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Promoting equity in discipline practices for Latino students: a gap analysis
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Promoting equity in discipline practices for Latino students: a gap analysis
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Running head: PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 1
Promoting Equity in Discipline Practices for Latino Students: A Gap Analysis
by
Christopher M. Davis
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Christopher M. Davis
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 2
DEDICATION
To Alison, JD, and Alex. Without your support none of this would have been possible.
January 11
th
, 2017 One of my favorite pictures of all time is from January 11
th
, 2017. I
know it’s a favorite of Josh Lamar (with whom I wouldn’t have been able to finish this program,
you’re my ride or die Study Buddy). In this particular frame a hand drawn “Angry Birds”
cartoon centers the frame and a little hand is seen sliding it under the locked white door. I recall
that moment clearly. JD and Alex wanted to play with their dad. Mom, Alison, was telling them
that Daddy was busy. So the boys opted to pass notes so that they wouldn’t bother Daddy.
I dedicate this work to my family. Alison for supporting me in my lifelong dream of earning a
doctorate. Thank you for the countless times you needed to fill the role of both mom and dad so
that I could write. For taking the boys on excursions so that I could have a quiet space to work.
And for loving me despite when I stressed out and incredibly moody.
To JD and Alex for sacrificing time playing with your dad so that he could work. I’ve
always said that I want to run the type of school that I’d put my own children in. I now work at
the school you’ll attend, and I thank you for sacrificing play time so that I can help lay the
foundation for your futures. I can’t wait to make up for lost time riding bikes and playing
LEGOs. I hope you boys see that you can accomplish anything you set your mind towards. All of
this is to help provide you two with a life where you can achieve your goals.
To my mom and dad for instilling in me that failure is not an option and for setting high
expectations. Dad, thank you for being a sounding board during our Sunday morning donut talks.
Thank you everyone for your love and your support. Alex, now we can play forever!
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to the professors at the Rossier School of Education, their wisdom and
guidance is everything I could have hoped for from this program. I would especially like to thank
my chairs Dr. Kenneth Yates and Dr. Melora Sundt for their support. Thorough their guidance I
was able to take “what if” and make it a reality. I spent several Saturday mornings with Dr. Yates
grappling with abstract thoughts and concepts through the dissertation process. Dr. Sundt helped
me to articulate ideas and organize my thoughts. I would also like to thank Dr. Kelly Barnes for
being a member of my dissertation committee. Kelly’s willingness to help or give advice is
always appreciated. Kelly has always been there when I needed her and always had an answer to
“Here’s my thought, but I wanted to check my thinking…”
I would also like to thank Dr. John Roach and Dr. Michael Escalante. Dr. Roach was our
first introduction to the Ed. D. program at USC and I was fortunate enough to take more than one
class from him. I enjoyed Dr. Roach’s real-world experience and anecdotal way of blending
theory with practice. Throughout the program I knew I could reach out to Dr. Roach for advice
whether it be career or classwork. Much like Dr. Roach Dr. Escalante was able to give us real
world pragmatic advice. Through Dr. Escalante’s course I started thinking “why not” when
looking at the upper echelons of my field and I’ve been able to carry his lessons daily.
I would also like to thank Dr. Alan Greene. I didn’t realize it at the time, but an
assignment for his EDUC 523 turned into the idea for my dissertation. Looking through
comments on assignments Dr. Greene recognized my topic before I did. I am extremely grateful
for his lessons on equity and double-loop learning theory.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: 2015 Citrus County School CALPADS Suspension Data 23
Table 2: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance
Goals
27
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability
to Achieve the Performance Goal
57
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability
to Achieve the Performance Goal
69
Table 5: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability
to Achieve the Performance Goal
78
Table 6: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 86
Table 7: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 99
Table 8: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment 105
Table 9: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge of Student Suspension Rates 121
Table 10: Suspension Rates for Citrus County, California, Based on Fall 2017
California Dashboard
122
Table 11: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Bias in Decision Making 123
Table 12: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Influence of Zero Tolerance
Policies in Decision Making
126
Table 13: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Influence of Race in
Suspensions
129
Table 14: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Repeated Suspensions 132
Table 15: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Repeated Suspension
Infractions
135
Table 16: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Forming Relationships
with Students
137
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 5
Table 17: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Investigating Student
Misconduct
140
Table 18: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Defining School Culture 142
Table 19: Survey Results for Motivational Value for Counteracting Bias in
Discipline
144
Table 20: Survey Results for Role of Bias in Discipline Given by Teachers 147
Table 21: Survey Results for Role of Bias in Discipline Given by Administrators 149
Table 22: Survey Results for Confidence in Addressing Bias 151
Table 23: Survey Results for District Alignment with State Goals 153
Table 24: Survey Results for Perception of Punitive Practices 155
Table 25: Survey Results for 48900(k) Violation 158
Table 26: Survey Results for Inclusive Discipline Practices 161
Table 27: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Gaps Validation 163
Table 28: Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes Validation 164
Table 29: Summary of Assumed Organization Causes Validation 165
Table 30: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 169
Table 31: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 175
Table 32: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 180
Table 33: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 190
Table 34: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 193
Table 35: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 195
Table 36: Evaluation of the Components of Learning Program 201
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 6
Table 37: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 202
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 7
ABSTRACT
This study utilized the gap analysis problem-solving framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) in order
to develop strategies for how to mirror the percentage of suspensions for Latino students to
Latino Student enrollment in Citrus County, California. The purpose of the study was to identify
whether knowledge, motivation, and/or organizational barriers were contributing to the identified
gap. A mixed method approach was used to collect data. Twenty school site administrators, from
two different school districts, participated in the survey. In addition, six administrators, from two
different school districts, were interviewed. The surveys and interviews helped validate assumed
causes that were hypothesized after reviewing scholarly literature. The validated assumed causes
for knowledge were that site administrators need to know the role of bias in their decision
making process, the role of Zero Tolerance in contributing to disproportionality, that Latino
students are more apt to be suspended for objective infractions, that once a student is suspended
they are more likely to be suspended again, that suspensions do not deter student behavior, and
that school culture can shape student behavior. The validated assumed causes for motivation
were that school site administrators need to believe that bias impacts their work, that bias
impacts who teachers refer to the office, and that adults in the school are capable of correcting
their biases. The validated assumed causes for organization barriers were schools need to foster a
culture of inclusion rather than exclusion, that district policies need to support the goal of
reducing disproportionality, that more alternatives to suspension are needed, and that the
48900(k) defiance/disruption violation is overused. Solutions to close the validated causes were
developed. Research on disproportionality for Latino students has been limited. The use of the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 8
gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) in this study demonstrates one approach school
districts could use to guide their organization in reaching the goal of proportionate discipline.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION
Pg. 2
Pg. 3
Pg. 4
Pg. 7
Pg. 12
Introduction of the Problem of Practice Pg. 12
Organizational Context and Mission Pg. 14
Organizational Performance Status Pg. 15
Related Literature Pg. 15
Importance of Addressing the Problem Pg. 24
Organizational Performance Goal Pg. 26
Description of Stakeholder Groups Pg. 26
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals Pg. 27
Stakeholder Group for the Study Pg. 28
Purpose of the Project and Questions Pg. 29
Conceptual and Methodological
Framework
Pg. 29
Definitions Pg. 30
Organization of the Proposal Pg. 33
CHAPTER TWO - REVIEW OF THE
LITERATURE
Pg. 34
Introduction Pg. 34
Exclusionary Discipline Practices Pg. 35
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 10
Conceptual Framework Pg. 38
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation
and Organizational Factors
Pg. 39
Summary Pg. 79
CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY Pg. 80
Purpose of the Project and Questions Pg. 80
Conceptual and Methodological
Framework
Pg. 80
Assessment of Performance Influences Pg. 82
Participating Stakeholders and Sample
Selection
Pg. 108
Instrumentation Pg. 110
Data Collection Pg. 112
Data Analysis Pg. 114
Trustworthiness of Data Pg. 115
Role of Investigator Pg. 115
Limitations
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND
FINDINGS
Participating Stakeholders
Data Validation
Results and Findings for Knowledge
Causes
Results and Findings for Motivation
Causes
Pg. 116
Pg. 117
Pg. 118
Pg. 118
Pg. 119
Pg. 143
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 11
Results and Findings for Organization
Causes
Summary of Validated Influences
CHAPTER FIVE -
RECOMMENDATIONS AND
EVALUATION
Purpose of the Project and Questions
Recommendations to Address
Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organization Influences
Integrated Implementation and
Evaluation Plan
Limitations and Delimitations
Recommendations for Future Research
Conclusion
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
REFERENCES
Pg. 152
Pg. 162
Pg. 167
Pg. 167
Pg. 168
Pg. 188
Pg. 206
Pg. 207
Pg. 208
Pg. 209
Pg. 210
Pg. 211
Pg. 214
Pg. 215
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 12
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education set the nation on a path towards equity in public
schools (Reardon, Grewal, & Greenberg, 2012). Several years prior, Mendez et. al v.
Westminster et. al laid the groundwork for Brown v. Board as the United States Court of Appeals
for the Ninth Circuit ruled that forcing Mexican-American students into separate schools from
their White peers was unconstitutional (Annamma, Morrison, & Jackson, 2014). However,
several decades later, though schools are integrated, students of color are still facing inequity.
Today’s Latino students are facing racial and ethnic disparities ranging from the achievement
gap to disproportionality in special education recommendations to reduced graduation rates
(Skiba, Horner, Chung, Raucsch, May, & Tobin, 2011). Skiba, et al, attribute these disparities to
the discipline gap. A study from the National Center for Education Statistics shows that from
1999 to 2007, the percentage of White students suspended from school dropped from 18.2% to
17.7%. During those same years, the percentage of suspended Latino students rose from 22.7%
to 26.5% (2015). According to the United States Census Bureau in 2010 72.4% of the US
population was White, whereas 16.3% of the population was Latino (2015). The disproportionate
application of suspensions and expulsions, especially those for subjective infractions removes
Latino students from the classroom environment and has a direct impact on their achievement in
school. This study looked at the effect of implicit bias in subjective discipline practices and how
to reduce disproportionality in school discipline.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 13
In California schools are permitted to discipline students by a variety of methods. These
methods are outlined in the California Education Code (California Department of Education,
2017). California Education Code section 48900 lists the reasons that a student may be
suspended from school, and section 48915 lists reasons for expulsion. For example, if a student
were to be found with a pack of cigarettes on campus they could be suspended for a 48900 (h)
violation “Possessed or used tobacco, or products containing tobacco or nicotine products,
including, but not limited to, cigarettes, cigars, miniature cigars, clove cigarettes, smokeless
tobacco, snuff, chew packets, and betel. However, this section does not prohibit the use or
possession by a pupil of his or her own prescription products” (California Department of
Education, 2017). This statute clearly outlines what constitutes a tobacco product. If a student
were to go camping on the weekend, but left a pocket knife in their backpack they could be
suspended for a 48900(b) violation “Possessed, sold, or otherwise furnished a firearm, knife,
explosive, or other dangerous object, unless, in the case of possession of an object of this type,
the pupil had obtained written permission to possess the item from a certificated school
employee, which is concurred in by the principal or the designee of the principal” (California
Department of Education, 2017). Again, there is a clear definition of the violation. Both these
examples show objective violations; it is clear that a student is in possession of cigarettes or of a
knife.
However, consider a student who is talking too much to their peer in class, or a student
who walks into the classroom via a doorway that is designated as an exit doorway. This student
could be suspended for a 48900(k) violation “Disrupted school activities or otherwise willfully
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 14
defied the valid authority of supervisors, teachers, administrators, school officials, or other
school personnel engaged in the performance of their duties” (California Department of
Education, 2017). This statute does not explicitly define disruption of school activities or willful
defiance. How does one measure how much a student talking to a peer disrupts a class, or
whether they were being wilfully defiant when walking through the wrong door when it is
possible that they were simply ignorant of the school procedures? While California Education
Code explicitly defines objective behavior infractions, there are also infractions that are
subjective, or left open to interpretation.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Citrus County Department of Education (CCDE, a pseudonym) serves as a public
education entity offering support services to the twenty-seven school districts that make up
Citrus County, California. CCDE serves more than 600 schools, 20,000 educators, and over
500,000 students. CCDE offers support, professional development, and student programs
through the following departments and divisions: Administrative Services, Alternative
Education, Business Services, Career and Technical Education, Information Technology,
Instructional Services, Legal Services, Community and Student Support Services, and Special
Education.
The vision of the Citrus County Department of Education is that Citrus County students
will lead the nation in college and career readiness and success. CCDE plays a supportive role in
the realization of this vision by collaborating with educators at all levels of student development
ranging from early childhood education through higher education. CCDE partners with families,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 15
businesses, and community organizations. CCDE believes in leading the nation in college and
career readiness and success, but CCDE also believes that this lofty ambition is within the reach
of Citrus County students.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem that this study sought to address is the
disproportionate application of suspensions and expulsions of Latino students, particularly
among those incidents that involve defiance or disruption. Latino students comprised only forty-
nine percent of students in Citrus County schools for the 2014 – 2015 school year, yet accounted
for eighty-nine percent of all discipline incidents for defiance which resulted in suspension or
expulsion from school (“Expulsions and Suspension Data”, n.d.). As Latino students find
themselves being removed from the educational environment at a higher rate than their white
peers, they are not being given equal access to school curriculum. As the discipline gap grows so
does the academic achievement gap. Latino students removed from the classroom environment
due to punitive exclusionary discipline practices are not receiving equal exposure to college and
career readiness curriculum that the Citrus County Department of Education seeks to ensure all
students access.
Related Literature
School Discipline
According to Perry and Morris (2014) there was a thirty-year shift in United States school
culture towards social control. This has resulted in more fear of crime, an increased desire to
punish, and an emphasis on social exclusion. In the school setting this social exclusion manifests
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 16
in denying a student access to their peers, academics, and social situations, through the means of
physically removing them from the school setting (Ladd & Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2016). This “eye
for an eye” mentality was epitomized in the public-school setting with the implementation of
Zero Tolerance discipline. As described by the American Psychological Association (2008),
Zero Tolerance is a “philosophy or policy that mandates the application of predetermined
consequences, most often severe and punitive in nature, that are intended to be applied regardless
of the gravity of behavior, mitigating circumstances, or situational context” (pg. 852). Initially
Zero Tolerance policies were aimed to prevent school violence, but were quickly expanded to
also prevent disruptive behavior (Mitchell, 2014) creating a punitive system for even minor
infractions.
Broken windows: The theory behind Zero Tolerance discipline policies in K-12 schools
Zero Tolerance policies refer to a blanket “one size fits all” response to student discipline
infractions. Currently, in the school setting, Zero Tolerance “mandates the application of
predetermined consequences, most often severe and punitive in nature, that are intended to be
applied regardless of the gravity of behavior, mitigating circumstances, or situational context”
(American Psychological Association, 2008, p. 852). Often thought of as a response to school
violence, the Zero Tolerance discipline movement was not a response to tragedies such as the
school shooting that occurred at Columbine High School in 1999. Rather the Zero Tolerance
school discipline movement takes root in the early eighties, parallel to former First Lady Nancy
Reagan’s Just Say No anti-drug campaign (Skiba, 2014). First used by the United States Navy to
discipline forty sailors for drug use on a submarine in Norfolk Virginia, this “no-nonsense”
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 17
approach to the enforcement of rules was proposed as legislation specific to schools in 1986
(Skiba, 2014). The first iteration of Zero Tolerance related to school governance was defeated by
Congress, however significant changes in New York City inspired a second wave of Zero
Tolerance as a means for school discipline.
Zero Tolerance is inspired by the Broken Windows theory of urban renewal first
introduced by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling in 1982. Wilson and Kelling proposed that
when minor crimes such as panhandling, public intoxication, or vandalism go unchecked they
lead to more egregious crimes. A way to prevent crime on a larger scale is to monitor and correct
minor infractions (Maskaly & Boggess, 2014). In 1984, David L. Gunn, under the consultation
of George Kelling, served as the president of the New York City Transit Authority where he
applied Broken Windows theory to vehicle aesthetics and maintenance. This implementation was
so successful that in 1990, when William J. Bratton become the head of the New York City
Transit Police, he implemented the system as well in order to increase safety in New York’s
transit system (Gladwell, 2006). Based on the success experienced in the transit system, when
Rudy Giulliani became mayor of New York in 1993, he hired Bratton as police commissioner
and the theory was applied to the city as a whole.
In 1994, the Clinton administration, seeing the success of the Broken Windows theory in
action in New York City, passed the Gun Free Schools Act, “mandating a one calendar year
expulsion for possession of firearms on school grounds” (Hanson, 2005). The Gun Free Schools
Act, on the heels of The Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990, laid the groundwork for Zero
Tolerance to enter the education system (Hanson, 2005). This was the first time that federal and
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 18
state level government intervened with local control of school districts and how administrators
disciplined students (Martinez, 2009). The Gun Free Schools Act was modified and the current
iteration of Zero Tolerance began in 2002 as part of No Child Left Behind, which was passed in
2001. Under this policy any student who comes in contact with a firearm is just as culpable as
the student who initially brought the weapon to school (Hanson, 2005). States broadened this
policy to include look alike weapons as well and while “there is no federal mandate of
suspension or expulsion for drug-related offenses, the application of Zero Tolerance to drugs or
alcohol has become quite common” (Skiba, 2000, p. 23).
As a result of the rigid nature of Zero Tolerance, students are being exposed to
disciplinary measures for incidents that seem extreme. Recently in Irving, Texas, a ninth grade
student, Ahmed Mohamed, was arrested and taken to a juvenile detention center for bringing a
homemade clock to school (Hern, 2015). “In Fort Meyers, Florida, an eighteen-year-old senior
and National Merit Scholar spent a day in jail, was suspended for five days, and missed
graduation after a kitchen knife was found in the back seat of her car” (Skiba, 2000, p. 17). “In
Chicago, Illinois, in 2009, two-dozen 11 to 15 year-old-students in a charter school were arrested
and detained overnight for a food fight” (Skiba, 2014, p. 29). In Fairfax County, Virginia, a
student-athlete committed suicide after he was removed from school for the possession of a
legal, yet controlled, substance (George, 2001). School leaders are attempting to keep students
safe, but in the process are subjecting students to disciplinary actions for incidents that merit
attention only because they are occurring on school grounds. The negative result of Zero
Tolerance is that suspension, expulsion, and the increased use of law enforcement in schools are
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 19
risk factors for a range of negative academic and life outcomes for students (Skiba, 2014).
Exclusionary discipline practices are having a negative impact on schools. Initially intended to
keep students safe and reduce incidents of drugs and weapons on campus, Zero Tolerance
escalated to removing students from campus for minor transgressions, such as talking too much
during class. As mentioned earlier students are no longer simply being mentioned for a objective
48900 (h), drug, or 48900 (b), weapons, violation; instead they are being removed from the
learning environment for a subjective 48900 (k), disruption or defiance, violation.
Exclusionary discipline is not only used for objective categories such as weapons or drug
violations. The practices implemented through Zero Tolerance also affect discipline policies that
can be thought of as subjective, for example, such as a school’s dress code which is traditionally
set by school administration. As Skiba (2014) describes “In Toledo Ohio, a 14-year-old girl was
arrested for a dress code violation when she came to school wearing a midriff shirt” (p. 29).
“Because of the continuing inequities and harmful effects on school children caused by
Zero Tolerance enforcement, particularly as it relates to discipline for actions where there is no
violent act by a student (e.g., truancy, dress code violations), a case can yet be made in most
jurisdictions to challenge these policies” (Hanson, 2005 p. 309). With the implementation of
Zero Tolerance in schools the use of punitive punishments has risen exponentially. Following the
guidelines of Kelling’s Broken Windows theory all minor transgressions are subjected to serious
corrective repercussions. “In Chicago, Illinois, after the implementation of Zero Tolerance in
1995, the number of expulsions rose from 81 to 1,000 three years later” (Skiba, 2014).
Zero Tolerance practices for both objective and subjective discipline were intended to
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 20
create a sort of uniformity in discipline proceedings that would affect student behavior on the
whole. However, as reported by the American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task
Force in 2008, there is no evidence that the use of Zero Tolerance increased consistency in
school discipline. Numerous studies, reports, and commentaries show that Zero Tolerance
policies are used to unfairly target Black and Latino students (Hanson, 2005).
Biases
As discussed previously the California Education Code addresses student discipline in
section 48900. If a student interrupts the classroom environment, then the offending student may
be removed from the classroom by mean of suspension or expulsion. However, when looking at
the section of the California Education Code that addresses student behavior, section 48900, and
the section that deals with classroom disruption, section 48900 (k), one quickly sees that there is
no definition of defiance or behavior that would interrupt a class. The determination that a
student’s behavior is actionable rests with the administrator. In the absence of clear guidance,
these decisions are subject to interpretation and therefore wide variability of application.
Some researchers suggest that it is at this point of discretionary judgment that bias,
specifically deficit theory may influence an administrator's decision making (McIntosh, Girvan,
Horner, & Smolkowski, 2014). According to Gorski (2008), deficit theory is the notion that
marginalized people are responsible for their collective situation due to individual or collective
deficiencies. For example someone who is poor will only be able to improve their situation in
life if they learn the culture of the middle class. In the school setting a student will only be
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 21
successful if they fully adapt to the school culture, which unfortunately, is often not taught to the
student (Skiba, 2014).
The unyielding nature of Zero Tolerance policies coupled with deficit theory that exists
in most schools leads to inequalities when looking at the application of suspension and
expulsion, the two primary punishments associated with Zero Tolerance (Gorksi, 2008).
According to Russell Skiba “research suggests that black students tend to receive harsher
punishments than white students and that those harsher consequences may be administered for
less severe offenses” (Skiba, 2000, p. 31). The use of out-of-school suspension has
approximately doubled since 1971, and almost tripled for Black students (Losen & Skiba, 2010).
Though Zero Tolerance policies are intended to keep students safe, an inherent bias has created a
discipline gap in schools. Lewis, Butler, Bonner III, and Joubert define the discipline gap as
“disproportionate discipline policies and procedures meted out to certain student groups at rates
that supersede (sometimes drastically) this group’s statistical representation in a particular school
population” (2010, p. 10).
Exclusionary School Culture
As Lewis, et al, discuss the intent of Zero Tolerance practices is to keep students safe by
removing offending students from the school campus (2010). Discipline practices that remove a
student from the educational environment are thought of as exclusionary. Removing a student
from the classroom, rather than addressing the root of the problem may alleviate the behavior for
a couple days, however in the long term these practices end up doing more harm than good
(McIntosh, Girvan, Horner, & Smolinski, 2014). Practices intended to teach students expected
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 22
behaviors are thought of as inclusionary. Practices that focus on the school as a community and
allow a student build relationships with peers, teachers, and administrators have been shown to
have a positive effect on students (Teasley, 2014). According to Carmichael, et al, exclusionary
measures in schools may do less to protect students than to compromise educational
environments and outcomes (2011). A study conducted by the American Psychological
Association concluded that exclusionary practices did not improve school safety (Teasley, 2014).
Disproportionality for Students of Color
According to Fabelo et al., nearly one third of all students will face suspension or
expulsions during their school career (2011). These exclusionary measures are not being used for
serious or dangerous behaviors, but rather for minor disruptions (Skiba, Chung, Trachok, Baker,
Sheya, & Hughes, 2014). Students of color, particularly Black and Latino students, are more
likely to be punished for discipline fractions deemed as subjective, such as being disruptive, than
their White peers (Annamma, Morrison, & Jackson, 2014). In the school setting, staff are more
apt to send students of color to the office for relatively minor incidents of unwanted behavior”
(Smolinkski, et al, p. 179). According to the California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data
System (CALPADS) in Citrus County there were 2,803 total in-school suspensions during the
2014-2015 school year. Of those 2,803 in-school suspensions 1,660 were for Latino students and
981 were for defiance. Of the 981 in-school suspensions for defiance 659 suspensions were of
Latino students. The numbers grow exponentially when looking at home suspensions. In 2014-
2015 there were 14,601 suspensions. 10,231 were for Latino students, and a total of 3,106 were
for defiance. Of those 3,106 home suspensions for defiance 2,302 were for Latino students.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 23
Table 1.
2015 Citrus County School CALPADS Suspension Data
Achievement Gap
Looking at standardized tests and other traditional educational indicators it quickly
becomes apparent that Latino students do not score as well academically as their peers
(Bensimon, 1993). The achievement gap typically focuses on academic achievement; however
the discipline gap is the same side of the coin (Gregory, Skiba & Noguera, 2010). Lower
achievement of for certain racial groups of students can be connected to disproportionality in
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 24
discipline (Annamma, Morrison & Jackson, 2014). According to a 2017 study by Russell
Rumberger and Daniel Losen for the UCLA Center for Civil Rights Remedies, in California
students grades 10 through 12 had a 83 percent graduation rate, however for students receiving at
least one suspension their graduation rate drops to sixty percent (2017). Students can’t be
expected to achieve if they’re removed from instruction. As students fall behind in school they
find themselves more susceptible to disciplinary actions creating a downward spiral.
This downward spiral is often referred to as the “school to prison” pipeline. When a
student is suspended or expelled they have less of a connection to the school, they are susceptible
to higher participation in risky or illegal behavior, poor academic achievement, and are a greater
risk to dropout of school (Hanson, 2005). Like Rumberger and Losen, Nancy Heitzeg cites the
increased reliance on test scores and Zero Tolerance policies as a reason for the prevalence of the
school to prison pipeline (2016). Shifting towards a disciplinary system that seeks to keep
students in school, rather than exclude them, seems to be a step towards not only closing the
discipline gap, but also the achievement gap (Gregory, Skiba & Noguera, 2010).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of disproportionality in disciplinary practices is a national issue. Schools
with higher suspension rates demonstrate higher dropout rates (Walsh, 2015). Students who are
suspended from school are more likely to find themselves incarcerated (Gonzalez, 2012). In
2015 marginalized youth, such as Latino students, found themselves not only at a higher risk for
suspension, but at a higher risk to drop out of school and to be incarcerated (Annamma,
Morrison, & Jackson, 2014). Teachers and administrators need better training in order to
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 25
deescalate and mitigate situations that would lead to a suspension or expulsion (Smith & Harper,
2015)
This problem has a direct effect on the organizational goals of the Citrus County
Department of Education. It is important to address this problem because a systemic change is
needed to change exclusionary discipline practices that exist in Citrus County schools. As the
Citrus County Department of Education seeks to equip all student to be successful as they
transition to college or the career field, the students who are excluded from school due to
punitive discipline practices are being hindered from achieving this goal.
The problem also has fiscal implications for Citrus County schools as the Local Control
Funding Formula (LCFF) seeks to add accountability to schools’ achievement of student
subgroups is being called into light. The intent of LCFF in California schools is to all but
eliminate categorical school funding and substitute a base funding level for all school districts,
allocating additional monies for districts depending on their enrollment of low-income students,
English language learners, and foster youth. This new funding formula allows districts to control
where their funds go (Humphrey & Koppich, 2014). Additionally, the amount time a student is
present on campus is also being factored into LCFF. In addition to tying school funding into the
attendance and achievement of all students the state of California is shifting towards inclusion
for all students. In 2015 California State Assembly members Tony Thurmond and Carol Liu
introduced and subsequently passed the Education finance: Safe Neighborhoods and Schools
Fund: Learning Communities for School Success Program. This bill earmarked funding
specifically to schools with high instances of suspensions, expulsions, and dropouts for
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 26
marginalized students.
Organizational Performance Goal
The Citrus County Department of Education strives to lead the nation in college and
career readiness. CCDE supports Citrus County school districts as they realize this vision by
collaborating with educators at all levels of student development ranging from early childhood
education through higher education. The goal of the organization then is to have the racial
distribution of suspensions and expulsions in schools mirror the racial makeup of the schools.
For example, suspensions and expulsions for Hispanic/Latino students would be reduced from
seventy percent to forty-nine percent.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Stakeholders who take part in the effort to reduce suspension and expulsions are the
Citrus County Department of Education Student Services division, site level administrators and
district level administrators, teachers, students, and parents. Specifically, at a site with multiple
administrators, for example a middle school, there will be both an assistant principal as well as a
principal. Both of these individuals have the authority to suspend or expel students and will
therefore be part of the process to suspend. Additionally, district level leadership, traditionally a
coordinator or director, of student services will be essential to enact change. This individual
typically oversees student discipline for the district and will play a key role in setting a goal and
supporting site level administrators. Teachers are a stakeholder group because they have the
ability to write office discipline referrals (ODRs) when a student breaks a school rule in the
classroom (Freeman, Simonsen, McCoach, Sugai, Lombardi, & Horner, R. (2016). The
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 27
environment, whether a transgression occurs in the classroom or somewhere else on campus,
plays an important role in how discipline is administered (Girvan, Gion, McIntosh, &
Smolkowski, 2016). Students are a key stakeholder group because their behavior, good or bad,
has an affect on whether or not they must face school administrators. Finally parents serve as a
stakeholder group both because their influence on their child’s behavior as well as the effect that
a suspension or expulsion could have upon them as well as their child.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 2
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Citrus County Department of Education is to lead the nation in college and
career readiness and success.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June of 2019 the number of suspensions and expulsions will be reduced to mirror to the Pg,
proportional enrollment of Latino students in Citrus County Schools.
Stakeholder 1 Goal Stakeholder 2 Goal Stakeholder 3 Goal Stakeholder 4 Goal
Citrus County
Department of
Education Student
Services
By March of 2017 the
CCDE will be able to
provide all districts in
Citrus County with
individual reports of
their suspension and
expulsion data as well
as ethnic
disproportionality
District Level Student
Services Directors
By June of 2017 all
Student Services
Directors in the 27
districts that comprise
Citrus County will
have access to
disproportionality
reports. At least 18
districts will develop
individual plans to
address discipline
Site level
administrators
By the start of the
2017 - 2018 school
year, 100% of sites’
number of
suspensions and
expulsions will be
reduced to mirror to
the proportional
enrollment of Latino
students in Citrus
County Schools.
Teachers
By June of 2018 at least
80% of teachers in
school implementing a
behavior program, such
as PBIS, will actively
participate in this
program as measured by
their individual school
site.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 28
using the latest data
released by the
California
Department of
Education.
disproportionality.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The reduction of suspensions and expulsions in a school district is a massive undertaking
that will take the collaboration of the county office of education, leadership in the individual
school districts, leadership in the individual schools, and the students that comprise Citrus
County Schools. To help achieve the desired organizational goal of a proportionate reflection of
suspensions and expulsions for Latino students school administrators must commit to engaging
in specific actions. These critical behaviors, when performed with fidelity, and if done in a
specific, observable, and measurable manner, will have a significant impact on the outcome
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). For this project, the researcher will will consider the four
following critical behaviors:
1. Monitor and analyze on a weekly basis the referrals for suspensions and expulsions, and
maintain demographic records (Gregory, Bell, & Pollock, 2014).
2. Identify patterns of disproportionality and communicate the data and the goal to all staff
in the school (Girvan, Gion, McIntosh, & Smolkowski, 2016).
3. Adapt/design, implement and monitor a plan for teachers to address the patterns of
disproportionality (Skiba, Cung, Trachok, Baker, Sheya, & Hughes, 2014).
4. Hold the instructional community accountable for establishing proportionality in
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 29
discipline referrals (Mac Iver & Farley, 2003).
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of
the organizational problem described above, disproportionality in suspension and expulsions for
Latino students in Citrus County. While the complete gap analysis would focus on all Citrus
County stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders who were focused on in this
analysis are Citrus County public schools administrators, specifically those at the secondary
level. The analysis focussed on causes for this problem due to gaps in the area of site
administrators knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. The analysis began
by generating a list of possible or assumed influences that was examined systematically to focus
on actual or validated causes.
As such, the questions that guided this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences that
interfere with school site administrators achieving the goal of reducing suspensions and
expulsions of Latino students to mirror the proportional enrollment of Citrus County
schools?
2. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions for reducing suspensions and expulsions of Latino students to mirror
proportional enrollment of Citrus County schools?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 30
organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the preferred
performance level within an organization, was implemented as the conceptual framework. The
methodological framework is a qualitative case study with descriptive statistics. Assumed
influences knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that interfere with organizational
goal achievement were generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. These
influences were assessed by using surveys, document analysis, interviews, literature review and
content analysis. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive
manner.
Definitions
48900 (k) violation: Under California Education Code a 48900 (k) violation is any action
deemed to be defiant. It could range from not coming to class prepared to speaking too loud.
California Education Code does not have a clear definition for defiance. Traditionally this a
catch all category for student discipline when a student’s action do not fall into another 48900
category.
California Education Code 48900 and 48915 violations: California Education Code 48900 lists
reasons that a student may be removed from the classroom through means of suspension.
California Education Code 48915 lists reasons that a student may be expelled from a school
district. Commonly referred to as “the big five” California Education Code 48915(c)(1) through
48915(5) warrant a one year expulsion. Violations that fall under this category are the possession
or sale of a firearm, brandishing a knife at another person, the unlawful sale a controlled
substance include prescription and illegal drugs, committing or attempting to commit a sexual
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 31
assault or committing a sexual battery, and the possession of an explosive.
California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data System (CalPADS) and its six categories of
violations: CALPADS is a system that California uses to collect student data. One of the data
categories is discipline. For the first four categories, weapons through violence without injury,
California uses the guidelines set forth by the United States Department of Education.
Drugs: Either illegal drugs or drugs not prescribed to a student. Alcohol and the use of
alcohol also falls under the auspices of this category.
Other: defiance: An act by which a student willingly defies school rules. Typically
defined as a 48900 K violation - Disrupted school activities or otherwise willfully defied
the valid authority of supervisors, teachers, administrators, school officials, or other
school personnel engaged in the performance of their duties (California Education Code ,
§48900).
Other: non-defiance: An act by which a student is not the four categories of weapons,
drugs, violence with injury, or violence without injury, but at the same time is not
blatantly violating school rules as defined in a 48900 K violation.
Violence with injury: An act resulting in bodily injury, for example striking, beating,
bruising, or maiming a student.
Violence without injury: An act by which there is no bodily injury requiring medical
attention.
Weapons: firearms, knives, stun guns, or explosives.
Expulsion: An exclusionary discipline practice where a student is removed not only from their
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 32
school site, but their school district. Typically when expelled a student is removed from their
school district for one year, though a board may opt to expel a student for the course of an
academic semester. Though an expulsion is initiated at a school site, in the Board of an LEA has
the final authority to remove a student from their district.
In-school suspension: An exclusionary discipline practice where a student is removed from their
regular education setting while remaining on the physical school campus. Typically a student is
placed in an alternative classroom on the school campus or they are placed in the school office.
Local Education Agency (LEA): An LEA is school district which operates under California
Education Code as well as their own School Board policies.
Multi tiered System of Supports (MTSS): a systemic, continuous improvement framework in
which data-based problem-solving and decision making is practiced to address the academic,
behavioral, and social emotional needs of students.
Office Discipline Referral (ODR): forms commonly used at a school site by teachers,
administrators, or other staff members to document incidents of problem behavior and refer
students to front office for disciplinary measures.
Out of school suspension: An exclusionary discipline practice where a student is removed from
their regular education setting and removed from the school campus.
Positive Behavior and Intervention Supports (PBIS): PBIS is the implementation of practices,
and the collection of data so that individual schools can identify areas of concern unique to their
campus and address these areas. PBIS seeks to define expected behavior and offer three tiers of
intervention to elicit desired actions.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 33
Scale Up MTSS Statewide (SUMS): SUMS is a grant funded initiative seeking to increase the
use of the MTSS framework in California Schools.
Social Emotional Learning (SEL): SEL “is the process through which children and adults
acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and
manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and
maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. (What is SEL?, n.d.).
Organization of the Proposal
Three chapters are used to organize this proposal. This chapter provided the reader with
the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about discipline
disproportionality. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the initial
concepts of gap analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature
surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of Positive Behaviors and Support (PBIS),
alternatives to suspension, inclusive disciplinary practices, implicit bias, and social emotional
learning will be addressed. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering elements as well as
methodology when it comes to choice of participants, data collection, and analysis.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 34
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
California is in the midst of a paradigm shift as it transitions away from the era of No
Child Left Behind and adequate yearly progress goals (AYP) as an indicator of school
performance (Wright, 2009). California is now looking into the California School Dashboard as
a measure of school accountability, one unique feature of the dashboard is that equity for racial
and ethnic groups is measured; one category of measurement under the new system is school
suspensions (Loeb, Bryk, & Hanushek, 2008). Currently in California there is disproportionality
in the number of suspensions and expulsions for students of color; as table 2 illustrates in Citrus
County this disproportionality is most prevalent for Latino students. The transition to an
equitable system of school discipline is within reach of Citrus County schools, but it will require
a change in the systems that are currently in place.
The purpose of this literature review is to examine scholarly research that identifies the
current school practices and the consequences of these practices. Specifically, it will look at
exclusionary discipline practices, the discipline gap, and the school to prison pipeline. Next it
will look at the knowledge school site administrators will need in order to enact a change in
current practices. Administrators will need to be aware of the long-term consequences for
exclusionary discipline practices, the role that bias plays in the decision making process, what
students are being disciplined for, the significance of making personal connections with students,
and alternative methods of school discipline and alternatives to suspension. Next administrators
need to assess their motivation for school discipline; specifically looking at their desire to ensure
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 35
safety on campus and the role that internal schemas and internal bias may play on their decision
making process. Finally, school administrators need to understand the structure of the California
Education Code in regards to school discipline and how measures have already been put in place
to enact change.
Exclusionary Discipline Practices
In the school system, we see punitive practices played through the excessive use of
suspensions and expulsions, or exclusionary discipline practices. Recent research also shows that
exclusionary suspensions as a disciplinary measure for students from minority groups, or high
poverty areas, are used at a higher rate than their White or Asian peers (Okonofua, Eberhardt,
2015; Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton, 2016; Skiba, Chung, Trachok, Baker, Sheya, & Hughes,
2014; Skiba & Losen, 2015). Minority students are more likely to be suspended at least once,
and for a longer period of time (Balfanz, Byrnes, & Fox, 2015). Exclusionary discipline practices
disengage offending students from school. Punishments like suspension and expulsion remove
students from the learning environment (Kupchik & Ward, 2014).
In a 2015 study by Balfanz, Byrnes, and Fox it was seen that a student’s chance of
graduating exponentially decreases according to the number of times that student has been
suspended; every suspension reduces a student’s chance of graduating by 20% and decreases
their odds of attending post-secondary school by 12%. “With only one suspension in 9
th
grade,
the associated chances of graduating drop from 3 in 4 to only half, and the chances of enrolling
in postsecondary education from 58% to 39% or less” (Balfanz, Byrnes, & Fox, p. 22). When a
student is suspended, that student misses out of the instruction that takes place when they are not
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 36
on campus, becoming disengaged from the sequence of instruction and is likely to experience
alienation from school altogether (Marchbanks III, Blake, Booth, Carmichael, Seibert, & Fabelo,
2015). Absence from school, for any reason, interferes with learning, an effect that is heightened
among students having academic or behavior difficulty (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012; Fabelo et al.,
2011). Fabelo, et al, (2011) state that “Students who were suspended and/or expelled,
particularly those who were repeatedly disciplined, were more likely to be held back a grade or
to drop out than were students not involved in the disciplinary system” (pg. xi). The use of
exclusionary discipline practices leads to students losing a connection with their school. For
marginalized students, who are already underrepresented in the school environment, a
connection to the school is critical to success.
The Discipline Gap
For too long there has been a misconception that school climate and student achievement
are separate entities (Jones & Schindler, 2016). In 2008, the California Superintendent’s P-16
Council released a report “Closing the Achievement Gap” which formally identified school
climate as a key component in a school’s effort towards reform for underprivileged student
groups. The time that Latino students are spending outside of class due to exclusionary discipline
practices takes a toll of their ability to perform academically with peers who have not been
excluded from school. Latino students, along with Black students, lag in reading and
math achievement; additionally, Latino and Black male students are more likely
to be suspended and expelled from school (Fergus & Noguera, 2010).
Researchers such as Gregory, Skiba, and Noguera (2010) argue that there is a direct
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 37
correlation between the discipline gap, the disproportionate representation of students of color in
school suspensions and expulsions, and the achievement gap. When a student misses
instructional time, this time missed from class hastens the cycle of academic failure. The
heightened cycle of academic failure leads to disengagement from the school culture, and to
increased rule breaking which leads to increased exclusionary discipline. Simply put, once a
student is suspended they stand a higher chance of being suspended again (Hemphill,
Toumbourou, Herrenkohl, McMorris, & Catalano, 2006; Raffaele Mendez, & Knoff, 2003).
School to Prison Pipeline
Students of color, specifically Black and Latino students, find themselves more likely to
be disciplined for the same disciplinary infraction committed by a White peer (McIntosh,
Horner, & Smolkowski, 2014). For subjective infractions, such as classroom disruptions,
students of color are more likely to be suspended than their White peers (Annamma, Morrison &
Jackson, 2014; Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010). The disproportionate application of
suspensions and expulsions for students of color transcends the education environment and into
the penal system. The United State incarcerates over 54,000 youth a year; a disproportionate
number of them are Black or Latino males (Bernstein, 2014). Exclusionary discipline can be
associated with an increased risk of contact with the juvenile justice system. The Council of State
Governments’ report Breaking Schools’ Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline
Relates to Students’ Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement found that suspension and
expulsion for a subjective school violations, such as a dress code violation or disrupting class,
nearly tripled a student’s likelihood of involvement with the juvenile justice system within the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 38
subsequent year (Fabelo, Thompson, Plotkin, Carmichael, Marchbanks, & Booth, 2011).
Derived from a desire to ensure student safety on campus, Zero Tolerance quickly turned
into a blanket policy that segregated campuses. Students of color found themselves being
removed from campus for incidents that would not warrant a suspension or expulsion for their
white peers. This discipline gap also fed the achievement gap as the escalated removal of Black
and Latino students drove these students further behind academically as they did not have equal
access to school content. The discipline gap has helped to fuel the school to prison pipeline in
America. School site administrators need to understand both who is being suspended and at
what rate along with why students are being removed from the learning environment.
Conceptual Framework
This study will examine the school site administrator’s role in school discipline using the
Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis framework. In this framework, Clark and Estes suggest
that three areas that can attribute to the performance gap are knowledge, motivation, and
organizational culture (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
In this study, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework focuses on analyzing the causes for
a school not achieving the goal of proportionate discipline for Latino students. First, the study
will examine research regarding the knowledge influences that a school site administrator needs.
Administrators will need to how to achieve the goal proportionate discipline, as well as what
skills they possess or need to acquire. Next, the study will examine research regarding
motivational influences. Administrators will need to examine their own thought processes
regarding working towards the goal of proportionate discipline, persistence in order to reach this
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 39
goal, and the mental effort that they will need to expel in order to create proportionality. Finally,
the study will look at the organizational influence that affects how an administrator conducts
school discipline. Specifically administrators will need to look at organizational barriers in the
form of school policies, district policies, and California Education Code that can hinder or assist
in the goal of creating proportionate discipline.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Factors
Knowledge and Skills
In order to effectively enact change at a school site, a site administrator needs to
cognizant of current practices on their campus. To add to goal of reaching a proportionate
number of suspensions and expulsions for Latino students site administrators will need to
analyze their site and practices. One area they will need to address is their knowledge and skills,
including declarative, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive influences (Clark & Estes,
2008). Respectively administrators will need to understand the percentages of students who are
suspended and expelled on their campuses and at what rate. Administrators will need to
understand the role that bias plays in their own decision-making processes and the harmful
effects of exclusionary discipline, both for the students and the campus community as a whole.
Administrators will need to understand how to employ alternative disciplinary theories and
methods. Finally, administrators will need to think about why students are being disciplined and
how to be proactive, rather than reactive.
Declarative factual knowledge influences. Rueda (2011) suggests that factual
knowledge is knowledge that is basic to specific disciplines, contexts, or domains. Elements such
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 40
as terminology or details that one must know or be familiar with in order to understand and
function effectively or to solve a problem on a given subject. In order to reach the organizational
goal of proportionality in suspensions and expulsions site administrators will first need to
understand trends in student discipline. They will need to be aware of declarative factual, or fact
based, knowledge influences. In the context of school discipline factual knowledge applies to
suspension data; who is being suspended, what they are being suspended for, and at what rate
they are being suspended. Office discipline referrals (ODRs) also represent factual knowledge as
they represent a system of tracking when students are referred to the office.
Site administrators, in order to achieve the goal of student discipline rates that mirror
enrollment, need to know current data on what groups of students are being subjected to
exclusionary discipline and at what rate. McIntosh, Grivan, Horner, and Smolkowski (2014) in
a study of how racial and ethnic bias affects school discipline, developed a conceptual model to
reduce disproportionality in school discipline. By being aware opportunities for
disproportionality exist in school policies, administrators are able to prevent situations that can
lead to disproportionate discipline, reduce the likelihood of explicit bias, and reduce the
influence of implicit bias. The U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights tracks data
on student suspensions. In their studies, they have seen a steady increase in the disproportionality
of suspensions for students of color. Site administrators have access to their suspension data as
well as their ODR data. ODR data is combined with empirically-derived data to develop
vulnerable decision points. These points are the moments when implicit bias is likely to play a
part in the decision-making process. Administrators can take this information and use it to
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 41
develop guidelines and training that will help to better inform staff decisions. Additionally, in the
study ODRs were used to evaluate where on campus discipline incidents were occurring and at
what time of day they were occurring. This additional data can be used by administrators to
further drive their training.
Conceptual knowledge influences. Conceptual knowledge refers to categories,
classifications, principles, generalizations, theories, models, or structures pertinent to a specific
domain (Mayer, 2008). In the context of a school setting, and in school discipline, administrators
need to be aware of what their current policies are and the effects of these policies on students,
where opportunities for implicit bias rest in their work, and short and long term consequences
that exist for students due to exclusionary discipline policies.Being aware of conceptual
knowledge influences will expand on what administrators know and help them to make better
decisions.
Site administrators need to know the role of bias in decision making about sanctions.
Skiba, Chung, Trachok, Baker, Sheya, and Hughes (2014), in a study of the rates and reasons for
school suspension, found that there is an increase in the severity of a punishment with the
severity of the offense. Skiba, et al, find that school administrators either have a propensity
towards punitive measures or preventative measures. An administrator’s personal leanings shape
the direction of discipline on their campus. As Smolkowski, Girvan, Mcintosh, Nese, and Horner
(2016) discuss in their study, when someone is faced with an discretionary decision, one where
there is no perceived right answer, the majority of individuals fall back to their implicit biases
and act in a way that is considered discriminatory (Smolkowski, Girvan, Mcintosh, Nese, &
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 42
Horner, 2016). In this study defiance or disruption was the most commonly occurring infraction
with 60.3% of student receiving an in-school suspension for defiance and 38.1% receiving an
out-of-school suspension. Fighting was the least frequent infraction with 71.6% of students
participating receiving an out-of-school suspension and 1.7% being expelled. Possession of a
controlled substance was the least frequent, but most serious, infraction with 15.2% of students
being expelled. This study also found that there is a disproportionate number of male students
being subjected to discipline. In the study male students attributed for 51.3% of the population
but accounted for 68.8% of disciplinary instances. Additionally, free and reduced lunch students
were overly represented, accounting for 53.4% of students disciplined while only accounting for
37.5% of the population.
Site administrators need to know Zero Tolerance in school discipline policies has
increased disproportionality in school discipline. Hoffman (2014), in a study of the proportion
of students recommended for expulsions, found that under the auspices of Zero Tolerance
students are more likely to face expulsion. While expulsions for White and Latino student
increased, expulsions for Black students more than doubled. After the first year of Zero
Tolerance implementation an additional seventy Black students were recommended for
expulsion, this dramatic increase in the number of expulsions does not align with the school’s
enrolment. This study also looked at school suspensions, a disciplinary measure that typically
occurs before an expulsion. Using a proportionate data formula, where the total number of
students of a specific race was multiplied by the number of days those students were suspended,
and then divided by the total number of students enrolled in the school of a given race multiplied
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 43
by the number of days in that given school year, a percentage of possible school days suspended
was derived (Hoffman, 2014). Using this formula, it was discovered that in a school where no
students were suspended before Zero Tolerance after the first year of these policies Black
students found themselves suspended for 2% of the school year.
Site administrators need to know that students of color are more likely to be disciplined
for subjective infractions. Smolkowski, Girvan, McIntosh, Nese, and Horner (2016), in a study
of racial disparities in exclusionary school discipline, found that students of color were more
likely to receive subjective office discipline referrals than White students. Similar to the Skiba,
Chung, Trachok, Baker, Sheya, and Hughes (2014) study Smolkowski, et al, found that male
students were more likely to receive an office discipline referral than female students. In this
study males accounted for three quarters of office discipline referrals while female students only
accounted for one fourth. Smolkowski, et al’s study suggests that in addition to
disproportionality, the time of day is also an important factor in the discipline process with more
white students receiving office discipline referrals, 14.6%, at the end of the day as opposed to the
start of the day, 12.1%.
School administrators need to understand that students who are suspended from school
face long term fiscal implications in the form of lowered earning potential. Rumberger and
Losen (2017), in a study looking at the fiscal impact of suspension on a student, found that
suspensions negatively affect the student's earning potential and cost taxpayers through the
process of supporting the students. The study by Rumberger and Losen tracked 10th graders from
the largest school districts in California, including the Citrus County Alternative Education
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 44
program, for three years to focus on the economic implications of student suspension. Based on
this study, 10th graders in the cohort had an initial graduation rate of 83%; however after being
suspended the graduation rate drops to 60%. In the 2011-12 cohort there were 242,580 Latino
students, which represent about half of the 10th grade cohort. Of those students, 39,387 or 16.2%
were suspended, which is higher than the statewide average of 14.9%. Suspensions are a product
of the school environment, not the student, and should be used as a last resort. According to the
study, schools with a high concentration of Latino students varied in number of suspensions.
Students who are suspended are more likely to miss school. Based on this study the students
from the cohort who do not graduate will generate a lifetime social loss of $148 million, and a
fiscal loss to California taxpayers of $45 million. Based on this study students from Citrus
County who do not graduate will generate a lifetime social loss of $58 million and a fiscal loss to
California taxpayers of $18. The impact of suspension stays with a student well beyond the time
that they are absent from campus, the adverse effects of a reactionary decision can do a lifetime
of damage.
Site administrators need to know that exclusionary discipline practices disengage
students from the school environment and can lead to further discipline instances in the
future. Anyon, Lechuga, Ortega, Greer, and Simmons (2017), in a study of racial differences in
student’s connectedness to school adults, found that disproportionality in the application of
exclusionary school discipline practices reduces all students’ connectivity to their school
environment and adults on campus. Research shows that there are differences between the way
that students of color and their White peers are treated by school teachers and administrators.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 45
Especially the care, support, and encouragement received from adults on campus differs. A
potential cause of this rift between adults on campus and students is bias, which when perceived
by students leads to negative interactions. In a study of two different large urban high schools,
Aynon, et al, found that there were significant differences in how students connected to adults
based on the race of the student and the adult. Additionally, regardless of race, disparate rates in
out-of-school suspensions resulted in a negative association between all students and the adults
on campus.
Site administrators need to know that a personal connection to adults on campus is
necessary to ensure student success and to avoid instances of negative behavior. Lemberger,
Selig, Bowers, and Rogers (2015), in a study of the Student Success Skills program on executive
functioning for middle school students in predominantly Latino and economically challenged
schools, found that when a school simply increases the rigor of academic instruction, without
taking into consideration behavioral or social-emotional needs, the achievement gap in schools is
widened. An approach, such as MTSS, that considers multiple factors of student needs will
maximize student learning and achievement capabilities. Programs that consider the whole
student, such as MTSS or in this study, Student Success Skills (SSS), focus not only on
academics, but also on personal and social skills. A major factor in the success of an MTSS
program is the instruction of school behavior from a program such as PBIS. There is correlation
between students feeling connected to their school and their academic motivation and their safety
and engagement. Students who do not feel connected to school often experience self-destructive
behaviors which lead to disciplinary consequences.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 46
Site Administrators need to know that when discipline is approached from the deficit
perspective implicit bias plays a large role in how students are treated, but when teachers and
administrators make connections with students, the achievement gap begins to close. Biag
(2016), in a study of three dimensions of school connectivity in an urban, low-income middle
school, found that deficit assumptions on the part of school staff in regard to student and family
motivation of students led to an influence on how students were disciplined and how schools
interacted with families. There is little understanding of the role that school connectedness plays
in closing the discipline gap. School connectedness is defined as the belief that adults in a school
care about the student as an individual. School connectedness hinges on the student’s point of
view. Students who experience school connectedness exhibit lower rates in the participation of
at-risk behaviors such as: substance abuse, weapon use, and early sexual debut. Additionally,
these students demonstrate increased attendance, higher test scores and grades, and better overall
school performance. More and more schools are being asked to work beyond the confines of
their subject matter. Teachers, administrators, and school staff need to know how to navigate
student mental health concerns, homelessness, and other hardships. Scripted teaching, as seen in
the days of No Child Left Behind, that merely teaches to a test can lead to teachers feeling
overwhelmed and unprepared for additional student social emotional needs and leads to teacher
burnout. Turnover in staff reduces the ability to build relationships with students. Students who
have been victimized by violence and do not feel safe at school are more likely to report physical
psychosomatic symptoms, additionally these students are more likely to have poor attendance,
motivation, low esteem, and perform poorly in school. School administrators are key to set the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 47
school’s academic climate, ensure an orderly learning environment, and provide teachers with
necessary support to ensure high quality instruction. School administrators need to know how to
address organizational challenges in order to promote school connectivity.
Site administrators need to know that a positive school climate and positive
relationships with students are essential to promote the three main components of a multi-
tiered system of support: academics, behavior, and social-emotional needs. O'Malley,Voight,
Renshaw, and Eklund (2015), in a study of the relationship between school climate and a
student’s home environment, found that regardless of family structure, students with a positive
school climate did better academically. Studies show that factors such as parental education,
socioeconomic status, and family structure play a role in student performance. However, a
positive school environment can counterbalance negative effects from the home environment.
Administrators need to be aware of how to address the following needs in order to build a
positive school climate: belonging and connectedness, school safety, physical school resources,
and discipline practices. Administrators need to be aware of how students view their school
climate; this can be accomplished through the measurements like the California Healthy Kids
Survey (CHKS). There is a correlation between student achievement and home structure.
Students living in a two-parent home had an average GPA of 2.96, students in a one parent home
had an average GPA of 2.72, students in foster care had a GPA of 2.59, and homeless youth had
a GPA of 2.60. Administrators need to be aware of this when targeting interventions through
LCAP.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 48
Site administrators need to know that exclusionary discipline practices pose a greater
barrier for all students, especially Latino students, to build positive connections with school.
McWhirter, Garcia, and Bines (2017) in a study of school connectivity for Latino students, found
that there is correlation with perceived discrimination and students dropping out of school.
Students who do not earn a high school diploma have significantly less earning potential.
Dropping out is a process rather than an event and the result of a dynamic interaction between
individual characteristics, risk factors, and contextual factors. Latino students report instances of
being discriminated against in the school setting. These experiences include being treated as
inferior to and different from others on the basis of ethno-cultural or other group membership as
well as being subjected to racist, sexist, stereotypical, or ignorant comments or actions. In a
2007 study by the Pew Research Center, 64% percent of individuals identifying as Latino
reported that they felt that discrimination is a major problem in US schools, and 41% reported
being involved in a case of discrimination either personally or through an acquaintance. As with
other studies, school connectedness is a significant protective factor against emotional distress.
Efforts to increase connectedness expand beyond the individual school site, but rather should
include district-wide strategies aimed at encouraging positive behavior and eliminating bias and
disproportionate discipline practices. When adults on campus build positive relationships with
students there is a decreased likelihood of implicit bias in disciplinary decisions and an increase
in overall student engagement for all student groups on campus.
Procedural knowledge influences. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do
something; a learner acquires these skills either implicitly or explicitly (Rueda, 2011). In order to
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 49
accommodate the paradigm shift necessary to drive schools towards proportionate discipline, site
administrators will need to know how to implement change at their site. Specifically they will
need to know how to implement Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports (PBIS).
Site administrators need to know how to provide effective interventions to student
misconduct. Address the needs of all students, including students that are typically marginalized,
will take systemic change. PBIS is a way to implement this change and to drive school culture.
Administrators will need to know how to implement systemic change at the site level. Horner
and Sugai (2015) examine PBIS from the perspective of behavior analysis and provide a
summary of twenty years of implementation. PBIS is a framework for improving academic and
social outcomes for students. PBIS offers a three tiered approach to addressing student behavior
where interventions are offered at the universal, targeted, and individual level. PBIS offers an
emphasis on the definition of behavior for students, a logic model designed to alter student and
staff behavior in different campus environments, and a data driven system to measure fidelity of
the system in the school setting. Using a system that is constantly reflecting upon itself, PBIS
looks at desired outcomes and then three components to reach these outcomes: data, practices,
and systems. The theory behind PBIS is that each of three areas will have a direct impact upon
their counterparts.
Putnam and Kincaid (2015), in an overview of school-wide PBIS, describe why PBIS
helps to promote behavior analysis in schools and how the PBIS framework can be used to
implement change at the school and classroom level. PBIS allows for support, behavioral,
academic, and social-emotional, to be delivered to all students at a higher level of fidelity
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 50
because of the emphasis of teaching expected behavior at the first tier. Function plays a critical
role in designing interventions, and because of this a school’s PBIS program is tailor made for
that school’s students. PBIS relies on the uses of data to determine if there is an increase or
decrease in the frequency and/or intensity of problem behavior.
Cressey, Whitcomb, Mcgilvray-Rivet, Morrison, and Shander-Reynolds (2014), in a case
study of the process of PBIS implementation with fidelity, found that with the support of site
administration PBIS can be used to transform school culture. PBIS is not a packaged curriculum,
rather it relies on the use of data to support organizational systems, increasingly intensive
interventions, and assessment methods. Administrators need to understand the key elements of
PBIS before they can effectively go about implementing this system in their school. With the
input of a diverse cross section of the staff, schools need to define their core beliefs and
behaviors that they value. This is often done through the use of an acronym, for example, CARE
(Class, Academics, Respect, and Effort). Through this system schools define what they feel is
important. In this article the school studied respect was defined as “We care about respect for
one another. Every person deserves respect to feel safe and comfortable. We respect the opinions
of everyone in the school community” (Cressey, et al, p. 92). In addition to expectations problem
behaviors are clearly defined and a series of consistent consequences are defined ahead of time.
Students that continually engage in problem behaviors are recommended for tier two and tier
three interventions. Definitions are reevaluated on yearly basis, according to data such as office
discipline referrals (ODRs), and changes are made based on needs as defined by the PBIS team.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 51
Metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge refers to an individual’s
awareness of the learning process and the cognitive processes involved in learning (Mayer,
2008). Cognitive processes include remembering relevant information from long-term memory,
understanding and building meaning from information, carrying out a procedure or process in a
given situation, evaluating and making judgements based on criteria and standards, and forming
patterns based on distinct elements from given situations.
In the context of proportionality in discipline this process requires that administrators
remember school and district processes, as well as the California Education Code. For example,
an administrator would want to be familiar with California Education Code sections 48900 and
48915. Administrators will need to build meaningful individual student discipline scenarios as
they relate to school and district processes and California Education Code. For example, when
looking to suspend a student, if justifiable, an administrator would want to ensure that they are
applying the correct 48900 violation. Administrators need to be able to carry out discipline in
accordance with school and district policies. Doing so will build upon an administrator's
knowledge and skill set for future incidents. Administrators need to be able to assess and judge a
situation and apply the appropriate consequences. Failure to apply appropriate and consistent
consequences has led to disproportionality in discipline practices. Finally, administrators need to
be able to form patterns when looking at individual or group behavior. This could result in a
change in supervision or a change to school or district policies.
Site administrators need to reflect on how the reduction of suspensions and expulsions
to a proportionate reflection of school enrollment will require a paradigm shift in how schools
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 52
consider school discipline. Skiba and Losen (2015), in a paper reflecting on the shift in school
discipline in American schools, discuss the best way to achieve the goal of creating schools that
are safe, orderly, and civil. The Zero Tolerance approach to school discipline has had negative
social and academic outcomes for students, especially Black and Latino students. The use of
suspension often results in an increase in the probability that a student will be suspended again
and decreases the probability that a student will graduate. The use of suspension increases the
chances that a student will end up in the justice system. There are three universal components
that help to reduce suspensions and expulsions and increase proportionality in exclusionary
discipline practices -- relationship building, social-emotional learning, and structural
interventions.
Site administrators need to reflect on how most suspensions for defiance related
incidents happen in areas where there is little adult supervision or interaction with students.
Latino students find themselves suspended for ‘non-white’ behaviors. Anyon, Lechuga,
Ortega, Greer, and Simmons (2017), in their study of racial differences and student’s
connectedness to school school adults, found that disproportionality in the application of
exclusionary school discipline practices reduces all students’ connectivity to their school
environment and adults on campus. Implicit bias is stronger in areas where there is less adult
interaction or presence, such as school restrooms and hallways, and therefore there is less
opportunity for relationships to be forged. Several studies have found a correlation between the
influence of racial bias and stereotypes on school personnel’s behavior and the role this bias
plays in disciplinary decisions. Additionally, a correlation has been shown between the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 53
relationships that students have with adults, authority figures, and a reduction in discipline
instances. Four conditions for interactions between members of different groups are required for
bias to be minimized:
1. cooperation between groups
2. equal status
3. common goals
4. support from authority figures where the interactions occur
According to Critical Race Theory (McNeal, 2016; CRT) when schools attempt to instill ‘color
blind’ discipline policies such as Zero Tolerance the discipline gap is widened because these
policies are rooted in middle class white ideologies. Latino students are finding themselves
punished for non-white behaviors.
Site administrators need to reflect on how many subjective discipline infractions could
be addressed or eliminated by addressing the cultural needs of the school site. Blaisdell, B.
(2015), in a report analyzing schools as racial spaces, looks at the role teachers play in the
perpetuation of structural racism at their school sites. Structural racism has a large impact on
schools:
From a structural perspective, causation is understood as cumulative within and
across domains. It is a product of reciprocal and mutual interaction within and
between institutions. Institutional racism shifts our focus from the motives of
individual people to practices and procedures within an institution. Structural
racism shifts our attention from the single, intra-institutional setting to inter-
institutional arrangements and interactions. Efforts to identify causation at a
particular moment of decision within a specific domain understate the cumulative
effects of discrimination. (Powell, 2008, p. 796)
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 54
Students need access to interventions, but they also need equal access to school electives and
rigorous curriculum. For example, taking away a student’s ability to take an elective course
because they need an academic intervention, though well meaning, creates segregation in the
school. Schools need to be aware of cultural practices of Black and Latino students when
creating acceptable norms of behavior practices. To create proportionality in suspensions and
expulsions school administrators need to be aware of where there is potential for implicit bias in
discipline. Defining school culture and expected behaviors and consequences can reduce implicit
bias.
Site administrators need to reflect on the role that implicit and explicit bias on the part
of the school staff plays in student achievement. Peterson, Rubie-Davies, Obsorne, and Sibley
(2016), in a study on teacher’s implicit and explicit prejudice, found that these prejudices are one
of the underlying causes of the ethnic achievement gap. The amount that a student can learn
depends on the learning opportunities extended by the teacher. Differential expectations can
potentially increase pre-existing achievement gaps. Some teachers have different expectations
for students of different ethnicities based upon stereotypes and implicit biases. In this study a
teacher’s biases had significant impact on a student’s reading ability. By not addressing these
biases, and their correlating effect on student achievement, the achievement gap will continue to
grow for students which will conversely feed into explicit and implicit biases.
Table 3 shows the types of knowledge and the related research that school site
administrators will need as they look to implement equity in their discipline practices. The Table
lists the declarative factual knowledge (knowing which students are more likely to be
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 55
suspended), declarative conceptual knowledge (the effects of Zero Tolerance and bias in decision
making), procedural knowledge (how to implement PBIS), and metacognitive knowledge (how
to address school culture, influences).
Site administrators need to reflect on the role of data and its subsequent review in
order to address problem areas for their site. Mathews, Mcintosh, Frank, and May (2013), in a
study of the extent to which a common measure of perceived implementation and critical
features of PBIS predicted fidelity three years later, found that regular student acknowledgement
of expected behaviors, matching instruction to student ability, and access to additional supports
were the strongest predictors of sustained implementation. All school personnel, not just
teachers, have the ability to assist in the implementation and success of MTSS. In order to
implement a successful PBIS program that reaches all students, and drives a school towards
equity, it is important that multiple voices be included in the planning process. All personnel are
key in the establishment of a behavioral support network, the input of the custodial staff is just as
key as the input of administration in order to help students. Teaming of six to ten individuals
helps to ensure the successful implementation of PBIS. PBIS is shown to improve school
climate. Regular interactions with students are critical to a program's success. In the long run it is
more cost effective for a site and district to implement a sustainable program than to implement
new initiatives year after year. In order to transform school culture and shift to the equitable
practices afforded by PBIS then a school’s staff needs to understand why practices work in
addition to simply implementing new practices. Changing school culture is a systematic
paradigm shift. Behavioral expectations will have to be defined for students and for staff with
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 56
constant review; however, through the process of PBIS implementation schools can target the
needs of students who need to most support in order to be successful. Fidelity and equity, in
PBIS, hinges upon the regular acknowledgement of expected behaviors, matching instruction to
student ability, and access to additional supports when needed. Support from the district, in terms
of vision, training, and acknowledge of school sites will assist in a successful PBIS program.
Table 3 shows the types of knowledge influences and the related research that school site
administrators will need as they look to implement equity in their discipline practices. The Table
lists declarative factual knowledge (what students are being subjected to exclusionary discipline
and why), declarative conceptual knowledge (the role Zero Tolerance plays at their school site,
the consequences of exclusionary discipline, what students are more likely to be disciplined, and
the role connectivity plays on their campus, procedural knowledge (how to implement
interventions), and metacognitive knowledge (how schools think about discipline, where
discipline infractions occur, and the role of data in establishing school culture).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 57
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Declarative Factual (terms, facts, concepts)
Stakeholder needs to know…
Site administrators need to know who is being
subjected to exclusionary discipline and at what
rate.
McIntosh, Grivan, Horner, and
Smolkowski (2014).
Declarative Conceptual (categories, process
models, principles, relationships)
Stakeholder needs to know…
The role of bias in decision making about
sanctions.
Skiba, R. J., Chung, C., Trachok, M.,
Baker, T. L., Sheya, A., & Hughes, R.
L. (2014)
How Zero Tolerance policies have increased
disproportionality in school discipline.
Hoffman, S. (2014).
Students of color are more likely to be
disciplined for subjective infractions.
Smolkowski, K., Girvan, E. J.,
Mcintosh, K., Nese, R. N. T., &
Horner, R. H. (2016).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 58
Students who are suspended from school face
long term fiscal implications in the form of
lowered earning potential.
Rumberger, R. & Losen, D. (2017).
That exclusionary discipline practices disengages
students from the school environment and can
lead to further discipline instances in the future.
Anyon, Y., Lechuga, C., Ortega, D.,
Greer, E., & Simmons, J. (2017).
Personal connections to adults on campus are
necessary to ensure student success and to avoid
instances of negative behavior.
Lemberger, M. E., Selig, J. P., Bowers,
H., & Rogers, J. E. (2015).
When discipline is approached from the deficit
perspective implicit bias plays a large role in how
students are treated, but when teachers and
administrators make connections with students,
the achievement gap begins to close.
Biag, M. (2016).
A positive school climate and positive
relationships with students is essential to promote
the three main components of a multi-tiered
system of support; academics, behavior, and
social-emotional needs.
O'Malley, M., Voight, A., Renshaw, T.,
& Eklund, K. (2015).
Exclusionary discipline practices pose a greater
barrier for all students, especially Latino
students, to build positive connections with
school.
McWhirter, E. H., Garcia, E. A., &
Bines, D. (2017).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 59
Procedural
Stakeholder need to know how to…
Site administrators need to know how to provide
effective interventions to student misconduct.
Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (2015).
Putnam, R. F., & Kincaid, D. (2015).
Cressey, J., Whitcomb, S., Mcgilvray-
Rivet, S., Morrison, R., & Shander-
Reynolds, K. (2014).
Metacognitive
Stakeholders need to know how to reflect on…
How reducing suspensions and expulsions to a
proportionate reflection of school enrollment will
require a paradigm shift in how schools consider
school discipline.
Skiba, R. J., & Losen, D. J. (2015).
Most suspensions for defiance related incidents
happen in areas where there is little adult
supervision or interaction with students. Latino
students find themselves suspended for ‘non-
white’ behaviors.
Anyon, Y., Lechuga, C., Ortega, D.,
Greer, E., & Simmons, J. (2017).
In order to reduce discipline for subjective
measures schools need to be aware of their
school culture, rather than shift blame to the
students.
Blaisdell, B. (2015).
The role of data and its subsequent review in
order to address problem areas for their site.
Mathews, S., Mcintosh, K., Frank, J. L.,
& May, S. L. (2013).
Motivation
General theory. Motivation can be observed using three common indicators -- active
choice, persistence and mental effort (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2009;Rueda, 2011). Active
choice refers to deciding to choose one activity over another. Persistence is the continuation of a
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 60
behavior over time in the face of distractions until until the goal is obtained and the need is
reduced (Pintrich & Shunk, 1996; Pintrich & Shunk, 2009). Mental effort is the work needed to
generate new learning and knowledge. According to these definitions administrators would
appear to be lacking in mental effort, they are using old methods and knowledge when looking at
discipline. Relying on past information is leading to disproportionality.
In relation to school discipline, active choice is when administrator adds additional
infractions, specifically 48900 (k) defiance/disruption, to a suspension or expulsion violation.
California Education Code does provide for a specific definition of defiance or disruption, as a
result this violation is added to transgressions on campus where it is not applicable. For example
if a student is suspended for having alcohol on campus, the 48900 (k) violation may be added to
their suspension, the logic being that the site administrator had their day disrupted to investigate
the student and his/her possession of an intoxicant. However, their job duties dictate that they
investigate disciplinary measures, therefore there is no choice whether or not to investigate the
infraction.
According to Rueda (2011) persistence is the continuation of a behavior over time in the
face of distraction. In school discipline persistence would occur during the administrator’s
investigation of the initial incident. The number of witnesses that the administrator speaks to,
how long the administrator speaks to each witness, whether there are follow up questions,
picking up the investigation during the face of daily interruptions, these would fall under
persistence. However, having to conduct the initial investigation is not persistence, so the 48900
(k) violation would not be appropriate.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 61
Mental effort is when one is using familiar information to solve a problem that requires
new information (Rueda, 2011). Rather than look through a situation and find the appropriate
resolution, a reactionary stance allows for bias to cloud an administrator’s judgement. When the
administrator has a “knee jerk” reaction because taking a reactionary stance allows for mental
effort and the administrator’s schema to enter the picture. When looking at the application of
school discipline mental effort is where an administrator's explicit and/or implicit biases play a
role in how they interact with students and how they apply punishments. In the case of implicit
bias administrators may not be aware to what extent stereotypes and schema play in how they
treat students.
Administrators’ specific factors. County offices of education offer training to
administrators in proper techniques for conducting student discipline. Some scenarios, if a
student has a weapon on campus, or a scenario involving narcotics, have clear protocols. These
are objective discipline scenarios where the staff and administration are not making a judgement
call as to whether there is a violation or not (Smolkowski, Girvan, McIntosh, Nese, & Horner,
2016). When an administrator is faced with a subjective situation where they need to make a
judgement call, their internal implicit biases may cloud their judgement making. Without a clear
set of guidelines for administrators to follow it is possible that administrators could be making
biased decisions without being aware of their actions (Smolkowski, Girvan, McIntosh, Nese, &
Horner, 2016).
Value. Value, which can change without self-awareness, refers to a learned belief about
the effectiveness or benefits of a task or goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the context of school
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 62
discipline school site administrators need to value student safety and well-being, both physically
and emotionally. Administrators also need to value equity and inclusionary discipline.
Site administrators need to value a safe and equitable school environment. McNeal
(2016), in a study of the school to prison pipeline, found that since the initiation of Zero
Tolerance excessive force and alienation of student groups is more prevalent in schools. Though
originally intended to improve school safety, Zero Tolerance policies have blurred the lines
between school discipline and school safety, often pushing students into the juvenile justice
system. Although there was good intentions behind them, societal responses to safety concerns
for children in K-12 schools have done more harm than good to the welfare of children. A
growing fear and overall sense of helplessness has served as a catalyst of the variety of policy
changes that have essentially militarized schools with the expansion of law enforcement
measures, such as school resource officers. The intent of school resource officers is improve
school safety and foster positive relations between law enforcement and the students who make
up a community. Despite an abundance of approaches to addressing school safety, no one
strategy has emerged as the one stop solution to school safety concerns. School officials seek to
keep students safe, when reacting under pressure find themselves relying on the strategies
implemented under Zero Tolerance.
Site administrators need to value equitable protocols and avoid a reliance on schemas
which do not allow students to be treated fairly when faced with disciplinary action. Cherry
(2016), in an article, defines the schema and the role that preconceived notions can play in bias.
Often schemas can be incorrect ad perpetuate stereotypes. Relying on a schema narrows an
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 63
administrator’s focus and draws attention away from pertinent details. Reliance on schemas
conforms to preexisting beliefs and ideas. Reactions to schemas are subconscious, but for
students the consequences are real. In another study, Ray (2017), discusses how the schema is
unique to an individual and how conflicts can arise when there is a difference in schemas.
Schemas perpetuate stereotypes are hinder the retention of new information. Reliance on
schemas obstructs the ability to look at the information pertinent to that moment, so students are
judged on past actions or worse on stereotypes.
Site administrators need to believe that bias is influencing their work and that it is
important to counteract it. Peterson, Rubie-Davies, Obsorne, and Sibley (2016) in a study on
teacher’s implicit and explicit prejudice, found that these prejudices underlie the ethnic
achievement gap. Though teachers and administrators may be unaware of them implicit biases,
which are often rooted in stereotypes, these biases drive individuals when applying expectations
to students. A stereotype is defined as a belief that members of a particular group have certain
attributes or traits. Teachers can form different expectations for different ethnic groups because
of cultural stereotypes and implicit prejudices that they hold about students from specific ethnic
groups. Explicit and implicit attitudes develop from repeated exposure to pairings of a social
group of object with a particular characteristic. Knowledge of a stereotype does not equate to the
endorsement of a stereotype. An individual is aware of their explicit stereotypes and prejudiced
attitudes, however implicit stereotypes and prejudices attitudes emerge via automatic processing
and are typically unconscious. Bias can affect an adult’s expectations for a student. When there
is time a adult can suppress biases, however when a stereotype is activated and time is pressured
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 64
a less socially desirable or more automatic response emerges.
Site administrators need to value that bias, whether implicit or explicit, affects how
administrators and teachers treat students, this effect leads to disproportionality. Anyon,
Lechuga, Ortega, Greer, and Simmons (2017), in their study of racial differences and students’
connectedness to school school adults, found that removing discipline disparities may improve
student connectivity to school. Research indicates that there a substantial differences between the
school experience, specifically care, support, and encouragement from teachers and
administrators, for students of color and White students. When students perceive bias, this leads
to negative student-teacher interactions and has an adverse effect on school culture as a whole.
Anyon, et al (2017), cite an ethnographic study where school administrators perceived Black
girls to be unladylike and viewed Latino and Black boys as threatening; these biases contributed
to higher dress code infractions for students of color. High-level infractions, such as weapons or
drugs, are dictated by federal policy; however, referrals and consequences for the most common
forms of student misconduct are at the discretion of the school staff and are rarely applied
consistently. Students of color are more likely to be referred to the office for behaviors that are
highly dependent on the adult’s point of view, such as disrespect or excessive noise. Compared
to White and Asian students, school staff tend to perceive Black and Latino students as
oppositional and threatening. Adults in the school setting tend to have fewer positive interactions
with students of color than with White youth. The schema that an administrator brings to the site
with them directly affects disproportionality. At a site where there is no set guidelines for
consequences an administrator runs the risk of allowing implicit bias to encroach upon their
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 65
reactions to a situation requiring immediate resolution.
Self-efficacy. In this context self-efficacy refers to an administrator's confidence in their
ability to complete a task or performance goal, or belief that they have the ability to make a
difference in the long term (Clark & Estes, 2008). In order to effectively change school climate
to promote proportionality, self-efficacy is an essential skill for administrators.
Site administrators need to have confidence that the school faculty and staff are
capable of correcting its biases about certain student groups and their behavior. Okonofua
and Eberhardt (2015), in a simulation study on disparities in discipline practices, found that
educators are more likely to recommend suspension for students of color. In this study Okonofua
and Eberhardt presented educators with discipline scenarios. The scenarios were real, however
the names of the student were changed to represent names that would be associated with White
or African American students. For the first infraction there were few difference in the way
teachers would treat students based on assumed racial identity. However, for the second
infraction teacher were more troubled, and more likely to regard an incident as part of a pattern,
therefore recommending suspension when they associated the student as African American. This
study shows that stereotypes play a role in classroom interactions that can lead to student
suspension.
Site administrators need to have confidence in their ability to forge relationships with
students and cross-cultural expectations. Gregory, Bell, and Pollock (2014), in a briefing paper,
discuss disparities in school discipline based on race, gender, and sexual orientation. Gregory, et
al, discuss the need to move from purely punitive discipline measure to conflict prevention and
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 66
conflict intervention model, such as restorative practices. The methods teach student appropriate
alternatives to negative behaviors and helps students to form a connection with the greater school
climate. Through caring relationships, school staff can communicate high expectations for
students, both academically and behaviorally, as well as demonstrate fair and consistent
application of school rules. A concern among educators is that by creating this sort of
relationship with a student for fears of being “too close” to a student or “crossing the line”.
However, by making a connection with students teachers and administrators can view behavior
in context, for example they would be aware that a student is acting out due to a situation at
home, and through these actions can avoid rushing to rash judgements about a student.
Site administrators need to be confident that when connected to adults at the school
site, Latino students will do better academically and behaviorally. McWhirter, Garcia, and
Bines (2017), in a study of school connectivity for Latino students, found that forging
connections with students can be a powerful deterrent to avoid students dropping out school.
Young adults without a high school diploma have higher unemployment rates and are less likely
to be working full time than their peers with a high school diploma. The relationship between
adolescents’ perceived barriers and outcomes, both in career and education, has been explored in
a number of studies. Among Latino students, school connectedness has been associated with
positive behavioral and academic outcomes. McWhirter, et al, discuss a 2-year longitudinal study
which found that higher levels of discrimination were associated with reports of poorer school
climate, which in turn was associated with lower grades and more school absences among Latino
high school students. Students who do not have a connection to school are more susceptible to
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 67
thoughts of dropping out. Connections on campus between adults and students is symbiotic,
students will do between academically and behaviorally, but in addition, schema will be replaced
with a connection to the student potentially facing disciplinary actions.
Mood. Clark and Estes (2008) refer to mood as an attitude about pursuing and achieving
a goal. In this case, an administrator's mood about the goal will affect how they handle the task.
If they feel the task is not possible or do not believe it is worthwhile they could develop a
negative attitude which would have an adverse effect on the campus.
Site administrators need to feel positive about their ability to be learning leaders and
show teachers the connection with strong instruction and positive behavior. Monroe (2009) in
a study on school discipline as related to the perceptions, work, and backgrounds of Black and
White teacher, found that in-services, and other policy changes, can have a positive outcome on
student discipline. Learning based perceptions of student behavior drove classroom discipline.
Teachers valued the ability for all students to learn in the classroom and defined a disruption as
something that hindered the ability of other students to learn in class. When students are engaged
in class and connected to an engaging lesson they are less likely to be disruptive. Teachers can be
trained to take potential off-task moments and shift the interruption to a teachable lesson. The
influence of of remembered teacher and teacher mentors plays a significant role in a teacher’s
ability to control their classroom. In this study a common theme from participating teachers was
that they felt hands on experience in diverse settings were most instructive in acquiring skills
needed for classroom discipline. Teachers viewed students’ parents and families as supportive
resources. At a school site teachers will have varying degrees of comfort with these skills,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 68
however a site administrator can model and coach these skills to their staff.
School site administrators need to believe that shifting focus of school culture will
address individual needs of their site. Cressey, Whitcomb, Mcgilvray-Rivet, Morrison, and
Shander-Reynolds (2014), in a case study of the process of PBIS implementation with fidelity,
found school leaders can transform school culture to fit their sites individual needs. By working
with stakeholders, including families and students, several different voices can be heard to
address the needs of school site. Changing school culture is multi-year process. Ensuring that all
students have access to academic and non-academic aspects of school is important when looking
at school culture. Equitable access to education for all students is essential.
Table 4 shows the types of motivation and the related research that school site
administrators will need as they look to implement equity in their discipline practices. The Table
lists values (being aware of explicit bias and acknowledging implicit bias), and self-efficacy (an
administrator's attitude towards their goal and their progress towards the goal of equitable
discipline practices and proportionality in discipline).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 69
Table 4
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Motivation Influences Research Literature
Value
Administrators
need to value…
A safe school and equitable environment.
McNeal, L. R. (2016).
Equitable protocols that avoid a reliance on
schemas that do not allow students to be treated
fairly when faced with disciplinary action.
Cherry, K. (2016).
Ray, L. (2017).
Believe that bias is influencing their work and
that it is important to counteract it.
Peterson, E. R., Rubie-Davies, C.,
Osborne,
D., & Sibley, C. (2016).
Bias, whether implicit or explicit, affects how
administrators and teachers treat students, this
effect leads to disproportionality.
Anyon, Y., Zhang, D., & Hazel, C.
(2016).
Self-Efficacy
Stakeholder
needs to have confidence that …
The school faculty and staff are capable of
correcting its biases about certain
student groups and their behavior.
Okonofua,
J.A., & Eberhardt, J.L. (2015).
Forge relationships with students and cross
cultural expectations.
Gregory, A., Bell, J.,
& Pollock, M. (2014).
Be confident in their ability to connect with
students of color, such as Latino students.
McWhirter, E. H., Garcia, E. A., & Bines,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 70
D. (2017).
Organization
Resources. Resources refers to materials that are necessary to achieve a goal. In the case
of a school site administrator, examples would be funding, staffing, or materials (Clark & Estes,
2008). If an administrator is looking to implement an alternative to suspension program then they
would need a certificated teacher to teach the class and come up with a curriculum, they would
also need a space to house the program. Funding would refer to need to pay the teacher and pay
for the space and curriculum, staffing refers to the teacher, and materials would refer to the
curriculum.
School site administrators need School Board approval to acquire - financial resources
to implement an alternative to suspension program. Staff resources to implement an
alternative to suspension program. Physical space to implement an alternative to suspension
program.
Teasley (2014), in an editorial, looks at the need to shift from traditional Zero Tolerance
policies to a Restorative Justice model. Zero Tolerance policies serve as a catalyst for the school-
to-prison pipeline with many schools relying on mandatory guidelines developed under the
auspices of the No Child Left Behind era. In a study by the American Psychological Association
it was shown that exclusionary practices do not improve school safety. Several research studies
show a national problem with disproportionality in suspensions. For example, Latino males are
suspended at a rate of seventy-four percent, whereas white males are suspended at a rate of fifty-
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 71
nine percent with similar numbers for female students. Restorative justice seeks to emphasize a
shared value set that includes building relationships, showing respect, and taking responsibility.
In restorative justice students are not only held responsible for their actions, but additionally
need to restore and repair damages rendered. For restorative practices to work, school personnel
need to buy into restorative methods. Implementation requires training and skills development
for teachers, administrators, and other school personnel. Community culture, norms, and values
need to be understood and defined.
Policies, Processes, & Procedures. Policies, processes, and procedures refers to systems
that are put in place in the school district (Clark and Estes, 2008). Policies can refer to both the
school district’s individual policies as well as those defined by the California Education Code.
Processes could refer to district processes, those laid out in Education Code, as well as individual
site processes. For example, the process used in an office discipline referral (ODR) is an
individual school process. Finally, procedures are unique between the school, the district, county,
and California Education Code.
School site administrators will need policies that align with the state goal of reducing
disproportionality in discipline. Robinett (2012), in an article looking at alternatives to
suspension, discusses how the framework of the California Education Code allows for
alternatives to suspension already. Though the framework to implement an alternative to
suspension program already exists in California Education Code 48900, application of
alternatives requires a change in the way administrators approach discipline. In 2005 James A.
Garfield High School in East Los Angeles set a school record for 613 suspensions with a total
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 72
student enrollment of 5,000 students; this point led school officials to the realization that
suspensions were having little to no effect when it came to improving student behavior. Looking
at their violations, and the choices offered by the California Education Code, administrators at
the school realize only one third of the suspensions were for violence or drug offenses, the rest of
the offenses for infractions ranging from smoking to vandalism to sleeping in class.
Administrators acknowledged that they had previously leaned too heavily on punitive practices
and set out to shift towards a progressive discipline model that relied on alternative methods of
correction such as apology letters. sending students to the administration during the student’s
lunch time, and greater parental involvement in the disciplinary process. Using a restorative
approach Garfield High School saw their suspension number decrease from 613 in the 2004 –
2005 school year, to one in the 2010 – 2011 school year. California Education Code is designed
to remove a student from the classroom environment as a last resort when other means of
correction are not feasible; specifically, California Education Code 48900(v) states:
For a pupil subjected to discipline under this section, a superintendent of the school
district or principal may use his or her discretion to provide alternatives to suspension or
expulsion that are age appropriate and designed to address and correct the pupil’s specific
misbehavior as specified in Section 48900.5.
Suggested alternatives to suspension include: community service, requiring a student’s parent to
attend class with him/her, temporary removal from class as described by California Education
Code section 48925(d)(3), with emphasis placed on the five-day timeline to limit student
removal:
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 73
i. Removal from the class, but without reassignment to another class or program, for the
remainder of the class period without sending the pupil to the principal or the principal’s
designee as provided in Section 48910. Removal from a particular class shall not occur
more than once every five school days.
California Education Code has already equipped schools with the tools necessary to shift away
from overly punitive disciplinary measures. In order to do so change will need to be
implemented at the district level and applied to school sites.
School site administrators will policies that move away from punitive discipline
practices and seek to implement alternatives to suspension. Anyon, Lechuga, Ortega, Greer,
and Simmons (2017), in their study of racial differences and student’s connectedness to school
adults, found that the application of exclusionary school discipline practices reduces the
connectivity to school culture for all students. The shift from traditional exclusionary discipline
practices to an alternative to suspension can have a reduction on the number of suspensions,
however an organization needs to be aware that implementing an alternative to suspension
program will not fully address disproportionality. Student of color are less likely to experience
an exclusionary discipline consequence in schools where the principal has a prevention
orientation to student discipline and implements alternative consequences such as in-school
suspension. Several studies have shown that high quality prevention programs that aim to
increase students' social and emotional learning skills have demonstrated reductions in student
behavior problems and suspension rates (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger,
2011; Walker, Kerns, Lyon, Bruns, & Cosgrove, 2010; Wilson, Gottfredson, & Najaka, 2001).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 74
Policies designed to improve discipline practices in Denver, Colorado offer a unique opportunity
to examine the influence of alternatives to out-of-school suspension and the effect of race on
exclusionary school discipline outcomes. In 2008 Denver Public Schools reformed discipline
policies in an effort to reduce the school to prison pipeline, rather than relying on exclusionary
practices a new policy requires schools to implement restorative and therapeutic interventions as
resolutions to student misconduct and to only refer students to law enforcement when legally
mandated to do so. Despite the implementation of an alternative to suspension program, this
study revealed that Black, Latino and Multiracial students were often punished more harshly than
White students for the same offenses.
School site administrators need policies that stop overusing the 48900 (k) violation
Fisher (2015), in a legal review, explores the implementation of policies at the state level
to stop the overuse of the 48900 (k) violation. Despite the ability to set their own discipline
practices many districts embrace the 48900 (k), wilful defiance violation, as a means to suspend
students. California Education Code defines offenses that a student may be suspended for, with
“may” serving to provide school administrations with discretion as to whether they will apply a
suspension. Many school districts chose to suspend students, though they are not required to.
Every school district in California is free to create its own disciplinary policies and practices, as
long as the policies are consistent with California Education Code. California Education Code
lists nineteen categories of offense for which suspension or expulsion is an acceptable
punishment, each of these categories includes a variety of actions for which a student can be
suspended or expelled. Out of the Zero Tolerance Era the California Education Code grew, in
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 75
this process section 48900 (k), willful defiance, was added; however, unlike most 48900
violation, 48900 (k) was not given a set of subcategories including a variety of actions for which
a student can be suspended or expelled. In 2013 the Los Angeles Unified School District became
the first school district in California to ban the use of the 48900 (k) violation as grounds for
suspension, a year later the San Francisco Unified School District followed suit. In 2014
Assembly Bill 420 banned the use of 48900 (k) as a grounds to suspend a student, kindergarten
through third grade, for willful defiance and school districts may no longer expel a student for
this violation. Despite strides to remove 48900 (k) violations many districts, such as the San
Diego Unified School District, still include willful defiance in their discipline policies.
School site administrators need to be create policies that address the limitations of
current legislation. McNeal (2016), in a study of the school to prison pipeline, found once a
student is suspended once they are more likely to enter the juvenile justice system. Though
California Assembly Bill 420 is a step in the right direction, the bill is limited and change needs
to occur in school districts. Suspension and expulsion was once reserved for serious offenses,
however today students are just as likely to be removed from their schooling environment for
talking back to a teacher, cursing, walking into class late, or even student eye rolling. Section
48900 (k), willful defiance, allows for a high level of subjectivity, which greatly contributes to
the disproportionate treatment of children from traditionally marginalized groups. The willful
defiance disciplinary category is where explicit and implicit biases are most prevalent, and
subsequently most harmful, to Latino students. One reason that drove the Assembly Bill 420 was
the use of 48900 (k) as a “catch-all” category for student behavior, before the passage of AB 420
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 76
48900 (k) violations accounted for more than forty percent of all suspensions issued in
California. The reduction of disproportionality will require change at the district level as AB 420
has a sunset in 2018, meaning that schools can once again suspend for willful defiance. School
districts need more guidance on school disciplinary practice which will discourage officials to
rely on 48900 (k) as a “catch all” category, but rather focus on development approaches such as
restorative justice. The state of California developed legislation with the intent of subjectivity in
student discipline, though schools are adapting to the constraints applied by AB 420 this bill is
only a temporary solution.
Culture. Culture refers to the school and school district’s core values, goals, beliefs,
emotions, and processes learned in the context of the school environment (Clark and Estes,
2008). When dealing with discipline and the decision to exclude a student from campus an
individual’s cultural beliefs could conflict with the school or district’s cultures. Subjective
discipline violations lean heavily on an administrator's cultural beliefs. Defining culture in the
district and the school can help to alleviate some of the margin for subjectivity in disciplinary
actions.
School site administrators need to create an inclusive culture where students are not
removed from campus for subjective reasons. Ray (2015), in a dissertation, discusses the need
for a school culture that focuses on inclusion as opposed to exclusion. Defiance is the most
common category used to suspend students; however at the same time it is a category that lacks a
clear definition leading students to being unsure of why they are being punished. The 48900 (k)
category is where disproportionality between students occurs, with students of color being
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 77
suspended the most. Defiance in the classroom is the most common reason for suspension. On
May 14
th
, 2013 the Los Angeles Unified School District adopted “Board Resolution-2013 School
Discipline Policy and School Climate Bill of Rights” which eliminated suspensions for defiance.
Table 5 shows the types of organization influences and the related research that school
site administrators will need as they look to implement equity in their discipline practices. The
Table lists resources (alternative to suspension programs), policies, processes, and procedures
(policies of the local governing board and an understanding of California Education Code section
48900), and a desire to establish an inclusionary culture, and values (creating an inclusionary
school culture).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 78
Table 5
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
Author, Year; Author, Year.
Resources (time; finances;
people)
School site administrators need School Board
approval to acquire - financial resources to
implement an alternative to suspension program.
Staff resources to implement an alternative to
suspension program. Physical space to
implement an alternative to suspension program.
Teasley, M. L. (2014).
Backing from school board and district office to
move away from punitive discipline practices.
Anyon, Y., Jenson, J. M., Altschul, I.,
Farrar, J., McQueen, J., Greer, E., . . .
Simmons, J. (2014).
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Stakeholder needs to have policies that align
with …
State goal of reducing disproportionality in
discipline.
Robinett, D. (2012).
Backing from school board and district office to
move away from punitive discipline practices.
Anyon, Y., Jenson, J. M., Altschul, I.,
Farrar, J., McQueen, J., Greer, E., . . .
Simmons, J. (2014).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 79
Stop overusing the 48900(k) violation. Fisher, A. (2015).
Policies that address the limitations of current
legislation.
McNeal, L.R. (2016).
Culture
Stakeholder need to be part of a culture that
aligns with …
Inclusion for students rather than exclusion.
Ray, P. (2015).
Summary
School site administrators need to have knowledge of the shift in policies regarding
school discipline. Specifically the shift from exclusionary Zero Tolerance policies to more
inclusive stance on discipline, including Restorative Practices. Administrators need to be aware
of the detrimental damage suspension can cause for a student. Administrators also need to be
aware of implicit bias the role that it plays in their discipline decisions for a student. By being
aware of their own biases and creating a culture where expectations are communicated to
students the role that bias plays in reactionary decisions is greatly reduced. Finally, school
policies need to address the overuse of suspensions for subjective reasons, specifically 48900 (k)
violations in California. Though policies are being written at the state level to address this need,
these policies are limited in the time that they will be effective, and change will need to occur at
the site level.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 80
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of
the organizational problem of disproportionality in suspension and expulsions for Latino students
in Citrus County. While the complete gap analysis would focus on all Citrus County
stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders who were focused on in this analysis are
Citrus County public schools administrators. The analysis focussed on causes for this problem
due to gaps in the area of site administrators knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational
resources. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or assumed influences that were
examined systematically to focus on actual or validated causes.
The questions that guided this gap analysis are the following:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences that
interfere with school site administrators achieving the goal of reducing suspensions
and expulsions of Latino students to mirror the proportional enrollment of Citrus
County schools?
2. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions for reducing suspensions and expulsions of Latino students to mirror
proportional enrollment of Citrus County schools?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The framework for the methodology in the study was the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap
Analysis. The gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) assisted in identifying causes of
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 81
performance gaps and help to implement appropriate performance solutions towards their of
having racial distribution of suspensions and expulsions in schools mirror the racial makeup of
the schools. The methodology identifies and quantifies three significant causes of performance
problems, specifically: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture and context
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Data analysis helped to identify solutions that will begin to
close the performance gap. Results will be evaluated to determine whether revisions are required.
This study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The qualitative
method led one to discover how people feel, know, perceive, think, and act in a setting or
situation (Creswell, 2014). The qualitative method was used to clarify human causes behind the
performance gap (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Figure 1 is a schematic drawing showing the sequence of steps in the Gap Analysis
Process. Additionally, the figure displays the cyclical nature of the Gap Analysis Process.
Figure 1.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 82
Gap Analysis Process. Clark, R. E. & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results. Charlotte,
NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.
The steps of the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Process Model are as follows:
Step 1: Goals - Identify the organizational goal.
Step 2: Current Achievement - Determine the current levels of performance with respects
to the identified goal areas.
Step 3: Gaps - Determine gaps between goals and current performance.
Step 4: Causes - Hypothesize causes in knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational culture, and empirically validate which of these three is the root cause.
Steps 1, 2 and 3 were addressed in Chapter One. The following steps are discussed in Chapters
Four and Five of the dissertation and will not be incorporated into this methodology chapter.
Step 5: Solutions - Plan systemic and individual gap-closing solutions.
Step 6: Implement - Implement systemic and individual gap-closing solutions.
Step 7: Evaluate - Evaluate and modify solutions for continual improvement.
The study utilized the Improvement Gap Analysis process that may be adapted by other
counties and school districts in order to improve proportionality in student discipline.
Assessment of Performance Influences
This study used the gap analysis approach to examine the root causes of the
disproportionate application of suspensions and expulsions of Latino students in Citrus County.
Particularly those incidents that involve defiance or disruption, 48900 (k) violations. The study
was focused on Citrus County schools site administrators as they are the ones with the authority
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 83
to suspend and expel students. The analysis focussed on causes for this problem due to gaps in
the area of site administrators knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources.
This study relied on both surveys as well as interviews to assess a site administrators knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational resources.
In order to meet the goal of a proportionate, equitable application of school discipline
policies site administrators need specific knowledge and skills. Particularly they need specific
declarative factual knowledge (knowing which students are more likely to be suspended),
declarative conceptual knowledge (the effects of Zero Tolerance and bias in decision making),
procedural knowledge (how to implement PBIS), and metacognitive knowledge (how to address
school culture, influences).
Successful site administrators are also highly motivated. Therefore, this study assessed
those components of motivation that the literature suggests will influence their performance,
such as site administrators’ values (acknowledging explicit and implicit biases and treating
students in an equitable manner), and self-efficacy (an administrator's attitude towards their goal
and their progress towards the goal of equitable discipline practices and proportionality in
discipline).
Finally, site administrators need to have sufficient organizational support to be
successful. This supportive environment includes resources (alternatives to suspension
programs), and policies, processes, and procedures (policies of the local governing board and
California Education Code section 48900) that are aligned with the performance goal, and a
desire from leaders at the site and district level to establish an inclusionary culture, and values
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 84
(creating an inclusionary school culture).
Knowledge Assessment
Table 3, derived from the literature review in Chapter Two, lists the assumed knowledge
influences that affect a school site administrator and the suspension/expulsion process.
Declarative knowledge. Administrators were asked closed-end items for recall and
recognition of their knowledge. Closed-end items allowed for a sense of uniformity and relative
ease for scoring and analysis (Fink, 2017). Items included multiple answer multiple choice
questions. Administrators were also asked open-ended questions in order to assess declarative
factual knowledge. Items required site administrators to summarize which student groups are
being suspended and expelled. Information regarding student suspensions, as well as
demographics of what students are being suspended, are available through the California School
Dashboard (California School Dashboard, 2017). Administrators were asked to summarize their
California School Dashboard data because the dashboard identifies areas of concern, and one of
these areas is specifically built around suspensions.
Conceptual knowledge. To assess declarative conceptual knowledge closed-end items
asked site administrators to apply cognitive processes such as analysis to discipline on their site.
Closed-end items included single answer multiple choice questions and multiple answer
multiple choice questions. Additionally site administrators were asked to answer open-ended
questions in order to allow them to elaborate on concepts. According to Anderson and Krathwohl
(2001) understanding is best defined as constructing meaning from instructional messages. In the
case of school discipline, site administrators are required to understand local, state, and federal
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 85
discipline regulations as well as history. Analysis requires breaking material down into its
constituent parts and determining not only how those parts are related, but also the structure and
purpose of the parts (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In the context of school discipline site
administrators were asked to look at the consequences of both past disciplinary practices as well
as exclusionary discipline as it affects student achievement, potential future consequences of
disciplinary actions, and the overall school climate.
Procedural knowledge. Application refers to the ability to carry out a procedure in a
given situation (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In the context of school discipline, application
refers to an administrator's ability to apply school, district, state, and federal policies. In order to
assess procedural knowledge, question items addressed a school site administrator’s ability to
clarify and carry out the steps necessary to implement a change in policies and procedures at
their school site. In the context of school discipline, procedural knowledge refers to the process
that an administrator would use when investigating a discipline incident and applying an
appropriate consequence. To assess procedural knowledge, both open-ended and closed-end
questions were utilized. Open-ended questions were used to evaluate the steps that an
administrator would take in a discipline scenario. Closed-end questions used multiple answer
multiple choice questions to assess an administrator’s ability to apply the steps of the disciplinary
investigation process.
Metacognitive knowledge. In order to assess metacognitive knowledge, question items
addressed a school site administrator’s ability to reflect upon their awareness and knowledge of
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 86
their own cognition. Metacognitive knowledge encompasses strategic knowledge, knowledge
about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In the context of
school discipline metacognitive knowledge refers to a school site administrator’s ability to
recognize and acknowledge explicit and implicit biases as well-established schemas.
Additionally it refers to their ability to reflect on data from their school site and adjust school
policy accordingly. In order to assess metacognitive knowledge, this survey relied on both open-
ended and closed-end questions. Open-ended questions were used in order to prompt
administrators to think about discipline at their school site, their role in the discipline process,
and their school culture. A mix of single answer and multiple answer multiple-choice questions
were used in order to prompt administrators to think about when and where discipline incidents
occur, school culture, and the role of data in the discipline process.
Table 6 shows the types of survey items that will be used to assess school site
administrators assumed knowledge influence. The Table lists both survey and interview items
built around declarative factual, declarative conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge influences.
Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Survey Items Interview Items
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 87
Declarative Factual (terms,
facts, concepts)
Stakeholder needs to know…
Site administrators need to know
who is being subjected to
exclusionary discipline and at
what rate.
Based on your site’s
California School
Dashboard
(https://www.caschooldas
hboard.org/#/Home)
which students have the
highest suspension rates?
(select all that apply).
a. African American
b. American Indian
c. Asian
d. Filipino
e. Hispanic
f. Pacific Islander
g. Two or more races
h. White
Main Q: What would you
say that the discipline
problem areas, in terms of
infractions, are on your
campus?
Probing Q: Looking at the
different infractions that
occur on your campus,
what is the distribution of
student involvement by
race?
Probing Q: What areas on
campus would you
identify as problem areas
in regards to discipline,
and what makes these
problem areas?
Declarative Conceptual
(categories, process models,
principles, relationships)
Stakeholder needs to know…
The role of bias in decision
making about sanctions.
To what extent would you
say racial bias plays a role
in student discipline at
your site?
a. Racial bias plays
no role in student
discipline.
b. Racial bias plays a
slight role in
student discipline.
c. Racial bias plays a
moderate role in
student discipline.
d. Racial bias plays a
significant role in
student discipline.
Main Q: Looking at your
site, or other sites in the
district, how do you feel
that a student’s ethnic
identity factors into the
decision making process
in regards to severity of
punishment?
Follow-up Q: When you
are looking to discipline a
student, how do you
decide the severity of the
punishment?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 88
How Zero Tolerance policies
have increased disproportionality
in school discipline.
How much influence do
Zero Tolerance policies,
past or present, have on
decisions at your site
regarding student
discipline?
a. No influence
b.
c. Some influence
d.
e. A significant
influence
How much influence do
Zero Tolerance policies,
past or present, have on
decisions at your site
regarding student
discipline?
Students of color are more likely
to be disciplined for subjective
infractions.
Students of color are more
likely to be disciplined for
which of the following
infractions?
A. Causing,
attempting to
cause, or
threatening to
cause physical
injury to a teacher
or student.
B. Using force or
violence on
another person,
except in self-
defense.
C. Possessing, using,
selling, or being
under the influence
of a controlled
substance
(including drugs,
alcohol, or a look
alike).
D. Offering,
arranging, or
negotiating the
Main Q: Ed Code doesn’t
provide a concrete
definition for defiance.
How do you decide what
constitutes a 48900 (k)
violation?
Probing Q: How do you
assign a punishment for
this?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 89
sale of a controlled
substance
(including drugs,
alcohol, or a look
alike).
E. Attempting or
committing
robbery or
extortion.
F. Attempting or
causing damage to
school or private
property.
G. Attempting or
stealing school or
private property.
H. Possessing or
using a tobacco
product.
I. Possessing,
offering,
arranging, or
negotiating to sell
drug paraphernalia.
J. Disrupting school
activities or
defying school
personnel
(disrupting class,
talking back,
failure to serve
detentions, etc).
K. Attempting or
committing sexual
assault or
committing sexual
battery.
L. Attempting or
committing sexual
harassment.
M. Harassing,
threatening, or
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 90
White students are likely, when
compared to non-white students,
to be disciplined for which of the
following infractions?
intimidating a
witness in a school
disciplinary
matter.
N. Engaging in, or
attempting to
engage in, hazing.
O. Engaging in an act
of bullying.
P. Engaging in an act
of cyber bullying.
Q. Engaging in an act
of sexual
cyberbullying.
R. None of the above.
A. Causing,
attempting to
cause, or
threatening to
cause physical
injury to a teacher
or student.
B. Using force or
violence on
another person,
except in self-
defense.
C. Possessing, using,
selling, or being
under the influence
of a controlled
substance
(including drugs,
alcohol, or a look
alike).
D. Offering,
arranging, or
negotiating the
sale of a controlled
substance
(including drugs,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 91
alcohol, or a look
alike).
E. Attempting or
committing
robbery or
extortion.
F. Attempting or
causing damage to
school or private
property.
G. Attempting or
stealing school or
private property.
H. Possessing or
using a tobacco
product.
I. Possessing,
offering,
arranging, or
negotiating to sell
drug paraphernalia.
J. Disrupting school
activities or
defying school
personnel
(disrupting class,
talking back,
failure to serve
detentions, etc).
K. Attempting or
committing sexual
assault or
committing sexual
battery.
L. Attempting or
committing sexual
harassment.
M. Harassing,
threatening, or
intimidating a
witness in a school
disciplinary
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 92
matter.
N. Engaging in, or
attempting to
engage in, hazing.
O. Engaging in an act
of bullying.
P. Engaging in an act
of cyber bullying.
Q. Engaging in an act
of sexual
cyberbullying.
R. None of the above.
Students who are suspended
Suspension negatively
impacts a student's earning
potential once they
graduate from high school.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat
disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
What is your
from school face long term fiscal understanding the impact
implications in the form of of suspension on student
lowered earning potential. achievement?
That exclusionary discipline
practices do not deter student
behavior and can lead to further
discipline instances in the future
for the same infraction.
Once a student has been
suspended once, they are
likely to be suspended
again.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat
disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
How does a suspension
affect a student once they
return to campus?
To what extent does the
following circumstance
play in a student, who was
previously suspended,
being suspended again?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 93
The student is unwilling to
change his/her behavior
and is being suspended for
the same infraction.
A. Extremely likely
B. Somewhat likely
C. Neither likely or
unlikely
D. Somewhat likely
E. Extremely unlikely
Personal connections to adults on
campus are necessary to ensure
student success and to avoid
instances of negative behavior.
Having a connection with
an adult on campus,
certificated or classified,
decreases the chances of a
student engaging in
negative behavior.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat
disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Main Q: What do you
believe are some of the
best ways to proactively
prevent instances of
negative behavior on
campus?
Follow-up Q: What are
some of the ways that
students can engage with
adults on your campus?
For example,
extracurricular activities?
Probing Q: What about
students who do not
engage in extracurricular
activities?
How do you form
connections with
students?
Exclusionary discipline practices
Once suspended from
school students are less
likely to engage with
school or the adults on
campus.
A. Strongly disagree
Why do you think a
pose a greater barrier for all suspension would
students, especially Latino disconnect a student from
students, to build positive school?
connections with school.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 94
B. Somewhat
disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Procedural
Stakeholder need to know how
to…
Site administrators need to know
how to conduct an effective
disciplinary investigation.
What steps are necessary
when investigating student
misconduct (select all that
apply)?
A. Collect signed
witness statements.
B. Have the accused
student prepare a
signed statement.
C. Collect evidence.
D. Prepare a timeline
of when events
transpired.
E. Review accused
student’s
cumulative record
for previous
disciplinary
actions.
F. Discuss events
with accused
student.
G. Contact parents.
H. Assign
consequences.
I. Follow-up with
student.
Let’s say you have a male
student, Luis, who is
referred to the office for
the second time in one
week for interrupting
class. Please tell me what
steps you would take in
correcting the student's
behavior.
Metacognitive
Stakeholders need to know how
to reflect on…
How reducing suspensions and
expulsions to a proportionate
reflection of school enrollment
Multiple choice, please
complete the sentence
(check all that apply):
When thinking about
suspensions and
Main Q: How do you
evaluate the effectiveness
of your school discipline
practices?
Probing Q: What leads to
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 95
will require a paradigm shift in
how schools consider school
discipline.
expulsions, I tend to...
a) think about the
consequence of
disciplinary action
to an individual
student when
assigning a
consequence.
b) decide what could
be done differently
should a similar
infraction arise.
c) decide how to
appropriately
behavior problems
before they start.
d) None of the above
e) Other
changes in your practices?
Probing Q: How do you
introduce changes in
practices to students and
staff?
Most suspensions for defiance
related incidents happen in areas
where there is little adult
supervision or interaction with
students. Latino students find
themselves suspended for ‘non-
white’ behaviors.
When reflecting about
when most 48900 (k)
defiance related incidents
occur, I think that they
occur ...
(select all that apply):
A. Before school.
B. During passing
periods.
C. During the mid-
morning break.
D. During class
periods.
E. The class
immediately
before lunch.
F. At lunch time.
Main Q: Where do you
think most instance of
poor behavior occur?
Probing Q: What time of
day would you say these
instances are most likely
to occur?
Probing Q: Does your site
take time of day and
location into account
when creating supervision
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 96
G. The class
immediately
following lunch.
H. After school.
I. During the
morning (choices
A, B, C, and D).
J. During the
afternoon (choices
B, E, F, G, and H).
K. Other:
When I reflect on where
most 48900 (k) defiance
related incidents occur.
They occur (pick all that
apply):
A. In the classroom.
B. In the lunch/break
areas.
C. In the physical
education (PE)
areas.
D. In the front of the
school.
E. In a non-classroom
area such as the
library.
F. In areas off
campus, but
immediately
adjacent to the
school.
G. On the property of
businesses near the
school.
H. Other:
schedules?
In order to reduce discipline for
subjective measures schools need
to be aware of their school
culture, rather than shift blame to
Our school has a clearly
defined culture.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat
In your own words, what
is the culture of your site?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 97
the students. disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
The role of data and its
subsequent review in order to
address problem areas for their
site.
Our school uses data to
identify areas of strength
as well as areas of
concern.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat
disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Main Q: What tools does
your site or district have at
its disposal to look at
student discipline? How
do you utilize these tools?
Probing Q: How has your
site used the California
School Dashboard reports
on student discipline?
Probing Q: How does
your site use data to enact
change on campus?
Motivation Assessment
Table 4, derived from the literature review in Chapter Two, lists the assumed motivation
influences that affect a school site administrator and the suspension/expulsion process.
Value. In order to assess value question, items addressed a school site administrator’s
values and the effect of these values in relation to school discipline. As Bandura (1999)
describes, individuals construct thoughts about future courses of action to suit changes in
situations; individuals assess functional value, organize, and implement options while evaluating
the effects of their thinking of the outcome of their actions. In the context of school discipline
value refers to the a site administrators willingness to implement changes within their
organization. Administrators need to perceive value for their efforts in order to change how
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 98
discipline practices are conducted. For example, while an administrator may not be comfortable
with the process of addressing their own implicit biases, they would see the importance of
lowering suspensions for specific student groups as that is now an accountability measure in
California. In order to assess value this survey will rely on both open-ended and closed-end
questions. Open-ended questions were used in order to prompt administrators to think about
safety and equity on their school campus. Open-ended questions were also used for
administrators to reflect on their role in the discipline process and to examine how their values
drive their decisions in regards to exclusionary discipline. A closed-end Likert scale was used in
order to prompt administrators to think about safety, equity, and bias.
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that they can produce desired
effects by their actions, without this belief individuals would have little motivation to act or
persevere in the face of difficulties (Bandura, 1999). In the context of school discipline self-
efficacy refers to an administrator's confidence to address and set aside their personal biases, and
their ability to form individual relationships with students. To assess self-efficacy closed-end
items asked site administrators to identify their current confidence levels when looking at bias
and student connections to school. Closed-end items included a Likert scale for administrators
assess current confidence levels. Additionally site administrators were asked to answer open-
ended questions in order to allow them to elaborate on their own practices, as well as those from
whom they may be able to observe in order to grow their confidence.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 99
Table 7 shows the types of survey items that will be used to assess school site
administrators motivational influence. The Table lists both survey and interview items built
around value and self-efficacy.
Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Survey Items
Value
Administrators
needs to value…
A safe school and equitable
environment.
How important is a safe
school environment?
1. Not very important
2.
3. Somewhat
important
4.
5. Extremely
important
How do you value a safe
school campus?
How do you value and
equitable school
environment?
How important is an
equitable school
environment? For the
purpose of this question
equitable refers the same
consequence being given to
students for the same
infraction. For example if
two students are suspended
for fighting, both receive a
one day suspension for
their first offense.
When suspending a student,
what is your main
motivation for removing
that student from campus?
1. Not very important
2.
3. Somewhat
important
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 100
4.
5. Extremely
important
Equitable protocols that avoid a
reliance on schemas that do not
allow students to be treated
fairly when faced with
disciplinary action.
How important is it you to
have set protocols in place
concerning the application
of consequences for student
discipline?
1. Not very important
2.
3. Somewhat
important
4.
5. Extremely
important
Main Q: How do you value
equity in the school
discipline process?
Probing Q: How much
importance does your
district place on equity in
discipline?
Probing Q: Can you
provide any examples of a
time when you had to
ensure or thought about
equity when administering
disciplinary action?
Believe that bias is influencing
their work and that it is
important to counteract it.
How important do you
think it is to counteract
bias, whether explicit (you
are aware of) or implicit
(you are not aware of), in
school discipline?
To what extent are you
aware of biases that you
may have?
1. Not very important
2.
3. Somewhat
important
4.
5. Extremely
important
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 101
Bias, whether implicit or How much of a role do you Can you tell me about a
explicit, affects how
administrators and teachers treat
students, this effect leads to
disproportionality.
feel bias, whether explicit
(you are aware of) or
implicit (you are not aware
of), plays in the application
of school discipline by
time when you felt that a
teacher might have been
showing bias towards a
student?
teachers?
Follow-up Q: What did you
1. It does not play a
role
do?
2. Follow-up Q: Did you
3. Plays some role.
4.
5. It plays a significant
address this bias with the
teacher?
role
How much of a role do you
feel bias, whether explicit
(you are aware of) or
implicit (you are not aware
of), plays in the application
of school discipline by
administrators?
1. It does not play a
role
2.
3. Plays some role.
4.
5. It plays a significant
role
Self-Efficacy Indicate how confident you
are right now in your ability
to address bias about
certain student groups and
their behavior:
1. Not confident at all
2.
3. Somewhat confident
4.
Describe a time when you
were faced with
challenging decision in
regards to student
discipline? How did you
deal with it?
Follow-up Q: Is there
Stakeholder
needs to have confidence that
…
The school faculty and staff are
capable of correcting its biases
about certain student groups and
their behavior.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 102
5. Extremely confident someone on campus or in
the district who you feel
excels at handling
discipline? What do you
feel they do differently?
Forge relationships with students Indicate how confident you
are right now in your ability
to form relationships with
students:
1. Not confident at all
2.
3. Somewhat confident
4.
5. Extremely confident
Indicate how confident you
are right now in your ability
to form relationships with
those who might have
different cultural norms
from your own:
1. Not confident at all
2.
3. Somewhat confident
4.
5. Extremely confident
How do you form
and cross cultural expectations. relationships with students?
Do you consider a student’s
cultural norms when
seeking to form
relationships?
Follow-up Q: Is there
someone on campus or in
the district who you feel
excels at building
relationships with students?
What do you feel they do
that makes them excel?
Follow-up Q: Is this
something that you think
you could do? What would
you change in your
approach?
Be confident in their ability to
connect with students of color,
such as Latino students.
Indicate how confident you
are right now in your ability
to form relationships with
students of color:
1. Not confident at all
2.
When working with a
student from a different
cultural background than
yourself, do you change
your approach for forming
a relationship? Why or why
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 103
3. Somewhat confident
4.
5. Extremely confident
not?
Follow-up Q: Is there
someone on campus or in
the district who you feel
excels at building
relationships with students
from different cultural
backgrounds? What do you
feel they do that makes
them excel?
Follow-up Q: Is this
something that you think
you could do? What would
you change in your
approach?
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
Table 5, derived from the literature review in Chapter Two, lists the assumed
organizational influences that affect a school site administrator and the suspension/expulsion
process.
Resources. In order to assess organizational barriers, question items addressed a school
site administrators access to resources. Organizational resources include access to funding,
staffing, and physical space (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the context of school discipline resources
refers to a school site administrators access to funding for alternative to suspension programs,
staffing for alternative to suspension programs, and space to house an alternative to suspension
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 104
program. In order to account for resources at an administrator’s disposal both open-ended and
closed-end questions were used. Open-ended questions were used in order to assess to what
degree, on a Likert scale, administrators feel that they have access to required resources. Closed-
end questions were used to prompt administrators to elaborate on how much access they have to
needed resources.
Policies, Processes, & Procedures. Policies, processes, and procedures refers to systems
that are put in place in the school district (Clark and Estes, 2008). In the context of school
discipline different systems are in place at the site, district, and state level. To assess policies,
process, and procedures question items addressed a school site administrators understanding of
their district policies, California policies, and the alignment of their site and district policies with
the state’s policies. In order to asses this closed-end items were used to measure an
administrator’s agreement with a series of statements that were built around policies, processes,
and procedures. Closed-end items were include single answer multiple choice questions.
Additionally site administrators were asked to answer open-ended questions in order to allow
them to identify where their site and district policies align or misalign with the state’s policies.
Additionally administrators were given the opportunity to reflect on their role following policies,
processes, and procedures at the site level.
Culture. Culture refers to an organization’s core values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and
processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the context of school discipline, culture refers to the school’s
belief that students should remain on campus and leadership’s attempt to utilize inclusionary
discipline practices, as opposed to exclusionary practices. To assess culture question items were
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 105
used to address a school site administrators assessment of their school and district practices in
regards to discipline practices. Closed-end items included a Likert scale to determine to what
extent administrators agree with a statement regarding inclusionary discipline practices.Site
administrators were also be asked an open-ended question asking them to reflect on current
restorative practices in their school and district.
Table 8 shows the types of survey items that will be used to assess school site
administrators organizational barriers. The Table lists both survey and interview items built
around resources, policies, processes, and procedures, and culture.
Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Organization
Influences
Survey Items Interview Items
Resources (time; finances;
people)
School site administrators need
School Board approval to
acquire - financial resources to
implement an alternative to
suspension program. Staff
resources to implement an
alternative to suspension
program. Physical space to
implement an alternative to
suspension program.
Rate the level of your
agreement for the following
statements:
I have the financial
resources necessary to
implement an alternative to
suspension (ATS) program
at my site or in my district:
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
Main Q: What kind of
funding, if any, does your
district provide for
alternatives to suspension?
Probing Q: How much
funding?
Main Q: What kind of
staffing, if any, does your
district provide for
alternatives to suspension?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 106
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
I have the staff resources
necessary to implement an
alternative to suspension
(ATS) program at my site
or in my district:
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
I have the physical space
necessary to implement an
alternative to suspension
(ATS) program at my site
or in my district:
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Probing Q: How much
staffing?
Main Q: What kind of
space, if any, does your
district provide for
alternatives to suspension?
Probing Q: Where is the
space?
Policies, Processes, & To what extent do you
agree with the following
statement? My district’s
policies align with the state
goal of reducing
disproportionality in
discipline.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
To what extent do your
Procedures district’s policies align with
Stakeholder needs to have
policies that align with …
the state goal of reducing
disproportionality in
discipline?
State goal of reducing
disproportionality in discipline.
To what extent does your
site align with the state goal
of reducing
disproportionality in
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 107
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
discipline?
Policies that move away from
punitive discipline practices and
seek to implement alternatives to
suspension.
To what extent do you
agree with the following
statement? My district’s
current discipline policy are
punitive.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Can you think of a time
when you felt that
following the site or
district’s discipline policy
was unnecessarily punitive
towards the student?
What did you do in this
situation?
Stop overusing the 48900(k) To what extent do you
agree with the following
statement? Whenever
possible a 48900 (k) -
defiance/disruption -
violation should be added
to student discipline
incidents.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Describe a scenario when
violation. you would discipline a
student for a 48900 (k)
defiance or disruption
violation?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 108
Policies that address the To what extent do you
agree with the following
statement? Our site and
districts policies address
limitations in current
legislation around school
discipline.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
Main Q: In your own
limitations of current legislation. words describe what State
Assembly Bill 420
accomplished in regards to
use the of the 4900 (k)
violation.
Follow-up Q: What
limitations does AB 420
have in regards to future
disciplinary action for
students?
Culture To what extent do you
agree with the following
statement? Our site and
district promotes inclusive
disciplinary practices for
students as opposed to
exclusive disciplinary
practices.
A. Strongly disagree
B. Somewhat disagree
C. Neither agree nor
disagree
D. Somewhat agree
E. Strongly agree
What are some ways that
Stakeholder need to be part of a
culture that aligns with …
your site or district allow a
student to make reparations
for misconduct?
Inclusion for students rather than
exclusion.
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this this study was school site administrators from the
secondary level, middle school and high schools, in Citrus County. Citrus County consists of 13
elementary school districts, 3 union (secondary) districts, and 12 unified school districts for a
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 109
total of 28 school districts and 616 schools. The study looked at administrators from two
different Citrus County School Districts. These districts were selected because they represent the
diversity of the county. Schools that comprise each district represent both high and low
socioeconomic areas. Additionally, schools in each respective district have a mix of schools with
a high, over fifty percent, concentration of Latino students as well as schools with a low, less
than twenty percent, concentration of Latino students. The two districts include 31 schools,
consisting of 11 middle schools and 11 high schools, for a total of 147 site administrators in the
population.
District A is a small high school district composed of six comprehensive high schools.
District B is a large suburban district composed of twelve comprehensive middle schools, and six
comprehensive high schools.
Sampling. This study examined school site administrators’ knowledge, motivation, and
perceived organizational barriers in relation to school discipline. Criterion 1: Participants were
acting school site administrators. Site administrators are principals and assistant principals.
Collectively, this team is responsible for administering the student discipline process in a school,
but at some schools not all assistant principals are involved in the student discipline process. For
example, a site might have four administrators, a principal and three assistant principals. Of the
three assistant principals, one’s area of focus on campus would be discipline. All site
administrators were included in the survey because of the impact discipline has on a school’s
culture. Culture is a collective effort and administrators have influence on their colleagues.
Therefore, all school site administrators from the two districts were invited to participate whether
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 110
they deal directly with discipline or not.
For interviews participants were selected based on two criteria. First, is a willingness to
participate in the interview process which will be determined by self-selection. Secondly,
participants will represent schools from the varied racial makeup of Citrus County Schools.
Participants from predominantly, over fifty percent of enrollment, Latino schools were selected
as well as participants from schools with a small, less than twenty five percent of enrollment,
Latino population.
Recruitment. For the purpose of this study, leaders who oversee Child Welfare and
Attendance, also referred to as Student Services, at the district level were approached to gain
access to site level administrators. An email with the initial email survey was distributed by the
two respective Student Services Directors. Site administrators had the ability to self-select into
the survey and their response will be kept anonymous.
Participants had the opportunity to self-select into the interview portion of the study. At
the end of the survey, a question was asked participants if they would like to participate in the
interviews. Those who clicked “agree” to participate were taken to a separate website where they
were able to provide their name and email in order to partake in the interview process. In the
event that there are not enough participants who self select into the interviews, Student Services
Directors would have be asked to send out an email to their administrators soliciting
participation.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used for this study consisted of an online survey sent to participants,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 111
an interview protocol, and analysis of discipline data released by the California Department of
Education.
Survey items will be built from the tables listed above in Chapter Three. Survey items
designed around knowledge are closed end and assess a respondent’s awareness of declarative
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive factors involved with student discipline.
Survey items designed to assess motivation and organizational barriers utilize a Likert scale. A
representative survey allowed for the attributes of a larger group to be gathered from a small
sampling in a relatively short period of time (Fowler, 2009).
The study also used an interview protocol because, as Creswell (2014) stated, interviews
are good at gathering data that cannot be directly observed and interviews allow for a researcher
to control the line of questioning. Due to student confidentiality, the researcher was not be able
to observe an administrator suspending a student. In this study the use of interviews allowed for
the researcher to gather data about how an administrator conducts discipline and allowed for
follow-up or probing questions. The interview protocol was derived from the tables listed in
Chapter Three as well. Items consist of a series of main questions, as well as probing questions,
which will be used to assess a respondent’s assumed knowledge, motivation, and perceived
organizational barriers.
Survey Design
As Fink (2017) states a to develop a survey’s content first the attitude, belief, value, or
idea being measured has to be defined. The survey used in this study measured knowledge,
motivation, and organizational barriers around the concept of equity in discipline practices and
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 112
survey items have been designed respectively around these three areas. These items were
intended to gauge a respondent’s values and self-efficacy regarding discipline as well as their
organization’s resources, their organization’s policies, processes, and procedures, and their
organization’s culture as it pertains to student discipline.
Interview Protocol Design
As noted earlier, the survey items were intended to assess 42 respondents’ attitudes
towards school discipline. The interview questions were intended to delve deeper and provide a
richer understanding of a respondent’s attitudes. Participants were asked to reflect on their own
practices administering site level discipline. Scenarios were also given to gauge how site level
administrators would act in given scenarios where they would be prone to implicit bias. A series
of primary and probing questions was used to assess the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
perceived organizational barriers.
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval,
participants will be solicited by their Student Services Directors to participate in the survey. The
researcher provided Student Services Directors with an email which contained a link that
allowed administrators to access and complete a survey and participate in an interview. The
procedure for data collection using these tools is described below.
Surveys
Text for an email invitation to participate, including a link to the survey was provided to
the Student Services Director in each of the two districts by the researcher. The Student Service
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 113
Director was asked to send out the invitation with the link to all site level supervisors in their
district. Surveys were be distributed to one hundred and forty-seven school administrators. In the
survey instructions, participants were notified that, for the purpose of reporting findings,
respondents’ identities remained anonymous. The target for participation in the survey was thirty
percent, or roughly seventy administrators. As the survey was being distributed to only
administrators, this sample size was representative of individuals who primarily deal with
discipline, such as an assistant principal, as well as individuals responsible for school culture,
such as a principal. Surveys were be in the field for two weeks from the date of their distribution.
Reminders for the surveys will be sent on the researcher’s behalf by the Student Services
Director in each of the two districts at the end of the one week mark from the initial distribution
of the surveys.
Interviews
During the surveys, participants had the option to self-select into the interview process
based upon a link provided in the initial survey. By clicking on the link participants were asked
to provide their name, whether they are at the middle school or high school level, their email, and
their phone number. This information was used to compile an interview list. Two of the
interviews selected came from a site administrator from the middle school level, and four of the
interviews selected will come from an administrator at the high school level. Ideally, twenty total
interviews would be conducted or until saturation occurred.
Interviews were conducted either in person or via phone. For in person interviews,
interviews were conducted either at the participant's school campus, in order to create a sense of
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 114
comfort for the participant, or in a neutral location. Include protocol necessary for recording
interviews. Ideally, if participants agreed, interviews were recorded and lasted around thirty
minutes. Participants were briefed on the purpose of the study as well as their role in the
interview. It was conveyed to participants that they were to be asked a series of questions about
their own experiences with student discipline as well as scenario questions to observe how they
reacted. During the interview, main questions from the interview protocol as well as probing
questions were used. Participants were thanked for their participation. After their conclusion
interviews were transcribed verbatim.
Data Analysis
For the surveys used in this study the target completion rate was thirty percent, or 42
administrators. Survey data allowed for a comparison of roles an administrator holds, e.g. a site
principal as opposed to an assistant principal, duties that the administrator holds, e.g. an assistant
principal in charge of discipline as opposed to an assistant principal in charge of curriculum, the
grades served at the secondary level, and attitudes about discipline as measured by the survey.
Results will be built into a table for comparison based on these categories. Comparative data
analysis allowed for the comparison of knowledge, motivation, and skills at the different levels
and school districts, as well as a comparison based on an administrator’s role. These data were
used to begin to identify gaps.
Interviews served as a deeper look into the knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational barrier data collected from the surveys. Interviews will be coded using Tables 6,
7, and 8 in order to find similarities and gaps in attitudes regards school site discipline. These
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 115
data, along with the data collected from the surveys, will be used to formulate recommendations.
Like the data collected from the surveys, data collected from interviews was built into a table and
filtered based on the criteria mentioned above.
Trustworthiness of Data
In order to maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, Guba’s constructs
were applied. Guba’s constructs refer to the credibility, transferability, dependability, and
confirmability of a study (Shenton, 2004). To ensure credibility participation in the study was
voluntary. Participants who filled out the survey were not be identified by name and had the
opportunity to self select into the interview process. Interview questions also contained iterative
questioning through the use of probing questions. Through these questions there was an
opportunity to pull additional data from respondents. Though LEAs were self-selected into the
study, the study was designed in a manner that could be applied to all districts in the Citrus
County School District ensuring transferability of the study. The steps necessary to conduct the
study have been detailed above in order to establish dependability. To establish confirmability
steps were taken to help ensure that the study’s findings are the result of the experiences and
ideas of the participants, opposed to the experiences and preferences of the researcher (Shenton,
2004).
Role of Investigator
The investigator in this study has served in an advisory capacity to Student Services
Directors in Citrus County through the Citrus County Department of Education Student Support
Services division. The investigator has presented data analytics on disproportionality in student
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 116
discipline at the county level to district Student Services directors. The investigator obtained
permission from the IRB at the University of Southern California in order to obtain data and
conduct the study. The investigator responded to all requests for information or materials
solicited by the IRB and conduct the study in strict accordance with IRB-approved research
protocol.
Limitations
The limitations of this study are the size of the study, the limited time frame of the study,
the study being conducted only once in the school year, limited access, and cultural or other
biases. A longer term study of discipline practices would have shown if there is a change in an
administrator's knowledge, motivation, and perceived organizational barriers regarding discipline
through responses to survey and interview items, but also data reported to the state regarding the
number of discipline incidents. The study was comprised of self-selected school districts that
comprise Citrus County. Though the Citrus County Department of Education serves twenty-
seven school districts, due to the longitudinal time frame of the study and access to all districts,
two districts were surveyed. Also, due to the nature of the study, looking at potential biases of
school administrators, there was a possibility that respondents were not be entirely forthcoming
with information, though measures to evoke trustworthiness were built into the survey. Finally,
there were relational limitations. Some districts that make up Citrus County opt not to work with
the Citrus County Department of Education and did not elect to be part of the study and may not
participate in subsequent trainings which may be developed from the study.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 117
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this chapter is to report the findings from data collected related to the
knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers leading to the disproportionality in suspension
and expulsions for Latino students in Citrus County. The gap analysis approach (Clark & Estes,
2008: Rueda, 2011) will assist in the analysis of the challenges and barriers in knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational culture, determine the causes of these challenges, and
identify and implement solutions that school site administrators can use to reduce the number of
suspensions and expulsions on their campuses. Based upon a review of the literature, a list was
generated of possible causes for why the racial distribution of suspensions and expulsions in
schools does not mirror the racial makeup of the schools. A total of seventeen possible causes
were developed and were categorized into the following three categories: knowledge,
motivation, and organization.
Multiple sources of quantitative and qualitative data were collected to validate the
assumed causes. Specifically, survey, interview and document data were collected to understand
the knowledge, motivation, and organization challenges teachers’ encounter. Data was collected
in this order: documents first, surveys second, and interviews last. The rationale was that data
from CalPads and California School Dashboard would present information regarding the rate
students were being suspended as well as what students were being suspended. A broad survey
provided a large amount of data to examine. Finally, interviews provided a smaller, anecdotal,
set of data and took a longer period of time to arrange and conduct.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 118
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were 20 secondary school administrators, grades 6-12.
Twelve were female (60%), eight were male (40%) with all participants possessing a master’s
degree or higher. The average age is 47.6 years, the youngest respondents were aged 33 years,
and the oldest was aged 60 years. The average years experience working in education was 20.4,
the shortest was 6 years, and the longest was 34 years. The average year experience working as a
school administrator was 10.8 years, the shortest amount of time was half a school year, and the
longest amount of time was 25 years.
Administrators were surveyed from two of the districts that compose Citrus County. 119
surveys were distributed, with 20 completed, representing a 16.8% return rate. In addition to the
quantitative survey, six administrators were interviewed to gain a more in-depth understanding
of the perceived causes for the gaps in knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization
culture.
Data Validation
This study utilized two sources of data: surveys and interviews. In order to validate the
assumed causes, quantitative data were collected using a survey. Chapter Three contains a
discussion of assumed causes and a description of the survey. The survey results provided data to
validate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organization influences. The criteria used for
validation of survey data on assumed caused of knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 119
for the distribution of exclusionary discipline policies by administrators in Citrus County schools
were as follows: results with less than 70% agreement indicted a gap. Interview data was used to
confirm or challenge survey results.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
In Chapter Three, the assumed causes for the performance gap were described. The
assumed causes of the knowledge gaps were broken down into four categories: factual,
procedural, procedural and metacognitive (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In order to meet the
goal of racial distribution of suspensions and expulsions in schools mirroring the racial makeup
of the schools administrators need to examine their knowledge and skills.
The results and finding of the knowledge causes were reported using the knowledge
categories and assumed knowledge influence for each category. In the knowledge category, four
types of knowledge a school site administrator would need were examined. They are declarative
factual knowledge (who is being suspended, what they are being suspended for, and at what rate
they are being suspended), declarative conceptual knowledge (the effects of suspension and bias
in decision making), procedural knowledge (how to implement behavioral interventions), and
metacognitive knowledge (how to address school culture and influences upon culture).
Factual Knowledge
Influence 1. Site administrators need to know who is being subjected to exclusionary
discipline and at what rate.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 120
Survey results. As shown in Table 9, Citrus County school site administrators could
identify the 1three of the four groups of students whose suspension rates exceed their enrollment
in Citrus County schools. Table 10 shows which student groups have the highest suspension
rates in Citrus County. Because each site administrator was asked to identify their own school
site, results were compared between table 9 and table 10. A comparison of table 9 and table 10
was used to determine if these items met the 70% threshold. . The survey provides evidence that
administrators can identify which student groups are disproportionately suspended at their sites.
Administrators were given eight choices to the prompt “Based on your site’s California School
Dashboard which students have the highest suspension rates?” These choices correlate directly to
the California School Dashboard which is used to measure student suspension rates. 60% of
respondents reported a high rate of suspensions for Latino students at their site. 40% of
respondents reported a high rate of suspensions for African American students at their site. 25%
of respondents reported a high rate of suspensions for White students at their site. 15% of
respondents reported a high rate of suspensions for American Indian students at their site. The
assumed influence is that administrators are aware of what students are being suspended and at
what rate. There is no gap, as survey results show that administrators can identify groups with
high suspension rates.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 121
Table 9
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge of Student Suspension Rates
# Factual Knowledge Item % Count
Based on your site’s California School
Dashboard which students have the highest
suspension rates?
1 African American* 40% 8
2 American Indian* 15% 3
3 Asian 0% 0
4 Filipino 0% 0
5 Hispanic* 60% 12
6 Pacific Islander* 0% 0
7 Two or more races 0% 0
8 White 25% 5
* Student groups with a higher rate of suspension than enrollment according to Table 10
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 122
Table 10
Suspension Rates for Citrus County, California, Based on Fall 2017 California Dashboard
Student
Ethnicity
% Enrollment # Students
Enrolled
% Suspensions # Students
Suspended
African
American
1.39% 6,743 3.15% 345
American Indian 0.26% 1,270 0.46% 50
Asian 16.37% 79,526 7.03% 770
Filipino 2.08% 10,109 0.97% 106
Hispanic 49.11% 238,599 60.98% 6681
Pacific Islander 0.36% 1,764 0.47% 51
Two or more
races
3.3% 16.012 2.74% 300
White 26.58% 129,145 24.21% 2652
Total 100% 485,860 100% 10,955
Interview findings. Interviews were not conducted for this influence.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. School site administrators confirmed state data collected regarding student
suspensions 100% of administrators surveyed were able to identify groups of students who were
suspended at higher rates according to their California School Dashboard data. The survey
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 123
results, when compared to table 10, showed that administrators do know that there is a
discrepancy in what students are suspended and there is not a gap in knowledge.
Conceptual Knowledge
Influence 2. School site administrators need to know the role of bias in decision making
about sanctions.
Survey results. Administrators were asked “To what extent would you say racial bias by
school officials (teachers, administrators, campus supervisors, etc.) plays a role in student
discipline at your site?” As shown in table 11 55% of participants felt that racial bias played no
role in discipline, 40% of participants felt that racial bias played a slight role, and 5% felt that
bias played a moderate role. Results fell below the 70% threshold established for opinion
question data validation indicating that there is indicating that there is a need for additional
training for administrators on the role bias plays in discipline.
Table 11
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Bias in Decision Making
# Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count
To what extent would you say racial bias plays a
role in student discipline at your site?
1 Racial bias plays no role in student discipline. 55% 11
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 124
2 Racial bias plays a slight role in student
discipline.
40% 8
3 Racial bias plays a moderate role in student
discipline.
5% 1
4 Racial bias plays a significant role in student
discipline.
0% 0
Interview findings. School site administrators were asked to look at their school site and
discuss how a student’s racial identity factored into the decision-making process in regards to
severity of punishment in discipline. All administrators interviewed responded that they did not
believe that a student’s racial identity played a part in the discipline process. When asked the
follow up question “When you are looking to discipline a student, how do you decide the
severity of the punishment?” 83.3% of administrators reflected on a group whose parents were
less likely to disagree with a punishment. Three of these five administrators responded that
Latino parents were more likely to accept the punishment given by the school, and one of the
five responded that Asian parents were more likely to accept the consequence. Though
administrators initially stated that a student’s race does not play a role in assigning
consequences, upon following up it appears that the influence of a student’s race is
acknowledged when looking at the severity of punishment.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 125
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. The majority of school administrators, 55%, felt that racial bias played no role
in their decisions to remove students from school. As shown by table 11, there is a
disproportionately high number of suspensions for African American, American Indian, Latino,
and Pacific Islander students. Table 11 also shows a disproportionately low number of
suspensions for White, Filipino, Asian, and students who identify with two or more races.
Responses on the survey seemed to contradict responses from the interviews As one
administrator stated Latino students are more likely be suspended because “their parents are less
likely to fight it.” 55% of administrators do not acknowledge that bias plays a role in discipline
and only 45% slightly acknowledge that bias plays a role according to table 10 above. However,
responses to the interview question challenges responses stating that bias plays no, or a slight,
role in discipline practices further indicating that there is a need for additional training for
administrators on the role bias plays in discipline.
Influence 3. School site administrators need to know the influence Zero Tolerance
policies have had in increasing disproportionality in student discipline.
Survey results. School site administrators were asked “how much influence do Zero
Tolerance policies, current or in the past, have on decisions at your site regarding student
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 126
discipline?” As shown by table 12 administrators had a variety of opinions regarding the
influence of zero tolerance policies in their school discipline practices. Responses to this
question were widely varied. Only 10% of respondents stated that Zero Tolerance policies have
no influence. 35% of participants felt that Zero Tolerance policies had between no influence and
some influence. 35% acknowledged that Zero Tolerance policies had some influence on school
discipline. Finally 10% of respondents felt that Zero Tolerance policies had a significant
influence. The wide range of responses falls below the 70% threshold and indicates that there is a
need for additional training for administrators on inclusionary discipline practices as opposed to
Zero Tolerance policies.
Table 12
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Influence of Zero Tolerance Policies in Decision
Making
# Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count
How much influence do Zero Tolerance policies,
past or present, have on decisions at your site
regarding student discipline?
1 No Influence. 10% 2
2 Between no influence and some influence. 35% 7
3 Some influence. 35% 7
4 Between some influence and significant
influence.
10% 2
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 127
5 A significant influence. 10% 2
* Expected answer
Interview findings.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. Though school districts have shifted away from Zero Tolerance policies there
are still vestiges of these practices in their everyday operations when regarding discipline.
Responses on the survey show that elements of Zero Tolerance still weigh on administrator’s
decision-making process and some schools are still applying one size fits all discipline. As one
administrator stated, “it takes time to shift a paradigm and the way that investigations are
conducted after years of experience.” As another administrator stated “some district policies
have not changed and are still punitive with no room for a student to learn from their mistakes.
We are not reaching our goal of being kid centered.” The survey, along with the interviews,
show that administrators are aware of the influence that Zero Tolerance policies have on their
disciplinary practices. The wide variety of responses to the interview question, in conjunction
with the interview responses, indicates that there is not consistency in discipline practices in
Citrus County schools and establishes a gap.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 128
Influence 4. School site administrators are more likely to suspend Latino students for
subjective infractions and White students for objective infractions.
Survey results. School site administrators were asked to compare White students and
students of color and identify which infractions each student group was more likely to be
suspended for. As shown by the survey results in table 13, school administrators are more likely
to suspend Latino students for subjective infractions and White students for objective infractions.
When asked which 48900 violations of the California Education Code White students were apt to
make when compared to students of color, there was a twenty percent or more disparity for
certain violations when White students were compared to students of color. Respondents
reported that White students were more likely to commit the following infractions: possessing,
using, selling, or being under the influence of a controlled substance; possessing or using a
tobacco product; and engaging in an act of cyber bullying. Respectively the comparative rates
were 55% to 30%, 50% to 25%, and 40% to 15%. Respondents reports that student of color were
more likely to commit the following infractions: attempting or causing damage to school or
private property; attempting or stealing school or private property; and disrupting school
activities or defying school personnel. Respectively the comparative rates were 35% to 10%,
35% to 5%, and 45% to 25%. Additionally, respondents thought that students of color were 10%
more likely to be disciplined for acts of violence, robbery, and harassments; where White
students were 10% more likely to be disciplined for drug possession and sales. The assumed
influence is that students of color are more likely to be disciplined for subjective infractions.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 129
Therefore, the survey results do show that Latino students are more likely to be suspended for
subjective infractions which creates disproportionality in discipline.
Table 13
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Influence of Race in Suspensions
# Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count % Count
Students are more likely to be disciplined
for the following discipline infractions.
White Students Students of Color
1 Causing, attempting to cause, or threatening
to cause physical injury to a teacher or
student.
25% 5 35% 7
2 Using force or violence on another person,
except in self-defense.
20% 4 30% 6
3 Possessing, using, selling, or being under
the influence of a controlled substance
(including drugs, alcohol, or a look alike).
55% 11 30% 6
4 Offering, arranging, or negotiating the sale
of a controlled substance (including drugs,
alcohol, or a look alike).
20% 4 15% 3
5 Attempting or committing robbery or
extortion.
5% 1 15% 3
6 Attempting or causing damage to school or
private property.
10% 2 35% 7
7 Attempting or stealing school or private
property.
5% 1 35% 7
8 Possessing or using a tobacco product. 50.00% 10 25% 5
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 130
9 Possessing, offering, arranging, or
negotiating to sell drug paraphernalia.
35% 7 25% 5
10 Disrupting school activities or defying
school personnel (disrupting class, talking
back, failure to serve detentions, etc).*
25% 5 45% 9
11 Attempting or committing sexual assault or
committing sexual battery.
0% 0 5% 1
12 Attempting or committing sexual
harassment.
30% 6 30% 6
13 Harassing, threatening, or intimidating a
witness in a school disciplinary matter.
15% 3 25% 5
14 Engaging in, or attempting to engage in,
hazing.
5% 1 5% 1
15 Engaging in an act of bullying. 35% 7 30% 6
16 Engaging in an act of cyber bullying. 40% 8 15% 3
17 Engaging in an act of sexual cyberbullying. 15% 3 5% 1
18 None of the above. 20% 4 25% 5
* Subjective infraction
Interview findings. When speaking to the administrator of a continuation high school
they stated that their campus was disproportionate to the make-up of their district. Nearly 85% of
their campus is comprised of Latino students. When discussing why the students were in the
continuation setting the administrator responded “for fights that resulted in an injury, for
disruptions, and for drugs.” Of the three examples that they provided only one, possession or use
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 131
of drugs, is an objective offense. Defiance or disruption is subjective and the deciding on the
severity of a fight is subjective. When speaking with other administrators they felt that the bulk
of their referrals for subjective infractions like defiance and disruption came from classroom
referrals. These referrals placed administrators in a difficult position where they need to balance
the needs of their classroom teachers with the needs of their students.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. The assumed knowledge of administrators being more apt to suspend a student
of color for a subjective infraction is supported both by the survey as well as the interviews.
Though the majority of school administrators felt that racial bias played no role in their decisions
to remove students from school, as shown in table 13, there is a shift between what infractions
administrators feel a White student would commit compared to what infraction a student of color
would commit. Though administrators may not directly look at a student’s racial identity when
choosing to suspend that student, race plays a role in suspensions. Whether through a teacher
referral or the student’s action there is an influence of implicit bias in student suspensions.
Influence 5. Once a student has been suspended that student is more likely to be
suspended again.
Survey results. School site administrators were asked how much they agreed with the
statement “Once a student has been suspended once, they are more likely to be suspended
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 132
again.” As shown by table 14 no administrators strongly agreed with this statement, 55% of
participants somewhat agreed. 25% of participants neither agreed nor disagreed and 20%
somewhat disagreed with this statement. The assumed influence is that a suspension leads to
further exclusionary discipline. These responses fell below the 70% threshold and provides
evidence that administrators do not know that a suspension is likely to lead to future suspensions.
Table 14
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Repeated Suspensions
# Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count
Once a student has been suspended once, they are
more likely to be suspended again.
1 Strongly agree. 0% 0
2 Somewhat agree. 55% 11
3 Neither agree nor disagree. 25% 5
4 Somewhat disagree. 20% 4
5 Strongly disagree. 0% 0
Interview findings. When asked how suspension affects students upon their return to
campus administrators overall felt that suspension had a negative effect on students. As one
administrator stated, “I think there’s a sense of embarrassment with the student, at least the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 133
student who is going to be affected by a suspension. They feel ashamed for what they did wrong
and they don’t want to approach their teachers to makeup work because then they have to admit
why they were out of school. On the other hand some students view suspension as an extended
vacation, free days out of school. We can suggest ATS [Alternative to Suspension], but they can
opt not to go or worse there are students who are removed from ATS for behavior issues.” As
another administrator stated “once a student is removed from school, they’re removed from
instruction, access to assignments online is not a substitute for being in the classroom receiving
the information from a teacher. When that student returns to campus they’re behind their peers.
Not only are they expected to know where the class is after missing school, they are playing
catch up to make-up work. Often they feel overwhelmed and give up.” Whether they force
students to become withdrawn or do not serve to alter behavior most administrators felt
negatively about the effects of suspension. When asked if suspensions were likely to deter
behavior one administrator responded “where there’s smoke, there’s fire.” This administrator
went on to say “though you may want to assume the best about a student, chances are that they
were suspended because they were caught and the behavior will not change because they were
kicked out of school for a couple days. Instead they’ll just be smarter when they do it again.” As
another respondent stated “unfortunately some teachers take matters in their own hands and
shame students who have been suspended which further disengages students.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 134
Summary. Once a student is suspended they are more likely to be suspended again
(Hemphill, Toumbourou, Herrenkohl, McMorris, & Catalano, 2006; Raffaele Mendez, & Knoff,
2003). As discussed in interviews a suspended student is more likely to become withdrawn from
school and therefore not receive the assistance they need to alter behaviors. Additionally, some
students view a suspension as an opportunity to miss school and do not view this consequence as
a punishment. As discussed in the interviews a suspension can lead to a cycle of failure for a
student that withdraws that student from the school environment. As evidenced by the survey
and the interviews there is a gap in administrator’s knowledge regarding the effects of
suspension on student connections and student learning.
Influence 6. Exclusionary discipline practices do not deter student behavior and can lead
to further discipline instances in the future for the same infraction.
Survey results. School site administrators were asked the following opinion question “To
what extent does the following circumstance play in a student, who was previously suspended,
being suspended again? The student is unwilling to change his/her behavior and is being
suspended for the same infraction.” As shown by table 15 25% of administrators felt that it was
extremely likely a student would be suspended again and 55% of administrators felt that is
somewhat likely a student would be suspended again. 20% of administrators felt that a previous
suspension had no bearing on future suspensions for the same infraction. No administrators felt
that it was unlikely that a student be suspended for the same infraction. Responses fell below the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 135
70% threshold for opinion indicating that there is a need for additional training for administrators
on the increased likelihood of repeated suspensions for students after an initial suspension.
Table 15
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Repeated Suspension Infractions
# Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count
To what extent does the following circumstance
play in a student, who was previously suspended,
being suspended again? The student is unwilling
to change his/her behavior and is being suspended
for the same infraction.
1 Extremely likely. 25% 5
2 Somewhat likely. 55% 11
3 Neither likely nor unlikely. 20% 4
4 Somewhat unlikely. 0.0% 0
5 Extremely unlikely. 0.0% 0
Interview findings. Overwhelmingly administrators felt that a suspension was not a
deterrent to change student behavior. When asked about the likelihood a student committing the
same infraction the majority of administrators, 83.3%, discussed suspension as it correlates with
expulsion. One administrator described a suspension as a “means to an end in order to establish a
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 136
pattern of behavior.” Administrators looked at major educational code infractions such as drug
use or possession and how “a pattern to show alternative means of correction were not feasible in
order to expel.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. The majority of school site administrators seemed to agree that suspension
does not work to change student behavior indicating that there is a gap in practices, although.the
variety of answers indicates that there is a lack of consistency in beliefs among school site
administrators in Citrus County. Administrators interviewed implied that for serious infractions,
those in which a student could be suspended after the first instance, a suspension is used as a tool
to expel the student later.
Influence 7. Personal connections to adults on campus are necessary to ensure student
success and to avoid instances of negative behavior.
Survey results. When asked why a connection with an adult on campus would deter
student behaviors 100% of participants felt that forming a relationship with a student would
allow that adult to serve as mentor that the student did not want to disappoint and that an adult on
campus could serve as a figure with whom the student would be able to talk through their
problems. 90% of participants thought that an adult with a connection with a student would be
able to intervene with that student before disciplinary transgressions occurred. As shown by table
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 137
16, these responses were above the 70% threshold established to show a gap and indicate that
there is no gap in administrator’s knowledge about the effects of connecting with students. 60%
of participants felt an adult mentor would speak on behalf of students. Only 15% thought an
adult mentor would be lenient on the student. No participant thought that there would be no
effect of a student having an adult mentor on campus.
Table 16
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge of Forming Relationships with Students
# Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count
Having a connection with an adult on campus,
certificated or classified, decreases the chances
of a student engaging in negative behavior
because:
1 The adult serves as a mentor figure whom the
student does not want to disappoint.
100% 20
2 That adult serves as a mentor figure who can
intervene before transgressions occur.
90% 18
3 That adult serves as a mentor figure who is able
to talk through problems with the student.
100% 20
4 That adult will tend to be lenient with the student
due to their relationship.
15% 3
5 That adult can speak on behalf of the student in
disputes with other teachers or administrators.
60% 10
6 None of the above 0% 0
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 138
Interview findings. When asked about the importance of making connections with
students one administrator stated “We are out in front of school everyday because you can tell
what’s going to happen that day by reading a student’s face. We can stop negative behavior
before it happens. I have one student I need to follow up with. Today she gave me a big hug
when she arrived, normally she doesn’t do that, so I know that something is off with her.” As
another administrator stated “I spent two months getting students to trust me. At lunch I would
go out and pick up trash, while I was doing that I would mention things happening around
campus. As they started seeing me as a fixture around campus, they started opening up to me.”
Every administrator spoken to overwhelming praised the effects of forming connections with
students. Additionally, every administrator could cite someone on their campus that they felt
excelled at forming relations with kids.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. The majority of school site administrators feel that once an adult makes a
connection with a student that the student is less likely to find themselves facing disciplinary
action. As shown by the survey a connection to an adult on campus does not mean that and adult
will be more lenient on a student, rather as described interviews a connection can serve to
preemptively change negative behaviors. Administrators are aware of the importance of creating
connections with students indicating that there is no gap in their knowledge.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 139
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 8. Site administrators need to know how to conduct an effective disciplinary
investigation.
Survey results. Site administrators were asked to identify the necessary steps needed to
conduct a disciplinary investigation. Every step listed is necessary. As shown by table 17 100%
of administrators would collect witness statements, have the accused student prepare a witness
statement, discuss events with the accused student, contact parents, assign consequences, and
follow-up with the student. 95% of administrators would collect evidence. 90% would review the
accused student’s cumulative record for previous disciplinary actions. 85% would prepare a time
of when events transpired. The high level of correct answers, above the 70% threshold,
demonstrates that there is no gap in conducting effective disciplinary investigations.
Table 17
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Investigating Student Misconduct
# Procedural Knowledge Item % Count
What steps are necessary when investigating student
misconduct...select all that apply?
1 Collect signed witness statements.* 100% 20
2 Have the accused student prepare a signed statement.* 100% 20
3 Collect evidence.* 95% 19
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 140
4 Prepare a timeline of when events transpired.* 85% 17
5 Review accused student’s cumulative record for previous
disciplinary actions.*
90% 18
6 Discuss events with accused student.* 100% 20
7 Contact parents.* 100% 20
8 Assign consequences.* 100% 20
9 Follow-up with student*. 100% 20
* All answers are correct answers.
Interview findings. Administrators were given a scenario question where they were asked
what to do when a student, Luis, is sent to the office for the second time during the week.
66.66 % of the administrators interviewed asked a similar clarifying question, “was he sent out
from the same teacher’s class?” 100% of administrators proceeded to describe how they would
discipline the student and what consequences they would assign. Consequences ranged from a
detention to staying in the office for the period, a form of class suspension. No administrator
interviewed discussed speaking with the teacher to find the root cause of the disruptive behavior
nor following-up with the student in the future to see if behavior improves.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 141
Summary. All school administrators interviewed knew the proper steps to discipline a
student. However, when given a scenario involving student discipline all administrators
discussed was discipline, they did not look for ways in which they could intervene with the
misconduct. Survey results were well above the 70% threshold indicating that school site
administrators knew how to conduct effective disciplinary investigations.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Influence 9. In order to reduce discipline for subjective measures schools need to be
aware of their school culture, rather than shift blame to the students.
Survey results. Administrators were asked to what extent they agreed with the statement
“our school has a clearly defined culture”. As shown by table 18 60% of administrators felt that
their site had a clearly defined culture while 40% somewhat agreed that their site had a clearly
defined culture. Results fell below the 70% threshold established for opinion question data
validation indicating that there is a gap.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 142
Table 18
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Defining School Culture
# Metacognitive Knowledge Item % Count
Our school has a clearly defined culture.
1 Strongly agree 60% 12
2 Somewhat agree 40% 8
3 Neither agree nor disagree 0% 0
4 Somewhat disagree 0% 0
5 Strongly disagree 0% 0
Interview findings. Respondents were asked “what is the culture of your school?” Most
administrators discussed areas where their school could grow. A common response was that
schools needed to reach out and include all students. Latino students were a subgroup that was
often described as lacking connections at the school site. Another common theme when speaking
with administrators was that schools were punitive and that culture, especially in regards to
discipline, was reactionary rather than preemptive. However, one administrator discussed a
strong culture that his school had. They discussed being involved in Multi-Tiered Systems of
Support (MTSS) and efforts that the school site makes to connect with students. As they stated
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 143
“even when looking at discipline we look for how we can connect kids. One thing we do, that I
think is unique, is our game of the week. Rather than only allow students to serve Saturday
School we give them the opportunity to attend a lesser attended school function, such as a less
popular sport. They can attend the sport, support their school, and then earn credit for Saturday
School.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. All school administrators felt that they had a positive school culture. While in
the survey 60% of administrators felt that they had a strong school culture, about 83.3% of those
interviewed saw room for improvement and had specific ideas of where they could improve.
School site administrators see the need for positive school culture but admit that they do not
know how to reach all student groups. Though not as pronounced as other groups, there is
improvement needed in school culture.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Motivation Value
Influence 1. School site administrators need to believe that bias is influencing their work
and that it is important to counteract it.
Survey Results. School site administrators were asked “How important do you think it is
to counteract bias, whether explicit (you are aware of) or implicit (you are not aware of), in
school discipline?” As shown in table 19 55% of administrators felt that it was extremely
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 144
important to counteract bias, 35% felt that is was very important, and 10% felt that it was only
moderately important. Results were below the 70% threshold showing that school site
administrators do not value counteracting bias in school discipline as extremely important.
Table 19
Survey Results for Motivational Value for Counteracting Bias in Discipline
# Motivation Value Item % Count
How important do you think it is to counteract bias,
whether explicit (you are aware of) or implicit (you are
not aware of), in school discipline?
1 Extremely important 55% 11
2 Very important 35% 7
3 Moderately important 10% 2
4 Slightly important 0% 0
5 Not at all important 0% 0
Interview findings. Respondents were asked “To what extent are you aware of biases that
you may have?” In each interview this question caused participants to pause. Each participant
was able to provide an example of an explicit bias that he or she might have, though these
examples did not always deal with a student’s racial identity. Some administrators felt that
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 145
certain groups of students were easier to deal with or that parents were less likely to fight a
discipline decision. One administrator admitted that they were more punitive towards students
who came from a dual parent household as they felt that “that student has more resources
available to them to teach them right from wrong.” Another administrator discussed how they
actively sought to counteract their biases, “I think a struggle for me is dealing with student
discipline when I know that the actions are politically motivated, and I don’t agree with the
student. I take pride in our LGBTQ community here, and I want to be a safe space, I have
experience in this community with my brother and brother-in-law. When something is in the
news, is political, and students select sides it’s hard to remain neutral when a student is
challenging your own beliefs. We’re experiencing that right now with immigration. We have
students who are scared, but its a hot button issue. You have to remember that the kids are not
spewing hate, but at this age they’re parroting what they hear at home.” In providing examples of
their own biases and how they address them respondents showed that they value counteracting
biases.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. All school administrators felt it was important to counteract bias, but the
degree to which they felt this was needed varied. In providing examples of their own biases,
through interviews, and how they address them respondents showed that they value
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 146
counteracting biases. However, with only 55% of respondents stating that counteracting bias is
extremely important there is a lack of value.
Influence 2. School site administrators need to be aware that bias, whether implicit or
explicit, affects how teachers treat students, this effect leads to disproportionality.
Survey results. Administrators were asked “How much of a role do you feel bias,
whether explicit (you are aware of) or implicit (you are not aware of), plays in the application of
school discipline by teachers?” As shown in table 20 5% of administrators felt that bias, whether
implicit or explicit, played significant role in discipline by teachers. 45% of administrators felt
that bias, whether explicit or implicit, played a “a moderate” role in the application of discipline.
45% of administrators felt that bias, whether explicit or implicit, played a “a little” role in the
application of discipline. Only 5% felt that bias, whether implicit or explicit, played “no role” in
discipline by teachers. These responses were below the 70% threshold established to show a gap
and indicate that there is a gap in regard to the role that bias plays in a classroom teachers
discipline.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 147
Table 20
Survey Results for Role of Bias in Discipline Given by Teachers
# Motivation Value Item % Count
How much of a role do you feel bias, whether explicit
(you are aware of) or implicit (you are not aware of),
plays in the application of school discipline by teachers?
1 A great deal 0% 0
2 A lot 5% 1
3 A moderate amount 45% 9
4 A little 45% 9
5 None at all 5% 1
Interview findings. Participants were asked if they could think of a time when they
believed that a teacher was showing bias towards a student. When asked this question only half
of those interviewed could think of an example of when they felt that a teacher was being biased
towards a student. One administrator shared “when I first started here there was a time that we
were having a graffiti problem. One of our teachers was convinced it was a fairly new student
because he fit the bill of someone in a tagging crew. He was male. He was Hispanic. He wore
dark clothes. He had just moved to the area and had no affiliation with the crew that we were
seeing tagging from. Even after we found who was doing the tagging I had to sit down with the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 148
teacher and explain why it wasn’t the young man he thought it was.” Other respondents provided
examples of students in class who were punished for something and found themselves “on the
radar” in a certain teacher’s class. As one administrator said “some teachers feel they need to
take the law in their own hands to punish students when we’re really trying to give a kid a
chance.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. School administrators surveyed and interviewed thought that teacher bias did
not play a large role in discipline referrals. However, as seen in table 20, students of color are
more likely to receive referrals and be suspended for disruption or defiance. These referrals
occur in the classroom. Though explicit bias may not play a large role, results from the surveys
and interviews indicate that implicit bias may be contributing to disproportionality in discipline
practices.
Influence 3. School site administrators need to be aware that bias, whether implicit or
explicit, affects how administrators treat students, this effect leads to disproportionality.
Survey results. Administrators were asked “How much of a role do you feel bias,
whether explicit (you are aware of) or implicit (you are not aware of), plays in the application of
school discipline by administrators?” As shown in table 21 35% of administrators felt that bias,
whether implicit or explicit, played “a moderate” role in discipline by teachers. 55% of
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 149
administrators felt that bias, whether explicit or implicit, played a “a little” role in the application
of discipline. Only 10% felt that bias, whether implicit or explicit, played “no role” in discipline
by teachers. These responses were below the 70% threshold established to show a gap and
indicate that bias plays a role in the classroom when teachers are referring students to the office
for disciplinary reasons.
Table 21
Survey Results for Role of Bias in Discipline Given by Administrators
# Motivation Value Item % Count
How much of a role do you feel bias, whether explicit
(you are aware of) or implicit (you are not aware of),
plays in the application of school discipline by
administrators?
1 A great deal 0% 0
2 A lot 0% 0
3 A moderate amount 35% 7
4 A little 55% 11
5 None at all 10% 2
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 150
Interview findings. When asked about the role of their own bias administrators could
provide examples of when they felt that they had to address bias, but a time when they would be
considered bias. “For discipline we go by the handbook that the district provides for us” or a
similar sentiment was a common response to this question.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. The reticence that administrators showed when answer questions about their
own biases as well as the results to the survey supports that there is a presence of bias in regards
to school discipline. Though teachers can refer a student to the office, it is the school
administrator who carries out the execution of that referral. As seen in table 21, students of color
are more likely to receive referrals and be suspended for disruption or defiance. Just as with
teachers above, though explicit bias may not play a large role, results from the surveys and
interviews indicate that implicit bias may be contributing to disproportionality of disciplinary
consequences for students of color.
Motivation Self-Efficacy
Influence 4. The school faculty and staff are capable of correcting its biases about certain
student groups and their behavior.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 151
Survey results. Administrators were asked to “Indicate how confident you are, right now,
in your ability to address bias about certain student groups and their behavior.” As shown in
table 21 15% of administrators were extremely confident in their abilities. 40% of administrators
are very confident in their ability to address bias. 25% of administrators are moderately
confident. 20% of administrators are slightly confident. These responses were below the 70%
threshold established and indicate that there is a lack of confidence in regard to administrator’s
ability to address bias about certain groups of students and their behavior.
Table 22
Survey Results for Confidence in Addressing Bias
# Motivation Self-Efficacy Item % Count
Indicate how confident you are, right now, in your ability
to address bias about certain student groups and their
behavior.
1 Extremely confident 15% 3
2 Very confident 40% 8
3 Moderately confident 25% 5
4 Slightly confident 20% 4
5 Not confident at all 0% 0
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 152
Interview findings. Participants were asked to “describe a time when you were faced
with challenging decision in regard to student discipline?” Administrators described instances
when they gave a punishment that they felt might not have been fair, this was often justified by
“that is what our district policy says to do.” Often administrators discussed how student conduct
plays a role in their decision-making process. “When a student comes in a lot depends on how
they act. Are they truthful about what happened? Are they respectful? Do they show remorse?”
Looking for these responses from a student opens the door for subjective discipline, and bias to
play a role in the decision-making process. One administrator who looked for how a student
behaved when have discipline addressed added “you can’t look for whether or not the student
makes eye contact with you, in some cultures not making eye contact signifies remorse.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. Administrators participating in this study are in the process of addressing bias
in their own discipline practices, however there is still a gap. As shown in the interviews
administrators are still placing themselves in a position where their bias can play a role in the
outcome of student discipline.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures
Influence 1. Administrators need to have district policies that align with the state goal of
reducing disproportionality in discipline.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 153
Survey results. School site administrators were asked “To what extent do you agree with
the following statement? My district’s policies align with the state goal of reducing
disproportionality in discipline.” As shown in table 23 30% of participants strongly agreed that
their district’s policies aligned with the state goal of reducing disproportionality in discipline.
45% of participants somewhat agreed that their district’s policies aligned with the state goal of
reducing disproportionality in discipline. 20% of participants neither agreed nor disagreed that
their district’s policies aligned with the state goal of reducing disproportionality in discipline. 5%
of participants somewhat disagreed that their district’s policies aligned with the state goal of
reducing disproportionality in discipline. The wide distribution of responses is below the 70%
threshold established and demonstrates that there is a gap in district policies in Citrus County
aligning with goals to reduce disproportionality.
Table 23
Survey Results for District Alignment with State Goals
# Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures Item % Count
To what extent do you agree with the following
statement? My district’s policies align with the state goal
of reducing disproportionality in discipline.
1 Strongly agree 30% 6
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 154
2 Somewhat agree 45% 9
3 Neither agree nor disagree 20% 4
4 Somewhat disagree 5% 1
5 Strongly disagree 0% 0
Interview findings. When asked how their district policies were intended to decrease
disproportionality one respondent said “They don’t. We’re not there yet.” This response seems to
speak for the majority of participants in interviews, though one participant discussed steps that
their district is taking, “we’re getting more and more involved in MTSS and that’s having a
positive impact.” However, most participants shared that “our goal has been the reduction of
suspensions, but there is no single group of students that we’re focusing on. If anything, we’re
finding it more difficult to suspend without showing alternative means of correction, but at the
same time we don’t really have many alternative means so we’re in a situation where we’re
giving parents bad news about their child, but we can’t back it up with a punishment or with
help.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. Administrators had a variety of opinions in regards to their district’s efforts to
reduce disproportionality in suspension. From the survey responses and from interviews it
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 155
appears that this goal has not been communicated to the sites. While the state has made this an
area of concern, and the California School Dashboard reflects equity in discipline, schools have
not caught up the state mandate.
Influence 2. Administrators need to have policies that move away from punitive
discipline practices and seek to implement alternatives to suspension.
Survey Results. School site administrators were asked “To what extent do you agree with
the following statement? My district’s current discipline policy are punitive.” As shown in table
23 10% of administrators strongly agreed that their district policies were punitive. 40% of
administrators somewhat agreed that their district policies were punitive. 25% neither agreed nor
disagreed that their policies were punitive. 15% somewhat disagreed that their policies were
punitive. 10% strong disagreed that their policies were punitive. The wide distribution of
responses is below the established 70% threshold; this demonstrates that district policies do not
align with the state goal of reducing disproportionality.
Table 24
Survey Results for Perception of Punitive Practices
# Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures Item % Count
To what extent do you agree with the following
statement? My district’s current discipline policy are
punitive.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 156
1 Strongly agree 10% 2
2 Somewhat agree 40% 8
3 Neither agree nor disagree 25% 5
4 Somewhat disagree 15% 3
5 Strongly disagree 10% 2
Interview findings. School site administrators were asked “Can you think of a time when
you felt that following the site or district’s discipline policy was unnecessarily punitive towards
the student?” When asked this question every administrator was able to come up with an
example quickly. As one administrator said, “I think on some fronts we’re progressive, but on
others we’re behind.” Examples given involved objective infractions, “in our district if a student
is in possession or using drugs or alcohol it is an automatic five-day suspension and we have to
recommend expulsion on the second violation. It doesn’t matter if the student is using in the
middle of class, or if the student had something in their backpack, it’s the same punishment.
Upon the first suspension we offer the student Pryde [a substance abuse counseling program] but
if the student doesn’t take it, we really don’t have any resources for them.” Another
administrator went into further detail with their district’s policies, “we use a five-step behavior
contract. The fifth step is a recommendation for expulsion. A student needs to do something
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 157
major to be placed on a contract, but the first time that they are suspended they’re automatically
placed on step three and a drug or alcohol violation means that they’re on step four.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. Administrators had a range of opinions in regard to their district’s discipline
policies and whether or not they were punitive towards students. From the survey responses and
from interviews it appears that administrators are looking to discipline the individual student and
do not always want to adhere to a one size fits all model of school discipline. The range of
responses to the survey and the interview findings indicate that school site administrators do find
their district policies punitive.
Influence 3. Administrators need to stop overusing the 48900(k) violation.
Survey Results. School site administrators were asked “to what extent do you agree with
the following statement? Whenever possible a 48900 (k) - defiance/disruption - violation should
be added to student discipline incidents.” As shown in table 25 20% of administrators strongly
agreed that the 48900(k) violation should be added to discipline incidents. 15% of administrators
somewhat agreed that the 48900(k) violation should be added to discipline incidents. 20% of
administrators neither agreed nor disagreed that the 48900(k) violation should be added to
discipline incidents. 5% of administrators somewhat disagreed that the 48900(k) violation should
be added to discipline incidents. 40% of administrators strongly disagreed that the 48900(k)
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 158
violation should be added to discipline incidents. The wide distribution of responses is below the
70% threshold established and demonstrates that there excessive use of the 48900 (k) violation in
student discipline.
Table 25
Survey Results for Use of the 48900(k) Violation
# Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures Item % Count
To what extent do you agree with the following
statement? Whenever possible a 48900 (k) -
defiance/disruption - violation should be added to student
discipline incidents.
1 Strongly agree 20% 4
2 Somewhat agree 15% 3
3 Neither agree nor disagree 20% 4
4 Somewhat disagree 5% 1
5 Strongly disagree 40% 8
Interview findings. School site administrators were asked to “describe a scenario when
you would discipline a student for a 48900 (k) defiance or disruption violation?” One
administrator defined when they would use this violation as “any time when the behavior was so
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 159
egregious that the teacher could no longer teach. Something like smoking marijuana in the
middle of the classroom where everyone could see.” Another school administrator stated “I have
only used this discipline code once this year. We had an eighth-grade student who when asked to
leave class told his teacher to ‘suck my dick’ at this point we felt that the level of disrespect
warranted a suspension for the disruption.” Another administrator said “this is violation you can
really only use when all other possible means are exhausted. I suspended a student for this the
other day, but it was after she had be truant from class and was assigned Saturday School. She
failed to serve Saturday School two times and so the district policy is to suspend. We had
nothing else that we could do.” Finally, another administrator stated “I really don’t like this
violation or the idea of tacking it onto to a suspension. That used to be the practice, but we’re
moving away from it. If I have to pick a student up for disrupting class they’re going to talk to
me on the way to the office They may curse, they’re upset, I let them vent and to get that
frustration out on our walk. I wouldn’t consider that defiance because when that kid able to vent
they can calm down, and when we get to the office we can address the root cause of the
problem.” In each interview vastly different reasons of when to use, or not use, the 48900 (k)
violation was discussed.
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. As one administrator stated in their interview the past practice has been using
the 48900 (k) violation as a blanket “catch all” for school discipline. However, this practice has
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 160
fallen out of practice. Because there is currently a shift in philosophies considering discipline we
see the wide range of beliefs as to whether 48900 (k) should be added to student discipline
incidents. The wide range of beliefs shows that the 48900 9k) violation is being used in instances
where it is not necessary.
Organizational Culture
Influence 4. School administrators need to be part of a culture that aligns with the idea of
inclusion for students rather than exclusion.
Survey Results. School site administrators were asked “to what extent do you agree with
the following statement? Our site and district promotes inclusive disciplinary practices for
students as opposed to exclusive disciplinary practices.” As shown in table 26 10% of
administrators strongly agreed that their site and district promoted inclusive disciplinary
practices. 35% of administrators somewhat agreed that their site and district promoted inclusive
disciplinary practices. 20% of administrators neither agreed nor disagreed that their site and
district promoted inclusive disciplinary practices. 35% of administrators somewhat disagreed
that their site and district promoted inclusive disciplinary practices. The wide distribution of
responses, an even split between somewhat agree and somewhat disagree, is below the 70%
threshold established and demonstrates that school site administrators do not view their school
site and district as promoting inclusive practices.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 161
Table 26
Survey Results for Inclusive Discipline Practices
# Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures Item % Count
To what extent do you agree with the following
statement? Our site and district promotes inclusive
disciplinary practices for students as opposed to exclusive
disciplinary practices.
1 Strongly agree 10% 2
2 Somewhat agree 35% 7
3 Neither agree nor disagree 20% 4
4 Somewhat disagree 35% 7
5 Strongly disagree 0% 0
Interview findings. School site administrators were asked “What are some ways that your
site or district allow a student to make reparations for misconduct?” The overwhelming response
was that sites are currently not allowing students to make amends for misconduct, though it
seems as if administrators would like to see this. One administrator stated, “we’ve just started
looking into restorative practices, but we’re nowhere near implementing them with students or
staff yet.” Another administrator stated, “our district policies are very rigid, something that I do,
something that I say to every kid, is ‘how are you going to fix this?’ Every time I ask them that. I
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 162
used to be an elementary level, at that age you can ask them to apologize because you’re training
them for when they get older. At this level they’re older and an apology won’t mean anything if
its forced. I don’t necessarily expect them to apologize every time, but I do want them to think
how they can repair the relationship and start the conversation with the teacher.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Document analysis was not conducted for this influence.
Summary. Based on interviews it appears that the process of student’s making amends for
the behavior is in the hands of the individual sites. While some sites are looking at formal
training, though the use of restorative practices, other sites rely on a single question. There is a
shift from punitive exclusionary practices to inclusionary practices. It will be a fine line to find a
practice that works for teachers, students, and administrators, Though schools have started to
create inclusive practices in regards to student discipline there is still room for improvement.
Summary of Validated Influences
Knowledge
Gaps in six of the nine assumed knowledge influences were validated through surveys
and interviews. Table 27 presents an overview of the results of the assessment of each assumed
knowledge influence. Recommendations to improve each validated cause will be discussed in
Chapter Five.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 163
Table 27
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Gaps Validation
Assumed Knowledge Influences Gap Validated?
Declarative Factual
Site administrators need to know who is being subjected No
to exclusionary discipline and at what rate.
Declarative Conceptual
School site administrators need to know the role of bias in Yes
decision making about sanctions.
School site administrators need to know the influence Zero Yes
Tolerance policies have had in increasing disproportionality
in student discipline.
School site administrators are more likely to suspend Latino Yes
students for subjective infractions and White students for
objective infractions.
Once a student has been suspended that student is more likely Yes
to be suspended again.
Personal connections to adults on campus are necessary to ensure No
student success and to avoid instances of negative behavior.
Procedural
Site administrators need to know how to conduct an effective No
disciplinary investigation.
Metacognitive
In order to reduce discipline for subjective measures schools Yes
need to be aware of their school culture, rather than shift blame
to the students.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 164
Motivation
Gaps in four of the four assumed motivation influences were validated through surveys
and interviews. Table 28 presents an overview of the results of the assessment of each assumed
motivation influence. Recommendations to improve each validated cause will be discussed in
Chapter Five.
Table 28
Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes Validation
Assumed Motivation Influences Gap Validated?
Value
School site administrators need to believe that bias is Yes
influencing their work and that it is important to counteract
it.
School site administrators need to be aware that bias, whether Yes
implicit or explicit, affects how teachers treat students, this
effect leads to disproportionality.
School site administrators need to be aware that bias, whether Yes
implicit or explicit, affects how administrators treat students,
this effect leads to disproportionality
Self Efficacy
The school faculty and staff are capable of correcting its biases Yes
about certain student groups and their behavior.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 165
Organization
Gaps in four of the four assumed organization influences were validated through surveys
and interviews. Table 29 presents an overview of the results of the assessment of each assumed
organization influence. Recommendations to improve each validated cause will be discussed in
Chapter Five.
Table 29
Summary of Assumed Organization Causes Validation
Assumed Organization Influences Gap Validated?
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Administrators need to have district policies that align Yes
with the state goal of reducing disproportionality in discipline.
Administrators need to have policies that move away from Yes
punitive discipline practices and seek to implement alternatives
to suspension.
Administrators need to stop overusing the 48900(k) violation. Yes
Cultural Setting
School administrators need to be part of a culture that aligns Yes
with the idea of inclusion for students rather than exclusion.
Chapter Five will examine proposed solutions for each validated cause. Each proposed
solution will utilize evidence-based recommendations identified through relevant academic
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 166
literature. Proposed solutions will be shared with leaders of the Citrus County Department of
Education.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 167
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of
the organizational problem described above, disproportionality in suspension and expulsions for
Latino students in Citrus County. While the complete gap analysis would focus on all Citrus
County stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders who were focused on in this
analysis are Citrus County public schools administrators, specifically those at the secondary
level. The analysis focussed on causes for this problem due to gaps in the area of site
administrators knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. The analysis began
by generating a list of possible or assumed influences that was examined systematically to focus
on actual or validated causes.
As such, the questions that guided this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences that
interfere with school site administrators achieving the goal of reducing suspensions and
expulsions of Latino students to mirror the proportional enrollment of Citrus County
schools?
2. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions for reducing suspensions and expulsions of Latino students to mirror
proportional enrollment of Citrus County schools?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 168
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organization influences in the following tables
have all been validated as gaps through surveys and interviews completed by school site
administrators. As indicated in the tables, each influence has been given a high priority for
achieving the organization’s goal. In addition, each table lists the evidence-based principles that
support the recommendation. The recommendation for each cause was based on applying the
principle. Following the table, a detailed discussion is provided for each high priority cause, the
principle, the solution, and support for the solution based in the literature.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Gaps in six of the nine assumed knowledge influences were validated through
surveys and interviews. Six assumed declarative conceptual knowledge influences were
validated and two assumed procedural knowledge influences were validated. One assumed
metacognitive knowledge influence was validated. No assumed declarative factual knowledge
influence were validated. No assumed procedural knowledge influences were validated. As
indicated in Table 30, each validated influence has been given a high priority for achieving the
organization’s goal. In addition, Table 30 lists the evidence-based principles that support the
recommendation. The recommendation for each cause was based on applying the principle.
Following the table, a detailed discussion is provided for each high priority cause, the principle,
the solution, and support for the solution based in the literature.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 169
Table 30
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Declarative Factual:
None
Conceptual:
School site administrators
need to know the role of
bias in decision making
about sanctions.
High How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide tasks that
promote selecting,
organizing, and
integrating (see Mayer,
2011, pp. 76-81).
Before the start of the
2018 - 2019 school year
school site administrators
will compare their 2017 -
2018 suspension data,
including student names
and what students were
suspended for, from their
individual site with
California School
Dashboard data.
Specifically
administrators will look
at the “Suspension Rate”
feature of the dashboard
and the eight racial
subgroups.
School site administrators
need to know the
influence Zero Tolerance
policies have had in
increasing
disproportionality in
student discipline.
High How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide worked
examples (Kirshner et
al., 2006; Mayer, 2011;
Van Gerven et al., 2002).
Before the start of the
2018 - 2019 school year
provide a comparison of
a school that does not
rely on Zero Tolerance
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 170
and a school that does
rely on Zero Tolerance.
Compare suspension
rates, how many students
are suspended and what
students are suspended,
between the sites.
School site administrators
are more likely to
suspend Latino students
for subjective infractions
and White students for
objective infractions.
High How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide worked
examples (Kirshner et
al., 2006; Mayer, 2011;
Van Gerven et al., 2002).
Provide administrators
with a comparison of
Latino students from
their site who were
suspended and why with
White students who were
suspended and for what
reasons.
Once a student has been
suspended that student is
more likely to be
suspended again.
High How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Help individuals identify
and understand important
points (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Look at data regarding
students with multiple
suspensions. Identify
students with multiple
suspensions in the same
school year. Additionally
look at students with
single suspensions in a
school year, and then
look at their discipline
history for previous
school years.
Exclusionary discipline High How individuals Help individuals identify
practices do not deter organize knowledge and understand important
student behavior and can influences how they points (Schraw &
lead to further discipline learn and apply what McCrudden, 2006).
instances in the future for they know (Schraw &
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 171
the same infraction. McCrudden, 2006). Look at data regarding
student suspensions from
row above. Identify what
infractions students are
most likely to be
suspended for.
Procedural: None
Metacognitive:
In order to reduce
discipline for subjective
measures schools need to
be aware of their school
culture, rather than shift
blame to the students.
High The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitates
learning (Baker,
2006).
Have learners identify
prior knowledge (what
they know and what they
do not know about a
topic) before a learning
task (Mayer, 2011).
Provide opportunities for
learners to engage in
guided self-monitoring
and self-assessment
(Baker, 2006).
Provide opportunities
for learners to debrief the
thinking process upon
completion of learning
task (Baker, 2006).
School site
administrators will work
with their staff in order
to define what the culture
and the values of their
school are. Armed with
that knowledge school
site administrators will
work with the staff to
develop and demonstrate
valued culture.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 172
Declarative knowledge solutions. No declarative knowledge influences were validated
therefore there is not a gap in this knowledge area.
Procedural knowledge solutions. No procedural knowledge influences were validated
therefore there is not a gap in this knowledge area.
Conceptual knowledge solutions. The data validated gaps in five out of the six assumed
influences for conceptual knowledge showing that school site administrators were not aware of
concepts necessary to reduce disproportionality in school discipline. First, school site
administrators need to know the role of bias in decision making about sanctions. Second, school
site administrators need to know the influence Zero Tolerance policies have had in increasing
disproportionality in student discipline. Third, school site administrators need to know that they
are more likely to suspend Latino students for subjective infractions and White students for
objective infractions. Fourth, school site administrators need to be aware that once a student has
been suspended that student is more likely to be suspended again. Lastly, school site
administrators need to be aware that exclusionary discipline practices do not deter student
behavior and can lead to further discipline instances in the future for the same infraction.
To develop mastery the school districts that comprise Citrus County can assist their
school sites. One way is to provide tasks that promote selecting, organizing, and integrating (see
Mayer, 2011, pp. 76-81). This can be done with suspension data as suggested by McIntosh,
Girvan, Horner, and Smolikowski (2011). Before the start of the 2018 - 2019 school year school
site administrators will compare their 2017 - 2018 suspension data, including student names and
what students were suspended for, from their individual site with California School Dashboard
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 173
data. Specifically administrators will look at the “Suspension Rate” feature of the dashboard and
the eight racial subgroups.
An additional way that school districts can help their school sites is to provide worked
examples (Kirshner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2011; Van Gerven et al., 2002). As Skiba (2014)
suggests, the use of zero tolerance policies exasperates discipline problems. Before the start of
the 2018 - 2019 school year districts can provide school sites with a comparison of a school that
does not rely on Zero Tolerance and a school that does rely on Zero Tolerance. Administrators
can compare suspension rates, how many students are suspended and what students are
suspended, between the sites. As Girvan, et al (2016) discuss referrals for subjective infractions
are a significant contributor to disproportionality in discipline. Districts can also provide
administrators with a comparison of Latino students from their site who were suspended and for
what reasons with data from White students who were suspended from the same site and for
what reasons.
School districts can help individuals identify and understand important points (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006). As Skiba, et al (2014) discuss once a student has been suspended from
school their likelihood of being suspended again increases exponentially. School site
administrators can first, look at data regarding students with multiple suspensions. Second,
identify students with multiple suspensions in the same school year. Third, look at students with
single suspensions in a school year. Finally, look at their discipline history for previous school
years. Additionally, school site administrators can look at data regarding what infractions
students are most likely to be suspended for.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 174
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. The data validated gaps in one out of the one
assumed influences for metacognitive knowledge showing that school site administrators were
not aware of concepts necessary to reduce disproportionality in school discipline. School site
administrators need to know that in order to reduce discipline for subjective measures schools
need to be aware of their school culture, rather than shift blame to the students. As George Sugai
and Robert Horner (2008) discuss a well-defined school culture can assist in behavior
management. In order to establish a school culture administrators, along with their staff can
identify prior knowledge (what they know and what they do not know about a topic) before a
learning task (Mayer, 2011). Additionally, administrators can provide opportunities for learners
to engage in guided self-monitoring and self-assessment and opportunities for learners to debrief
the thinking process upon completion of learning task (Baker, 2006). Having done this school
site administrators can work with their staff in order to define what the culture and the values of
their school are. Armed with that knowledge school site administrators will work with the staff to
develop and demonstrate valued culture.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Gaps in four of the four assumed motivation influences were validated
through surveys and interviews. The assumed value motivation influences were validated. The
assumed self efficacy motivation influence was validated. As indicated in Table 30, the validated
influence has been given a high priority for achieving the organization’s goal. In addition, Table
31 lists the evidence-based principles that support the recommendation. The recommendation for
each cause was based on applying the principle. Following the table, a detailed discussion is
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 175
provided for each high priority cause, the principle, the solution, and support for the solution
based in the literature.
Table 31
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Value
School site administrators
need to believe that bias
is influencing their work
and that it is important to
counteract it.
High Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the
learner values the task
(Eccles, 2006).
Include rationales
about the importance
and utility value of the
task (Pintrich, 2003).
Train school site
administrators on how to
interpret data presented
on the California School
Dashboard; specifically
the comparative
suspension rates for
racial subgroups and the
perceived ranking of the
school site.
School site administrators
need to be aware that
bias, whether implicit or
explicit, affects how
teachers treat students,
this effect leads to
disproportionality.
High Rationales that
include a discussion
of the importance and
utility value of the
work or learning can
help learners develop
positive values
(Eccles, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003).
Models who are
credible and similar
(e.g., gender,
culturally appropriate)
can foster positive
values (Pajares,
2006).
Models who are credible
and similar (e.g., gender,
culturally appropriate)
can foster positive values
(Pajares, 2006).
Analyze and discuss
common discipline
scenarios in the
classroom with teachers
through professional
development. Have
teachers work in small
groups to discuss what
they would do in various
scenarios. Doing so will
start to remove
reactionary bias from
disciplinary situations.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 176
School site administrators
need to be aware that
bias, whether implicit or
explicit, affects how
administrators treat
students, this effect leads
to disproportionality.
High Rationales that
include a discussion
of the importance and
utility value of the
work or learning can
help learners develop
positive values
(Eccles, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003).
Models who are credible
and similar (e.g., gender,
culturally appropriate)
can foster positive values
(Pajares, 2006).
Have administrators
work with other
administrators to analyze
and discuss common
discipline scenarios in
the classroom and the
school. Have
administrators work with
teachers to analyze
classroom classroom
discipline scenarios with
teachers through
professional
development. Have
teachers work in small
groups to discuss what
they would do in various
scenarios. Doing so will
start to remove
reactionary bias from
disciplinary situations.
Self-Efficacy
The school faculty and
staff are capable of
correcting its biases about
certain student groups
and their behavior.
High Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners have positive
expectancies for
success (Pajares,
2006).
Set close, concrete and
challenging goals that
allow the learner to
experience success at the
task (Pajares, 2006).
Have school site
administrators work in
conjunction with district
officials to set goals for
overall suspension rates
and for subgroups
identified on California
School Dashboard. Set
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 177
and review goals for both
the fall and the spring
semester with the goal
being the continued
lowering of suspensions.
Mood: none
Value solutions. The data validated gaps in three out of the three assumed influences
for motivational value showing that school site administrators were not aware of the values
necessary to reduce disproportionality in school discipline. First, school site administrators need
to believe that bias is influencing their work and that it is important to counteract it. Next, school
site administrators need to be aware that bias, whether implicit or explicit, affects how teachers
treat students, this effect leads to disproportionality. Finally, school site administrators need to be
aware that bias, whether implicit or explicit, affects how administrators treat students, this effect
leads to disproportionality.
To develop confidence in administrators the school districts that comprise Citrus County
can assist their school sites. As Eccles (2006) discusses learning and motivation are enhanced if
the learner values the task. One way is to increase value is to include rationales about the
importance and utility value of the task (Pintrich, 2003). Peterson, et al (2016) in a study on
teacher’s implicit and explicit prejudice, found that these prejudices underlie the ethnic
achievement gap. Districts can train school site administrators on how to interpret data presented
on the California School Dashboard; specifically, the comparative suspension rates for racial
subgroups and the perceived ranking of the school site.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 178
Rationales that include a discussion of the importance and utility value of the work or
learning can help learners develop positive values (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). Another way
that school districts can assist their sites to increase value is to provide models that are credible
and similar (e.g., gender, culturally appropriate) can foster positive values (Pajares, 2006). As
Peterson, Rubie-Davies, Osborne, and Sibley (2016) discuss knowledge of a particular stereotype
does not mean endorsement of the stereotype. Administrators can be made aware of bias that
they have and analyze and discuss common discipline scenarios in the classroom with teachers
through professional development. Administrators can have teachers work in small groups to
discuss what they would do in various scenarios. Doing so will start to remove reactionary bias
from disciplinary situations.
Finally, school districts, based off the work of Pajares (2006), can apply models to foster
positive values for administrators. As Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003) state rationales that
include a discussion of the importance and utility value of the work or learning can help learners
develop positive values. School districts can have administrators work with other administrators
to analyze and discuss common discipline scenarios in the classroom and the school.
Administrators can then work with teachers to analyze classroom classroom discipline scenarios
with teachers through professional development. Administrators can then have teachers work in
small groups to discuss what they would do in various scenarios. Doing so will start to remove
reactionary bias from disciplinary situations.
Self-Efficacy solutions. The data validated gaps in one out of the one assumed
influences for motivational self-efficacy showing that school site administrators were not aware
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 179
of beliefs necessary to reduce disproportionality in school discipline. School site administrators
need to believe that school faculty and staff are capable of correcting their biases about certain
student groups and the behaviors of these groups. Okonofua and Eberhardt (2015), in a
simulation study on disparities in discipline practices, found that educators are more likely to
recommend suspension for students of color. Parajares (2006) believe that learning and
motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for success.Armed with this
knowledge administrators can set close, concrete and challenging goals that allow the learner to
experience success at the task (Pajares, 2006). With the goal of reducing suspensions for students
of color school site administrators can work in conjunction with district officials to set goals for
overall suspension rates and for subgroups identified on California School Dashboard.
Administrators can set and review goals for both the fall and the spring semester with the goal
being the continued lowering of suspensions.
Mood solutions. No mood motivation influences were validated therefore there is not a
gap in this knowledge area.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. Gaps in four of the four assumed organization influences were validated
through surveys and interviews. The assumed cultural model influence was validated. The
assumed policies, procedures, and practices influences were also validated. As indicated in Table
32, the validated influence has been given a high priority for achieving the organization’s goal.
In addition, Table 32 lists the evidence-based principles that support the recommendation. The
recommendation for each cause was based on applying the principle. Following the table, a
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 180
detailed discussion is provided for each high priority cause, the principle, the solution, and
support for the solution based in the literature.
Table 32
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Models
School administrators
need to be part of a
culture that aligns with
the idea of inclusion for
students rather than
exclusion.
High Effective change
efforts use evidence-
based solutions and
adapt them, where
necessary, to the
organization’s culture
(Clark and Estes,
2008)
School sites need to
analyze their individual
data to evaluate what
their students are being
suspended for, who is
being suspended, where
on campus students are
being suspended, and
what time of day students
are being suspended.
Once school sites have
this knowledge they can
begin to methodically
address how to reduce
suspensions and look
into inclusive means of
correction.
Cultural Settings: none
Policies and Procedures
Administrators need to
have district policies that
align with the state goal
of reducing
disproportionality in
discipline.
High Effective
organizations insure
that organizational
messages, rewards,
policies and
procedures that
govern the work of
the organization are
aligned with or are
School districts need to
evaluate their current
policies and remove
remaining vestiges of
Zero Tolerance. School
sites need to then align
their site discipline
guidelines to revamped
district policies.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 181
supportive of
organizational goals
and values (Clark and
Estes, 2008)
Administrators need to
have policies that move
away from punitive
discipline practices and
seek to implement
alternatives to
suspension.
High Effective change
efforts will test (and if
needed, modify) a
change or innovation
on a small scale
before implementing
it widely.
(PDSA)
Effective change
efforts are
communicated
regularly and
frequently to all key
stakeholders (Clark
and Estes, 2008).
School site
administrators need to
find an alternative to
suspension and/or
alternative punishment
that aligns with their
school culture.
Administrators need
gather data on office
discipline referrals
(ODR) while piloting
new systems for
correction to find a
system that reduces
ODRs.
Administrators need to
stop overusing the
48900(k) violation.
High Effective change
efforts utilize
feedback to
determine when/if
improvement is
happening (Clark and
Estes, 2008).
School site
administrators need to
evaluate situations where
a student was suspended
for a 48900(k) violation
and determine if all other
means of correction were
exhausted, if instruction
was stopped, if any other
violations occurred, and
how the situation could
have been handled
differently.
Resources: none
Cultural model solutions. The data validated gaps in one out of the one assumed
influences for organizational culture showing that school site administrators were not aware of
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 182
concepts necessary to reduce disproportionality in school discipline. School site administrators
need to be part of a culture that aligns with the idea of inclusion for students rather than
exclusion. Clark and Estes (2008) state that effective change efforts use evidence-based solutions
and adapt them, where necessary, to the organization’s culture. As Teasley (2014) discusses
inclusive practices can move a school away from extensive suspensions and expulsions and
toward restorative practices. School sites need to analyze their individual data to evaluate what
their students are being suspended for, who is being suspended, where on campus students are
being suspended, and what time of day students are being suspended. Once school sites have this
knowledge they can begin to methodically address how to reduce suspensions and look into
inclusive means of correction.
Cultural settings solutions. No cultural setting influences were validated therefore there
is not a gap in this knowledge area.
Policies and procedures solutions. The data validated gaps in three out of the three
assumed influences for organizational policies, practices, procedures showing that school site
administrators organizational barriers as they try to reduce disproportionality in school
discipline. To achieve this goal school site administrators need to first have district policies that
align with the state goal of reducing disproportionality in discipline. Next, administrators need to
have policies that move away from punitive discipline practices and seek to implement
alternatives to suspension. Finally, administrators need to stop overusing the 48900(k), defiance
or disruption, violation.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 183
To assist their administrators the districts that makeup Citrus County can put policies,
practices, and procedures that assist with the reduction of suspensions and expulsions into place.
First, administrators need to have district policies that align with the state goal of reducing
disproportionality in discipline. Second, administrators need to have policies that move away
from punitive discipline practices and seek to implement alternatives to suspension. Last,
administrators need to stop overusing the 48900(k) violation.
School districts can assist their administrators by reviewing their policies, practices, and
procedures. Effective organizations insure that organizational messages, rewards, policies and
procedures that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of
organizational goals and values (Clark and Estes, 2008). One way to support school district
values is to evaluate school district current policies and remove remaining vestiges of Zero
Tolerance. School sites need to then align their site discipline guidelines to revamped district
policies. As discussed in studies by Skiba (2001), Arvita (2005), and Hoffman (2015) Zero
Tolerance policies unnecessarily remove students from school for minor disciplinary infractions.
School districts need to evaluate their current policies and remove remaining vestiges of Zero
Tolerance. School sites need to then align their site discipline guidelines to revamped district
policies.
Another way to assist school sites for districts to assist administrators in finding
alternatives to suspension and/or alternative punishment that aligns with their school culture.
Administrators need gather data on office discipline referrals (ODR) while piloting new systems
for correction to find a system that reduces ODRs. As discussed by Cole and Heilig (2011)
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 184
alternatives to suspension provide a way for students to make amends for disciplinary infractions
while still remaining as part of the school. Efforts will need to be piloted because effective
change efforts will test (and if needed, modify) a change or innovation on a small scale before
implementing it widely (PDSA). Additionally effective change efforts are communicated
regularly and frequently to all key stakeholders.
Finally, effective change efforts utilize feedback to determine when/if improvement is
happening. As Smolkowski, Girvan, McIntosh, Nese, and Horner (2016) discuss defiance and
disrespect are ambiguously defined and allow for more staff discretion when suspending a
student. To garner if these suspensions are improving school climate and safety school site
administrators need to evaluate situations where a student was suspended for a 48900(k)
violation and determine if all other means of correction were exhausted, if instruction was
stopped, if any other violations occurred, and how the situation could have been handled
differently.
Resources solutions. No resource influences were validated therefore there is not a gap
in this knowledge area.
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization Recommendations
In regards to conceptual knowledge school site administrators need to know several
different key concepts. First school site administrators need to know the role of bias in decision
making about sanctions. Second, school site administrators need to know the influence Zero
Tolerance policies have had in increasing disproportionality in student discipline. Third, School
site administrators are more likely to suspend Latino students for subjective infractions and
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 185
White students for objective infractions. Fourth, administrators need to understand that once a
student has been suspended that student is more likely to be suspended again. Finally,
administrators need to understand that exclusionary discipline practices do not deter student
behavior and can lead to further discipline instances in the future for the same infraction. In order
to gain mastery administrators need to organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply
what they know (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Mayer (2011) suggests providing tasks that
promote the selection, organization, and integration to promote learning. Kirshner, et al (2006),
Mayer (2011), and Van Gerven, et al (2002) suggested providing worked examples to assist in
learning. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) suggest helping individuals identify and understand
important points. With this in mind school district leaders in Citrus County can provide school
site administrators with data from their current sites, as well as sites utilizing best practices.
Additionally, school site leaders will need data comparing the different subgroups of students on
their campuses. In addition to information provided by the California School Dashboard student
information systems (SIS) will need to present racial identity of students who are suspended as
well as reasons students are suspended.
In regards to metacognitive knowledge school site administrators need to know that in
order to reduce discipline for subjective measures schools need to be aware of their school
culture, rather than shift blame to the students. As Baker (2006) explains, the use of
metacognitive strategies facilitates learning. Mayer (2011) explains that learners need to identify
prior knowledge before learning a task. Baker (206) states that learners need to be provided
opportunities to engage in guided self-monitoring and self-assessment as well as opportunities
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 186
for learners to debrief the thinking process upon completion of learning task. With this in mind
school districts throughout Citrus County can give their school site administrators professional
development time to work with their faculty and staff in order to define what the culture and the
values of their school are. Equipped with a definition of the school’s culture and values site
administrators can work with the staff to develop and demonstrate valued culture.
In regards to value motivation recommendations school site administrators need to
believe that bias is influencing their work and that it is important to counteract it. They need to
be aware that bias, whether implicit or explicit, affects how teachers treat students, this effect
leads to disproportionality. Finally, they need to be aware that bias, whether implicit or explicit,
affects how administrators treat students, this effect leads to disproportionality. Two principles
will help to increase value of these influences. First, learning and motivation are enhanced if the
learner values the task (Eccles, 2006); second, Rationales that include a discussion of the
importance and utility value of the work or learning can help learners develop positive values
(Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). School site administrators need to be trained to recognize bias at
their sites. Administrators need to then train in scenarios where their own bias might influence
their decision making process. Finally, administrators need take the information and training that
they have regarding bias and share this information as they train their staff.
Regarding self-efficacy motivation school administrators need to believe that school
faculty and staff are capable of correcting its biases about certain student groups and their
behavior. Parajes (2006) states that learning and motivation are enhanced when learners have
positive expectancies for success. Therefore, school site administrators need to work with their
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 187
districts in order to understand suspension data and to set and review goals for the both the fall
and spring semesters with the shared goal of reducing overall suspensions for all students.
In regards to culture recommendations school administrators need to be part of a culture
that aligns with the idea of inclusion for students rather than exclusion. Clark and Estes (2008)
believe that effective change efforts use evidence-based solutions where necessary. School site
administrators in Citrus County need to analyze their individual data to evaluate what students
are being suspended for, who is being suspended, where students are being suspended, and what
time of day students are being suspended. Administrators can share this information with their
colleagues are different schools in the district to begin the methodic change of district policies
and practices.
Regarding policies, practices, and procedures in the organization districts in Citrus
County need to have policies that align with the state goal of reducing disproportionality in
discipline, policies that move away from punitive discipline practices and seek to implement
alternatives to suspension, and policies that remove the overuse of the 48900(k) violation. Clark
and Estes (2008) state that effective organizations insure that organizational messages, rewards,
policies and procedures that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are
supportive of organizational goals and values. District leaders in Citrus County need to work
with their school site administrators to remove remaining traces of Zero Tolerance from the
policies and trainings, develop alternative means of correction that are not exclusionary, and to
define defiance as it relates to a 48900(k) with the goal of instituting other means of correction.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 188
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The Citrus County Department of Education strives to lead the nation in college and
career readiness. CCDE supports Citrus County school districts as they realize this vision by
collaborating with educators at all levels of student development ranging from early childhood
education through higher education. The goal of the organization then is to have the racial
distribution of suspensions and expulsions in schools mirror the racial makeup of the schools.
For example, suspensions and expulsions for Hispanic/Latino students would be reduced from
seventy percent to forty-nine percent. Site level administrators will be reduce the number of
suspensions and expulsions at their individual school sites to mirror to the proportional
enrollment of Latino students in Citrus County Schools. This project examined the knowledge
and skills, motivational, and organizational barriers that prevent school site administrators from
reducing suspension levels. The proposed solution, a comprehensive training program for
administrators, staff development and a resource guide for teachers, and revised district
guidelines for discipline, should produce the desired outcome – a decrease in the number of
suspensions and expulsions countywide for Latino students. The proposed solutions for external
outcomes will allow school site administrators to: 1) decrease suspension rates for all students,
and 2) increase proportionality in discipline practices for Latino students. The proposed solutions
for internal outcomes will allow school site administrators to: 1) increase awareness of the role
implicit and explicit bias plays in school discipline, 2) increase knowledge of changes in
discipline policies through the California Education Code, 3) increase collaboration amongst
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 189
different school sites within the same school district, 4) increase use of district alternative to
suspension programs, 5) increase use of alternative means of correction, and 6) improve school
site culture.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). The Kirkpatrick model suggests
that evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards. By starting
with the evaluation plan and moving backwards leading indicators to the organization's goals are
both easier to identify and more closely aligned with the organization’s goals. Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick define leading indicators as short-term observations and measurements that suggest
whether or not critical behaviors are on track to create desired results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). The reverse order of the Kirkpatrick Model allows for a three part sequence: a) first, the
development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) secondly, the
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and c) lastly, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner creates connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 190
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4 of the new Kirkpatrick model measures the degree to which targeted outcomes
occur as a result of the training and the support accountability package (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Leading indicators are short-term observations and measurements that
provide a metric as to whether or not critical behaviors are on track to create a positive impact on
the desired results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The proposed leading indicators external
and internal outcomes, metrics, and methods are shown in Table 33 that indicates school site
administrators are achieving their desired goal of a proportionate amount of suspensions for
Latino students based on school enrollment.
Table 33
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Decrease suspension
rates for all students.
Annually review data from
California School Dashboard
and district student information
system. Specifically, from
Dashboard record suspension
rates for the school overall From
SIS collect specific names of
suspended students and what
infractions students have been
suspended for.
Compare yearly district
suspension rates.
Identify what infractions have a
high level of suspensions.
Identify what students are being
suspended more frequently.
2. Increase proportionality
in discipline practices for
Latino students.
Annually review data from
California School Dashboard,
noting rates for the eight
identified state subgroups. In the
district SIS collect information
listed on the ethnic identity of
Compare yearly district
suspension rates for student
subgroups.
Compare ethnic identification of
students suspended at high
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 191
suspended students. levels for specific offenses.
Internal Outcomes
3. Increase awareness of
the role implicit and
explicit bias plays in
school discipline.
Administrators participate in
yearly training before the start
of the school year where they
will review suspension data
from the previous school year
and participate in discussion of
alternative practices.
Review attendance by
administrators at annual review
session.
4. Increase knowledge of
changes in discipline
policies through the
California Education
Code.
Administrators will take part
annually in a review session to
learn about changes in the
California Education Code as it
applies to discipline.
Annual attendance at sessions
offered through either school
district or county office of
education.
5. Increase collaboration
amongst different school
sites within the same
school district.
Site administrators will
participate monthly in a review
of discipline practices within
their district. Administrators will
be able to discuss best practices
with colleagues.
Review attendance by
administrators at meetings to
discuss discipline practices.
6. Increase use of district
alternative to suspension
programs.
The frequency of students that
are referred to alternative to
suspension programs.
Review the number of students
referred to alternative to
suspension programs in lieu of
suspension.
7. Increase use of
alternative means of
correction.
The frequency of students that
are referred to an alternative
mean of correction.
Review the number of students
assigned an alternative mean of
correction in lieu of a
suspension.
8. Improve school site
culture.
Increased positive interactions
with students. Increased rating
on the California Healthy Kids
Survey.
Reflect on interactions for
students in common areas as
well as why students are coming
into the office. Annually
compare data from California
Healthy Kids Survey.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 192
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders that are focused on are school site administrators
as they are the ones who ultimately suspend students. Critical behaviors are a few, but key,
behaviors that the primary group will have to consistently perform on the job to bring about
targeted outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In this context the primary group refers to
school site administrators. The first critical behavior is that administrators will need to review
district policies and revise them to include appropriate alternatives to suspension and specific
alternative means of correction. The second critical behavior is that administrators will complete
refresher training on discipline policies where they will learn current practices so that they do not
rely on past policies such as Zero Tolerance. The third critical behavior is that administrators will
review their suspensions for education code violation, administrators will suspend for the most
egregious transgressions and refrain from adding 48900(k) disruption violations where possible.
The fourth critical behavior is that administrators will work with district officials to create clear
discipline guidelines to reduce occurrences of subjectivity in discipline practices and create
continuity in practices for all students. Finally, administrators will follow-up with teachers on
office discipline referrals (ODRs) that are received and when necessary will coach teachers on
classroom management strategies to reduce ODRs. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for
evaluating outcome behaviors appear in Table 34.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 193
Table 34
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Annually review
and revise district
discipline policies to
offer alternative
means of correction
and alternatives to
suspension in lieu of
mandated suspension
for nonviolent
infractions.
Number of board
policies put into place
funding alternative to
suspension programs
and alternative means
of correction.
Site administrators will
meet with their Student
Services division to
review current policies
and assess where
alternatives can be
added. These findings
will be presented to the
School Board.
Yearly, at the end of
the first semester.
2. Conduct an annual
refresher training on
discipline policies.
Policies that have
changed from the
previous year will be
addressed. Practices
will also be updated
so that past practices,
such as Zero
Tolerance, will be
removed from an
administrator’s
schema.
The number of
students who are
suspended for
infractions where
alternative means of
correction could have
been offered.
The number of
administrators who
participate in the
refresher.
Site administrators will
participate in training
either with their own
school district or with
their county office of
education where they
will be review discipline
scenarios and will be
apprised of changes to
the state education code
in regards to discipline.
Yearly, before the
start of the
upcoming school
year.
3. Annually review The number of Site administrators will Two times a year, at
what education code students who are look at what they are the end of the fall
violations students are suspended for a suspending students for semester and the
being suspended for 48900(k) violation in an making sure that they end of the spring
to ensure that: 1) addition to other are addressing the crux semester.
alternative means of infractions. of the incident. For
correction are being example if a student
offered 2) students are were found to be in
only removed from possession of alcohol
the school site when that student would be
they pose a threat to suspended for a
themselves or others. 48900(c) violation only,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 194
Refrain from adding
48900(k) disruption
violations except
when alternative
means of correction
have failed.
and not have a 48900(k)
violation added to their
suspension.
4. Create a practice of
releasing a universal
district discipline
guide than aligns with
revised practices.
Adopt this guideline
district wide to reduce
occurrences of
subjectivity in
discipline practices
and create continuity
in practices for all
students regardless of
school site, age
gender, or ethnic
identity.
The number of
revisions made to
previous discipline
guidelines will
directly reflect
changes in board
policies and the state
education code.
Site administrators will
meet with their Student
Services division to
review current district
policies and create a
document that
administrators can use
as a guideline when
addressing student
discipline.
At the beginning of
the spring semester
to allow for
legislation passed
on the first of the
new year and to
allow for a pilot
period in the spring
semester for new
policies.
5. Follow-up with
teachers who turn in a
high number of office
discipline referrals
(ODRs) when
compared to their
peers coach these
teachers on classroom
management
strategies to reduce
ODRs.
In Student
Information System
run a monthly query
of what teachers are
turning in ODRs and
compare these with
other teachers.
Site administrators will
identify what teachers
are sending a high
volume of discipline
referrals and a high
number of referrals for
subjective reason.
Administrators will
schedule mentoring
sessions with these
teachers to address
classroom management.
Throughout the
school year. ODRs
will be examined
monthly. Mentoring
sessions will occur
on a monthly basis,
once ODRs for a
teacher decline then
mentoring sessions
can gradually to
decrease.
Required drivers. School site administrators requires the support of their supervisors in
their respective school districts, the support of other school sites in their district for continuity,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 195
and the support of their county office education to reinforce, encourage, reward, and monitor
their efforts to reduce suspensions and reduce disproportionality. Reinforcement is used to
remind administrators of what they learned and provide refresher trainings Encouragement is a
formal way to provide coaching and mentoring. Rewarding, is providing incentives for critical
behaviors. Finally, monitoring ensures accountability by monitoring performance by school site
administrators. Table 35 shows the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of school
site administrators.
Table 35
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s)
Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Provide training to
administrators on how to
handle discipline scenarios
utilizing district created
guidelines.
Annually 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Provide site level
administrators with district
created guidelines to remove
subjective nature of how
discipline is handled.
Annually 1, 2, 4
Encouraging
At a training session before
the start of the school year
administrators will work
through discipline scenarios.
The scenarios will be
designed to reflect changes in
state discipline policies, be
common discipline scenarios
an administrator may face, or
Annually 1, 2, 3, 4
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 196
present an opportunity for
alternative means of
correction. Administrators
will work in table groups
where they will have the
opportunity to peer
model discipline scenarios
with site level administrators,
using examples of scenarios
that have occurred in the
district. Allow administrators
to discuss their thought
process in how they would
handle presented cases and
allow others to provide
feedback.
Site administrators with high
levels of suspensions for
subjective infractions at their
site will have one-on-one
meetings monthly with
district level administrators
for extra support.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding
Through their monitoring of
site level discipline the district
will nominate site
administrators to serve on the
district discipline policy
committee based on their
exemplary practices.
Annually 1, 2
Through their monitoring of
site level discipline the district
will recognize site
administrators as mentors and
create a list of mentors other
administrators may utilize for
individual help.
Annually 5
Monitoring
Site and district level
administrators will query
from student information
Two times a year, once before
the start of the fall semester,
once before the start of the
1, 2, 3, 5
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 197
system to review student
suspensions, noting what
violations students are being
suspended for.
spring semester.
Site administrators will
review their site’s suspension
data before the start of the fall
and spring semesters.
Administrators will reflect on
their practices and set goals
for improvement.
Two times a year, once before
the start of the fall semester,
once before the start of the
spring semester.
1, 3
Organizational support. To ensure that the required drivers are implemented school
districts will need to provide the following supports. First, review current discipline policies and
collaboratively develop a set of guidelines that administrators can use when faced with various
discipline scenarios. Following an established guideline will create a sense of consistency with
district policies and will reduce opportunities for implicit bias. Next, school districts will need to
provide school sites with suspension information in addition to what is posted on the California
School Dashboard. The California School Dashboard reports how many instances of suspension
occur, but school districts will need to provide information regarding what infractions
suspensions were for. This information will need to be provided at the end of the fall and the
spring semesters. Next, the school district will need monitor school data and recognize what
school sites and administrators are making strides to reduce suspensions and recognize these
individuals. These individuals should be utilized as peer mentors with other site administrators
and should assist in the ongoing revision of district discipline policies. Additionally, time will
need to be set aside for district discipline committee to review policies and practices. Finally,
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 198
school districts will need to review the percentages of students being suspended both as a whole
as well as for student subgroups to determine if district discipline policies are effective.
Level 2: Learning
Learning is defined as the degree to which participants acquire the intended knowledge,
skills, attitude, confidence and commitment based on their participation in training (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016). If the training provided is effectively implemented school site
administrators should be able to display confidence and commitment. Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) define confidence as the level of certainty an individual has doing what is
taught whereas commitment is the level of effort the learner will apply to what is taught.
Learning goals. Upon completion of the recommended solutions the school site
administrators will be able to:
1. Describe the role of bias in decision making regarding assigning student discipline
(Declarative Factual).
2. Describe the influence Zero Tolerance policies have had in increasing disproportionality
in student discipline (Declarative Factual).
3. Recognize that Latino students are more likely to be suspended for subjective infractions
and White students for objective infractions (Declarative Factual).
4. Recognize that once a student has been suspended that student is more likely to be
suspended again (Declarative Factual).
5. Recognize that Exclusionary discipline practices do not deter student behavior and can
lead to further discipline instances in the future for the same infraction (Declarative
Factual).
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 199
6. Understand and monitor their school culture, rather than shift blame to the students in
order to reduce subjective disciplinary measures (Metacognitive).
7. Value the reduction of bias, whether implicit or explicit, in how teachers treat students in
the classroom (Value).
8. Value the reduction of bias, whether implicit or explicit, in the application of discipline
by teachers (Value).
9. Value the reduction of bias, whether implicit or explicit, in how administrators treat
students (Value).
10. Value the reduction of bias, whether implicit or explicit, in how administrators assign
disciplinary consequences (Value).
11. Understand that suspensions for subgroups of students will affect school site’s ratings and
perceived ranking by others (Value).
12. Be confident that school faculty and staff are capable of correcting its biases about certain
student groups and their behavior (Culture).
Program. The learning goals provided in the above section will be achieved through
training and exercises that will increase the knowledge and motivation of school site
administrators to provide data on perceived barriers to a proportionate number of suspensions for
Latino students. To develop administrator’s knowledge and skills they will be provided with an
annual training by their school district regarding state and district discipline policies. Annually
administrators will develop specific district discipline guidelines to be followed by all sites in a
school district. Two times a year, administrators will actively analyze site and district level
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 200
discipline data. Throughout the year administrators will participate in peer reflection regarding
how they handled disciplinary cases at their site. Particularly challenging situations will be
reported to the school district where they can be compiled as example scenarios for upcoming
annual trainings.
Since school site administrators stay in their positions from varied amounts of time, one
year or more, the program will be ongoing. Training will occur at the end of the fall and spring
semesters when students are not in session. Training on changes to district discipline policies and
applied practice with discipline scenarios will occur in the summer leading into the new school
year. Discipline scenarios will be those which colleagues in the district may have previously
struggled with. Administrators will have their knowledge of state and district discipline policies
tested before they work with a scenario and after. Table discussions on discipline scenarios will
be reported out to the larger district group at the training. Administrators will receive feedback
from district officials as well as their peers who had dealt with the situation. At these training
sessions school site administrators will be presented with revised district discipline guidelines. In
table groups administrators will review these guidelines, discuss, and share out concerns or
barriers that may be presented in the future due to these guidelines.
Once the school year starts site administrators will meet monthly to discuss discipline
trends that they are seeing in their schools, for example they may notice that a specific infraction
occurs at a high rate in a specific area or at a specific time. These monthly check-ins will allow
administrators to note interventions needed and make appropriate changes to the district’s
discipline policies. Next, at the conclusion of the fall semester, administrators will analyze
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 201
California School Dashboard data and data from the student information system (SIS) regarding
suspensions. From the California School Dashboard administrators will look at suspension rates
for both their site as well as subgroups. From their SIS administrators will look at what
infractions are occuring. Data will be discussed with other site administrators for peer feedback
and necessary revisions will be made to district discipline policies. The spring semester will be
used to pilot any changes to the district policy at one school site before the policy is adopted
districtwide. Finally, at the end of the spring semester, administrators will analyze data again.
This information will be used at the start of the program cycle prior to the following fall.
Evaluation of the components of learning. To apply what is learned to solve problems
and meet performance goals school site administrators must have the knowledge and skills and
motivation to achieve their goal of decreasing disproportionality in school discipline. Therefore,
it is important to assess learning for both the conceptual and procedural knowledge being taught.
It is also important that the administrators value training, are committed, and confident so that
they can apply what they have learned on a daily basis. As such, Table 36 lists the evaluation
methods and timing for these learning components.
Table 36
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through discussion at table
groups during training sessions.
Periodically in the annual training before
school starts.
Report out on table discussions. During the training.
Pre-test and post-test Before, during, and at the end of the training.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Checklist of discipline investigation from
initial complaint to assigning consequence.
During the training.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 202
Use real discipline scenarios in groups at
tables.
During the training.
Feedback from peers after completing
discipline scenarios.
During the training.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions about the value and rationale. During
Discussion of any issues. During
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussion in small groups of concerns,
barriers, etc.
During and after.
Mentorship, coaching, or peer check ins for
new administrators or struggling
administrators.
After.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions of any issues, praises if applicable. During and after.
Self-reports of the progress. After
Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define reaction as the degree to which participants
find the training favorable, engaging and relevant to their job. It is essential to determine how
school site administrators react to the learning event. Therefore it is important to confirm that the
quality of the learning event was acceptable to school site administrators. Table 37 lists the
methods used to determine the learners’ reaction to the learning even being favorable, engaging,
and relevant.
Table 37
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Attendance rate. At the beginning of the training
Active interaction during group activities. During the training.
Asking meaningful questions. During the training.
Completion of practice scenarios. During the training.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 203
Relevance
Pulse check via survey and/or discussion. Before and after breaks during the training.
Anonymous survey. End of the training.
Debrief with school sites. During the fall semester before data analysis.
Customer Satisfaction
Training evaluation. After the training.
Dedicated observer who gauges participant
commentary and body language.
During the training.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) recommend two types of evaluation tools; immediate and delayed. Following the training
school site administrators will complete a survey (see Appendix B for the survey questions). The
survey will indicate the relevance of the material to their job, participant satisfaction,
commitment, attitude, and confidence in applying what has been learned.
During the training sessions facilitators will conduct pulse checks by asking participants
if the content is relevant to their sites and address questions or concerns administrators may have.
Facilitators will also check to see if the environment is creating any barriers to the participants’
learning.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. At the end of the fall and
spring semesters site administrators will be asked to look at California School Dashboard and
their student information system (SIS) to fill out a survey regarding their most current suspension
data (see Appendix C for the survey). This survey will contain open and scaled items using the
blended evaluation approach to measure, from the site administrator’s perspective, satisfaction
and relevance of the training to the administrators’ ability to provide data on perceived barriers
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 204
to developing and recommending strategies to support the reduction of disproportionate
suspensions for Latino students.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for school site administrators is measured by the suspension rates for
student dropping between fall and spring reporting periods. Particular attention will be paid to
the suspension rates for Latino students. School site administrators must have knowledge, skills,
and motivation to provide data on perceived barriers to making suspension rates for Latino
students proportional to school enrollment. Each reporting period, a school semester, the
reviewer will compile data from the delayed evaluation tool (see Appendix C). Annually the
reviewer will track suspension rates for all students and for all student subgroups. At the district
level a comparison chart can be made looking at the suspension rates for different schools in the
district. An example of a dashboard is provided in Appendix D.
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The New World Kirkpatrick Model informs the implementation and evaluation of this
study (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training and evaluation are
used to certify that school site administrators have the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
support to provide data on perceived barriers to developing and recommending strategies to
mirror suspensions for Latino students to school enrollment. According to this model, the
training program begins with the identification of outcomes, metrics, and method to measure the
results of the targeted outcomes that are integrated with the organization’s goals. Next, the
program established the critical behaviors to assess if school site administrators are using the
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 205
training that they received once they are working with students. Additionally, learning outcomes
are identified and school site administrators are evaluated on their learning and knowledge,
attitude, commitment, and confidence during the training. Finally, methods to assess how school
site administrators are reacting and implementing training were developed to determine the
participants’ satisfaction, engagement, and the relevance of the training. To implement change
and maximize program results it is imperative to evaluate and analyze data collection during
program implementation. As stated by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) at all four levels of
data collection the question should be asked “Does the level of … meet expectations?”
During the training if the level of reaction and learning does not meet expectation then
the facilitator needs to identify the issue and necessary changes need to be made to the program.
If school site administrators are not learning or reacting as expected it is recommended that the
facilitator do a pulse check and ask participants what questions or suggestions they have and
address the issues appropriately (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). When the level of reaction
and learning meets expectations the facilitator could stop and do a pulse check to discuss why
engagement increased (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
After training if the level of behavior and results does not meet expectations then it is
important to communicate with school site administrators to find out what problems associated
with required drivers and critical behaviors, for level, exist and why they driver and behaviors
are not being applied. Additionally, district leaders can ask why the leading indicators and
desired results, for level 4, are not moving forward (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The
facilitator can solicit feedback from participating site administrators through surveys and/or
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 206
conversations and inquire as to what behaviors would allow administrators to move forward to
achieve their performance goal of reducing suspensions. When the level of behavior and results
do meet expectations, it is recommended that site administrators meeting these goals be surveyed
to identify what they are doing to increase their performance and share these practices with their
district (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Finally, it is important to provide a final report on the training outcomes to both site level
and district level administrators. Organizational support is a component that also determines the
success of any training program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). To advance performance and
results Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend providing reports and creating touch
points, or regular meetings, throughout the implementation process. To engage school leaders in
topics that are important to their sites for evaluation reports should address the relevance,
credibility, compelling, and efficiency of the program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Limitations and Delimitations
A limitation of this study was the narrow stakeholder focus and the relatively small
participation rate. Though the study focused only school site administrators other stakeholders
are the Citrus County Department of Education, District Level Student Services Directors,
Teachers, Parents, and Students. For practical purposes site level administrators were the focus
of the study. Only 13.5% of school districts from Citrus County participated in the study. The
enrollment of those districts mirrored the overall student enrollment of the county in terms of
student ethnicity, but information was not taken from districts with a majority of Latino students.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 207
Of that 13.5% on 16.8% of administrators filled out the survey form and only 5% of
administrators participated in the interview process.
Improvements could be made to this study with the inclusion of teachers and students as
stakeholder groups. The majority of defiance incidents occur in the classroom (Skiba, Chung,
Trachok, Baker, Sheya, & Hughes, 2014). These incidents are only known by administrators if
they are reported by the teacher. For every office discipline referral (ODR) sent to the office
there are incidents that go unreported. Additionally, students are the ones who are committing
disciplinary infractions on campus. Their buy-in to school culture is critical in changing their
behavior (Cressey & Whitcomb, 2014).
Recommendations for Future Research
As stated above the districts that participated in the study had enrollments that mirrored
the overall student enrollment of Citrus County. Additional research could be conducted to look
into knowledge, motivation, and perceived organizational barriers for districts with
disproportionately high numbers of Latino students. As the ethnic dispersal of Citrus County
varies from city to city future research could shift from the macro level of the county and focus
on individual school districts. Additionally, more stakeholder groups could be involved in the
research process for reasons listed above.
Due to the nature of this study and the focus on disproportionate discipline practices and
bias some school districts were reticent to participate as they did not want to be painted in a bad
light. In order to garner more participation, and still be of value to students, the focus of the
study could be broadened to reducing disproportionality in suspensions for Latino students and
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 208
rather focus on reducing overall suspensions. Removing the focus on Latino students would open
the door to more participation and then a focus on Latino students could be visited in the future.
Conclusion
The organizational performance problem that this study sought to address is the
disproportionate application of suspensions and expulsions of Latino students, particularly
among those incidents that involve defiance or disruption. School site administrators were
selected as the stakeholder group that this study focussed on. Administrators were selected
because ultimately they have the power to suspend a student from school and remove him/her
from their educational environment. Though this study focused on reducing suspensions for
Latino students for defiance and disruption solutions discussed can be applied to all student
groups to reduce overall suspension rates and improve school culture.
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 209
APPENDIX A
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089
Promoting Equity in Discipline Practices for Latino Students: A Gap Analysis
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the organizational
problem of disproportionality in suspension and expulsions for Latino students.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in an internet survey and
you will have the option to self select into an interview. The survey will take roughly fifteen to
twenty minutes and the interview will take roughly twenty to thirty minutes. Interviews can
either be conducted at your school site, or a neutral location.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address or other identifiable information will not be collected.
Required language:
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
The Principal Investigator is Chris Davis, Davi403@usc.edu, (949) 302-5667
The Faculty Advisors are Kenneth Yates, Ed. D., kennetay@usc.edu, (310) 963-0946 and
Melora Sundt, Ph.D., sundt@usc.edu, (310) 403-6671.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 210
Appendix B
For each of the following questions please select the number that best correlates with how you
feel about the statement. A 1 indicates that you Strongly Disagree and a 5 indicates that you
Strongly Agree.
1. The training held my interest. 1 2 3 4 5
2. During training we discussed how to
apply what was learned.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I believe that bias influences my work. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I believe it is important to counteract bias.
as it pertains to my work.
1 2 3 4 5
5. The feedback has given me the confidence to
apply what I learned when students return to
my school site.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I am committed to applying what I learned
during my discussions.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I found the feedback during the scenarios
valuable for systematically handling student
Suspensions.
1 2 3 4 5
8. I was satisfied with the training on changes to
district discipline protocols and reducing
suspensions.
1 2 3 4 5
Please provide feedback for the following questions, remember your responses will be
anonymous:
1. What part of the training did you find irrelevant for your student discipline practices?
2. What is one major concept you learned today that you will be able to apply when students
return?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 211
Appendix C
Context: This survey is to be used to analyze your site’s suspension data as reported in the
California School Dashboard as well as our Student Information System (SIS).
School site:
Reporting period (semester):
Enrollment according to Dashboard:
Enrollment according to SIS:
Subgroup Dashboard
Number of
Students Listed
Dashboard
Status for
Suspensions
SIS Number of
Students
Suspended
SIS Number of
Student Offered
Alternative to
Suspension
(ATS)
African
American
American Indian
Asian
Filipino
Hispanic
Pacific Islander
Two or More
Races
White
1. Have suspension rates decreased from your last reporting period? Yes No
2. Has the number of students offered ATS increased since the last Yes No
reporting period?
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 212
3. Has the number of students suspended two or more times in a Yes No
semester increased since the last reporting period?
4. Were you able to apply any strategies learned at our last discipline Yes No
training?
Please review data from you SIS and indicate how many students were indicated for each
infraction.
Infraction Total
Students
African
American
American
Indian
Asian Filipino Hispanic Pacific
Islander
Two or
More
Races
White
48900(a)(
1)
48900(a)(
2)
48900(b)
48900(c)
48900(d)
48900(e)
48900(f)
48900(g)
48900(h)
48900(i)
48900(j)
48900(k)
48900(l)
48900(m)
48900(n)
48900(o)
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 213
48900(p)
48900(q)
48900(r)
48900(s)
48900(t)
48900(u)
48900(v)
48900(w)
48900.1
48900.2
48900.3
48900.4
48900.5
48900.6
48900.7
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 214
Appendix D
PROMOTING EQUITY IN DISCIPLINE PRACTICES 215
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study utilized the gap analysis problem-solving framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) in order to develop strategies for how to mirror the percentage of suspensions for Latino students to Latino Student enrollment in Citrus County, California. The purpose of the study was to identify whether knowledge, motivation, and/or organizational barriers were contributing to the identified gap. A mixed method approach was used to collect data. Twenty school site administrators, from two different school districts, participated in the survey. In addition, six administrators, from two different school districts, were interviewed. The surveys and interviews helped validate assumed causes that were hypothesized after reviewing scholarly literature. The validated assumed causes for knowledge were that site administrators need to know the role of bias in their decision making process, the role of Zero Tolerance in contributing to disproportionality, that Latino students are more apt to be suspended for objective infractions, that once a student is suspended they are more likely to be suspended again, that suspensions do not deter student behavior, and that school culture can shape student behavior. The validated assumed causes for motivation were that school site administrators need to believe that bias impacts their work, that bias impacts who teachers refer to the office and that adults in the school are capable of correcting their biases. The validated assumed causes for organization barriers were schools need to foster a culture of inclusion rather than exclusion, that district policies need to support the goal of reducing disproportionality, that more alternatives to suspension are needed, and that the 48900(k) defiance/disruption violation is overused. Solutions to close the validated causes were developed. Research on disproportionality for Latino students has been limited. The use of the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) in this study demonstrates one approach school districts could use to guide their organization in reaching the goal of proportionate discipline.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Davis, Christopher Michael
(author)
Core Title
Promoting equity in discipline practices for Latino students: a gap analysis
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
04/06/2018
Defense Date
03/12/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
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Tag
48900(k),culture,disproportionality,explicit bias,gap analysis,implicit bias,Knowledge,Latino,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,organization,PBIS,suspension
Language
English
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Sundt, Melora (
committee chair
), Yates, Kenneth (
committee chair
), Barnes, Kelly (
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)
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davi403@usc.edu,davis.christopher@hotmail.com
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-757
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Davis, Christopher Michael
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
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Tags
48900(k)
disproportionality
explicit bias
gap analysis
implicit bias
Latino
organization
PBIS
suspension