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Increasing post-secondary education among police officers: an innovation study

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Increasing post-secondary education among police officers: an innovation study

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Increasing Post-Secondary Education Among Police Officers: An Innovation Study
by
Rosana A. Padilla

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2021

© Copyright by Rosana A. Padilla 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Rosana A. Padilla certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Dr. Monique Datta
Dr. Cathy Krop
Dr. Eric Canny, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv
Abstract
Policing today is complex, and the changing nature of law and law enforcement tasks law
enforcement professionals with a wide range of responsibilities that require innovative problem
solving, communication, and analytical skills. Research has found that post-secondary
education can help develop the skills and competencies needed to perform successfully in this
capacity. This research was conducted for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD, a
pseudonym), a law enforcement agency of an urban city located in the western United States.
The purpose of this research was to determine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that would lead to an innovative and systematic method for guiding UCPD officers to
pursue post-secondary education. Qualitative data was collected by interviewing eight UCPD
officers with varying years of experience and rank, with post-secondary experience.
Understanding the officers’ experience of pursuing post-secondary education while being
employed by UCPD was essential to identify the needs for developing a systematic method for
guiding officers in the future. The recommended implementation of the Cops Go to College
(CGTC) program is the holistic innovation that interconnects the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences identified in this study.
Keywords: law enforcement, police officer, community policing, education, post-
secondary education, higher education

v
Dedication
To my grandfather, Juan S. Padilla, I know you are smiling down from heaven. Siempre estarás
conmigo.

vi
Acknowledgments
To my dissertation committee, Dr. Eric Canny, Dr. Monique Datta, and Dr. Cathy Krop,
thank you for your guidance. Dr. Canny, I am so fortunate to have had you as my dissertation
chair. I could never thank you enough for your support and encouragement.
To OCL Cohort 12, I am humbled for having had the opportunity to learn with you and
from you. A special thank you to the sweetest ladies I know – Kate Alegado, Lisa Jimenez,
Colleen Leigh, Liz Starr, and Amanda Valbuena. Fight on and lead on!
To the UCPD officers who inspired this research, those who participated in my study,
and others who willingly provided feedback. This would not have been possible without you.
Thank you for having my six!
To family and friends, for your phone calls, text messages, and emails. Thank you for
checking in on me and for your kind words and support.
To my mother, Silvia, for believing in me since the very beginning. Ever since I was a
little girl you told me I could do whatever I put my mind to. Thank you for continuing to remind
me that anything is possible.
To my daughters, Ruby and Emma, you two are my everything! Thank you for being my
biggest cheerleaders, for the hugs and kisses, for reminding me to take a break from time to
time, and to never lose sight of what’s important. You are my inspiration every single day. I
love you more than you will ever know!

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice .................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................. 2
Organizational Performance Need ..................................................................................... 3
Related Literature............................................................................................................... 4
Importance of the Evaluation ............................................................................................. 7
Organizational Performance Goal ...................................................................................... 8
Description of Stakeholder Groups .................................................................................... 8
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals ......................................................................... 9
Stakeholder Group for the Study ....................................................................................... 9
Purpose of the Project and Questions .............................................................................. 10
Methodological Framework ............................................................................................. 10
Definitions........................................................................................................................ 11
Organization of the Project .............................................................................................. 11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ....................................................................................... 12
Evolution of Policing ....................................................................................................... 12
Post-Secondary Education for the Policing Profession ................................................... 15
Post-Secondary Education for Adult Learners ................................................................ 19
Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework ................................................... 23
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ............................. 23
viii
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation,
and the Organizational Context ....................................................................................... 34
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 35
Chapter Three: Methods .............................................................................................................. 37
Participating Stakeholders ............................................................................................... 37
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale ............................................. 38
Data Collection and Instrumentation ............................................................................... 39
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 40
Credibility and Trustworthiness ....................................................................................... 41
Ethics................................................................................................................................ 42
Limitations and Delimitations .......................................................................................... 42
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ............................................................................................. 44
Participating Stakeholders ............................................................................................... 45
Findings of Assumed Knowledge Needs ......................................................................... 46
Findings of Assumed Motivation Needs.......................................................................... 52
Finding of Assumed Organizational Needs ..................................................................... 60
Synthesis .......................................................................................................................... 66
Chapter Five: Recommendations, Implementation, and Evaluation ........................................... 68
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences .......................................... 68
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan .............................................................. 78
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 91
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach .................................................................... 91
Limitations and Delimitations .......................................................................................... 92
Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................... 93
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 94
References .................................................................................................................................... 96
ix
Appendix A Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 104

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals .................. 9
Table 2: Assumed Knowledge Influences ................................................................................... 26
Table 3: Assumed Motivational Influences ................................................................................. 30
Table 4: Assumed Organizational Influences ............................................................................. 33
Table 5: Description of Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................... 46
Table 6: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Needs ..................................................................... 47
Table 7: Benefits of Post-Secondary Education Identified by Stakeholders ............................... 48
Table 8: Summary of Assumed Motivation Needs ...................................................................... 53
Table 9: Reasons for Pursuing Post-Secondary Education Identified by Stakeholders............... 56
Table 10: Summary of Assumed Organizational Needs .............................................................. 66
Table 11: Summary of Validated Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ...................... 69
Table 12: Summary of Validated Motivation Influences and Recommendations ....................... 72
Table 13: Summary of Validated Organizational Influences and Recommendations ................. 75
Table 14: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ...................... 81
Table 15: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................. 82
Table 16: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors .......................................................... 83
Table 17: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ...................................... 86
Table 18: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ..................................................... 87
Table 19: Sample Questions for End of Program Survey ............................................................ 89
Table 20: Sample Questions for Post-Program Survey ............................................................... 90

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................ 35

1

Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice
The need for post-secondary education and the professionalism of law enforcement
officers has been argued for decades. While there has been a rise in college-educated police
offices in the last thirty years, data suggests the growth in officers with a four-year degree has
not maintained the same pace as the growth of the United States general population with
bachelor’s degrees (Gardiner, 2019). For this study, post-secondary education is defined as
college coursework, degrees, and professional certificates acquired beyond high school (Shaffer,
2015).
On average, about half (51.5%) of sworn officers employed by local law enforcement
agencies in the United States have at least a two-year degree; 28.6% have at least a four-year
degree; and 5.4% have a graduate degree (Gardiner, 2019). Gardiner also found that although
more agencies are now requiring higher education standards and some post-secondary education,
many agencies have maintained minimal entry requirements (high school diploma or equivalent)
to maximize the recruitment pool. In addition, Gardiner noted that several police departments are
increasing the proportion of college-educated officers by setting higher standards for promotion
eligibility and offering financial incentives to officers who pursue post-secondary education after
they are hired. However, post-secondary education can be beneficial even for those officers who
do not aspire to promote since they have the greatest interaction and impact on the communities
they serve.
The law enforcement profession has evolved from mere crime control. Those who work
in the profession are tasked with suppressing crime, improving the quality of life for the
communities they serve, and interacting with an evolving diverse society, all while doing so in a
professional, critical, and compassionate manner (Maggard, 2001). Policing today is complex,
2

and the changing nature of law and law enforcement tasks law enforcement professionals with a
wide range of responsibilities that require innovative problem solving, communication, and
analytical skills. Maggard asserted that higher education can be helpful in developing the skills
and competencies needed to perform successfully in this capacity. The law enforcement
profession has increasingly come to recognize the importance of education in enhancing
employee performance, although not significantly taking steps to encourage it among police
officers.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Urban City Police Department (UCPD, a pseudonym) is the police department of an
urban city located in the western United States. The department employs more than 5,000 total
employees, including sworn officers and civilian employees. The department patrols an area of
approximately 500 square miles, roughly the size of Nashville, Tennessee, with a population of
over four million residents. As of 2019, 81% of sworn officers were male and 19% are female.
The racial/ethnic breakdown of UCPD’s sworn officers include: 48.8% Hispanic/Latino, 30.9%
non-Hispanic White, 9.62% African American, 7.66% Asian, 2.46% Filipino American, and
remaining Indian and other ethnicities.
The mission of the UCPD is to enhance the welfare of the diverse communities it serves
by protecting lives and property, reducing crime, and increasing public safety. The core values of
the UCPD are intended to guide and inspire all employees; making the department’s values part
of the day-to-day work life and helping ensure employees’ personal and professional behavior
can be a model for all. These core values include, service to others; honor for the law;
commitment to leadership; integrity in all that is said and done; respect for people, and
continuous improvement.
3

Organizational Performance Need
In conversation with the researcher, police officers indicated that there are requirements
for the completion of at least some post-secondary education for promotion eligibility. However,
in 2021, the UCPD does not have a coherent structure to help individuals navigate post-
secondary education options. Furthermore, police officers who wish to pursue formal education
must proactively seek out information and determine the best course of action for how to
navigate available higher education resources. To do so, the individual requires some knowledge
of not only the benefits and expectations for seeking post-secondary education, but the steps and
procedures for enrolling in post-secondary education. Additionally, police officers require the
motivation to seek and follow through with pursuing post-secondary education. The
organization, through its resources, promotion of lifelong learning, and leadership support are
also key to the individual’s success in pursuing a degree.
In order to fulfill its mission and to continue providing services for the diverse
communities it serves, UCPD needs to provide its officers with a systematic method and support
for pursuing post-secondary education to better prepare officers to be adaptable to the changing
needs of society and policing. Failure to do so could result in the department not meeting its full
potential to provide the highest level of professionalism for those who live, work, and visit
Urban City. In addition, in its strategic plan for 2019-2021, the UCPD outlines six goals used to
guide its pursuit of building trust, engaging the public, and protecting the communities it serves
(UCPD, 2019). One of the goals of this strategic plan is to maximize workforce potential and
encourage career success among UCPD police officers. Thus, by establishing a systematic
method for encouraging and supporting post-secondary education among its officers, UCPD will
be better able to maximize its workforce potential. Currently, no such system exists.
4

Related Literature
Every day police officers are faced with a variety of challenges including changing laws,
evolving technologies, international terrorism, rising immigration, new cultural mores, and a
growing mental health crisis. The skills and knowledge required to effectively address these
issues entail a higher level of education and training (President’s Task Force on 21
st
Century
Policing, 2015). In 2021, law enforcement officers are highly trained and skilled operationally. It
is equally important for them to develop the specialized knowledge and skills that lead to fair and
just policing to prepare them for meeting the extensive challenges and expectations they face.
Furthermore, the President’s Task Force on 21
st
Century Policing added that just as tactical skills
are important, so are attitude, tolerance, and interpersonal skills.
Police officers provide service to diverse communities. Recent events across the nation
have highlighted the need for increased “soft” skills in policing. As community partners and
advocates, “soft” skills such as interpersonal communication, decision-making, and problem-
solving approaches are needed in community policing (Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016).
Critical thinking and interpersonal communication skills are particularly useful for de-escalating
and improved decision making, which challenge officers to reflect on their inherent assumptions
and biases (Safi & Burell, 2007).
Policing was not regarded by the public as a highly skilled and specialized profession in
the early 20
th
century (Uchida, 2004). August Vollmer, criminal justice reformer in the early
1900s, and considered the father of modern policing, believed that having well-educated and
trained officers was fundamental to establish a well-respected and professional police force
(Gardiner, 2019; Uchida, 2004). However, although the law enforcement profession has
increasingly desired, recommended, or preferred post-secondary education for its police officers,
5

currently, less than 1% of the police departments in the U.S. require a four-year degree (Bruns &
Magnan, 2014).
Post-secondary education is a highly regarded means for acquiring the skills and
experience necessary to meet the range of challenges faced by police officers (President’s Task
Force on 21
st
Century Policing, 2015). Those in support of an educated police force assert that
educated officers are better able to adapt to the changing needs of society and policing, in
addition to acquiring traits that make them more effective and professional officers (Gardiner,
2015). Research has identified several benefits of post-secondary education for officers, which
are also beneficial to the department, community, and profession. As noted by Bruns and
Magnan (2014), multiple studies have found college-educated officers to engage in the
following:
• Display better written and communication skills;
• Display more professionalism and tolerance;
• Exhibit greater understanding of human behavior;
• Be more intellectually developed, independent, flexible, and well-rounded;
• Place more emphasis on ethical conduct;
• Be better able to analyze problems;
• Display increased self-confidence, morale, and motivation;
• Display more professional attitudes and public relations skills.
With continued technological advancements and an ever-changing society, officers could benefit
from multi-disciplinary skills in the social sciences, problem-solving and conflict resolution,
interpersonal communication, cultural diversity issues, legal issues, computer and technological
dexterity, and effective principles of community policing (Bruns & Bruns, 2015). A
6

comprehensive knowledge base offered by post-secondary education provides an understanding
of “why” police officers do their job, supplementing the “how” learned through the academy and
on-the-job training (Maggard, 2001).
Over the past 30 years, institutions of post-secondary education have seen a steady
increase in enrollment among nontraditional, or adult learners (Dauer & Absher, 2015).
Nontraditional students pursue higher education for a variety of reasons, including the need to
update skills to compete in a knowledge-based economy, and changes in higher retirement ages
(Kohl, 2010). As of 2017, more than one-third of U.S. undergraduate students enrolled in
colleges and universities were classified as nontraditional students (National Center for
Educational Statistics, 2020). Adult students (25 years and older) account for more than 50% of
part-time higher education enrollment and more than 33% of total higher education enrollment in
the United States (Bergman et al., 2014).
As a result of increased adult learners pursuing post-secondary education, institutions of
higher education are offering more opportunities to help address the challenges faced by this
population of students. Evening classes, weekend programs, distance learning, babysitting
services, prior-learning credit, and accelerated degrees are incentives that help remove the
barriers to improve education opportunities for adult learners (Kazis et al., 2007). However, the
post-secondary education options available can be daunting and overwhelming, particularly
without guidance or support to navigate such options.
A study that surveyed police officers in Minnesota found officers were willing to spend
the time and energy needed to further their formal education but identified time and resources as
the greatest challenge to furthering their education (Breci, 1997). In addition, Breci noted that
police officers indicated they felt they needed the encouragement and support, in the form of pay
7

incentives, tuition assistance, and adjusting work schedules, from their agencies to continue their
education. With the myriad of non-traditional post-secondary options available for adult learners,
law enforcement leaders need to support and encourage officers to further their education to
reach their personal and professional goals. The value of education must be incorporated into the
organization’s culture by integrating the view into its mission statement and policies (Maggard,
2001).
Importance of the Evaluation
Police officers are faced with a variety of challenges including, changing laws, evolving
technologies, international terrorism, rising immigration, new cultural mores, and a growing
mental health crisis (President’s Task Force on 21
st
Century Policing, 2015). The skills and
knowledge required to effectively address these issues entail a higher level of education and
training, beyond the tactical training offered through the police academy. Although not
uncommon for police departments to have higher education standards for promotion eligibility,
post-secondary education can be beneficial to those officers who work patrol and have the
greatest interaction and impact on the communities served by the UCPD.
It is important to evaluate the organization’s performance in relation to the performance
goal of increasing the number of officers seeking post-secondary education. A growing body of
evidence has highlighted the positive enhancements associated with post-secondary education for
the law enforcement profession. In addition to the community and profession benefitting from
college-educated officers, the officers receive a personal benefit from the post-secondary
education experience that will extend beyond their career in law enforcement (Maggard, 2001).
Recent events in 2020, such as the murders of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor, highlight the
need for police officers and leaders to be trained and capable to address a wide variety of
8

situations and challenges. If the organization does not meet the performance goal, it could risk
not maximizing the department’s workforce potential. Evaluating the organization’s performance
will enable stakeholders to gather formative data that can be used to assess the organization’s
method for guiding its officers to pursuing post-secondary education.
Organizational Performance Goal
The goal, which will be proposed to the UCPD executive staff, will be to increase the
number of officers enrolled in post-secondary education by at least 60 officers annually by
September 2023. To do this, by January 2023, UCPD will implement a systematic method to
provide information and guidance to its officers for pursuing post-secondary education.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholders directly related to achieving the performance goal are the UCPD
executive staff, office of support services/police training and education, the department’s police
officers, and the Urban City community. The executive staff, which consists of the chief and
deputy chief, are responsible for writing policy and monitoring the completion of the
organizational mission. The training and education office is responsible for overseeing the
training and professional development for the department and therefore it would seem fitting that
this would also be the place for officers to find resources for pursuing post-secondary education
opportunities. The police officers are the most affected by, as well as benefitting by the
performance goal.

9

Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational mission
The mission of the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) is to enhance the welfare of the
diverse communities it serves by protecting lives and property, reducing crime, and increasing
public safety.
Organizational performance goal
By September 2023, UCPD will implement a systematic method for guiding its officers for
pursuing post-secondary education, thereby increasing its number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education by at least 60 officers annually.
UCPD executive staff goal

By July 2022, executive
staff will secure funding, as
needed, for staffing a
resource center
UCPD training and education
goal

By January 2023, Training and
Education will offer a resource
center to conduct informational
workshops and advise officers
regarding post-secondary
education
UCPD police officers goal

By September 2023, an
additional 20-30 officers will
be enrolled in post-secondary
education.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders would contribute to the achievement of the
overall organizational goal, it was important to evaluate the UCPD officers’ needs in relation to
the performance goal. Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study were UCPD officers.
The stakeholders’ goals, supported by the Office of Support Services, which houses the
department’s Police Training and Education, is an increase in the number of officers pursuing
post-secondary education by at least 60 officers annually. In order to do this, the officers must
10

possess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to pursue post-
secondary education.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this innovation study was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational
performance goal. The analysis began by generating a list of possible needs and then examining
these systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. While a complete needs analysis
would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder focused on in this
analysis were UCPD sworn officers.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What knowledge do UCPD officers have about why and how to pursue post-
secondary education?
2. What are the motivating factors among UCPD officers for pursuing post-secondary
education?
3. What organizational support and resources are available to/needed by UCPD officers
who wish to pursue post-secondary education?
Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the preferred
performance level with an organization, was adapted for this innovation study. Assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs were generated based on personal knowledge
and related literature. These needs were validated by using interviews, literature review, and
11

content-analysis. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated in a
comprehensive manner.
Definitions
This section will define key terms that are utilized in this study. The definitions are
germane to this study and the conceptual framework presented in Chapter Two.
Adult learners (nontraditional students): Students generally characterized by having one
or more of the following: at least 25 years old; part-time enrollment status; employed full-time;
delayed enrollment after high school or obtained a GED; and is financially independent.
LEO: Law enforcement officer
Post-secondary education: College coursework, degrees, and professional certificates
acquired beyond high school.
UCPD: Urban City Police Department
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
problem of practice being researched, the organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders, as well
as the initial concepts of gap analysis adapted for this study. Chapter Two provides a review of
the current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Chapter Three details the assumed
needs for this study as well as methodology regarding the choice of participants, data collection,
and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five
provides recommendations, based on data and literature, for addressing UCPD’s needs and
closing the performance gap as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation
plan for the solution.

12

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review will examine the increased need for post-secondary education for
police officers. The review begins with an overview of the evolution of the law enforcement
profession and historical views of education by law enforcement. The second section reviews the
literature on the advantages of post-secondary education for police officers. The review then
presents how post-secondary institutions have developed their practices to support the growing
population of adult learners. Following the general research literature, the review turns to the
Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework (Clark & Estes, 2008), specifically, the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on police officers that UCPD should
consider for increasing its officer enrollment in post-secondary education.
Evolution of Policing
Traditionally, policing has been viewed as crime control and law enforcement. The public
has seen it portrayed on television and in the movies – lights flashing, sirens blaring, police
officers chasing the “bad guys,” and bringing them to justice. Policing in the United States has a
more than 300-year history. In the Colonial United States, policing followed the English model
when it was introduced from across the Atlantic around the mid-1800s (Cooper, 2015; Uchida,
2004). At that time, the role of the constables and night watch were reactive; responding to
criminal behavior solely when called upon by victims or witnesses, rather than proactively
preventing crime or observing for criminal behavior (Monkkonen, 1981; Uchida, 2004). Law
enforcement has continued to evolve into the profession that it is today yet encompasses much
more than suppressing crime and enforcing the law.

13

A Changing Profession
At the turn of the 20
th
century policing was not the highly skilled and specialized
profession into which it has evolved. Policing in the United States has evolved in three eras: the
political era, the reform era (also referred to as the professional era), and the community era. The
political era spanned from the 1840s to the 1930s when policing consisted of law enforcement
and making arrests (Peak & Glensor, 2016). Peak and Glensor described the professional era,
between the 1930s to the 1980s, as marked by the movement towards reform and
professionalism related to corruption resulting from the police ties with political parties. The
1960s and 1970s, particularly, were marked by an increase in violent crime and the civil rights
movement, which both created additional demands for the police (Uchida, 2004). Peak and
Glensor stated that the third wave of reform, the community-oriented policing, emerged in the
1980s. Recent events have shown the need for law enforcement agencies to engage with the
communities they serve to manage public safety.
Police officers’ roles have become increasingly complex (Smith & Aamodt, 1997).
Today’s police officers are tasked with suppressing crime, improving the quality of life for the
communities they serve, and interacting with an evolving diverse society while doing so in a
professional, critical, and compassionate manner (Maggard, 2001). A majority of law
enforcement professionals have committed to providing honorable and competent public service
and to demonstrating high standards of personal and professional integrity in performing the
duties with which they are tasked (Filstad & Gottschalk, 2010). Police officers are faced with a
variety of challenges including changing laws, evolving technologies, international terrorism,
rising immigration, new cultural mores, and a growing mental health crisis (President’s Task
Force on 21
st
Century Policing, 2015). Filstad and Gottschalk added that the breadth of the
14

responsibilities of police officers has increased the need for highly competent knowledge
workers within a highly stressful and demanding occupation. The duties and responsibilities of
the police officer have changed significantly since the inception of the profession. Just as the
landscape of the country has evolved, policing must also continue to evolve in order to best serve
its communities.
A Contemporary Approach – Community Policing
The practice of community policing has changed the conventional definition of policing
from one of crime control to one of community problem-solving and empowerment of the
citizens in the communities (Uchida, 2004). Uchida stated that the idea arose in response to the
communication gap between police and community, particularly as a result of the issues faced in
the 1960s and 1970s. According to Chappell (2007), community policing is referred to as the
new orthodoxy of law enforcement. Uchida described the philosophy as being comprised of
building up neighborhoods, customizing solutions to local problems, establishing partnerships
with other community agencies, and other non-routine police activities. In addition, Uchida
identified three essential elements of community policing, which include engaging and
interacting with the community, strategizing to solve community problems, and adapting internal
elements of the organization to support these new strategies. Chappel stated that community
policing calls for meeting community needs, settling persistent problems, and crime prevention,
as opposed to only responding to occurrences. It includes a variety of philosophical and
operational elements intended to develop police-community partnerships to address
neighborhood conditions that cause public safety concerns (Reisig, 2010).
Furthermore, community policing redefines the role of the public. Rather than having a
passive role, citizens are invited to be partners with the police to improve their neighborhood
15

conditions (Reisig, 2010). However, the demands placed on police officers in community
policing are wide-ranging and more multidisciplinary than in traditional policing (Chappell &
Lanza-Kaduce, 2010). In addition, Cappell and Lanza-Kaduce stated that although paramilitary
models can productively teach how to assert authority effective in making arrests and gaining
compliance, learning skills that foster other forms of authority relations can enhance job
performance in community policing. Community policing adds a new challenge to the police
culture, in that it requires the collaboration between law enforcement and non-criminal justice
government agencies, private sector organizations, non-governmental social agencies, and
community volunteers (O’Neill & McCarthy, 2014). Community policing requires the
knowledge and abilities beyond those needed to maintain law and order. Recent events across the
nation have highlighted the need for collaboration between law enforcement agencies and
community members to implement solutions that produce meaningful results (President’s Task
Force on 21
st
Century Policing, 2015). Despite the breadth of skills needed to perform as a police
officer, especially in community policing, the profession has not changed its expectation of
police officers’ formal education.
Post-Secondary Education for the Policing Profession
The need for post-secondary education and the professionalism of law enforcement
officers has been debated for decades. Early on, policing was not considered a highly skilled job.
The initial requirement of a high school diploma came about during a time when most of the
U.S. population did not finish high school, therefore, a high school education reflected an above-
average educational level (Novak et al., 2017; Roberg & Bonn, 2004). Even as the demands of
the profession have evolved, many aspiring police officers are eager to begin their careers as
soon as they are eligible; for most agencies, the minimum age is 21 years (Maggard, 2001).
16

Maggard further stated that others bypass college and enter the academy after military service or
other brief work experience.
Historical Views of Education in Policing
Since the early 1900s, there has been a push for the professionalism and formal education
of police officers in the United States. August Vollmer, considered the father of modern policing,
believed that having well-educated and trained officers was fundamental to establish a well-
respected and professional police force (Uchida, 2004). Uchida described Vollmer’s emphasis on
the quality of police personnel as being closely tied to the idea of the professional officer.
Vollmer, Chief of the Berkeley Police Department from 1905 to 1932, was the main reformer of
the time and personally helped establish three separate police programs at various colleges in the
U.S., including the one at UC Berkeley (Gardiner, 2017). Uchida stated that the Berkley Police
School offered the first organized training for officers in the early 1900s and was the beginning
of police professionalism.
A high school diploma has been the minimum requirement for prospective police
officers (Novak et al., 2017). The researchers indicated that established during a time when it
was not uncommon among the general population to not obtain a high school diploma, having a
high school diploma was looked upon as having a high level of education. In the late 1960s, the
President’s Commission recommending that police education standards be raised, with the
ultimate goal of requiring a bachelor’s degree for employment (Carter & Sapp, 1990). They
further added that despite the call for college-educated officers and their value to the profession,
the standard of a high school education has remained unchanged. Many have argued whether
post-secondary education is necessary for effective policing or whether requiring formal
education may decrease the applicant pool. While there has been an increase in the number of
17

police officers who have pursued post-secondary education, it has not been significant as
compared to the general population.
Current State of Education in Policing
Although more agencies are now requiring higher education standards and requiring
some post-secondary education, many agencies have maintained minimal entry requirements to
maximize the recruitment pool. Across the United States, the minimum educational requirement
remains a high school diploma or equivalent. Currently, on average, about half (51.5%) of sworn
officers employed by local law enforcement agencies in the United States have at least a two-
year degree; 28.6% have at least a four-year degree; and 5.4% have a graduate degree (Gardiner,
2019). Gardiner added that several departments are increasing their proportion of college-
educated officers by setting higher standards for promotion eligibility and offering financial
incentives to officers who pursue post-secondary education after they are hired. Many police
departments have not raised their minimum educational requirements and therefore have not kept
pace with society at large (Peak & Sousa, 2018). In the last 30 years,
the national percentage of officers with at least a two-year degree has increased
approximately 16%, the percentage of offices with at least a four-year degree has
increased approximately 33%, and the percentage of officers with a graduate degree has
increased approximately 38%. During the same time period, the percentage of the U.S.
general population with a bachelor’s degree has increased 47%, suggesting that the
growth in officers with a four-year degree did not keep pace with the growth of the U.S.
population with a bachelor’s degree. (Gardiner, 2019, p. 11).
A recent study of California law enforcement agencies found that only about one-third of
agencies would promote an officer who only has a high school diploma to the rank of sergeant
18

(Gardiner, 2015). Additionally, Gardiner added that most agencies required a four-year college
degree to be considered for promotion to lieutenant.
Policing lags behind other helping professions such as nursing, teaching, social work,
and psychology, which have basic entry-level requirements of post-secondary education and are
recognized as professions (Friedmann, 2006). Friedmann stated that policing is often not seen as
a prestigious occupation because of the absence of post-secondary education requirements. He
asserted that lacking a degree, police officers are at a disadvantage, possibly having their
valuable insights and suggestions disregarded when interacting with community representatives,
civil committees, neighborhood organizations, and associations, who have more formal
education. As a whole, research shows the law enforcement profession has been slow to require
post-secondary education among its police officers. As public servants, police officers need to be
adaptable to the changing needs of society and policing, as the guardians of the communities
they serve, as well as future leaders of law enforcement.
Benefits of Post-Secondary Education in Policing
Research has found there are several benefits for police officers who obtain a post-
secondary education. Bruns and Magnan (2014) cited multiple studies that have found college-
educated officers to engage in the following:
• Display better written and communication skills;
• Display more professionalism and tolerance;
• Exhibit greater understanding of human behavior;
• Be more intellectually developed, independent, flexible, and well-rounded;
• Place more emphasis on ethical conduct;
• Be better able to analyze problems;
19

• Display increased self-confidence, morale, and motivation;
• Display more professional attitudes and public relations skills.
Additionally, research suggests that college-educated officers tend to be less resistant to change
and more open to new methods of policing (Roberg & Bonn, 2004). Those in support of an
educated police force assert that educated officers are better able to adapt to the changing needs
of society and policing, in addition to acquiring traits that make them better, more professional
officers (Gardiner, 2015). Critical thinking and interpersonal communication skills are
particularly useful for de-escalating and improved decision making, which challenge officers to
reflect on their inherent assumptions and biases (Safi & Burell, 2007). As community partners
and advocates, “soft” skills such as interpersonal communication, decision-making skills, and
problem-solving approaches are needed in community policing (Sereni-Massinger & Wood,
2016). Research has found that, although they are paid more, college-educated officers save their
departments money (Gardiner, 2017). College-educated officers appear to take fewer sick days,
experience fewer job-related injuries, are involved in fewer traffic accidents, and are less likely
to have lawsuits brought against them (Carter & Sapp, 1989). Police officers, their departments,
and the law enforcement profession, in general, can benefit from formal education beyond high
school. It is fortuitous that institutions of higher education have become more adept to the needs
of adult learners.
Post-Secondary Education for Adult Learners
The profile of post-secondary students has changed over time. Post-secondary education
throughout the United States has witnessed rapid growth in its nontraditional student population;
in some cases, at double the rate as the traditional student population (Hittepole, 2019). The
20

increase in the number of adult learners enrolled in post-secondary education has led to colleges
and universities evaluating the needs of their nontraditional students.
Nontraditional is the New Traditional
The U.S. Department of Education identifies specific characteristics of a nontraditional
student, some of which include: delayed enrollment at a post-secondary institution, having one or
more dependents, having full-time employment, or part-time enrollment (Bohl et al., 2017).
Adult students (25 years and older) account for more than 50% of part-time post-secondary
education enrollment and more than 33% of total post-secondary education enrollment in the
United States (Bergman et al., 2014). Dauer and Absher (2015) reported that the nontraditional
student population is increasing as clearly indicated by statistics. In addition, they reported that
about 2.4 million of the 8.5 million undergraduate students in the U.S. were 25 years old and
older. As such, the number of adult learners has increased by 144% in the last 30 years. Adult
learners pursue higher education for a variety of reasons, including the need to update skills in
order to compete in a knowledge-based economy, as well as an extended work life due to longer
and several different careers (Kohl, 2010). It is far more common than ever to have adult learners
enrolled in higher education. As a result, colleges and universities have improved the resources
and support that enable their adult learner populations to succeed despite the challenges they face
as compared to their traditional student counterparts.
Resources for Adult Learners
Historically, institutions of higher education have designed programs and services for the
traditional student population. However, with the increased number of nontraditional adult
learners enrolled, colleges and universities have reevaluated and redesigned the practices and
policies historically geared toward the 18-24-year old student, to better suit the “new” traditional
21

student. Resources available for adult learners can mitigate the concerns and barriers faced by
adult students about their ability to successfully complete a post-secondary degree.
Prior Learning Assessments
It is not uncommon for adult learners to have attended more than one institution over the
course of several years (Gast, 2013). Gast stated that due to institutional policies limiting
acceptable transfer credits, students may lose earned credits upon transferring. Assessing prior
work experience and knowledge for college credit can provide the opportunity for students to
earn college credit quicker (Klein-Collins & Wertheim, 2013). They suggested that assessments
can be demonstrated by on-the-job experience; examinations like College Level Examination
(CLEP) or Defense Activity for Nontraditional Education Support (DANTES); individualized
portfolios; and military training.
Degree Completion Models
Although an integrated credit transfer across U.S. higher education does not exist; as state
and regional accreditation agreements expand, credit-transfer and degree mapping have
increasingly improved (Ritt, 2008). Partnerships have been established between community
colleges and universities to minimize credit hour loss and thus maximize the number of earned
units that can transfer and apply to a four-year degree (Gast, 2013). The development of adult
degree completion programs provides a flexible method that coalesces adult learning
methodologies, while also meeting the needs of the adult learner, institution, and community
(Ellis, 2012).
Course Scheduling and Delivery Methods
Time constraints, particularly due to working, create a challenge for adult learners who
are unable to attend classes during daytime business hours (Capps, 2012). Capps added that the
22

increase of scheduling options for classes allows adult learners to register for courses that fit
their work and personal time commitments. Online degree programs help reduce the barriers of
time and finances (Gast, 2013). Additionally, Gast stated that hybrid degree programs, where
requirements are satisfied through a combination of on-campus and online coursework, also
provide the flexibility that is highly desirable to adult learners. Accelerated delivery models,
based on sound adult learning theory, have been effective in reducing costs and resulting in
positive learning outcomes for adult students (Kasworm, 2003). Additionally, Kasworm
indicated that they provide greater accessibility, relevance, and are systematically planned with a
lockstep schedule. Several successful strategies that consider their extensive experience, as well
as limited time and monetary resources, have been developed to increase degree completion
among adult learners.
The first part of this chapter has reviewed literature related to the evolvement of the
policing profession, the current state of education in policing, as well as the benefits of post-
secondary education in policing. In addition, the review has considered the general literature
addressing the increased number of adult learners enrolled in post-secondary education and how
colleges and universities have improved the resources and support that enable their adult learner
populations to successfully earn a post-secondary degree. The remainder of this chapter will
focus on the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors necessary to increase
post-secondary education among police officers. In particular, the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that the Urban City Police Department will need to
address to achieve the organizational goal of increasing police officers’ enrollment in post-
secondary education by at least 60 officers annually.

23

Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this study will be guided by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis model. Clark and Estes noted that the common causes of performance gaps are related to
knowledge (K), motivation (M), and organizational (O) influences. While the model recognizes
that knowledge and motivation are requisite to goal achievement, it also suggests that
understanding the interaction of these factors within the organizational culture is crucial to
reaching goals and leading change.
This gap analysis will examine the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that affect police officers’ pursuit of higher education. Assessing the stakeholders’
knowledge to perform a given task is critical to ensuring productivity (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
four types of knowledge identified by Krathwohl (2002) that can be employed to meet
performance are: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. This section will examine
the literature reviewed on police officers’ factual and procedural knowledge of post-secondary
education opportunities. Motivation arouses the individual to apply their knowledge in achieving
a goal (Mayer, 2011). This study will explore the expectancy value and self-efficacy theories as
they relate to police officers’ motivation to pursue post-secondary education. Finally, the
analysis will describe the organizational influences; specifically, the cultural model and cultural
setting that may impact goal achievement.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills Influences
Understanding what knowledge is required to achieve a goal is essential (Rueda, 2011).
Furthermore, assessing the stakeholder's current knowledge and skills to perform the tasks
needed to achieve their goals is important for improving productivity (Clark & Estes, 2008). This
24

section will focus on the assumed knowledge influences related to the goal of increasing the
number of UCPD police officers seeking post-secondary education.
Knowledge Influences
Knowledge is the first factor (KMO) related to organizational success or failure (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes stated that learning new knowledge and skills yields individuals
with greater understanding, behavior change, and performance. There are four types of
knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl,
2002). Krathwohl described factual knowledge as being the “what,” conceptual knowledge as the
“why,” procedural knowledge as the “how,” and metacognitive knowledge as the understanding
of self. The assumed knowledge influences in this review are factual and procedural. Krathwohl
noted that factual knowledge includes the basic elements the individual needs to know about a
particular subject. Procedural knowledge builds upon factual knowledge and is the understanding
of the method for completing a task (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Table 2 describes the
assumed knowledge influences that will contribute to the increased number of UCPD officers
pursuing post-secondary education.
Police Officers Need to Know the Benefits of Post-Secondary Education. Several
police departments have set higher education standards for promotion eligibility (Gardiner,
2019). However, post-secondary education can be beneficial for frontline officers well before
they consider promoting, as they have the greatest interaction and impact on the communities
they serve. UCPD officers need to have factual knowledge of the benefits of post-secondary
education, particularly as it relates to policing and the mission of the organization. Research has
identified several benefits of post-secondary education for officers, which are also beneficial to
the department, community, and profession.
25

While traditional law enforcement training focuses primarily on paramilitary models that
can teach how to effectively assert authority in making arrests and other policing procedures,
learning skills that foster other forms of authority relations can be more effective, particularly in
community policing (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010). As community partners and advocates,
“soft” skills such as interpersonal communication, decision-making skills, and problem-solving
approaches are needed in community policing (Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016). Educated
officers are better able to adapt to the changing needs of society and policing, and to acquire
traits that make them better, more professional officers (Gardiner, 2015). With continued
technological advancements and an ever-changing society, officers will benefit from multi-
disciplinary skills in the social sciences, problem-solving and conflict resolution, interpersonal
communication, cultural diversity issues, legal issues, computer and technological dexterity, and
effective principles of community policing (Bruns & Bruns, 2015). A comprehensive knowledge
base offered by post-secondary education provides an understanding of “why” police officers do
their job, supplementing the “how” learned through the academy and on-the-job training
(Maggard, 2001).
Police Officers Need to Know How to Seek Out and Navigate the Post-Secondary
Education Options Available. As a result of increased adult learners pursuing higher education,
institutions of higher education are offering more opportunities to help address the challenges
faced by this population of students. Evening classes, weekend programs, distance learning,
prior-learning credit, and accelerated degrees are some of the incentives that help remove the
barriers to improve education opportunities for adult learners (Kazis et al., 2007). However, the
post-secondary education options available can be daunting and overwhelming, particularly
26

without guidance or support to navigate such options. UCPD officers need to have procedural
knowledge of how to seek out and navigate the post-secondary education options available.
The process of applying, enrolling, and making the transition to being a student can be
stressful and disorienting, particularly if it has been some time since the individual has been
away from an academic setting, and/or is the first in his or her family to attend college (Hardin,
2008). Degree completion may never materialize if a student cannot navigate the obstacles of
enrollment (Spellman, 2007). Spellman added that pre-enrollment counseling that identifies the
students’ goals and reasons for considering enrolling in post-secondary education gives students
realistic expectations of the educational journey. She noted that students who have a sense of
direction and strategic plan are further ahead toward program completion than those who do not.

Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Organizational mission
The mission of the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) is to enhance the welfare of the
diverse communities it serves by protecting lives and property, reducing crime, and increasing
public safety.
Organizational performance goal
By September 2023, UCPD will implement a systematic method for guiding its officers for
pursuing post-secondary education, thereby increasing its number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education by at least 60 officers annually.
Assumed knowledge influence

Police officers need to know the benefits of
post-secondary education.
Knowledge type

Factual

Police officers need to know how to seek
out and navigate the post-secondary
education options available.
Procedural

27

Motivational Influences
Motivation is the second factor (KMO) related to organizational success or failure (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Motivation is important because individuals’ level of motivation determines if
they will use and apply the knowledge they have (Mayer, 2011). Clark and Estes noted that in
order to pursue a goal, intention, active choice to begin the task, and persistence to continue are
needed. Motivation is the amount of effort an individual applies toward reaching a goal and an
intrinsic source of effort that compels an individual to act toward achieving a goal (Mayer, 2011;
Pintrich, 2003). This section will focus on the assumed motivational influences related to the
goal of increasing the number of UCPD police officers seeking post-secondary education. While
there are several motivational theories and influences that may be applicable, this review will
focus on self-efficacy theory and expectancy value theory. Table 3 describes the assumed
motivational influences that will contribute to the increased number of UCPD officers pursuing
post-secondary education.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can achieve what he or she is
attempting (Bandura, 1977; Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy beliefs are a fundamental source to
individuals’ motivation and personal accomplishment, particularly since individuals need to
believe in their capacity to complete their goals in order to persist (Pajares, 2009; Rueda, 2011).
Bandura stated that individuals set goals that align with their level of self-efficacy. Individuals
are more likely to avoid setting goals they do not believe they can achieve. Rueda affirmed that
having high self-efficacy will motivate individuals to engage in and persist with a task while
having low self-efficacy will likely lead to avoiding a task.
28

The influence related to self-efficacy is that police officers need to believe they can apply
post-secondary education to their policing work. Individuals can learn the behaviors necessary
for performance (Bandura, 1989). Witnessing their colleagues and leadership apply their
education to their work in policing, may influence police officers’ own self-efficacy. By
fostering an environment that values education, more police officers will likely pursue post-
secondary education, resulting in more opportunities to witness these displays. Bandura also
stated that individuals who possess a high degree of self-confidence in their capabilities, tend to
be more comfortable taking on challenges. These self-efficacy principles require police officers
to believe that they can apply the skills learned through formal education to their work in
policing. Self-efficacy is a consequential wellspring of motivation (Pajares, 2009).
Expectancy Value Theory
Eccles (2006) asserted that expectancies and values are weighty indicators of an
individual’s performance and successful goal attainment. Eccles further added that expectancy
value theory is the individual’s beliefs that a goal will enhance his or her personal or professional
life. A high expectancy value is highly correlated with persistence, mental effort, and active
choice to perform the necessary tasks to reach a goal (Rueda, 2011). An individual’s
achievement-related choices are motivated by the individual’s expectations for success and
subjective task value (Eccles et al., 1983). Eccles identified four constructs of expectancy value
theory: intrinsic value, attainment value, utility value, and perceived cost. As described by
Eccles, intrinsic value is the individuals’ fulfillment in performing a task. Eccles stated that
attainment value is the alignment between a task and the individual’s identity. This study will
focus on utility and cost value as motivational factors that contribute to increasing the number of
UCPD police officers pursuing post-secondary education.
29

Utility value is the perceived usefulness of a task and measures how well the task fits into
long-term goals (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). The more relatable a task is to a current or future
goal, the higher its utility value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Eccles and Wigfield noted that a task
that facilitates an important goal is more likely to have a positive value, even if the task itself is
not considered attractive. In addition, they stated that cost is described in terms of negative
aspects of engaging in a task, such as the amount of effort needed to be successful and lost
opportunities from making one choice over another. Eccles described perceived costs as
including money, time, energy, and social or political reactions.
The influence related to utility and cost value is that police officers need to believe there
is value in pursuing post-secondary education. Providing police officers with information that
supports the value of post-secondary education to their work in policing, and beyond, will
support police officers in developing positive utility value (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003).
Research has found that educated officers are better able to adapt to the changing needs of
society and policing, in addition to acquiring traits that make them more effective officers
(Gardiner, 2015). While there are costs associated with pursuing post-secondary education, such
as monetary and time commitment, police officers need to know that post-secondary education is
valuable beyond the benefits to their work in policing or plans to promote. Those who may
consider a career outside of law enforcement, whether by choice or due to other circumstances,
will be more marketable with a college degree (Hilal et al., 2013). Having a college degree can
be particularly valuable considering adults’ extended work life due to longer and several
different careers (Kohl, 2010).

30

Table 3
Assumed Motivational Influences
Organizational mission
The mission of the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) is to enhance the welfare of the
diverse communities it serves by protecting lives and property, reducing crime, and increasing
public safety.
Organizational performance goal
By September 2023, UCPD will implement a systematic method for guiding its officers for
pursuing post-secondary education, thereby increasing its number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education by at least 60 officers annually.
Assumed motivation influence

Police officers need to believe they can
apply post-secondary education to their
policing work.
Motivation type

Self-efficacy
Police officers need to believe there is value
in pursuing post-secondary education.
Expectancy Value: Utility Value and Cost
Value

Organizational Influences
Organizational influences are the third factor (KMO) related to organizational success or
failure (Clark & Estes, 2008). In addition to the individual’s knowledge and motivation
influences, organizational influences must be considered when diagnosing a performance gap.
Even if individuals have the necessary knowledge and motivation, organizational barriers may
exist that will impede the individual’s ability to meet the performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes described organizations as being complex systems with their own
organizational culture. Organizational culture can be the largest factor in determining an
organization’s success or failure (Robbins & Judge, 2009). This section will focus on the
assumed organizational influences related to the goal of increasing the number of UCPD police
31

officers seeking post-secondary education. Table 4 describes the assumed organizational
influences that will contribute to the increased number of UCPD officers pursuing post-
secondary education.
Cultural model represents the combination of individual characteristics, values, and
beliefs within a group (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). They noted that it is often interpreted as
the organization’s operational or procedural practices. An organization’s cultural model is a set
of beliefs that describes how an individual believes the organization works and shapes the
values, policies, reward systems, and practices of an organization (Rueda, 2011). Identity is
important for organizational growth (Schein & Schein, 2016). Establishing a collective identity
bonds the organizational community, which leads to the strengthening of the internal work as
well as external perception (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Cultural setting is the visible, observable manifestation of the cultural model (Rueda,
2011). An organization’s cultural setting includes the observable behaviors of the cultural model
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). An organization’s communication, policies, and procedures
need to align with its goals and reflect the values of the institution to lead to successful change
efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein & Schein, 2016).
UCPD Needs to Value and Promote the Education of Its Officers
Policing is a generalist profession that encompasses a variety of disciplines, including
psychology, sociology, counseling, and even medicine (Friedmann, 2006). UCPD needs to
provide a cultural model that values education as an integral part of the organizational mission.
The law enforcement profession has increasingly come to recognize the importance of education
in enhancing employee performance, although not significantly taking steps to encourage it
among police officers. In addition to the skills that can be applied to policing, college-educated
32

officers appear to take fewer sick days, experience fewer job-related injuries, are involved in
fewer traffic accidents, and are less likely to have lawsuits brought against them (Carter & Sapp,
1989). Breci’s (1997) study surveyed police officers in Minnesota and found officers were
willing to spend the time and energy needed to further their formal education but identified time
and resources as the greatest challenge to furthering their education. Furthermore, Breci noted
that police officers indicated they felt they needed the encouragement and support, in the form of
pay incentives, tuition assistance, and adjusting work schedules, from their agencies to continue
their education. Agency support for and the promotion of higher education indicates that the
department values college education, thereby encouraging officers’ willingness to seek post-
secondary education (Hilal & Densley, 2013; Hilal et al., 2013).
UCPD Needs to Offer a Systematic Method for Pursuing Post-Secondary Education
With the range of non-traditional post-secondary options available for adult learners, law
enforcement leadership needs to support and encourage officers to further their education to
reach their personal and professional goals. The value of education needs to be incorporated into
the organization’s culture by integrating the view into its mission statement and policies
(Maggard, 2001). In order to fulfill its mission and to continue providing services for the diverse
communities it serves, UCPD needs to provide a cultural setting that offers its officers a
systematic method and support for pursuing post-secondary education to better prepare officers
to be adaptable to the changing needs of society and policing. Failure to do so could result in the
department not meeting its full potential to provide the highest level of professionalism for those
who live, work, and visit Urban City. In addition, in its strategic plan for 2019-2021, the UCPD
outlines six goals used to guide its pursuit of building trust, engaging the public, and protecting
the communities it serves (UCPD Strategic Plan, 2019). One of the goals of this strategic plan is
33

to maximize workforce potential and encourage career success among UCPD police officers.
Thus, by establishing a systematic method for encouraging and supporting post-secondary
education among its officers, UCPD will be better able to maximize its workforce potential and
encourage career success among its officers.

Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational mission
The mission of the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) is to enhance the welfare of the
diverse communities it serves by protecting lives and property, reducing crime, and increasing
public safety.
Organizational performance goal
By September 2023, UCPD will implement a systematic method for guiding its officers for
pursuing post-secondary education, thereby increasing its number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education by at least 60 officers annually.
Assumed organizational influence

UCPD needs to value and promote the
education of its officers.
Organizational influence type

Cultural Model
UCPD needs to offer a systematic method
for pursuing post-secondary education.
Cultural Setting

34

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation, and the
Organizational Context
Figure 1 represents the conceptual model of the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors on police officers that UCPD should consider for increasing its officer
enrollment in post-secondary education. Knowledge (K) includes what police officers need to
know regarding the benefits of post-secondary education, as well as how to seek out and navigate
the post-secondary education opportunities that are available. Motivation (M) includes
expectancy value and the need for police officers to believe there is value in pursuing post-
secondary education. Furthermore, self-efficacy addresses the need for police officers to believe
they can apply post-secondary education to their work in policing. Finally, the organizational (O)
influences include the cultural model within UCPD, where education is valued and promoted to
its officers, in addition to the organization’s cultural setting, which offers a systematic method to
its officers for pursuing post-secondary education.

35

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

Conclusion
The purpose of this innovation study was to examine how the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational factors would support an increase in UCPD police officers who seek post-
secondary education. In this chapter, a review of the related literature highlighted key elements
of the evolution of policing, historical views and the current state of education in policing, and
the benefits of post-secondary education in policing. In addition, an overview of the available
resources and support that enable the growing adult learner population to successfully pursue
post-secondary education.
36

The literature review concluded with the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences crucial to an organization successfully reaching its goals. The review identified the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors needed to increase the number of
UCPD officers who pursue post-secondary education. The framework focused on the knowledge
and motivational factors of the police officers, related to the UCPD organizational culture to
increase the number of officers seeking post-secondary education. Chapter Three will discuss the
research methodology that was used to better understand and assess these assumed influences.

37

Chapter Three: Methods
The purpose of this innovation study was to conduct an analysis in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors necessary for the Urban City Police
Department (UCPD) to implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of
officers pursuing post-secondary education. While a complete analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders that were the focus of this analysis were the
police officers. The analysis began by generating a list of possible needs, as described in the
previous chapter, and then examined systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. This
chapter describes the research and design methodology, data collection, and data analysis. It
concludes by addressing the ethics and limitations of the study.
The study was guided by the following questions:
1. What knowledge do UCPD officers have about why and how to pursue post-
secondary education?
2. What are the motivating factors among UCPD officers for pursuing post-secondary
education?
3. What organizational support and resources are available to/needed by UCPD officers
who wish to pursue post-secondary education?
Participating Stakeholders
This qualitative study intended to explore and understand the experiences of UCPD
police officers, by conducting a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources necessary for UCPD to implement a systematic method for guiding its
officers for pursuing post-secondary education, with the goal of increasing the number of officers
pursuing post-secondary education by at least 60 officers annually by September 2023. As such,
38

the stakeholders in this study were sworn officers from the UCPD who earned a post-secondary
degree after having been hired by the department. The researcher interviewed eight UCPD
officers with varying years of experience and rank. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described
qualitative research as focused on understanding an individuals’ experiences and how the
individuals interpret those experiences. Understanding the officers’ experience of pursuing post-
secondary education while being employed by UCPD was essential to identify the needs for
developing a systematic method for guiding officers in the future. In addition, qualitative studies
seek stakeholders who have the most insight and understanding to assist the researcher in
learning the most about the topic (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, specific
criteria were used to identify and recruit stakeholders to be interviewed.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling approach for this qualitative study was purposeful sampling. In order to
recruit participants, the researcher emailed UCPD employees who were alumni of the
researcher’s institution, as well as having an announcement circulated to UCPD employees
regarding the study. Individuals who were interested in participating were asked to provide their
contact information and to respond to the following questions:
1. How long have you been with the department?
2. What is your current rank?
3. What postsecondary degrees(s) and/or certificates have you earned?
4. Did you earn a postsecondary degree and/certificate while employed by UCPD?
5. What was your rank at the time you were completing your degree?
The aforementioned questions are linked to the criterion described in the next section.
The researcher used purposeful sampling because being intentional about the selection would
39

result in participants that would provide the information related directly to the research questions
(Maxwell, 2013). Interviews provided information on stakeholders’ beliefs, understanding, and
experience of the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences as they relate to post-
secondary education for police officers.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
Participants were sworn officers currently employed by UCPD. They represented a
subgroup of the larger population of UCPD officers, which is important since UCPD is the
organization on which this study focused.
Criterion 2
Participants were in a supervisory role. Those in a supervisor role were able to provide
insight from their experience as an entry-level police officer as well as supervising police
officers within the department.
Criterion 3
Participants completed at least one post-secondary degree after having been hired by the
department. The experience and perspective of those who pursued and completed a degree while
working with the department were invaluable to understanding the knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences needed to establish a systematic method for guiding UCPD officers to
pursue post-secondary education.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative research seeks to understand how individuals interpret and make meaning of
their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research questions of this study aimed to
understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences for guiding police officers
40

in pursuing post-secondary education. Interviewing is a method that allows an outsider to gain an
individual’s perspective (Patton, 2002). Interviews were used to provide the researcher with a
deeper understanding of the KMO needs, and possible solutions to these needs, related to a
systematic method for guiding UCPD officers for pursuing post-secondary education.
A single one-hour recorded interview was conducted with each of the eight participants.
Interviews were conducted via Zoom, a video conferencing platform.
An informal, semi-structured interview protocol was used in this research (Appendix A).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated this format allows the researcher to respond to the
respondent’s view and new ideas that surface about the topic. The semi-structured format allows
adaptation and flexibility to further explore a topic (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Having the
interview guided by a set of questions, yet allowing flexibility, allowed for a more casual and
comfortable conversation with the participants.
Given the study’s KMO theoretical framework (Clark & Estes, 2008), the questions
included in the interview protocol were developed from assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences. Peers and professors from the researcher’s doctoral program reviewed
and furnished feedback on the interview questions. The use of open-ended questions intended to
allow the participant to expand on his or her own experience, thoughts, and opinions.
Additionally, the participants’ ideas and suggestions for improving the guidance provided to
UCPD officers were very helpful in analyzing and making further recommendations.
Data Analysis
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. The researcher wrote analytic
memos after each interview. The researcher documented thoughts, concerns, and initial
conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions. Once
41

the interviews concluded, they were transcribed and coded. In the first phase of analysis, the
researcher used open coding, looked for empirical codes, and applied a priori codes from the
conceptual framework. A second phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and prior
codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis the researcher
identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual framework and
study questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The rich collection of data and respondent validation was used to increase credibility and
trustworthiness (Creswell, 2014). Verbatim transcripts are one method of increasing the
trustworthiness of the data collection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Prior to the interviews, the
researcher asked the participants for permission to record the interview for the purpose of
producing a complete and thorough transcript. The participants were provided with a summary of
the data to confirm the researcher’s accuracy in understanding and interpreting the participant’s
responses. Using member checking to get feedback from participants on emerging findings and
identifying possible misunderstands increases credibility and trustworthiness (Creswell, 2014;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition, Creswell stated that as the primary instrument of data
collection, the researcher of a qualitative study should be aware of his or her biases. Merriam and
Tisdell described reflexivity as an evaluation of the researcher’s role in the research process and
the researcher’s effect in the process was employed. Following each interview, the researcher
reflected and documented any opinions, assumptions, and experiences as they emerged during
the process to ensure an unbiased influence on the research process and results.

42

Ethics
This qualitative study obtained data from human subjects; therefore, it was imperative to
prioritize the protection of the participants and their confidentiality (Glesne, 2011; Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participants were provided
an information sheet, including the following: the purpose of the study; participation was
voluntary; participant could choose not to have the interview recorded; participant could stop the
interview at any time; data was confidential; printed data would be stored in a locked file
cabinet; electronic data, such as interview data, would be stored on a password-protected laptop;
all data would be available only to the researcher. Additionally, participants were assured
confidentiality would be maintained by assigning pseudonyms.
There were no anticipated issues related to positionality or power as the researcher did
not hold any authority over the participants and had no personal connection to the organization.
The researcher’s interest was on participants’ experiences in higher education, particularly as it
relates to the benefits in their job in law enforcement and the community. The researcher did not
address topics related to policing procedures.
Limitations and Delimitations
Although the study took all necessary measures to ensure credibility and trustworthiness,
there are limitations, or influences, beyond the researcher’s control in addition to delimitations,
boundaries set by the researcher (Creswell, 2014). Because of the nature of the qualitative study
whereby data was collected from the participants by a researcher, there was a possibility for
human error. Data was solely the opinions and perspectives of the participants. Limitations
included the participants’ understanding of the interview questions and their truthfulness in
43

answering the questions. In addition, the study was limited by the time available for gathering
data.
A key delimitation factor of the study was that the focus was specifically on UCPD,
which only represents one police department within the United States. The organization was
selected based on convenience and access. Although the scope of the study may be constrained
by the delimitation choices of the researcher including the criteria of the selected participants and
the scope of the interview questions, and may not be generalized to all police departments, the
results may further the literature regarding post-secondary education and the law enforcement
profession.

44

Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this research study was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors necessary for the Urban City Police
Department (UCPD) to implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of
officers pursuing post-secondary education. The conceptual framework of this study was guided
by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model as a systematic approach for evaluating the gap
between performance goals and desired outcomes. Qualitative data collection took place through
interviews with UCPD officers. The data collection and analysis intended to validate or
otherwise rule out the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on police
officers described in Chapter Three that UCPD should consider for increasing its officer
enrollment in post-secondary education. Assumed needs were identified as continuing needs
when the majority of officers (six or more) identified a lack of knowledge, motivation, or
organizational support to effectively implement a systematic method to support and increase the
number of officers pursuing post-secondary education. In contrast, assumed needs were
identified as continuing assets when the majority of officers (six or more) indicated knowledge,
motivation, or organizational support to effectively implement a systematic method to support
and increase the number of officers pursuing post-secondary education. The questions that
guided this study were the following:
1. What knowledge do UCPD officers have about why and how to pursue post-secondary
education?
2. What are the motivating factors among UCPD officers for pursuing post-secondary
education?
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3. What organizational support and resources are available to/needed by UCPD officers
who wish to pursue post-secondary education?
As discussed in Chapter Three, the methodology of this study was a qualitative design.
Interviews were conducted using an informal, semi-structured interview protocol, with the intent
of better understanding officers’ experience of pursuing post-secondary education while being
employed by UCPD, and essential to identify the needs for developing a systematic method for
guiding officers in the future.
This chapter begins by describing the stakeholders. Next, the results and findings are
presented with an analysis of the interview data into knowledge, motivation, and organizational
needs and assets. The chapter concludes with a synthesis of the validated and emerging themes.
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders for this study were UCPD officers with varying years of
experience and rank, who had post-secondary education experience. Five of the participants were
male and three were female. Collectively, participating stakeholders’ average years of experience
with UCPD was 20 years. Table 5 includes the description of the participating stakeholders.

46

Table 5
Description of Participating Stakeholders
Participant Rank Gender Years with UCPD Degrees earned
PO1 Police Officer III /
Field Training
Officer
Male 15 ½ years Associate Degree
PO2 Police Officer III Male 24 years Associate Degree,
Bachelor’s Degree
(2), Master’s Degree,
Juris Doctorate
SGT1 Sergeant II Male 26 ½ years Associate Degree,
Bachelor’s Degree,
Master’s Degree
SGT2 Sergeant II Male 20 years Associate Degree
SGT3 Sergeant I Female 12 years Bachelor’s Degree
SGT4 Sergeant I Female 15 ½ years Bachelor’s Degree,
Master’s Degree
LT1 Lieutenant II Female 22 years Bachelor’s Degree,
Master’s Degree
LT2 Lieutenant I Male 25 years Bachelor’s Degree,
Master’s Degree

Findings of Assumed Knowledge Needs
The assumed knowledge needs for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) to
implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education that will be discussed include (a) police officers need to know the benefits
of post-secondary education, and (b) police officers need to know how to seek out and navigate
the post-secondary education options available. Table 6 summarizes the findings of the assumed
knowledge needs.

47

Table 6
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Needs
Assumed knowledge need Continuing need Current asset
Police officers need to know the benefits
of post-secondary education (Factual)
X
Police officers need to know how to
seek out and navigate the post-
secondary education options available.
(Procedural)
X

Factual Knowledge
Krathwohl (2002) described factual knowledge as being the “what”. Additionally,
Krathwohl noted that factual knowledge includes the basic elements the individual needs to
know about a particular subject (Krathwohl, 2002). Police officers need to have the factual
knowledge of the benefits of post-secondary education, particularly as it relates to policing and
the mission of the organization in order to follow through with seeking post-secondary
education.
The influence related to factual knowledge was that police officers need to know the
benefits of post-secondary education. As discussed in Chapter Two, research has found that there
are several benefits for police officers who obtain a post-secondary education. Based on the
qualitative interview data, all participants identified several benefits from having pursued post-
secondary education. Table 7 indicates the benefits identified by the participants of this study.

48

Table 7
Benefits of Post-Secondary Education Identified by Stakeholders
Benefit Number of participants
identified
A better understanding of communities, law, and/or policies 8
Gained broader thinking perspective 7
Improved writing skills 6
Better prepared for opportunities within and/or outside of
law enforcement
6
Increased empathy and/or compassion 5
Improved verbal skills; better able to articulate thoughts and
ideas
4
Improved active listening skills 3
Higher credibility 3
Overall personal development 3
Sense of accomplishment and/or meeting personal goal 2
Organizational skills and/or multitasking 2
Increased coping skills 2

Among the highest benefits identified by participants were: (a) a better understanding of
communities, law, and/or policies; (b) gaining a broader thinking perspective; (c) improved
writing skills; (d) better preparation for opportunities within and/or outside of law enforcement;
and (e) increased empathy and/or compassion. PO2 expressed his belief that education benefits
the individual officer, the department, and the communities served. He said, “You're much more
educated on the law and you make much more better decisions where you're not a liability to
yourself, your safety, the department, and the public as a whole.” In addition, SGT4 said,
90% of policing is communication. It’s being able to speak to someone and to listen. It’s
being able to hear and be heard. And the more education you have, the more
understanding of the world as a whole; the better able you’re going to be to communicate
effectively. If we’re going to move forward as a department and continue to be effective,
49

we have to learn how to sit down on the level playing field and have those conversations.
With education, we have a far better capacity to have those conversations. It increases
empathy, it increases understanding, just basic knowledge, and the ability to
communicate. For me, that’s really where the importance of education comes in.
LT2 stated that he considered his education to be very beneficial. He added that especially for
those who want to move into command ranks, being familiar with a broader range of topics, the
ability to write effectively, and to interpret policies and procedures is extremely important.
Each of the participants expressed that the expectations, as well as what is required of
police officers have changed; therefore, making the skills learned from post-secondary education
beneficial as they supplement police academy training. SGT2 stated that the education he
received, as well as the experience, helped him become more objective. He said, “the sociology
courses and through the discussions within the classes, allowed me to handle situations a lot
more compassionately and interactions in handling daily situations improved.” SGT2 also added,
I think that you become a much different writer. And because of all of our writing, if you
think about it, if it gets to court, it's going to be looked at by an attorney or a judge, and a
lot of times they're going to size you up based on your report.
The qualitative data obtained support the benefits identified by the research, as identified
by the participants. All of the stakeholders found their educational experience to be gratifying
and far more beneficial than they had anticipated at the onset of their post-secondary education
pursuits. SGT2 stated,
I would definitely say that I enjoyed it. The classes that provided me the ability to hear
somebody else's perspective were good, so, I was able to learn a lot there. I learned
mostly from the people. That's what I appreciated.
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The experience and applicable benefits of their post-secondary education were so significant that
five of the participants have completed, or are in the process of completing, further post-
secondary education (Master’s degree and JD), although it is not needed for promotion, nor does
UCPD offer incentives for degrees beyond a bachelor's degree. In a profession that interacts
extensively with diverse communities, various stakeholders, and in an ever-changing society, it
is apparent that the benefits provided by post-secondary education are constructive to police
officers, the UCPD, and the communities served by the department. Although the participants,
through their experiences, were able to identify the benefits of post-secondary education, which
makes it a current asset, other officers may not have this knowledge.
Procedural Knowledge
Krathwohl (2002) describes procedural knowledge as being the “how.” Procedural
knowledge builds upon factual knowledge and is the understanding of the method for completing
a task (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Police officers need to have the procedural knowledge for
how to seek out and navigate the post-secondary education options available in order to follow
through with seeking post-secondary education.
The influence related to procedural knowledge was that police officers need to know how
to seek out and navigate the post-secondary education options available. Seven participants
indicated that UCPD does not offer guidance to its officers about seeking out and navigating
post-secondary education, which will be discussed further in the organizational influence
findings within this chapter. Therefore, stakeholders proactively did independent research about
the options available and how to proceed with obtaining post-secondary education. Five of the
participants sought information from a colleague or supervisor who had post-secondary
education experience. LT2 stated, “I was very, very lost. And that's why I think I was hesitant for
51

so long. I didn't know what to do; how to get it done; how to pay for it; any of that.” He
described his process as not having conducted much research at all. Upon request, his supervisor
provided the contact information for the institution he had attended and LT2 simply reached out
to the institution and followed the process for enrolling, without considering any other options.
Three participants sought advice from personal friends or family members who had post-
secondary experience. They asked for advice regarding the cost and reputation of institutions
they were considering. It should be noted that six of the participants were the first in their
families to pursue post-secondary education.
Each of the stakeholders felt that the availability of guidance for seeking out and
navigating the post-secondary options available would be beneficial for officers wishing to
pursue post-secondary education. For example, LT2 stated, “I would have preferred a centralized
either representative or some type of information on the website, but a live voice to talk to would
be better.” All of the stakeholders believed that a guidance counselor, or someone familiar with
post-secondary education who could provide guidance and information, would have been
significantly helpful and productive. SGT4 said,
It can be overwhelming and especially for cops because we pride ourselves on having the
answers to everything. It’s hard sometimes for us to walk into a situation and say, “I
don’t know what to do here.” If we had an office dedicated to that, I think that would be
very helpful.
Therefore, it appears that access to information and formal guidance would be resourceful in
increasing officers’ procedural knowledge on how to seek out and navigate the post-secondary
options available to them. While the participants independently explored post-secondary options,
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without a systematic method, which makes it a current asset, other officers may not have the
knowledge for this process.
Summary Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
With regard to assumed knowledge needs for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD)
to implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education, the interview data resulted in two current assets. Throughout the
interviews, it was apparent that the participants could identify several benefits from their post-
secondary education, both personally and professionally. Participants expressed that their
education was far more beneficial than they had initially anticipated. Although officers with
post-secondary education may be able to identify benefits based on their first-hand experience, it
may be that those without the same experience do not readily have this knowledge. Overall, the
process for seeking out post-secondary education and navigating the options available appears to
be daunting for officers, particularly without access to formal guidance.
Findings of Assumed Motivation Needs
The assumed motivation needs for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) to
implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education that will be discussed include (a) police officers need to believe they can
apply post-secondary education to their policing work, and (b) police officers need to believe
there is value in pursuing post-secondary education. In addition to these assumed motivation
needs that were explored through this research, one additional motivation need was raised
through the interviews for police officers to consider pursuing post-secondary education earlier
in their careers and independently of promotion. Table 8 summarizes the findings of the assumed
and emerging motivation needs.
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Table 8
Summary of Assumed Motivation Needs

Assumed motivation need Continuing need Current asset Newly identified
need
Police officers need to believe they
can apply post-secondary
education to their policing work.
(Self-efficacy)
X
Police officers need to believe
there is value in pursuing post-
secondary education. (Expectancy
Value: Utility Value & Cost
Value)
X
Police officers need to consider
pursuing post-secondary education
earlier in their careers and
independently of promotion.
X

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can achieve what he or she is
attempting (Bandura, 1977; Pajares, 2009). Having high self-efficacy will motivate individuals to
engage in and persist with a task while having low self-efficacy will likely lead to avoiding a
task (Rueda, 2011). Police officers need to believe that they can apply the skills learned through
formal education to their work in policing in order to seek post-secondary education.
The influence related to self-efficacy was that police officers need to believe they can
apply post-secondary education to their policing work. All of the participants stated that they
apply aspects of their post-secondary education to their daily work. The application of improved
writing and analytical skills was most commonly referenced. All of the participants said that a
significant amount of writing is required daily. SGT2 added that strong writing skills are
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imperative in police work. He indicated that the scrutiny with which filing cases is under requires
officers to have the ability to effectively compose and articulate their observations. SGT2
suggested that officers who have not pursued post-secondary education may not see its
application to police work, saying, “I don't think that they can really make a decision on the
value of it until they've experienced it.” He advised that officers not have a narrow-minded
opinion, and disregard post-secondary education without being fully informed.
LT1 indicated that a sociology class, which included various lessons on lower-income
communities, provided a new-found perspective. She added, “Understanding people and how
some of the socio-economic situations impact the people that we’re interacting with, helps
respond to them better.” LT1 also suggested that understanding the science related to mental
illness is relevant when responding within communities. She stated, “You may not always have
the answer as a cop showing up, but when you have that different level of understanding, at least
you can be a little bit more compassionate, and it comes across in the demeanor.” SGT2 further
added that psychology and interpersonal communication can frequently be applied to police
work. He said, “You do so many things when you go in. You're a therapist on some of your calls.
You're literally talking people off ledges. You’re talking to people after a domestic violence
[situation].”
Six of the participants felt that education makes for a better and/or more professional
police officer. PO1 stated he would advise other officers the following:
You're going to be a better police officer; a better servant to the people. And the skills
and tools you learn take away the anxiety of this job, because you get anxiety, and I think
it gave me some coping tools.
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SGT1 added, that education gives officers a broader perspective. He stated, “Education sort of
puts you up on a balcony, overlooking everything, and you're not just zoned in on what's directly
in front of you.” Exposure to opinions outside of oneself and the department is important in
interacting with community members and stakeholders. SGT1 further commented, “Even if you
disagree with them, I think you still have to look at the different perspectives and respect them.
You have to at least be aware of it.” He opined that the skill sets developed while completing
post-secondary studies help in dealing with situations at work more effectively.
SGT4 shared an example of applying new skills in police work when she described an
incident involving a dispute between a solicitor and a youth organization group outside of a
supermarket. Officers on the scene called for a supervisor to respond. When she arrived, the
solicitor was abrasive and irritated. SGT4 stated, “In the past, I probably would have given him
a few minutes and then told him, ‘either, (a) you leave or (b) you get arrested,’ which would
have worked because it’s worked in the past.” Instead, she practiced an exercise on active
listening, which she had recently done in one of her classes, to approach the situation; letting the
man talk and express concerns, followed by her paraphrasing what he had said and offering the
opposing perspective. They were able to come to a resolution that worked for everyone. In the
end, the solicitor shook SGT4’s hand, the officers’ hands, and ultimately visited the station and
submitted a commendation for SGT4 and the officers because of the time and patience they had
taken to resolve the situation. SGT4 surmised that, although the process may have taken longer,
the result was the same, and everyone involved was satisfied with the outcome. She was content
that the solicitor had a positive interaction with the police. It also proved to her the effectiveness
of the new approach. SGT4 added that upon reflection, though she had faith in the lesson she had
learned in class, she was surprised that it had been as effective as it was. Based on their
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experiences, the participants were able to identify how post-secondary education can be applied
to police work, which makes it a current asset; however, other officers may not have this level of
self-efficacy.
Expectancy Value: Utility Value & Cost Value
Expectancy value theory is the individual’s beliefs that a goal will enhance his or her
personal or professional life (Eccles, 2006). Utility value is the perceived usefulness of a task
and measures how well the task fits into long-term goals (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). Cost is
described in terms of negative aspects of engaging in a task, such as the amount of effort needed
to be successful and lost opportunities from making one choice over another (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002). Developing a positive utility value will help increase police officers’ desire to pursue
post-secondary education.
The influence related to expectancy value was that police officers need to believe there is
value in pursuing post-secondary education. Based on the qualitative interview data, all
participants identified several reasons for having pursued post-secondary education. Table 9
indicates the reasons identified by the participants of this study.

Table 9
Reasons for Pursuing Post-Secondary Education Identified by Stakeholders
Reason Number of participants identified
Meeting UCPD’s requirements for promotion 7
Preparing for future (within and outside of
department, other career goals
4
Being a role model for their children 4
Having a positive impact on subordinates 1

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The primary motivation for pursuing post-secondary education among the participants
was meeting the UCPD’s requirements for promotion. Currently, the guidelines are 60 units of
post-secondary education for Sergeant and Detective; 90 units for Lieutenant; and a bachelor’s
degree for Captain and above. Seven of the participants indicated they had a desire to promote
and knew, or had been advised by a superior, that they would need to pursue post-secondary
education in order to be eligible. PO1 stated, “I just knew that I didn’t have enough college
credits to promote within the department. I was at a dead end.” LT2 added, “The promotion from
Sergeant to Lieutenant was going to be a significant pay raise for me and into my pension for the
rest of my life. So that was an incentive.” The qualitative data indicates that although officers
may have been initially motivated to seek post-secondary education as it aligns to their
professional goals (promotion), they may not have been aware of additional value at the onset.
Upon further discussion, based on their experiences, all participants opined that the
benefits of post-secondary education extend beyond promotion eligibility. Each of the
participants noted the opportunities made available outside of law enforcement, whether post-
retirement or due to a change in circumstances. SGT3, and others, noted knowing of several
individuals who had retired from or left the department and are now adjunct faculty at local
community colleges or involved in other undertakings. LT2 discussed the opportunity for a
second career, stating, “I can always leave and go do something else.” After seven years with the
department, and expecting her first child, LT1 considered not only her career trajectory but what
example she wanted to set for her child. She said, “should law enforcement not work out for me,
or I need to make a lifestyle change, I would have that [education] in my pocket.”
Participants shared their positive experiences as adult learners, including the ability to
apply life experience; having greater maturity, discipline, and focus; and the motivation of
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having a tangible goal (promotion). They indicated that their level of interest in the subjects
studied was high because they could see the connections, especially with their police work. LT2
stated, “Coming back and learning as an adult, after going to the Navy and experiencing things,
and seeing the way the world works, I was able to make the connections a lot easier.” LT1
commented,
I think the value of education has increased over the years because we're information
workers. It's a white-collar job now, in my opinion; it's not a blue-collar job anymore.
You have to understand [the] law. You have to be able to write. You have to be able to
communicate effectively in a variety of different communities. It is not the same
profession that I joined 20 years ago, by any stretch.
Participants felt that police officers are paid well enough, and with available tuition
reimbursement, can afford post-secondary education more so than the general public. Only two
participants suggested that additional financial support would be helpful. Participants’ evaluation
was that the return on investment in exchange for their time and money was very high. When
asked how she would advise other officers who are considering pursuing post-secondary
education, LT1 suggested,
Be willing to make sacrifices. If you don't do it for this job, you should do it just for your
own personal growth to be a better human. It doesn't mean that you have to change, but
just to see the world a little bit differently. It's possible, it's worth the sacrifice, you can
afford it, you can make it happen, and it's not as daunting as you might think.
LT2 stated, “It’s a great investment personally and professionally.” SGT1 expressed, “It's a sense
of accomplishment that no one can take from you.” Motivation, whether external or intrinsic, is
an important component of whether an officer will pursue post-secondary education. All of the
59

participants demonstrated a strong expectancy value of post-secondary education, which makes it
a current asset.
Emerging Motivation Need
The interviews also presented a new motivation need that was not part of the assumed
needs. The participants expressed the importance of police offices pursuing post-secondary
education earlier in their careers and exclusive of their intent to promote.
The emerging need was that police officers need to consider pursuing post-secondary
education earlier in their careers and independently of promotion. The participants’ average time
with the department before pursuing post-secondary education was ten years. All of the
participants said they would advise other officers to seek education earlier in their careers. Each
of the participants believed that individual officers, the department, and the communities they
serve would benefit from having officers pursue post-secondary education earlier in their careers
and independently of promotion. SGT3 stated, “I wouldn't be a supervisor. I wouldn't be able to
do these large reports or do these projects for my Captain. I wouldn't be where I'm at today
without the education.” She further added,
Some people are like, “Oh, I have to hurry up and take these classes if I want to
promote.” And it shouldn't be that way. They should look at it as a long-term thing. It'd
be beneficial later because you never know, anything could happen to you on this job.
Who says you're going to make it to that pension at 20 years?
By recognizing the benefits of post-secondary education and its applicability to police work,
officers may be more motivated than simply seeking to promote. Thereby, officers can apply
newly developed skills earlier in their career and continue to develop them prior to promotion.
LT1 shared some advice that she gives to younger officers she has worked with:
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You don't load your gun when you're fighting with the parolee in the back alley, you load
it when you leave the station and, hopefully, you don't need it, right? That's the goal. But
if you do, it's ready to go. And that's kind of how I felt. I don't know what life's going to
throw me, and I'm ready. And then, secondarily, if I did end up in a command staff level,
I was already applying those skills and could speak to that coming into that position.
PO2 suggested that education supplements the police experience, stating, “[It] opens up a lot of
doors for you to meet a lot of people and to see other perspectives in the world. The pen is so
much mightier than the sword.”
Summary Results and Findings for Motivation Needs
With regard to assumed motivation needs for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD)
to implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers pursuing post-
secondary education, the interview data resulted in two current assets and one emerging
motivation need. Although nearly all of the participants identified promotion as their primary
motivation for seeking post-secondary education, they all felt that they apply aspects of their
post-secondary education in their daily work. More than half of the participants felt that
education makes for a better and/or more professional police officer. Participants opined that
individual officers, the UCPD, and the communities they serve would benefit from having
officers pursue post-secondary education earlier in their careers as they practice and develop the
skills learned well before considering promotion. As expressed by the participants, having more
guidance could further motivate officers in seeking post-secondary education.
Finding of Assumed Organizational Needs
The assumed organizational needs for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD) to
implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers pursuing post-
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secondary education that will be discussed include (a) UCPD needs to value and promote the
education of its officers, and (b) UCPD needs to offer a systematic method for pursuing post-
secondary education.
Cultural Model
Cultural model represents the combination of individual characteristics, values, and
beliefs within a group (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). An organization’s cultural model is a set
of beliefs that describes how an individual believes the organization works and shapes the
values, policies, reward systems, and practices of an organization (Rueda, 2001). Agency support
for and the promotion of higher education indicates that the department values college education,
thereby encouraging officers’ willingness to seek post-secondary education (Hilal & Densley,
2013; Hilal et al., 2013).
The cultural mode influence was that UCPD needs to value and promote the education of
its officers. All participants felt there is an expectation from the department for officers to have a
broader perspective and thought process for resolving issues, although not necessarily obtained
from education or training outside of the department. LT1 added that the department has
encouraged ongoing education through a series it hosts on topics such as mental health, and
requiring education for field training officers, as opposed to, “before you just make field training
officer because you’re a good cop, and that is that.” She expressed that although she thought
these were examples of the department encouraging lifelong learning, it is subliminal. Other than
setting the standards for promotion, half of the participants did not feel that UCPD values post-
secondary education to the extent that it should. SGT3 said, “I just think they threw that out there
just to say, ‘because you're promoting’.” PO2 concurred with this sentiment when he expressed,
“Overall the department sees it as ‘checking the box’ for promotion.” All participants were
62

aware of incentives offered by the department, such as tuition reimbursement and bonus pay.
SGT4 stated, “With the monthly stipend for employees who have an AA or bachelor’s, there’s an
unwritten understanding that the department is encouraging and looking for employees to pursue
education, but it isn’t being pushed out as a real priority.”
Participants felt that support from UCPD depends greatly on immediate supervisor and
command staff. They described a split culture between those who value education and those who
don’t, particularly among the more seasoned command staff who were able to move up the ranks
with a high school diploma. SGT1 stated,
I’ve worked with some folks that didn't have it [education]. They were sort of the last
batch to go through to make Captain without a bachelor's, so they didn't really value it.
Where the newer generation of Captains that I worked for, recently had gone back, and
they value higher education. So, it just really depends on who you talk to. When you talk
to someone where they feel that it's valuable, they’ll encourage you to go back in some
capacity to obtain that.
LT1 stated the following:
It's not an uncommon narrative that experience counts, and academics isn't necessarily
what translates out to doing police work on the street. Which is kind of more of an old-
school mentality, and I think even when I came on more than 20 years ago, but definitely
before that, it was very much more of a blue-collar profession in that you weren't
required to cite case law in arrest reports. I mean, what we're asking officers to write and
understand and be able to regurgitate on a dime is nothing like what I experienced
coming on.
She further observed,
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They want you narrating what you're doing on body-worn video. I mean, the expectations
that we have on these cops working the street now are insane. What we're asking these
young folks to do with potentially a high school diploma is a lot.
Participants felt that the promotion and encouragement of further education come primarily from
individuals within the department who recognize the benefits that education can have upon
UCPD, and thereby seek to improve the department by proactively mentoring and encouraging
the pursuit of post-secondary education.
Several participants felt they could not mention to their colleagues and/or supervisor that
they were pursuing education because of lack of support and/or even sabotage. PO2 lamented,
There was a group of individuals where I didn't even want to tell them I was going to
school because they would go out of their way in order for me not to make it to school,
and these were people that had higher ranks than I did.
Participants described their education journey as lonely. PO1 said, “It just felt like I was on my
own.” A sentiment echoed by LT2, “The number one thing is that I did feel like I was doing it all
by myself.” LT2 added that he thought more officers would pursue post-secondary education if
there were more support and guidance available. Four of the participants stated that more
mentorship is needed. Therefore, the interviews conducted with the officers revealed that it is not
clear that UCPD values and promotes post-secondary education of its officers, and is an area
needing additional organizational focus.
Cultural Setting
An organization’s cultural setting includes the observable behaviors of the cultural model
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). An organization’s communication, policies, and procedures
need to align with its goals and reflect values of the institution to lead to successful change
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efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein & Schein, 2016). A cultural setting that provides a
systematic method and support for pursuing post-secondary education could increase officers’
attainment of post-secondary education; better preparing them to be adaptable to the changing
needs of society and policing.
The cultural setting influence was that UCPD needs to offer a systematic method for
pursuing post-secondary education. When asked if the department offers guidance for employees
who want to pursue post-secondary education, the answers ranged from none to very little. The
guidance available was described as the posting of flyers and announcements from academic
institutions, and periodic hosting of college fairs. SGT4 and LT2 described an online employee
portal where advertisements for programs are posted, however, neither felt the practice was
effective as it requires the time and effort of perusing through the information, without any
further guidance. SGT1, and others, commented that information is primarily shared by word of
mouth; talking to other officers who had pursued or were pursuing post-secondary education.
Participants indicated that within the department there is a continuing education unit,
however, its focus is on providing the requirements and guidelines for promotion, as well as
preparational materials for promotional exams. The POST unit certifies training in accordance
with the state’s Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training and certifies training for
college credits. There does not appear to be any cohesion between the units with regard to
mentoring or guidance as it relates to post-secondary education. SGT2 stated, “You're going to
have to do your homework. You're not going to be able to rely on the department to help you
with that process.”
Scheduling issues were cited as a significant challenge faced by participants. As a result,
several participants proactively sought inside, or administrative, positions within the department
65

to manage work and school more easily. PO2 stated that his biggest challenge was navigating
through different jobs to facilitate educational goals, while not burning bridges because others
within the department often felt sparse positions that afford flexibility were being “taken” from
others. SGT2 concurred that scheduling and changes of work assignments resulted in his taking
approximately 17 years, off-and-on, to complete his degree. SGT3 expressed the need for the
department to work with individuals to accommodate a schedule conducive to pursuing post-
secondary education.
The UCPD’s strategic plan outlines six goals used to guide its pursuit of building trust,
engaging the public, and protecting the communities it serves (UCPD Strategic Plan, 2019). One
of the goals of this strategic plan is to maximize workforce potential and encourage career
success among UCPD police officers. By establishing a systematic method for encouraging and
supporting post-secondary education among its officers, UCPD would be better positioned to
maximize its workforce potential and encourage career success. SGT4 expressed the importance
of UCPD’s necessity to grow and develop with its diverse and ever-changing communities.
While she believes there is value in drawing officers from all ranges of society, she equally
believed that UCPD should actively encourage the development of its employees, stating, “We
need to be focused on facilitating growth in the people we hire, and I think that sometimes we
don’t do a great job of that.” Hence, the lack of a systematic method for officer to pursue post-
secondary education creates a continuing need for UCPD.
Table 10 summarizes the findings of the assumed organizational needs.

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Table 10
Summary of Assumed Organizational Needs
Assumed organizational need Continuing need Current asset

UCPD needs to value and promote the
education of its officers. (Cultural Model)
X
UCPD needs to offer a systematic method for
pursuing post-secondary education. (Cultural
Setting)
X

Summary Results and Findings for Organizational Needs
With regard to assumed organizational needs for the Urban City Police Department
(UCPD) to implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers
pursuing post-secondary education, the interview data resulted in two continuing organizational
needs. UCPD requires post-secondary education for officers seeking to promote, however, it is
not evident that UCPD promotes the benefits of education to police work. Although the
department offers financial incentives for those who pursue post-secondary education, there
currently does not exist a systematic process for officers wishing to further their education.
Additionally, there also does not seem to be congruency regarding the value of education among
command staff or the department, as a whole.
Synthesis
This research study assumed six influences that may affect the Urban City Police
Department’s (UCPD) ability to increase the number of officers pursuing post-secondary
education. This study identified and validated two knowledge influences, one factual and one
procedural. Additionally, this study identified and validated one self-efficacy-based motivation
influence and one expectancy value-based influence. One additional motivation influence
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emerged. Finally, the study identified and validated one cultural model organizational influence
and one cultural setting organizational influence.
The benefits of post-secondary education extend beyond making an officer eligible for
promotion. There are identifiable benefits for police officers who seek post-secondary education
that can be applied to their everyday tasks. Although officers have been able to seek out
information and navigate educational options, especially by talking to colleagues who have post-
secondary education, it raises the question -- how many officers have not sought post-secondary
education because they do not have colleagues or a supervisor that values or promotes
education? UCPD offers incentives for pursuing post-secondary education, however, lacks a
systematic method that provides information, guidance, and support to its officers. Officers are
left to navigate the process alone, which is in opposition to the department’s nature of working
together. The department is built on a culture of togetherness, from patrolling with a partner to
being part of specialized units such as the Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) team, as
examples. Chapter Five addresses the emerging themes and presents evidence-based
recommendations with a plan for implementing and evaluating a systematic method to support
and increase the number of officers pursuing post-secondary education

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Chapter Five: Recommendations, Implementation, and Evaluation
The previous chapter addressed the research questions regarding areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of implementing a systematic method for guiding UCPD officers to pursue post-secondary
education, thereby increasing the number of officers pursuing post-secondary education by at
least 60 officers annually. In order to achieve this goal, this chapter presents evidence-based
recommendations to address the current needs and emerging themes from the qualitative data. In
addition, this chapter establishes implementation and evaluation plans framed by the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The chapter concludes with a reflection on
the strengths and weaknesses of the study, its limitations and delimitations, and
recommendations for future study.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
As this study is an innovative model, a systematic method for police officers to pursue
post-secondary education did not yet exist in the organization, as such the gap in performance
was determined to be 100%. The goal was that UCPD would implement a program that would
inform and guide police officers to pursue post-secondary education, resulting in increasing the
number of officers pursuing post-secondary education. The assumed influences were categorized
using the Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge (K), motivation (M), and organizational (O) gap
analysis model, and were validated by the results of this study. The section that follows details
recommended solutions for addressing the influences and barriers according to the KMO
framework.

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Knowledge Recommendations
There are four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002). The validated knowledge influences are factual, which
is defined as the “what”, and procedural, which is the “how”. Clark and Estes noted that learning
new knowledge and skills yields individuals with greater understanding, behavior change, and
performance. Furthermore, knowledge is compulsory for stakeholders to achieve performance
goals (Rueda, 2011). Table 11 displays the assumed knowledge influences presented in Chapter
Two and validated by this study. Table 11 also contains recommendations and the theoretical
principle on which the recommendation is based.

Table 11
Summary of Validated Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Validated knowledge
influence
Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
Police officers need to
know the benefits of
post-secondary
education. (Factual)
Knowledge is one of the three
critical factors of performance and
is a necessary element for
achieving performance goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Provide police officers with
information (workshops and
printed/electronic job aids)
about the benefits of post-
secondary education,
particularly as they relate to
their work.
Police officers need to
know how to seek out
and navigate the post-
secondary education
options available.
(Procedural)
Procedural knowledge increases
when factual knowledge required
to perform the task is available or
known (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Provide police officers with
information and guidance
(online and in-person) for
seeking post-secondary
education.

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Factual Knowledge Solution
Police officers need to have the factual knowledge of the benefits of post-secondary
education, particularly as it relates to policing and the mission of the organization (Krathwohl,
2002). The literature has identified several benefits of post-secondary education for officers,
which are also beneficial to the department, the communities served, and the law enforcement
profession. As community partners and advocates, “soft” skills such as interpersonal
communication, decision-making, and problem-solving approaches are needed in community
policing (Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016). A comprehensive knowledge base offered by post-
secondary education provides an understanding of “why” police officers do their job,
supplementing, the “how” learned through the academy and on-the-job training (Maggard,
2001).
Therefore, the recommendation for increasing police officers’ factual knowledge is to
provide them with information about the benefits of post-secondary education, particularly as
they relate to policing work. The information can be provided in a variety of formats, including
asynchronous workshops, as well as printed and electronic job aids. Similar documentation
should be presented to all stakeholders so that all constituents have the same information. In
addition, short lecture-type videos on a variety of subjects and/or disciplines would be made
available for police officers to watch at their convenience. The focus of the activities described
here should be on identifying the benefits of post-secondary education as they relate to law
enforcement, the mission of UCPD, and future opportunities for the officer.
Procedural Knowledge Solution
Police officers need to know how to seek out and navigate the post-secondary education
options available. Procedural knowledge builds upon factual knowledge and is the understanding
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of the method for completing a task (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The process of applying,
enrolling, and making the transition to being a student can be stressful and disorienting,
particularly if it has been some time since the individual has been away from an academic
setting, and/or is the first in his or her family to attend college (Hardin, 2008). Students who have
a sense of direction and strategic plan are further ahead toward program completion than those
who do not (Spellman, 2007).
The findings of the qualitative interviews suggest that although UCPD posts
advertisements from institutions regarding academic programs on its online employee portal, the
information is not organized in a user-friendly fashion. Participants described the current practice
as ineffective as it required the time and effort of perusing through a significant amount of
information, and without any further guidance. All of the participants of this study believed that
a guidance counselor, or someone familiar with post-secondary education, who could provide
guidance and information, would have been significantly helpful and productive for them.
Therefore, the recommendation for increasing police officers’ procedural knowledge is to
provide them with information and guidance for seeking post-secondary education. A virtual
knowledge library, a feature of a new digital learning platform embedded within the existing
employee portal, would house a catalog of materials such as post-secondary options and applying
for financial aid. In addition, an Educational Specialist, in the agency’s Training/Continuing
Education division, would be available to provide individualized guidance to officers and
connect them with representatives at educational institutions in order to help facilitate the
process of enrolling in post-secondary education.

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Motivation Recommendations
Motivation is important because individuals’ level of motivation determines if they will
use and apply the knowledge they have (Mayer, 2011). To pursue a goal, intention, active choice
to begin the task, and persistence to continue are needed (Clark & Estes, 2008). Mayer also
identified five concepts of how motivation works: interest, beliefs, attributions, goals, and
partnerships. Table 12 displays the assumed motivation influences presented in Chapter Two and
validated by this study. Table 12 also contains recommendations and the theoretical principle on
which the recommendation is based.

Table 12
Summary of Validated Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Validated motivation
influence
Principle and citation Context-specific recommendation
Police officers need to
believe they can apply
post-secondary
education to their
policing work. (Self-
efficacy)
Modeling increases self-
efficacy (Pajares, 2009).

High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares, 2009).

Expose police officers to positive role
models who have successfully applied
their post-secondary education to their
policing work.

Identify volunteer models/mentors
(officers and command staff with post-
secondary education) who will avail
themselves to police officers.
Police officers need to
believe there is value in
pursuing post-
secondary education.
(Expectancy Value)
Individuals are more likely to
engage in an activity when it
provides value to them
(Eccles, 2006).
Include rationales for post-secondary
education in workshops and job aids
regarding post-secondary education.

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Self-Efficacy Solution
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can achieve what he or she is
attempting (Bandura, 1977; Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy beliefs are a fundamental source to
individuals’ motivation and personal accomplishment, particularly since individuals need to
believe in their capacity to complete their goals in order to persist (Pajares, 2009; Rueda, 2011).
Modeling has a positive effect on self-efficacy, and motivation is higher amongst individuals
with higher self-efficacy (Pajares, 2009).
An important source of self-efficacy is through vicarious experiences obtained from
social models (Bandura, 1977). Bandura noted that when individuals observe others similar to
themselves perform or succeed in a task, the individuals’ beliefs that they too can succeed in the
task increases. Witnessing their colleagues and leadership apply their education to their work in
policing, would likely have a positive influence on police officers’ own self-efficacy. Therefore,
there are two recommendations for increasing police officers’ self-efficacy. The first is to post a
series of brief (15-20 minute) video-recorded interviews of police officers and command staff
who have completed post-secondary education. Interviewees would share their post-secondary
education experience and highlight key examples of how they have applied their education to
their policing work. These interviews would be housed in the digital learning platform described
in the previous section. In addition, a mentoring program will be facilitated with police officers
and command staff who have post-secondary education, by identifying volunteer mentors and
providing their educational background and contact information. These details would also be
available through the digital learning platform to be accessed at the officers’ convenience.

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Expectancy Value Solution
Expectancy value theory is the individual’s beliefs that a goal will enhance his or her
personal or professional life (Eccles, 2006). A high expectancy value is highly correlated with
persistence, mental effort, and active choice to perform the necessary tasks to reach a goal
(Rueda, 2011). Utility value is the perceived usefulness of a task and measures how well the task
fits into long-term goals (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). The more relatable a task is to a current
or future goal, the higher its utility value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). They stated that a task that
facilitates an important goal is more likely to have a positive value, even if the task itself is not
considered attractive. Although nearly all of the participants identified promotion as their
primary motivation for seeking post-secondary education, they all felt that the return on
investment was high, exclusive of promotion. Participants demonstrated strong expectancy value
of post-secondary education, which makes it a current asset, therefore reinforcing this asset is
important. As UCPD develops job aids, it will be important to include rationales for post-
secondary education, particularly as they relate to community policing, the mission of UCPD,
and future opportunities for officers.
Organizational Recommendations
In addition to the individual’s knowledge and motivation influences, organizational
influences must be considered when diagnosing a performance gap. Even if individuals have the
necessary knowledge and motivation, organizational barriers may exist that will impede the
individual’s ability to meet the performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). An
organization’s cultural model is a set of beliefs that describes how an individual believes the
organization works and shapes the values, policies, reward systems, and practices of an
organization (Rueda, 2011). An organization’s cultural setting includes the observable behaviors
75

of the cultural model (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). An organization’s communication,
policies, and procedures need to align with its goals and reflect the values of the institution to
lead to successful change efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein & Schein, 2016). The data
collected in this study suggests the most significant needs to be at the organizational level. Table
13 displays the assumed organizational influences presented in Chapter Two and validated by
this study. Table 13 also contains recommendations and the theoretical principle on which the
recommendation is based.

Table 13
Summary of Validated Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Validated
organizational influence
Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
UCPD needs to value and
promote the education of
its officers (Cultural
Model)
Organizational changes take root
when beliefs and values within the
organization are shared among its
members (Schneider et al., 1996).
Provide frequent and
consistent messaging to all
stakeholders that the
organization values post-
secondary education as an
integral part of the
organizational mission.
UCPD needs to offer a
systematic method for
pursuing post-secondary
education (Cultural
Setting)
Organizational performance
increases when processes and
resources are aligned with goals
established collaboratively (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Implement the Cops Go to
College (CGTC) program.

Inform police officers
frequently of the resources
available through the (CGTC)
program.

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Cultural Model Solution
Cultural model represents the combination of individual characteristics, values, and
beliefs within a group (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Additionally, Gallimore and Goldenberg
stated that the cultural model is often interpreted as the organization’s operational or procedural
practices. Identity is important for organizational growth, and establishing a collective identity
bonds the organizational community, which leads to the strengthening of the internal work as
well as external perception (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Schein & Schein, 2016).
Agency support for and the promotion of post-secondary education indicates that the
department values college education, thereby encouraging officers’ willingness to seek further
education (Hilal & Densley, 2013; Hilal et al., 2013). The findings of the qualitative interviews
suggest that other than setting the standards for promotion, half of the participants of this study
did not feel that UCPD values post-secondary education to the extent that it should. They
described a split culture between those who value education and those who do not, particularly
among the more seasoned command staff who were able to move up the ranks with a high school
diploma. Furthermore, the incentives offered by the department, such as tuition reimbursement
and bonus pay appeared to suggest a subliminal understanding that the department is
encouraging its officers to pursue education, yet participants felt education was not treated as a
priority, but rather a check box for promotion eligibility. Therefore, the recommended solution is
to provide frequent and consistent messaging to all stakeholders that the organization values
post-secondary education as an integral part of the organizational mission (Schneider et al.,
1996).

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Cultural Setting Solution
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organizational performance increases when processes
and resources are aligned with goals established collectively. The value of education needs to be
incorporated into the organization’s culture by integrating the view into its mission statement and
policies (Maggard, 2001). In order to fulfill its mission and continue providing services for the
diverse communities it serves, UCPD needs to provide a cultural setting that offers its officers a
systematic method and support for pursuing post-secondary education to better prepare officers
to be adaptable to the changing needs of society and policing. Failure to do so could result in the
department not meeting its full potential to provide the highest level of professionalism for those
who live, work, and visit Urban City.
In addition, in its strategic plan for 2019-2021, the UCPD outlines six goals used to guide
its pursuit of building trust, engaging the public, and protecting the communities it serves, one of
which is to maximize workforce potential and encourage career success among UCPD police
officers (UCPD Strategic Plan, 2019). The first recommended solution is for UCPD to
implement the Cops Go to College (CGTC) program, which incorporates as its ultimate goal, the
enrollment for post-secondary education through a cohort-based model. In partnership with an
academic institution (to be identified), a cohort of approximately 20 to 30 UCPD officers would
enroll at least three times a year, and advance through the program together. Cohorts provide
student stability and continuity that the traditional college format does not (Spaid & Duff, 2009).
Furthermore, cohorts can provide a sense of academic and social connectedness among the
students, serving as support and motivation to each other toward degree completion (Reynolds &
Hebert, 1998). The second recommended solution is to inform police officers, as early as while
they are in the academy, of the resources available through the CGTC program (Clark & Estes,
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2008). Thus, by establishing a systematic method for encouraging and supporting post-secondary
education among its officers, UCPD will be better able to maximize its workforce potential and
encourage career success among its officers.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model used to generate the implementation and evaluation framework is the New
World Kirkpatrick Model which is based on the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of
Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Like the original model, the New World version
includes four core levels – reaction, learning, behavior, and results; however, these levels are
presented in the reverse order from the original. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick assert that this
reverse order establishes and maintains the focus on the result, which is a critical aspect of any
training or intervention program.
The evaluation process begins with Level Four (Results), which refers to the anticipated
or ultimate goal of the training. Level Three (Behavior) identifies the critical behaviors and
required drivers to reinforce the desired goal. Level Two (Learning) determines the training that
would lead to the desired behaviors. Finally, Level One (Reaction) assesses the participants’
impressions and the extent to which they have found the training as relevant and engaging
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
As a law enforcement agency, UCPD’s organizational mission is to enhance the welfare
of the diverse communities it serves by protecting lives and property, reducing crime, and
increasing public safety. One of the goals of UCPD’s strategic plan is to maximize workforce
potential and encourage career success among UCPD police officers. Although there are
79

requirements for the completion of at least some post-secondary education for promotion
eligibility, the UCPD does not have a coherent structure to help its police officers navigate post-
secondary education options.
Police officers are faced with a variety of challenges including, changing laws, evolving
technologies, international terrorism, rising immigration, new cultural mores, and a growing
mental health crisis (President’s Task Force on 21
st
Century Policing, 2015). The skills and
knowledge required for effectively addressing these issues entail a higher level of education and
training, beyond the tactical training offered through the police academy. As discussed in
Chapter Two, research has identified several benefits for police officers who obtain a post-
secondary education that would be particularly useful for interacting with and making a positive
impact on the communities served by the UCPD. Thus, by establishing a systematic method for
encouraging and supporting post-secondary education among its officers, UCPD will be better
able to maximize its workforce potential.
The focus of this study was to explore the knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational needs that would facilitate a systematic method that would lead to an increase in
the number of officers pursuing post-secondary education by at least 60 officers annually by
September 2023.
The Cops Go to College (CGTC) program is the holistic innovation that interconnects the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences identified in this study. The program is
designed to provide police officers with the knowledge necessary to understand why post-
secondary education is beneficial to their work in law enforcement, as well as how to seek out
and navigate the post-secondary education options available. A key component of this program is
a virtual knowledge library, a feature of a new digital learning platform embedded within the
80

existing employee portal, which will house the content described in the recommendations. CGTC
will facilitate mentoring to increase police officers’ motivation to enroll in post-secondary
education. In addition, a more supportive environment with guidance by an Educational
Specialist and cohort-based enrollment will reduce organizational barriers that are a hindrance on
police officers pursuing post-secondary education. The proposed solution, if carried out
comprehensively, should result in the desired outcome of increasing enrollment in post-
secondary education among UCPD’s police officers.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 14 shows the proposed Level 4 outcomes, metrics, and methods for external and
internal outcomes. The external observations and measurements refer to information that
primarily originates outside of UCPD. The internal observations and measurements refer to
information originating within UCPD. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of
the training and organizational support for increasing the number of UCPD officers pursuing
post-secondary education, then the external outcomes should also be realized.

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Table 14
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcomes Metric(s) Method(s)
External outcomes
Improved interactions with
the communities served by
UCPD.
The number of
commendations/complaints
filed.
Quarterly check with internal
affairs and community
leaders.
A decrease in complaints
filed against UCPD police
officers
The number of
commendations/complaints
filed.
Quarterly check with internal
affairs.
Increased public approval of
UCPD
Frequency of positive UCPD
mentions in press coverage.
Track frequency of UCPD
mentions in the press.
Internal outcomes
Increased interest by police
officers in pursuing post-
secondary education.
Quantitative and qualitative
results from specific
questions on the CGTC
participant survey.
Surveys administered at the
beginning of the CGTC
program, at the end, and 3
weeks afterward.
Increased number of police
officers enrolled in post-
secondary education.
The number of police officers
participating through the
CGTC program and/or
otherwise reporting post-
secondary education.
Quarterly check by UCPD
Continuing Education Unit.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors.
The stakeholders of focus are the police officers of the Urban City Police Department
(UCPD). The first critical behavior is that police officers participate in the Cops Go to College
(CGTC) program. The second critical behavior is for police officers to increase knowledge about
the benefits of post-secondary education. The third critical behavior is for police officers to seek
mentoring from another police officer and/or command staff who has post-secondary education.
The final critical behavior is for police officers to enroll in post-secondary education. The
specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these behaviors appear in Table 15.
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Table 15
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Police officers
participate in the
Cops Go to
College (CGTC)
program.
Number of log-ins. Educational
Specialist and/or
other CGTC
administrative team
member will generate
report of activity.
Ongoing - Monthly
2. Police officers
increase their
knowledge about
the benefits of
post-secondary
education.
Number of views and
interactions in digital
learning platform.
Educational
Specialist and/or
other CGTC
administrative team
member will generate
report of activity.
Ongoing - Monthly
3. Police officers
seek mentoring
from another
police officer
and/or command
staff who has post-
secondary
education.
Number of volunteer
mentors contacted by
police officers.
Educational
Specialist and/or
other CGTC
administrative team
member will request
data from mentors.
Ongoing - Quarterly
4. Police officers
enroll in post-
secondary
education.
Number of police
officers applying
and/or participating
through CGTC
cohort.
Educational
Specialist and/or
other CGTC
administrative team
member will generate
report of activity.
Ongoing - Quarterly

Required Drivers
The critical behaviors outlined cannot exist on their own. The organization must nurture
the critical behaviors with particular supports or required drivers. UCPD officers need the
support of direct supervisors and the organization to encourage them to pursue post-secondary
education. Recognition should be established for the achievement of performance goals to
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enhance the organizational support of the police officers. Table 16 shows the recommended
drivers to support critical behaviors of UCPD police officers.

Table 16
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical behaviors
supported
Reinforcing
Provide reminders regarding
availability of resources available
(digital learning platform, CGTC
program, and guidance by
Educational Specialist).
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Update educational resources as
necessary (printed and electronic).
Ongoing 2, 3, 4
Maintain list of active volunteer
mentors.
Quarterly 2, 3, 4
Encouraging
Remind UCPD officers about
benefits and value of post-
secondary education.
Ongoing 2
In-person and/or web-based
advising sessions with Educational
Specialist
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Messaging from police chief
encouraging post-secondary
education and accessing available
resources.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding
Public acknowledgement at
meetings, in newsletters, or
employee portal.
Ongoing 4
One-time monetary incentive for
completion of degree in majors
that improve understanding of
communities served.
Annually 1, 2, 4
Monitoring
Assess police officers’
performance with surveys and
quick check-ins to monitor
progress
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
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Organizational support
In order to ensure that the drivers listed in Table 16 are implemented on a continuous
basis, several organizational factors must be considered. First, UCPD must have published
policies and standards that support police officers in pursuing post-secondary education.
Secondly, UCPD must secure the financial and human resources needed to develop, implement,
and maintain the Cops Go to College program. Finally, UCPD must leverage the influence of the
police chief, or other designated representative, through messaging to generate buy-in. A
quarterly and yearly report on key officer educational activity will be provided to the police
chief, or other designated representative, as appropriate.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals
Following the completion of the recommended solutions, police officers will be able to
do the following:
1. Articulate the benefits of post-secondary education as it relates to policing work.
2. Explain where to locate educational resource information.
3. Identify the point of contact for educational guidance and support.
4. Believe they can apply post-secondary education to their policing work.
5. Believe there is value in post-secondary education.
6. Apply knowledge and motivation to pursue post-secondary education.
7. Recognize the organization’s value and support of post-secondary education, particularly
as it relates to the organizational mission.
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved through the
Cops Go to College (CGTC) program, which is a comprehensive plan for increasing post-
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secondary education among police officers of the UCPD. The program employs a blended model
of asynchronous and synchronous learning, assessments, and job aids. Asynchronous learning
will take place in a digital learning platform embedded within the existing employee portal. The
key components of the CGTC program include:
• Asynchronous workshops and videos that introduce police officers to the benefits of post-
secondary education; short lecture-type videos on a variety of subjects and/or disciplines
to mirror a college class lecture; and short interviews with UCPD police officers and
command staff to share their post-secondary experience, how they have applied it in their
police work, and/or offering advice. (Factual Knowledge, Self-efficacy, Expectancy
Value)
• Facilitation of mentoring by police officers and command staff with post-secondary
experience. (Self-efficacy, Expectancy Value, Cultural Model)
• A virtual knowledge library housing a catalog of materials such as post-secondary
options and applying for financial aid, in addition to materials related to the asynchronous
workshops. (Factual Knowledge, Procedural Knowledge)
• Individualized guidance from and academic planning with Educational Specialist.
(Procedural Knowledge, Cultural Model, Cultural Setting)
• Cohort-based enrollment in post-secondary education. (Self-efficacy, Cultural Setting)
Components of Learning. A training plan needs to include an evaluation that confirms
the intended learning occurred. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) identify five components of
learning: knowledge, skill, attitude, confidence, and commitment. The demonstration of
declarative knowledge is necessary as a precursor to applying that knowledge to problem-
solving. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate learning for both factual and procedural knowledge
86

that is being taught. Additionally, participants must value the training as a prerequisite for using
their newly learned knowledge. Finally, participants must be confident in and committed to
applying their knowledge and skills. Table 17 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these
components of learning.

Table 17
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or activity(ies) Timing
Declarative knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple-choice
items.
Quizzes during the asynchronous modules.
Verbal knowledge checks during advising
sessions with Educational Specialist.
Periodically during the program and
documented in observational notes.
Procedural skills “I can do it right now.”
Scenarios with multiple-choice items. Quizzes during the asynchronous modules.
Retrospective pre- and post-assessment
survey asking participants about their level of
proficiency before and after the training.
At the end of the asynchronous program.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Retrospective pre- and post-assessment item. After the asynchronous program.
Confidence “I think I can do it.”
Survey items using scaled items. Following the asynchronous modules
Retrospective pre- and post-assessment item. After the asynchronous program
Commitment “I will pursue postsecondary education.”
Retrospective pre- and post-assessment item. After the asynchronous program
Create an individualized academic plan During advising sessions with Educational
Specialist.

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Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend measuring three reactions, which include
engagement, relevance, and satisfaction. These components are necessary for the program’s
success. High levels of each of these three components are likely to result in the desired
outcomes. Table 18 outlines the methods of measuring engagement, relevance, and customer
satisfaction, in addition to the timing for capturing the data.

Table 18
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of asynchronous portion Ongoing
Program evaluation Immediately after the training
Relevance
Brief pulse check during asynchronous
portion
Throughout the asynchronous program
Program evaluation Immediately after the asynchronous program
Continuous feedback (button within digital
learning platform)
Ongoing
Customer satisfaction
Program evaluation Immediately after the asynchronous program
Post-training follow-up survey 3 weeks after asynchronous program
Continuous feedback (button within digital
learning platform)
Ongoing

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Evaluation Tools
Using participant feedback to evaluate a program helps to make improvements to the
program, increase the transfer of learning, and displays the value of the training to the
organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The following sections summarize the
evaluation tools used during and immediately following the program implementation, as well as
delayed evaluation tools based on the timeline suggested by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick.
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
The digital learning platform (DLP) will collect engagement data on each user during the
asynchronous portion of the workshop, including start time, duration, and completion of the
modules. The DLP will administer a brief survey after each training module asking the
participants to indicate the relevance of the material and their overall satisfaction with the
content, as well as the learner’s attitude, confidence, and commitment. Upon completion of the
asynchronous program, the DLP will administer a survey to evaluate Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick's (2016) Level 1 and 2 categories. Table 19 provides sample questions that would be
included in the survey.

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Table 19
Sample Questions for End of Program Survey
Kirkpatrick
level
Type of question Sample questions
1 Likert Scale:
-Strongly Agree
-Agree
-Disagree
-Strongly Disagree
Help us improve the Cops Go to College
asynchronous modules by telling us about your
overall experience with the program:
a) The information I received about the
program before it began helped me to
participate successfully.
b) The instruction and information I received
during the modules were effective and
helpful.
c) The modules were well organized.
d) My goals for participating in this program
were met.
e) I would recommend the program to a
colleague.
2 Likert Scale:
-Strongly Agree
-Agree
-Disagree
-Strongly Disagree
How much did your participation in the Cops Go
to College asynchronous program impact each of
the following?
a) Helped me understand the benefits of
post-secondary education.
b) Helped me identify my career goals.
c) Increased my interest in pursuing post-
secondary education.
d) Made me decide to pursue post-secondary
education.
e) Made me more confident in my ability to
apply post-secondary education to my
police work.
f) Made me more confident in my ability to
be successful in post-secondary
education.

Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
A survey will be administered via email to participants approximately 3 weeks after the
implementation of the asynchronous program. The survey will contain open and scaled items
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using the Blended Evaluation
®
approach, which incorporates the evaluation across the
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) levels. By measuring the participants’ perspective,
satisfaction, and relevance of training (Level 1); confidence and value of applying the training
(Level 2); application of the training to pursuing post-secondary education (Level 3); and the
extent to which they will likely pursue post-secondary education, will allow the program to be
comprehensively evaluated. Table 20 provides sample questions that would be included in the
survey.

Table 20
Sample Questions for Post-Program Survey
Kirkpatrick
level
Type of question Sample questions
1 Likert Scale:
-A Great Deal
-Moderately
-Slightly
-Not at All
How much did participating in the Cops Go to College
asynchronous program impact each of the following?

My participation in the program:
a) Helped me identify my career goals.
b) Increased my interest in pursuing post-
secondary education.
2 Open-ended How do you think post-secondary education could
improve your work as a police officer?
3 Open-ended As some time has passed since you completed the
Cops Go to College asynchronous program, describe
how you think about post-secondary education as it
relates to police work.
4 Rating scale (0-10;
0=not likely and
10=very likely)
What is the likelihood that you will enroll in post-
secondary education?

What is the likelihood that you will enroll in the Cops
Go to College cohort?

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Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of UCPD is measured by the number of police officers pursuing post-
secondary education. Each quarter, a report with data including Level 4, Level 3, Level 2, and
Level 1 components measured through the evaluation tools outlined in Tables 14 and 15 will be
generated. The reported data will be used as a monitoring and accountability tool. An annual
report will be presented to the police chief or other designated representative.
Summary
This chapter presented the planning, implementation, and evaluation recommendations
for UCPD to implement a systematic method to support and increase the number of officers
pursuing post-secondary education. The integration of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
and the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model provides a holistic approach to identifying the
barriers that are preventing an organization from meeting goals, developing an intervention to
improve performance barriers, and develop an evaluation plan sustain performance. First, the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs were presented, along with
recommendations supported by theoretical principles. Next, the organizational purpose, need,
and expectations were reviewed. Then, a proposed integrated implementation and evaluation
plan to evaluate the successful attainment of the stakeholder and organizational goals, which
include results (Level 4), behavior (Level 3), learning (Level 2), and reaction (Level 1).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
All methodological approaches come with strengths and weaknesses. The Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework provided a model for this study to examine the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect police officers’ pursuit of post-
secondary education. The New World Kirkpatrick Model’s (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
92

four levels of evaluation guided the recommendation process, reaction, learning, behavior, and
results. The Clark and Esters framework aligns well with the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick five
components of learning. The knowledge and skill components from Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
align with knowledge influences from Clark and Estes. Similarly, the attitude, confidence, and
commitment components from Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick align with motivation influences
from Clark and Estes. The synthesis of these models supported the study findings and enabled
the development of a comprehensive and systematic plan that will result in an increased number
of UCPD officers pursuing post-secondary education.
However, the New World Kirkpatrick Model is focused on training, which limits the
examination of solutions to the knowledge influences of the performance gap. As previously
discussed, motivation is important because individuals’ level of motivation determines if they
will use and apply the knowledge they have (Mayer, 2011). Additionally, even if individuals
have the necessary knowledge and motivation, organizational barriers may exist that will impede
the individuals’ ability to meet the performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Solutions to motivation and organizational gaps are not often achieved through training (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Limitations and Delimitations
Research results were limited to police officers who volunteered to participate in the
study. Data was primarily the opinions and perspectives of the participants. Limitations included
the participants’ understanding of the interview questions and their truthfulness in answering the
questions. Another limitation was that the study focused on the three research questions,
pertaining to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to increasing post-
93

secondary education among police officers. Lastly, the study was limited by the time available
for gathering data.
A key delimitation factor of the study was that the focus was specifically on UCPD,
which only represents one police department within the United States. The organization was
selected based on convenience and access. Although the scope of the study may be constrained
by the delimitation choices of the researcher, including the criteria of the selected participants
and the scope of the interview questions, and may not be generalized to all police departments,
the results may further the literature regarding post-secondary education and the law enforcement
profession.
Recommendations for Future Research
Although there has been a rise in college-educated police offices in the last thirty years,
data suggests the growth in officers with a four-year degree has not maintained the same pace as
the growth of the United States general population with bachelor’s degrees (Gardiner, 2019).
This research was specifically dedicated to identifying what factors may be needed for UCPD to
establish a systematic method for its officers to pursue post-secondary education. However,
through the literature review and organizational-specific data gathering, two areas of future
research emerged as possible areas for UCPD and other U.S. law enforcement agencies.
The qualitative data collected from this study indicated that it may be advantageous for
subject-matter specialists within the agency to teach college-credit courses to police officers as a
means of earning credit toward a post-secondary degree. As the number of law enforcement
professionals with graduate and terminal degrees potentially grows, future research should
consider whether law enforcement agencies have the capacity for and/or should offer their own
accredited degree programs.
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In addition, the qualitative data found that the majority of the participants in this study
shared the following characteristics: nontraditional students, people of color, and first in their
families to pursue post-secondary education. Considering the racial/ethnic breakdown of
UCPD’s sworn officers, as described in Chapter One, future research should consider the
implications of post-secondary education achievement as it relates to diversity, equity, and
inclusion at the command staff level, particularly among women and people of color, not only in
law enforcement but among all first-responders.
Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to determine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that would lead to a systematic method for guiding UCPD officers to pursue post-
secondary education. The research was intended to evaluate whether UCPD officers had the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets to accomplish the organizational goal, and if
not, what the needs were for increasing capacity. Qualitative data was collected by interviewing
eight UCPD officers with varying years of experience and rank, with post-secondary experience.
Understanding the officers’ experience of pursuing post-secondary education while being
employed by UCPD was essential to identify the needs for developing a systematic method for
guiding officers in the future.
Based on the literature review, the law enforcement profession has evolved from mere
crime control. Those who work in the profession are tasked with suppressing crime, improving
the quality of life for the communities they serve, and interacting with an evolving diverse
society while doing so in a professional, critical, and compassionate manner (Maggard, 2001).
Policing today is complex, and the changing nature of law and law enforcement tasks law
enforcement professionals with a wide range of responsibilities that require innovative problem
95

solving, communication, and analytical skills. Research has found that post-secondary education
can help develop the skills and competencies needed to perform successfully in this capacity.
Yet, many police departments have not raised their minimum educational requirements and
therefore have not kept pace with society at large (Peak & Sousa, 2018). Although this research
was conducted specifically for UCPD, the literature review suggests that this may be a topic for
national consideration.
Historically, institutions of higher education have designed programs and services for the
traditional student population. However, with the increased number of nontraditional adult
learners enrolled, colleges and universities have reevaluated and redesigned the practices and
policies historically geared toward the 18-24-year old student, to better suit the “new” traditional
student. Resources available for adult learners can mitigate the concerns and barriers faced by
adult students about their ability to successfully complete a post-secondary degree.
Police officers are faced each day with a breadth of challenging situations. Their job
presents occupational hazards that often put their safety at risk, and sometimes even their lives.
Pursuing post-secondary education should not be an additional challenge. The UCPD’s mission
is to enhance the welfare of the diverse communities it serves by protecting lives and property,
reducing crime, and increasing public safety. The researcher hopes that this research can be used
to improve the welfare of the agency, the communities it serves, and the humans behind the
badge.

96

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104

Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Respondent (Name): ____________________________________________________________
Location of Interview: ___________________________________________________________
Date of Interview: ______________________________________________________________
Time In / Time Out: _____________________________________________________________
Introduction
Thank you for meeting with me today. I am conducting this interview as part of my dissertation
research for my doctoral program at the University of Southern California. I am seeking your
insight and experiences to better understand your knowledge and motivation for pursuing higher
education, as well as the type of guidance UCPD offers its officers for pursuing higher
education, and suggestions that may help improve this area. I anticipate taking no more than one
hour of your time, to cover the questions I have for your consideration.

Your participation is completely voluntary. We can skip any questions you want, and you may
stop the interview at any time. Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this
study will remain confidential. Your responses will be coded with a pseudonym and maintained
separately from your answers.

If you are comfortable, I would like to record our conversation and the recording will be
destroyed once it is transcribed. Do you agree to having the conversation recorded?

Do you have any questions for me?

1. Please tell me a little about why you decided to pursue higher education. Were there
particular things that lead to it or a story?
2. Do you believe UCPD values pursuing post-secondary education, or not, and why do you
feel this way?
3. Please tell me about any behaviors or activities you have observed that the department
encourages higher education.
4. Please explain to me what you know about any incentives provided by the department for
pursuing post-secondary education.
5. Please describe the kind of guidance the department offers for employees who want to
pursue postsecondary education.
105

6. Tell me how you navigated the process of selecting an institution, program (focus of
study), delivery of program (online vs on-campus), etc.
7. Did you seek any guidance outside of UCPD and why did you do this?
8. What additional resources or support do you feel you would have liked the department to
provide and why?
9. Please describe your educational experience as a working adult learner.
10. Can you tell me about any advantages you felt you had as an adult learner and why do you
feel this way?
11. Can you tell me about any challenges you experienced as an adult learner and why you see
them as challenges?
12. Do you think that higher education is beneficial for law enforcement professionals and why
do you believe this?
13. From your own experience, can you describe a time when your education helped you
manage or resolve a police incident?
14. What are your thoughts on requiring college degrees for law enforcement professionals and
why do you think this?
15. Based on your experience, what advice would you provide someone in the department who
wants to pursue higher education?

Closing question

Those are all of the questions I have. Is there anything else you would like to add before we
conclude our conversation?

Thank you and Follow up

Thank you again for sharing your experience and thoughts with me today. I really appreciate
your willingness to participate in my study and support my research. Would you mind if I send a
follow up email if I have any additional questions? Again, thank you very much for your
participation.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Policing today is complex, and the changing nature of law and law enforcement tasks law enforcement professionals with a wide range of responsibilities that require innovative problem solving, communication, and analytical skills. Research has found that post-secondary education can help develop the skills and competencies needed to perform successfully in this capacity. This research was conducted for the Urban City Police Department (UCPD, a pseudonym), a law enforcement agency of an urban city located in the western United States. The purpose of this research was to determine knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that would lead to an innovative and systematic method for guiding UCPD officers to pursue post-secondary education. Qualitative data was collected by interviewing eight UCPD officers with varying years of experience and rank, with post-secondary experience. Understanding the officers’ experience of pursuing post-secondary education while being employed by UCPD was essential to identify the needs for developing a systematic method for guiding officers in the future. The recommended implementation of the Cops Go to College (CGTC) program is the holistic innovation that interconnects the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences identified in this study.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Padilla, Rosana A. (author)

Core Title Increasing post-secondary education among police officers: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/27/2021

Defense Date 04/06/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag community policing,education,Higher education,Law enforcement,OAI-PMH Harvest,police officer,post-secondary education

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Canny, Eric A. (committee chair), Datta, Monique C. (committee member), Krop, Cathy (committee member)

Creator Email rapadill@usc.edu,rapm630@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-455723

Unique identifier UC11669368

Identifier etd-PadillaRos-9550.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-455723 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PadillaRos-9550.pdf

Dmrecord 455723

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Padilla, Rosana A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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