University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Examining the impact of peer mentoring on transitioning socio-economically disadvantaged minority middle school students

(USC Thesis Other)

Examining the impact of peer mentoring on transitioning socio-economically disadvantaged minority middle school students

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 1
EXAMINING THE IMPACT OF PEER MENTORING ON TRANSITIONING SOCIO-
ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED MINORITY MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

By

Brandie M. Del Real

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Brandie Michelle Del Real

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 2
DEDICATION
For my mother, for the sacrifices she made, the discipline she instilled, the strength she
demonstrated, the challenges she overcame, and her role in the woman I have become.
Also, for the young people whom I have served and will serve. You deserve improved care and
understanding, and I hope this starts a conversation. You have a voice; be heard by all!

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have been blessed with having supportive and encouraging family and friends. The
journey of this accomplishment has been a trial in numerous ways, providing challenges and
lessons along the way. I have learned a tremendous amount about myself and others over the last
three years, which I will not soon forget.
First and foremost, I want to thank God for His unwavering love and mercy.
I want to thank my family. To my parents (Sam and Yvette), for your enduring support
and helpfulness throughout this process. I could not have done it without you. To my sister
Stephanie, your success as an educator has encouraged and renewed me. I can only wish all
educators were as creative, empathetic, and outstanding as you. Thank you to my extended
family for your love and understanding. To Mr. Romant, thank you for your patience and many
reads through my dissertation. Your brain and love have been vital to the completion of this
chapter in my life.
I also want to thank my best friends, Autumn, Kourtney, and Malika. You all have been
amazingly understanding of my goals and uplifting me as women should do for one another.
Thank you to my friends who have not held my hibernation against me for nearly three years.
Your continued support beyond this time is genuine, and I cannot thank you enough. Thank you
to Daniell Whittington for gathering articles for my literature review, using her librarian
expertise. To my USC ladies, Amber, Ashley, Bernice, and Sahar, thank you for bringing your
feminine sass and awesomeness. Renee, bless your heart for being my carpool buddy and a great
friend. To the rest of my Trojan family, I could not have done without you all.
Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Patricia Tobey and committee members, Dr.
Patrick Crispen, and Dr. Wayne Combs for the freedom and encouragement to investigate my
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 4
topic of interest. Thank you for sharing your positive words and guidance with me. Dr.
Corrinne Hyde, I much appreciate your willingness to join my committee and share your
expertise with me. To Dr. Ilda-Jimenez, I cannot thank you enough for getting my brain
synapses to connect while writing my Chapter Two. Your help while at Operation Dissertation
Acceleration (ODA) was invaluable. To my editor, Dr. Guadalupe Garcia Montano, your
flexibility and willingness to help is refreshing.
A special thank you goes to Dr. Greg Cleave for unknowingly being my inspiration for
pursuing my doctorate at USC. I had no excuses not to do this, I did not make any excuses, and
here I am. Thank you for your reassuring words and encouragement throughout this process.
Despite the ups and downs of life, I have persevered and become a better version of the
woman I was. If someone had told me I would be getting a doctorate from USC at this time in
my life…or ever, I would have thought they were joking. I have taken full advantage of the
opportunities bestowed upon me, which have been magical and necessary. Even when I have not
felt the most confident in myself, I tried my best and sought to enhance my skills. I will continue
to be a student in life and learn through experiences and people. I can only hope to share a
fraction of what I have learned with children and those who desire to know. Knowledge cannot
be taken away, but it comes with great responsibility. I encourage all to gather as much
knowledge as possible, never become complacent, and contribute to those around you. Fight on!

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Theoretical Framework 13
Research Questions and Hypotheses 14
Importance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Definition of Terms 19
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review 23
Student Risk and Need 24
Risk 25
Need 27
Consequences 33
Mentors 38
Peer Mentoring/Support 39
Shift to Peers 42
Summary 43
The Boomerang Project: Where Everybody Belongs (WEB) 44
Goals of WEB 44
How WEB Works 45
Access 49
Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition Flex Monitor (BASC-3 FM) 51
School Problems 52
Internalizing Problems 52
Summary 54
Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (MCISPS) 55
Summary 56
Chapter Three: Methodology 58
Sample and Population 59
Instrumentation 60
Data Collection 63
Data Analysis 64
Chapter Four: Results 66
Reporting of Results 66
Figure 1. Free or reduced-price lunch. 69
Summary 75
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings 77
Discussion of Findings and Limitations 79
Implications for Practice 83
Recommendations for Future Research 83
Conclusions 86
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 6
References 88
Appendix A: 7th Grade Survey 121
Appendix B: Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix 122
Appendix C: USC IRB Approval Notice for Expedited Review Applications Certificate 123

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Students Receiving and Needing Mental Health Support 32
Table 2: Level of Risk T-score Descriptive 67
Table 3: Level of Risk T-score Frequency 67
Table 4: Level of Risk Code Frequency 68
Table 5: Level of Risk T-score Correlations 71
Table 6: Gender * Level of Risk Code [count, expected] 72
Table 7: Gender Chi-square Tests 72
Table 8: Ethnicity * Level of Risk Code [count, expected] 73
Table 9: Ethnicity Chi-square Tests 73
Table 10: Orientation Attendance Count 74
Table 11: Orientation Attendance Test Statistics 74
Table 12: Risk Code Occurrence 74
Table 13: Risk Code Test Statistics 75

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 8
ABSTRACT
This study addressed the problem that underrepresented minority middle school students
in low socio-economic areas have limited access to adequate mental health support. Peer
mentoring has been implemented as a tier one intervention. The purpose of the study was to
determine the impact of peer mentoring on students’ internalizing and school problems. Students
at this school were 71.2% socio-economically disadvantaged and approximately 70% are
ethnicities other than White.
The Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (MCISPS)
created in 2010 by the National Association of School Psychologists was used to explain the
impending need for mental health resources. Results of the study indicated weak to very weak
correlations and nonsignificant relationships and do not support findings on peers being
beneficial to intervention. However, there is a lack of research on peers used in social and
emotional intervention and school psychologists providing comprehensive services. Some
outcomes of the study indicate 30% of students at-risk compared to the 20% that literature
suggests. Despite weak correlations, trends indicate that students living in a low socio-economic
area are more at-risk, students risk factors decrease when they are connected to the school and
have a trusted adult available, and females are more at-risk than males for internalizing
problems. If significant limitations in this study are mediated, the outcome may be different.
There is a need for more research on using peer mentoring as a universal social and emotional
intervention and comprehensive services by school psychologists.
Keywords: school psychologist, peer mentor, at-risk, adolescent, middle school, mental health,
low socio-economic, minority, intervention, access, internalizing problems, school problems

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
In December 2014, Seaport High School suffered the loss of a Hispanic freshman high
school student via suicide. Jared (a pseudonym) suffered from depression and bullying
throughout his middle school and high school years. In efforts to protect Jared and his family,
the incident has never been published in the newspaper, although students posted on social media
regarding the incident. While Jared dealt with internal obstacles and his struggles were known
by peers and staff, no intervention took place in the form of mental health support.
Minorities in low socio-economic areas are most at-risk for internalizing and
externalizing problems (Bennett & Joe, 2015; Breslau, Lane, Sampson, & Kessler, 2008; Brooks,
Harris, & Thrall, 2002; Childs & Ray, 2015; Lemon, 2010; Meyers and Swerdlik, 2003; Pastore,
Fisher, & Friedman, 1996). Lemon (2010) found that minorities in low socio-economic areas are
at risk of dropping out of high school due to mental health issues such as adverse attitudes
toward school, school and social adjustment difficulties, anti-social behavior, and depressive
symptoms. Meyers and Swerdlik (2003) suggested that if mental health needs are not met,
students are more likely to engage in high-risk behaviors (e.g. drugs, alcohol, sex, crime),
become depressed, and attempt suicide. Given the findings, minorities in low socio-economic
areas suffer from increasing danger for dropout and high-risk behaviors surrounding their
internalizing and externalizing problems. Adolescents who feel stressed or depressed are more
likely to be older and engage in physical fights, have unprotected sex, and use tobacco (Brooks et
al., 2002; Childs & Ray, 2015). If left untreated, depression, substance abuse, anxiety, suicide
attempts, and aggression result. Latino and African American adolescents in urban areas are
twice as likely to suffer from suicidal ideation and up to four times as likely to make a suicide
attempt when exposed to violence compared to other adolescents (Bennett & Joe, 2015; Pastore
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 10
et al., 1996). Exposure to adverse community factors is associated with mental distress, while
depressive symptoms and substance abuse are significantly related to suicidality (Bennett & Joe,
2015). Over 10 percent of high school dropouts in a national United States sample were
attributable to mental health disorders (Breslau et al., 2008). If minorities in low socio-economic
areas equate to the majority of dropouts, one can reasonably conclude that internalizing and
externalizing problems are not being addressed adequately.
Approximately 70-80 percent of children across all income levels with psychosocial
needs are only receiving support from their school (Cappella, Frazier, Atkins, Schoenwald, &
Glisson, 2008). While there is significant research on evidence-based approaches to mental
health and mental health frameworks, there is little research about the factors impacting effective
implementation of school-based mental health support (Meyers & Swerdlik, 2003). Research
suggests improving social skills interventions by identifying fundamental skills, teaching the
skills in isolation, practicing in controlled settings, and assessing in uncontrolled settings to
increase generalizability (Atkins, Cappella, Shernoff, Mehta, & Gustafson, 2017; Evans,
Axelrod, & Sapia, 2000). Bradshaw et al. (2014) showed that school climate at volunteer high
schools improved by a collaborative statewide effort to implement Positive Behavioral
Interventions and Supports (PBIS) using a multi-tiered model of support. PBIS includes using
proactive evidence-based supports to increase students’ positive academic, social, and emotional
behaviors. Some of these supports can include universal support such as classroom expectations
and routines being consistent with school expectations, targeted support such as social skills
instruction or increased academic assistance, and individual support such as de-escalation plans
or environmental modifications. Positive results in students’ health, social responsibility,
reduction of maladjusted behaviors, depression, and substance abuse surface when social-
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 11
emotional proficiency and academic performance are integrated (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, &
Walberg, 2004; Zins & Elias, 2007). Cappella et al. (2008) direct attention to rethinking
preventative mental health services in low socio-economic areas via ecological theory, public
health principles, and organizational theory. Meyers and Swerdlik (2003) identify many
challenges in schools’ abilities to implement school-based health services, however they also
provide solutions such as reframing program goals, getting involved in system reform, creating a
continuum of comprehensive services, conducting needs assessments, training stakeholders, and
providing health-related training for school psychologists.
School psychologists are trained to provide mental health supports (Davis, McIntosh,
Phelps, & Kehle, 2004; National Association of School Psychologists [NASP], 2010; National
Research Council, 2009; Weir, 2012). The National Association of School Psychologists (2010)
recommends a ratio of one school psychologist to 500-700 students when providing
comprehensive and preventative services (i.e., assessment, counseling, collaboration,
behavior/academic intervention, and crisis response). However, these recommendations are not
being followed by most public schools (Weir, 2012). Davis et al. (2004) identify that 65 percent
of school psychologists are too busy to implement preventative services when ratios are inflated.
Corwick (a pseudonym) Unified School District (CUSD) has an approximate ratio of 1:1143,
while the National Association of School Psychologists (2010) recommends a ratio of one school
psychologist to 500-700. The school psychologist working on the school’s program included in
this research has an approximate ratio of 1:2000 students, among two school sites. The National
Research Council (2009) reports that one in five children have an emotional or behavioral
disorder (EBD), which means that a minimum of 400 students need mental health support at two
school sites alone. The director of special education and the director of secondary instruction for
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 12
a school district can help prevent the problem by implementing practical and appropriate mental
health services for all students.
Statement of the Problem
Underrepresented minority students in low socio-economic areas have limited access to
adequate mental health support (DeFosset, Gase, Ijadi-Maghsoodi, & Kuo, 2017; Evans, Bruns,
Armstrong, Hodges, & Hernandez, 2016; Hirschfield & Gasper, 2011; Lopes, Silva, Oliveira,
Sass, & Martin, 2018; Malone, Cornell, & Shukla, 2017; National Institute of Mental Health,
2010; National Research Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn & McDougal, 1998).
This problem has reached its peak because the behaviors of these students are impeding their
learning and the learning of others (e.g. disruption in class, bullying, and attempted suicide).
According to the National Institute of Mental Health (2010), mental and behavioral disorders is
the second leading disease/disorder for people ages 10-14 and the primary disease/disorder for
people ages 15-19, and through age 74. One in five children in the United States suffers from an
emotional or behavioral disorder (DeFosset et al., 2017; Evans et al., 2016; National Research
Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn & McDougal, 1998). Disruption and defiance of
school personnel are the most common reason students are given referrals and subsequently
removed from the classroom in middle school (Predy, McIntosh, & Frank, 2014; Skiba, Peterson,
& Williams, 1997). Student misbehavior in the classroom impedes learning and performance
(Lopes et al., 2018), decreases school engagement (Hirschfield & Gasper, 2011), and contributes
to an unhealthy learning environment (Malone, Cornell, & Shukla, 2017). Subsequently, these
students are missing valuable learning and instruction due to being sent out of class or being
suspended due to behavior problems.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 13
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to collect quantitative data from one suburban middle school
to determine the impact of peer mentoring on a student’s level of risk using internalizing and
school problems as critical components. Internalizing and school problems have been found to
impact essential outcomes for school districts such as academic performance, suspension rates,
absenteeism, and bullying (Buehler, Fletcher, Johnston, & Weymouth, 2015; Espelage & Holt,
2007; Teasley, 2004). All seventh graders in the Where Everybody Belongs (WEB) program
will be assigned to an eighth grade mentor who will make at least eight contacts with their
seventh grade students within the first six weeks of school to support their transition to middle
school. Following these contacts, monthly activities, peer led social and emotional class lessons,
academic and behavioral check-ins, and different contacts will occur throughout the school year.
The intervention may create a group which can be compared to students not engaging in the
availability of a peer mentor; however, the peer mentor program is being made available to all
seventh grade students. This study will assist in determining whether Woodhill Middle School
(WMS) and other schools with similar demographics should consider including peer mentoring
in a multi-tiered service model for intervention. Further, this study will also assist in explaining
additional reasons why schools and school districts should enhance school psychologist
resources to support students, families, and staff.
Theoretical Framework
The MCISPS created in 2010 by the National Association of School Psychologists will
be used to explain the impending need for mental health resources. Specifically, interventions
and mental health services to develop life and social skills and preventive and responsive
services will be addressed to support this study’s use of intervention and interaction with
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 14
students’ internalizing and school problems. Through this lens, the audience will be able to
understand how much school psychologists are realistically able to contribute to the well-being
of students in the educational environment. The audience will further discover that inadequate
mental health access continues to perpetuate problems plaguing schools such as low academic
performance and engagement, high suspension rates, high referral rates, and absenteeism.
Research presented in this study supports ongoing mental health access concerns in schools and
maintaining similarly negative outcomes. The research questions address the focus of the
research problems by informing the audience of the necessity to use children to mediate mental
health issues in schools due to inadequate access. Moreover, the research questions will inform
schools of the impact of peer mentors on risk level.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
1. What is the level of risk among 7
th
-grade students who participate in WEB?
2. What is the association between level of risk and two independent variables (frequency of
participation and intensity of activities engaged in)?
I. Hypothesis: There is an association between the level of risk and two independent
variables.
II. Null Hypothesis: There is no association between the level of risk and two
independent variables.
1. What is the strength of the relationship between gender, minority status, orientation
attendance and level of risk?
I. Hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between gender, minority status,
orientation attendance and level of risk
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 15
II. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between gender, minority
status, orientation attendance and level of risk
Importance of the Study
This problem is important to address because if many students depend on mental health
support within the school system, these necessities continue to go unmet, while behaviors are
impeding learning and missing instructional time continue to be a pervasive problem. If the
district can facilitate mental health support, the outcome benefits the individual student, the
family, the school, and the public. Solving this problem will empower schools to recognize
causes of dropout rates, rally resources with increased funding, implement mental health
programming, and support students and families in disadvantaged regions. Furthermore, school
districts will have a reference on the usefulness of the MCISPS and school psychologists to
mediate mental health supports and start reaping the benefits of favorable outcomes to include
lower absence rates, lower rates of students out of class for behavior problems, and higher
achievement.
Limitations and Delimitations
All studies are imperfect and have limitations and delimitations. This study is limited by
a lack of available data focusing on school psychologists’ real-life comprehensive service
implementation and relative outcomes for students’ mental wellness. Most studies gathered on
the topic find that well-being correlates with negative future outcomes such as dropout.
However, little demonstration of new behaviors to remediate byproducts of inadequate mental
health access occurs. While research exists on school-based mental health models, it does not
appear these models are being put into practice to establish their effectiveness or interaction with
intervention to encourage schools to implement these services. This study seeks to focus on a
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 16
preventative tactic to remediate impending mental health issues to potentially reduce the
likelihood of future adverse outcomes and establish a more effective service delivery model.
The following sections will discuss how the researcher arrived at a more narrow scope,
boundaries and variables. Further, how school psychologists and the MCISPS relate to
supporting staff, students, and families with mental health. The section also identifies the reason
for selecting the sample population within the context of a quantitative study and perceived
limitations.
Prevention and establishing peer mentoring effectiveness with the demographics included
in the study narrows the scope and boundaries of the study. The scope and boundaries are
known as delimitations. Students’ well-being via internalizing and school problems were chosen
over categories such as attendance, grades, or suspension rates because a student’s well-being is
reflective of their overall performance. There must be adequate access to resources for a
student’s well-being to improve versus thinking “it will get better on its own.” Understanding
how students are “really” doing to determine how a school can get them to improve the eventual
outcomes of attendance, grades, and academic performance is essential. These factors are
interrelated and the literature leads to the understanding of a cyclical process to include anxiety,
depression, social stress, attitude to school, and attitude to teachers. The literature drove the
variables chosen, which are represented as a ‘level of risk’. The researcher is attempting to
capture the recurrent process while creating an alternative path for new and desired outcomes. A
student’s internalizing problems are driven by their school problems and vice versa, leading to
undesirable outcomes for the individual, school, and community.
Given that a student’s problems do not occur in isolation (Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015)
and students at WMS have limited access to mental health support, it is essential to address this.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 17
The researcher chose the MCISPS as school psychologists are integral parts of providing more
access for students. Without schools taking students’ mental health seriously by providing more
resources, the cycle will continue. While implementing a one school psychologist to 500-700
student ratio is not the only answer, it can repair the fact that this personnel is primarily
conducting special education assessment. A school psychologist does not have time to provide
additional services as shown in the MCISPS, which is a severe matter and must be identified to
prove that having additional school psychologists at the site level will provide more access to
mental health for students, influencing outcomes for teachers, the school, and families. Greater
access includes ultimate outcomes for schools and school districts such as increased attendance,
lower suspension rates, and increased academic performance.
Regarding the chosen sample population, the middle school students were chosen over
primary students because the transitional period is crucial. The transition from primary school to
secondary school is an anxiety-provoking adjustment for adolescents who are experiencing a
new environment, added educational demands, modified roles and relationships, identity issues,
physical changes, and emotional changes (Ganeson & Ehrich, 2009; Hanewald, 2013). This
period is shown to be influential on students’ mental health and academic performance
trajectories. The middle school students were chosen over high school students because
beginning the peer mentoring program sooner will enhance their later functioning. Adolescence
is a difficult period which allows for prompt handling of problems to increase the likelihood a
positive outcome. A perfect opportunity to determine how well peer mentoring benefits the
population is present given the school site is implementing the WEB program for the first time.
The addition of this program will allow for easy changes and layering tiers for more intensive
intervention. Quantitative research seemed appropriate for this study as school psychologists
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 18
across the nation rely heavily on the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition
(BASC-3) for social and emotional assessment. This assessment tool is a comprehensive social
and emotional rating scale that can be given to the student, parent, and teacher. The tool also
provides data that can easily be tracked, analyzed, and compared. Lastly, the BASC-3 Flex
Monitor (BASC-3 FM) allows for ongoing progress monitoring of each child and assesses the
specific areas of interest in this study. The BASC-3 FM is an added component to the BASC-3
which can be used individually or in conjunction. These areas are in line with the initially
established scope and boundaries via the problem statement and literature.
Preventive measures for mental health present a limitation about empirical research.
First, the WEB program itself is viewed as a limitation because there is no published empirical
research on the effectiveness of this program, although there are some studies which discuss the
effectiveness of peer mentors to implement other types of programming. Another limitation is
the researcher will be relying on self-reported information to gather data in which some students
may not take the assessment seriously. Third, students with learning disabilities or limited
English proficiency may interpret questions on the surveys incorrectly, have difficulty reading
them and being able to answer the questions adequately. Lastly, the framework (MCISPS) being
used focuses on service delivery by school psychologists via student-level and systems-level.
Overburdened assessment duties surpass the ability of the researcher to engage in the
development of social and life skills and preventive services. While the researcher in this study
will analyze student data mid program implementation, approximately one school counselor, two
teachers, and five other staff members facilitate the intervention. Further, the lack of school
psychologist involvement further identifies the limitations of being able to provide
comprehensive services with inadequate amounts of staff.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 19
Definition of Terms
• 504 Plan: “Requires a school district to provide a free appropriate public education
(FAPE) to each qualified student with a disability who is in the school district's
jurisdiction, regardless of the nature or severity of the disability” (Protecting Student with
Disabilities, 2015).
• Access: Equal opportunity regardless of socio-economic status, ethnicity, gender, and
disability status. (Hidden Curriculum, 2014).
• Anxiety: Emotional stress involving excessive worrying, doubtfulness, and edginess
(Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015).
• Attitude to School: Encompasses a student’s value of school and well-being concerning
school experiences to include safety, success in school, and satisfactory peer relationships
(Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015).
• Attitude to Teachers: A student’s perception of teachers to include positive and negative
interactions, responsiveness, fairness, and helpfulness (Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015).
• At-risk: The presence of significant symptoms making a student vulnerable to poor
educationally related outcomes (Hidden Curriculum, 2014; Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015).
• Connection: Two people associated with one another; social relationship (“Connection,”
2017).
• Depression: Feelings of isolation, unhappiness, and dissatisfaction in life coupled with
causal issues of hopelessness, negativity, and anxiety (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015).
• Internalizing Problems: Self-reported internal symptoms of social stress, anxiety, and
depression (Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015).
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 20
• Low socio-economic: The level of one’s educational, income, and career attainment
establishing the social class of a person or group and related to unequal access to
resources, privilege, and control (Socio-economic Status, 2017).
• Mental health: One’s well-being emotionally, psychologically, and socially which can
influence the way one acts, thinks and feels (ASPA, 2013).
• Mentor: A person who provides trusted guidance and advice (“Mentor,” 2017).
• Middle School: A school that consists of children in grades fifth through eighth or sixth
through eighth; transitional school between elementary and high school (“Middle
School,” 2017).
• Minority: Students who are considered low-income, African-American, Hispanic, limited
English proficient, or having a disability (Dervarics, 2011).
• Peer: A person who belongs to a similar social group as defined by grade, age or status
(“Peer,” 2017).
• School climate: The quality of school life including opportunities, access to resources,
student behavior, discipline, parent involvement, level of respect among students, and
level of respect between students and teachers (Hendron & Kearney, 2016).
• School problems: Self-reported attitudes toward school and teacher connections
occurring concurrently with individual and emotional problems (Reynolds & Kamphus,
2015).
• Social stress: Stress associated with connections among peers or others and exhibited
through deficient coping skills, inadequate social outlets, and uneasiness (Reynolds
& Kamphaus, 2015).
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 21
• Special education: “Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parents, to meet the
unique needs of a child with a disability” (IDEA, 2004).
• Student-level services: School psychologists collaborating with others to implement and
evaluate interventions addressing academic, social, and life skills using assessment and
data collection (NASP, 2010).
• Support: To assist, hold up, or maintain (“Support,” 2017).
• Systems-level services: School psychologists collaborating with others to implement
preventive multi-tiered service, evidence-based crisis response, and family involvement
to maintain a safe and supportive learning environment (NASP, 2010).
• Urban area: A developed area in the United States that is densely populated by people
and structures (“Urban area,” 2018).
• Well-being: Social and emotional experiences that include satisfying relationships,
engagement, and success which are foundational in preventing behavior and mental
health problems (NICE, 2017; Scelfo, 2017).
Organization of the Study
The organization of the study began with Chapter One presenting the background of the
problem, statement of the problem and developed support to generate the purpose of the study.
Then the theoretical framework was presented, along with the research questions, the importance
of the study, limitations, and delimitations, and definitions of terms. Next is Chapter Two,
reviewing the problem and relevant literature on areas of focus. These areas include student risk
and need, consequences, mentors, WEB peer mentoring program, internalizing problems, and the
BASC-3 FM instrument. Lastly, chapter two presents the use of the theoretical framework in
this study. Chapter Three introduces the sample population of interest and instrumentation being
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 22
used to include Qualtrics and BASC-3 FM. This chapter also includes the manner of data
collection and the analyzation. Chapter Four reports results of the study. Chapter Five discusses
the results of findings, identifies implications for practice and makes recommendations for future
research.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 23
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The problem addressed in this dissertation surrounds the central theme of limited access
to mental health support. School-based mental health systems have insufficient certified staff
and economic resources (Dart et al., 2015; Kratochwill, Albers, & Shernoff, 2004). The purpose
of this chapter is to present an understanding of student risk, student need, and consequences,
which require the reconciliation of inadequate mental health access to support middle school
students’ well-being. This section provides the context for which children are expected to learn
without adequate supports in place to support them in the educational environment. This context
will be viewed through the MCISPS created by the National Association of School Psychologists
(2010) to entice the understanding of assistance necessary in schools. This section presents a
peer mentoring program to structure a universal intervention to determine its effectiveness on
students’ level of risk.
The Where Everybody Belongs (WEB) program emphasizes peer-to-peer mentorship to
enhance a feeling of safety, provide a source for information, and increase student connections
(“Why Transition Matters,” n.d.a). What the WEB program is, how it functions, its goals, and its
outcomes will be presented. Given this program relies on peer mentors, essential information to
understand peer support roles in the educational environment will be discussed. The peer's
influence on school problems and access to support for internalizing problems will also be
addressed. A measurement of school problems (attitude to teachers and attitude to school) and
internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, and social stress) using the Behavior Assessment
System for Children, Third Edition Flex Monitor (BASC-3 FM) will point out what each topic
means, how the rating is interpreted, and possible implications. The MCISPS framework will be
covered to initiate a more focused critical look at the areas of opportunity in which school
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 24
psychologists can support. Lastly, studies using self-reporting data are shared to identify the
uniqueness of this study using intervention and self-reported data.
Student Risk and Need
The demand for mental health supports by at-risk students exists without the need being
met (Capella et al., 2008; DeFosset et al., 2017; Graaf & Snowden, 2017; Johnson, 2001; Kessler
et al., 2012; Lane, Oakes, Carter, & Messenger, 2015; Larsen, Chapman, Spetz, & Brindis, 2017;
Lemon, 2010; NCSE, 2016a; Porter, Epp, & Bryan, 2000; Wang, 2009; Zins & Elias, 2007).
While up to one-half of all referrals to mental health agencies are for conduct problems or
aggressive behaviors that occur in schools, less than one-third of the children obtain satisfactory
care (Graaf & Snowden, 2017; Porter et al., 2000). The failure to provide adequate mental health
care to children can result in a disability, poor academic functioning and social relationships,
delinquency, decreased educational opportunity, and death by suicide (DeFosset et al., 2017;
Larsen et al., 2017). Kessler et al. (2012) indicate half of all lifetime cases of diagnosable mental
health disorders (e.g., impulse control, anxiety, mood, and substance abuse) in the United States
manifest before age 14 and extremely co-morbid. School funds are burdened by the reliance on
schools to offer psychosocial services and undermine their ability to educate children (Capella et
al., 2008). Students who receive social and emotional support and social skills guidance are
more engaged and perform better academically (Johnson, 2001; NCSE, 2016a; Wang, 2009; Zins
& Elias, 2007). Lane et al. (2015) determined that students who are considered to be at-risk at
the end of their elementary school career, are more likely than low-risk peers to fail courses and
have a low grade point average. Also, special education students considered to be at-risk at the
end of elementary school are more likely to be at-risk at the end of their first year in middle
school. Services within the school environment can meet the social and emotional needs of
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 25
students by involving them in social skills groups or other events to engage them in the school
method and focus their behavior on positive alternatives (NCSE, 2016a). Lemon (2010)
discusses how at-risk students who have more social and school adjustment problems, obtain
higher rates of depression and lower scores for parental emotional support and family variables,
such as coming from a single-parent home. There are contributing factors to addressing unmet
mental health needs such as low socio-economic and minority status.
Risk
Low socio-economic and minority status is related to unfavorable mental health
outcomes (Capella et al., 2008; Eklund, Meyer, Way, & McLean, 2017; Howell & McFeeters,
2007; Jain, Cohen, Huang, Hanson, & Austin, 2015; Kang-Yi et al., 2018; Kann, 2016;
Kutsyuruba, Klinger, & Hussain, 2015; Lemstra, Neudorf, D’Arcy, Kunst, Warren & Bennett,
2008; Patel, Fisher, Hetrick, & McGorry, 2007; Splett, Fowler, Weist, McDaniel, & Dvorsky,
2013; Suldo, Friedrich, & Michalowski, 2010; Weir, 2012; Wells, Hillemeier, Bai, & Belue,
2009). Patel et al. (2007) claimed that low socio-economic status correlates with a mental
disorder. Youth between the ages of 10 and 15, living in a low socio-economic area, are
approximately 2.5 times more likely to suffer from depression and anxiety symptoms than peers
living in high socio-economic areas (Lemstra et al., 2008). In 2005, 13 million children lived in
poverty, with 6 million living in great poverty (Capella et al., 2008). Approximately 43 percent
of these children were more likely to live in single-parent, female-headed households. Of these
households, 35 percent were African American, and 28 percent were Hispanic. Staff and student
safety, school climate, and student achievement have been found to be the lowest rated in low
socio-economic, predominantly minority schools (Jain et al., 2015). Safety, morale, and positive
progress is hindered by lack of funding according to numerous studies (Eklund et al., 2017;
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 26
Kutsyuruba et al., 2015; Kang-Yi et al., 2018; Weir, 2012; Suldo et al., 2010; Splett et al., 2013).
These studies further show that monies are needed to properly staff and training school staff, as
well as educate students and parents. A 2008 study by Howell and McFeeters showed that the
majority of white, African American, Native American, and Hispanic children ages 6-17 in the
United States, lived in urban areas. Despite this similarity, white children were less likely to
have a mental health problem than all studied ethnicities (i.e., white, 6.5 percent, African
American, 10.6 percent, Native American, 12.1 percent, and Hispanic, 8.3 percent). However,
white children were more likely than Hispanics to have a mental health visit (i.e., white, 8.5
percent and Hispanic, 5.6 percent). Conversely, Native American children are nearly twice more
likely than white children to have a mental health problem (i.e., white, 6.5 percent and Native
American, 12.1 percent) and more than twice as likely to have a mental health visit (i.e., white,
8.5 percent and Native American, 17.3 percent). Kann (2016) found that Hispanic students were
more likely than white and African Americans to experience feelings of depression. Among
children in the child welfare system, African Americans have less access to counseling than
white children (Wells et al., 2009). Children who are minorities or living in low socio-economic
areas are most at risk for inadequate access to mental health supports. High-risk behaviors often
perpetuate the lack of mental health access.
High-risk behaviors link to unfavorable outcomes (Brooks et al., 2002; Childs & Ray,
2017; Kann, 2016; Kerig, Ward, Vanderzee, & Moeddel, 2009). The average teenager is
vulnerable to experimenting with problem behaviors such as substance abuse, unsafe sexual
activities, skipping school, and risk-taking (Kerig et al., 2009). When a youth is a victim,
problem behaviors amplify due to low social skills, social-cognitive coping strategies, and
emotional regulation due to posttraumatic stress. Kann (2016) identified African American
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 27
students as being more likely than whites and Hispanics to have sex before age 13, be in a
physical fight, and have sex with more than four partners in their lives. He also found that
Hispanic students were more likely than whites and African Americans to drink alcohol before
age 13, use synthetic marijuana, use cocaine, use ecstasy, and be offered, sell, or be given an
illegal drug while at school. There is a strong association between feelings of depression/stress
and high-risk behaviors such as physical violence and sex without birth control or condoms
(Brooks et al., 2002; Childs & Ray, 2017). Approximately 29 percent of high school students in
a 2015 national survey in the United States reported pervasive feelings of depression (Kann,
2016). High-risk behaviors create additional negative outcomes further limiting access to
suitable mental health care. Aside from high-risk behaviors outside of school, students are
demonstrating these behaviors in school where little support is available.
Need
Mental health access for students is limited in schools (Atkins, Hoagwood, Kutash, &
Seidman, 2010; Dawood, 2014; DAngelis & Preseley, 2011; DeFosset et al., 2017; Eklund et al.,
2017; Evans et al., 2016; Garland, Lebensohn-Chialvo, Hall, & Cameron, 2017; Kutsyuruba et
al., 2015; Mellin, Ball, Iachini, Togno, & Rodriguez, 2017; Merianos, Vidourek, & King, 2017;
Mufson, 2010; National Research Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Porter et al., 2000;
Quinn & McDougal, 1998; Stephan, Paternite, Grimm, & Hurwitz, 2014; Splett et al., 2013;
Suldo et al., 2010; Teich & Weist, 2007; Thurston, Hardin, Arnold, Howell, & Phares, 2018).
Despite the demonstrated need for mental health access in schools, the capacity and demand to
provide service have outpaced funding (Mufson, 2010; Porter et al., 2000). In a survey of 83,000
public schools in the United States, mental health services increased by nearly 70 percent from
the previous year and only 21 percent reported mental health staff to support the need (Teich &
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 28
Weist, 2007). Further, over 30 percent of districts reported decreased funding for mental health
services. Integrating mental health and education is a shared goal between educators and mental
health professionals; however, there is no agreement on how to achieve this goal (Atkins et al.,
2010) among local education and state agencies (Stephan et al., 2014). Nearly 30,000 schools
reported never or rarely meeting with mental health staff to plan and share resources (Teich &
Weist, 2007) despite ongoing recommendations to collaborate and ensure comprehensive mental
health support services (Eklund et al., 2017; Splett et al., 2013; Suldo et al., 2010). While one in
five school-aged children suffer from emotional and behavioral difficulties (DeFosset et al.,
2017; Evans et al., 2016; National Research Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn &
McDougal, 1998), administrators and teachers do not feel equipped with resources, personnel, or
programs to deliver mental health support (Dawood, 2014; Mellin et al., 2017; Thurston et al.,
2018). A significant number of children require mental health support. (Eklund et al., 2017;
Garland et al., 2017; Teich & Weist, 2007). However, administrators and teachers are unable to
provide care due to low resources. Further, barriers such as acculturation, linguistic differences,
cultural influences, attitudes toward mental health, and perceived stigma (Garland et al., 2017;
Merianos et al., 2017) minimize mental health access for students across the United States.
Higher socio-economic status, strong administrative leadership, and increased safety are
associated with providing adequate mental health supports (Kutsyuruba et al., 2015; DAngelis &
Preseley, 2011). If mental health access is limited, schools with high needs such as in low-
socioeconomic areas with underrepresented minorities are less capable of providing mental
health services. Students are more likely to receive mental health support services at school,
however schools are under resourced with staff who can provide greater access.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 29
School psychologists trained to provide mental health support are under resourced in
schools (American Association for Employment in Education, 2016; Castillo, Curtis, & Tan,
2014; McGraw & Koonce, 2010; National Association of School Psychologists [NASP], 2010;
Reschly, 2000; Walcott, Charvat, McNamara, & Hyson, 2016). School psychologists can assist
with implementing programs targeting problem behavior, school violence and supporting
response to intervention on the behavioral side (McGraw & Koonce, 2010). However, the ratio
of students to school psychologists should be one school psychologist to 500 to 700 students to
maintain quality service delivery when comprehensive and prevention services are being
provided (NASP, 2010). School psychologists rarely contribute to the federal requirement to
implement interventions, and participate in primarily special education assessment activities due
to continuing exploding ratios (Castillo et al., 2014). Walcott et al. (2016) estimate that the ratio
was one school psychologist to 1,381 students during the 2014-2015 school year in the United
States. Current and historical research outlines an ongoing deficiency of school psychologists
which perpetuates the lack of student access to school psychological services (American
Association for Employment in Education, 2016; Reschly, 2000). When schools are unable to
identify children in need of mental health support effectively, consequences impacting the school
and student ensue, further isolating the child from receiving service.
Students suffering emotional or behavioral disorders are under identified and
underserviced (Chandra & Lurie, 2008; McFarland, et al., 2017; Perfect & Morris, 2011;
Protecting Student with Disabilities, 2015; Quinn & McDougal, 1998). These disorders are
rampant within the school setting, yet only 20 percent of all students requiring counseling or
other support services (e.g. tutoring, life skills, therapy and transition) are receiving them
(Chandra & Lurie, 2008; Perfect & Morris, 2011; Quinn & McDougal, 1998). All students, to
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 30
include special education students and general education students, with a 504 plan are eligible
for counseling services. A 504 plan is a civil rights law that requires schools to provide equal
access to education for students with a physical or mental disability that limits one or more major
life activities; this can mean access to special education and related services, education in a
regular classroom, or education in a regular classroom with supplementary services (Protecting
Student with Disabilities, 2015). Approximately 11.5 percent of WMS students were enrolled in
special education during the 2016-17 school year and 1.6 percent of the students at WMS are
students classified as having an Emotional Disturbance (ED) as their primary disability. The
National Center for Education Statistics 2017 report indicates that during the 2015-16 school
year, five percent of all students receiving special education services were identified as ED
(McFarland, et al., 2017). According to district staff, schools have been selecting Other Health
Impairment (OHI) for students exhibiting emotional problems or other related mental health
concerns which accounted for 16.5 percent of WMS special education students. Given this,
students having ED are under identified at the school site. There are approximately two students
in the school who have a 504 plan, which can include cases that involve a serious mental health
disorder. Notes indicate that staff “try not to do 504 plans.” Therefore, there may be additional
students with severe mental health conditions that go unreported, unnoticed, and unaddressed.
Aside from students being unidentified as requiring mental health supports, the school
psychologist at WMS has a workload outside the NASP recommendation to provide
comprehensive services. It can be reasonably concluded that students on the WMS site are under
identified and underserviced.
Woodhill Middle School (WMS) has an approximate ratio of 2,000 students to one
school psychologist. The school psychologist serving WMS also provides service at an
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 31
elementary school site. The CUSD average school psychologist to student ratio is one school
psychologist to 1,143 students, while the state average is one school psychologist to 1,235
students. The district is in a suburban town, which is comprised of approximately 23,000
students among 32 school sites to include three middle schools. The majority of students’
ethnicity in the district are classified as white, followed by Hispanic students. With a ratio of
school psychologists to students this high, services are marginalized, focused problem solving is
required, and small amounts of students are helped (Meyers & Swerdlik, 2003). Lower ratios
associated with more intervention service, less special education assessment and activities, and
more individual and group counseling (Castillo, Arroyo-Plaza, Tan, Sabnis, & Mattison, 2017;
Curtis, Grier, & Hunley, 2003). Despite lower ratio benefits, WMS, CUSD, California schools,
and United States schools supersede NASP’s recommended ratio of 500-700 students to one
school psychologist (NASP, 2010). If one in five children in the United States suffer from an
emotional or behavioral disorder (DeFosset et al., 2017; Evans et al., 2016; National Research
Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn & McDougal, 1998), there are not enough school
psychologists to facilitate comprehensive and preventative services, including mental health
support (NASP, 2010). Table 1 below shows a comparison of the population, anticipated
number of students with EBD, and the number of psychologists at secondary schools in CUSD.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 32
Table 1
Students Receiving and Needing Mental Health Support
School Total
Student
Population
School
Psychologists
Needed to
Provide
Comprehensive
Services
School
Psychologists
Currently at
the School
Site
Number of
School
Psychologists
Still Needed
Anticipated
Number of
EBD
Students
Number
of
Students
Receiving
Mental
Health
Support
Anticipated
Number of
Students
Needing
Mental
Health
Support
Middle
School
1
1,100 1.8 0.6 1.2 220 49 171
Middle
School
2
1,058 1.8 1 0.8 212 30 182
Middle
School
3
1,065 1.8 1 0.8 213 53 160
High
School
1
1,872 3.2 1.8 1.4 374 74 300
High
School
2
1,907 3.2 1.8 1.4 381 41 340
High
School
3
2,450 4 1.8 2.2 490 77 413
High
School
4
328 0.6 0.6 0 66 14 52
High
School
5
210 0.4 0.1 0.3 42 11 31
TOTAL 9,990 16.8 8.7 8.1 1,998 349 1,649

Table 1 used the total student population and divided by 600 (i.e. the middle of the
recommended 500-700 student to one school psychologist ratio by NASP, 2010) to determine
how many school psychologists are needed at each school site to provide comprehensive
services. School psychologist numbers are rounded up to the nearest increment of 0.2 which is
equivalent to a full school day. High school 5 is an exception as one school psychologist spends
one half day per week at the school site. Student totals are rounded up to the nearest whole
number. According to this table, there are 1,649 student at secondary schools across CUSD not
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 33
receiving mental health support. Further, there are 8.1 (i.e. equivalent to 8 full time and 1 part
time school psychologists) school psychologists short to provide comprehensive services at the
secondary level in CUSD. An added note, some schools have more special education programs
which would change the number of school psychologists needed. The above information can be
helpful when analyzing other data such as tardies, absenteeism, D and F grades, discipline
referrals, suspensions (e.g. in school and at home), and expulsions.
Consequences
Teachers and peers are primary sources of social support at school and can impact desired
social and academic goals, educational interest, self-assessment, and experienced emotional
distress (Dubois, Felner, Brand, Adam, & Evans, 1992; Goodenow, 1993; Song, Bong, Lee, &
Kim, 2015; Wentzel, 1998). A student feeling connected to their school provides a sense of
comfort and relatedness to encouraging academic and behavioral outcomes (Wormington,
Anderson, Tomlinson, & Brown, 2015). A student’s satisfaction with the school is closely
related to various forms of social support, with teachers being the most prominent influence
(DeSantis King, Huebner, Suldo, & Valois, 2007; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Jiang, Huebner, &
Siddall, 2013). School climate and peer connections strongly influence student learning
(Garringer & MacRae, 2008) and significantly predicts psychological and emotional wellbeing
(Lester & Cross, 2015). Despite this, high levels of peer support cannot compensate for low
adult support to produce increased psychological well-being (Buchanan & Bowen, 2008).
However, peer support continues to be a contributing factor to students’ well-being, especially
when adult support peaks. Buehler et al. (2015) found that a safe and positive school climate and
support from teachers is predictive of increased educational engagement, misbehavior avoidance,
and school satisfaction. Conversely, a study in Spain found that school-based violence is
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 34
connected to an adolescent’s negative attitude toward school (Martínez-Ferrer, Murgui-Perez,
Musitu-Ochoa, & del Carmen Monreal-Gimeno, 2008). A positive school climate is found to be
most important for Hispanic students, while teacher support is most important for non-Hispanic
White and African American students. Internalizing problems and self-perceptions are
predictable by teacher-student relationships (O’Connor, Dearing, & Collins, 2011; Reddy,
Rhodes, & Mulhall, 2003). Teachers are a natural support for students in the school setting that
can mediate mental health access.
Student experiences with teachers influence school perceptions and well-being (Baker,
1998; Cooper, 2013; Demaray, Malecki, Davidson, Hodgson, & Rebus, 2005; Goodenow &
Grady, 1992; Henry & Huizinga, 2007; Jiang et al., 2013; Lester & Cross, 2015; Martínez,
Aricak, Graves, Peters-Myszak, & Nellis, 2011; Pickhardt, 2011; Stewart & Suldo, 2011;
Stornes, Bru, & Idsoe, 2008; Wang, 2009; Wang & Holcombe, 2010; Zullig, Huebner, & Patton,
2011). Middle school teachers have more students to look after and appear to be less accessible,
supportive, and sensitive than elementary teachers (Pickhardt, 2011). Students are more likely to
have positive feelings toward school and staff if they feel supported (Demaray et al., 2005;
Martínez et al., 2011). Teachers can serve as a protective factor from behavioral and
psychological maladjustment as the emotional support provided models appropriate social
interactions (Wang, 2009). Support provided by teachers is a protective factor to students’
emotional well-being (Lester & Cross, 2015). When students perceive their classroom
environment as caring and safe, they are more likely to be content with school experiences
(Baker, 1998; Cooper, 2013; Zullig et al., 2011), which link to school completion, commitment
to school, and academic performance (Goodenow & Grady, 1992; Jiang et al., 2013; Stornes et
al., 2008). Teachers uniquely predicted externalizing symptoms in adolescents in a study
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 35
conducted by Stewart and Suldo (2011). Wang and Holcombe (2010) found that a fear of
conflict or student engaging in conflict with their teacher associate with absenteeism and
emotional symptoms. Alternatively, more positive student-teacher interactions contribute to
fewer absences and maladaptive behaviors (Henry & Huizinga, 2007). Teachers and peers are
influential and are a means of informal mental health access. Influential and supportive
relationships can facilitate the use of appropriate social skills.
Social skills deficits connect to problem behaviors leading to criminally liable events
(Kerig et al., 2009; Matlack, McGreevy, Rouse, Flatter, & Marcus, 1994; Matson & Wilkins,
2009; Pyle, Flower, Fall, & Williams, 2016; Wang, 2009). Without the appropriate social skills
and a supportive environment, traumatized youth often find themselves in the juvenile justice
system as a result of engaging in problem behaviors (Kerig et al., 2009). Children develop
behavioral and psychological maladjustment as a result of social incompetence (Wang, 2009).
Studies indicate that incarcerated teenage males present considerably larger social skills deficits
than non-incarcerated males, primarily about impulse control and high stress (Matlack et al.,
1994; Matson & Wilkins, 2009; Pyle et al., 2016). If adequate mental health access is provided,
services addressing social skills can support deficits and behavior. Aside from poor social skills,
academic failure due to absenteeism can be an added layer of deficiency for a young person.
Absenteeism decreases learning opportunities and success students have at school
(Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012; Ingul, Klockner, Silverman & Nordahl, 2012; Licht, Gard, &
Guardino, 1991; NCSE, 2016b; Rumberger, 2001; Spencer, 2009; Teasley, 2004). Missing
school hinders learning and can further complicate existing problems as students fall behind,
making it difficult to make up lost instruction (Licht et al., 1991; NCSE, 2016b). Spencer (2009)
discusses how a student’s failures in school can cause them to become avoidant further
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 36
complicating the problem. This problem magnifies for students included in special education
identified as having learning difficulties. Unfriendly environment, uninspiring curriculum and
methods of teaching, and unidentified special education needs are some examples of school
factors contributing to truancy (NCSE, 2016b). Spencer (2009) points out that students with
learning and behavioral complications miss 15-20% of school instruction due to truancy.
Absenteeism and truancy are indicative of adverse intellectual and behavioral displays in
children, especially students who receive special education services (Ingul et al., 2012; Teasley,
2004). High absenteeism is a strong indicator of a student being at-risk for dropping out of
school (Rumberger, 2001; NCSE, 2016b). It is estimated that 5-7.5 million students in the
United States miss 18 days of school or more per year, with students in low socio-economic
areas missing even more school (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012; Teasley, 2004). As a result of
absenteeism, CUSD is losing revenue at a rate of approximately $40 per general education
student, per day and more for special education students. Absenteeism can be a consequence of
untreated mental health problems and the lack of service access for students. Students who are
often absent may experience decreased learning opportunities and success in school, which
impacts the school district fiscally and the individual long-term.
Dropout correlates with underrepresented minorities in low-socio-economic areas
(Fallon, O’Keeffe, & Sugai, 2012; Hendron & Kearney, 2016; Ingul et al., 2012; Suh, Malchow,
& Suh, 2014; Robison, Jaggers, Rhodes, Blackmon, & Church, 2017; Rocque, Jennings, Piquero,
Ozkan, & Farrington, 2017; Rumberger, 1987). Rumberger (1987) found that students from
minority backgrounds consistently drop out at higher rates than whites and increasing from the
middle to high school level. Stillwell and Sable substantiate Rumberger's 30-year-old study in
2013, which indicated the calculated dropout rate in the United States for African American and
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 37
Hispanic students (5.5 and 5.0 percent respectively) is more than double white and Asian
students (1.9 and 2.3 percent respectively). African American and Hispanic students averaged
freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is approximately 12 to 17 percent less than white students at
an 83 percent graduation rate in the United States. Suh et al. Suh (2014) found school
suspension protocols, peer influence, households with no father present, and student-teacher
connections to be elements contributing to the increasing gap between African American and
white student dropouts. Some primary reasons for students dropping out of school are related to
social and emotional difficulties including school climate (Hendron & Kearney, 2016), feeling
isolated (Ingul et al., 2012), and personal conflicts with peers or teachers (Fallon et al., 2012;
Robison et al., 2017). An earlier study evidenced that some negative consequences associated
with dropping out include: poorer mental and physical health, increased demand for social
services, and increased crime (Rocque et al., 2017; Rumberger, 1987). If the dropout is strongly
associated with underrepresented minorities in low socio-economic areas, having limited access
to adequate mental health support can perpetuate the problem. Remediating dropout via mental
health access can assist in the prevention of negative present and future consequences.
Students who suffer from mental health concerns are impacted in various areas of their
life continuing into adulthood (Cooper & Cefai, 2013; DeFosset et al., 2017; Kataoka, Zhang, &
Wells, 2002; Larsen et al., 2017; Lee, Goodkind, & Shook, 2017; Patel et al., 2007; Wilson,
2007). Mental illness contributes to educational failure, unemployment, and high health-care
costs (Cooper & Cefai, 2013; Patel et al., 2007). Longitudinal studies demonstrate that children
with unaddressed mental health issues are more likely to suffer from suicidal ideation, low
academic functioning, substance abuse, and unemployment (DeFosset et al., 2017; Kataoka et
al., 2002; Larsen et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2017). Suicidal thoughts frequently occur during
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 38
adolescence and have an avoidance effect on seeking professional help (Wilson, 2007). Given
this, the students who are attempting suicide are likely not receiving the mental health support
they need. The benefits of increasing mental health access are decreasing undesirable personal
outcomes and ensuing fiscal impact on the community.
When a student graduates or drops out of high school, they remain a citizen of a
community, and their failures will impact more than just the individual (Lemon, 2010;
McFarland et al., 2017). Lemon (2010) pointed out that in 2005, dropouts over the age of 25
earned an average income of $19,544 and that dropouts from the class of 2008 alone will cost the
nation over $319 billion in lost wages over their life. In 2015, for ages 25-34, students who did
not finish high school earned an average of $25,000, which is 22 percent less than those who did
complete high school (McFarland et al., 2017). The study also found that in 2016, for ages 20-
24, the unemployment rate for people who did not complete high school was 17 percent, while
those with at least a bachelor’s degree made up 5 percent. Further, children under age 18 in 2015
suffered most from poverty when they have parents who did not complete high school (52
percent). Lemon (2010) reported that increasing the graduation ratio and college enrollment of
male students in the United States by 5 percent can save and produce an income of $8 billion per
year by reducing crime-related expenditures.
Mentors
Mentors are known as someone who is more experienced and can positively influence
another person (King, Vidourek, Davis, & McClellan, 2002; Kupersmidt, Stump, Stelter, &
Rhodes, 2017; Schwartz, Rhodes, Chan, & Herrera, 2011; Song et al., 2015; Young & Wright,
2001). Mentors foster a relationship with someone else and can provide experienced knowledge
on a topic, training, and direction (Schwartz et al., 2011; Young & Wright, 2001). A mentor acts
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 39
as a model citizen who can provide emotional, social, and academic support resulting in self-
esteem benefits (King et al., 2002; Kupersmidt et al., 2017). Academic and emotional social
support can include encouragement, modeling, offering information or guidance, attention to
feelings, empathy, and concern by someone in an adolescent’s life (Song et al., 2015). For this
research, mentor and support will be used interchangeably as they both mean to guide, aid or
help.
Peer Mentoring/Support
There does not appear to be steady literature using peer mentors as a resource to assist in
the implementation of mental health supports within the educational setting. The sparse peer
mentoring research allows for interchangeable discussion on general peer support, social support,
and connections in school. Dart et al. (2015) discovered the use of the “Check-In/Check-Out”
system led by peers resulting in two of three participants no longer considered at-risk, four weeks
after completion of the intervention. A peer-based emotional check-in program promoting the
use of self-regulation strategies, support, and reassurance reduced internalizing problems in all
participants (Cook et al., 2015). Youth-led programming has shown the significant positive
impact on emotional adjustment and anxiety compared to adult-led programming (Connolly et
al., 2015).
Youth-led programming has been found to be beneficial for peers (Arlinghaus, Moreno,
Reesor, Hernandez, & Johnston, 2017; Connolly et al., 2015; Dufrene et al., 2010; Hughes et
al., 2013; Karcher, 2005; Mellanby, Newcombe, Rees, & Tripp, 2001; Scruggs, Mastropieri, &
Marshak, 2012). Connolly et al. (2015) found that youth leaders were able to shift the attitudes
toward dating violence in peers producing similar results to adult leaders. Studies have
established evidence of youth maintaining strength in particular areas such as social norms,
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 40
sexual behavior, and emotional school adjustment while adults were able to modify attitudes
toward bullying (Connolly et al., 2015; Mellanby et al., 2001). They also indicate that peers
have been successful at reducing substance use, smoking, and sexual assault, among additional
health areas. Other studies include students to address issues such as improving reading fluency
(Dufrene et al., 2010), teaching social studies (Scruggs et al., 2012), improving social skills and
prosocial behaviors (Hughes et al., 2013; Karcher, 2005), and lowering body mass index
(Arlinghaus et al., 2017).
Peer support in schools has the potential to result in positive outcomes (Arslan & Duru,
2016; DuBois, Portillo, Rhodes, Silverthorn, & Valentine, 2011; Jiang et al., 2013; Lester &
Cross, 2015; Osterman, 2000; Pate, Maras, Whitney, & Bradshaw, 2016; Wentzel, 1998;
Wentzel, Battle, Russell, & Looney, 2010). In a meta-analysis of 73 mentoring studies, DuBois,
et al. (2011) discovered that older peer mentors have a similar amount of effectiveness as adult
mentors do on students. Additionally, youths who participated in a mentoring relationship
yielded positive benefits in behavior, emotional, academic, and social categories. Only a small
amount of attention is given to how enhanced peer relationships can support school community,
student belongingness, and mental health problems (Osterman, 2000; Pate et al., 2016). Students
significantly contribute to positive school climate and should be considered in research within
the school setting (Wentzel et al., 2010). Peers have an intense impact on the general well-being
of students at school (Arslan & Duru, 2016; Osterman, 2000; Wentzel, 1998). Jiang et al. (2013)
discovered that middle school students make salient contributions to positive growth, well-being
and school satisfaction of peers. Further, having peer support is a significant protective factor to
students transitioning to middle school (Lester & Cross, 2015).
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 41
Bronfenbrenner (1986) identified the school as one of two vital social environments for
adolescents. Compared to other areas of their lives, a significant amount of middle school
students in the United States were found to be dissatisfied with their school experiences
(Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, & Wold, 2009; Huebner, Valois, Paxton, & Drane, 2005). Many
teen suicides and suicidal ideations are a result of school-based events such as bullying (Messias,
Kendrick, & Castro, 2014; Osterman, 2000) and are the third leading cause of death of children
ages 10-14 in the United States (Suicide Violence Prevention Injury Center, n.d.). The transition
from primary to secondary school for children who do not like school are at-risk for delinquency
and drug use (Li et al., 2011), early sexual behavior and difficulty integrating with positive peer
groups (Parkes et al., 2014). Children aged 10-11 who dislike school is a key predictor of early
sexual behavior (Laird, Jordan, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 2001; Parkes et al., 2013). Dropping out
of school has been found to be associated with social problems, attitudes toward school, sense of
belonging, and emotional connections to school or teachers (Blondal & Adalbjarnardottir, 2012;
Fall & Roberts, 2012; Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Wang & Fredricks, 2014). Li and
Lerner (2011) argue that involving students in classroom instruction and school activities are not
enough to mediate their feeling of connectedness.
Student connections mediate numerous undesirable outcomes using existing stakeholder
capital (Connolly et al., 2015; Demaray et al., 2005; Rice, Barth, Guadagno, Smith & McCallum,
2012; Rueger, Malecki, & Demaray, 2010; Wormington et al., 2015). Peer social connections
are increased in the educational setting and most influential, especially in early adolescence
(Wormington et al., 2015). Significant positive outcomes to include adjustment (Demaray et al.,
2005) are more closely related to classmate support than the support of close friends (Rueger et
al., 2010; Rice et al., 2012). This support is shown to be a predictor of emotional symptoms such
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 42
as depression, anxiety and social stress one year later (Demaray et al., 2005). A decrease in
anxiety and increased school connectedness is demonstrated in the Connolly et al. (2015) study.
School-related problems can be pervasive, especially when children do not have adequate access
to mental health resources.
Shift to Peers
Lane et al. (2015) suggested a peer mentoring program as a tier two intervention support
to accommodate the peer relationship shift from adults to peers (Rubin, Bukowski, & Lareson,
2009). There are heightened challenges with peer acceptance and rejection due to many
elementary schools joining into one middle school (Kingery, Erdley, & Marshall, 2011).
Students with school and emotional problems who seek help from teachers or friends are
reflective in healthier self-esteem, adjustment, and belonging than students who do not seek help
(Guay, Denault, & Renauld, 2017; Ryan, Stiller, & Lynch, 1994). Two studies indicate boys’
attitude to school is powerfully predicted by peer support (Rice et al., 2012; Rueger et al., 2010).
It is essential for students to develop a social network to maintain positive attitudes toward
school and decrease the likelihood of becoming bullied (Abdulsalam, Al Daihani, & Francis,
2017; Nansel, Haynie, & Simonsmorton, 2003; Pellegrini, 2002). School climate was found to
be the number one predictor of peer victimization (Cook, Williams, Guerra, Kim, & Sadek,
2010). Alternatively, students with greater school satisfaction, experience favorable
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and academic adjustment than students who do not like school
(Danielsen, Breivik, & Wold, 2011; Huebner & Gilman, 2006; Tian, Chen, & Huebner, 2014).
Social support and connectedness are crucial pieces to mediating inadequate mental health
access.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 43
Attitude to School
School satisfaction of reflects in students’ behaviors and well-being (DeSantis King et al.,
2007; Huebner & Gilman, 2006; Li & Lerner, 2011; Loukas, Ripperger-Suhler, & Horton, 2009;
Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000). Several researchers speculate there is a reciprocal
relationship between students’ social and emotional adjustment (e.g., misbehavior and
depression) and school commitment (Loukas et al., 2009; Roeser et al., 2000). When children
experience constructive social and emotional adjustment, they are less likely to be depressed,
misbehave, use drugs, and earn better grades than youth experiencing destructive pathways (Li &
Lerner, 2011). DeSantis King et al. (2007) identified that when students perceive high levels of
social support, they exhibited less externalizing and internalizing problems and related to greater
school satisfaction. All students in the Huebner and Gilman (2006) study with emotional
symptoms (e.g., anxiety, depression, and social stress) also had very low school satisfaction.
Conversely, those who had higher school satisfaction reported higher Grade Point Average
(GPA), hopefulness, general life fulfillment, and locus of control. Positive social support and
school climate reflect more favorable student well-being outcomes.
Summary
Student well-being is a major factor in this study and is revealed in various ways.
Student risk and need, consequences, peer support, and attitude to school are central themes
presented thus far to assist in the understanding of limited mental health access. These themes
create an argument for children who require additional supports to learn and thrive in the
educational environment. The next section will provide insight to the peer mentoring program
(i.e. WEB) being used as a universal intervention in this study.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 44
The Boomerang Project: Where Everybody Belongs (WEB)
The Boomerang Project is a company that provides curriculum for middle and high
school students in transition (“Peer Mentoring, Student Transition Programs,” n.d.b.). They
provide training and orientation for students, professional development for staff, administrative
training, and student leadership development (“Peer Mentoring, Student Transition Programs,”
n.d.b). Given the demographics in this study, WEB leaders will orient, transition, and welcome
incoming middle school students to make them “feel comfortable” during their first year in
middle school (“What is Web?” n.d.c.). Eighth-grade WEB leaders are trained as mentors by
school staff to support and guide new students’ transition and success. Mentors also serve as a
lookout and reporter for bullying behavior to support a safe learning environment (“What is
Web?” n.d.c.). Students who are victims are at-risk for internalizing problems such as
depression, anxiety and school problems such as feeling devalued by teachers and feeling fearful
at school (Connolly et al., 2015). Increased safety is one of several goals of the WEB program.
Goals of WEB
As with any curriculum, there are a set of goals that learners are expected to master and
outcomes as a result. There are three vital transition needs: safety, information, and connection
(“Why Transition Matters,” n.d.a.). Safety includes anti-bullying efforts and having a mentor for
support. Information includes having someone to go to with questions or more information
about a topic. Connection encompasses increased peer links for asking about activities and
developing deeper relationships, which enhance academic performance, increase school safety,
and reduce bullying incidents (“Why Transition Matters,” n.d.a.). The goals presented on the
website are unclear and spread across three web pages on the company site. Further, other goals
are stated, but not linked to the three categories of safety, information, and connection. Anti-
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 45
bullying and character development are identified as “byproducts” of the program (“Creating a
Positive School Climate,” n.d.d.). Moreover, while students knowing that people at school care
about them can be linked to safety or connection (“Yearlong Program,” n.d.e.), it is not stated.
The researcher hopes through the use of the WEB program in this study; the goals become clear.
At a minimum, global objectives provide vision (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2013) for a school to
make educated decisions about intervention and analyze the risks and benefits related to student
outcomes (NASP, 2010) concerning the mental health needs of students.
How WEB Works
WEB is a year-long program that trains peer mentors to support and guide new middle
school students (“WEB is a Yearlong Program,” n.d.e.). Support and guidance begin with
orientation day when mentor relationships form through an interactive process and provide
information on middle school success (“Orientation,” n.d.f.). Peer mentors establish at least
eight positive interactions with new students during the first six weeks of school via academic
follow-ups, social follow-ups and leader initiated contacts (“WEB is a Yearlong Program,”
n.d.e.). Academic follow-ups occur in the classroom setting in which mentors teach lessons on
areas of cooperation, creativeness, and good attitudes. Social follow-ups include mentors and
seventh grade students in fun group activities. Lastly, the mentor can initiate contact with the
new student to say hello at school, call to see how they are doing, help them with homework, or
other personalized events (“WEB is a Yearlong Program,” n.d.e.). These interactions are
reportedly impactful in some ways.
Data Reports from WEB
WEB’s Reach (“Program Reach,” n.d.g.) reports that WEB impacts all incoming 6th
graders and 20 percent of 8th graders. The reported outcomes of this program include a decline
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 46
in disciplinary referrals, absences, D and F grades, suspensions, tardies, and bullying incidents
(“Data from Schools,” n.d.h.). Out of 13 schools shown on Data from Schools (n.d.h.), six
reported academic outcomes and 10 reported behavioral outcomes. One school did not provide
percentage data for behavioral outcomes. Approximately 67 percent of 6
th
graders feel more
prepared at a middle school in Canada after WEB implementation. There was a 50 percent
decrease in failing grades at one school and an average 56 percent decrease in D or F grades at
five schools. Out of two schools, there was an average decrease of 80 percent in suspensions and
a 47 percent decrease in tardies. One school reported a 33 percent decrease in incidents of
bullying and five schools reported an average of 33.4 percent decrease in absences. Lastly, six
schools on average reported a 57 percent in referrals “(Data from Schools,” n.d.h.). Li and
Learner (2011) suggest supporting student participation, attendance, and positive school feelings
increases the probability of academic achievement and less unfavorable consequences. When
the MCISPS is implemented based on NASP (2010) recommendations, school psychologists can
contribute to a school’s reduction in referrals, increased attendance and better academic
performance to schools. Negative school climate links to absenteeism, referrals, internalizing
problems, externalizing behaviors (Hendron & Kearney, 2016), and bullying (Salmivalli,
Garandeau, & Veenstra, 2012). Positive school climate relates to better academic performance
(Jain et al., 2015). The negative and positive school climate links are key factors to consider.
Although the data presented by WEB is promising, empirical research evaluating the
program and addressing the outcomes are not available. Information is lacking on how the
program goals reflect the activities and how they support the reported behavioral and academic
outcomes. The researcher hopes to discover this information or at minimum make
recommendations for program improvement and future research. More importantly, WEB
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 47
claims to “make them feel comfortable” meaning students and allowing them to make
connections. While documented behavioral and academic outcomes are noble, a myriad of
transition programs also focus on educational and bureaucratic outcomes which are a fraction of
overarching themes (Koppang, 2004; Rappa, 2012). About half of student concerns surround
academic and procedural issues, while the other half pertained to social issues (Diemert, 1992;
Allen, 2011). Alternative evaluated outcomes are necessary to determine whether schools are
addressing the existing and impending mental health needs of their students. Social and
emotional adjustment receives little consideration, and empirical research on successful
intervention implementation is limited (Connolly et al., 2015; Koppang, 2004; Ryan, Shim, &
Makara, 2013). For this research, peer mentoring using the WEB program will be linked to
social and emotional adjustment using school problems (attitude to teachers and attitude to
school) and internalizing problems (depression, anxiety, and social stress).
Internalizing Problems
Student well-being is a global issue impairing overall educational functioning (Dart et al.,
2015; Walker, Nishioka, Zeller, Severson, & Feil, 2000; World Health Organization, 2012;
Wright, Banerjee, Hoek, Rieffe, & Novin, 2010; Zahn-Waxler, Klimes-Dougan, & Slattery,
2000). The World Health Organization (2012) projects that by the year 2020, internalizing
disorders will be the primary cause of sickness among youth. Internalizing problems are an
expansive classification that includes anxiety and depressive indicators related to feelings and
mood (Wright et al., 2010; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2000). Approximately 20 percent of students in
schools suffer from impaired behavior, social, or educational utility due to internalizing problems
(Walker et al., 2000; Dart et al., 2015).
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 48
Internalizing problems can be a result of victimization in school (Espelage & Holt, 2007;
Hase, Goldberg, Smith, Stuck, & Campain, 2015; Hendron & Kearney, 2016; Kowalski &
Limber, 2013; Isaacs, Hodges, & Salmivalli, 2008; Nansel et al., 2001; Patchin & Hinduja, 2010;
Schwartz et al., 2011; Turner, Reynolds, Lee, Subasic, & Bromhead, 2014). School climate to
include resources, discipline, parent involvement, student relationships, and teacher relationships
are inversely related to anxiety and depression symptoms (Hendron & Kearney, 2016).
Victimization in adolescence has been found to predict anxiety, depression, lowered self-esteem,
and suicidal ideation in early adulthood (Isaacs et al., 2008; Schwartz et al., 2011). One study
found that when students perceive a higher level of academic and group support, the prevalence
of bullying and victimization rate decreases (Turner et al., 2014). The 2014 study identified
internalizing problems as a predictor for bullying behavior and peer victimization. Espelage and
Holt (2007) found that children involved in any capacity of the bullying-whether victim, bully-
victim, or bully-experience higher levels of anxiety and depression and increased likelihood of
becoming a victim of dating violence and sexual harassment versus uninvolved children.
Students who are bullied exhibit less satisfying peer relationships, increased isolation and
inability to make friends, lower self-esteem, and inferior social and emotional adjustment (Hase
et al., 2015; Kowalski & Limber, 2013; Nansel et al., 2001; Patchin & Hinduja, 2010).
Peer relationships can significantly impact a student’s well-being (Ladd, 2006; Ladd &
Troop-Gordon, 2003; Parker, Rubin, Erath, Wojslawowicz, & Buskirk 2006; Stewart & Suldo,
2011; Split, van Lier, Leflot, Onghena, & Colpin, 2014; van Lier & Koot, 2010; Zimmer-
Gembeck, Hunter, & Pronk, 2007). Socially isolated children are high risk for psychopathology
and tend to experience strained relationships with peers (Parker et al., 2006). When one
considers social acceptance, students who report depression have peers who report disliking
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 49
them (Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2007). Stewart and Suldo (2011) confirm when adolescents
perceive support from peers, mental health symptoms decrease and life satisfaction increases.
Students who are socially isolated tend to view their acceptance by peers less positively (Split et
al., 2014). How students view themselves, and social rejection led to internalizing problems
(e.g., anxiety and depression) as observed by teachers in Spilt, van Lier, Leflot, Onghena, &
Colpin’s (2014) study. Longitudinal studies indicate that internalizing problems and depression
are developed in grade school, as predicted by negative peer interactions (Ladd, 2006; Ladd &
Troop-Gordon, 2003; van Lier & Koot, 2010). These outcomes will diminish with students
having access to the mental health supports they need.
Access
Schools are marginally identifying students with internalizing emotional and behavioral
problems because they are not disturbing activities in the classroom or school, thus not providing
essential services (DeLoach, Dvorsky, Miller, & Paget, 2012; Gresham & Kern, 2004; Romer &
McIntosh, 2005). Children experiencing internalizing symptoms are disregarded in comparison
to those who have externalizing problems (Bradshaw, Buckley, & Ialongo, 2008; Dart et al.,
2015). One study recommends a multi-tiered service model to implement an intervention for
students with internalizing symptoms while maintaining practicality for school staff (Dart et al.,
2015). Determining feasible interventions to address internalizing behaviors within the school
setting normally exceeds the available time and training (Dart et al., 2015; Maag & Swearer,
2005). Lack of time and training for interventions addressing internalizing behaviors in school
supports the notion there are not adequate mental health supports in place for students. Students’
difficulties meeting academic expectations may be closely related to their well-being.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 50
Student well-being and inadequate mental health supports inhibit academic success
(Akos, Queen, & Lineberry, 2005; Basch, 2011; Bradley & Greene, 2013; Cook, Burns,
Browning-Wright, & Gresham, 2010; DeFosset et al., 2017; Doll & Cummings, 2008; Huebner
& Gilman, 2006; Lane et al., 2015; Waters, Lester, Wenden, & Cross, 2012). School reform
over the last 20 years has focused less on social and emotional well-being and more on academic
performance (Basch, 2011; Bradley & Greene, 2013; Huebner & Gilman, 2006). Results of
some studies implicate the need for support and intervention for transitioning adolescents
experiencing low motivation, displaying poor conduct, have stressed peer relationships, or at-risk
academic performance (Akos et al., 2005; Lane et al., 2015; Waters et al., 2012). Mental health
supports are provided to previously unidentified students as a reactive strategy despite red flags
such as truancy and aggressive behaviors (DeFosset et al., 2017). By the time these students are
identified as requiring mental health support, their academic performance has already been
impaired. Schools are feeling pressure by researchers and politicians who understand children’s
academic performance is hindered by the impending need to incorporate prevention and
treatment mental health supports (Cook et al., 2010; Doll & Cummings, 2008).
In a thorough search to locate research using similar assessment tools to evaluate the
effectiveness or interaction of a middle school intervention using peer mentors, little literature is
available. Articles citing the use of similar or same assessment tools for internalizing and school
problems used the tool as a source to predict or analyze existing information. For example,
Tennant et al. (2015) used the Behavior Assessment for Children-Second Edition (BASC-2) -in
combination with other measures- to study the gender differences in perceptions of teacher
support about academic and social and emotional outcomes unrelated to intervention at a middle
school. Martínez and Semrud-Clikeman (2004) used the BASC-2 self-report with middle
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 51
schoolers to determine the well-being of students with one disability, multiple disabilities, and no
disabilities using the emotional adjustment and school functioning scales. Lynn and Tsang
(2011) used the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and other measures to develop a predictive
tool of psychological well-being with Chinese sixth graders. This study will assess students’ risk
level using a self-report progress monitoring tool to target the school problems and internalizing
problems themes.
Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition Flex Monitor (BASC-3 FM)
The BASC-3 FM is a component of a comprehensive, multi-faceted system that supports
the assessment of behavior and self-perspective of children ages 2 to young adult age 25
(Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015). A school can use the web-based instrument to monitor and track
the effects of interventions. A series of available customized behavioral and emotional questions
via rating scale are available for parent, teacher, and student input. Reynolds and Kamphaus
(2015) enable users to compare selected items to the nationally normed sample or to select from
pre-made forms. The customized forms estimate reliability based on the normed sample. More
importantly, practitioners can view behavioral area progress over time for each participant to
determine intervention interaction. This study uses the BASC-3 FM’s customized features to
monitor students’ level of risk using school problems (attitude to school and attitude to teachers)
and internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, and social stress) questions.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 52
School Problems
The School Problems composite includes Attitude to School, Attitude to Teachers, and
Sensation Seeking on the BASC-3 self-report (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015). This study will
use the BASC-3 FM to focus on Attitude to School and Attitude to Teachers as connections are
significant in a child’s life which is important to understand. Although this study does not
include Sensation Seeking, Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) emphasize that school problems
rarely occur independently of individual and emotional problems.
Attitude to teachers. Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) capture a student’s perception of
distaste or bitterness of teachers on this scale. This viewpoint may include teachers being
unwilling to help students, unresponsive, or unreasonable which can differ if there has been a
recent positive or negative interaction with a teacher or other staff member. Low scores indicate
positive feelings versus at-risk ratings reflecting overall discontent to teachers. If clinically
significant scores are present, Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) suggest discontent is persistent.
Attitude to school. Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) use this scale to examine a student’s
value of school and well-being concerning school experiences. Low scores reflect security and
fulfillment in school, while elevated scores may indicate persistent discomfort and
dissatisfaction, finding only peer relationships satisfactory. Dropping out is an increased risk for
students with clinically significant scores on this scale. Given that school is a major part of
students’ lives, Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) suggest that elevated scores in this section may
be indicative of other concerns such as females internalizing their problems.
Internalizing Problems
The Internalizing Problems composite includes Atypicality, Locus of Control, Social
Stress, Anxiety, Depression, Sense of Inadequacy, and Somatization on the BASC-3 self-report
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 53
(Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015). This study will use the BASC-3 FM to focus on Anxiety,
Depression, and Social Stress as it is plausible they are impacting school-related experiences.
Several researchers (Kamphaus, 2003; Frick, 2009) support childrens’ ability to provide insight
to their internalizing indicators as captured on self-reporting.
Depression. The Depression scale measures a student’s feeling of isolation,
unhappiness, and dissatisfaction in life coupled with causal issues of hopelessness, negativity,
and anxiety (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015). At-risk scores may denote high levels of
depression, and clinically significant scores accompany adjustment difficulties which can be
unnoticed because the child is inconspicuous. According to Lewis (2014), adolescent self-
reporting is superior for detecting suicidal thoughts than a parent rating (as cited in Reynolds
& Kamphaus, 2015). The authors offer that while a student may be quiet, there may be
symptoms of worry, risk avoidance, and unstable emotions. Some may have difficulty
expressing their emotions or relating to peers. Comparing the self-ratings to teacher and parent
rating scales is recommended; however, this study does not address these perspectives.
Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) advise the depression scale correlates most with the anxiety and
social stress scales in addition to other scales not included in this study. The clinical study
samples for the BASC-3 indicate top scores on the depression scale for children with autism and
EBD, despite at-risk ratings.
Anxiety. General doubts, edginess, and uncertainties that are usually unreasonable are
common in young people and often co-morbid with depression (Cummings, 2014; Reynolds
& Kamphaus, 2015). This scale examines such symptoms and students may be preoccupied with
these thoughts which negatively impact their ability to make decisions at the clinically
significant level (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015). The authors suggest very low T-scores (under
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 54
41) may indicate exaggerated comfort, while no indication of anxiety despite destructive
behaviors can explain sociopathic behavior manifesting as conduct disorder at a younger age.
Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) suggest at-risk scores indicate ongoing or critical worry is
causing major problems over minor issues, while clinically significant scores show negative
responsiveness to the environment and evident emotional stress. People with these levels of
anxiety may be confused, inflexible thinkers, or overly sensitive to criticism. On the BASC-3
clinical samples, the anxiety scale score is the highest for children identified as having an EBD,
despite levels within the at-risk range (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015).
Social Stress. Reynolds and Kamphaus (2015) use this scale to assess stress associated
with connections among peers or others. Deficient coping skills, inadequate social outlets, and
uneasiness are how social stress manifests. The authors propose outcomes on the self-report
social stress scale are least likely temporary and indicate a critical, ongoing problem. At-risk to
clinically significant scores shows via anxiety, misunderstanding, and physical complaints.
Summary
The BASC-3 FM allows for the customization of categories being assessed for level of
risk via rating scales using parent, teacher, and student input. Student input has been solicited to
gather information on the level of risk inclusive of attitude to teachers, attitude to school,
depression, anxiety, and social stress. The authors indicate that individual and emotional
problems rarely occur in isolation of other issues such as a student’s attitude to teachers and
attitude to school. In fact, internalizing problems is shown to sustain school problems and vice
versa. Internalizing problems is also important to consider due to the pervasive level of risk
being highest in children identified as having an EBD. Given that one in five children are
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 55
diagnosed as having an EBD, viewing this problem through a comprehensive model lens may be
helpful for developing adequate mental health support.
Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (MCISPS)
The MCISPS is the theoretical framework to critically view the implementation of the
WEB peer mentor program with middle school students and measurement of school problems
and internalizing problems using the BASC-3 FM. This lens is crucial to determine the ability of
a school to deliver mental health support using peer mentoring despite lack of student access to
mental health support. The National Association of School Psychologists (2010) recommends
500-700 students to one school psychologist ratio to support schools in implementing ten
domains of service including preventive and responsive services at a system-level and
interventions and mental health services to develop social and life skills at a student-level. The
MCISPS was created by the National Association of School Psychologists (2010) to achieve the
maximum success and efficiency of quality and comprehensive school psychological services.
The MCISPS will help schools identify what domains are available, functioning regularly, and
underutilized in support of their staff, students, and families. Additionally, self-reporting
assessments do not appear to be a major theme among studies of intervention effectiveness or
interaction.
Studies were found using the Achenbach self-report which highly correlates with several
BASC-3 scales and previous versions of the BASC, but they were primarily used to predict
future behavior or teacher, and includes parent perceptions (Lier, 2004; Lynn & Tsang, 2011).
However, two studies were found to use the second edition of the BASC with middle school
students that covered school problems and internalizing problems (Martínez & Semrud-
Clikeman, 2004 & Tennant et al., 2015) as in this study. While Tennant et al. (2015) studied
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 56
middle school students’ academic and social well-being using the BASC, significant findings
were not about intervention. Martínez and Semrud-Clikeman (2004) also studied middle school
students’ well-being using the BASC-2, but it was comparative between children with one
learning disability versus multiple disabilities and no disabilities. The current study appears to
be unique using a peer mentoring intervention and self-report data to establish the academic and
emotional well-being of middle school students to determine interaction.
Summary
The WEB middle school peer mentoring program creates social support networking for
transitioning students. The goals of this program are to enhance school safety, increase available
information via mentors, and provide access to a peer network. Peer support can be used as a
resource to engage students academically and emotionally (Carter et al., 2015) which can serve
as a mediator between mental health needs and lack of access to services. The goals of the WEB
program, how they link to content and result in proposed academic (less D and F grades) and
behavioral (fewer tardies, absences, suspensions, and referrals) outcomes are unclear from
information on the company website which interested parties’ access. Also, there does not
appear to be any empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of WEB. It is hopeful goals
can be connected, and empirical evidence will be available as a result of this study. Empirical
studies on the successful implementation of interventions addressing students’ emotional well-
being receive less attention (Connolly et al., 2015; Koppang, 2004; Ryan, Shim, & Makara,
2013) than outcomes impacting schools fiscally (e.g. absences, suspensions, and low academic
performance).
Students’ emotional well-being directly impact a school’s desired outcomes is implied. It
is well-known that attendance, grades, behavior, and engagement are predictive of dropping out,
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 57
but also that peer connections and school culture can significantly decrease this risk (Johnson,
Simon, & Mun, 2014). This research attempts to conclude whether peers can make significant
contributions to the improvement of classmate’s well-being to include school problems (attitude
to school and attitude to teachers) and internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, and social
stress). These problems are often, but not always, reflected in students’ academic performance,
social interactions, and behavior (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2015). Given this, the BASC-3 FM
will be used to supply insight from transitioning middle school students as their school problems
and internalizing problems often link to other issues. Some of these issues include peer
victimization (Kljakovic, M., & Hunt, 2016; Lopez & Dubois, 2005), family environment
(Crawford, Schrock, & Woodruff-Borden, 2011; Leve, Kim, & Pears, 2005), and relationship
with parents (Brendgen, Wanner, Morin, & Vitaro, 2005; Epkins & Heckler, 2011). The
interaction of peer mentoring and students’ level of risk will be explored using the MCISPS.
This model allows for a thorough analysis of student-level and system-level services being
provided to address the mental health needs of middle school children in the school setting and
whether additional resources are required.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 58
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Woodhill Middle School (WMS) is a suburban middle school with approximately 1,100
students, needing a way to increase achievement and student well-being. Based on the 2016-17
School Accountability Report Card (SARC), WMS’s socio-economically disadvantaged students
made up approximately 71.2 percent of the population. Approximately 75 percent of the
population identify as a race other than White during the same year. The school will be
implementing the Where Everybody Belongs (WEB) program which uses eighth-grade peer
mentors to help facilitate the successful transition of approximately 550 seventh grade students.
The peer mentor involvement requires eighth-grade students to check-in at least eight times
within the first six weeks of the beginning of the school year. Peer mentors are available to
answer questions and support seventh graders academically and socially.
The students are initially introduced to the program during the last week of summer,
before returning to school. Invitations include all incoming seventh graders, and eighth-grade
peer mentors engage the students in a day of learning about the program, providing school
expectations, means of being successful, and bonding activities. The purpose of this orientation
is for all seventh graders to know who their mentor is before school begins and to have someone
to contact if they need anything. Student attendance at the orientation does not exclude them
from participating in the program. Quantitative methods are the best-suited approach to inform
the research questions as self-reported information on internalizing problems has been found to
be more accurate than a teacher-or parent-reported information as sometimes these symptoms are
not visible (De Los Reyes et al., 2015; Fite, Rubens, Preddy, Raine, & Pardini, 2014). Reynolds
and Kamphus (2015) determined there is a low correlation between parent and teacher rating
scales with student self-reports, therefore making alternative reporting useless in this study. Data
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 59
collection took place approximately four months after the beginning of the school year. The
progress monitoring tool in this study is a nationally normed assessment tool which compares
students to peers across the nation.
The purpose of the study was to collect quantitative data from one suburban middle
school to determine what the impact of peer mentoring on students’ internalizing and school
problems. Included in this study are the following research questions:
1. What is the level of risk among 7
th
-grade students who participate in WEB?
2. What is the association between level of risk and two independent variables (frequency of
participation and intensity of activities engaged in)?
3. What is the strength of the relationship between gender, minority status, orientation
attendance and level of risk?
Sample and Population
The school site utilized consecutive sampling and included all incoming WMS seventh-
grade students. All data used in this study was secondary and derived from existing systems
embedded at the school site and school district. This school was of particular interest as there
was no PBIS system in place. Also, the WEB program implementation and evaluation were new
to the school site. Based on “Success” (n.d.i.), the WEB program was purchased and utilized in
dozens of California middle and high schools. All seventh-grade students were invited to attend
an orientation the week before school started. Regardless of their attendance, all seventh-grade
students were assigned an eighth-grade peer mentor. One sampling issue was the small sample
size being generalizable to the population, although it may generalize to a population with
similar demographics. While students did not get to refuse to participate in the peer mentoring
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 60
program, they may present a passive refusal by not completing the online surveys or not taking it
seriously. These issues may qualify as a selection error.
The sample of seventh graders was of particular interest because literature supports
difficulties in the transition from primary to secondary school (Lester & Cross, 2015; Barber &
Olsen, 2004). There are numerous reasons WMS was selected to include evaluating a new
program being implemented. One was to help mediate academic and behavioral concerns using
peer mentors. Two was to take advantage of the BASC-3 progress monitoring tool to assess
student’s risk level progress. Three wasproviding appropriate recommendations for the school
site to develop a multi-tiered behavioral approach. Fourth was providing empirical research
using the WEB program which is currently unavailable, using secondary data analysis, and
adding to a sparse body of literature about using peer mentoring as an intervention. Also of
interest was the uniqueness of implementing a program facilitated by staff and implemented by
students. Determining the risk level of students’ internalizing and school problems was
important because they associate with poor academic performance, attendance, suspensions, and
bullying (Cohen & Smerdon, 2009; Cross et al., 2009; Loukas & Robinson, 2004; Zullig,
Koopman, Patton, & Ubbes, 2010).
Instrumentation
Three systems of data collection were used in the evaluation to include demographic and
program participation self-report surveys using Qualtrics, internalizing and school problems self-
report using Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition Flex Monitor (BASC-3
FM), and pre-existing student data. All student self-reported data were collected approximately
four months after school began. For the Qualtrics and BASC-3 FM systems of collection,
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 61
students were asked to include their identification number and date of birth to cross-reference
and validate other forms of data.
Qualtrics. This form of instrumentation includes a survey initiated through an online
system that allows the researcher to gather requested data seamlessly. The researcher created a
survey online, and field tests conducted with seventh-grade special education and general
education students. The survey was modified to include field testing feedback and emails then
sent to all seventh-grade students. Students could click on the survey link in their email. The
Qualtrics database allowed the researcher to synthesize data, compare, identify trends, and create
data charts. This method of surveying were used approximately four months after school begins.
Pre-existing student data. The second form of instrumentation includes a collection of
information from district internal data sources and students’ cumulative files. This information
included current grade, ethnicity, gender, date of birth, academic grades, discipline history,
attendance, special education status, and 504 plan status. This method will be used at the end of
the study to include all seventh-grade students and can assist with additional analysis if desired.
BASC-3 FM. The final form of instrumentation is the BASC-3 FM, a progress
monitoring tool part of a comprehensive social and emotional system with 10 components for
ages 2 to 25 developed by Reynolds and Kamphus (2015). All 10 components can be used
independently or in any combination to inform evaluation, intervention preparation, or diagnostic
development (Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015). For this study, the flex monitor tool gathered
information via self-report. Self-reports were most suitable to gather information about views,
feelings, attitudes, and inner responses to individuals and happenings according to the authors.
The BASC-3 and previous versions were developed using rigorous philosophical and
psychometric immersion (Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015), although specific theories do not appear
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 62
in the manual. The first version of the BASC synthesized known evidence about developmental
psychopathology and behavior development (Sandoval & Echandia, 1994). The BASC-3
authors use surveys from teachers, parents, and students to identify behaviors on the assessment
tools. Reynolds and Kamphus (2015) used expert analysis, item evaluation, bias analysis, and
readability analysis to establish the reliability and interpretability of the instrument. A measure
of response validity is available for teacher reports, parent reports, and self-reports. The BASC-
3 was standardized using a nationally representative sample in the United States and inclusive of
gender, education of parent, ethnicity, logistic, and special or gifted education (Reynolds &
Kamphus, 2015). The authors normed the BASC-3 (for ages 2-18) using 1700 teacher
participants, 1800 parent participants, and 900 student participants (ages 8 to 18 only). Reynolds
and Kamphus (2015) use T-scores and percentile ranks to represent the norms.
The research questions were created directly using the BASC-3 as a source for areas of
measurement and consideration (i.e., social stress, anxiety, depression, attitude to teachers, and
attitude to school). The software presents a level of risk to include all areas of measurement.
For this research, the dependent variable included in the research questions was level of risk.
While the BASC-3 is a comprehensive nationally normed standardized assessment, the BASC-3
FM is a component that allows for customized progress monitoring comparable to the nationally
represented population sample and calculated reliability estimates (Reynolds & Kamphus, 2015).
Students between the ages of 12 and 21 received a customized survey; all seventh grade students
were age 12 at the time of data collection. Given the customizability of the survey, it was not
field tested. However, the Pearson website can calculate the validity and reliability of the
created tool using their existing normative data. There were 45 questions on the 12 to 21 age
survey with a .94 coefficient of reliability for the combined norm samples, which includes males
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 63
and females. The survey contains only one set of answer options for all questions (Never,
Sometimes, Often, and Almost Always).
Data Collection
The data were collected using technology by the school site, and data retrieved from
corresponding databases for pre-existing data, BASC-3 FM data and Qualtrics data were
imported into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program for analysis. All
seventh-grade students’ emails were on file to send the BASC-3 FM and Qualtrics survey to
approximately four months after school began. All students were assigned a Chromebook by the
school and can access their email while at school. Students who were not assigned a
Chromebook or require additional assistance reading and understanding the questions could
complete a paper survey. The students were sent a link to their school email through the Pearson
website to complete the BASC-3 FM survey accounting for internalizing and school problems
topics. The data automatically populated the Pearson website once the survey was complete and
generated a report. A Qualtrics survey was also sent to all students’ emails to complete for
demographic and program participation information which automatically populates into the
Qualtrics database. Paper surveys were available for students who did not have access to a
Chromebook or who require additional assistance answering the questions. Both surveys were
introduced to all seventh graders via morning announcements while in their English class given
all students take English. All teachers were aware their students received a survey in the event
the students had questions. While not linked directly to this study, the completion of both
surveys linked to a chance to win one of two $25.00 gift cards by the school site.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 64
Data Analysis
The purpose of using the Qualtrics program was the efficiency of gathering data from
students using an online survey. The Qualtrics program website seamlessly exports to SPSS.
The BASC-3 FM reports had to be complete; then data had to be coded and entered into SPSS.
The purpose of the SPSS program was to analyze data in a variety of ways and contribute to
inferred statistics, trends, and the ability to create tables, charts and graphs using the data. All
surveys were examined for their completeness and matched across all data collection instruments
and time periods. Given this, the data used in this study could be considered valid and reliable
within the demographic examined. The researcher had approximately two months to evaluate
the data. The WEB program takes place over a 10-month period. Data collection used for this
study took places about mid-way through the school year, at about month five. Data analysis and
reporting followed within two months to total seven months for project completion. Additional
data collection to determine the interaction of the WEB program took place simultaneously and
measured at the beginning and end of the school year; this report did not include this
information. While the initial and final data collection pieces are not in this report, the
information was used to inform practice and continued multi-tiered social and emotional service
delivery creation at the site.
1. What is the level of risk among 7
th
-grade students who participate in WEB?
Raw data were extracted from the Pearson website. Also, raw demographic data were
exported from Qualtrics and were imported directly into the SPSS software to begin analysis.
Level of risk (i.e., average, at-risk) for students who completed both surveys will be summarized
using a measure of central tendency and measures of variability and their associated tables.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 65
2. What is the association between level of risk and two independent variables (frequency of
participation and intensity of activities engaged in)?
Raw data were extracted from the Pearson website. Also, raw demographic data were
exported from Qualtrics and were imported directly into the SPSS software to begin analysis.
The association between level of risk (i.e., average, at-risk) and the two independent variables
(i.e., frequency of participation and intensity of activities engaged in) were investigated using
Pearson’s r and an indicator of magnitude of the association between variables. Findings are in
tables.
3. What is the strength of the relationship between gender, minority status, orientation
attendance and level of risk?
Raw data will be extracted from the Pearson website. Also, raw demographic data will
be exported from Qualtrics and will be imported directly into the SPSS software to begin
analysis. The strength of the relationship between the three independent variables (i.e., gender,
minority status, and orientation attendance) and level of risk were examined using Pearson’s chi-
square. Findings are shown in tables.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 66
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter presents findings on the impact of peer mentoring as universal support to
reconcile inadequate mental health access for low socio-economic minority students transitioning
to middle school. This study seeks to investigate the research problem to assist with increasing
positive future outcomes and instituting a more robust service delivery model led by school
psychologists. The Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition Flex Monitor
(BASC-3 FM) and Qualtrics survey were used to determine the level of risk and peer mentoring
experiences from all seventh grade students at one school site. The researcher hypothesizes there
is an association between the level of risk and two independent variables. The researcher also
hypothesizes there is a significant relationship between gender, minority status, orientation
attendance, and level of risk. The reported results will assist the reader in determining whether
the researcher’s hypotheses are correct.
Reporting of Results
1. What is the level of risk among 7th-grade students who participate in WEB?
Of the 100 7th-grade students who participated in this study, the mean level of risk T
score is 46.07 (SD = 15.20) ranging from 10.00 (minimum) to 67.00 (maximum) (Table 2).
Also, the most frequent level of risk T-scores are 52 and 67 with n = 6 apiece (Table 3), while
the most frequent level of risk code is average with n = 70 (70%) (Table 4). As for free and
reduced lunch, 60 (60%) receive free lunch while 13 (13%) receive reduced lunch. The
remaining 27 (27%) students did not receive free or reduced lunch (Figure 1).

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 67
Table 2
Level of Risk T-score Descriptive
N Valid 100

Missing 0
Mean

46.07
Std Dev

15.20
Minimum

10.00
Maximum

67.00

Table 3
Level of Risk T-score Frequency
Value Label Value Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cum Percent

10 4 4.00 4.00 4.00

12 2 2.00 2.00 6.00

14 1 1.00 1.00 7.00

16 1 1.00 1.00 8.00

18 1 1.00 1.00 9.00

20 1 1.00 1.00 10.00

25 1 1.00 1.00 11.00

26 1 1.00 1.00 12.00

28 1 1.00 1.00 13.00

29 2 2.00 2.00 15.00

31 1 1.00 1.00 16.00

32 2 2.00 2.00 18.00

33 1 1.00 1.00 19.00

34 1 1.00 1.00 20.00

35 2 2.00 2.00 22.00

37 2 2.00 2.00 24.00

38 3 3.00 3.00 27.00

39 1 1.00 1.00 28.00

40 2 2.00 2.00 30.00

41 2 2.00 2.00 32.00

43 2 2.00 2.00 34.00

44 5 5.00 5.00 39.00

46 1 1.00 1.00 40.00

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 68
Table 3, continued
Value Label Value Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cum Percent

47 4 4.00 4.00 44.00

48 2 2.00 2.00 46.00

49 3 3.00 3.00 49.00

50 5 5.00 5.00 54.00

51 3 3.00 3.00 57.00

52 6 6.00 6.00 63.00

53 5 5.00 5.00 68.00

54 1 1.00 1.00 69.00

55 4 4.00 4.00 73.00

56 3 3.00 3.00 76.00

58 2 2.00 2.00 78.00

59 3 3.00 3.00 81.00

60 1 1.00 1.00 82.00

61 3 3.00 3.00 85.00

62 2 2.00 2.00 87.00

63 2 2.00 2.00 89.00

64 2 2.00 2.00 91.00

65 2 2.00 2.00 93.00

66 1 1.00 1.00 94.00

67 6 6.00 6.00 100.00
Total 100 100.0 100.0

Table 4
Level of Risk Code Frequency
Value Label Value Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cum Percent
Average 0 70 70.00 70.00 70.00
At risk 1 30 30.00 30.00 100.00
Total 100 100.0 100.0

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 69

Figure 1. Free or reduced-price lunch.
2. What is the association between level of risk and two independent variables (frequency of
participation and intensity of activities engaged in)?
A Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient was employed to examine the
associations between level of risk and two independent variables (frequency of participation and
intensity of activities engaged in).
According to Table 5, there are no significant associations between level of risk and
two independent variables (frequency of participation and intensity of activities engaged in).
Specifically, the associations between level of risk T-score and the following variables were all
statistically nonsignificant α = .050 (Table 5) and not related in a linear fashion. Therefore, the
null hypothesis is accepted; there is no association between the level of risk and two independent
variables.
a. How frequently have you interacted with your 8th grade WEB leader since beginning
7th grade (Q3)? [r = 0.16, n= 100, p = .115]. This is a very weak, positive
correlation between the two variables.
60
13
27
Free Lunch
Reduced Lunch
Neither
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 70
b. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Get information I
needed (Q4_1)? [r = 0.11, n= 33, p = .549]. This is a very weak, positive
correlation between the two variables.
c. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Learn more about my
new school (Q4_2)? [r = -0.01, n= 33, p = .961]. This is a very weak, negative
correlation between the two variables.
d. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Feel more
comfortable being in my new school (Q4_3)? [r = 0.33, n= 33, p = .059]. This is a
weak, positive correlation between the two variables.
e. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Feel more safe at
school (Q4_4)? [r = 0.30, n= 33, p = .089]. This is a weak, positive correlation
between the two variables.
f. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Solve problems
(Q4_5)? [r = 0.19, n= 33, p = .277]. This is a very weak, positive correlation
between the two variables.
g. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Find a trusted adult
(Q4_6)? [r = 0.23, n= 33, p = .200]. This is a weak, positive correlation between
the two variables.
h. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Report a problem to a
trusted adult (Q4_7)? [r = 0.21, n= 33, p = .241]. This is a weak, positive
correlation between the two variables.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 71
i. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Make a new friend
(Q4_8)? [r = 0.28, n= 33, p = .118]. This is a weak, positive correlation between
the two variables.
j. How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item? - Monthly WEB activity
(Q4_9)? [r = 0.06, n= 33, p = .726]. This is a very weak, positive correlation
between the two variables.
k. Intensification of activities engaged in? [r = 0.28, n= 33, p = .121]. This is a weak,
positive correlation between the two variables.
Table 5
Level of Risk T-score Correlations

Level_of_Risk_T_score

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Q3 0.16 0.115 100

Q4#1_1 0.11 0.549 33

Q4#1_2 -0.01 0.961 33

Q4#1_3 0.33 0.059 33

Q4#1_4 0.3 0.089 33

Q4#1_5 0.19 0.277 33

Q4#1_6 0.23 0.2 33

Q4#1_7 0.21 0.241 33

Q4#1_8 0.28 0.118 33

Q4#1_9 0.06 0.726 33

intensification 0.28 0.121 33
Note: Evans (1996) suggests for the absolute value of r: .00-.19 “very weak” .20-.39 “weak” .40-
.59 “moderate” .60-.79 “strong” .80-1.0 “very strong”.

3. What is the strength of the relationship between gender, minority status, orientation
attendance, and level of risk?
A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relationship between
gender and level of risk code. The relation between these variables is not significant, χ
2
(1, N =
100) = 1.48, p =.224 (Tables 6 and 7). Specifically, males and females are equally likely to be
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 72
coded as at risk. This suggests that gender does not influence one’s level of risk code in this
study.
Table 6
Gender * Level of Risk Code [count, expected]

Level of Risk Code

Gender Average At-risk Total
Male 25.00 7.00 32.00

22.40 9.60 .00
Female 45.00 23.00 68.00

47.60 20.40 .00
Total 70.00 30.00 100.00
Table 7
Gender Chi-square Tests
Statistic Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
tailed)
Exact Sig. (2-
tailed)
Exact Sig. (1-
tailed)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.48 1 .224

Likelihood Ratio 1.53 1 .216

Fisher's Exact Test

.252 .163
Continuity Correction .97 1 .326

Linear-by-Linear
Association
1.46 1 .226

N of Valid Cases 100

A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relationship between
ethnicity and level of risk code. The relation between these variables is not significant, χ
2
(7, N =
100) = 5.04, p =.655 (Tables 8 and 9). Specifically, all ethnicities in this study were equally
likely to be coded as at risk. This suggests that ethnicity does not influence one’s level of risk
code in this study.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 73
Table 8
Ethnicity * Level of Risk Code [count, expected]

Level of Risk Code

Ethnicity Average At-Risk Total
American Indian 1.00 .00 1.00

.70 .30 .00
Chinese 1.00 .00 1.00

.70 .30 .00
Asian Indian 1.00 .00 1.00

.70 .30 .00
other Asian 2.00 .00 2.00

1.40 .60 .00
Filipino .00 1.00 1.00

.70 .30 .00
Hispanic 42.00 18.00 60.00

42.00 18.00 .00
Black 9.00 3.00 12.00

8.40 3.60 .00
White 14.00 8.00 22.00

15.40 6.60 .00
Total 70.00 30.00 100.00
Table 9
Ethnicity Chi-square Tests
Statistic Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Pearson Chi-Square 5.04 7 .655
Likelihood Ratio 6.53 7 .479
Linear-by-Linear Association 1.21 1 .271
N of Valid Cases 100

A chi-square test of goodness-of-fit was performed to determine whether orientation
participation and no participation were equal in occurrence. Occurrence of orientation
participation did not equally take place in the population, χ
2
(1, N = 100) = 11.56, p = .001
(Tables 10 and 11). Therefore, we can conclude that there are statistically significant differences
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 74
in the occurrence of orientation participation, with less not participating (N = 33) compared to
those who did participate (N = 67) (Table 10).
Table 10
Orientation Attendance Count

Observed N Expected N Residual
Did not
attend
33 50.00 -17.00
Attended 67 50.00 17.00
Total 100

Table 11
Orientation Attendance Test Statistics

Count
Chi-Square 11.56
df 1
Asymp. Sig. .001

A chi-square test of goodness-of-fit was performed to determine whether risk code,
average v. at-risk, were equal in occurrence. Occurrence of risk code did not equally take place
in the population, χ
2
(1, N = 100) = 16.00, p = .000 (Tables 12 and 13). Therefore, we can
conclude that there are statistically significant differences in the occurrence of risk code, with
less coded at-risk (N = 30) compared to those coded Average (N = 70) (Table 12).
Table 12
Risk Code Occurrence

Observed N Expected N Residual
Average 70 50.00 20.00
At-risk 30 50.00 -20.00
Total 100

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 75
Table 13
Risk Code Test Statistics

Risk Code
Chi-Square 16.00
df 1
Asymp. Sig. .000

Given the above data, the null hypothesis is accepted; there is no significant relationship
between gender, minority status, orientation attendance and level of risk. It must be noted that
the relationship between orientation attendance and level or risk could not be determined due to
not having data on which students attended or did not attend orientation.
Summary
This chapter reports results on the level of risk among seventh grade students, the
association between level of risk and two independent variables, and the strength of the
relationship between gender, minority status, orientation attendance, and level of risk. However,
more students attended orientation than expected (i.e. half of all students are expected to attend)
and fewer students are at-risk than expected (i.e. half of all students are expected to attend).
Despite the researcher’s hypotheses that students’ risk level can be impacted by peer mentors,
this study indicates weak to very weak positive correlations and nonsignificant relationships.
Therefore, the results are not supporting findings on the benefits of using peers to provide
intervention. Perhaps using peers as a universal social and emotional intervention has fewer
benefits, but there is a lack of research on this topic, especially when school psychologists are
included at the student-level and systems-level to provide service. However, this study is a good
start to using existing resources creatively to benefit students. Peer mentoring can encourage an
inclusive approach to mental health through school psychologists’ development of accessible
services for students. While the sample size is small in this study, the amount of at-risk students
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 76
exceeds research indicating that 20 percent of students likely have an EBD (DeFosset et al.,
2017; Evans et al., 2016; National Research Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn &
McDougal, 1998). The 30 percent of at-risk students in this study may indicate a greater need
than initially anticipated, specifically for those attending schools in low socio-economic areas. If
there are more at-risk students than anticipated, pervasive mental health issues in children before
attendance in secondary school, are not being addressed sufficiently and timely. Evidence of
failure to address mental health adequately, especially with minority students can reflect in
school attendance, academic performance, number of referrals, in school and at home suspension
rates, and expulsion rate. Not all mental health needs are observable and result in students
disrupting the classroom environment, but this does not mean a problem does not exist.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 77
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Mental health support in schools has been a topic of research for decades. Despite this,
one in five children still suffer from emotional and behavioral disorders (DeFosset et al., 2017;
Evans et al., 2016; National Research Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn &
McDougal, 1998), mental and behavioral disorders is the second leading disease/disorder for
people ages 10-14 and the primary disease/disorder for people ages 15-19 (National Institute of
Mental Health, 2010), and unmet mental health needs are resulting in higher likelihood of a
student using drugs, dropping out of school, committing crimes, becoming depressed, or
attempting suicide (Bennett & Joe, 2015; Breslau et al., 2008; Brooks et al., 2002; Childs & Ray,
2015; Lemon, 2010; Meyers & Swerdlik, 2003). A 2018 call to action by organizations in
support of educational reform (e.g. National Association of School Psychologists [NASP], the
Association of Teacher Educators, and American Psychological Association) proposes a
comprehensive approach to public health involving safe and positive school environments,
adequate staff for mental health services for at-risk individuals, the reform of school discipline
procedures, and uninterrupted communication among agencies providing safety and support
(Call for Action to Prevent Gun Violence in the United States of America, 2018). The current
study sought to investigate limited access to adequate mental health support for underrepresented
minority middle school students in low socio-economic areas via universal intervention using
peer mentors. More specifically, this research is being used to determine whether peer
mentoring impacts minority students’ level of risk, hence increasing positive future outcomes.
Given that a majority of children only receive psychosocial supports at school across all income
levels (Capella, et al., 2008), schools need resources to meet the needs of the 20 percent of
students likely to have an EBD at minimum (DeFosset, et al., 2017; Evans et al., 2016; National
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 78
Research Council & Institute of Medicine, 2009; Quinn & McDougal, 1998). An important
source to support school-based mental health programming is school psychologists. These staffs
are unable to provide comprehensive services due to exploding ratios outside of NASP’s (2010)
recommended one school psychologist to 500-700 students. The completion of this study will
provide some information about transitional students’ well-being and the use of peer mentors.
Also, the findings may assist schools and school districts in determining whether they have
enough support for their students and families, how a student’s level of risk reflects in behavior
and performance, and how valuable school psychologists can be in providing the support
schools, students, and families need. Further, schools may desire to develop comprehensive
mental health programs with the help of school psychologists to increase positive outcomes for
students and the school site.
This chapter will present a discussion of findings, implications for practice, future
research considerations, and concluding thoughts. The research questions discussed in this
chapter include: 1) What is the level of risk among 7th-grade students who participate in WEB?
2) What is the association between level of risk and two independent variables (frequency of
participation and intensity of activities engaged in)? 3) What is the strength of the relationship
between gender, minority status, orientation attendance and level of risk? The researcher used
secondary data collection via pre-existing student data, a demographic and program participation
survey using Qualtrics, and the self-report Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third
Edition Flex Monitor (BASC-3 FM) for internalizing and school problems to answer research
questions.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 79
Discussion of Findings and Limitations
One crucial finding when determining the level of risk among seventh grade students
who participated in the Where Everybody Belongs (WEB), is that 30 percent of students are
considered to be at-risk. While the BASC-3 FM does not identify individuals as having an EBD,
the self-report scale does include questions addressing depression, anxiety, social stress, attitude
to school, and attitude to teachers (i.e. internalizing and school problems). Researchers conclude
that internalizing and school problems are connected with students considered to be at-risk (Dart
et al., 2015; Fallon et al., 2012; Hendron & Kearney, 2016; Huebner & Gilman, 2006; Martínez-
Ferrer et al., 2008; Robison et al., 2017; Turner, 2014; Walker et al., 2000). Approximately 60
percent of the WMS population receives free lunch and 13 percent receives a reduced cost lunch.
Students who receive free or reduced lunch must reside in a household that meets federal income
poverty guidelines and falls under reduced lunch or free lunch, depending on household size and
income. Given that 30 percent of students in this study are at-risk, research supports that socio-
economic status associate with the level of risk. Low socio-economic status is linked to mental
health disorders (Patel et al., 2007) and youth aged 10-15 are 2.5 times more likely to suffer from
anxiety and depression compared to peers in high socio-economic areas (Lemstra et al., 2008).
Another critical finding is there is no significant association between level of risk and the
frequency of participation. However, despite weak correlations, activities involving students
learning more about their new school and feeling comfortable in their new school fall within the
higher portion of the weak range. Reporting a problem to an adult is the third highest
correlation.
A third finding is there is no significant association between level of risk and intensity of
activities engaged. The intensification of support includes the frequency of participation and the
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 80
number of activities engaged in with a peer mentor. This area falls within the weak range and is
one of the top correlations. The highest correlations shared, although weak, involve a connection
to the school, a trusted adult, and seeing a peer mentor more often for a variety of activities.
Research supports the benefits of adolescents being connected to school (Garringer & MacRae,
2008; Lester & Cross, 2015; Wormington et al., 2015) and having a trusted or caring adult
present (Demaray et al., 2005; Henry & Huizinga, 2007; Lester & Cross, 2015; Martínez et al.,
2011; Wang, 2009). While there is a weak correlation involving the intensity of the peer
mentoring relationship, research confirms the effectiveness of peers as a means of support for
various activities (Arlinghaus et al., 2017; Connolly et al., 2015; Dufrene et al., 2010; Hughes et
al., 2013; Karcher, 2005; Mellanby et al., 2001; Scruggs et al., 2012). Despite this, few studies
were found to use peer mentors to increase student well-being or produce desirable social and
emotional outcomes (Cook et al., 2015; Dart et al., 2015).
Other notable findings include no significant associations between gender and level of
risk or ethnicity and level of risk. When looking among gender groups in this study, 7 percent of
male participants and 23 percent of female participants are considered to be at-risk. Gender is
not found to influence the level of risk in this study when internalizing and school problems are
included in determining risk. These results support research that indicates adolescent females are
at more risk than males due to internalizing problems (Hjemdal, Vogel, Solem, Hagan & Stiles,
2011; Luk, Wang, & Simons-Morton, 2010; Schwartz et al., 2011). Further, 51 percent of all
females are considered to be at-risk, while 28 percent of all males are considered to be at-risk.
When looking among ethnic minority participants (e.g. Hispanic, black, Asian), 21 percent are
considered to be at-risk compared to 8 percent of white participants. Ethnicity is not found to
influence the level of risk in this study when internalizing and school problems determine the
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 81
level of risk. Despite this, the evidence supports research that shows ethnic minorities are more
likely to be at-risk (Howell & McFeeters, 2008; Kann, 2016; Wells et al., 2009).
One final significant finding is there are statistically significant differences in the
occurrence of orientation participation and occurrence in risk code. If half of 100 students in this
study are expected to attend orientation, 17 more seventh graders attended orientation than
expected. If half of 100 students in this study are expected to be at-risk, 20 less seventh graders
are at-risk. Alternatively, 20 more seventh graders fall within the average risk range. If it is
intended for a student to know the benefits and operations of peer mentoring before the school
year begins, it is vital for all seventh grade students to attend. Despite there being less at-risk
students than expected, 30 percent of participants in this study are within the at-risk range. One
can reasonably conclude that this group may not have attended orientation. Knowing which
students attended orientation is a limitation not previously discussed as attendance does not
directly link to students included in this study. Further, the researcher did not define the strength
of the relationship between orientation attendance and risk level; this is one of five limitations
not previously mentioned.
A second limitation not previously discussed is the staff involvement and support for peer
mentoring program implementation and subsequent fidelity concerns. While there were
approximately eight staff members who volunteered to assist with program implementation, all
duties primarily fell on two members leading the program (i.e. one teacher and one school
counselor). There was not enough staff support (i.e. teachers, administrators, and school
psychologist) to develop students’ mentoring skills, organize WEB activities, make
modifications to the intervention, and ensure the intervention implements with fidelity. There
was also inadequate support for students completing the mid-year surveys to address questions,
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 82
explain the context, and support poor readers. The lead program members were unable to sustain
their regular job duties and the demands of program implementation without other staff
involvement. More staff involvement with the program would provide students with elevated
supports to enhance the outcome of the intervention.
A third limitation is mediating concerns with peer mentors. One staff leader advised
there were some concerns with peer mentors bullying other students. One student shared that
their peer mentor caused problems for them. Ensuring peer mentors have good moral character
before the selection is essential. An immediate and planned response to hostile behavior to
preserve the integrity of the students and the intervention is essential. Establishing an interview
process and contract with clear expectations and subsequent agreement is a requirement for peer
mentors.
A fourth limitation is that not all peer mentors were able to participate in the elective
class due to other academic requirements. Students participating as a peer mentor have the
option to join the peer mentoring class to focus on developing communication skills, receive
support in problem-solving, organize meetings with students, and assist with WEB events.
However, students taking college prep classes need to take specific academic courses or want to
take another desired elective did not opt to take the peer mentoring class. These students had
less support and monitoring than students taking the peer mentoring class. Not being in the peer
mentoring class may have impacted the frequency of interaction with seventh grade students and
dedication to the intervention.
A fifth limitation is the lack of empirical research on using peer mentoring as a universal
social and emotional intervention. Three studies indicate positive social and emotional results
when using peer mentors what appears to be a secondary intervention (Connolly et al., 2015;
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 83
Cook et al., 2015; Dart et al., 2015). This research appears to add to a sparse body of literature
on a similar topic with little reference for confirming results.
Implications for Practice
This study can, at a minimum, facilitate a discussion among policymakers in education,
school board members, decision makers in school districts, administrators at school sites,
educators, counselors, and school psychologists about what must take place to serve the mental
health needs of students adequately. According to Table 1, WMS exhibits a deficiency in
available mental health staff, specifically school psychologists, to implement comprehensive
programming for students. School districts need to thoroughly analyze what mental health
support systems are in place, how existing programs implement, whether there are unnecessary
overlaps, how much money is being lost as a result of inadequate mental health support, how
much money is being lost as a result of student behavior and attendance, create solutions to
generate revenue, enhance school climate, and increase teacher and support staff morale.
The higher correlations in this study, although weak, suggest the possibility of making a
more significant impact if the peer mentoring program fully implements, is monitored, and
evaluated. Implementation of new interventions is not flawless and will improve over time.
Mediating significant limitations such as staff support (i.e. teachers and school psychologists),
having a plan for peer mentor selection, and intervening with peer mentors’ unfavorable behavior
can create an environment for improved outcomes.
Recommendations for Future Research
One recommendation for future research based on this study includes hiring enough
school psychologists at the sites being studied to have NASP’s suggested ratio for
comprehensive services (one school psychologist to every 500-700 students depending on needs
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 84
of the site). If achieved, school psychologists can assist and support comprehensive services in
the Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (MCISPS)
including the development of the peer mentors, facilitate interactions, evaluate the program,
develop a more robust service delivery model for adequate mental health access. It is hopeful
that future research can determine what services school psychologists can provide under
recommended staff ratios, how students are benefitting individually, and whether schools are
improving on issues such as attendance, suspensions, referrals, school climate, teacher
satisfaction, and support staff burnout. Lastly, this research can establish a foundation to achieve
recommended staffing ratios for school psychologists, address fiscal challenges, revenue
potential, and staff retention.
Another recommendation for future research is a longitudinal study following students
included in a peer mentoring program from elementary school through high school. This way,
outcomes of addressing the level of risk (i.e. internalizing and school problems) earlier and the
likelihood of remediating concerns and adverse mental health outcomes for students can be
tracked. Also, students who receive additional services beyond peer mentoring (i.e. group
counseling, individual counseling, or specialized program) using a multi-tiered system of
intervention can be tracked.
A third recommendation is including parent and teacher input using the BASC-3 FM. It
may also be beneficial to shorten the student questionnaire for the BASC-3 FM, while
maintaining the same validity and reliability. The researcher can compare feedback and notate
progress using pre and post data from three sources. Alternatively, future research may consider
using a different tool for assessing students’ internalizing and school problems. The BASC-3
FM claims to be a progress monitoring tool, however it is not user-friendly as each student’s
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 85
surveys must be hand entered and emailed individually. Progress monitor reports are also
individually run. If the intervention has more than a few students, it is unrealistic and time
consuming to collect and analyze data for making program changes.
A fourth recommendation is there may be a better way to assess internalizing and school
problems among those students who have a severe learning disability or are limited English
proficient. This recommendation may link with the previous suggestion of locating an altogether
different assessment tool. At the very least, staff members must work directly with students who
have reading or processing difficulties to check for understanding and ensure proper completion
of surveys.
Also, the WEB creators may wish to conduct and publish empirical research using their
program. There are some promising outcomes using peer mentors, but research needs to be
completed to be considered research-based, and can add to a growing body of research
surrounding mental health in schools. Further, WEB creators would be adding to a sparse body
of literature for using peer mentoring as a universal social and emotional intervention to support
students.
A sixth recommendation is to open the gender options to determine level of risk. There
are only two options for gender (i.e. male, female) included in this study. While the results
indicate that gender does not influence level of risk, other genders (e.g. transgender, gender fluid,
agender) may influence risk level, especially if the student is a minority or living in a low socio-
economic area.
Lastly, school districts may wish to consider implementing cohesive and comprehensive
services to all sites. It is the experience of the researcher that all sites in the district have full
freedom to provide or not provide multi-tiered mental health preventive services. If all schools
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 86
are required to implement adequate mental health access for all students, there would be a
continuum of social and emotional support across the district. More specifically, schools can be
given a blueprint with the details for implementation, provided adequate support staff, and
develop achievable and measurable goals (e.g. lower suspension or referral rates, increase
student attendance, lower number of students failing more than one class). Schools can evaluate
the implementation by collecting data on all students, establishing accountability for student
outcomes, and link consequences to school funding.
Conclusions
This study addresses the problem that underrepresented minority middle school students
in low socio-economic areas have limited access to adequate mental health support. A suburban
middle school implemented peer mentoring as a tier one intervention with all seventh grade
students using the Where Everybody Belongs (WEB) program; approximately 550 students. The
purpose of the study was to collect quantitative data to determine whether peer mentoring can
impact a students’ level of risk when internalizing (i.e. anxiety, depression, and social stress) and
school problems (i.e. attitude to school and attitude to teachers) are considered. Students at the
school site are 71.2 percent socio-economically disadvantaged and approximately 70 percent are
ethnicities other than White. Secondary quantitative data has been collected and analyzed using
the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The MCISPS created in 2010 by the
National Association of School Psychologists is used to explain the impending need for mental
health resources.
Results of the study indicate weak to very weak correlations and nonsignificant
relationships and do not support findings on peers being beneficial to intervention. However,
there is research needed on using peers in social and emotional intervention. There is also
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 87
research needed on recommended ratios for school psychologists providing comprehensive
services. One outcome of the study indicate 30 percent of students at-risk compared to the 20
percent that literature suggests. If the amount of students determined to be at-risk is higher than
previously discussed, school psychologists must be available to work with schools to develop,
implement, maintain, and evaluate comprehensive school-based mental health services. Despite
weak correlations, trends indicate that students living in a low socio-economic area are more at-
risk, students risk factors decrease when they are connected to the school and have a trusted adult
available, and females are more at-risk than males for internalizing problems. If students have
experienced or are currently experiencing trauma or other adversity, the likelihood that they can
focus at school, comply with directives, get along with others, and perform academically appears
to be unrealistic. If significant limitations in this study are mediated, the outcome may further
support the use of peer mentors as an intervention and more school psychologists to facilitate
mental health programming in schools. Lastly, until schools provide students with adequate
access to mental health support, punishing and excluding students from educational experiences
should be strongly reconsidered.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 88
REFERENCES
Abdulsalam, A. J., Al Daihani, A. E., & Francis, K. (2017). Prevalence and associated factors of
peer victimization (bullying) among grades 7 and 8 middle school students in Kuwait.
International journal of pediatrics, 2017.
Akos, P., Queen J. A., Lineberry C. (2005). Promoting a successful transition to middle school.
Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.
Allen, A. D. (2011). An Examination and Analysis of Middle School Transition Plans: A Study of
Local Education Agencies and Middle Schools in North Carolina: A Dissertation
(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from chrome-
extension://oemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadm/https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/Allen,
%20Aaron_2011_Dissertation.pdf.
American Association for Employment in Education. (2016). Educator supply and demand
report 2015–2016: Executive summary. Slippery Rock, PA: Author
American Counseling Association. (2015). Student Support Act: Reducing the student to
counselor ratio. Retrieved from http://www.counseling.org/government-affairs/current-
issues/position-papers/2013/02/11/student-support-act-reducing-the-student-to-counselor-
ratio
American Psychological Association. (2017). Socio-economic status. Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/topics/socio-economic-status/index.aspx
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2013). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and
assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives, Abridged Edition.
New York, NY: Longman.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 89
Arlinghaus, K. R., Moreno, J. P., Reesor, L., Hernandez, D. C., & Johnston, C. A. (2017).
Compañeros: High school students mentor middle school students to address obesity
among Hispanic adolescents. Preventing Chronic Disease, 14.
https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd14.170130
Arslan, G., & Duru, E. (2017). Initial development and validation of the School Belongingness
Scale. Child Indicators Research, 10(4), 1043-1058.
ASPA. (2013, March 12). What Is Mental Health? Retrieved from
https://www.mentalhealth.gov/basics/what-is-mental-health/index.html
Atkins, M. S., Cappella, E., Shernoff, E. S., Mehta, T. G., & Gustafson, E. G. (2017). Schooling
and children’s mental health: Realigning resources to reduce disparities and advance
public health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 123-147.
Atkins, M. S., Hoagwood, K. E., Kutash, K., & Seidman, E. (2010). Toward the integration of
education and mental health in schools. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and
Mental Health Services Research, 37(1-2), 40-47.
Baker, J. A. (1998). The social context of school satisfaction among urban, low-income, African-
American students. School Psychology Quarterly, 13(1), 25–44.
Balfanz, R., & Byrnes, V. (2012). The importance of being in school: A report on absenteeism in
the nation's public schools. The Education Digest, 78(2), 4.
Barber, B. K., & Olsen, J. A. (2004). Assessing the Transitions to Middle and High School.
Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(1), 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558403258113
Basch, C. E. (2011). Healthier students are better learners: A missing link in school reforms to
close the achievement gap. Journal of school health, 81(10), 593-598.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 90
Bennett M. D., Jr., & Joe, S. (2015). Exposure to community violence, suicidality, and
psychological distress among African American and Latino youths: Findings from the
CDC Youth Violence Survey. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment,
25(8), 775-789.
Blondal, K. S., & Adalbjarnardottir, S. (2012). Student disengagement in relation to expected
and unexpected educational pathways. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research,
56(1), 85-100.
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.a.). Why Transition Matters. Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject.com/web/why-transition-matters
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.b.). Peer Mentoring, Student Transition Programs. Retrieved
from http://www.boomerangproject.com/
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.c.). What is WEB? Retrieved from http://www.boomerangproject.
com/web/what-web
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.d.). Creating a Positive School Climate. Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject.com/web/changing-culture
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.e.). Yearlong Program. Retrieved from http://www.boomerang
project.com/web/yearlong-program
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.f.). Orientation. Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject.com/ web/orientation
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.g.). Program reach. Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject. com/web/program-reach
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.h.). Data from Schools. Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject.com/web/success
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 91
The Boomerang Project. (n.d.i.). Success. Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject.com/web/success
Bradley, B. J., & Greene, A. C. (2013). Do health and education agencies in the United States
share responsibility for academic achievement and health? A review of 25 years of
evidence about the relationship of adolescents' academic achievement and health
behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(5), 523-532.
Bradshaw, C. P., Buckley, J. A., & Ialongo, N. S. (2008). School-based service utilization among
urban children with early onset educational and mental health problems: The squeaky
wheel phenomenon. School Psychology Quarterly, 23,169 –186
Bradshaw, C. P., Debnam, K. J., Johnson, S. L., Pas, E. T., Hershfeldt, P., Alexander, A., &
Leaf, P. J. (2014). Maryland’s evolving system of social, emotional, and behavioral
interventions in public schools: The Maryland Safe and Supportive Schools project.
Adolescent Psychiatry, 4(3), 194–206.
Brendgen, M., Wanner, B., Morin, A. J. S., & Vitaro, F. (2005). Relations with parents and with
peers, temperament, and trajectories of depressed mood during early adolescence.
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(5), 579-94.
Breslau, J., Lane, M., Sampson, N., & Kessler, R. C. (2008). Mental disorders and subsequent
educational attainment in a US national sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(9),
708–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.016
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research
perspectives. Developmental psychology, 22(6), 723.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 92
Brooks, T. L., Harris, S. K., Thrall, J. S., & Woods, E. R. (2002). Association of adolescent risk
behaviors with mental health symptoms in high school students. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 31(3), 240-246. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(02)00385-3
Buchanan, R. L., & Bowen, G. L. (2008). In the context of adult support: The influence of peer
support on the psychological well-being of middle-school students. Child and Adolescent
Social Work Journal, 25(5), 397-407. DOI: 10.1007/s10560-008-0143-z
Buehler, C., Fletcher, A. C., Johnston, C., & Weymouth, B. B. (2015). Perceptions of school
experiences during the first semester of middle school. School Community Journal,
25(2), 55.
Cappella, E., Frazier, S. L., Atkins, M. S., Schoenwald, S. K., & Glisson, C. (2008). Enhancing
Schools’ capacity to support children in poverty: An ecological model of school-based
mental health services. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 35(5), 395–409.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-008-0182-y
Carter, E. W., Moss, C. K., Asmus, J., Fesperman, E., Cooney, M., Brock, M. E., & Vincent, L.
B. (2015). Promoting inclusion, social connections, and learning through peer support
arrangements. Teaching Exceptional Children; Reston, 48(1), 9–18.
Castillo, J. M., A rro y o‐P l a z a , J., Tan, S. Y., Sabnis, S., & Mattison, A. (2017). Facilitators of and
barriers to model school psychological services. Psychology in the Schools, 54(2), 152-
168.
Castillo, J. M., Curtis, M. J., & Tan, S. Y. (2014). Personnel needs in school psychology: A 10‐
year fol l ow ‐u p study on predicted personnel shortages. Psychology in the Schools, 51(8),
832-849.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 93
Chandra, A., & Lurie, N. (2008). Falling short: continued challenges in meeting the mental
health needs of children with special health care needs. Health services research, 43(3),
803-809.
Cheney, D., Flower, A., & Templeton, T. (2008). Applying response to intervention metrics in
the social domain for students at risk of developing emotional or behavioral disorders.
The Journal of Special Education, 42(2), 108–126.
Child Trends. (2016). Children in poverty: Indicators of child and youth well-being. Bethesda,
MD: Author.
Childs, K. K., & Ray, J. V. (2017). Race differences in patterns of risky behavior and associated
risk factors in adolescence. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology, 61(7), 773–794. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X15599401
Cohen, J. S., & Smerdon, B. A. (2009). Tightening the dropout tourniquet: Easing the transition
from middle to high school. Preventing School Failure, 53(3), 177-184.
Cole, D. A. (1990). Relation of social and academic competence to depressive symptoms in
childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 422–429.
Connections. (2017). In Merriam-Webster online. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/connection
Connolly, J., Josephson, W., Schnoll, J., Simkins-Strong, E., Pepler, D., MacPherson, A., Jiang,
D. (2015). Evaluation of a youth-led program for preventing bullying, sexual harassment,
and dating aggression in middle schools. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(3), 403–
434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431614535090
Cook, C. R. (2015). Evaluation of the Courage and Confidence Mentor Program as a Tier 2
Intervention for Middle School Students with Identified Internalizing Problems.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 94
Evaluation of the Courage and Confidence Mentor Program as a Tier 2 Intervention for
Middle School Students with Identified Internalizing Problems, 7(2), 132–146.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-014-9137-5
Cook, C. R., Burns, M., Browning-Wright, D., & Gresham, F. M. (2010). Transforming school
psychology in the RTI Era: A guide for administrators and school psychologists. Palm
Beach: LRP Publications.
Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of
bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation.
School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83.
Cooper, K. S. (2013). Safe, affirming, and productive spaces: Classroom engagement among
Latina high school students. Urban Education, 48(4), 490-528.
Cooper, P., & Cefai, C. (2013). Evidence-based approaches to social, emotional and behavior
difficulties in schools. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 81-101. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=91262423&site=ehost
-live
Crawford, N. A., Schrock, M., & Woodruff-Borden, J. (2011). Child Internalizing Symptoms:
Contributions of Child Temperament, Maternal Negative Affect, and Family Functioning.
Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 1(42), 53-64.
Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., Lester, L., & Thomas, L. (2009).
Australian covert bullying prevalence study. Retrieved from
http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworks/6795
Cuellar, A. (2015). Preventing and treating child mental health problems. Future of Children,
25(1), 111-134. Retrieved from
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 95
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=102660867&site=ehos
t-live
Curtis, M., Grier, J., & Hunley, S. (2004). The changing face of school psychology: Trends in
data and projections for the future. School Psychology Review, 33(1), November 12,
2015-49-56. doi:10.1521/scpq.18.4.409.26999
Danielsen, A. G., Breivik, K., & Wold, B. (2011). Do perceived academic competence and
school satisfaction mediate the relationships between perceived support provided by
teachers and classmates, and academic initiative? Scandinavian Journal of Educational
Research, 55(4), 379-401.
Danielsen, A. G., Samdal, O., Hetland, J., & Wold, B. (2009). School-related social support and
students' perceived life satisfaction. The Journal of educational research, 102(4), 303-
320.
Dart, E. H., Furlow, C. M., Collins, T. A., Brewer, E., Gresham, F. M., & Chenier, K. H. (2015).
Peer-mediated check-in/check-out for students at-risk for internalizing disorders. School
Psychology Quarterly, 30(2), 229–243
Davis, A. S., McIntosh, D. E., & Phelps, L. (2004). Addressing the shortage of school
psychologists: A summative overview. Psychology in the Schools, 41(4), 489-495.
doi:10.1002/pits.10192
Dawood, R. (2014). Positive psychology and child mental health: A Premature application in
school-based psychological intervention?. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 113,
44-53.
De Los Reyes, A., Augenstein, T. M., Wang, M., Thomas, S. A., Drabick, D. A. G., Burgers, D.
E., & Rabinowitz, J. (2015). The validity of the multi-informant approach to assessing
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 96
child and adolescent mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 141(4), 858.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038498
Deater-Deckard, K. (2001). Annotation: Recent research examining the role of peer relationships
in the development of psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and
Allied Disciplines, 42(5), 565–579. doi:10.1017/s0021963001007272.
DeFosset, A. R., & Gase, L. N. & Ijadi-Maghsoodi, R. & Kuo, T. (2017). Youth descriptions of
mental health needs and experiences with school-based services: Identifying ways to
meet the needs of underserved adolescents. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and
Underserved 28(3), 1191-1207. Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved.
DeLoach, K. P., Dvorsky, M., Miller, E., & Paget, M. (2012). Chapter 7 Mental health issues and
students with emotional and behavioral disorders. In Bakken, J. B, Obiakor, F. E., &
Rotatori, A. F. (ed.) Behavioral Disorders: Practice Concerns and Students with EBD
(pp. 129-155). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Demaray, M. K., Malecki, C. K., Davidson, L. M., Hodgson, K. K., & Rebus, P. J. (2005). The
relationship between social support and student adjustment: A longitudinal analysis.
Psychology in the Schools, 42(7), 691–706.
DeSantis King, A. L., Huebner, S., Suldo, S. M., & Valois, R. F. (2007). An ecological view of
school satisfaction in adolescence: Linkages between social support and behavior
problems. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 1(3-4), 279–295.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-007-9021-7
Devarics, J. (2011, August 8). Study: Minority, Low-income students lack adequate access to
educational opportunities. Retrieved from http://diverseeducation.com/article/16180/
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 97
Diemert, A. (1992). A Needs Assessment of Fifth Grade Students in a Middle School. Retrieved
from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED362332
Doll, B., & Cummings, J. A. (2008). Transforming school mental health services. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
DuBois, D. L., Felner, R. D., Brand, S., Adan, A. M., & Evans, E. G. (1992). A prospective
study of life stress, social support, and adaptation in early adolescence. Child
development, 63(3), 542-557.
DuBois, D. L., Portillo, N., Rhodes, J. E., Silverthorn, N., & Valentine, J. C. (2011). How
effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the evidence.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(2), 57–91.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100611414806
Dufrene, B. A., Reisener, C. D., Olmi, D. J., Zoder-Martell, K., McNutt, M. R., & Horn, D. R.
(2010). Peer tutoring for reading fluency as a feasible and effective alternative in
response to intervention systems. Journal of Behavioral Education, 19, 239–256.
doi:10.1007/s10864-010-9111-8
Eklund, K., Meyer, L., Way, S., & Mclean, D. (2017). School psychologists as mental health
providers: The impact of staffing ratios and medicaid on service provisions. Psychology
in the Schools, 54(3), 279–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21996
Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Graczyk, P. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2003). Implementation,
sustainability, and scaling up of social-emotional and academic innovations in public
schools. School Psychology Review, 32(3), 303-319.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 98
Epkins, C. C., & Heckler, D. R. (2011). Integrating etiological models of social anxiety and
depression in youth: Evidence for a cumulative interpersonal risk model. Clinical Child
and Family Psychology Review, 14(4), 329-376.
Epstein, J., & McPartland, J. M. (1976). The concept and measurement of the quality of school
life. American Educational Research Journal, 13, 15–30.
Espelage, D. L., & Holt, M. K. (2007). Dating violence & sexual harassment across the bully-
victim continuum among middle and high school students. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence; New York, 36(6), 799–811.
Evans, J. D. (1996). Straightforward Statistics for the behavioral sciences. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Evans, M. E., Bruns, E. J., Armstrong, M. I., Hodges, S., & Hernandez, M. (2016). New frontiers
in building mental, emotional and behavioral health in children and youth: Introduction to
the special section. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(2), 103-108.
Evans, S. W., Axelrod, J. L., & Sapia, J. L. (2000). Effective school-based mental health
interventions: Advancing the social skills training paradigm. The Journal of School
Health; Kent, 70(5), 191–4.
Fall, A. M., & Roberts, G. (2012). High school dropouts: Interactions between social context,
self-perceptions, school engagement, and student dropout. Journal of adolescence, 35(4),
787-798.
Fallon, L. M., O’Keeffe, B. V., & Sugai, G. (2012). Consideration of culture and context in
school-wide positive behavior support: A review of current literature. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 14(4), 209-219.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 99
Fite, P. J., Rubens, S. L., Preddy, T. M., Raine, A., & Pardini, D. A. (2014). Reactive/proactive
aggression and the development of internalizing problems in males: The moderating
effect of parent and peer relationships. Aggressive Behavior, 40(1), 69–78.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21498
Flisher, A. J., Kramer, R. A., Grosser, R. C., Alegria, M., Bird, H. R., Bourdon, K. H., &
Narrow, W. E. (1997). Correlates of unmet need for mental health services by children
and adolescents. Psychological Medicine, 27(05), 1145-1154.
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School Engagement: Potential of the
Concept, State of the Evidence. Review of Educational Research; Washington, 74(1), 59–
109.
Furrer, C., & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic
engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 148–162.
Ganeson, K., & Ehrich, L. C. (2009). Transition into high school: A phenomenological study.
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 41(1), 60-78.
Garland, A. F., L e b e ns oh n‐ C hi a l vo, F., Hall, K. G., & Cameron, E. (2017). Capitalizing on
scientific advances to improve access to and quality of children's mental health care.
Behavioral sciences & the law, 35(4), 337-352.
Garringer, M., & MacRae, P. (2008). Building effective peer mentoring programs in schools: An
introductory guide. Folsom, CA: The Mentoring Resource Center.
Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students relationships to
motivation and achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 13(1), 21-43.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 100
Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E. (1992). The relationship of school belonging and friends' values
to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. Journal ofExperimental
Education, 62(1), 60-1.
Graaf, G., & Snowden, L. (2017). The role of Medicaid home and community-based service
policies in organizing and financing care for children with severe emotional disturbance.
Children and Youth Services Review, 81(C), 272-283.
Gresham, F. M., & Kern, L. (2004). Internalizing behavior problems in children and adolescents.
In R. B. Rutherford, M. M. Quinn, & S. R. Mathur (Eds.), Handbook of research in
emotional and behavioral disorders (pp. 262–281). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Guay, F., Denault, A. S., & Renauld, S. (2017). School attachment and relatedness with parents,
friends and teachers as predictors of students’ intrinsic and identified regulation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 51, 416-428.
Hanewald, R. (2013). Transition between primary and secondary school: Why it is important and
how it can be supported. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(1), n1.
Hase, C. N., Goldberg, S. B., Smith, D., Stuck, A., & Campain, J. (2015). Impacts of traditional
bullying and cyberbullying on the mental health of middle school and high school
students. Psychology in the Schools, 52(6), 607-617.
Hendron, M., & Kearney, C. A. (2016). School climate and student absenteeism and
internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems. Children & Schools, 38(2), 109.
Henry, K. L., & Huizinga, D. H. (2007). School-related risk and protective factors associated
with truancy among urban youth placed at risk. The Journal of Primary Prevention,
28(6), 505-519.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 101
Hidden curriculum (2014, August 26). In S. Abbott (Ed.), The glossary of education reform.
Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/hidden-curriculum
Hirschfield, P. J., & Gasper, J. (2011). The relationship between school engagement and
delinquency in late childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
40(1), 3-22.
Hjemdal, O., Vogel, P. A., Solem, S., Hagen, K., & Stiles, T. C. (2011). The relationship
between resilience and levels of anxiety, depression, and obsessive–compulsive
symptoms in adolescents. Clinical psychology & psychotherapy, 18(4), 314-321.
Hoffman, K., Llagas, C., & Snyder, T. (2003). Status and trends in the education of blacks. U.S.
Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Howell, E., & McFeeters, J. (2008). Children’s mental health care: Differences by race/ethnicity
in urban/rural areas. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19(1), 237–
247. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2008.0008
Huebner, E. S., & Gilman, R. (2007). Students Who Like and Dislike School. Applied Research
in Quality of Life, 1(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-006-9001-3
Huebner, E. S., Valois, R. F., Paxton, R. J., & Drane, J. W. (2005). Middle school students’
perceptions of quality of life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 15–24.
Hughes, C., Harvey, M., Cosgriff, J., Reilly, C., Heihngoetter, J., Brigham, N., Bernstein, R.
(2013). A peer-delivered social interaction intervention for high school students with
autism. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 38, 1–16.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004)
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 102
Ingul, J. M., Klöckner, C. A., Silverman, W. K., & Nordahl, H. M. (2012). Adolescent school
absenteeism: modelling social and individual risk factors. Child and Adolescent Mental
Health, 17(2), 93-100.
Isaacs, J., Hodges, E. V. E., & Salmivalli, C. (2008). Long-term consequences of victimization
by peers: A follow-up from adolescence to young adulthood. European Journal of
Developmental Science, 2, 387–397.
Jain, S., Cohen, A. K., Huang, K., Hanson, T. L., & Austin, G. (2015). Inequalities in school
climate in California. Journal of Educational Administration, 53(2), 237-261.
Jiang, X., Huebner, E. S., & Siddall, J. (2013). A short-term longitudinal study of differential
sources of school-related social support and adolescents’ school satisfaction. Social
Indicators Research, 114(3), 1073–1086.
Johnson, D. (2001) Towards inclusion: From challenges to possibilities: planning for behaviour.
Manitoba Education, Training and Youth Cataloguing in Publication Data.
Johnson, V. L., Simon, P., & Mun, E. (2014). A peer-led high school transition program
increases graduation rates among Latino males. The Journal of Educational Research,
107(3), 186-196.
Kang-Yi, C. D., Wolk, C. B., Locke, J., Beidas, R. S., Lareef, I., Pisciella, A. E., … Mandell, D.
S. (2018). Impact of school-based and out-of-school mental health services on reducing
school absence and school suspension among children with psychiatric disorders.
Evaluation and Program Planning, 67, 105–112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.12.006
Kann, L. (2016). Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2015. MMWR. Surveillance
Summaries, 65.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 103
Karcher, M. J. (2005). The effects of developmental mentoring and high school mentors’
attendance on their younger mentees’ self-esteem, social skills, and connectedness.
Psychology in the Schools, 42, 65–77.
Kataoka, S. H., Zhang, L., & Wells, K. B. (2002). Unmet need for mental health care among
U.S. children: Variation by ethnicity and insurance status. Ajp, 159(9), 1548-1555.
doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1548
Kerig, P. K., Ward, R. M., Vanderzee, K. L., & Arnzen Moeddel, M. (2009). Posttraumatic stress
as a mediator of the relationship between trauma and mental health problems among
juvenile delinquents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(9), 1214-1225.
doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9332-5
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Lakoma, M. D., Petukhova, M.,
& Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US
national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Psychological
medicine, 42(9), 1997-2010.
King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., Davis, B., & McClellan, W. (2002). Increasing self-esteem and
school connectedness through a multidimensional mentoring program. The Journal of
School Health, 72(7), 294-9.
Kingery, J. N., Erdley, C. A., & Marshall, K. C. (2011). Peer acceptance and friendships as
predictors of early adolescents’ adjustment across the middle school transition. Merrill-
Palmer Quarterly, 57, 215–243.
Kljakovic, M., & Hunt, C. (2016). A meta-analysis of predictors of bullying and victimisation in
adolescence. Journal of adolescence, 49, 134-145.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 104
Koppang, A. (2004). A transition program based on identified student and parent concerns.
Middle School Journal, 36(1), 32-36.
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of
cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1), S13-S20.
Kratochwill, T. R., Albers, C. A., & Shernoff, E. S. (2004). School-based interventions. Child
and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 13(4), 885-903.
Kupersmidt, J. B., Stump, K. N., Stelter, R. L., & Rhodes, J. E. (2017). Predictors of premature
match closure in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 59(1-2), 25-35.
Kutsyuruba, B., Klinger, D. A., & Hussain, A. (2015). Relationships among school climate,
school safety, and student achievement and w e ll‐ b e ing : a review of the literature. Review
of Education, 3(2), 103–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3043
Ladd, G. W. (2006). Peer rejection, aggressive or withdrawn behavior, and psychological
maladjustment from ages 5 to 12: An examination of four predictive models. Child
Development, 77, 822–846.
Ladd, G. W., & Troop-Gordon, W. (2003). The role of chronic peer difficulties in the
development of children’s psychological adjustment problems. Child Development, 74,
1344–1367. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.0061
Laird, R., Jordan, K. Y., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2001). Peer rejection in
childhood, involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence, and the development
of externalizing behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13(02), 337–
354.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 105
Lane, K. L., Oakes, W. P., Carter, E. W., & Messenger, M. (2015). Examining behavioral risk
and academic performance for students transitioning from elementary to middle school.
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 17(1), 39-49.
Larson, S., Chapman, S., Spetz, J., & Brindis, C. D. (2017). Chronic Childhood trauma, mental
health, academic Achievement, and school‐ b ased health center mental health services.
Journal of School Health, 87(9), 675-686.
Lee, L. H., Goodkind, S., & Shook, J. J. (2017). Racial/ethnic disparities in prior mental health
service use among incarcerated adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 78, 23-
31.
Lemon, J. (2010). An investigation of the relationship among wellness, perceived stress,
mattering, and at-risk status for dropping out of high school. (Doctor of Philosophy,
Mississippi State University).
Lester, L., & Cross, D. (2015). The Relationship Between School Climate and Mental and
Emotional Wellbeing Over the Transition from Primary to Secondary School.
Psychology of Well-Being, 5(1), 1–15.
Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment
as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from ages 5 to 17. Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(5), 505-20.
Li, Y., & Lerner, R. M. (2011). Trajectories of school engagement during adolescence:
Implications for grades, depression, delinquency, and substance use. Developmental
Psychology, 47(1), 233–247. doi:10.1037/a0021307.
Li, Y., Zhang, W., Liu, J., Arbeit, M. R., Schwartz, S. J., Bowers, E. P., 7 Lerner, R. M. (2011).
The role of school engagement in preventing adolescent delinquency and substance use:
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 106
A survival analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 34(6), 1181–1192.
doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.003
Licht, B. G., Gard, T., & Guardino, C. (1991). Modifying school attendance of special education
high school students. The Journal of Educational Research, 84(6), 368-373.
Lopes, J., Silva, E., Oliveira, C., Sass, D., & Martin, N. (2017). Teacher’s Classroom
Management Behavior and Students’ Classroom Misbehavior: A Study with 5th through
9th-Grade Students. Electronic Journal of Research in Education Psychology, 15(43).
Lopez, C., & DuBois, D. L. (2005). Peer victimization and rejection: Investigation of an
integrative model of effects on emotional, behavioural, and academic adjustment in early
adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 25-36.
Loukas, A., & Robinson, S. (2004). Examining the moderating role of perceived school climate
in early adolescent adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14(2), 209-233.
Loukas, A., Ripperger-Suhler, K. G., & Horton, K. D. (2009). Examining temporal associations
between school connectedness and early adolescent adjustment. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 38, 804 – 812.doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9312-9
Luk, J. W., Wang, J., & Simons-Morton, B. G. (2010). Bullying victimization and substance use
among US adolescents: Mediation by depression. Prevention Science, 11(4), 355-359.
Lynn, H. S., & Tsang, B. Y. (2011). Developing a predictive tool for psychological well-being
among Chinese adolescents in the presence of missing data. BMC Medical Research
Methodology; London, 11, 119.
Maag, J., & Swearer, S. (2005). Cognitive-behavioral interventions for depression: Review and
implications for school personnel. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 259 –276.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 107
Martínez, R. S., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2004). Emotional adjustment and school functioning
of young adolescents with multiple versus single learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities; Austin, 37(5), 411–20.
Martínez, R. S., Aricak, O. T., Graves, M. N., Peters-Myszak, J., & Nellis, L. (2011). Changes in
perceived social support and socioemotional adjustment across the elementary to junior
high school transition. Journal of youth and adolescence, 40(5), 519-530.
Martínez-Ferrer, B., Murgui-Perez, S., Musitu-Ochoa, G., & del Carmen Monreal-Gimeno, M.
(2008). The role of parental support, attitudes to school, and self-esteem on school-based
violence among adolescents. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology,
8(3), 679-692.
Matlack, M. E., McGreevy, M. J., Rouse, R. E., Flatter, C., & Marcus, R. F. (1994). Family
correlates of social skill deficits in incarcerated and nonincarcerated adolescents.
Adolescence, 29(113), 117-32.
Matson, J. L., & Wilkins, J. (2009). Psychometric testing methods for children's social skills.
Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(2), 249-274.
McFarland, J., Hussar, B., de Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., ... &
Bullock Mann, F. (2017). The Condition of Education 2017. NCES 2017-144. National
Center for Education Statistics.
McFarland, J., Hussar, B., de Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Hinz, S.
(2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-144).Washington, DC: National
Center for Education Statistics.
McGraw, Kelly & Kooonce, Danel. (2011). Role of the school psychologist: Orchestrating the
continuum of school-wide positive behavior support. NASP Communiqué, 39(8), 4-6.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 108
Mellanby, A. R., Newcombe, R. G., Rees, J., & Tripp, J. H. (2001). A comparative study of peer-
led and adult-led school sex education. Health Education Research; Oxford, 16(4), 481.
Mellin, E. A., Ball, A., Iachini, A., Togno, N., & Rodriguez, A. M. (2017). Teachers’
experiences collaborating in expanded school mental health: implications for practice,
policy and research. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 10(1), 85-98.
Mentor. (2017). In Merriam-Webster online. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/mentor
Merianos, A. L., Vidourek, R. A., & King, K. A. (2017). Effective prevention strategies for
increasing health services utilization among hispanic youth. Community mental health
journal, 53(1), 79-91.
Messias, E., Kindrick, K., & Castro, J. (2014). School bullying, cyberbullying, or both: correlates
of teen suicidality in the 2011 CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Comprehensive
psychiatry, 55(5), 1063-1068.
Meyers, A. B., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2003). School-based health centers: Opportunities and
challenges for school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 40(3), 253–264.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10085
Middle school. (2018). In Dictionary.com. Retrieved from
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/middle-school
Mufson, L. (2010). Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents ( I P T ‐A ): Extending
the reach from academic to community settings. Child and Adolescent Mental Health,
15(2), 66-72.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 109
Nansel, T. R., Haynie, D. L., & Simonsmorton, B. G. (2003). The Association of Bullying and
Victimization with Middle School Adjustment. Journal of Applied School Psychology,
19(2), 45–61.
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001).
Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial
adjustment. JAMA, 285(16), 2094–2100. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.16.2094
National Association of School Psychologists. (2010). Model for comprehensive and integrated
school psychological services. Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/standards/
practice-model/.
National Association of School Psychologists. (2017). Shortages in school psychology:
Challenges to meeting the growing needs of U.S. students and schools [Research
Summary]. Retrieved from https://www.nasponline.org/Documents/Resource
s%20and%20Publications/Resources/School_Psychology_Shortage_2017.pdf
National Center for School Engagement. (2016a). Serving At-Risk Youth. Denver, CO: Colorado
Foundation for Families and Children. Retrieved from http://schoolengagement.org/
school-engagement-services/at-risk-youth
National Center for School Engagement. (2016b). Reducing Truancy. Denver, CO: Colorado
Foundation for Families and Children. Retrieved from
http://schoolengagement.org/school-engagement-services/reducing-truancy
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2017). Social and emotional wellbeing for
children and young people. Retrieved from
https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/lgb12/chapter/Introduction
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 110
National Institute of Mental Health. (2010) U.S. Leading Disease/Disorder Categories by Age.
Retrieved from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/disability/us-leading-disease-
disorder-categories-by-age.shtml
National Research Council. (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press.
O’Connor, E. E., Dearing, E., & Collins, B. A. (2011).Teacher-child relationship and behavior
problem trajectories in elementary school. American Educational Research Journal, 48,
120–162. doi:10.3102/00028312103650
Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of
educational research, 70(3), 323-367.
Parker, J., Rubin, K. H., Erath, S., Wojslawowicz, J. C., & Buskirk, A. A. (2006). Peer
relationships and developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.),
Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp.
419–493). New York, NY: Wiley.
Parkes, A., Waylen, A., Sayal, K., Heron, J., Henderson, M., Wight, D., & Macleod, J. (2014).
Which behavioral, emotional and school problems in middle-childhood predict early
sexual behavior? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(4), 507–27.
Pastore, D. R., Fisher, M., & Friedman, S. B. (1996). Violence and mental health problems
among urban high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 18(5), 320-324.
doi:10.1016/1054-139X(95)00063-X
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2010). Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem. Journal of school health,
80(12), 614-621.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 111
Pate, C. M., Maras, M. A., Whitney, S. D., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2017). Exploring psychosocial
mechanisms and interactions: Links between adolescent emotional distress, school
connectedness, and educational achievement. School mental health, 9(1), 28-43.
Patel, V., Fisher, A. J., Hetrick, S., & McGorry, P. (2007). Mental health of young people: A
global public-health challenge. The Lancet, 369(9569), 1302-1313.
Peer Mentoring, Student Transition Programs Boomerang Project. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.boomerangproject.com/
Peer. (2017). In Merriam-Webster online. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/peer
Pellegrini, A. D. (2002). Bullying, victimization, and sexual harassment during the transition to
middle school. Educational Psychologist, 37(3), 151–163.
Perfect, M. M., & Morris, R. J. (2011). Delivering s c hool ‐ ba s e d mental health services by school
psychologists: Education, training, and ethical issues. Psychology in the Schools, 48(10),
1049-1063.
Pickhardt, C. E. (2011). Adolescence and the transition to middle school. Psychology Today.
Porter, G., Epp, L., & Bryan, S. (2000). Collaboration among school mental health professionals:
A necessity, not a luxury. Professional School Counseling, 3(5), 315.
Predy, L., McIntosh, K., & Frank, J. L. (2014). Utility of number and type of office discipline
referrals in predicting chronic problem behavior in middle schools. School Psychology
Review, 43(4), 472-489.
Protecting Students with Disabilities. (2015, October 16). [FAQs; Educational Resources].
Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/504faq.html
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 112
Provasnik, S., KewalRamani, A., McLaughlin Coleman, M., Gilbertson, L., Herring, W., & Xie,
Q. (2007). Status of education in rural America. National Center for Education Statistics,
November 12, 2015.
Pyle, N., Flower, A., Fall, A. M., & Williams, J. (2016). Individual-level risk factors of
incarcerated youth. Remedial and special education, 37(3), 172-186.
Quinn, K. P., & McDougal, J. L. (1998). A mile wide and a mile deep: Comprehensive
interventions for children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and their
families. School Psychology Review, 27(2), 191-203.
Rappa, K. A. (2012). A case study exploring the transition to middle school from the perspective
of students (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
Database. (3506369)
Reddy, R., Rhodes, J. E., & Mulhall, P. (2003). The influence of teacher support on student
adjustment in the middle school years: A latent growth curve study. Development and
Psychopathology, 15, 119–138. doi:10.1017.S095457940300007
Reschly, D. J. (2000). The present and future status of school psychology in the united states.
School Psychology Review, 29(4), 507.
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2015). Behavior assessment system for children-third
edition (BASC-3). Bloomington, MN: Pearson Clinical Assessment.
Rice, L., Barth, J. M., Guadagno, R. E., Smith, G. P., A., & Mccallum, D. M. (2013). The role of
social support in students’ perceived abilities and attitudes toward math and science.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(7), 1028–40.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 113
Robison, S., Jaggers, J., Rhodes, J., Blackmon, B. J., & Church, W. (2017). Correlates of
educational success: Predictors of school dropout and graduation for urban students in the
Deep South. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 37-46.
Rocque, M., Jennings, W. G., Piquero, A. R., Ozkan, T., & Farrington, D. P. (2017). The
importance of school attendance: Findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent
Development on the Life-Course Effects of Truancy. Crime & Delinquency, 63(5), 592-
612.
Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (2000). School as a context of early adolescents’
academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings.
Elementary School Journal, 100,443–471. doi:10.1086/499650
Romer, D., & McIntosh, M. (2005). The Roles and perspectives of school mental health
professionals in promoting adolescent mental health. In D. L. Evans, E. B. Foa, R. E.
Gur, H. Hendin, C. P. O, M. E. P. Seligman, & T. Walsh (Eds.), Treating and preventing
adolescent mental health disorders: What we know and what we don’t know: A research
agenda for improving the mental health of our youth (pp. 597–615). New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Laursen, B. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of peer interactions,
relationships, and groups. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2010). Relationship Between multiple sources
of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early
adolescence: Comparisons across gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence; New York,
39(1), 47–61.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 114
Rumberger, R. (1987). High school dropouts: A review of issues and evidence. Review of
Educational Research, 57(2), 101-121.
Rumberger, R. (2001). Why students drop out of school and what can be done. Los Angeles:
UCLA: The Civil Rights Project / Proyecto Derechos Civiles.
Ryan, R. M., Stiller, J. D., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of relationships to teachers,
parents, and friends as predictors of academic motivation and self-esteem. The Journal of
Early Adolescence, 14(2), 226–249.
Sandoval, J., & Echandia, A. (1994). Behavior assessment system for children. Journal of School
Psychology, 32(4), 419-425.
Scarborough, J. L., & Culbreth, J. R. (2008). Examining discrepancies between actual and
preferred practice of school counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(4),
446-459. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00533.x
Scelfo, J. (2017, April 5). Get happy: Four well-being workouts. The New York Times. Retrieved
from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/05/education/edlife/get-happy-four-well-being-
workouts.html
Schwartz, S. E. O., Rhodes, J. E., Chan, C. S., & Herrera, C. (2011). The impact of school-based
mentoring on youths with different relational profiles. Developmental Psychology, 47(2),
450-62.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Marshak, L. (2012). Peer-mediated instruction in inclusive
secondary social studies learning: Direct and indirect learning effects. Learning
Disabilities Research & Practice, 27, 12–20. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2011.00346.x
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 115
Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of
perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821–841.
Special Education Enrollment. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.kidsdata.org/topic/95/special-
needs-education-
Spencer, A. M. (2009). School attendance patterns, unmet educational needs, and truancy: A
chronological perspective. Remedial and Special Education, 30(5), 309-319.
doi:10.1177/0741932508321017
Spilt, J. L., van Lier, P. A. C., Leflot, G., Onghena, P., & Colpin, H. (2014). Children’s social
self-concept and internalizing problems: The influence of peers and teachers. Children’s
Social Self-Concept and Internalizing Problems: The Influence of Peers and Teachers,
85(3), 1248–1256.
Splett, J. W., Fowler, J., Weist, M. D., McDaniel, H., & Dvorsky, M. (2013). The critical role of
school psychology in the school mental health movement. Psychology in the Schools,
50(3), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21677
Stephan, S., Paternite, C., Grimm, L., & Hurwitz, L. (2014). School mental health: The impact of
state and local capacity-building training. International Journal of Education Policy &
Leadership, 9(7), 1-13.
Stewart, T., & Suldo, S. (2011). Relationships between social support sources and early
adolescents’ mental health: The moderating effect of student achievement level.
Psychology in the Schools, 48(10), 1016–1033. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20607
Stillwell, R., & Sable, J. (2013). Public School Graduates and Dropouts from the Common Core
of Data: School Year 2009-10. First Look (Provisional Data). NCES 2013-309rev.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 116
National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED566134
Stornes, T., Bru, E., & Idsoe, T. (2008). Classroom social structure and motivational climates:
On the influence of teachers' involvement, teachers' autonomy support and regulation in
relation to motivational climates in school classrooms. Scandinavian Journal of
Educational Research, 52(3), 315-329.
Suh, S., Malchow, A., & Suh, J. (2014). Why did the Black-White dropout gap widen in the
2000s? Educational Research Quarterly; West Monroe, 37(4), 19–40.
Suicide Violence Prevention Injury Center CDC. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/suicide/
Suldo, S.M., Friedrich, A. & Michalowski, J. (2010). Personal and s y stems‐ level factors that
limit and facilitate school psychologists’ involvement in s c hool ‐ ba s e d mental health
services. Psychology in the Schools, 47(4), 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20475
Support. (2017). In Merriam-Webster online. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/support
Teasley, M. L. (2004). Absenteeism and truancy: Risk, protection, and best practice implications
for school social workers. Children & Schools, 26(2), 117-128.
Teich, J., Robinson, G., & Weist, M. (2007). What kinds of mental health services do public
schools in the United States provide? Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 1.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1754730X.2008.9715741
Tennant, J. E., Demaray, M. K., Malecki, C. K., Terry, M. N., Clary, M., & Elzinga, N. (2015).
Students’ ratings of teacher support and academic and social–emotional well-being.
School Psychology Quarterly, 30(4), 494–512.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 117
Thurston, I. B., Hardin, R., Decker, K., Arnold, T., Howell, K. H., & Phares, V. (2018). Black
and White Parents’ Willingness to Seek Help for Children's Internalizing and
Externalizing Symptoms. Journal of clinical psychology, 74(1), 161-177.
Tian, L., Chen, H., & Huebner, E. S. (2014). The Longitudinal Relationships Between Basic
Psychological Needs Satisfaction at School and School-Related Subjective Well-Being in
Adolescents. Soc Indic Res, 119, 353-372.
Trembath, D., Balandin, S., Togher, L., & Stancliffe, R. J. (2009). Peer-mediated teaching and
augmentative and alternative communication for preschool-aged children with autism.
Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 34, 173–186.
doi:10.1080/13668250902845210
Turner, I., Reynolds, K. J., Lee, E., Subasic, E., & Bromhead, D. (2014). Well-being, school
climate, and the social identity process: A latent growth model study of bullying
perpetration and peer victimization. School psychology quarterly, 29(3), 320.
University of Virginia (2018). Call for action to prevent gun violence in the United States of
America. Retrieved from https://curry.virginia.edu/prevent-gun-violence
Urban area. (2018). In Wikipedia’s online encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_area
van Lier, P. A. C., & Koot, H. M. (2010). Developmental cascades of peer relations and
symptoms of externalizing and internalizing problems from kindergarten to fourth-grade
elementary school. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 569–582.
doi:10.1017/S09545794100002
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 118
van Lier, P. A. C., Muthén, B. O., van der Sar, R. M., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2004). Preventing
disruptive behavior in elementary schoolchildren: Impact of a universal classroom-based
intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 467–478.
Vega, William & Rumbaut, Ruben. (1991). Ethnic minorities and mental health. Annual Review
Sociology, 17, 351-83.
Walcott, C. M., Charvat, J. L., McNamara, K. M., & Hyson, D. M. (2016). School psychology at
a glance: 2015 member survey results. Special session presented at the annual convention
of the National Association of School Psychologists, New Orleans, LA.
Walker, H. M., Nishioka, V. M., Zeller, R., Severson, H. H., & Feil, E. G. (2000). Causal factors
and potential solutions for the persistent under-identification of students having
emotional or behavioral disorders in the context of schooling. Assessment for Effective
Intervention, 26, 29–39.
Wang, M. & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents’ perceptions of school environment,
engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational
Research Journal, 47, 633–662.
Wang, M. (2009). School climate support for behavioral and psychological adjustment: Testing
the mediating effect of social competence. School Psychology Quarterly, 24(4), 240-251.
Wang, M. T., & Fredricks, J. A. (2014). The reciprocal links between school engagement, youth
problem behaviors, and school dropout during adolescence. Child development, 85(2),
722-737.
Waters, S. K., Lester, L., Wenden, E., & Cross, D. (2012). A theoretically grounded exploration
of the social and emotional outcomes of transition to secondary school. Journal of
Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 22(2), 190-205.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 119
Weir, K. (2012). School psychologists feel the squeeze: As school budgets shrink, school-based
mental-health services are losing resources and support. Monitor on Psychology,43(8),
34.
Wells, R., Hillemeier, M. M., Bai, Y., & Belue, R. (2009). Health service access across
racial/ethnic groups of children in the child welfare system. Child Abuse & Neglect,
33(5), 282–292. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.11.003
Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents,
teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 202–209.
Wentzel, K. R., Battle, A., Russell, S. L., & Looney, L. B. (2010). Social supports from teachers
and peers as predictors of academic and social motivation. Contemporary Educational
Psychology; San Diego, 35(3), 193–202.
Wilson, C. J. (2007). When and how do young people seek professional help for mental health
problems? The Medical Journal of Australia, 187 (Supplement), S35-S39.
World Health Organization. (2012). International statistical classification of diseases and
related health problems. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Wormington, S. V., Anderson, K. G., Tomlinson, K. L., & Brown, S. A. (2013). Alcohol and
other drug use in middle school: The interplay of gender, peer victimization, and
supportive social relationships. The Journal of early adolescence, 33(5), 610-634.
Wright, M., Banerjee, R., Hoek, W., Rieffe, C., & Novin, S. (2010). Depression and Social
anxiety in children: Differential links with coping strategies. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 38, 405–419.
Young, C. Y., & Wright, J. V. (2001). Mentoring: The Components for Success. Journal of
Instructional Psychology; Milwaukee, Wis., 28(3), 202–206.
PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 120
Zahn-Waxler, C., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Slattery, M. J. (2000). Internalizing problems of
childhood and adolescence: Prospects, pitfalls, and progress in understanding the
development of anxiety and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 443–
466.
Zimmer–Gembeck, M. J., Hunter, T. A., & Pronk, R. (2007). A model of behaviors, peer
relations and depression: Perceived social acceptance as a mediator and the divergence of
perceptions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 273–302.
Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2007). Social and emotional learning: Promoting the development of
all students. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 17(2-3), 233-255.
Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R.P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (EDS.). (2004). Building academic
success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Zullig, K. J., Huebner, E. S., & Patton, J. M. (2011). Relationships among school climate
domains and school satisfaction. Psychology in the Schools, 48(2), 133-145.
Zullig, K. J., Koopman, T. M., Patton, J. M., & Ubbes, V. A. (2010). School climate: Historical
review, instrument development, and school assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational
Assessment, 28(2), 139-152.

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 121
APPENDIX A
7th Grade Survey
Q1 My lunch number/student ID is:
Q2 Type your birthday in this format --->>> 07/04/2012
Q3 How frequently have you interacted with your 8th-grade WEB mentor since beginning 7th
grade?
 A lot (more than once a week)
 A moderate amount (once a week or every other week)
 A little (once a month)
 None at all

Skip To: End of Survey If how frequently have you interacted with your 8th-grade WEB leader
since beginning 7th grade? = None at all
Q4 Frequency of interaction with a peer mentor.
How often did you interact with a peer mentor for each item?
Never Once
Sometimes (2-3
times)
Often (more than
4 times)
Get information I
needed
   
Learn more about
my new school
   
Feel more
comfortable
being in my new
school
   
Feel more safe at
school
   
Solve problems    
Find a trusted
adult
   
Report a problem
to a trusted adult
   
Make a new
friend
   
Monthly WEB
activity
   
Other    

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 122
APPENDIX B
Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix
Research Questions Dependent
Variable
Independent
Variable(s)
Type of
Analysis
Theoretical
Framework
Data
Instrument
Question
What is the level of
risk among 7
th
-grade
students who
participate in WEB?

Descriptive The Model for
Comprehensive
and Integrated
School
Psychological
Services
(MCISPS)
(NASP, 2010)
All BASC-3
FM (12-21)
Self-Report
questions
All 7
th
-grade
survey
questions
What is the
association between
level of risk and two
independent variables
(frequency of
participation and
intensity of activities
engaged in)?
Frequency of
interaction
with mentor
Intensity of
activities
engaged in
Level of risk
(i.e., average
or at-risk)
Pearson’s
Correlation
The Model for
Comprehensive
and Integrated
School
Psychological
Services
(MCISPS)
(NASP, 2010)
All BASC-3
FM (12-21)
Self-Report
questions
All 7
th
-grade
survey
questions
What is the strength of
relationship between
gender, minority
status, orientation
attendance and level
of risk?
Level of risk
(i.e., average
or at-risk)

Occurrence
Gender
Ethnicity

Orientation
attendance
Level of risk
(i.e., average
or at-risk)

Pearson’s Chi-
square test of
independence
Pearson’s Chi-
square
goodness of fit
The Model for
Comprehensive
and Integrated
School
Psychological
Services
(MCISPS)
(NASP, 2010)
All BASC-3
FM (12-21)
Self-Report
questions
All 7
th
-grade
survey
questions

PEER MENTORS AND MIDDLE SCHOOLERS’ MENTAL HEALTH 123
APPENDIX C
USC IRB Approval Notice for Expedited Review Applications Certificate

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study addressed the problem that underrepresented minority middle school students in low socio-economic areas have limited access to adequate mental health support. Peer mentoring has been implemented as a tier one intervention. The purpose of the study was to determine the impact of peer mentoring on students’ internalizing and school problems. Students at this school were 71.2% socio-economically disadvantaged and approximately 70% are ethnicities other than White. ❧ The Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (MCISPS) created in 2010 by the National Association of School Psychologists was used to explain the impending need for mental health resources. Results of the study indicated weak to very weak correlations and nonsignificant relationships and do not support findings on peers being beneficial to intervention. However, there is a lack of research on peers used in social and emotional intervention and school psychologists providing comprehensive services. Some outcomes of the study indicate 30% of students at-risk compared to the 20% that literature suggests. Despite weak correlations, trends indicate that students living in a low socio-economic area are more at-risk, students risk factors decrease when they are connected to the school and have a trusted adult available, and females are more at-risk than males for internalizing problems. If significant limitations in this study are mediated, the outcome may be different. There is a need for more research on using peer mentoring as a universal social and emotional intervention and comprehensive services by school psychologists.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Examining the impact of continuation high schools on students' self-efficacy

PDF

Peer mentor curriculum: post-secondary students with autism: success in self-regulation and thriving

PDF

When the minority becomes the majority: school psychologists and overrepresentation in special education

PDF

Best practices general education teachers implement to foster a positive classroom environment

PDF

The implementation of strategies to minimize the achievement gap for African-American, Latino, English learners, and socio-economically disadvantaged students

PDF

Struggles build character: the impact of developmental math and the psychological, social and cultural factors that influence Latino males' persistence in STEM

PDF

Reclaiming the dream: credit recovery and graduation at a California model continuation high school

PDF

The effect on teacher career choices: exploring teacher perceptions on the impact of non‐instructional workload on self‐efficacy and self‐determination

PDF

Examining the benefits of senior nutrition programs as a cost savings to Medicare: a promising practice study

PDF

What is the impact of same-race alumni mentoring on the career development of African American students attending predominantly White Universities?

PDF

The effects of a reading fluency intervention on the reading outcomes of middle school students with severe reading disabilities

PDF

A phenomenological look into the effect that structured near-peer mentoring programs could have on first-generation college students continuing past freshman year at 4-year universities

PDF

Faculty experiences: sense of belonging for sexual and gender minority college students

PDF

Principal implementation of Education Code 215: pupil and student suicide prevention policies in southern California public middle schools

PDF

The comparison of hybrid intervention and traditional intervention in increasing student achievement in middle school mathematics

PDF

Examining the use of mnemonic devices in instructional practices to improve the reading skills of third grade public school students with learning disabilities

PDF

An analysis of the rise of special education legal costs in one Southern California suburban district

PDF

An examination of factors that potentially impact anxiety levels in high school students in an international school

PDF

And still we rise: examining the strengths of first-generation college students

PDF

Identification of barriers to mentoring and their impact on retention and advancement of underrepresented populations in the federal government

Asset Metadata

Creator Del Real, Brandie Michelle (author)

Core Title Examining the impact of peer mentoring on transitioning socio-economically disadvantaged minority middle school students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/23/2018

Defense Date 06/19/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access,Adolescent,at-risk,internalizing problems,intervention,low socio-economic,Mental Health,middle school,minority,OAI-PMH Harvest,peer mentor,school problems,school psychologist

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Combs, Wayne (committee member), Crispen, Patrick (committee member), Hyde, Corinne (committee member)

Creator Email bdelreal@usc.edu,brandie.delreal@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-22684

Unique identifier UC11668912

Identifier etd-DelRealBra-6443.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-22684 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DelRealBra-6443.pdf

Dmrecord 22684

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Del Real, Brandie Michelle

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA