPA instructors were found to utilize
multiple evidence-based learning methodologies, although to varying degrees, as displayed in
Figure 7, where each cell represents one of the 10 observed classroom sessions.

105

Figure 7
Observed Application of Principles and Methodologies Over 10 Classroom Sessions
Principles and
Methodology
Classroom Sessions 1-10
Active
Learning

Adult Learning
Utility Value
Cognitive
Load

Distributed
Practice

Retrieval
Practice

Effective
Feedback

Metacognition
Varied Practice
Contextual
Interference

Legend Often Sometimes Never

106

Often Observed. One of the most often observed methods in the classroom sessions was
active learning, ranging from occasional questions to partner or small group activities. As
described in Chapter Two, active learning uses instructional activities that involve or engage
learners in an activity while thinking about what they are doing. In the survey, 60% of instructors
reported using an active learning methodology every time or nearly every time they taught.
Active learning methodologies were demonstrated in nine out of 10 classroom observations.
While the focus of observations was quantitative analysis, in how many sessions the
methodology was demonstrated, qualitative observations provided additional data regarding its
depth. One strong example included the instructor using a small group activity where groups
were directed to discuss mental health challenges and identify techniques to address the
challenges. Each group then presented back to the class, and the instructor facilitated a
discussion regarding the student-generated content. The instructor used the student presentations
to validate, reframe, and correct when necessary.
Similarly, one instructor used two different group activities where groups were assigned
topics and directed to identify situations where that challenge or technique could show up. This
same session included a physical movement activity, a mindfulness exercise, and the
introduction of a log for students to keep throughout the academy and return to in future
sessions. Other strong examples included instructors using open-ended questions to encourage
students to compare and contrast concepts, “How is that different?” or to use higher-order
thinking “What could you say?” or “What do you think that did?” Several instructors used
questioning to encourage higher-order thinking as a follow up to student response, “Why is that
important?” While all instructors, but one, used at least some open-ended questions, some were
107

less intentional and generated less meaningful student responses. An example of a general and
less effective open-ended question used by an instructor was “Any thoughts on that?”
Another often observed principle and related methodologies included adult learning. As
described in Chapter Two, adult learning includes multiple factors such as the instructor’s role in
cultivating the learning environment and demonstrating respect for learners versus seeing them
as receivers of the instructor's wisdom. Adult learning was present in eight out of 10 observation
sessions to varying depths. One strong example included the instructor verbally acknowledging
there is “a broad spectrum of knowledge in the room” and encouraging the students to “share
your experiences if you are comfortable.” Throughout the session, the instructor continued to ask
students if anyone had experience with various topics and encouraged them to share their
knowledge. Several instructors began their sessions with a check-in on students’ well-being.
These instructors acknowledged the pressing external circumstances that could be impacting the
students, including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, unprecedented wildfires, and months of
civil unrest resulting from the death of George Floyd at the hands of the police. All of these
factors could have an impact on the learning environment. Another element of adult learning
described in Chapter Two is meeting student needs by moving between an instructor-led and
student-centered approach. While eight out of 10 observed instructors demonstrated both
approaches, a few leaned heavily toward instructor-led throughout the session. These instructors
provided not only content but also numerous personal examples. Instructors who provided
numerous personal examples missed opportunities to use a more student-centered approach.
A third often observed practice was helping students establish utility value for the topic.
Utility value is described in Chapter Two as the perceived usefulness and credibility of the task.
The observed practices ranged from asking learners why the topic was important, to
108

demonstrating why the topic was important through an example to telling learners why the topic
was important. A variation of establishing utility value was present in nine out of 10 observation
sessions, although to varying depths. One strong example included an instructor facilitating a
discussion regarding the importance of police legitimacy, which included students identifying
stakeholders' expectations and department policies as relevant.
Another strong example was the instructor asking students how civil rights related to
their role as an officer. In a moderate example, the instructor told students, “a large portion of
calls for service are mental health-related, and it is incumbent upon us to learn how to respond.”
In a weaker example, the instructor told students the topic was important and why, “You have to
have this class to collect urine.” In other examples, the instructors shared personal stories as to
why the topic was important to them, and it was left to the students to determine the relevance to
themselves. While all of the observed examples may establish usefulness, the stronger examples
may be more likely to contribute to greater learner perceived value and lead to higher transfer
rates.
Sometimes Observed. A somewhat observed practice included managing cognitive load.
Demonstrations ranged from breaking content into short segments, checking in with learners
about their grasp of the content, and creating the scaffolding of content through various
examples. Three types of cognitive load are described in Chapter Two, as well as instructional
strategies for each. Strategies included reducing element activity, scaffolding, and creating
practice opportunities. A variation of these methods was present in seven out of 10 observation
sessions, although again to varying depths. Strong examples include one instructor who first
defined terms and then created a visual display of three boxes on the board to categorize the
concepts being discussed continually. Another instructor modeled interview skills with students
109

and used a series of partner exercises to break up and allow students to apply the content. They
then used the partner work to generate a class discussion, providing opportunities to redirect,
rephrase, and reinforce student work. Weaker examples include one instructor who worked
through numerous traditional content-heavy slides, acknowledging that the course has not yet
been updated. The instructor periodically stopped the slides and used a photo to generate a class
discussion and loosely apply the content. Another instructor used one brief individual activity to
generate a discussion around privilege but spent the remainder of the session sharing personal
examples and telling the students what they should or should not do in given situations. One
instructor spent the entire session telling a personal story, leaving it to the students to determine
what was important. These weak examples did not reduce extraneous cognitive load, and they
did not utilize any practice or scenarios to contribute to germane cognitive load.
Another sometimes observed method was generating opportunities for retrieval practice.
Retrieval practice was observed in six out of 10 sessions at varying depths. As described in
Chapter Two, retrieval practice is reactivating and building upon prior knowledge. Strategies
include getting information out of a learner’s head, asking why questions, determining what a
learner knows about a topic, drawing connections to other topics, having learners justify their
reasoning, and providing opportunities for a learner to use their knowledge. Strong examples
include one instructor asking students, “What are some basic human rights?” drawing upon a
previous session where students covered the Bill of Rights. Later that instructor encouraged
students to elaborate on responses “Why is that important?” Another instructor asked students,
“What do you have to prove?” referring to previous criminal law courses covering mental states.
One instructor drew connections to numerous other topic areas, asking students in resiliency,
“Have you talked about empathy yet?” while also connecting the content to skills that would be
110

learned in future sessions. Weak examples included instructors missing opportunities to draw
connections to other topics. One instructor talked about the importance of rapport and empathy
in criminal interviews but did not acknowledge that students have covered these topics in
emotional intelligence and other areas. Asking students to explain these concepts and draw those
connections could lead to improved learning and retention. Another began by asking students if
they wanted to discuss anything from a previous session but made no further connections to
other related concepts.
The last somewhat observed methodology was distributing practice. As described in
Chapter Two, spacing training creates more retrieval practice opportunities over time rather than
cramming learning into one setting. While distributed practice is a product of academy design
rather than within instructor control, it was tracked and examined as part of this study. Five
observed courses were titled as part of a series. These courses ranged in length from one to four
hours.
Never or Minimally Observed. One practice minimally present in the classroom
observations was encouraging student metacognition. Metacognition relates to providing
opportunities for learners to engage in self-regulation and monitoring. While not prevalent in the
observed sessions, in one example, the instructor introduced an ongoing assignment to help
students reflect upon and evaluate their practices throughout the academy. A few instructors used
open-ended questions to extend students' thinking, ask students to identify similarities and
differences, or evaluate strategies and think about why they may or may not be effective. It was
most common for instructors to encourage students to consider other perspectives, such as the
community or a victim or witness in an investigation.
111

Another methodology minimally present in the classroom observations was providing
effective feedback. Effective feedback pairs with practice opportunities where there is a clear
goal. While this methodology may lend itself more to practice-focused training such as scenario
or skills training, three instructors utilized this in the classroom to a moderate degree when
paired with an activity. Classroom instructors who used small group activities to generate class
discussion demonstrated some use of feedback in their correcting, rephrasing, and redirecting
student responses. For example, in one activity where students generated potential interview
questions for a crime victim, the instructor would validate the question's intent but rephrase the
question to avoid re-victimization or judgment. This demonstrated an important element of
effective feedback, limiting the amount of feedback and intentionally focusing on what is most
important.
A third methodology minimally observed in the classroom sessions was varying the
practice conditions, such as changing the speed, intensity, or location. While the observations all
occurred in a classroom setting due to COVID-19 protocols, two instructors included minimal
elements of varied practice within that setting. Observed practices included students first
practicing content independently and then with a partner. For example, one instructor delivered
content, then directed students to practice independently in their seats. Next, the instructor had
students stand up and practice with a partner changing both the speed and intensity. The partner
groups changed locations, spreading out into the hallway and around the classroom to practice.
One practice, interleaving or contextual interference, was not observed outright in any of
the classroom sessions. Visible methodologies would include mixing various concepts into
practice, rearranging the practice order, or presenting similar problems that require different
solutions. In a session on field sobriety testing, one instructor introduced a test method and had
112

students practice independently once and then with a partner one time before moving on to the
next test method. This exercise was a minimally interleaved practice as the skill was not
practiced repeatedly before moving on to practice a similar yet different skill. In another session,
the instructor provided content on interviewing crime victims and had students practice with a
partner before moving on to interviewing witnesses. Whether any of these were later combined
and rearranged for practice or used to differentiate between problems is unknown.
There is a complementary relationship between distributed practice and contextual
interference. Five of the observed classroom sessions were titled as part of a series, for example,
Mental Health Part 1. However, it was unclear from the observation period how concepts and
skills were arranged across a series. While few instructors did include concepts from other
courses, it was predominantly students incorporating different concepts, such as bringing up the
warrior or guardian mindsets when discussing all or nothing thinking or bringing up concepts
from the history of policing when discussing legitimacy.
Summary. As demonstrated in the survey, interview, and observation data, the CPA
instructors have a significantly varied understanding of how and when to use effective learning
methodologies. Centralized Police Academy instructors were found to utilize some
methodologies more than others. For example, instructors tend to rely on active learning
methodologies such as question use and small group activities to engage students. However, only
60% of instructors reported using such a practice every time or almost every time they teach.
While active learning methods were the most frequently observed practices during the classroom
sessions, they varied in the strength of use.
Similar variations were found in relation to the instructor's helping students establish
utility value for the topic. The survey data found 88% of instructors identified as having the
113

ability to link training to utility value by providing meaningful examples, and 80% reported the
ability to help students find value in the topic. Similar findings were observed in the classroom
sessions, with 90% demonstrating some degree of linking the training to utility value. Strong
examples included the instructor guiding students to determine usefulness, such as by asking,
“How does this relate to your role as an officer?” Moderate examples included the instructor
telling students, “A large portion of calls for service involve mental health issues, and it is
incumbent upon us to learn how to respond.” The weakest examples of facilitating utility value
involved the instructor simply telling students why they have to take the class or not addressing
the value at all.
In contrast, some principles and methodologies were found not to be frequently identified
by instructors or used. For example, instructors reported significantly less ability to encourage
student metacognition. In the survey, only 66% of instructors reported the ability to help students
think out loud. Metacognitive practices were sometimes observed in 30% of the classroom
sessions. The observed practices included asking students to compare or contrast concepts. There
was little to no use of metacognitive elements such as reflection or self-evaluation observed.
The study finds that the CPA instructors are not yet reaching the goal of 100% use of
evidence-based learning practices. While there is the use of these practices, it is not consistent.
These variations across the use of methodologies and the extent or depth of use of each
methodology demonstrate a significant gap in instructor’s procedural knowledge. This need is
further addressed in Chapter Five.

114

Instructors’ Ability to Self-Assess Knowledge, Skills, and Effectiveness is Not Based on
Conscious Self-Awareness
In addition to understanding and using knowledge of evidence-based learning principles
and methodologies, CPA instructors need to assess their knowledge, skill, and effectiveness in
delivering training. As described in Chapter Two, this conscious self-awareness helps instructors
challenge their assumptions about student learning and decide when to change approaches. Just
as comprehension, connection, strategy, and reflection enhance learning outcomes for students,
instructors can use these methods to self-assess their practices and ensure they are adhering to
effective methodologies rather than risk falling into comfortable, less effective practices. In the
survey, CPA instructors self-rated their abilities as high; however, this was not consistent across
the data. Instructors were found to assess their effectiveness based on student response primarily.
It was also common for instructors to seek feedback from other instructors. The desire to receive,
but the absence of, formal feedback was a recurring theme. While few instructors identified
recognizing when students need a break, there was no acknowledgment of any reflective
practices to help make decisions about learning approaches. The results indicate a need to
provide instructors additional support to increase their metacognitive knowledge to bridge this
gap.
Survey. While the survey did not specifically assess CPA instructors' metacognition,
instructors did reflect upon and rated their ability on a list of evidence-based learning
methodologies (Q9). As previously discussed, and demonstrated in Figure 8, the majority of
instructors rated their abilities at an advanced or expert level.
115

Figure 8
(Q9) Instructor Self-Rated Ability to Use Evidence-Based Methodologies (n = 60)

On a number of methods, at least five instructors rated themselves as having no ability,
defined as knowing what the method is but not able to do it, or novice level ability, defined as
able to do with assistance as displayed in Table 14. Methods with one to four instructors
identifying no or novice ability have not been included.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
No Ability Novice Intermediate Advanced Expert
Percentage of Instructors
Self-Rated Ability
116

Table 14
(Q9) Methodologies With 8-10% of Instructors Reporting No or Novice Ability
Statement Percentage of
Instructors
Identifying as
Novice or No
Ability
n
I am able to vary practice conditions while working toward the same
outcome.
8.5% 59
I am able to assess whether students need material to be further
simplified.
8.5% 59
I am able to integrate content from multiple areas. 8.5% 59
I am able to refrain from telling students how I would solve a problem
or respond to a situation.
8.5% 59
I am able to help learners draw connections between concepts. 8.5% 59
I am able to have learners explain their decision-making. 8.5% 59
I am able to limit feedback to no more than three key points. 10.3% 58
I am able to deliver training using non-traditional practices such as
interleaving.
10.2% 59

Interviews. The interview included questions regarding the instructors’ metacognitive
knowledge or their ability to self-assess effectiveness. Participants were asked if they had
identified any areas they could improve upon (Q12), and instructors frequently responded they
desire constant overall improvement. Some participants identified specific areas where their
behaviors or instructional methods could negatively impact student learning.
One behavior identified as having negative impacts on student learning was inadequate
listening. As stated by one instructor, “I constantly struggle to listen, to understand what they're
saying instead of listen to respond.” Another instructor identified a concern about talking too
117

much about non-critical content (cognitive load), “Because I'm so chatty, I am looking for ways
to get it boiled down to what they need to hear.” One participant reflected on missed
opportunities, “What opportunities am I missing? Is there more conversation I can pull out from
them?”
Regarding how instructors self-assess, participants more commonly referenced relying on
external cues such as reading student behaviors. One such behavior was students starting to fall
asleep, “I know when I'm teaching a class, and I'm seeing people start to fall asleep that I better
up my game cause I'm losing people.” Another instructor identified student engagement as an
indicator, “I'm reading my room, and I think they like the class. That's why I'm so passionate
about teaching it. I think they get the importance of the topic, and they're engaged.” Few
instructors identified the importance of self-awareness. As one instructor stated, “I hope I know
enough to know whether I need to fix something. If you're not self-aware, then you're gonna
fail.”
In alignment with a desire for constant improvement, a common theme was instructors
seeking feedback from others. In the interviews, 75% of instructors described wanting feedback.
Three instructors described seeking informal feedback from other instructors; as described by
Participant 1, “It's a constant journey. When I'm done with class, I'll sit down with the other
facilitators, or whoever's been in there, and we'll talk about how this worked well or don't go
there again.” Three others described wanting feedback from students, as described by Participant
2, “I want to know the good and the bad. How can I improve if I don't hear what they're saying?
Over the years, I have gotten some feedback. It's not consistent.”
Observations. The classroom observations were not used to examine the academy
instructors’ ability to self-assess their knowledge, skills, or effectiveness.
118

Summary. As demonstrated in the interview data, participants commonly expressed a
desire for constant improvement. Despite this desire to improve, there was inconsistency in the
depth of their self-assessments. Three instructors identified specific and meaningful areas where
they want to improve, while others expressed an interest in general improvement. Only two
instructors described the role of self-awareness and reflection in performance improvement.
In contrast, five instructors identified the value of external feedback after teaching, such
as through other instructors or student evaluations, as guides for their improvement. Instructors
did describe awareness of some student behaviors in the moment, such as engagement level, to
help guide their instructional decisions. However, this awareness was limited to recognizing the
need to take breaks rather than shift between instructor-led and student-centered approaches or
adjust practices to achieve higher-order thinking. As previously described, facilitating student
utility value was present in nine out of 10 observation sessions, although to varying depths. A
self-assessment practice could help instructors reflect upon whether they are encouraging
students to establish the training value or whether they are telling them the value. Improved self-
assessment could help instructors understand how to adjust their practices for greater
effectiveness. The results indicate instructors want to improve their practices, but there is a gap
in metacognitive knowledge. Recommendations to address this need will be further addressed in
Chapter Five.
Motivation Results and Findings
As described in Chapter Two, motivation influences, including self-efficacy and value,
are strongly connected to teaching effectiveness. This framework is used to analyze the
Centralized Police Academy instructors’ motivation regarding instructional methodologies. The
study finds instructors possess confidence in their general and task-specific abilities.
119

Additionally, the CPA instructors find value in using evidence-based learning methodologies,
such as active learning, but less value with others, such as encouraging student metacognitive
practices.
Instructors Have High General and Task-Specific Confidence for Delivering Training Using
Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies with Fidelity
As described in Chapter Two, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their capabilities to
complete task-specific demands. The Centralized Police Academy instructors need to feel
confident in their ability to deliver training using evidence-based learning methodologies with
fidelity. In the survey, instructors reported a high degree of general confidence in their ability to
deliver effective police training, 8.88 on a scale of one to ten. Among specific tasks, instructors
reported the greatest confidence with delivering helpful feedback and running a small group
activity. Instructors reported the least confidence, not with a method, but with teaching
uncomfortable topics.
Survey. Instructors were asked to rate their degree of confidence regarding their
instructional practices on a scale of 1-10 (Q11), with one representing not at all confident and ten
representing completely confident. The results indicate that CPA instructors have a high degree
of confidence in their abilities, rating their general confidence in delivering effective basic police
training 8.88. Participant responses regarding confidence on specific tasks ranged from 7.88 to
9.09 with an average of 8.64, as provided in Table 15. The highest confidence rating was, “I feel
confident in my ability to deliver helpful feedback to recruits.”

120

Table 15
(Q11) Rate Your Degree of Confidence, 1 = Not at All Confident, 10 = Completely Confident, (n
= 58)
Statement Minimum Maximum Mean SD
I feel confident in my ability to distinguish
between a student knowing, understanding,
and applying information.
1.00 10.00 8.36 1.45
I feel confident in my ability to teach without
lecturing for long periods.
6.00 10.00 8.67 1.15
I feel confident in my ability to facilitate a
class discussion.
4.00 10.00 8.67 1.31
I feel confident in my ability to make learning
decisions in the moment, such as when to end
a discussion or leave out material due to time.
6.00 10.00 8.72 1.17
I feel confident in my ability to run a small
group activity.
5.00 10.00 8.81 1.32
I feel confident in my ability to deliver basic
police training effectively.
6.00 10.00 8.88 1.08
I feel confident in my ability to deliver
helpful feedback to recruits.
7.00 10.00 9.09 0.86
Overall Average Rating -- -- 8.74 --

Interviews. Instructors were again asked in the interviews about their confidence in using
facilitated learning methodologies (Q8). Similar to the survey results, instructors reported a high
degree of general confidence in the interviews. Instructors frequently described their confidence
for teaching in general, as described by Participant 4, “I feel comfortable teaching period.” Two
participants described a lack of confidence related to teaching unfamiliar or uncomfortable
121

topics, rather than related to specific methodologies, as described by Participant 2, “I've had to
teach a class, and I knew nothing about the topic. You're supposed to look at the instructor guide
and then feel comfortable about teaching this topic you've never done.”
Relating to task-specific efficacy, three instructors described using evidence-based
learning methodologies to feel more confident in their ability to deliver training effectively. One
instructor described using small groups when they were uncomfortable with the course content.
Two instructors described developing more confidence by learning to use questions effectively
as described by Participant 7, “I'm not as nervous about them asking questions as I was when I
did the facilitator course. I was terrified. Now I've learned how to turn it around.”
In the survey, instructors reported a high degree of confidence in facilitating class
discussions, with an average rate of 8.67 out of 10. In the interview, Participant 3 described
developing the confidence to facilitate a class discussion took time, “As I went along, I felt more
confident. It really took about six months to get to where I really felt comfortable doing it.”
However, not all instructors described feeling confident in their abilities as described by
Participant 5, “It's a false confidence. It's me personally, and I know that. I'm going to self-
analyze this. I know that most of the time I get good feedback and good results, so I know the
work product is solid. It's just that little burning part of me inside that says I'm not measuring
up.” Similarly, Participant 6 described tentative confidence, where they think they are effective,
but would value feedback and additional training, “Am I still on point? I guess I just assume I'm
good because people tell me that. But people don't sit in my classroom. What I'm not good at I
might need a little more training with.”
Observations. Instructor self-efficacy for delivering training using evidence-based
learning methodologies was not examined through classroom observations.
122

Summary. Survey and interview data demonstrated instructors have a high degree of
general confidence in their abilities. According to the survey results, on a scale of one to ten,
confidence ratings on task-specific abilities ranged from 8.36 to 9.09, with an average of 8.74.
Instructors are most confident in their task-specific abilities to deliver helpful feedback (9.09)
and run small group activities (8.91). During the interviews, 25% of instructors also expressed
some caution regarding their effectiveness. These experienced instructors described thinking
they are effective, but they are not always sure. Despite some uncertainties around their self-
efficacy, there was no indication that instructors defaulted to using non-evidence-based
methodologies. Due to the high task-specific confidence ratings, with an average of 8.74, and no
indication that instructors who expressed caution default to less effective methodologies,
instructor self-efficacy is determined to be an asset, although it should be considered when on-
boarding and training new instructors in the future.
Instructors Value Certain Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies More Than Others
In addition to self-efficacy, the research identifies the role of an individual’s task value
beliefs in influencing motivation. Nearly 85% of instructors perceive facilitated learning
methodologies are effective in recruit training, which could indicate a willingness to use these
methods. However, when looking at individual methodologies, there is greater variation. For
example, instructors identified creating a trusting learning environment and instructional
practices that encouraged student critical thinking as having value. In contrast, methodologies
requiring instructors to refrain from their traditional practices, such as limiting how much
feedback is given or not telling students how they would solve a problem, were less valued.
These findings could indicate a reluctance to use these methodologies.
123

Survey. Instructors responded to several survey questions regarding their value for
evidence-based learning methodologies. Overall, instructors reported that they perceive
facilitated learning strategies to be effective for training police recruits (Q13), with nearly half
strongly agreeing (46.6%), as shown in Figure 9. However, some instructors were neutral
(13.8%) or strongly disagreed (1.7%), indicating these instructors may be less likely to use such
approaches. These findings may be reflective of a later low-scoring question regarding the
importance of using facilitated learning methodologies shown in Table 18. Additionally,
instructors identified the importance of learning new teaching methodologies (Q4).

Figure 9
(Q13) Facilitated Learning is Effective for Training Police Recruits (n = 58), and (Q4) It is
Important for me to Learn New Teaching Methodologies (n = 87)

1.7
0
13.8
37.9
46.6
1.1
0
5.7
35.6
57.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
Percent of Instructors
Perceived Value
Value for Facilitated Learning Value for Learning New Methodologies
124

Instructors were asked to consider the importance of a variety of evidence-based learning
methodologies (Q10). As demonstrated in Table 16, the highest-scoring methodology was
creating a trusting learning environment (4.86). Although of the highest-scoring methodologies,
creating a trusting learning environment was also the only item to receive any “Strongly
Disagree” or “Disagree” scores. Other high-scoring items included the importance of
encouraging critical thinking (4.80), helping students find value in the topic (4.76), and
incorporating opportunities for students to recall what they have previously learned (4.76).

Table 16
(Q10) Instructor Identified Statements with Highest Importance
Survey Item Mean Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree
nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
It is important to create a
trusting learning
environment. (n = 58)

4.86 1.7% 0% 0% 6.9% 91.4%
It is important to
encourage a student’s
critical thinking. (n = 56)

4.80 0% 0% 5.4% 8.9% 85.7%
It is important to help
students find value in the
topic. (n = 58)

4.76 0% 0% 0% 24.1% 75.9%
It is important to
incorporate opportunities
for students to recall
what they have
previously learned. (n =
58)

4.76 0% 0% 1.7% 20.7% 77.6%
It is important to create
practice opportunities for
students. (n = 56)
4.73 0% 0% 3.6% 19.6% 76.8%
125

It is important to
determine when a student
needs to be able to apply
information rather than
just be familiar with or
know it. (n = 57)

4.72 0% 0% 1.8% 24.6% 73.7%
It is important to tell the
difference between a
student understanding
and applying
information. (n = 56)
4.70 0% 0% 3.6% 23.2% 73.2%

As demonstrated in Table 17, statements receiving the lowest support for importance
included “It is important to refrain from telling students how I would solve a problem or respond
to a situation” and “It is important to limit feedback to no more than three key points.” These
findings indicate that the CPA instructors may fall back on more traditional training methods of
telling students what to do and providing too much feedback rather than fully embracing active
learning and managing cognitive load.

126

Table 17
(Q10) Instructor Identified Lowest Importance
Survey Item Mean Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree
nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
It is important to refrain
from telling students how
I would solve a problem
or respond to a situation.
(n = 57)

4.02 0% 8.8% 15.8% 40.4% 35.1%
It is important to limit
feedback to no more than
three key points. (n = 56)

4.05 0% 7.1% 19.6% 33.9% 39.3%
It is important to deliver
training using non-
traditional practices such
as interleaving. (n = 43)

4.09 2.3% 4.7% 16.3% 34.9% 41.9%
It is important to help
students think out loud.
(n = 56)

4.32 0% 0% 10.7% 46.4% 42.9%
It is important to utilize
facilitated learning
methodologies. (n = 56)

4.34 1.8% 0% 14.3% 30.4% 53.6%
It is important to stay
focused on the assigned
outcomes for each
lesson. (n = 58)

4.36 0% 1.7% 6.9% 44.8% 46.6%
It is important to run a
meaningful group
activity. (n = 58)

4.38 0% 1.7% 12.1% 32.8% 53.4%
It is important to allow
students the opportunity
to recognize and correct
their own mistakes
without interruption.
(n = 57)
4.39 0% 3.5% 7.0% 36.8% 52.6%
127

Interviews. Instructors were asked several questions related to their perceived value of
evidence-based learning methods. First, participants were asked what they saw as the value of
using facilitated learning methods (Q9). Next, they were asked how effective they felt the
training program was for recruits (Q10). All eight interview participants expressed support for
facilitated learning. Three instructors described seeing a difference in recruits’ performance in
skills training due to the use of evidence-based learning methods. Participant 2 stated, “They’re
better prepared by doing it the way we are supposed to be doing it.” Participant 4 described
seeing “exponential growth” and increases in performance “all the time.” Similarly, Participant 8
explained, “Then we throw them in there and they do their thing. And most of them do it really,
really well by that point.”
In the survey, 100% of respondents identified it was important to help recruits find value
in the topic (Q10). This value was demonstrated in the interviews as well. CPA instructors
described seeking ways to help establish the relevance of topics. Methods for establishing value
included relating a topic to a current event, as demonstrated by Participant 5, as opposed to
encouraging recruits to establish relevance:
If you have a topic that by itself doesn't resonate with them, ethics, for example, they are
almost half checked out already because they don't like the topic. Somehow, you'll bring
a conversation around or have something in your back pocket that, if it naturally comes
up, you can throw a nugget out there that might grab them and bring them back or make
it relevant. Tie it into the current world.
Observations. Classroom observations were not used to examine the instructors’ utility
value for evidence-based learning principles and methodologies.
128

Summary. The study finds that the CPA instructors value the use of evidence-based
learning methodologies. They particularly value instructional practices that encourage student
engagement and critical thinking. In the interviews, instructors described seeing improvements in
student performance when engaging methodologies are used. These results could indicate that
the CPA instructors may be more likely to use these approaches in practice due to their perceived
value of the methods. In contrast, methodologies requiring instructors to refrain from their
traditional practices, such as limiting how much feedback is given or not telling students how
they would solve a problem, were less valued. These findings could indicate a reluctance to use
these methodologies. While the value for engaging methodologies is an asset, there is a gap in
instructor value for methodologies that would improve feedback effectiveness and limit student
cognitive load. This need is further addressed in Chapter Five.
Research Question Two: How Do the Organizational and External Influences Impact the
CPA Instructor’s Capacity to Deliver Training Using Evidence-Based Learning
Methodologies?
In addition to knowledge and motivation, organizational influences play a role in an
instructor’s ability to deliver training grounded in evidence-based learning principles and
achieving the goal of the Centralized Police Academy. As described in Chapter Two,
performance is impacted by organizational culture and internal processes, tools, and resources.
Research question two explores external influences on the CPA organizational culture, including
the role of a police officer today and how that influences academy training. Additionally,
research question two explores two cultural setting influences on the CPA organization;
instructor resources and a clear vision toward recruit learning.
129

Organizational Results and Findings
This study used Clark and Estes gap analysis to analyze organizational factors
influencing instructor performance. These factors include efficient and effective work processes,
material resources, and organizational culture. Instructors must have the necessary organizational
support to achieve the goal of 100% of instructors implementing evidence-based learning
methodologies in their training delivery. A determination regarding whether each category was
an asset or a need for the Centralized Police Academy was based upon any identified gaps
between the data, the instructor goal, and the organizational performance goal.
This study found variations in the organizational support provided to the CPA
instructors, contributing to some gaps. The greatest strength was found to be related to the
external influences on organizational culture and how the CPA adapts to the needs of 21
st

century policing. However, internal factors such as work processes and resources were found to
be needs.
CPA Training Adaptations Demonstrate Value for the Needs of 21st Century Policing
Twenty-first-century police officers' needs are diverse and complex. Training
philosophies should adapt to meet these needs rather than hold onto long-standing beliefs, as
described in Chapter Two. Previous influence findings identified the value instructors place on
the use of methodologies that encourage critical thinking instead of holding on to traditional
practices. More than 87% of the CPA instructors believe training is meeting current needs.
Instructors identified the relevancy of current training topics and the ability to adapt as strengths
of the program.
Survey. The survey explored general instructor perceptions regarding whether the
Centralized Police Academy meets current needs for basic police training. The majority
130

(87.76%) of instructors believe that the current program meets these needs, as demonstrated in
Table 18.

Table 18
Instructor Perception Regarding Current Training (n = 49)
Statement Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree

(Q14) Constituent
agencies believe the
current program is
effective for training
recruits.

0% 12.24% 69.39% 18.37%

131

Interviews. The interviews explored more specific instructor perceptions regarding
whether the CPA was meeting current basic police training needs. Instructors identified the
importance of the CPA, including training topics that were relevant to policing today. When
asked about the program's strengths (Q14), instructors identified the inclusion of specific training
topics that are particularly relevant today, including ethics, resiliency, and legal parameters. One
part-time instructor identified the value in the CPA’s use of the President’s Task Force on 21
st

Century Policing Report as described by Participant 3:
[A strength of the program is that you took on] the Presidential Commission report that
came out after Ferguson and are incorporating this into the curriculum. I think that's
outstanding, taking this seriously and recognizing that it is important. It seems like to me
the full-time staff has really bought into that.
Three instructors identified the importance of flexibility, such as the ability for instructors to
bring in supplemental articles, news stories, and videos to help the training to remain current and
relevant as described by Participant 1, “The latitude to incorporate current issues, materials, and
news stories into the curriculum. Now we're not showing a picture of what happened in 1975,
we're showing what happened on Tuesday, and we're teaching on Thursday.”
Observations. Classroom observations were not used as a tool to examine external
factors that may influence police academy training.
Summary. As demonstrated in the survey and interview data, the majority (87.76%) of
CPA instructors believe the current program meets the complex needs of 21
st
century
policing. Instructors identified the relevancy of topics and the ability to bring current materials
to supplement the training as contributing factors. Due to the high percentage of CPA
instructors’ perception that the program meets current needs and specific examples from multiple
132

instructors regarding the program's adaptability as a strength, this influence was determined to be
an asset.
Priority for Staff Training and Instructor Resources is Inconsistent
Internal organizational factors influence performance. The degree of sustained change
and employee focus is determined by how an organization functions for its members. These
functions include work processes and material resources (Clark & Estes, 2008) and an
understanding of expectations and knowledge of whether one is meeting job goals (Rummler &
Brache, 1995). These functions must also align with instructor training to effectively sustain an
organizational change initiative.
The study examined instructor experiences with internal training, including on-boarding,
certification training, and ongoing professional development. In addition, the study examined the
material resources available to instructors. The majority of CPA instructors (85%) were part-
time, resulting in variation in onboarding and training experiences. This study found needs
within the CPA organizational processes relating to instructor hiring, on-boarding, preparing
instructors for a teaching assignment, ongoing training and development, and resource
availability.
Survey. The survey questioned the Centralized Police Academy instructors’ experiences
with the initial onboarding (Q1) and instructor training process (Q3), finding a neutral to
favorable experience as displayed in Figure 10. While half of the instructors (51%) reported
satisfaction with the instructor onboarding process, 28% were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied,
and 21% reported dissatisfaction. The responses were only slightly different regarding the
instructor training process, with slightly less than half (49%) satisfied, 26% neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied, and 24% dissatisfied.
133

Figure 10
(Q1) Rate Your Level of Satisfaction with the Instructor Onboarding Process (n = 86) and
(Q3) Rate Your Level of Satisfaction with the Instructor Training Process (n = 87)

Academy instructors were surveyed regarding the instructor training process
effectiveness, specifically, whether the process prepared them to teach for the Basic Police
program (Q5). Slightly over one-half of instructors (55%) reported the process prepared them to
teach. As displayed in Figure 11, this leaves approximately half of instructors neutral (26%) and
disagreeing (18%) that the training prepared them to teach.

3.5
17.4
27.9
44.2
7
1.1
23
26.4
44.8
4.6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Very Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neither Satisfied nor
Dissatisfied
Satisfied Very Satisfied
Percent of Instructors
Level of Satisfaction
Onboarding Process Training Process
134

Figure 11
(Q5) The Instructor Development Process Prepared Me to Teach for the Basic Police Program
(n = 87)

The survey examined instructor experiences with resources provided by the CPA (Q15).
As displayed in Figure 12, approximately three-fourths of respondents reported they had access
to the resources they need to teach, with 62% agreeing and 15% strongly agreeing. Participants
provided a similar response regarding class resources' usefulness, with 63% agreeing and 10%
strongly agreeing that provided resources were useful to them.

1.1
17.2
26.4
40.2
14.9
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
Percent of Instructors
Level of Agreement
135

Figure 12
(Q15) I Have Access to the Resources I Need to Teach a Class (n = 58), and I Find the Class
Resources Useful (n = 58)

Interviews. To further explore the CPA organizational influences, the interview solicited
information regarding the instructors’ experiences with work processes, material resources,
understanding of expectations, and knowing whether one is meeting job goals. Work process
themes included barriers in hiring, onboarding, and training. Material resource themes included
the availability and usefulness of resources needed for instructing. Understanding expectations
and knowing whether one is meeting job goals included barriers to feedback and ongoing
developmental opportunities.
0
10.3
12.1
62.1
15.5
1.7 1.7
22.2
63.8
10.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
Percent of Instructors
Level of Agreement
Access to Resources Useful Resources
136

Work Processes. In the survey, only 51% of instructors reported satisfaction, and 21%
expressed dissatisfaction with the onboarding process. These differences were most visible
between full and part-time instructors in the interviews. Part-time instructors described lengthy
processes and a lack of clear, useful information (Q2). Participants described the hiring process
as taking six months to over one year. Participant 8 compared the lengthy process to applying
with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) “It was the longest and most thorough application
I've ever done. I have friends at the CIA whose applications were shorter than that. It took way
too long. It was almost a year.”
Fifty percent of the part-time instructors interviewed identified frustrations with a lack of
communication regarding information that could have been clearly provided during the
onboarding process. One example of a gap brought up by two instructors included a lack of
understanding of how to fill out timesheets. One stated, “We are not paid for preparation time,
which I discovered after working there.” Another explained, “I learned through fellow instructors
that were sitting at a computer next to me.” Other examples of communication gaps included a
lack of clear direction on rules and processes. One instructor explained, “I’ve got to make dorm
reservations. How far in advance do you make those? How does that work exactly? I didn't know
any of that.” Another described still not knowing who their supervisor was, despite having been
an academy instructor for a lengthy time. One described a concern, “I had no contact information
to let them know that I was going to be late. If I got sick, woke up throwing up one morning,
who do I contact to say that I can't be there?”
In addition to gaps in onboarding communication, instructors identified unclear processes
to prepare them to teach (Q4). Instructors described the initial training process to include 1)
shadowing an authorized instructor, 2) co-teaching with an authorized instructor, and then 3)
137

teaching on their own. One part-time instructor described the following, “I think their
development idea was that I shadow the class and then teach it, so no instruction at all, but here it
is, watch this, and then now teach it.” Despite this phased process, three instructors reported
inconsistencies and reported that the process did not adequately prepare them to teach, as
described in Table 19.

Table 19
Inconsistencies in Instructor Development Process (N = 8)
Participant Statement
Participant 2 You hire an instructor, and you're just hoping that they know how to instruct.
I mean, maybe they don't have the same philosophy as the academy, and
they come up with a different way.

Participant 3 I went through the process: shadow a class, co-teach a class, then teach one,
and then you get signed off on it. But once that happened, it's like, Oh,
another warm body, and they assigned me to a bunch of classes that I had
never even been to.”

Participant 8 It was very overall, very informal, heavy on the shadowing, and no real
criteria for when you get promoted to evaluator from shadow. When is that?
I don't know. It depends. I've seen it since then too. Other people where
they've shadowed me, and I said, well, how many times have you been out
here? Oh, this is my eighth time doing this. Eight? I went, wow, I did it once
or twice.

138

In addition to inconsistencies within the instructor authorization process, instructors
reported dissatisfaction with aspects of the instructor training and development process. In the
survey, only 49% of instructors reported satisfaction with training (Q3). In the interviews,
themes of insufficient initial training were prevalent (Q4). In addition to the process
inconsistencies, two part-time instructors described delivering instruction for six months to one
year before receiving any facilitated learning training, as described in Table 20.

Table 20
Instructor Reports of Insufficient Training (N = 8)
Participant Statement
Participant 3 A couple of months later, I had the [Basic Facilitator Development] BFD
class. After going to that, I felt really bad for the people I had taught before.
I had realized I was so poor at it. I really recommend that before anyone is
allowed anywhere near a classroom, they have the BFD course. I realized I
was probably damaging these people's careers more. I've been doing
everything backward. That class, it was only two days, but it was very
important to begin to become effective as a facilitator.

Participant 7 From the BFD, for the first time, I understood facilitated learning, which is
not what I was delivering because I was delivering lecture learning. So, then
I understood facilitated learning. I understood adult learning and how that
works, and how adults learn, which I had never heard before. Those were
all brand-new concepts for me.

139

Material Resources. In addition to work processes, instructors discussed the availability
and usefulness of resources needed for teaching, such as course materials, technology, and
staffing (Q13). The interviews found resources vary among full and part-time instructors, as well
as among classroom and skills instructors. One resource issue centered around instructors having
the information they need to teach. While part-time skills instructors described receiving clear
and helpful communication regarding programming changes, part-time classroom instructors
identified challenges with not having all of the necessary information to teach some classes. In
some instances, a lack of necessary information stemmed from recent changes in case law and
the CPA's failure to provide instructors clear direction on how to teach the current content.
Additionally, classroom instructors identified several topic areas where the content is centered
around a singular person’s experience, such as a particular case study, making it difficult for
others to fill in when necessary, as described by Participant 3:
I'm co-teaching, and it's his class. It's based on one of his major cases, and it's a great
presentation. The students are on the edge of their seats the way he presents it. When he's
not there, the material that's in the facilitator guide doesn't make sense. I was so glad he
was there because I didn't really know what I was going to do. I know there were certain
things I needed to cover, and I think I was just going to throw that lesson plan out the
window and go my own way.
Another resource issue, and a discrepancy between skills and classroom instructors, concerned
the availability of other resources. While skills instructors identified improvements in equipment
resource availability, such as obtaining batteries and hearing protection, classroom instructors
frequently identified a lack of needed technology resources. Technology resources identified as
problematic included the inability to embed videos or polling programs into slide presentations,
140

common in external presentations. Participant 3 described, “If there were videos, they weren't
embedded, and so you'd have to search for the videos frantically before class started to make sure
you had all your material.” Another problem included videos not working even when linked, as
described by Participant 7, “I always preview the videos because they don't always work. The
links don't work. One of the first things I do when I get in the classroom is load the videos on the
Internet as a backup.” Another classroom instructor expressed a desire to use the presenter mode
in PowerPoint, especially when using less familiar case studies.
A third resource issue identified by instructors was staffing (Q13). While in some venues,
this lack of available instructors could be a safety concern, as one instructor explained, “critically
short is a term used often.” Others identified this as a problem getting the most qualified
instructors in front of the room. As one described, “Sometimes when I'm up in front of the class,
I'm not the best we've got. I'm the best we’ve got that day, meaning there was nobody else.”
Similarly, Participant 2 described the following issue with instructor shortages, “Being cut loose
and told good luck. Here's this class because we don't have anybody to teach it. And then you're
hunting and pecking, and it shows. The recruits then don't have confidence in your ability.”
Understanding of Expectations. In addition to work processes and material resources,
instructors need a clear understanding of the expectations and a process for knowing whether
they are meeting the job goals. Clark and Estes (2008) describe the importance of clear and
specific objectives to enhance performance. Instructors identified barriers related to the
unavailability of feedback and a lack of ongoing developmental opportunities.
The desire for a formal feedback process was brought up by 75% of the instructors
during the interviews. Three described independently seeking feedback from other instructors
after teaching. Another three expressed a desire to receive formal feedback from the students, as
141

described by Participant 8, “I wish we got more feedback, and I wish we got more feedback from
the recruits.”
A second barrier, beyond initial training, was a lack of ongoing instructor
development, as described by Participant 6, “There's an upfront effort, but there is little to no
ongoing development efforts.” Another instructor expressed a desire for ongoing coaching as a
means of development, as described by Participant 7, “I would love somebody to audit me once a
year and give me input. This is where you are strong. Here are some things you may want to
think about. Here are some activities you can add in or do differently.”
Observations. Classroom observations were not used to examine the organization’s
priority for staff training and instructor resources.
Summary. Both the survey and interview data demonstrate needs within the CPA
organizational processes. Based on the study’s data, the CPA lacks cohesive or systematic work
processes relating to instructor hiring, onboarding, and training. In the survey, only 49% of
instructors reported satisfaction with the training they received. In the interviews, themes of
insufficient initial training were prevalent. Two instructors described delivering instruction for
six months to one year before receiving relevant training. Instructors also described inconsistent
approval processes, including variations in both the quality and quantity of shadow instructing.
Additionally, there were inconsistencies in the availability and functionality of material
resources needed for instruction. While skills instructors reported recent improvements in this
area, classroom instructors sought improvements largely related to technology. Staffing
shortages create a barrier, resulting in instructors getting assignments to teach courses they have
never observed due to a staffing shortage. Lastly, there are unclear expectations regarding
instructors meeting job goals, including the unavailability of feedback and a lack of ongoing
142

development. Instructors want formal feedback through other instructors, students, or the
program. Finally, once instructors complete the initial training, there were no further
opportunities for development. Due to gaps across all three areas and low satisfaction
demonstrated in the survey data, staff training and instructor resources were determined to be a
need. This need is further addressed in Chapter Five.
Vision for Evidence-Based Training is Informal
The organizational change occurring at the CPA involves identifying goals and
articulating a vision related to using evidence-based learning methodologies in training recruits.
This study operationalizes articulating a clear vision by exploring the formal and informal
messages that the Centralized Police Academy instructors have received through the onboarding,
training, and development processes regarding the CPA’s training philosophy, values, and
beliefs. To examine the organization's vision, instructors were asked about any messaging they
have received related to the CPA’s training philosophy. The study found a lack of a vision from
the top but rather an informal message passed from staff member to staff member. This
organizational setting influence was determined a need.
Survey. The Centralized Police Academy offered various instructor training programs,
but not all were focused on utilizing evidence-based learning methodologies. The survey
explored which trainings instructors had participated in (Q4) as instructors may have completed
more than one training. The most in-depth training on evidence-based learning methodologies at
the CPA occurred in the Basic Facilitator Development Course, of which 81% of survey
participants reported attending (Q20). Other instructor trainings participants reported attending
included the General Instructor Development Course (81%), Scenario Evaluator Instructor
Development Course (73%), Two-Hour Adult Learning Core (60%), Firearms Instructor
143

Development Course (42%), Use of Force Instructor Development Course (41%), Defensive
Tactics Instructor Development Course (36%), and the Emergency Vehicle Operations Instructor
Course (24%). Only one participant reported not having participated in any of the instructor
training courses provided at the CPA.
The CPA instructors were surveyed regarding whether expectations are communicated to
them, and only 66% reported the expectations are clear (Q15). As displayed in Figure 13, this
leaves just over 33% disagreeing or neutral about the clarity of expectations.

Figure 13
(Q15) Expectations Are Clearly Communicated to Me (n = 59)

1.7
11.9
20.3
59.3
6.8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
Percent of Instructors
Level of Agreement
144

Interviews. Participants were interviewed about any messages they have received to
explore further the CPA’s sharing of a vision regarding evidence-based learning practices (Q2).
Instructors reported receiving little information about the philosophy of the academy or the
overall training approach during onboarding. Instructors who had been teaching for longer
reported receiving no information regarding a vision or philosophy, as described by Participant
6, “When I first started as a part-time instructor, there was no philosophy communicated to me. I
was teaching in skills, and there was zero, and I mean no philosophy, about the Academy's
approach to training.” In contrast, a newer instructor, Participant 3, described the following
experience, “I was given the general philosophy of its not instructing; it's facilitating. It's kind of
presenting the material and letting the students work through it through discussion and exercises
and stuff like that.”
While not part of a formal, top-down message, participants described receiving at least a
general message about the current CPA training philosophy, as described by Participant 6, “I
don't think anybody that works at the academy now can say that they don't understand that that's
how training will be delivered at this point.” Instructors identified the primary training
philosophy delivery sources as full-time staff, including venue coordinators, and through the
CPA Basic Facilitator Development (BFD) Course. Not all instructors reported having taken the
course. In the survey, 46 participants reported having taken the course, and 11 reported they had
not taken it. In the interviews, five out of the eight participants reported having taken the course.
Participant 6 described this experience as follows:
I don't recall a lot of delivery of that message from the higher-ups. I believe that message
is largely delivered by kind of an expectation that if you're going to teach, you're going to
go through the BFD. And when you go through the BFD, that message is delivered loud
145

and clear. There's not a whole lot after that reminding you that's the expectation, other
than the fact that the lesson plans are written that way.
Observations. Classroom observations were not used to examine the organization's
vision for evidence-based training.
Summary. The CPA instructors described needs in relation to the organization’s
messaging regarding training philosophy, values, and beliefs. The study finds a lack of an
articulated vision from the top, but rather an informal message passed from staff member to staff
member. In the interviews, instructors reported receiving little information about the CPA’s
philosophy or the overall training approach during onboarding. In the survey, only 66% of the
CPA instructors reported the expectations for delivering training were clear. Instructors
completing the Basic Facilitator Development Course described a clearer understanding of the
expectations for instructors. However, as described in previous influence sections, the data
indicated that instructors did not receive this training until after teaching for approximately six
months. Additionally, not all of the CPA instructors had completed the Basic Facilitator
Development Course. Due to the lack of a top-down, formal, consistent message regarding
training philosophy, a vision for evidence-based training was determined to be a need. It is
further addressed in Chapter Five.
Interaction Between Organizational Influences and Stakeholder Knowledge and
Motivation
The influences of knowledge, motivation, and organization overlap. The CPA instructors
must have knowledge, including the what, how, when, and why to use evidence-based learning
methodologies. They must have the motivation to choose to work towards this goal, persist until
the goal is achieved, and invest the mental effort to achieve it. This requires self-efficacy to
146

believe they can successfully deliver training in this manner, and they must perceive value in the
methodologies. Instructors must have adequate resources and work processes to support their
ability to deliver training in this manner. The organizational culture must support all of this. If
any one of these is missing, performance is impacted.
The study found gaps in work processes, including instructor onboarding and training.
This could be a factor contributing to the gap in instructor knowledge for a range of learning
methodologies. Similarly, the study found instructors valued some evidence-based learning
methodologies more than others. This could have resulted from insufficient training on all
methodologies, or it could be related to a lack of an articulated vision from the top leadership
regarding the expectation to deliver training in this manner.
Clark and Estes (2008) defined procedures as how to do something and processes as
combining separate procedures into a smooth functioning unit. Achieving organizational goals
occurs through this system of interactive processes, and these processes require specialized
knowledge and motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). For the CPA to meet its goal of implementing
evidence-based learning methodologies, instructors must have the knowledge, including skill,
and motivation to implement the necessary procedures. These individual procedures must
combine with other procedures, such as training and resources, to create a system of interactive
processes. For successful goal achievement, all three factors, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational support, must be aligned and in place.
Summary of Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis of the Centralized Police
Academy regarding instructional practices. An examination of whether the three factors of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational supports are in place and in alignment supports the
147

stakeholder goal of 100% of the CPA instructors implementing evidence-based learning
practices in their training delivery. Based on the survey, interview, and observation data, all three
factors were not 100% in place or in alignment. Table 21 presents the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences explored in this study and their determination as an asset or a need
for recommendations for targeted solutions.

Table 21
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Influence Asset or Need
Knowledge Influence 1: Instructors’ Understanding of Evidence-Based
Learning Principles
Need
Knowledge Influence 2: Instructors’ Skills Related to Delivery of Evidence-
Based Learning Methodologies
Need
Knowledge Influence 3: Instructors’ Ability to Self-Assess Knowledge,
Skills, and Effectiveness
Need
Motivation Influence 1: Instructors’ Efficacy for Delivering Training Using
Evidence-Based Learning Methods
Asset
Motivation Influence 2: Instructors’ Utility Value for Evidence-Based
Learning Methods
Need
Organizational Influence 1: Training Adaptations to Value the Needs of
21st Century Policing
Asset
Organizational Influence 2: Priority for Staff Training and Instructor
Resources
Need
Organizational Influence 3: Vision for Evidence-Based Training Need

148

Chapter Five will present recommendations for solutions for these findings based on empirical
evidence.
149

Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion
The purpose of this project was to explore the degree to which CPA can achieve its goal
of grounding 100% of its training delivery in evidence-based learning principles. The study
focused on the CPA instructors’ current knowledge and motivation and the organizational
influences related to delivering training using evidence-based learning methodologies. This study
served to inform the organization of existing gaps as they continue working toward achieving the
goal. This section addresses the needs identified in Chapter Four. It provides recommendations
to help move the Centralized Police Academy closer to achieving its stakeholder goal of 100% of
CPA instructors implementing evidence-based learning methodologies in their training delivery.
Discussion of Findings and Results
This study examined the three influences of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
support in the Centralized Police Academy using the Clark and Estes gap analysis framework.
Clark and Estes (2008) describe the purpose of gap analysis to identify whether all employees
have the adequate knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to achieve important
stakeholder goals. The systematic process helps to identify problems and develop appropriate
solutions. This process was used to explore the CPA's capacity to achieve the stakeholder goal of
100% of instructors delivering training using evidence-based learning methodologies. Based on
the survey, interview, and observation data, deficits in components of all three influences are
preventing the stakeholder group from meeting its performance goal.
Knowledge Findings Discussion
This study combined factual and conceptual knowledge into one type, declarative
knowledge, to examine knowledge influences. In addition to declarative knowledge, effective
performance outcomes also require procedural and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
150

However, CPA instructors were found to possess varying levels of knowledge. Some instructors
were found to understand, use, and reflect upon evidence-based learning methodologies, while
others did not. Additionally, instructors did not use all learning methodologies consistently. All
three knowledge types were found to fall below the 80% strength criteria and therefore were
determined to be a need.
This study found variation in the CPA instructors’ declarative knowledge of evidence-
based learning methodologies. While the understanding of some practices was present, not all
practices were recognized or understood. This was consistent with previous research that found
academies lack information on teaching and strengthening skills (Blumberg, 2019) and that
academy instructors do not understand adult learning practices (Basham, 2011). The CPA
instructors need to know and understand evidence-based learning methodologies for effective
adult education. The research literature (Birzer, 2003; Chappell, 2008; Hannum, 2009; McCoy,
2006; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Vodde, 2012) revealed that a deeper understanding of
learning theories could enhance training delivery. Providing the CPA instructors further
education and training on information processing theory, cognitive load theory, and developing
higher-order thinking, among other evidence-based learning practices, could increase their depth
of understanding. Increased understanding could lead to increased use and improved fidelity to
the methodologies.
Even greater variation was found in the CPA instructors’ procedural knowledge.
Variations in method use, both within a single method and across methods, indicated gaps in
instructors’ knowledge of how and when to use various methodologies. Education research finds
expert teachers blend informed decision-making with theoretical knowledge and practice-based
knowledge (Guerriero, 2017). Knowledge includes specific skills, techniques, and methods and
151

knowing when and why to use various methods. The variations in the CPA instructor use of
methodologies may be contrary to the goal, as Blumberg (2019) described as the need for
academies to deliver training in a way that increases recruits' autonomous decision-making.
Lastly, the study also found a discrepancy in the CPA instructors’ self-awareness
regarding their instructional practices. CPA instructors need to have metacognitive knowledge to
enhance their effectiveness, including assessing their knowledge, skill, and effectiveness in
delivering training. Education research (Ozturk, 2017) finds conscious self-awareness helps
instructors challenge their assumptions about student learning and decide when to change their
approach to better meet student needs. Guided self-monitoring and self-assessment are strategies
to enhance metacognitive knowledge. Instructors can use tools such as reflection to self-assess
and ensure they are adhering to effective methodologies and meeting student needs rather than
falling into comfortable, less effective practices. A lack of instructors’ use of these reflective
strategies may limit their ability to increase students' metacognition (Ozturk, 2017).
Motivation Findings Discussion
Closely related to learning is the second influence on performance, motivation. Bandura
(1989) described motivation as being rooted in cognitive activity, particularly in the way people
guide their actions, set goals, and plan courses of action. Two types of motivation found to
influence teacher effectiveness include self-efficacy and achievement value (Klassen & Tze,
2014). This study examined these two factors related to the CPA instructors, finding self-efficacy
to be an asset, but value for various evidence-based learning methodologies to be a need.
This study found the CPA instructors possess confidence in their general and task-
specific abilities. Among specific tasks, instructors reported the greatest confidence in delivering
helpful feedback and running small group activities. Klassen et al. (2011) defined teacher self-
152

efficacy as the confidence teachers hold about their capability to influence student learning.
Greater teacher efficacy supports the implementation of new and challenging teaching strategies
(Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Klassen et al., 2011). To enhance the use of new methodologies, the
Centralized Police Academy instructors need to feel confident in delivering training using these
methodologies with fidelity. While this influence was found to be an asset with current
instructors, it is important to consider the relevance for onboarding and training future
instructors. Therefore, self-efficacy relating to training and developing new instructors is
included as part of the integrated recommendations.
Expectancy-value theory states that task value is a strong predictor of active choice
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000; Wigfield et al., 2017). This study examined utility value, or
usefulness, as it related to the CPA instructors’ motivation. Findings revealed CPA instructors
perceived facilitated learning methodologies to be effective. However, instructors valued some
methods less than others. Clark and Estes (2008) highlighted the role of task value in workplace
performance, describing that people value what they believe helps them and reject what they
believe stands in their way. Education research (Andersson, 2018) revealed that teachers who do
not value a learning strategy's characteristics are less likely to implement the approach. The CPA
should encourage effective methodologies by increasing the instructors’ perceived value of such
methodologies. Increasing instructor buy-in for all methodologies is included in the
recommendations.
Organization Findings Discussion
The third category influencing employee performance is related to the organization itself.
In addition to knowledge and motivation, organizational influences play a role in CPA
instructors' abilities to deliver training grounded in evidence-based principles and achieve the
153

Centralized Police Academy's goal. This study examined external organizational influences and
found this to be an asset. However, the internal organizational influences were found to be a
need.
The academy's external influences focused on the CPA's ability to adapt to the needs of
21st century policing, the characteristics of which were discussed in Chapter Two. Analysis of
the data from this study revealed training adaptations that value the needs of 21st century
policing, based on national trends and community expectations, emerged as an asset. Meeting
evolving needs from the field is an ongoing task. While not addressed in the recommendations
due to this influence being an asset, the CPA should continue its efforts to adapt training content
and delivery to meet the changing needs of the field and community expectations.
Internal organizational factors influence performance. This study found two influences to
be needs, instructors having the necessary support to deliver training using evidence-based
methodologies and the organization communicating a vision toward recruit learning. The
findings revealed that the Centralized Police Academy lacked cohesive or systematic work
processes to prepare instructors for a teaching assignment. These processes included instructor
hiring, onboarding, training, and ongoing development. These findings were consistent with
previous research, which finds training and development of academy instructors to be a need
(Basham, 2014; Hannum, 2009). Successfully changing academy training to develop recruits’
skills more effectively requires training delivery changes (Makin, 2016; Rosenbaum &
Lawrence, 2017; Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016; Vander Kooi & Bierlein Palmer, 2014) and
thorough training for instructors (Blumberg et al., 2019). Ongoing instructor development is a
need. As one academy study found, instructors trained in adult learning methodologies did not
demonstrate the use of the methods when delivering training (McCoy, 2006).
154

The final organizational influence that impacts performance and is a necessary
component of a successful change process is identifying and communicating a clear vision that
aligns with goals and processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). The study found a lack of a clearly
articulated vision from the top and reliance solely on informal messaging between staff
members. Additionally, the vision must connect to organizational processes and procedures
(Clark & Estes, 2006). A clear vision sets expectations for processes, such as instructor training
and ongoing development. Northouse (2016) identified the benefits of a clear vision to include
helping those within the organization understand how they fit with the direction and empowering
them to be part of the process. In the absence of clear goals, individuals will substitute their own
goals, which may or may not align with the organization's goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). A clear
vision sets the expectation that instructors will deliver training in a certain manner, which is
included in the recommendations.
Recommendations for Practice
The following section includes recommendations to address the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational gaps identified through the gap analysis process. There are three
recommendations identified below to address key findings. While throughout the study, the
influences have been addressed in the order of 1) knowledge, 2) motivation, and 3)
organizational influences, the recommendations are provided in order of recommended
implementation. While the performance improvement recommendations are integrated to
increase effectiveness and efficiency (Clark & Estes, 2008), the recommended order includes
first setting a clear vision and performance goals at the organizational level, then addressing the
motivation issues that impact the instructor’s choice, persistence, and mental effort. Before the
CPA instructors can choose to persist and invest mental effort in a task, they must first be
155

provided a clear goal. According to Clark and Estes (2008), an individual’s values, including
utility value, influences motivation. An instructor’s value for evidence-based learning
methodologies will influence their course of action. After motivation has been addressed, the last
recommendation includes implementing instructor training to increase knowledge of evidence-
based learning principles and methodologies.
Recommendation 1: Provide a Clear Vision, Performance Goals, and Benchmarks to
Support Successful Organizational Change
This study found only 66% of CPA instructors reported that expectations for delivering
training were clear. Instructors reported receiving little information about the philosophy of the
academy or the overall training approach during onboarding. The absence of a clear vision and
connecting performance goals contributes to gaps in work processes and resources (Clark &
Estes, 2008) and is directly related to an organization's ability to sustain change (Bennis &
Nanus, 1985; Dixon, 1994; Northouse, 2016). Connecting the vision and benchmarks, or
performance goals, to an assessment of results allows an organization to determine if goals have
been met (Clark & Estes, 2008). The Centralized Police Academy needs to articulate a clear
vision from the top down toward evidence-based learning. The vision should connect the
organization's mission, providing quality public safety training, to the change effort it wishes to
sustain, which is the use of evidence-based learning principles in training.
Recommendation 2: Increase Instructors’ Value for Delivering Training Using Evidence-
Based Learning Methodologies with Fidelity by Describing Realistic Benefits
Nearly 85% of instructors were found to generally value evidence-based learning
methodologies, but there was significant variation among specific methods. The CPA instructors
supported practices such as creating a trusting learning environment (M = 4.86) and encouraging
156

critical thinking (M = 4.80). Instructors may be more likely to use methodologies they perceive
to be valuable. However, the study also found instructors were less supportive of other
methodologies, including refraining from telling students how to solve a problem (M = 4.02) or
limiting their feedback (M = 4.05). Instructors are potentially reluctant to use methodologies
perceived to be less valuable.
Clark and Estes (2008) state that motivation problems related to value should be
addressed by describing the realistic benefits, including later utility, of completing the less
desired tasks (in the context of this study, instructional methodologies) and the risks of avoiding
them. Creating personal interest increases intrinsic motivation, or motivation to engage in an
activity for its own sake rather than a means to an end (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Providing
verbal reinforcement is another means to enhance motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). It could be
delivered by connecting success with the effortful use of strategies rather than effort alone
(Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). The Centralized Police Academy should focus on developing
and enhancing instructor value for delivering training using evidence-based learning
methodologies with fidelity. Developing and enhancing value should include increasing
understanding of various methodologies' benefits, creating personal interest, and providing
verbal reinforcement for effortful use of the methodologies.
Recommendation 3: Develop Knowledge and Skills Related to Delivering Training Using
Evidence-Based Learning Methodologies through Initial Training and On-Going Education
Approximately 85% of CPA instructors were able to identify elements of evidence-based
learning methodologies. However, only 73% reported understanding evidence-based learning
methodologies, and of those, only 60% reported using them consistently. Clark and Estes (2008)
recommend training when employees need to acquire knowledge or skills and education when
157

they need knowledge about what causes things to happen. Aligning with the recommendations
from Clark and Estes (2008), the Centralized Police Academy should develop and implement a
progressive instructor training and education system to support the development of knowledge
and skills related to using evidence-based learning methodologies in the delivery of training. The
system should include foundational training as part of the new instructor onboarding process.
This foundational training should include the vision from leadership, performance goals, risks of
not using evidence-based learning methodologies, the benefits of use, demonstration of the
practices, application of new knowledge and skills, guided practice, and feedback. A progressive
system would provide additional education for instructors ready to understand conceptual,
theoretical, and strategic knowledge to help them navigate novel challenges and problems.
Education should include understanding theories related to learning as listed in Table 22 and how
those theories translate into practice in a police academy training environment.

158

Table 22
Integrated Theories, Frameworks, and Models for Inclusion in CPA Instructor Training
Theory/Framework/Model Theorist(s) Related Concept(s)
Information Processing
Model/Theory
Miller (1956) Limitations on short-term memory
Connect with prior knowledge
Shorter, frequent practice
Active processes
Metacognitive strategies
Cognitive Load Theory Sweller & Levine
(1982)
Manage intrinsic load
Decrease extraneous load
Enhance germane load
Expectancy-Value Theory Eccles et al. (1983) Value for task- attainment, intrinsic,
utility, cost
Social Cognitive Theory Bandura (1986) Learning through observation and
modeling
Self-regulation
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Framework
Bloom et al. (1956)
Krathwohl (2002)
Types of knowledge- factual, conceptual,
procedural, metacognitive
Adult Learning Theory-
Andragogy
Knowles (1968) Need to know why
Need internal motivation
Want to know relevance
Role of prior knowledge and experience
Self-directed
Task-oriented
Active Learning Theory Bonwell and Eison,
1991
Instructional activities require thinking
while doing
159

Integrated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Recommendations
The previous recommendations should be incorporated into a holistic training and
development program for CPA instructors to improve their performance and reach the
Centralized Police Academy stakeholder and organization goals. Clark and Estes (2008)
recommend designing and implementing solutions in a fully integrated manner, including
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences, as this integration increases both
effectiveness and efficiency. A holistic program should begin with new instructor onboarding,
connect to initial instructor training and provide ongoing support and development throughout an
instructor’s career. The program should be grounded in the research literature on organizational
change, learning, and motivation. The program should emphasize learning and motivation
theories, models, and frameworks discussed throughout this study, as provided in Table 22.
Additionally, the program should incorporate an evaluation model tied to training outcomes,
such as Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s New World Model, to improve the program, maximize
learning transfer, and demonstrate organizational value (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The New World Model of program evaluation includes four evaluation levels that should
be considered during the planning phase of an instructor training and development program
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The model includes Level 1- Reaction, Level 2- Learning,
Level 3- Behavior, and Level 4- Results. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggest that the
levels should be considered in reverse during the planning stage, beginning with what is most
important, the program outcome.

160

Level 4: Results
The New World Model Level 4 evaluates the degree to which targeted outcomes occur as
a result of the training program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Crafting a Level 4-Results
statement includes combining the organization’s purpose and mission with responsible use of
resources. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend considering the targeted outcomes at
the beginning of the planning process. For the CPA to develop a holistic instructor training and
development program, the organization should first consider the training program's outcomes.
One example would be the CPA instructors’ use of evidence-based learning methodologies
increases student learning. Student learning could be measured by comparing students' pre and
post written exam scores or examining skills testing. Another possible measure of student
learning would be to compare students' rates of successfully completing their field training post-
graduation.
Level 3: Behavior
The New World Model Level 3 evaluates the degree to which participants apply what
they learned during training when they are back on the job (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The evaluation includes critical behaviors that are considered most important for organizational
success. Some examples would be instructors engaging students in learning by using questions
and small group activities. It is important in the planning stage to align training with these
critical behaviors. This level also includes the use of required drivers or processes and systems
that reinforce, monitor, encourage, and reward the use of critical behaviors. The CPA should
design measures to assess instructor behavior while delivering training after receiving training.
These measures could include observations using a structured rubric to identify whether the
161

instructors are delivering training using the methodologies learned in the instructor training
program.
Level 2: Learning
The New World Model Level 2 evaluates the degree to which participants acquire the
intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment based on their participation in
the training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This level relates to many of the theories
discussed in this study, including Bloom’s Taxonomy knowledge levels as well as the motivation
influences of self-efficacy and utility value. The CPA should design measures to assess instructor
learning as a result of the training. These measures could include a knowledge test or
demonstration of the new knowledge and skills during or at the instructor training program's
conclusion. Another way instructors could demonstrate their learning is to create a short sample
lesson.
Level 1: Reaction
The New World Model Level 1 evaluates the degree to which participants find the
training favorable, engaging, and relevant to their jobs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This
evaluation can help ensure that the instructor training is not creating barriers, utilizes active
learning and other engaging methodologies, and is provided at the appropriate time for learners.
Additionally, this evaluation can help assess instructor value for the topic. The CPA should
implement measures, such as a post-training survey or training evaluation, to assess instructor
reaction to the training. These measures should also be used to determine if adjustments are
needed.
162

Program Development Steps and Timeline
The Centralized Police Academy should create and implement a structured and holistic
onboarding, training, and development program for instructors. Such training can also serve as
remedial training for instructors who are not meeting the New World Model evaluation process's
expected standards. The CPA should begin the process with a clear vision from the top
leadership, connecting its mission with the new philosophy of using evidence-based
methodologies to deliver training. Leadership should then focus on aligning processes and
procedures to ensure they support the vision. This stage should also include the identification of
clear performance goals which also align with the vision. The CPA should complete this stage
within two months. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) identify the importance of measuring
baseline behavior before implementing and measuring the behavior change. Determining a clear
vision and performance goals allows baseline measures to begin before implementing the new
training program.
Next, the CPA should begin planning the initial instructor training program. Applying the
New World Model, this stage includes identifying the competencies instructors need to deliver
training effectively; developing a progressive training program to achieve those competencies;
and developing a process to audit, evaluate, and give instructors feedback. To maximize
effectiveness, instructor training should be designed based on the same theories to enhance
student learning. Some effective practices previously discussed include managing cognitive load
(Sweller et al., 2019), delivering using distributed practice (Kornell & Bjork, 2008), and
including guided practice and corrective feedback (Ambrose et al., 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008).
Although self-efficacy was determined to be an asset in the study, it should also be considered to
support building future instructors' self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be influenced by vicarious
163

methods, such as by watching others succeed (Bandura, 1997), therefore the instructor training
should include opportunities for new instructors to shadow highly qualified instructors. Planning
and developing the instructor training and development program should be completed in 8
months.
Topics for initial training should derive from the findings in Chapter Four. The CPA
instructors were often able to identify evidence-based training elements, and this foundation
should be included in the new instructor training. The CPA instructors frequently used questions
and small group activities to engage students in learning. These skills should be included in
initial training and develop an understanding of the importance of student engagement.
Additional foundational topics should include the instructor's role in creating a trusting
environment, managing cognitive load, and establishing value for the topic.
To create a holistic development program, the CPA should examine processes related to
expanding instructors' training abilities. Processes could include creating opportunities for
instructor peer collaboration and discussion regarding evidence-based learning methodologies.
Other processes could include providing opportunities for instructors to debrief the thinking
process to enhance their metacognition. Providing education for instructors to develop a deeper
understanding of the learning process and related learning theories could help the CPA
instructors learn how and when to use strategies such as retrieval practice, varied practice, and
effective feedback.
The final step is to implement the instructor training and development program. Once
implemented, the New World Model four levels should be used as a guide to evaluating the
training program. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) identify a period of monitoring and
adjusting based on data collected in Levels 3 and 4. This data is used to assess whether the
164

program is moving instructors closer to the goal. If the data does not reflect progression, the CPA
will conduct an analysis to determine why and make adjustments based on the analysis. This
stage also includes providing feedback and positive reinforcement to instructors demonstrating
the competencies and meeting performance goals. After implementation, monitoring and
adjustment are ongoing.
Limitations and Delimitations
The ability to extend research results or conclusions based on a study of particular
individuals or institutions to other individuals or institutions is referred to as generalizability
(Maxwell, 2013). For example, can this study's findings based on police instructors at the
Centralized Police Academy be applied to instructors at a different police training academy?
While unique features of a study may limit generalizability (McEwan & McEwan, 2003),
academy instructors across the country share similar backgrounds, similar certification processes
and teach similar courses in academies with similar models (Reaves, 2016). The research
literature identified similar challenges in implementing academy training changes as found in
this study, including the tendency to default to more familiar methods (Cordner, 2017; Makin,
2016; McCoy, 2006). These similarities provide an opportunity for the findings from this study
to be potentially generalizable to other police training academies looking to implement changes
to training delivery. It will be up to readers of this study to determine if this research applies to
their population of interest based on their setting and participants.
Delimitations are the study's boundaries as set by the researcher (Price & Murnan, 2004).
These boundaries include the choice of the conceptual framework. The disconnect between
academy training and adequate preparation for the field is related to both content and delivery
(Blumberg et al., 2019; Bykov, 2014; Caro, 2011; Cordner, 2017). This study focuses only on
165

one aspect, delivery. Ineffective content delivered through an evidence-based methodology
would not likely result in the quality of police training necessary for new officers today. The
research literature would benefit from future studies regarding the effectiveness of particular
content to pair with effective delivery.
A study's limitations are characteristics of the design or methodology that influence the
interpretation of findings (Price & Murnan, 2004). Limitations in this study are identified in both
survey and observation data collection. Limitations relating to the survey include the weak
response rate and the non-random selection. Observation limitations include the method of
conducting the observations via video rather than in-person.
The first limitations concern the survey sample. For greater survey data quality, a high
response rate is valued (Mesch, 2012). In this study, 90 of the 266 invitees (34%) participated in
at least part of the survey. Further reducing the data set, many survey items received only 56 to
60 responses. Additionally, while inviting all CPA police instructors to participate in the survey
provided for a larger population size, the nonrandom sample may not have accurately
represented the population but rather the characteristics of those who chose to participate. The
CPA instructors self-selected to participate in the survey, and their individual reasons for
volunteering may have influenced the responses. Individuals may have volunteered to participate
due to their interest in academy instructional practices, resulting in the data reflecting inflated
support for evidence-based learning practices. Similarly, the 176 CPA instructors who selected
not to participate in the survey may not have volunteered because they do not support the
changing academy practices or are disinterested in instructional practices. The survey timing
may have contributed to the lower response rate as multiple significant events occurred during
the survey window that may have impacted participants' availability.
166

The second limitation concerns the observation conditions. The inability to conduct in-
person observations limited the classroom observations to what could be seen and heard on
camera. Research finds data collected through video observations of teachers in classrooms
indicate artificially lower scores than observations conducted in live settings, indicating fewer
observed instances of target behaviors (Curby et al., 2016). Limiting coding to what could be
observed on camera could have resulted in missed examples of CPA instructors demonstrating
the evidence-based learning methodologies and missed examples of how students engaged in the
practices.
Recommendations for Future Research
The Centralized Police Academy is one of 664 basic police training academies in the
United States. Future research could examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on instructors at other academies. The CPA had already provided some training to
instructors on using evidence-based methodologies prior to this study. Future research could
examine academies that have provided more or less instructor training. Are the results of this
study generalizable? Do other academies have instructors who believe teaching in this manner is
effective for recruit training? How does the training instructors receive impact their training
delivery?
One of the limitations of this study was the reliance on video observations. Future
research could include in-person observations of training to gain more information about student
behaviors happening around the room. For example, the limits of video observations provided
the opportunity to code instructors’ behavior related to students’ verbal behaviors, but not the
students’ non-verbal behaviors. An examination of how student verbal and non-verbal behaviors
influence instructors' decisions about shifting methodologies would be valuable.
167

During data collection, potential areas of interest that emerged included instructors’
metacognition, or their ability to self-assess effectiveness, versus their desire for external
feedback. Future research could explore how an instructor’s self-assessment compares to an
assessment conducted by an external party. How do instructors with high self-awareness
navigate challenges in the learning environment compared to instructors with low self-
awareness? Do instructors with metacognitive knowledge strive to increase recruits’
metacognitive knowledge?
A gap in the research literature on police academy training provides numerous
opportunities for future research. Recent research has emerged regarding recruit perceptions of
learning in various environments (Donahue, 2021). Future research could look at recruit learning
within the context of various training methodologies. For example, the relationship between
recruit knowledge and the strength of evidence-based methodologies used by instructors.
Another consideration would be to compare instructor practices to feedback provided in
students’ course surveys.
While this study focused on training delivery, future research should also focus on
training effectiveness. The field lacks research regarding whether police training changes officer
behaviors (Lum et al., 2016). Research examining the transfer of police academy training to the
field would be of significant value to bridge this gap. Measuring behaviors would align with the
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model level three evaluation. For example, do
knowledge and skills transfer from the academy to the field? Following the Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick NWM, a level four evaluation could include research examining the relationship
between academy training and the outcomes of police behaviors in the field. For example, does
training affect police-community interactions in the field? Research of this nature would benefit
168

a range of stakeholders, including policy makers, communities, police, and police training
organizations.
Conclusion
As established in Chapters One and Two, many of the approaches currently used in police
training are not well-grounded in evidence-based practices (Lum et al., 2016). Despite a lack of
research, the current police-community relations crisis has resulted in a demand for police reform
(Engel et al., 2020). Controversial police-community encounters and use of force incidents have
led to a focus on improving communication and de-escalation training (McLean et al., 2020), as
well as implicit bias training (Engel et al., 2020). McLean (2020) describes a precarious position,
where external demands to implement police training programs balance on little research.
Although reform demands often focus on implementing specific training topics, some
recognize the value does not simply lie with the topic itself. In 2003, Birzer emphasized the need
for police training academies to evolve training delivery to an adult learning model to develop
officer behaviors aligned with community-oriented policing. As others have suggested, to
prepare officers for the complex nature of policing today, it is increasingly important to examine
longstanding training practices and consider change (Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Sereni-
Massinger & Wood, 2016; Vander Kooi & Bierlein Palmer, 2014). In 2021, academies still need
to evolve. The profession is overdue in replacing longstanding traditional training practices with
methods grounded in evidence-based learning principles. Grounding training in research
enhances learning and contributes to the development of officer behaviors that align with today’s
policing demands and community expectations.
This study examined one police training academy's efforts to deliver training based on
research rather than tradition. Although the Centralized Police Academy has not yet reached its
169

goal of 100% implementation, four years into the transition, the CPA instructors were found to
value the general concepts of evidence-based learning methodologies, embracing some methods
more than others. Instructors demonstrated frequent use of active and adult learning
methodologies but little to no effective feedback or encouraging student metacognitive practices
in classroom observations. After a small amount of training, 73% of CPA instructors reported
understanding these practices, and 60% reported consistent use. To increase the quantity and
quality of use, instructors need additional training and education on evidence-based learning
principles and methodologies.
Researchers acknowledge that policing cannot wait for empirical evidence to catch up
and drive change. Rather it is the duty of practitioners to implement innovative approaches and
evaluate the results (Engel et al., 2020). This study's findings contribute to the body of research
on instructors’ use of evidence-based learning methodologies and are applicable to other training
academies looking to facilitate change. As found in this study, this type of substantive change
requires more than changing select instructional practices. Change of this degree requires
organizational change, including setting a clear vision and aligning resources to sustain the
change. It requires communication and developing value. It requires investing in the training and
ongoing development of staff. It involves planning and evaluation.
Lastly, in addition to examining innovative practices, future research on police academy
training needs to look beyond the academy walls. To determine the effectiveness of training, it is
important to understand the relationship between knowledge and skills and transfer into the field.
Beyond transfer, it is important to understand whether training leads to desired behavior change
and under what circumstances. Academies could use this knowledge to inform the development
170

and delivery of training, potentially leading to improved outcomes in the field, including
improved police-community interactions.
171

References
Agarwal, P. (2019). Retrieval practice & Bloom's taxonomy: Do students need fact knowledge
before higher-order learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(2), 189-209.
Agarwal, P. K., & Bain, P. M. (2019). Powerful teaching: unleash the science of learning.
Jossey-Bass.
Albano, A., McConnell, S., Lease, E., Cai, L. (2020). Contextual interference effects in early
assessment: Evaluating the psychometric benefits of item interleaving. Frontiers in
Education, 5, article 133.
Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M., & Norman, M. (2010). How learning works:
7 Research-based principles for smart teaching. Jossey-Bass.
Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2018). Reasons for teachers’ successful development of a formative
assessment practice through professional development - a motivation perspective.
Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 25(6), 576-597.
Atkins, V., & Norris, W. (2012). Innovative law enforcement training: Blended theory,
technology, and research in Haberfield, M.R., Clarke, C., & Sheehan, D., Police
Organization and Training Innovations in Research and Practice, (pp 45-65). Springer.
Azevedo R, & Aleven V. (2013) International Handbook of Metacognition and Learning
Technologies. Springer.
Bai, Y., Li, J., Bai, Y., Ma, W., Yang, X., & Ma, F. (2018). Development and validation of a
questionnaire to evaluate the factors influencing training transfer among nursing
professionals. BMC Health Services Research, 18(107), 1-9.
Bandura, A. (1989). Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy.
Developmental Psychology, 25(5), 729-735.
172

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review Psychology,
52(1), 1-26.
Bandura, A. (2006). Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Information Age Publishing.
Barrett, A., Kajamaa, A., & Johnston, J. (2020). How to be reflexive when conducting qualitative
research. The Clinical Teacher, 17, 9-12.
Basham, B. (2014). Police instructor or police educator? Salus Journal, 2(1), 99-109.
Bernstein, M. (2019, March 13). New Portland police recruits failing probation at double the rate
of past years. The Oregonian.
https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2019/03/ new-portland-police-recruits-failing-
probation-at-double-the-rate-of-past-years.html
Bickel, K. (2013, June). The COPS Office recruit training: Are we preparing officers for a
community-oriented department? The e-newsletter of the COPS Office, 6(6).
https://cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/06-
2013/preparing_officers_for_a_community_oriented_department.asp
Birnbaum, M., Kornell, N., Bjork, E., & Bjork, R. (2012). Why interleaving enhances inductive
learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 41(3), 392-
402.
Birzer, M. (2003). The theory of andragogy applied to police training. Policing: An
International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 26(1), 29-42.
Blumberg, D., Schlosser, M., Papazoglou, K., Creighton, S., & Kaye, C. (2019). New directions
in police academy training: A call to action. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 16(24), 4941-4955.

173

Bonwell, C. & Eison, J. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. Higher
Education Report No. 1.
Boutin, A., & Blandin, Y. (2010). On the cognitive processes underlying contextual interference:
Contributions of practice schedule, task similarity and amount of practice. Human
Movement Science, 29(6), 910-920. https://doi.org/10/1010/j.humov.2010.07.011
Bray-Clark, N., & Bates, R. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs and teacher effectiveness: Implications
for professional development. Professional Educator, 26(1), 13-22.
Brown, P., Roediger III, H., & McDaniel, M. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful
learning. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Brown, S. (2010). Likert scale examples for surveys.
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/ag/staff/info/likertscaleexamples.pdf
Burke, W. (2018). Organizational change: Theory and practice (5th ed.). SAGE.
Burke, L. & Hutchins, H. (2007). Training transfer: An integrative literature review. Human
Resource Development Review, 6(3), 263-296.
Bykov, O. (2014). Police academy training: An evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of
police academies. Themis: Research Journal of Justice Studies and Forensic Science, 2,
142-159.
Caro, C. (2011). Predicting state police officer performance in the field training officer program:
What can we learn from the cadet's performance in the training academy? American
Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 357-370.
Chappell, A. (2008). Police Academy Training: comparing across curricula. Policing: An
International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 31(1), 36-56.

174

Chappell, A. T., & Lanza-Kaduce, L. (2010). Police academy socialization: Understanding the
lessons learned in a paramilitary-bureaucratic organization. Journal of Contemporary
Ethnography, 39(2), 187-214.
Chen, O., Castro-Alonso, J., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2018). Extending cognitive load theory to
incorporate working memory resource depletion: Evidence from the spacing effect.
Educational Psychological Review, 30, 483-501.
Cholke, S. (2017, January 16). Police training is so poor, plan to hire 1,000 officers is dangerous:
DOJ. https://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20170113/downtown/ cpd-training-is-so-bad-
plan-hire-1000-new-officers-deeply-flawed-doj/
Ciotti, M., Ciccozzi, M., Terrinoni, A., Jiang, W., Wang, C. & Bernardini, S. (2020). The
COVID-19 pandemic. Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 57(6), 365-388.
Clarke, C., & Armstrong, K. (2012). Beyond reproach: The need for effective and responsive
training in Haberfield, M.R., Clarke, C., & Sheehan, D., Police Organization and
Training Innovations in Research and Practice, (pp 11-26). Springer.
Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. CEP Press.
Clark, R., Nguyen, F., & Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines
to Manage Cognitive Load. Pfeiffer.
Colvin Clark, R. (2019). Evidence-Based training methods: A guide for training professionals
(3rd ed.) ASTD Press.
Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training (2020). Peace officer basic training.
https://post.ca.gov/peace-officer-basic-training

175

Conley, A. (2011). Patterns of motivation belief: Combining achievement goal and
expectancy-value perspectives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(1), 32-47.
Conti, N. (2011). Weak links and warrior hearts: A framework for judging self and others in
police training. Police Practice and Research, 12(5), 410-423.
Conti, N., Doreian, P. (2014). From here on out, we’re all blue: Interaction order, social
infrastructure, and race in police socialization. Police Quarterly, 17(4), 414-447.
Cordner, G. (2017). Evidence-based police education and training in the United States. European
Law Enforcement Research Bulletin, (3), 71-78. Retrieved from
https://bulletin.cepol.europa.eu/index.php/bulletin/article/view/283
Cordner, G. & Shain, C. (2011). The changing landscape of police education and training, Police
Practice and Research, 12(4), 281-285.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Curby, T., Johnson, P., Mashburn, A., & Carlis, L. (2016). Live versus video observations:
Comparing the reliability and validity of two methods of assessing classroom quality.
Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34(8), 765-781.
Dixon, J.R. (1994). Business process reengineering: Improving in new strategic directions.
California Management Review, 36, 93-108.
Eccles, J. S. (2006). A motivational perspective on school achievement in Optimizing student
success in schools with the other three Rs: reasoning, resilience, and responsibility.
Information Age Publishing.

176

Eccles, J.S, Adler, T.F., Futterman, R., Goff, S.B., Kaczala, C.M., Meece, J.L., & Midgley, C.
(1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In Achievement and Motivation,
pp 75-146. W.H. Freeman.
Engel, R., McManus, H., & Isaza, G. (2020). Moving beyond “best practice”: Experiences in
police reform and a call for evidence to reduce officer-involved shootings. The ANNALS
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 687(1), 146-165.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911.
Florida Department of Law Enforcement (2020). Officer requirements.
http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/CJSTC/Officer-Requirements/How-to-Become-an-
Officer.aspx
Ford, R. (2003). Saying one thing, meaning another: The role of parables in police training.
Police Quarterly, 6(1), 84-110.
Fowler, F.J. (2014). Survey research methods (5th ed.). Sage.
Gallimore, R. & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational Psychologist,
36(1), 45-56.
Georgia Public Safety Training Center (2020). Basic training.
https://www.gpstc.org/training-at-gpstc/basic-training/
Griffin, T., Wiley, J., & Salas, C. (2013). Supporting effective self-regulated learning: The
critical role of monitoring in International Handbook of Metacognition and Learning
Technologies. Springer.

177

Grossman, R. & Salas, E. (2011). The transfer of training: What really matters. International
Journal of Training and Development, 15(2), 103-189.
Guerriero, S. (2017). Pedagogical knowledge and the changing nature of the teaching
profession. OECD Publishing.
Hall, K., Domingues, D., & Cavazos, R. (1994). Contextual interference effects with skilled
baseball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 835-841.
Harris, S. (2008). Are instructors who have “practical experience” necessarily superior to those
who don’t? The American Sociologist, 39, 86-93.
Hannum, W. (2009). Training myths: False beliefs that limit the efficiency and effectiveness of
training solutions, part 1. Performance Improvement, 48(2), 26-30.
Hannum, W. (2009). Training myths: False beliefs that limit the efficiency and effectiveness of
training solutions, part 2. Performance Improvement, 48(6), 25-29.
Helsdingen, A., van Gog, T., & van Merrienboer, J. (2011). The effects of practice schedule and
critical thinking prompts on learning and transfer of a complex judgment task. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 103(2), 383-398.
Hinkel, D. (2017, March 14). Chicago police recruits rarely flunk out, raising concerns about
training. Chicago Tribune. https:www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-chicago-police-
academy-met-20170314-story.html
Huang G.C., Lindell D., Jaffe L.E., Sullivan A.M., & Huang G.C. (2016). A multi-site study of
strategies to teach critical thinking: “why do you think that?”. Medical Education, 50(2),
236-249.

178

Huet, M., Jacobs, D., Camachon, C., Missenard, O., Gray, R., & Montagne, G. (2011). The
education of attention as explanation of variability of practice effects: Learning the final
approach phase in a flight simulator. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Perception and Performance. 37(6), 1841-1854.
Hur, Y. (2017). Does training matter in public organizations? Assessing training effects in the
U.S. law enforcement agencies. International Journal of Organization Theory and
Behavior, 20(4), 454-478.
Kim, T., Chen, J., Verwey, W.B., & Wright, D.L. (2018). Improving novel motor learning
through prior high contextual interference training. Acta Psychologica, 182, 55-64.
Kim, T., Rhee, J., & Wright, D. (2016). Allowing time to consolidate knowledge gained through
random practice facilitates later novel motor sequence acquisition. Acta Psychologica,
163, 153-166.
Kirkpatrick, D. L., & Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2005). Transferring Learning to Behavior: Using the
Four Levels to Improve Performance. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Kirkpatrick, J. D., & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2016). Kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation.
ATD Press.
Klassen, R., & Tze, V. (2014). Teachers' self-efficacy, personality, and teaching effectiveness: A
meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 12, 59-76.
Klassen, R., Tze, V., Betts, S., & Gordon, K. (2011). Teacher efficacy research 1998-2009: Signs
of progress or unfulfilled promise? Educational Psychology Review, 23, 21-43.
Kluger, A. & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A
historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory.
Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254-284.
179

Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy.
Follett.
Kornell, N. & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the “enemy of
induction”? Psychological Science, 19(6), 585-592.
Krathwohl, D. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice,
41(4), 212-218.
Kramarski, B. & Michalsky, T. (2013). Supporting effective self-regulated learning: The critical
role of monitoring in International Handbook of Metacognition and Learning
Technologies. Springer.
Lewinski, W. (2019). Do we train to assure officer success… or to “check the box?”.
https://www.forcescience.org/2019/01/police-officer-training
Li, M., Wang, Z., You, X., & Gao, J. (2015). Value congruence and teacher's work engagement:
The mediating role of autonomous and controlled motivation. Personality and Individual
Differences, 80, 113-118.
Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Sage.
Linnenbrink, E., & Pintrich, P. (2003). Motivation as an enabler for academic success. School
Psychology Review, 31(3), 313-327.
Lum, C., & Koper, C. S. (2017). Evidence-based policing: Translating research into practice.
Oxford University Press.
Lum, C., Koper, C. S., Gill, C., Hibdon, J., Telep, C. & Robinson, L. (2016). An evidence-
assessment of the recommendations of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century
Policing- Implementation and research priorities. Center for Evidence-Based Crime
Policy, George Mason University. International Association of Chiefs of Police
180

Makin, D.A. (2016). A descriptive analysis of a problem-based learning police academy.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem Based Learning, 10(1).
Marion, N. (1998). Police academy training: Are we teaching recruits what they need to know?
Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 21(1), 54-79.
Marsh, H., Martin, A., Yueng, A., & Craven, R. (2017). Competence self-perceptions in theory
and practice in Handbook of Competence and Motivation (2nd ed.) Guilford Press.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: an interactive approach (3rd ed.). SAGE.
Mayer, R. E. (2011). Applying the science of learning. Pearson Education.
McCarty, W., & Lawrence, D. (2016). Coping, confidence, and change within the academy: A
longitudinal look at police recruits. Police Practice and Research, 17(3), 263-278.
McCoy, M. R. (2006). Teaching style and the application of adult learning principles by police
instructors. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management,
29(1), 77-91.
McEwan-Adkins, E. K., & McEwan, P. J. (2003). Making sense of research what's good, what's
not, and how to tell the difference. Corwin.
McLean, K., Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., Alpert, G., Smith, M. (2020). Randomized control trial of
social interaction police training. Criminology & Public Policy, 19, 805-832.
Medina, M. (2017). Making students thinking visible during active learning. American Journal
of Pharmaceutical Education, 81(3), 1-4.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: a guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Mesch, G. (2012). Handbook of Survey Methodology for the Social Sciences. Springer.

181

Miles-Johnson, T. & Pickering, S. (2018). Police recruits and perceptions of trust in diverse
groups. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 19(4), 311-328.
Mugford, R., Shevaun, Co., & Bennell, C. (2013). Improving police training through a cognitive
load perspective. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and
Management, 36(2), 312-337.
National Research Council (2004). Fairness and effectiveness in policing: The evidence.
The National Academies Press.
Northouse, P. (2016). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Nowell, L., Norris, J., White, D. & Moules, N. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the
trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16, 1-13.
O’Neil, J., O’Neil, D., Weed, K., Hartman, M., Spence, W., & Lewinski, W. (2019). Police
academy training, performance, and learning. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(2), 353-
372.
Oregon Department of Public Safety Standards and Training (2020). Basic certifications.
https://www.oregon.gov/dpsst/CJ/Pages/BasicCert.aspx
Ozturk, N. (2017). An analysis of teachers' self-reported competencies for teaching
metacognition. Educational Studies, 43(3), 247-264.
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent
developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
Patterson, G. (2016). A brief exploratory report of coping strategies among police recruits during
academy training. Psychological Reports, 119(2), 557-567.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage.

182

Police Executive Research Forum (2019). The workforce crisis and what police agencies are
doing about it. https://www.policeforum.org/assets/WorkforceCrisis.pdf
President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final Report of the President’s Task
Force on 21st Century Policing. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
Retrieved from https://cops.usdoj.gov/pdf/taskforce/taskforce_ finalreport.pdf
Price, J. H., & Murnan, J. (2004). Research limitations and the necessity of reporting them.
American Journal of Health Education, 35(2), 66-67.
Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering
Education, 93(3), 223-231.
Probst, B., & Berenson, L. (2014). The double arrow: How qualitative social work researchers
use reflexivity. Qualitative Social Work, 13(6), 813-827.
Rahr, S., & Rice, S. (2015, April). From warriors to guardians: Recommitting American police
culture to democratic ideals. New Perspectives in Policing, US Department of Justice
Bulletin. https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=270757
Reaves, B. (2012). Hiring and retention of state and local law enforcement officers, 2008-
statistical tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics Statistical Tables.
https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4514
Reaves, B. (2016, July). State and Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2013. Bureau of
Justice Bulletin. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/slleta13.pdf
Reaves, B. (2009, February). State and Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2006.
Bureau of Justice Bulletin. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/slleta06.pdf
Remillard, J., Herbel-Eisenmann, B., & Lloyd, G. (2009). Mathematics Teachers at Work:
Connecting Curriculum Materials and Classroom Instruction. Routledge.
183

Renden, P., Landman, A., Geerts, S., Jansen, S., Faber, G., Savelsbergh, J.P., & Oudejans, R.
(2014). Effects of anxiety on the execution of police arrest and self-defense skills.
Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 27(1), 100-112.
Renden, P., Landman, A., Savelsbergh, G., & Oudejans, R. (2015). Police arrest and self-defense
skills: Performance under anxiety of officers with and without additional experience in
martial arts. Ergonomics, 58(9), 1496-506.
Robinson, S. B., & Leonard, K. F. (2019). Designing quality survey questions. SAGE
Publications.
Roher, D. (2012). Interleaving helps students differentiate among similar concepts. Educational
Psychology Review, 24, 355-367.
Rosenbaum, D., Lawrence, D. (2017). Teaching procedural justice and communication skills
during police-community encounters: Results of a randomized control trial with police
recruits. Journal of Experiential Criminology. 13, 293-319.
Rowland, C. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of
the testing effect. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1432-1463.
Rummler, G., & Brache, A. (1995). Improving performance: How to manage the white space on
the organization chart. Jossey-Bass.
Salas, E., Wilson, K., Priest, H., & Guthrie, J. (2006). Design, delivery, and evaluation of
training systems in Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics (3rd ed.).
Sanli, E. & Carnahan, H. (2018). Long-term retention of skills in multi-day training contexts: A
review of the literature. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 66, 10-17.
Schafer, J. & Jarvis, J. (2017, October). The Landscape of Police Education and Training 2037.
The Police Chief, 56–58.
184

Schein, E., & Schein, P. (2017). Organizational Culture and Leadership. Wiley.
Schmidt, R.A. (2003). Motor schema theory after 27 years: Reflections and implications for a
new theory. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74(4), 366-375.
Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review,
82, 225–260.
Schneider, B., Brief, A., and Guzzo, R. (1996). Creating a climate and culture for sustainable
organizational change. Organizational Dynamics, 24(4). 7-19.
Schuck, A. & Rabe-Hemp, C. (2017). Inequalities regimes in policing: Examining the
connection between social exclusion and order maintenance strategies. Race and Justice,
1-23.
Sereni-Massinger, C., & Wood, N. (2016). Improving law enforcement cross-cultural
competencies through continued education. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(2),
258-264
Shipton, B. (2009). Problem-based learning: Does it provide appropriate levels of guidance and
flexibility for use in police recruit education? Journal of Learning Design, 3(1), 57-67.
Shute, V. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78, 153-189.
Soderstrom, N., & Bjork, R. (2015). Learning versus performance: An integrative review.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 176-199.
Staller, M., and Zaiser, B. (2018). Developing problem solvers: New perspectives on
pedagogical practices in police use of force training. Journal of Law Enforcement, 4(3).
Sternberg, R. (2017). Intelligence and competence in theory and practice in Handbook of
Competence and Motivation (2nd ed.), Guilford Press.

185

Stoughton, S. (2014, December 12). How police training contributes to avoidable deaths.
www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/2014/12/police-gun-shooting-
training-ferguson/383681/
Stresak, R. (2019, March 19). Why police academies are letting recruits down (and how to fix it).
www.policeone.com/police-training/articles/why-police-academies-are-letting-recruits-
down-and-how-to-fix-it-6WLCsL8yHwXUJpME/
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional
design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31, 261-292.
Tabrizi, S. & Rideout, G. (2017). Active learning: Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to support critical
pedagogy. International Journal for Cross Disciplinary Subjects in Education, 8(3),
3202-3209.
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2019). Police use of force: An examination of modern
policing practices. https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2018/11-15-Police-Force.pdf
U.S. Department of Justice (2017). Investigation of the Chicago Police Department.
https://www.justice.gov/opa/file/925846/download
Valle, R., Martin, F., Romero, P., & Dolan, S. (2000). Business strategy, work processes, and
human resource training: are they congruent? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21,
283-297.
Vander Kooi, G., Bierlein Palmer, L (2014). Problem-based learning for police academy
students: Comparison of those receiving such instruction with those in traditional
programs. Journal of Criminal Justice Education. 25(2), 175-195.
Verhoeven, F.M., & Newell, K. (2018). Unifying practice schedules in the timescales or motor
learning and performance. Human Movement Science, 59, 153-169.
186

Vodde, R. (2012). Changing paradigms in police training: Transitioning from a traditional to an
andragogical model in Haberfield, M.R., Clarke, C., & Sheehan, D., Police Organization
and Training Innovations in Research and Practice, (pp 27-44). Springer.
Voss, T., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (2011). Assessing teacher candidates’ general
pedagogical/psychological knowledge: Test construction and validation. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 103(4), 952-969.
Wahlheim, C., Dunlosky, J., Jacoby, L. (2011). Spacing enhances the learning of natural
concepts: An investigation of mechanisms, metacognition, and aging. Memory &
Cognition, 39, 750-763.
Weinstein, Y., Madan, C., & Sumeracki, M. (2018). Teaching the science of learning. Cognitive
Research: Principles and Implications, 3(2), 1-17.
Werth, E. P. (2011). Scenario training in police academies: Developing students’ higher-level
thinking skills. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 12(4), 325–340.
Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation: A developmental
perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 6(1), 49-78.
Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81.
Wigfield, A., Rosenzweig, E., Eccles, J. in Elliot, A. J., Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2017).
Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application. Guilford Press.
Wiggins, B., Eddy, S., Wener-Fligner, L., Freisem, K., Grunspan, D., Theobald, E., Timbrook,
J., & Crowe, A. (2017). ASPECT: A survey to assess student perspective of engagement
in an active-learning classroom. CBE- Life Sciences Education, 16(32), 1-13.

187

Wright, D., Verwey, W., Buchanan, J., Chen, J., Rhee, J., & Immink, M. (2016). Consolidating
behavioral and neurophysiologic findings to explain the influence of contextual
interference during motor sequence learning. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 23(1), 1-
21.
Wu, W., Young, D., Schandler, S., Meir, G., Judy, R., Perez, J., & Cohen, M. (2011). Contextual
interference and augmented feedback: Is there an additive effect for motor learning?
Human Movement Science, 30, 1092-1101.
Wulf, G., & Schmidt, R. (1997). Variability of practice and implicit motor learning. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 23(4), 987-1006.
Ziniuk, C. (2020). In the middle: Interleaving practice- The constant of change. Ontario
Association for Mathematics Gazette, 59(1), 26-27.
188

Appendix A
Definitions
Active Learning: Cognitive engagement by learners in the learning process.
Basic Police Training Academy: Defined by the Bureau of Justice Statistics as the mandatory
training for newly appointed or elected law enforcement officers as required by federal or state
statute, rule, or regulation, depending upon the jurisdiction of the agency hiring the new officer.
Centralized Police Academy (CPA): A Basic Police Training Academy providing all training for
the state.
Evidence-Based Training: Training that draws from data generated by research and is grounded
in empirical evidence.
Stress-Based Training or Traditional Academy: Police training based on the military model,
which typically includes intense physical demands and psychological pressures.
Training Transfer: The ability of recruits to utilize knowledge and skills learned at the academy
in the field.

189

Appendix B
Survey Protocol
Q1- Please rate your level of satisfaction with the instructor onboarding process.
Very Dissatisfied; Dissatisfied; Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied; Satisfied; Very Satisfied
(RQ2- Organizational Influence: Cultural Model)

Q2- Please rate your level of satisfaction with the instructor training process.
Very Dissatisfied; Dissatisfied; Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied; Satisfied; Very Satisfied
(RQ2- Organizational Influence: Cultural Model)

Q3- As an instructor, I feel it is important for me to learn new teaching methodologies.
Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neither Agree nor Disagree; Agree; Strongly Agree
(RQ1- Motivation Influence: Value)

Q4- The instructor development process prepared me to teach for the Basic Police Program.
Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neither Agree nor Disagree; Agree; Strongly Agree
(RQ2- Organizational Influence: Cultural Model)

Q5- What factors led you to make the selection you made in the previous question regarding the
instructor development process?
Open
(RQ2- Organizational Influence: Cultural Model)

190

Q6- What does it mean for training to be evidence-based?
Open
(RQ1- Knowledge: Declarative)

Q7- Please rate your ability for each of the following statements:
I am able to create a trusting learning environment.
I am able to recognize when students need me to move between an instructor-led and student-
centered approach.
I am able to move between an instructor-led and student-centered approach, depending on the
needs of the students.
I am able to utilize facilitated learning methodologies.
I am able to teach without lecturing for long periods.
I am able to identify meaningful examples that add value to learning.
I am able to pull experiences from the students for discussion.
I am able to facilitate a productive group discussion.
I am able to help students find value in the topic.
I am able to assess whether students need material to be further simplified.
I am able to make instructional decisions based on the student's grasp of the content.
I am able to make learning decisions in the moment.
I am able to run a meaningful group activity.
I am able to help students solve problems.
I am able to ask a variety of questions.
I am able to encourage a student’s critical thinking.
191

I am able to tell the difference between a student knowing and understanding information.
I am able to tell the difference between a student understanding and applying information.
I am able to determine when a student needs to be able to apply information
rather than just be familiar with or know it.
I am able to refrain from telling students how I would solve a problem or respond to a situation.
I am able to deliver training using non-traditional practices such as interleaving.
I am able to integrate content from multiple areas.
I am able to incorporate opportunities for students to recall what they have previously learned.
I am able to help learners draw connections between concepts.
I am able to have learners explain their decision-making.
I am able to create practice opportunities for learners.
I am able to vary practice conditions while working toward the same outcome.
I am able to stay focused on the assigned outcomes.
I am able to limit feedback to no more than three key points.
I am able to deliver feedback that focuses on the task, not the person.
I am able to deliver feedback that helps the students close a gap between their performance and
ideal performance.
I am able to allow learners the opportunity to recognize and correct their own mistakes without
interruption.
I am able to help students assess their own performance.
I am able to help learners think out loud.
I am able to help learners see multiple perspectives.
192

1- I do not know what this is; 2- No Ability- I know what this is, but I am not able to do this; 3-
Novice- I know what this is, and I am able to do this with assistance; 4- Intermediate- I know
what this is, and I am able to do this with limited assistance; 5- Advanced- I know what this is,
and I am able to do this with no assistance; 6- Expert- I know what this is, am able to do this
with no assistance, and I can help others do this.
(RQ1- Knowledge: Procedural)

Q8- Please rate the degree to which you agree with the following statements:
It is important to create a trusting learning environment.
It is important to move between instructor-centered and student-centered teaching techniques,
depending on the needs of the students.
It is important to utilize facilitated learning methodologies.
It is important to teach without lecturing for long periods.
It is important to incorporate meaningful examples without telling war stories.
It is important to solicit experiences from the students for discussion.
It is important to facilitate a productive group discussion.
It is important to help learners find value in the topic.
It is important to make instructional decisions based on the student's grasp of the content.
It is important to run a meaningful group activity.
It is important to help students solve problems.
It is important to ask a variety of questions.
It is important to encourage a student’s critical thinking.
193

It is important to recognize the difference between a student knowing and understanding
information.
It is important to tell the difference between a student understanding and applying information.
It is important to determine when a student needs to be able to apply information rather than just
be familiar with or know it.
It is important to refrain from telling students how I would solve a problem or respond to a
situation.
It is important to deliver training using non-traditional practices such as interleaving.
It is important to integrate content from multiple areas.
It is important to incorporate opportunities for students to recall what they have previously
learned.
It is important to help students draw connections between concepts.
It is important to have students explain their decision-making.
It is important to create practice opportunities for students.
It is important to vary practice conditions while working toward the same outcome.
It is important to stay focused on the assigned outcomes for each lesson.
It is important to limit feedback to no more than three key points.
It is important to deliver feedback that focuses on the task, not the person.
It is important to deliver feedback that helps the students close a gap between their performance
and ideal performance.
It is important to allow students the opportunity to recognize and correct their own mistakes
without interruption.
It is important to help students assess their own performance.
194

It is important to help students think out loud.
It is important to help students see multiple perspectives.
Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neither Agree nor Disagree; Agree; Strongly Agree; Don’t Know
(RQ1- Motivation: Value)

Q9- Please rate the degree to which you agree or disagree with the following statements:
I feel confident in my ability to deliver basic police training effectively.
I feel confident in my ability to teach without lecturing for long periods.
I feel confident in my ability to facilitate a class discussion.
I feel confident in my ability to run a small group activity.
I feel confident in my ability to teach uncomfortable topics.
I feel confident in my ability to make learning decisions in the moment, such as when to end a
discussion or leave out material due to time.
I feel confident in my ability to distinguish between a student knowing, understanding, and
applying information.
I feel confident in my ability to deliver helpful feedback to recruits.
1-10 Scale; 1- Not at all confident, 10- Completely confident
(RQ1- Motivation: Self-Efficacy)

Q10- How often do you use an active instructional method, such as a small group activity,
problem-solving exercise, or case study analysis, when teaching a basic police class?
Never; Almost Never; Occasionally/Sometimes; Almost Every Time; Every Time
(RQ1- Knowledge: Procedural)
195

Q11- I believe that facilitated learning is effective for training police recruits.
Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neither Agree nor Disagree; Agree; Strongly Agree
(RQ1- Motivation: Value)

Q12- Other constituent agencies believe that the current Basic Police program is effective for
training recruits.
Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Agree; Strongly Agree; Don’t Know
(RQ2- Organization: Cultural Model)

Q13- Please rate the degree to which you agree or disagree with the following statements about
expectations and resources:
As an instructor, expectations are clearly communicated to me.
As an instructor, I have access to the resources I need to teach a class.
As an instructor, I find the class resources useful.
Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neither Agree nor Disagree; Agree; Strongly Agree
(RQ2- Organization: Cultural Setting)

Q14- Rank the following in order from most important to least important to you as an instructor?
Pay; Convenient Schedule; Rewarding; Gain Valuable Experience; Share My Experience;
Fun/Enjoyable; Passion for Topic
(RQ1- Motivation: Value)

196

Q15- How would you rate your understanding of facilitated learning?
Very Poor; Poor; Average; Good; Excellent
(RQ1- Knowledge: Procedural)

Q16- In the last six months, how many classes have you taught at the academy?
None; 1-3; 4-6; 7-9; 10 or more
Demographics

Q17- Are you currently or have you ever been a certified police officer?
Yes; No
Demographics

Q18- What instructor development courses have you completed (check all that apply)
None; General Instructor Development Course; Basic Facilitator Development Course; Adult
Learning Core; Scenario Evaluator Instructor Development Course; Emergency Vehicle
Operations Instructor Course; Defensive Tactics Instructor Development Course; Firearms
Instructor Development Course; Use of Force Instructor Development Course; Other
Demographics

197

Appendix C
Interview Protocol
Introduction:
I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me and agreeing to participate in my
study by answering some questions. This interview will take approximately one hour and 15
minutes.
I am currently enrolled in a doctoral program at the University of Southern California and
am conducting a study on implementing training practices in the police academy. Your
experiences, including any training you received and your classroom experiences, are elements I
am interested in knowing more about. Although you may know me as an employee of this
organization, I am not here in that capacity today, and I will not be making any judgments or
assessments of you as an instructor. I am here today as a researcher, and I will be using the
information you share with me today as part of my data collection. Hopefully, this study can help
this organization implement instructor resources that support instructor development and, in turn,
further improve student learning.
Your name will not be disclosed to anyone or used anywhere outside the scope of this
study. Your name will be known only to me, specifically for data collection. While I may use a
direct quote from you in my study, I will not include your name, and I will remove any possibly
identifying information. I will gladly provide you with a copy of my final product upon request.
Your participation is entirely voluntary. You may skip any questions you do not want to
answer, and you may stop this interview at any time. With your permission, I will record the
interview to help me capture all of your responses wholly and accurately. This recording will not
be shared with anyone outside the scope of this project. If you would like me to stop recording at
198

any point, I will do so. The recording will be transferred to my password-protected files on a
cloud file storage account and deleted from the recording device immediately upon transfer. I
will use a third party, such as rev.com or Zoom, to transcribe the recording. All files will be
returned to me upon the finalization of the transcription. The recording and all other data will
then be destroyed three years from the date my dissertation defense is approved.
With that, do you have any questions about the study before we get started? If not, please
review and keep the information sheet.
I would like your permission to begin the interview. May I also have your permission to
record this conversation? Thank you.

Questions:
1. What was it about the Basic Police program that made you want to be an instructor?
(General)
2. What were you told about the academy training philosophy during the onboarding
process, if anything? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences: Cultural Setting)
3. What were you told about the academy training philosophy during the instructor
certification (development) process, if anything? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences:
Cultural Setting)
4. What instructor training did you receive? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences Cultural:
Setting)
5. Is there additional instructor training that you would be interested in? (RQ 2-
Organizational Influences: Cultural Setting)
199

6. Think about the last class you taught. Walk me through what you did to prepare for this
assignment. (RQ 1: Knowledge- Procedural)
7. Now think about your experiences in the classroom. What strategies do you find effective
to engage recruits? (RQ 1- Knowledge: Procedural)
Probe: Tell me about the role of: feedback, practice, discussion, small groups, developing
higher-order thinking (RQ 1- Knowledge: Declarative)
8. Can you describe how confident you are in your ability to use these (facilitated) learning
strategies? (RQ 1- Motivation: Self-Efficacy)
9. What do you see as the value of these methods of learning, if any? (RQ 1- Motivation:
Value)
10. How effective do you think the (new) training program is for recruits? (RQ 1-
Motivation: Value)
11. How do you think constituent agencies (police departments, sheriff’s offices, state police,
etc.) feel about the training recruits are receiving now? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences:
Cultural Model: External Influences)
12. Have you identified any areas you need to improve upon for greater training
effectiveness? (RQ 1- Knowledge: Metacognitive)
13. What kinds of challenges, if any, do instructors face? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences:
Cultural Setting)
14. What are the strengths, if any, of the program? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences:
Cultural Setting)
15. What are the weaknesses, if any, of the program? (RQ 2- Organizational Influences:
Cultural Setting)
200

16. What advice would you give a new instructor to help them prepare to teach their first
class? (RQ 1- Knowledge: Metacognitive)
17. Is there anything else you would like to add?

201

Appendix D
Observation Protocol
Instructors Demonstrated Use of Evidence-
Based Methodologies. (Procedural Knowledge)

Count/Comments
Course Set-Up and Structure
Topic is delivered in a traditional block format
(More than 2 hours in a setting). (CI)

Instructor uses interleaving to break up block.
(CI)

Topic is delivered using spacing between
related sessions. (DP)

Environment
Instructor establishes a classroom atmosphere
that encourages trust and mutual respect. (AdL)

Instructor demonstrates respect for learners
(does not treat students as receivers of wisdom).
(AdL)

Content Delivery
202

Instructor facilitates a connection between
previous course(s)/experience(s) to current
topic. (AcL, R)

Instructor helps learners link content to job
relevance. (UV)

Instructor asks learners to describe what they
know about a topic. (AcL, R)

Instructor recognizes learners' existing
knowledge/prior experience related to the
content of the course. (CL)

Instructor recognizes content complexity for
novice learners. (CL)

Instructor scaffolds material (provides worked
examples, breaks down component parts). (CL)

Instructor recognizes learner needs and adjusts
accordingly. (AdL, CL)

203

Instructor varies the practice conditions for
learners (increases speed, complexity, context,
physical environment). (VP)

Instructor engages learners in a variety of
instructional methods. (AcL)

Instructor provides opportunities for learners to
use their knowledge and apply the content. (CL,
R)

Instructor provides an opportunity for learners
to recognize and correct their own mistakes. (F)

Instructor provides opportunities for learners to
evaluate solutions. (M)

Instructor asks learners a variety of questions.
(AcL)

Instructor encourages learners to engage in
higher-order thinking. (AcL)

204

Instructor asks “why” questions. (R)

Instructor has learners justify their reasoning.
(R)

Instructor encourages learners to consider
various perspectives. (M)

Instructor provides feedback to help learners
understand how they should direct future
efforts. (F)

Instructor delivers feedback focusing on the
task, not the learner. (F)

Instructor provides feedback in a way that does
not overwhelm the learner. (CL, F)

Instructor provides feedback articulating a
specific area for the learner to focus on. (CL, F)

Instructor provides opportunities for learners to
engage in self-regulation. (M)
205

Instructor provides opportunities for learners to
engage in reflection. (M)

Instructor provides opportunities for learners to
self-evaluate. (M)

Code Evidence-Based Methodology
AdL Adult Learning
AcL Active Learning
UV Utility Value
CL Cognitive Load
RP Retrieval Practice
CI Contextual Interference
DP Distributed Practice
VP Varied Practice
F Effective Feedback
M Metacognition

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Traditionally, police academies do not use training delivery methods based on science (Cordner, 2017

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Managerial coaching to increase diversity, build capacity, and improve nonprofit performance

PDF

Effective practices for managing staff performance in higher education: an exploratory study

PDF

Social work faculty practices in writing instruction: an exploratory study

PDF

(Re)Imagining STEM instruction: an examination of culturally relevant andragogical practices to eradicate STEM inequities among racially minoritized students in community colleges

PDF

Anti-bias training in community colleges: an exploratory study

PDF

The Army’s process to evaluate costs versus benefits: a case study on the change of command ceremonies

PDF

Exploration of STEM teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and the organizational influences of culturally inclusive teaching practices

PDF

Training in law enforcement: infusing 21st century policing concepts into the organizational culture

PDF

An application of Clark and Estes gap analysis model to improve training transfer at a midsize pharmaceutical company

PDF

Hail to the chief: an exploration of female chief executives’ successes

PDF

Designing a care coordination model for older adults

PDF

Examining the underrepresentation of African Americans in the Senior Executive Service within the United States federal government’s civilian workforce

PDF

Managers’ learning transfer from the leadership challenge training to work setting: an evaluation study

PDF

Line staff and their influence on youth in expanded learning programs: an evaluation model

PDF

Creating a safety culture to decrease vehicle accidents with Sales Service Representatives

PDF

Good governance: the role and impact of school boards in setting student outcome goals

PDF

The importance of rigor and engagement on student achievement and mastery: an evaluation study

PDF

Where are all the ""leadhers""? Female leaders' experiences in finance

PDF

Increasing workplace training transfer

PDF

Women in executive leadership: a study of the gender diversity gap

Asset Metadata

Creator Heintzman-Yutzie, Staci (author)

Core Title Teaching police to teach: enhancing instructional practices in the police training academy

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 05/03/2021

Defense Date 04/09/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academy training,adult learning,evidence-based learning,instructor development,OAI-PMH Harvest,police academy instructors,Police training

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer (committee chair), James, Stephen (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email heintzma@usc.edu,staci.yutzie@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-457291

Unique identifier UC11668628

Identifier etd-HeintzmanY-9575.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-457291 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HeintzmanY-9575.pdf

Dmrecord 457291

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Heintzman-Yutzie, Staci

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA