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A multiple case study: inclusion in international schools
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A multiple case study: inclusion in international schools
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1 Running head: INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS A MULTIPLE CASE STUDY: INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS by Marianne Yoon Kwan Yong-Macdonald _______________________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION August 2018 Copyright 2018 Marianne Yong-Macdonald 2 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Table of Contents List of Tables 4 List of Figures 5 Abstract 6 CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 7 Definitions 7 Background of the Problem 9 Problem Statement 11 Purpose 11 Significance 12 Methodology 13 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 14 General Discussion on Inclusion 14 The Concept of Inclusion 15 Inclusion in International Schools 18 Provisions for SEN in International Schools 21 Challenges 22 Implications of International School Growth 24 Factors Influencing Policies and Practices on Inclusion 25 Benefits of Inclusion 29 Barriers for Inclusion 30 Conceptual Confusion Surrounding Inclusion 30 Existing Perceptions. 31 A Lack of Evidence 32 Summary 33 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 35 Sample Selection 36 Participants 37 Instruments 39 Procedure 39 Interview 39 Document Analysis Protocol 40 Data Analysis 41 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 43 International School in Europe (ISE) 44 Inclusion at ISE 44 Perceived Value of Inclusion 51 Influential Factors 59 International School in Africa (ISA) 68 Inclusion at ISA 68 Perceived Value of Inclusion 75 Influential Factors 80 International School in East Asia (ISEA) 88 Inclusion at ISEA 88 3 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Perceived Value 96 Influential factors 100 Summary of Findings 106 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 108 Inclusion in International Schools 109 Practices and Policies 113 Essential Factors for Success 117 Perceived Value 120 Challenges 122 Implications and Recommendations for Practice 124 Limitations 125 Recommendations for Future Research 126 References 127 Appendix A – INTERVIEW PROTOCOL 134 Appendix B – ISE MISSION GUIDING STATEMENTS 137 Appendix C – DEFINITIONS OF SUPPORT AT ISA 138 Appendix D – GUIDING STATEMENTS AT ISA 139 Appendix E – ROLES AND RESPONSIBILIRTIES AT ISA 141 Appendix F – SUPPORT SERVICES AT ISA 144 4 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS List of Tables Table 1: Profiles of Participating Schools Table 2: Profiles of Participants Table 3: ISA Continuum of Service Delivery 37 38 75 5 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS List of Figures Figure A: The Interconnectedness Between Diversity and Inclusion Figure B: Inclusion in International Schools: A Summary of the Findings Figure C: Equality Versus Equity, Three Types of Practices in Classrooms 90 107 112 6 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Abstract The slow progress of inclusive education in international schools, and an increase in the number of students with learning differences in classrooms have made it important for international schools to work on improving their practices and policies around inclusion. Unfortunately, not much is known about the concept of inclusion in the international school context (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). In fact, the confusion around the definition of inclusion may be impeding the progress of inclusive international education (Ainscow, Dyson, Goldrick & West, 2016; Ainsow & Cesar, 2006). This study aims to gain a deeper understanding of inclusion in the international school context by asking the following three research questions: 1) How is inclusion defined in international schools? 2) How do international school leaders perceive the value of inclusion? 3) What are the perceived factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in international schools? This qualitative comparative multiple case study of three inclusive international schools intentionally collected perception data from schools that are currently at different stages of the implementation of inclusion. The present study found that although the three participating international schools understand and define inclusion somewhat differently, they do however share the following. First, the three schools believe that all children can learn and that they all learn differently, therefore they are committed to educating all of their admitted students. Second, the participating schools value inclusion because inclusion provides opportunities for social learning and community building, improves learning for all students, is a moral responsibility, gives families options, and reflects an authentic environment for students. Third, the participating schools admissions process is highly selective based on the availability of resources, both external and internal, to meet the learning needs of all students. Last, the factors such as leadership, the will and desire to be inclusive, and shared understanding around inclusion are highly influential for participating schools’ policies and practices around inclusion. Keywords: international schools, inclusion, special education, leadership for inclusion, inclusive school culture, moral responsibility, accountability, barriers to learning and participation 7 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY The concept of inclusion continues to be a topic of much discussion since it began almost three decades ago, and its progress continues to be slow (Ainscow, Dyson, Goldrick & West, 2016; Ainscow & César, 2006). This phenomenon may be especially true for international schools, and unfortunately very little is known about the topic (Lane & Jones, 2015; Bradley, 2000; ISC Research & NFI, 2016). Currently, organizations such as the International School Consultancy (ISC) Research Limited and Next Frontier Inclusion (NFI) are collaborating with others in the field of international education to collect more data on international schools. For instance, in January 2016 the NFI and ISC Research Limited conducted a survey on inclusion in international schools. To the best of NFI and ISC’s knowledge, it was the first time that such a survey was carried out. The fact that 584 of the 9400 international schools responded to the survey was considered encouraging for NFI (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). Definitions International schools. International schools are generally K-12 schools, offering national or international curricula that are different from that of their host countries’ (ISC Research, 2016; Heyward, 2002; Hayden & Thompson, 2008). They can be either for, or not-for- profit organizations. Additionally, the majority of them are private, and they do not have affiliations to any interest or religious groups (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). For the purpose of this study, international schools are English-medium schools mainly serving the expatriate families, as well as some host country families who prefer an international and prestigious private education for their children (Forlin, 2012; Hayden & Thompson, 2008; ISC Research 2017; ISC Research & NFI, 2016). 8 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Additional Learning Needs (ALN). Students with “Additional Learning Needs” (ALN) are those with educational needs that are “different from” or “additional to” what is available for other students in the same age group and schools (Florian, Black-Hawkins & Rouse, 2017). In this study, the phrase ‘ALN students’ will be used to describe a wide range of students with learning needs, including those with English language learning needs. Special Educational Needs (SEN). Similarly, SEN are learning needs of identified students that are “different from” or “additional to” the learning needs of a general student population. SEN can be categorized as mild, moderate or intensive educational needs. According to ISC Research & NFI (2016), students who have mild needs require some additional support and monitoring. Students with moderate or intensive needs require more support and sometimes the support can be in-class only, or a combination of in-class and small group interventions. However, intensive needs students usually require a modified program because the general program is seen as unsuitable for them. Generally, a SEN student has an Individual Educational Plan (IEP), and is usually monitored by a case manager, or a Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO). Inclusive practices. According to Florian (2009), inclusive practices are “the things that people do to give meaning to the concept of inclusion” and the meaning can vary greatly. The phrase could be specific to refer to the inclusion of ALN children in the mainstream classrooms, services for ALN, or a response to diversity by removing barriers to learning and participation. In short, inclusive practices are instructional strategies, approaches and interventions specially designed to prevent or minimize the exclusion of any student to fully participate in learning activities, in or outside of the classroom (Florian et al., 2016; Ainscow 2005). Ainscow (2005) defines participation “as the shared experiences and negotiations that result from social 9 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS interaction within a purposive community.” The phrases ‘inclusive practices’ and ‘inclusive pedagogy’ are sometimes used interchangeably. However, for the purpose of this study, inclusive pedagogy refers to what is done, what the rationale is, and how inclusion is implemented (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). In addition, the aim of inclusive pedagogy is to support all students to achieve their potential and feel that they belong at their school doing what their peers do (Florian et al., 2016). Background of the Problem In 2016, the ISC Research and Next Frontier Inclusion (NFI) conducted a survey on inclusion in international schools. The purpose of the survey was to provide baseline data for future research. The survey results show that 17% of the 584 international schools which responded claimed to be “open to all students.” The majority of the schools in the 17% category are mandated to be inclusive. Moreover, this particular group of schools in the category are in countries such as the UK, Canada, USA and Australia (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). The second largest group found in the 17% category are the for-profit schools. According to ISC Research and NFI (2016), this finding may indicate that the for-profit schools include SEN students because it is “financially viable” for them to be inclusive in their admissions policy. Approximately 50% of the respondents for the ISC Research and NFI 2016 survey consider themselves non-selective to varying degrees. According to the survey results, 13% accept a managed number of students with mild learning needs, 28% accept a managed number of mild and moderate needs, and only 9% accept intensive needs. Despite the fact that over 50% of the respondents have students with various Special Educational needs, only 33% of the total respondents reported that they have fully qualified learning specialists working with their SEN students. Additionally, less than 50% claimed that their teachers are skilled in differentiation in 10 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS the classrooms. There seems to be a discrepancy between the number of non-selective or open schools (50%) and the number of schools having qualified staff (33%). According to these results, one could infer that some of the “open to all students” and “non-selective” schools may not necessarily be adequately servicing their SEN students. Similarly, Lane and Jones’ (2016) quantitative study also found that some of these international schools lacked qualified staff for the number of SEN students enrolled. The observed ratio between schools with SEN students and qualified professionals may be a concern for organizations such as the NFI. ISC Research and NFI (2016) noted that the actual percentage of inclusive international schools globally may be much lower as it is likely that the 584 schools who responded were more sympathetic to the inclusion of students with additional learning needs (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). The researchers for the survey claim that although their results show an increase in the inclusion of a full range (mild, moderate, and intensive needs, including higher abilities) of students with SEN in international schools, there is still much room for further growth. The 2016-2017 International Schools Intelligence Market Report prepared by ISC Research for the Anglo-American School of Sofia predicted that they would be 26,210 international schools worldwide by 2031, and an expected total of 14.945 million students in these schools. Consequently, one could expect that the total number of students with ALN in international schools would also increase. Moreover, in some countries where SEN students have limited opportunities, there are growing demand for international schools because the international school education is perceived to be better at meeting the needs of students with SEN (Kusuma-Powell, 2018). One of the implications of the rapid international school growth might be that some schools would feel the pressure to be less selective in their admission process due to competition. Although it is desirable to have more non-selective international schools, but 11 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS if the lack of inclusive practices and policies observed continue, then student learning will be impacted negatively. Problem Statement The growing number of international schools globally is expected to affect the diversity and range of learning differences in international school classrooms. Therefore, there is a need to respond to the increasing diversity and range by promoting greater inclusive practices and policies in international schools. Furthermore, if international schools remain behind in their progress towards inclusion and inclusive pedagogy, the quality of international school education and individual student learning may be impacted negatively. Unfortunately, the lack of understanding or confusion around the concept of inclusion is impeding progress in schools (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006; Ainscow, Dyson & Weiner, 2013; Thomas, 2010). This phenomenon may also be true for international schools. Purpose The focus of this inquiry is to promote greater inclusion and inclusive pedagogy in international schools. The aim of the present study is to explore how successful inclusive schools at various stages of implementation work, as well as to gain insights on international school leaders’ perceptions of the beliefs, value and influential factors for inclusion in international schools. According to Ainscow et al. (2013), Ainscow and Sandill (2010), and Precey, Entrena and Jackson (2013), leadership is a key factor in advocating for inclusion in schools. Therefore, for the purpose of my study, only the views of international school leaders were collected as data for analysis. 12 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Significance Although there is a large body of literature on inclusion in general, not much is known about inclusion in the international school context. In fact, very little is known about international schools in general because there were very few international schools previously to make it worthwhile for researchers to study this particular group of schools (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). However, the rapid international school growth in recent years is changing the views of researchers. Consequently, studies on international schools, such as this study, are becoming more relevant and important (ISC Research, 2017; Hayden & Thompson, 2008). The findings of my study can provide greater clarity on the concept of inclusion in the international school context. The confusion around the concept has impeded progress towards greater inclusion in schools for several decades now (Ainscow et al., 2013; Thomas, 2010). Similarly, this phenomenon may also be a barrier for inclusion in international schools. Inclusive international school leaders’ perceptions of the factors influencing decisions on policies and practices around inclusion can provide valuable insights for others interested in working towards greater inclusion or inclusive pedagogy in their schools. These insights are through the international school lens, and, therefore, may be more relevant than the factors found in the literature for inclusion in general. International schools interested in exploring inclusion would also benefit from a deeper understanding of the factors contributing to, and the barriers for inclusive education. My study is a multiple case study of three inclusive international schools at various stages of implementation of inclusion. Thus, the findings could give deeper insights for the development of inclusion in some international schools. 13 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Finally, the 2016 ISC Research and NFI survey results showed that very few independent international schools outside of the USA, UK, Canada, and Australia accept students with moderate to intensive needs. Hence, expatriate families who have children with SEN struggle to find international schools that would provide sufficient support for their children. It is common for these families to hide their children’s learning differences and accept less than adequate services provided because they feel that they have no other options. For these families, the implications of my findings can potentially increase future opportunities. Methodology To gain a better understanding of inclusion in international schools, I used the traditional qualitative approach to examine school leaders’ views on inclusion in international schools. The sampling frame for this study was a group of leaders from successful inclusive international schools. Invitations to a group of school leaders recommended by NFI were sent, and four responded. I interviewed the participants online using Skype, and the individual interviews were recorded using the Quick Voice Pro Application on my iPhone. The audio files were personally transcribed and organized on an Excel spreadsheet. I used the open coding method to analyze the data. Additionally, I analyzed data collected from the published information on participating schools’ websites, as well as data collected from school documents shared by some of the respondents. 14 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Inclusion began in the early 90s. The literature shows that the concept of inclusion was brought about by events like the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in Thailand in 1990 and the Salamanca Conference on Special Needs Education in 1994 in Spain, where 92 participating countries agreed to adopt the Salamanca Statement and Framework on Action on Special Needs Education (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; UNESCO 1994). Policies such as the IDEA in the US and UNESCO’s Guidelines for Partnerships between Professionals and Parents of Children and Young People with Disabilities published in 1986 also contributed to the development of inclusive education (Miles & Singal, 2010; Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Florian et al., 2016). In short, inclusion has been progressing slowly for almost thirty years now, and the driving forces for inclusion are the human rights and social justice movements. These movements aim to ensure that all individuals have the right to education (Polat, 2011). This review of the literature provides readers the opportunity to gain a general understanding of inclusion and its related concepts, views on inclusion in international schools, insights on the factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion. In addition, some of the benefits and barriers for inclusion will also be discussed in this chapter. General Discussion on Inclusion The concept of inclusion was first perceived as Special Education for learning disabled children in a general school setting (Idol, 2006; Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Thomas, 2013). For example, in 1997 Idol first defined inclusion as having students with disabilities in a general education program to receive their entire academic curriculum. However, today the concept of inclusion has broadened to include meeting the learning needs of all students (Florian, Black- Hawkins & Rouse, 2016; Thomas, 2013; Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Ferguson 2008). In other 15 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS words, inclusion goes beyond focusing on ‘learning disabled’ children to also include supporting the learning needs of those who may be marginalized because of their race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender (UNESCO, 2009; Florian et al., 2016; Thomas, 2010; Ainscow, Dyson & Weiner, 2013; Ferguson, 2008). The shift in the conceptualization of inclusion may have generated confusion for many schools (Thomas, 2010; Ainscow et al., 2013). Furthermore, the confusion contributed to the lack of clarity around implementation steps for schools to provide quality inclusive education (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Consequently, the progress towards greater inclusive practices and pedagogy in schools had been impeded for the past few decades (Ainscow et al., 2013; Thomas, 2010; Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006). The Concept of Inclusion Ainscow et al. (2013) assert that schools need to be clear on what inclusive education means in their individual contexts if they are to be effective in meeting the learning needs of their students. In recent studies, as cited in Miles and Singal (2010) and presented in Ainscow and Cesar’s (2006) article, inclusion can be classified in six different ways: ● Inclusion as a concern with disabled students and others categorized as ‘having special educational needs’. ● Inclusion as a response to disciplinary exclusion. ● Inclusion in relation to all groups seen as being vulnerable to exclusion. ● Inclusion as developing the school for all. ● Inclusion as ‘Education for All’. ● Inclusion as a principled approach to education and society. The typology above provides some clarity for schools to define inclusion in their unique contexts (Miles & Singal, 2010). Moreover, the above typology may also assist schools in establishing 16 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS their rationale, developing implementation plans and identifying desired results to successfully implement inclusion (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Inclusion as a concern with SEN. According to Ainscow and Cesar (2006), there is a common assumption than inclusion is about educating students with SEN in a general educational setting. This idea of inclusion emphasizes on ‘fixing’ or accommodating the disabilities or ‘deficits’ of SEN students, and it is the most familiar understanding of inclusion in many countries (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Nevertheless, this concept is questioned by many as it does not necessarily focus on “removing barriers to learning and participation” or on ensuring “resources to support learning and participation” (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Ainscow and Cesar (2006) posit that “inclusion as a concern with SEN” could label students within an educational system and further perpetuate the perception that SEN students need to be segregated because of their disabilities. The idea of “removing barriers” is still a fairly unfamiliar concept for many, and there is a fear that this ‘innovative thinking’ can “deflect attention from the continued segregation” of SEN students (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Inclusion as a response to disciplinary exclusion. This understanding of inclusion relates to a school’s approaches to educating both SEN and students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties (EBD) (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Ainscow and Cesar (2006) suggest that this perspective on inclusion is often around responding to the issues around the disciplinary exclusion of students both formally and informally. An example of formal exclusion could be instances where students are sent home because due to truancy. Whereas informal exclusions may be the fact that pregnant teens are discouraged to attend school. Hence, some schools develop specific programs to support such students to stay in school. Unfortunately, this understanding of inclusion contributes to the perception that inclusion is around working with 17 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS “difficult students” (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Consequently, many teachers develop negative attitudes towards inclusion because of the fear of having a disproportionate number of ‘difficult students’ in their classrooms (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Inclusion in relation to all groups seen as vulnerable to exclusion. This idea or understanding of inclusion is broadened to include any group that may be discriminated or disadvantaged due to learning differences, emotional, behavioral and social difficulties, disadvantaged backgrounds and more (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). In some countries, this definition refers to ‘social inclusion’ as a response to issues “for groups whose access to school is under threat” (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Examples might be young mothers and children from poor communities, or traveling/Roma families who are highly vulnerable to exclusion. Inclusion as developing the school for all. According to Ainscow and Cesar (2006), this category refers to a ‘comprehensive school’. For instance, in the UK, this understanding means a school accepts all levels of academic abilities and students would not be allocated to different types of school based on their academic achievement. Similarly, in the US it is the “‘common school’ tradition”, and in Denmark the Folkeskole (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Many countries have these traditions with the intention to disband segregation and serve a socially diverse community (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). However, Ainscow and Cesar (2006) raise the concern that for some countries, this movement may be emphasizing the assimilation of those perceived to be different into a “homogenous normality” rather than transforming education through diversity to enhance learning for all. Inclusion as Education for All (EFA). The EFA movement began in the 90s to increase the access to education for children across the world, especially those in the very poor regions. Inclusion in this context is probably the most confusing for many mainly because it is the 18 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS broadest category of the six identified by Ainscow and Cesar (2006). The concept here can means responding to any group vulnerable to exclusion in an existing system. This category of inclusion also focus on assuring that disabled children are included in schooling systems. The belief that every child has the right to education is at the core of this definition of inclusion. Inclusion as a principled approach to education and society. According to Ainscow et al. (2013), inclusive education requires a ‘principled approach to education’. According to Ainscow et al. (2013), this approach involves: The process of increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, the curricula, cultures and communities of local schools; Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of students in their locality; The presence, participation and achievement of all students vulnerable to exclusionary pressures, not only those with impairments or those who are categorized as ‘having special educational needs’. (p. 6) Ainscow and her colleagues assert that inclusion is a continuous process of responding to increasing diversity. Additionally, according to them, inclusion should also be concerned with identifying and removing barriers to learning through data analysis. For Ainscow et al. (2013), inclusion ensures “the presence, participation and achievement of all students,” and any group of students who may be at risk of being marginalized, excluded, or are underachieving (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006; Ainscow et al., 2013). Inclusion in International Schools Currently, there are relatively few existing inclusive international schools globally. According to the 2016 ISC Research and NFI survey results on inclusion in international schools, only 17% of the respondents claimed that they are open to all students, and most of the 19 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS schools in this particular group are government public schools and government overseas schools from the US, UK, Canada, and Australia. These schools are commonly mandated to be inclusive (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). Interestingly, ISC Research and NFI noted that the remaining schools in this group are mostly the for-profit schools. A reason for this observation might be that these schools recognize that the inclusion of SEN students is necessary for financial reasons (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). The majority of the currently existing international schools are independent organizations. Hence, this group of schools are rarely legislated to be inclusive (Forlin, 2012). As such, many of the international schools are selective based on students’ academic performance as they have the leeway to be exclusive in their policies and practices (Forlin, 2012; Hayden & Thompson, 2008; ISC 2017). In fact, exclusive international schools are perceived to be attractive for many families (Hayden & Thompson, 2008; Forlin, 2012). According to Hayden and Thompson (2008) and Forlin (2012), the reports of high overall student achievement results by some of these exclusive international schools are highly desirable for some families who would like their children to be educated in established and exclusive private schools. Consequently, inclusion is not expected to be a focus for many international schools (Forlin, 2012). Fundamentally, international schools are selective by nature. Established and accredited international schools that provide quality education exist to serve families who can pay high tuition for their children to attend. Exceptions could be the scholarship students, or those students whose parents’ employers pay for their education (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). The fees for international schools are usually more than an average family can afford (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). As a consequence, one could infer that only those students who are in the higher social 20 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS and/or economic brackets attend international schools. Regardless of who pays, the concept of inclusion in this particular context would differ slightly from what was found in the literature because international schools would only be servicing those families who can afford high tuition fees. Inclusive international schools. As cited in Chapter 6 of Powell and Kusuma-Powell’s book (2013), “Inclusive schools (NFI, 2013) are defined as: Schools that successfully serve a managed number of students representing the full range of learning differences: mild, moderate, and intensive needs, and the exceptionally able.” The NFI organization currently has over 100 international school members. As mentioned earlier, according to ISC Research and NFI (2016), 17% of the respondents reported that they are open to all students, mainly because they are mandated to be inclusive. Additionally, the survey also shows that approximately 50% of the participating schools accept a managed number of SEN students with mild and moderate needs, and only 9% declared that they accept students with intensive needs. Hence, based on NFI’s definition quoted above, one could infer that less than 10% of independent international schools (those not operating under legal mandates to be inclusive) across the globe can be considered as being inclusive. Within the global international school community, the NFI organization is well known for its mission to “promote and protect the interests of children who learn in different ways or at different rates” (“Our Mission,” n.d.). The NFI aims to fulfill its mission “by supporting schools in all aspects of their journey towards inclusion” (“Our Mission,” n.d.). NFI believes that: High quality education is a basic human right of all children. We need to redefine international education to be inclusive of students who learn differently or at different rates. Parents who travel overseas should not have to leave some of their children behind 21 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS or divide their families between schools. We are committed to a planned and carefully managed approach to including students who have special needs or may be exceptionally capable. The inclusion of children requiring learning support enhances the education of all children. (“Next Frontier Inclusion beliefs,” n.d.) There are also those who believe that families should be given the opportunity to choose whether they prefer an exclusive, or an inclusive international school for their children (Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009). Hence, both types of international schools co-existing in a single city providing options for families is reasonable (J. Urquhart, personal communication, September 15, 2017). NFI’s target is to have “an inclusive school in every city” (“Our Mission,” n.d.). This objective appears to support the idea of providing families with options for international schools that they can send their children, especially for those families whose children have intensive learning needs. Provisions for SEN in International Schools The existing literature found on inclusion in international schools is limited. The research suggests that inclusion in international schools mainly refers to Special Education, and is rarely related to other groups that may be vulnerable to exclusion. Similarly, the survey on inclusion in international schools conducted by ISC Research and NFI in 2016 appears to be mainly concerned with SEN students. Hence, the types of provisions described below are for SEN students in international schools. This is not to say that international schools do not provide services for other groups that may be experiencing learning difficulties due to reasons other than those related to learning differences or disabilities. According to the ISC Research and NFI (2016) definitions for SEN provisions, international school students who have mild learning disabilities are serviced in general classrooms with minimal accommodations. Moderately learning disabled students are regularly 22 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS serviced by a learning support specialist either in a push-in (collaborating with the regular classroom teacher) or a pull-out (student is supported in a separated small group class within the school) model, or a combination of the push-in and pull-out models, and the student may have an Individualized Education Program (IEP). For a student with a severe learning disability, often this means that the regular learning program is viewed as inappropriate, and it is, therefore, modified extensively. Sometimes a student with intensive needs could be an individual learning in a classroom separate from the regular classrooms for the entire time (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). The survey results show that the responding schools use different combinations of the pull-out and push-in models, or they only use either the complete pull-out or push-in model. There seems to be an inconsistency observed for how the international schools use of these models. ISC Research and NFI (2016) posit that perhaps there might be some confusion around the value of both models. Therefore, international schools continue to use both (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). In addition, the pull-out and push-in models described above appear to reflect the “identify-assess-diagnose and help” model described in Thomas’ article (2013). According to Thomas (2016), this method of student support could be inadequate to effectively serve a truly diverse student population. Challenges Assessment and placement. It is not uncommon to have students who may not have learning disabilities be placed in Special Education for the behavioral, social or emotional difficulties that they are experiencing (Florian et al., 2016). Such placement issues may be due to a lack of reliable methods to accurately assess students’ learning needs (Thomas, 2013). Similarly, in international schools, students experiencing difficulty for various reasons other than 23 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS disabilities are sometimes placed in Learning Support programs by default, which might not necessarily be the appropriate placement for them (Pelletier, Bartlett, Powell, & Kusuma-Powell, 2014). Compounding the issue further, educational psychologists are not always easily accessible for international schools, and many of the schools have to bring experts on campus to assess their students, and sometimes these experts have to be flown in from other countries (Pelletier, Bartlett, Powell, & Kusuma-Powell, 2014; J. Urquhart, personal communication, September 15, 2017). Consequently, for these schools, student assessments may rely greatly on the expertise of the Learning Support teachers hired. Unfortunately, the concern is that many of the Learning Support teachers hired may not necessarily be qualified to assess students for learning difficulties (Lane & Jones, 2016). Trained staff. According to the ISC Research and NFI survey results in 2016, only 33% of the respondents indicated that the teachers working with their SEN students are fully qualified Learning Specialists. Similarly, Lane and Jones’ (2016) study found that international schools do not necessarily have qualified specialists working with their SEN students. According to Bradley (2000) and ISC Research and NFI (2016), some of the factors for the lack of appropriately trained staff observed in international schools are as follow: 1) Some international schools claim that they cannot afford to hire qualified learning specialists due to financial reasons. 2) Some perceive that there is a lack of trained Learning Specialists teacher applicants in their hiring pools. 3) In many cases, some schools needed to fill a general classroom teacher’s timetable and they do so by assigning the teacher to work with SEN students. Regarding the last factor mentioned above, it would be rare for any international school to appoint an unqualified International Baccalaureate teacher (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). Under those circumstances, it 24 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS can be assumed that some of these schools may not necessarily understand or prioritize inclusive education. Cost. The implementation of inclusion in international schools continues to be viewed as being very costly, and it is often not feasible or sustainable for private institutions since their incomes normally come from student tuition (Bradley, 2000). According to Bradley (2000), the inclusion of SEN students is only sustainable if the school has less than 15% SEN students. Some international schools have special funds, run innovative budget models, or charge families of SEN children extra to afford a fully inclusive program (Pelletier, Bartlett, Powell, & Kusuma- Powell, 2014; J. Urquhart, personal communication, September 15, 2017). Transient faculty. The teachers and school heads/directors in international schools are often transient (Hayden & Thompson, 2013). Since leadership and school culture are key factors for successful implementations of school improvement initiatives, the issue of changing leadership every few years, or having a transient faculty can significantly impede an international school’s efforts to develop inclusive pedagogy and implement inclusive policies successfully. Undeniably, the process of building a common understanding, and developing a school’s capacity for inclusion requires time and expertise. Having to annually bring approximately 10- 30% of new faculty members up to speed on inclusive pedagogy can be a challenge for many international schools. Implications of International School Growth The number of international schools increased from 6574 in 2012 to 8653 in 2016 (ISC Research, 2017). The trend of rapid international school growth is expected to continue (ISC Research, 2017). According to the ISC Research (2017), by the year 2031, about 26210 international schools are predicted to exist to serve approximately 14.945 million students. One 25 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS of the major implications of the rapid increase in the number of international schools might be that some international schools, especially the newer ones, may experience difficulty in ‘filling seats’ in their schools. Consequently, the competition for students may have further implications on some schools’ admissions policies (Kusuma-Powell, 2018). In this regard, an increase in the range of student abilities and diversity in classrooms would most likely occur. Although the increase in diversity in classrooms is a positive outcome, international school students may not necessarily garner the benefits of having greater diversity of learners if schools are not appropriately resourced or have sound inclusive pedagogy. Under these circumstances, the argument to promote greater inclusive pedagogy in international schools for the future can be considered significant. Factors Influencing Policies and Practices on Inclusion Understanding the factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in schools may unlock some helpful information for future inclusive schools. The literature found on inclusion highlight numerous factors. However, I have chosen only to discuss several of the factors listed in the sections below as they may be more relevant for this study. Leadership. The commitment of school leaders to inclusion has been identified as one of the major factors in moving schools forward (Schleicher, 2014; Precey, Entrena & Jackson, 2013; Kugelmass & Ainscow, 2004; Ainscow, Dyson & Weiner, 2013). Giorcelli (2012) acknowledges that “leaders who engage with and promote high quality pedagogical practice in a culture of equity, social justice and inclusion, are more likely to create schools that are stimulating and motivating for all learners” (as cited in Beaten, 2015). Leadership plays a key role in creating and embedding culture in a group (Schein, 2010), and, therefore, a leader’s vision for a culture 26 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS and ethos of inclusion, collaboration, and reflective practice would directly impact school improvement efforts positively (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Ainscow et al., 2013). Culture and Ethos for Inclusion Culture can be defined as “the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). According to Ainscow (2005), Ainscow et al. (2006), and Ainscow and Sandill (2010), the ethos for inclusion is important for developing inclusive education. Additionally, a school’s culture also plays a significant role in ensuring the success of any implementations to affect positive change in organizations (Schein, 2010). Hence, successful implementation of inclusion in some schools are associated with a culture where practitioners are learners, reflective, and collaborative, as well as an existing ethos for inclusion (Tjernberg & Mattson, 2014; Zollers, Ramanathan & Yu, 1999). If the above conditions are not part of a school, then it would be necessary to shift the values, beliefs, perspectives, and/or perceptions of stakeholders around inclusion if a school desires to be more inclusive in their pedagogy (Tjernberg & Mattson, 2014; Zollers et al., 1999). According to Ainscow (2005), high leverage actions towards transforming a school culture are the subtle efforts that shift the perceptions and thoughts on inclusion of the whole school community. Since there is a considerable amount of confusion surrounding the concept of inclusion, it is difficult to define or articulate exactly what a culture and ethos of inclusion would look like. However, according to Tjernberg and Mattson (2014), inclusive school culture can be defined as a culture where all students feel “safe and secure, competent and valued.” This definition of an inclusive school culture may be somewhat broad for school leaders who may be interested in creating an inclusive school culture and ethos. Teacher Efficacy and Capacity 27 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Teachers directly impact the learning of their students, and thus it is essential for them to develop the efficacy and capacity to continuously respond to increasing diversity, and successfully meet the learning needs of all students in their classrooms (Ainscow et al, 2013). A study conducted by Tjernberg & Mattson (2014) on inclusion and school culture found that teachers who have theoretical foundation on inclusive pedagogy, and who are both responsive to diversity in the classrooms and reflective practitioners themselves made significant contributions to the learning of the students in their classrooms. Also, a deeper knowledge and understanding of how students learn, and skills in personalizing learning for students could further supported teachers to embed effective inclusive practices in their classrooms (Tjernberg & Mattson, 2014). Organizational learning is key in overcoming adaptive challenges to affect positive change in organizations (Powell & Kusuma-Powell, 2013; Clark & Estes, 2016). An approach that might be effective in fostering a learning culture is to have faculty members actively participate in collaborative inquiry focused on solving problems of practice within their schools (Ainscow, Dyson, Goldrick & West, 2016; Tjernberg & Mattson, 2014; Ainscow et al., 2013; Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Ainscow et al., 2004; Beaten, 2015). These inquiries can provide opportunities for teachers to further develop their awareness and capacity to meet the learning needs of a diverse classroom. Also, a deeper understanding of the learning needs of students with learning difficulties and inclusion can help develop the teachers’ efficacy and capacity to effectively remove barriers to learning and participation in the classrooms (Ainscow et al., 2016: Tjernberg & Mattson, 2014; Ainscow et al., 2006; Ainscow et al., 2013). Accountability As discussed earlier, policies and guidelines on inclusion since the early 90s have generated positive changes in schools, in both national and international systems. The driving 28 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS forces for the creation of inclusive policies and guidelines were the social justice and human rights movements (Florian, 2016; Thomas, 2013; Ainscow, 2005; Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). Such documents and educational acts are important because they provide guidelines and expectations for public schools to include students from diverse backgrounds and ability groups (Ainscow, 2005). However, it is also important to realize that policies and mandates can sometimes impede progress depending on how problems are defined, and what tools are used to monitor or measure progress (Ainscow, 2005; Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006). Many national systems such as the UK, US, Australia and some European countries are mandated to be inclusive. Unfortunately, this obligation may only mean that schools are required to have SEN and mainstream students educated in the same settings, and not necessarily ensuring that all students receive quality education (Ferguson, 2008). Due to these mandates, a much wider range of learning abilities in classrooms exists in public schools. Unfortunately, with the lack of clarity on implementation steps and insufficient support for teachers to develop skills in differentiation, a large number of issues that could have negative impacts student learning have surfaced in recent years (Ferguson, 2008). For example, the issue of teachers developing negative attitudes toward “difficult students,” and this could lead to a decrease in teacher efficacy to effectively meet the learning needs of all of their students (Ainscow & Cesar, 2006). On the contrary, the majority of international schools are not mandated to be inclusive in their admissions policies (Bradley, 2000). However, as reported in the 2016 ISC and NFI survey on inclusion in international schools, over 50% of the participating international schools are in fact non-selective. This means that such international schools are directly accountable to their clients to ensure that they provide quality education for all students. However, accrediting bodies such as the Council of International Schools (CoIS) and the New England Association of Schools 29 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS and Colleges (NEASC) can provide support for some international schools to ensure quality education through the accreditation processes. For instance, the CIS/NEAS accreditation process requires an international school to provide evidence that the school is effectively meeting the learning needs of the SEN students and English Language Learners (ELLs) through appropriate programs and policies. In addition, these organizations also advocate for diversity and inclusive pedagogy in schools (Bradley, 2000). Hence, the policies and practices of accredited international schools which are non-selective are often greatly influenced by the evaluations accrediting bodies. In fact, one of the six categories used by the CoIS and NEASC to evaluate schools is focused on supporting schools to ensure access to learning for all students. The standards within this category called Section E have the inclusive pedagogy embedded throughout. Benefits of Inclusion Ainscow (2005), Thomas (2013), and Florian et al. (2016) suggest that schools that are inclusive generally value diversity, equity and social justice. Moreover, the successful inclusive schools stimulate and motivate schools to further improve (Beaten, 2015). One of the perceived benefits of inclusion is the perception that inclusion promotes collaboration between classroom teachers and Learning Specialists, as well as between teams of teachers (Ainscow et al., 2013). The increase in teacher collaboration can have positive impacts on the learning of students, including those not necessarily identified as ALN students. Another benefit of inclusion is that the additional support and resources provided in the classrooms for ALN students can also be beneficial for other students (Ainscow et al., 2013). In addition, due to inclusion, all students would likely gain from having their teachers further 30 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS develop differentiation skills creating a learning environment where students can be appropriately challenged (Ainscow et al., 2013). Lastly, inclusive classrooms could provide greater opportunities for social learning for all students. These learning opportunities can help build positive communities within a school and an ethos for inclusion (Ainscow & Sandhill, 2010). Given that, inclusion promotes the transformation of a school environment into one where all students feel safe, a sense of belonging and nurtured despite their differences (Miles & Singal, 2010). Barriers for Inclusion “What remains troubling is that the rhetoric of inclusive education for students with disabilities is not matched by enough reality. After a decade or longer, the news is not good enough” (Ferguson, 2008). Identifying the barriers for inclusion, and finding ways to remove them is important in promoting greater inclusive practices in schools. Conceptual Confusion Surrounding Inclusion The literature suggests that the confusion surrounding the concept of inclusion is one of the major barriers for inclusion. The shifting conceptualization and various interpretations of inclusion may be impeding progress towards greater inclusion and inclusive practices in schools (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Ainscow, 2005; Thomas, 2013; Florian et al., 2016). Ainscow (2005) concluded that the confusion would cause a lack of clarity on how to implement practices and policies around inclusion. The lack of clarity along with insufficient support for teachers may have been the cause of the slow progress of inclusive education. Ainscow et al. (2013) proposed that schools should first clearly define inclusion for themselves and channel school development efforts based on shared understanding on the value and beliefs around inclusion. 31 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Existing Perceptions. With the lack of clarity on the meaning of inclusion and insufficient support in implementing inclusion, schools and teachers have experienced tremendous challenges. These experiences have caused negative attitudes and perceptions toward inclusion in schools (Ainscow et al., 2013). The existing perceptions that inclusion would impact school wide student performance negatively are common (Florian et al., 2016). However, Florian et al. (2016) argued that high levels of student achievement and high levels of inclusion are in fact compatible. Florian et al. (2016) propose that if the concept of achievement is broadened to include participation alongside academics to measure student success, then all student can experience success in schools. In fact, according to Gusky (2013), achievement should be defined based on the educational learning goals of organizations, which should also include participation (Ainscow et al., 2013; Florian et al., 2016). Inclusive education goes beyond minimizing “closure to learning” to focus on equity and responding to diversity in the classrooms by removing barriers to learning and participation (Ferguson, 2008; Thomas, 2013; Ainscow et al., 2013). Armstrong (2017), argues that there is a need to re-evaluate the “identify-assess-diagnose- help” (Thomas, 2013) approach that is common among schools. Armstrong’s (2017) recommendation is for schools to shift to a model of inclusion where the focus is on helping all students understand how to maximize their strengths, manage their weaknesses, and develop their identities. This is so the students can become more confident in their abilities to make important contributions to their communities. This shift in thinking and approach would require organizational learning and change in the values, identities and beliefs of teachers and learning specialists (Thomas, 2013). 32 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS A Lack of Evidence According to Lindsay (2007), the focus of studies on inclusion in the past had mostly been on social justice, and therefore there is a lack of evidence collected on the impacts on student learning due to inclusion. Additionally, since a child’s right to education is highly valued, as it should be, researchers tend not to publish findings of negative impacts on learning (Lindsay, 2007). Another reason for the lack of evidence is that there is an existence of various interpretations of inclusion, a wide range of the different types of learning difficulties, a large variety of support programs offered, and conflicts of measuring student success based on achievement alone (Florian et al., 2016; Lindsay, 2007). These facts made it very complex for researchers to understand the impacts of inclusion in schools, and minimize limitations for their studies (Florian et al., 2016; Lindsay, 2007). Findings from such studies may not necessarily apply to a wider or different context. This lack of student learning evidence has initiated efforts by educational researchers to articulate the differing definitions of inclusion and begin to redefine student success. Recently, researchers of inclusive education such as Florian, Black-Hawkins and Ainscow are focusing on defining inclusion and measuring student success. The intent is to develop better tools to evaluate impacts on student learning due to inclusion. Both Florian and Ainscow, and their colleagues are currently working on redefining student success to include participation as one of the measurement of student success. The hope is to develop a foundation for future research on inclusion. 33 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Summary There is still a considerable amount of confusion surrounding the concept of inclusion, and this confusion may be a major cause for the slow progress towards inclusion observed. Other barriers for inclusion such as the existing negative perception of inclusion and lack of evidence to support that inclusion can improve learning for all students have also impeded progress. This review of the literature highlighted five main ideas: 1. Leadership is central to the success of an inclusive school. 2. A culture and ethos for inclusion is necessary to advocate for inclusive education. 3. A common understanding of the value, purpose and definition of inclusion in international schools would provide clarity for action steps towards greater inclusion in schools. 4. Teacher efficacy, skills, knowledge and understandings directly impact the learning of all students. The factors identified above provided a helpful framework for this study. The aims of the present study are to better understand how inclusion in the international school context works, as well as to gain a better understanding of international school leaders’ perceptions on inclusion and influential factors for inclusive policies and practices. The following are the research questions used to guide this study. 1. How is inclusion defined in international schools? 2. How do international school leaders perceive the value of inclusion? 3. What are the perceived factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in international schools? 34 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS The answers to these research questions can shine some light on; how international schools define inclusion, factors that contributed to their success, and how schools can be more inclusive in their practices and admissions policies. Despite the fact that most of the studies on inclusion were conducted outside of the international school context, it is possible that the factors identified in this literature review may also have the same influence on international schools’ policies and practices. 35 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY This study is centered on a phenomenon observed in K-12 education, and the phenomenon is the confusion surrounding the concept of inclusion and its definition (Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006). Consequently, the progress towards inclusion in schools is slow (Ainscow et al., 2013; Thomas, 2010; Ainscow et al., 2006). Similarly, the lack of inclusive policies and practices in international schools observed may also be due to the existing confusion and differing views on the concept of inclusion. This study aims to gain a deeper understanding of the inclusion by, firstly, gaining insights on inclusive international school leaders views and understanding of inclusion in the international school context. Secondly, deepening our understanding of inclusive international schools’ perception of the value and purpose of inclusion. Thirdly, examining inclusive school leaders’ perceptions of the factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion. I chose to use a traditional qualitative research design because it is the most appropriate method to gain valuable insights and perceptions of participants (Creswell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdall, 2016). In this chapter, I will present the rationale for the sample selection process, background and context of the participants, instruments used, procedures, and strategies for data collection and analysis. According to Stake (2013), a multi-case study is most appropriate when there is interest in the individual cases. These cases are bound together in a category because of their similarities. Studying these individual cases as a group can provide opportunities to compare nuances around a program or phenomenon (Stake, 2013). In the case of this study, the multiple case study design is most appropriate in order to better understand the concept of inclusion in international schools. I used a semi-structured, one-to-one interview protocol to collect data from participants. Other sources of data collected for triangulation purposes were the information from 36 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS participating schools’ website and school documents such as policies, schoolwide strategic plans and guidelines for programs. I analyzed the collected data inductively to develop emergent themes, and interpreted the meaning of the data through the lens of a pragmatist (Creswell, 2013). Sample Selection Only successful inclusive international schools recommended by NFI were chosen for the sampling for this study, and these schools were also picked because of their various stages of implementing inclusion. The NFI organization works with many international schools and educational groups, and NFI currently has over 100 school members. Dr. Ochan Kusuma-Powell is the director for NFI, and she is also a well-received educational consultant, an author, and an educational researcher. Dr. Kusuma-Powell and Bill Powell’s published works are well known by the international school community. Currently, the NFI and ISC Research are collaborating to collect annual data on inclusion in international schools. NFI and ISC Research’s data on inclusion in international schools are probably the most reliable and valid set of data that exists. Therefore, it is assumed that the schools that were recommended by NFI for the sampling would fit the criteria of being schools that are successful in offering an inclusive education to international school students. Since not much is known about inclusive international schools, and even less is known about successful inclusive international schools, the most reliable method of sampling for this study is to have an organization like NFI, as well as experts on the field such as Dr. Kusuma-Powell and others, to recommend participants. Invitations to ten candidates for this study were sent, and four responded from three different inclusive international schools. School profile. All three participating schools offer a K-12 education program and the 37 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP). Furthermore, these schools are private, not-for-profit schools with no affiliation to any religious denomination, political party or interest group. These schools are considered as established medium to large international schools within the international school community. The first school is at the beginning of their implementation process, and it is already experiencing some success according to the participants. The second is in the middle of their journey towards greater inclusion. The third participating school is an established inclusive international school, and it has been for many years now according to the participant from school. Table 1 below shows the profile of the three participating schools. To avoid compromising the identities of the participating schools, pseudonyms will be used. The three pseudonyms are the International School of Europe (ISE), the International School of Africa (ISA), and the International School of East Asia (ISEA). Table 1 Profiles of Participating Schools School Region Size of Student Population Program Education Organization Progress Towards Inclusion ISE Europe Approx. 1400 IBDP Pre-K-12 Non-Profit Beginning ISA Africa Approx. 330 IBDP Pre-K-12 Non-Profit Midway ISEA Asia Approx. 600 IBDP Pre-K-12 Non-Profit Established Participants Invitations to participate in this study were sent out to ten school leaders from identified inclusive international schools. Four from three different international schools responded. There 38 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS are specifically three reasons why only school leaders were interviewed. Firstly, according to the review of the literature for this study, leadership for inclusion is one of the major factors in determining the success of inclusive schools. Their perceptions can provide valuable insights. Secondly, school leaders often have the widest scope of understanding and knowledge of a school, and since inclusion has an influence over the entire school and its community, it is appropriate to collect school leaders’ perceptions. Finally, focusing on only school leaders’ perceptions narrows the study further. Follow up studies using different lenses, for example student, teacher or parent perceptions and experiences could be conducted in the future. The participants interviewed are all senior leaders, and they are experienced in leading inclusive education. In addition, three of the participants are established educational consultants for inclusive international schools. Table 2 Profiles of Participants Partici pant Nationality Role Gender Years at the current school Past experience leading implementation of inclusion A American Director of Learning Support Female 2 yes B Belarusian School Director Male 3 no C American School Director Male 4 yes D American Director of Learner Support Female 8 yes Originally, I had intended to have two participants from each school, they would be the Director and the Director of Learning Support to be consistent. However, school leaders have incredibly busy schedules, and not all of the recommended participants who have accepted my invite could meet the timeframe I had to conduct the interviews. As a result, I was only able to 39 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS collect data from only one participant each from ISA and ISEA. Instruments I used an interview protocol specifically designed to answer the research questions for this study. In addition, I analyzed information on the schools’ websites and documents shared by the participants. The interview protocol consisted of four categories, with a total of 12 questions (see Appendix A). The categories were on defining inclusion, understanding the value of inclusion, identifying factors influencing policies and practices around inclusions, and determining the perceived barriers for inclusion. These categories align with the research questions for this study. Similarly, the protocol used to conduct the document analysis also reflects the identified research questions. Procedure The pseudonyms for the three participating schools are the International School in Europe (ISE), International School in Africa (ISA), and International School in East Asia (ISEA). For this multiple case study, the participating schools are appropriate because of their various stages in the implementation of inclusion. Although inclusion in these schools are still work in progress, they are however considered to be at the forefront of inclusive education within the international school community. Interview I used a standardized open-ended interview to guide the conversation, and an informal conversational interview to probe further into participants’ perceptions (Patton, 2005). This is to ensure that I can capture meaningful data for the identified categories of interest. According to Patton (2005), the combination of the conversational and interview guide approaches aid the 40 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS researcher to attain more data from participants, and allow for greater flexibility and individualization. The set of open-ended questions differed slightly based on the contexts of the participating schools and participants. While the categories remained unaltered, the types of questions had minor adaptations to match the context of each school. I created the open-ended interview questions based on the recommendations found in Chapter 7 of Patton’s (2005) book. Included in my interview protocol, were some opinion and value, knowledge, sensory, background, and distinguishing questions (Patton, 2005). In addition, I followed up on the participants answers to the questions with short paraphrases to validate, encourage and clarify perceptions shared before probing further, using a conversational interview approach. I conducted all of the interviews over Skype, and they were all approximately 45 minutes long. For each interview, I recorded the audio and personally transcribed the recordings. The Skype was the best option as a communication tool because it has been around for a long time, and the participants were familiar with the platform. Also, it was unnecessary, and also not feasible for me to fly to these schools to interview participants. My work schedule does not allow me the flexibility to be traveling to collect data in person. However, if I was conducting a case study that needed multiple participants from a single location only, and some fieldwork, then it would make sense for me to collect data in person. Hence, I feel justified to have used Skype as a way to conduct my interviews. Document Analysis Protocol I first read the website of all three schools separately, and collected data based on the study’s research questions. Using a spreadsheet to compile the collection of the data, I was able to easily analyze the data to help me gain a better understanding of what the schools want the 41 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS public to understand about their position, policies, practices and value for inclusion. I also collected data on schoolwide documents shared with me by the participants. Data Analysis I’ve used suggestions from Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) and Harding (2013) work. My methodology to analyze the data is shown below. 1. Listened to the recording of each interview and took notes on my initial thoughts and interpretations with the understanding that these notes are reactions that may be biased, or something that resonated and may be useful when I look for emerging themes. 2. Used a spreadsheet to breakdown the data from each interview into meaningful chunks for each school, and this allowed me to use available columns for codes, conceptual themes, categories and sub-categories. Also, I used one column to take data memo to record my thoughts as suggested by Harding (2013). 3. Collected data from documents and the schools’ websites and included them on a spreadsheet. 4. Completed the analysis of the first case before moving to the second, and then third. In the first case, ISE, I had two interview transcripts and information from their website. I completed the analysis simultaneously. 5. Read and re-read each interview transcript to ensure that I understood what was shared, and picked out any incorrect transcription that may have occurred. 6. Analyzed each interview transcript by first looking for “vivo words” as suggested by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) and coded them and inserted my codes in the appropriate column on the spreadsheet. Then, I conducted another round of analysis by grouping codes to identify themes that emerged each school before moving on to the 42 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS next. I looked for connections between the themes, and I wrote ‘data memos’ (Harding, 2013). 7. After finishing step 6, I moved on the next case, which was ISA. However, this time, I used codes that were already identified earlier, and added a couple of new ones. I repeated the same strategies mentioned in step 6. Steps 6 and 7 were repeated again for the final case, ISEA. 8. Organized the emerged themes to align with the research questions. The less significant or relevant themes were temporarily set aside. 9. Compared the themes from the four participants and three schools, and looked for connections, commonalities and differences. 10. Finally, I organized my findings around the research questions, and compared what was found for each school. 43 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS The slow progress towards inclusion in international schools, and the increase in the range of students with learning differences have made it important for international schools to work on being more inclusive in their practices and policies (NFI & ISC Research, 2017). Unfortunately, not much is known about the concept of inclusion in the international school context (ISC Research & NFI, 2016), and the confusion around the concept may be impeding the progress of inclusive international education. This study aims to gain a deeper understanding of inclusion in international by asking the following three research questions. 1. How is inclusion defined in international schools? 2. How do international school leaders perceive the value of inclusion? 3. What are the perceived factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in international schools? In short, this study intends to clarify the concept of inclusion, and to determine how the concept of inclusion may vary in different international school contexts. According to Ainscow, Dyson & Weiner (2013), the leadership for inclusion is a significant factor for the success of inclusive schools. Hence, this qualitative multiple case study of three inclusive international schools intentionally collected perception data from school leaders to help narrow the focus. The findings have the potential to contribute to the limited literature found on inclusion in international schools. The first research question aimed to explore howsome international schools define inclusion, and how school leaders view their definitions. The findings could help provide greater clarity for the international school community. The rationale for the second question was based on the fact that international schools are generally not mandated to be inclusive. Moreover, 44 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS inclusive learning programs are costly and not always feasible for schools that are solely funded by student tuition. Yet, interestingly, some international schools choose to be inclusive. Hence, gaining a deeper understanding of the views and thoughts of inclusive international school leaders on the value of inclusive education can help other school leaders make informed decisions around inclusive international school education. The findings based on the third research question could further support future or present inclusive school leaders in their journey towards greater inclusion at their schools. To give readers a deeper understanding of each school’s perspectives and practices around inclusion in their contexts, the findings are organized by schools. In addition, a summary of the findings is organized in a mind map format will also be included at the end of this chapter to help readers understand the commonalities found across the three participating internationals schools. International School in Europe (ISE) ISE is an inclusive international school in Europe, and it is a three-campus school with approximately 1400 students in total from Pre-Kindergarten through to 12. Participant A is currently the Director of Learning Support at ISE. She previously worked in another international school in Europe where she also contributed to the creation of an ethos and culture for inclusion. Prior to working in international schools, Participant A was a Learning Support Director in a large school district in the United States. Participant B is presently the director of ISE, and he is currently co-leading the implementation of inclusion at ISE alongside Participant A. Inclusion at ISE Defining inclusion. Participant A shared that the school is at the beginning of their 45 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS “journey” towards inclusion, and that there is a need for them to create a common understanding and language around the concept of inclusion. In her opinion, although she is starting to notice that members of her school community are “more comfortable talking about disabilities,” she thinks that they “still have such a long way to go.” When I asked Participant A if her school has a formal definition for inclusion, she explained that they are in the middle of the process of developing one. She went on to say that if she had to give a brief version of inclusion, it would be “the combination of the will to include students with disability in the school, having skilled and qualified teachers in place, and the resources to support the students' needs.” Participant A’s “thinking evolved over the years,” and “coming from the United States where inclusion meant every child in their home is schooled,” she now views inclusion as a commitment to ensuring that all students in the school are learning. Participant A elaborated that this definition means that, ideally the needs of these students are known and there are appropriate resources for learning for every student. In her opinion, it is not really ‘inclusion’ if a school only includes the SEN students in the general educational setting and does not provide appropriates services for them. Participant B also acknowledged that they are at the beginning of their journey towards inclusion, and he stated that: “it’s a philosophical notion people buy-in to.” According to him: “Although, we don't have testing or anything but, when it comes to students with various needs, we select based on whether or not we are able to provide services.” He sees inclusion in international schools as a “philosophical commitment to make sure” that the school provides “services to every child that” they accept. Below is a case he shared to explain his statement: For instance, we had that family who had a blind child that applied. And, we couldn't take her because we're simply not equipped for that. But for things we're equipped for, like 46 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS learning disabilities, various range or level of disabilities, we accept the kids. We accept gifted kids, we accept all kinds of spectrum. Participant B’s views on inclusion is similar to A’s in that it is a commitment to educating all of their students. He stated: We accept every child with the understanding that, should the child stay at the school through to graduation, there is a path for him or her to graduate. And, that's important. And, if you cannot see that path all the way through then we have conversations. We either establish the path or we don't accept. So, that's the short way of describing inclusion. To quote Participant A, “the real hallmark of inclusive school is that when we admit a student, we commit to that student to graduation. Not just to the next division.” However, when I asked Participant B if his school had a formal definition for inclusion, he responded by saying, “We don't. I think we have sort of a working definition. I wouldn't even say that it's a definition. I think it's an understanding. But I don't think we arrived to a definition of what that means.” ISE is currently working towards creating a common understanding around inclusion. According to him, I guess people understand what that means. And, somebody can explain to you, but anybody can explain this to you in maybe different words, and arriving to the same philosophy. But there isn't a common definition. This is something that we are actually working on. Because, if you ask our learning support people, they could clearly define what that means. But, if you asked a teacher, who perhaps is further removed from supporting the learning needs of identified students or not exposed to inclusion, they would not necessarily know. They would tell you ‘yes, we're an inclusive school, we 47 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS accept all learners, we differentiate’. But just general words, but not a specific definition. ...our goal is to get to that common understanding. We're just not there yet. Practices around inclusion at ISE. The language of the ISE mission guiding statements is inclusive, and its mission is stated from a student’s perspective. ISE’s mission is published on their website, and it states: “We all want to learn more. We all do it in different ways. We all have fun learning. We all help.” Although, the definition for inclusion was not found on their website, the beliefs for inclusion are embedded throughout their mission guiding statements (see Appendix C). The mission appears to ensure that all groups vulnerable to exclusion are included. Emphasizing on SEN. ISE’s inclusive policies and practices are mainly around SEN and implemented by the Learning Support department. Having said that, when I asked Participant B about other groups of students who might be vulnerable to exclusion, he responded by saying that services provided “goes beyond learning support.” He added: So, we have students in the school who are transgender, or some in various stages of the process. And for them, while the academic part is not an issue so they don't require learning support as such, but they require a lot of support in their social and emotional development, and inclusion in the traditional setting. Additionally, according to Participant B: “There are also students with physical disabilities. So, cognitively they are perfectly fine. But they have physical disabilities. Which they require very different kind of support.” However, because they “don't have any other systems other than learning support. These kids fall in the Learning Support department by default.” Participant B explained his statement by giving the following example. A child with physical disabilities, he or she might be assisted by a teaching assistant who has different roles than other teaching assistants, and the monitoring of these students fall under the Learning Support department. 48 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Participant B explained: “So, it’s not necessarily clean cut, but then that child is not on anybody's caseload.” He added, for other groups, they “have a pastoral vice principal, so he supports them as well. They don't go under learning support at all.” Collaborating in teams. According to Participant B, teachers and Learning Support specialist at ISE have to work “together collaboratively, and who does what changes from year to year based on the skill set of people and based on the kids that come in.” Furthermore, he highlighted that the flexibility in changing roles and responsibilities of the adults in the school is a practice needed to match identified student needs. So, we try to match up the students with the skillset of the teacher. Let’s say somebody working mainly with small groups, and then if we get a child who is severely dyslexic, then we will pull somebody who might be a dyslexia specialist to work with this kid. So, we kinda mix and match, and this actually works much better because everybody, including the Learning Support department, works as one team. And, they all know all the kids. So, the only differentiation is that we are a three-campus school, so then we have teams that are campus specific. They meet together quite often, and do a lot of work so they align philosophically. But, they work on their campus and they don't necessarily travel. They do change from campus to campus, again based on the need. Usually, that happens not on a daily basis, but either year to year or semester to semester. At a logical time where change could be possible. Not, just any old time. The level of collaboration and teamwork needed for inclusion have made it necessary for ISE to hire a Director of Learning Support to lead the teams of teachers and school toward inclusive education. Participant B statement below supports the argument above. He stated: So, it was really necessary to create this position. We see the result of it, that the Learning 49 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Support now has been maximized, the efficiency of it that is. And, services increased quite a bit. And, I would think maybe in another 3, 4 or 5 years, we would not need that position. Maybe will evolve to something else. But, for now, I think it's a critical role. That's what Participant A does, and she travels between all three campuses all the time. And, provides the philosophical connection. Making sure people understanding, and she organizes all the logistics of everyone working as a team. Committing to student learning. Participant B explained that in the past, they used to counsel some SEN students out of ISE because they were not expected to succeed in the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP). When kids get older, close to grade 10 or even 9, we would tell them that, you know what, you have some issues, so why don’t you go somewhere else because it's going to get tough and you won’t survive. While we did not do it explicitly, it was very implicit. So, we counsel kids out and that's why when the kids get into diploma program, we have sort of a near perfect student population with no issues, on the surface at least. Now, according to both participants from ISE, the school does not counsel students out anymore. Instead, they find alternate pathways creatively and collaboratively to ensure that all students can graduate from the school if they chose to stay. Both participants from ISE described that their “philosophical commitment” to their students changed the current admissions policy. The school is now more deliberate in assessing its student candidates and their families, to ensure that each student admitted have a pathway to success. Admissions. The admission requirements published on the school’s website shows that ISE is in fact selective. However, the requirements are not necessarily based on academics. Instead, they align with Participant A and Participant B’s eloborations of how they only 50 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS responsibly accept students that they can effectively support. For example, one of the terms and conditions stated on their website: 1. Admission to the School will be determined by the Director, with the advice of the academic staff, based on information obtained with respect to: a) the potential of the applicant to benefit from the educational program available; b) the capacity of the School to meet the educational needs of the student; c) the availability of places. When I asked Participant A if there are guidelines for the number of students with Additional Learning Needs (ALN) that they could admit, she mentioned approximately 10-15% SEN. Currently, 10% of their student population are SEN students, and of this 10%, 1% of them have intensive needs. SEN services provided for students can vary depending on their needs. Intensive needs students may require small group intervention (pull-out) classes to support them to eventually be fully included in the general learning program at the school. According to Participant A, services are dependent on the child, “typically about 60% integrated and 40% in the intensive need class.” She went on to say, “...the idea is that they are fully integrated into the school community. And then, learning some of their functional academics, adaptive social skills in their intensive needs class.” According to Participant B, “some of the students when they get older, they get integrated in most of the classes, and they would require very little pull-out.” Cost recovery model. According to both participants from ISE, the inclusion of SEN students does have additional costs that the school has to cover. Presently, ISE does not charge extra for Learning Support. As for SEN students with intensive needs, the school charges a flat fee on top of the regular tuition fee. However, Participant A shared that ISE is planning to 51 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS change their funding structure in the near future to a model that may be more sustainable. Also, for the additional student services needed that the school cannot provide, such as cognitive behavioral, occupational or speech therapies, families are required by the school to agree to pay for the required external services. Normally, a thorough assessment of a student applicant is conducted before enrollment. According to Participant A, “transparent and honest conversations with families” are essential. Families would need to know ahead of time, the necessary services and conditions for enrollment, and the families have to agree with the school’s recommendations and accept the conditions given. Below is Participant A’s elaboration of ISE’s cost-recovery model. He explained: For us, we don't charge anything additional for Learning Support. That is included in the regular tuition. For students with intensive needs, they have historically paid a flat fee of approximately 47,800 USD. But now we are changing that so that they will pay the tuition plus 21,200 USD. Because now in the secondary level, students cost more in terms of staffing because of the vocational aspect, the community access, and the modified functional academics. So, we are changing our funding structure starting next year. And, we don't have therapies currently, but we do some contracting and parents pay. Or, their companies or insurance pay for that right now. Perceived Value of Inclusion Making a difference. According to ISE’s guiding statements, inclusion means believing that all children can learn, and that they all learn differently. This belief advocates for the idea that every child deserves to learn no matter what their learning differences may be, and their progress or success might be different from others. Participant A stated: Last year I had a grade 1 teacher who was so concerned about a student who was 2 to 3 52 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS years below in development. ‘How is she going to get her to achieve the grade 1 standards’? And, when I said ‘you're not and that's okay’, sort of the light bulb went on for her. She was relieved and went on to create this amazing modified program within her class with the Learning Support teacher. It almost feels like once the pressure is off to get kids to a certain standard, the creativity just pours and the student is learning. For Participant A, inclusion supports personalized student learning. Throughout her interview, she shared unique successes of individual SEN students. Two other examples shared were: “A student with SEN joined MUN this year, and another student just this Saturday went with a counselor to a dog training school for kids with autism to find out about a work study.” According to Participant A, redefining student success and achievement, and focusing on students’ strengths to maximize learning can help them be better learners. This approach increases student efficacy and confidence, and Participant A is observing that, “students are advocating and understanding their profiles a little better.” Her claim is supported by an observation made personally during a visit to ISE when I attended the NFI conference hosted at the school. A high school student from ISE proudly shared his profile at my table group during our discussion around inclusion. The student also said that a big learning for him is to never “carry his dyslexia like a backpack.” He went on to describe his “gifts”, and what he has to offer his community. Inclusion has made a difference in this particular student’s life. His efficacy and confidence will continue to support him through the challenges that he may face due to his learning difference. Similarly, Participant B also shared several examples of student success. Below is an example shared by Participant B: I think one of the highlights of my day, or more so Participant A’s day, was this one kid 53 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS we worked with for some time, who was on a modified program and pull-out program in junior school. When we exited him, he was kicking and screaming because he had to re- adjust to being in the mainstream. That wasn't easy. So, he threw fits, and his parents felt like they were getting the short end of the stick, and that they were being discriminated, and the school was refusing services, and all of that. But some time went by, so this kid recently just told us ‘thank you’ for getting me out of the pull-out program. And yesterday, we had a performance, and he was in the choir! Again, he is on the autistic spectrum, but really has made much progress. For Participant A and Participant B, making a difference in the learning of a single student’s life is already well worth the effort in implementing inclusion at their school. In fact, according to Participant A, not only can inclusion improve the learning of individual SEN students, it can also positively impact everyone else in the community. Below is part of a statement from Participant A, which describes her thoughts on the value of inclusion. She shared: Changing the culture and creating this inclusive school environment, what I now believe is that inclusion is good for students with disabilities, and yet I think it's actually more powerful and transforming for everybody at school. Participant B perceives that inclusion is both “really good for the students, and for teachers.” He thinks that a teacher’s “ability to differentiate and to meet the kids where they are” is “critical for good teaching,” and inclusion of SEN in the general classrooms up-skills teachers. Furthermore, according to both Participant A and Participant B, inclusion requires teacher collaboration to succeed. Participant A stated: Again, we are at the beginning. Some of our practices are actually developing procedures, developing structures like a child study team where teachers can talk about children. That 54 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS was something that never happened here at the secondary level. Practices also include the learning support teacher being the primary advocate for students, collaborating and talking to teachers about what students need, and being that focal person According to Participant B: Everybody including the Learning Support department works as one team. And they all know all of the kids. So, the only differentiation is that we are a three-campus school and therefore we have a team on each campus. The teams meet together quite often, and do a lot of work so they align philosophically. So, instead of pulling teachers out and do a two-day workshop on this and that, we use LS teachers as coaches for other teachers. To the best we can. So, if you work in Learning Support, you have to be a psychologist, you have to be a counselor, you have to be everything! Mostly, working with other adults, not with the kids. Because you build this relationship with the teacher, they get comfortable with you and then you start to say, ‘okay let’s try to adjust your pedagogical practices’. ‘So, instead of doing this, let’s try to do that. What is your learning objective? Let’s see what other ways we can achieve that’. As shown in the quote above, teachers are perceived by Participant B to also be learning from one another through greater collaboration. With the combination of the greater collaboration and additional resources due to SEN programs, other students can benefit from these two situations (Ainscow et al., 2013). Ultimately, increased teacher collaboration could lead to deeper knowledge of individual students and improved differentiation skills. These gains can have positive impacts on the learning of other students. Generally speaking, the perceived value of inclusion is that it could positively impact the learning of individual students and teachers, and the community as a whole. 55 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Moral responsibility. Participant B sees the inclusion of students who have learning disabilities or differences as being committed to ensuring that they succeed as “ethical” decisions. According to him, counseling students out “wasn’t necessarily ethical” for him, “and it did not sit well” with him. However, he thinks being exclusive is acceptable “if you say that you are academically selective by definition.” He gave the following example. He stated: I worked in a school in India that was selective, and you would have to test to get in, and that’s fine. That was one approach, and at least you're open about it and say, ‘this is who we take and that you are either in or you're out’. But it's not okay if we say ‘we are going to take you’ but then we would just push you out the back door. Another previous practice viewed as unethical by ISE, according to Participant B, was the self- contained classroom of SEN students who were “babysat” but were not adequately educated. According to Participant B, ISE implemented a policy to support students in pull-out programs to eventually be included in the general classrooms. He stated: “And so, we changed all of that and we now have a clear entrance and exit criteria for the intensive needs pull-out program.” Participant B’s opinion is that the aim of the ISE intensive needs program, “with some adjustments and some help,” is to eventually fully include SEN students in mainstream classes. Participant B added that: “for most people, they initially went into this profession not to work with the top 2% of the kids, but more for educating a wide community of kids. And, that wide community would include various learners with various needs.” Likewise, Participant A shared that it is not acceptable for her that some of the SEN students in the school are excluded from the grade 11 and 12 years. She stated: So, we realized quickly that for the diploma program, 15% of our kids are sort of out of the game of learning. And, that’s not okay. So, we are in the process of developing 56 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS alternative pathways for students who are currently here that we know won’t do the diploma program. We are committed for them to graduate from our school, and so we have to figure out a pathway for that. As opposed to in the past, where they might have been encouraged to find a different educational setting. Both Participant A and Participant B view the commitment to educating all of their students as a ‘moral responsibility’, and do not believe that students should be counseled out of ISE just because the IB Diploma program was identified as inappropriate for the students. With the implementation of ‘inclusion’, ISE has stopped the practice of moving students out and the school is developing alternative pathways creatively and collaboratively. In fact, according to the ISE participants, some SEN students do take some of the IB courses but they are not required to complete the IBDP to graduate from ISE. Appreciation and acceptance of differences. A positive change due to the creation of a shared understanding around inclusion at ISE observed by Participant A was the fact that the school is “beginning to reduce the stigma of Learning Support.” According to her, there used to be “a real misperception that children with learning disabilities couldn't do the full diploma program, or they could not learn like other children.” Now, she sees that “teachers are learning that kids with disabilities are as smart as everyone else, and they just have a disorder in an area or a couple of areas that they need to accommodate.” The shift in perception can lead to a more compassionate learning environment for SEN students, where there is an appreciation and acceptance of the differences that exist in the school’s student population. Another perspective Participant A holds is that inclusion can foster greater compassion in future leaders. She stated: The dream is that the students we are sending out of our schools and someday will be 57 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS leaders, CEO of companies, and they are going to remember this experience and they are going to hire people with disability. And, they are going to know that what they can contribute to the company or an organization. According to Participant A, not only can inclusion make a difference in the lives of individual students, it can also foster greater compassion in a community as well as provide opportunities for social learning for all students. Below is a statement from Participant A that describes her thoughts and feelings on the value of inclusion. Participant A said: I think that the value is that people become kinder. I think that people have more empathy, a broader perspective of what learning means and what success means for different students. So, I think the mutual benefit is just so great, and it creates a kinder community. It feels like a shift in culture to where people are a little bit more understanding and kind, and wanting to include students in their classrooms appropriately. I think it feels also a little chaotic and some frustrations, but it also feels very supportive. Participant B also provided his thoughts on the value of inclusion. He stated: Personally, a huge benefit is to other kids. Because what we do, we replicate the world today. Our society is not homogeneous. I mean, your community, any work place, and there are all kinds of people. And, that the earlier our students realize that, and become open to all of that, accepting difference, the better. That is part of a general education. So, it's a two-way benefit. The kids who are receiving the services, they are gaining confidence. And that yes, there is place for them in the world and they can integrate. And, the school being a model of how they can integrate further on in their lives in the world. And, the kids who are not receiving learning support but having those kids in the 58 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS classrooms, they figure out how to accept them. They develop a huge amount of compassion and empathy. And, they help those kids, and I think hopefully when they grow up in life, they will continue that with all kinds of people. I think, that's part of what we will call global citizenship. Culture for inclusion. Participant A thinks that there has been a positive shift in their school culture due to inclusion. She shared: “Just in terms of developing a common language, putting structures and procedures in place. Really creating a venue where we talk about students, and that means increased collaboration.” According to Ainscow et al. (2013), a school that has an ethos for inclusion tends to be built on a foundation of a collaborative school culture. Both Participant A and Participant B described how collaboration was intentionally increased at ISE. According to them, in order for students’ learning needs to be met effectively, there needs to be an increase in collaboration between the Learning Support and classroom teachers, as well as a stronger partnership parents and the school. Below is a statement from Participant A that describes how the school is trying to develop practices and structures that would support greater teacher collaboration. Participant A stated: Some of our practices are actually developing procedures, developing structures like a child study team where teachers can talk about children. That was something that never happened here at the secondary level. Practices also include the learning support teacher being the primary advocate for students, collaborating and talking to teachers about what students need. Being that focal person that will make the programs running. As mentioned in the previous section, inclusion can foster greater compassion in individuals. Moreover, if the compassion is coupled with greater collaboration between the key stakeholders (parents, teachers and students), it could also lead to stronger relationships and trust 59 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS in a community (Ainscow et al., 2013). Under these conditions, it is likely that a stronger school community may result (Ainscow & Sandhill, 2010). Choice for families. According to Participant B, “There are some schools that are very exclusive here, and that's okay.” However, he also thinks that there should be an option for families who might not want to have their children in an exclusive school. On the other hand, an inclusive international school in town may be the only option for families with SEN children. Below is a quote from Participant B. He said: I think being in an international school… often you are the only option. Here, while there are a few options, but we are really the only option for kids who have any kind of learning needs. Because there are no other places around that would provide the services that we would provide. Local schools would, and it's actually free in everything else, but there is a language barrier. For Participation B, ISE’s mission to be inclusive is providing families with SEN children an option that seldom exists for expat families. This option could support families in their transition to a foreign country. Participant A goes on to say: “I think if we exist to support the expat population in the city and there are no other schools that could provide such services, we need to deliver and it's worth it. The gain is worth the expense.” Influential Factors Desire and will to be inclusive. One of the major factors influencing a school’s practices and policies around inclusion according to Participant A “is the belief in inclusion” or rather the “will” and “disposition” to be inclusive. Participant A claims that: “Wanting to be a school that has a population of students that you see in the general population. Not being an exclusive, academic driven school. So, it's really that desire to be, that intentionality to be inclusive.” 60 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Below is a statement from Participant A as an advice for schools that would like to be inclusive: Willingness to be inclusive, and then resources...part of that is just the creativity and open mindedness. I think that schools want to be inclusive but still think inside the box. Like.... ‘well we can't do this, and we can't do that’. But, I like it to be very creative and think about ‘gosh here is this student, what can we do? What is our capacity? What might work? Instead of right away saying ‘no’. The above quote highlights that successful implementation of inclusion in an international school depends not only on the desire to be inclusive, but also on the awareness of the school’s capacity and available resources. In addition, the school would use creative approaches to remove any barriers for inclusion. It’s common that inclusion brings a set of new challenges for international schools, and Participant B thinks that “buy-in is important.” And, “where there is a will, there’s a way usually.” According to him: “You have to understand that there is no easy solution. You kinda figure it out, because inclusion is a priority, and you figure out how to make it work.” Participant B also added: Of course, there is a huge cost factor that needs to be dealt with and figured out. How do you handle that, and whether or not you can support the cost, and to what degree? I think not every school would be able to have this pull-out program as we do. Hence for Participant B, inclusion is a “philosophical decision that the school needs to make.” Therefore, according to Participant B, if a school has the desire to be inclusive, they should prioritize funding on developing inclusive practices and programs and persevere to find solutions for challenges due to inclusion. 61 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Cost of inclusion. According to Participant A, financing inclusion in an international school is highly challenging. She stated: We are a private international school, and we just don't have these big funding sources. We're tuition based, and I think we have to define inclusion for ourselves based on our resources, and what we can do. Again, when I came here, this school was still working of that sort of US/UK based model of inclusion but without the resources, without the funding and without the qualified SEN teachers. So, for me that's not inclusion, the programs that were here were almost a dumping ground for students who didn’t fit in the regular class. So, I believe now inclusion is meeting the needs of students. Knowing the students and meeting their needs, and that includes resources. The running cost for effective inclusion programs in schools is significant. ISE recovers a small part of that cost by charging families of SEN students an additional fee to make inclusion feasible. In addition, the decision makers of the school have to prioritize their funding to focus on ensuring that all their students’ needs are met. Participant B explained: Luckily, we do have resources to put behind inclusive education. Probably our resources are not unlimited, and that we have to prioritize and inclusion became one of the priorities, and therefore we are putting some money into it. Which is again, a different Board would have said, ‘well there are plenty of other things we can invest in. But we're not, we're investing in this’. I think it's the belief and understanding of it, that’s the main driving factor. Leadership for inclusion. Participant B claims that a leader’s passion and belief for inclusion is instrumental in driving change towards greater inclusion in schools. He said: I think if you talk to leaders, the question I would ask of myself is: Why is inclusion 62 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS important, and how did I arrive to this belief? Why is inclusion something that I believe in? Who influenced me, or did I wake up one day, and said ‘okay this matters’ all of a sudden? Often, I think people go through this journey of self-reflection. Why does it matter? Let’s say, if you are the one that is the driving force, behind inclusion in your school, and you need to get people on board. It's helpful to look in the mirror, and say ‘how did you get to this place?’ ‘Where did this all started?’ So, when I have a conversation with other people, maybe I will start at the same place, where I once was. According to Participant B, leadership for inclusion is also a significant factor which influence practices and policies around inclusion. As described in Chapter 2 of this paper, leaders’ values, beliefs and passion have great influence on the building of their school’s culture and ethos. An ethos and culture for inclusion is essential for successful inclusive schools (Tjernberg & Mattson, 2014). For the successful implementation of inclusion at ISE, leadership at all levels, including the Board, would need to buy-in on the notion of being inclusive, and prioritize spending and school improvement efforts toward inclusive education (Participants A & B, 2017). To quote Participant B: “I think this is a decision that needs to be made. Not just by the school leadership but also strategically by the Board. They need to buy-in to that.” Participant B added: It starts with leadership, and by leadership I don't mean just me. I think it’s the entire leadership team, and they are completely on board with that. And for the Board, it's not even a question. In fact, when Participant A made a presentation to the Board about the journey and what our needs are, they all were very thankful, and said ‘of course, we are 100% behind it’. As shown above, leadership for inclusion can look different at various levels. At the 63 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Board level, it is about prioritizing funds and creating vision. For the senior leaders, it could mean a focus on creating the culture and ethos for inclusion through the implementation of the school’s vision and the development of a shared understanding and common language around inclusion. Equally important, a teacher leader who is a strong advocate for inclusion in the school can be highly influential with colleagues and leadership. Below is a quote from Participant B when I asked him what advice he would give if a school wanted to begin its journey towards greater inclusion. I would say, start with leadership, making sure that the leadership is on the same page. The process does not have to come from the top. But if you have a teacher who is a strong advocate who can convince the leadership that that is the way to go. And, then it goes from there. So, everybody needs to come to a philosophical understanding, acceptance and importance of the inclusion. And, from here on, everything is possible because inclusion becomes an objective. Keeping in mind that inclusion is rarely mandated for international schools, if a school is inclusive by choice, then the leadership is especially important in moving the school forward with an inclusion model as defined by the school. In short, according to Participant A and Participant B, leadership is a significant factor in creating a common understanding and language for inclusion. Shared understanding. A common understanding of the concept and language for inclusion is important to provide ISE the clarity on how to work together to fulfill their commitment to educating all of their students regardless of learning differences or profiles. For ISE, according to Participant B, the “goal is to get to that shared understanding” and common language for inclusion in the very near future. However, Participant A thinks that they have “still 64 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS a long way to go.” The school adopted their new mission last spring for the purpose of creating that common understanding, and now they are working on their definition for inclusion and aligning their admission practices and policies with their mission statement. Participant B explained: Changing the mindset of people, that’s difficult. And, especially when people tell you, ‘of course I am on board, I am a teacher and I am in this profession to help kids’. nBut when the push comes to shove, ‘well you say you're on board but you don't really show it. So, let’s connect the two somehow’, and that's not easy. I think developing a common belief and a common understanding starting from leadership, that is the key for success. And then, making it a priority along with many other priorities, then it works. In fact, shared understanding on the meaning of inclusive education is perceived by both participants from ISE as a way to change practices and mindset of members of the community at ISE. According to Participant A, the current effort to create a common language and understanding is already resulting in students advocating for their profiles better. In addition, teachers are more understanding and flexible with the academic expectations for identified students. Also, Learning Support teachers’ roles and responsibilities have changed to give them higher status in the school. Participant A also perceives a shift in how teachers talk about students. An example she gave was: This is really interesting to me. When I first came here, we were a school that wouldn't use the word disability. There was a huge discomfort in that term. Now, it sounds like we are able to more comfortably talk about disabilities. And move past that to what students can do. This finding matches with what was revealed in the literature review conducted for this 65 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS study regarding a common understanding of what inclusion means for individual school’s context as well as clarity on action steps and expectations for its community. Teacher capacity. The competency and efficacy of teachers to effectively differentiate in an inclusive classroom are major factors which can influence a school’s practices around inclusion. Philosophically, most educators believe in and value the inclusion of SEN students in the general classrooms. However, many struggle with the reality of an inclusive classroom mainly because they lack the knowledge, skills and understanding to effectively differentiate for a wide range of student needs. Participant B pointed out: So, there is the need to work collaboratively, and up-skilling everybody is a challenge. For some people, it's not challenging at all, but for some people it is. Again, interestingly enough it's not the challenge in the philosophical level, it's the challenge when it comes to practice. ‘So, why are we really doing this? That's why I am giving a different worksheet to them and do this’. It's just this worksheet with three less problems... so not really knowing how to differentiate for students who need it. However, Sharma, Loreman and Forlin’s (2011) study found that it is essential for teachers to develop efficacy inclusive instruction, collaboration, as well as dealing with disruptive behavior if they are to be successful in meeting the learning needs of all of their students. Sharma et al. (2011) summarized that high teacher efficacy may be “key ingredient to create inclusive classroom environments,” and teacher efficacy can help change teachers’ attitudes or mindset towards the inclusion of SEN students in general classrooms. Unfortunately, sending teachers to workshops or conferences on inclusion may not necessarily produce the desired results. Also, it may not be feasible when there are other competing needs at the school. Participant B explained: With the teacher capacity, that's more difficult. Again, there is never have enough time, 66 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS and there is always a priority. What is it for teacher training? Do, they go on a new IB course, or do we give them differentiation training. So, it's difficult. So, instead of pulling teachers out and do a two-day workshop on this and that, we use Learning Support teachers as coaches for other teachers, to the best we can. So, if you work in Learning Support, you have to be a psychologist, you have to be a counsellor, you have to be everything! Mostly, working with other adults, not with the kids. Because, you build this relationship with the teacher. They get comfortable with you and then you start to say: Okay let’s try to adjust your pedagogical practices. So, instead of doing this, let’s try to do that. What is your learning objective? Let’s see what other ways we can achieve that? However, that’s much easier said than done, because it's a long, long process. People are different, and we are all diverse. So, people come on board different speed, pace, and some never do. The opinion that Learning Support teachers would need to shift their identities from being the support teachers for SEN students to becoming a coach to teachers of inclusive classroom is evidenced in Participant A’s statement below. And I think, you know a big piece has really been empowering our Learning Support teachers to be experts in their field, and make sure that they have the same rights and all the responsibilities that all of our classroom teachers have here. And, and I am really pushing them to talk teachers and make sure student programs are happening and implemented. It helps to increase their responsibilities in terms of managing programs for students so that teachers begin to understand what it means to be a Learning Support teacher in terms of modifying curriculum, writing IEPs, and interfacing with the teams of 67 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS teachers. Our teachers worked very hard. According to Participant B, it was necessary to create Participant A’s position (Director of Learning Support), especially as they begin their journey towards inclusion. According to Participant B, Participant A’s role is central in implementing the school’s objectives and decisions around inclusion, developing teacher efficacy for inclusive education, and creating a shared understanding and language for inclusion. Participant B stated: “... she travels between all three campuses all the time and provides philosophical connection. Making sure that people are understanding, and she organizes all the logistics of everyone working as a team.” Participant B stated: “I try to remind myself that I should be a realist and know that things take time. And, that what takes the longest is changing people's mindset. Once that happens, then things go quickly.” Existing thinking and perceptions. The existing thinking and perceptions around inclusion are factors that can influence policies and practices. According to Participant B, “it’s not in every culture that the inclusion of SEN students is accepted.” He added: “In fact, it comes from parents and not from the kids.” He also said that ome parents actually say “well no, we don’t want my kids to be with those kids.” In Participant B’s opinion, “in their minds, the teaching quality somehow is getting diluted if you have diverse learners in the classrooms. So, this mentality can be a huge barrier.” International schools are often private institutions, and they are usually funded by student tuition. In fact, the existing misperceptions and poor attitudes towards inclusive schools can negatively impact a school’s enrollment. Having a shared understanding and language for inclusion is helpful in supporting senior leaders at the school to manage conflicts that may arise from families not understanding or appreciating ISE’s commitment to inclusion. Participant B explained: “If there is a parent who is complaining and goes to principals or campus leadership, it helps if everybody is on the same 68 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS page.” Participant B thinks that “having a united front and telling the same story is really helpful, and everybody knows what to say.” He hopes that eventually all parents will come to a common understanding around inclusion at ISE, and “it’s a team effort” to re-educate them. According to Participant B, the Board is supportive because they are on the “same page,” and approves the decisions made by leadership to manage such conflicts. Transient population. The task of creating a common understanding and a culture and ethos for inclusion is challenged by a community that is transient. According to both participants, teachers, students and parents “cycle in and out,” as stated by Participant B, and he added “You educate some but then new people come in and you have to educate all over again. So, that's a constant battle, fighting mindsets…” Hence, helpful practices such as “hiring the right staff to implement inclusion,” strategies to support the continuity of inclusive practices and understanding through team collaboration, and re-education for the ISE community are necessary to overcome the challenges of having a transient population. International School in Africa (ISA) Participant C is currently the director for an inclusive international school in Africa. Previously, he was the middle school principal in a large Pre-K-12 international school in Southeast Asia where he also played a key role in implementing inclusion and building an inclusive school culture. Presently at ISA, Participant C is leading the implementation of inclusion. According to him, the school is in the middle of their journey. Participant C’s opinion is that inclusion is a never-ending journey because it is continuous school improvement work schools do to improve learning. Inclusion at ISA Defining inclusion. Participant C shared that they are currently trying to create a concise 69 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS version of their definition for inclusion at ISA. He explained: “… we developed an approach here, a set of learning support guidelines. We actually have a description on what our services are. We talk about levels of support, and what we have.” However, after the learning support audit conducted by an external consultant recently, it was found that ISA needed a more concise definition for inclusion. According to Participant C, the school’s “definition was too long. It's like a two-page overview of what learning support is.” Participant C added: “... we have written a draft of what our definition is, and it would be included in the Learning Support guidelines document.” Participant C described his understanding of their draft. So, what we were developing was just a simple definition, … meeting all students needs in a diverse learning environment’. And so, in terms of their needs, may it being learning needs in terms of learning disability or learning challenges, but being specific about managed numbers. And, that we're not just an open inclusive, taking anyone in type of thing, but we are assessing what our resources are and meeting our students’ needs. ISA’s draft definition for inclusion is very similar to ISE’s as it also has an emphasis on the inclusion of SEN students that the school can effectively support, educate and commit to until they graduate. Therefore, the school is selective based on its capacity and availability of external and internal resources to effectively meet the learning needs of all of their students. In reviewing the information on the Learning Support handbook shared by Participant C, the services and provisions available at ISA are designed to meet the learning needs of students with learning differences. However, a concise definition for inclusion could not be found in the handbook (see Appendix D). Instead, a set of beliefs, values and guiding principles on inclusion were articulated. In addition, the handbook includes the definitions for the types of learning differences and levels of need and the appropriate services for them, and expectations for 70 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS parents, faculty and leadership on how SEN are serviced collaboratively (see Appendices C, E & F). Participant C claims: “...at the core, having that definition of inclusion embedded” within the document helped create a common understanding of what inclusion is at ISA. On the ISA’s website, the school’s mission for excellence stated that the school “provides dynamic and individualized educational challenges and opportunities that promote diversity and empower each of its students to develop into independent global community leaders.” As cited above, inclusive language is embedded in their mission. The Teaching and Learning section published highlights that the school believes that “various students learn differently and that every student admitted can succeed.” In addition, the essential element in teaching for them is “the need for every teacher to know her/his students well, to understand how each student learns, and to build skills and knowledge based on the strengths of every student.” Although ISA does not have a formal definition for inclusion, it has however clearly articulated how teachers are to meet the learning needs of all of their students in the school. Practices around inclusion at ISA. For ISA, there is a clear expectation for the adults in the school to work together to ensure that the learning needs of all of their students are met. Below, is a statement extracted from ISA’s Learning Support handbook. Our focus on student learning occurs through a collaborative approach. A preschool - grade 12 school on one school campus, provides a fertile environment for teachers to share best practices, and support one another to meet students’ learning needs. The isolation of external resources, given our geographic location, further lends to a community of trust and sharing amongst our faculty. Furthermore, ISA’s guiding principles for Learning Support found in their handbook states that: ● Individualized plans are created to teach content and skills through students’ strengths 71 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS ● Differentiated instruction provides equal access to the curriculum for all learners ● Diversity is one of our greatest assets and descriptive characteristics ● Parents are our partners in education and help serve students’ plans in and out of the classroom ● Collaborative planning to support student learning across curriculum and overcome weaknesses Levels of support for SEN. According to Participant C, there are three tiers of support offered for students with additional learning needs. “Tier 1 level of support uses the responsive intervention model. Tier 2 level of support is when there is a diagnosis and we’re developing an IEP. Level 3, more intensive needs.” In the Learning Support handbook, the three tiers correspond to mild, moderate and intensive needs (see Appendix C for details on support/provisions for each level). In addition, the roles and responsibilities for the Student Services Team (Director, ES principal, MS/HS principal, Counsellor, and the LS and EAL specialists), LS specialists, Shadow and Differentiating teachers (classroom teachers) are all clearly outlined (see Appendix E). For the Differentiating teachers, the development continuum published by Pelletier, Powell, Kusuma-Powell, and Bartlett (2014) is included in the Learning Support handbook to further clarify success criteria for ISA teachers (see Appendix F). Participant C explained: So, for Tier 3 students, we may not be able to them accept here. We have two students that are classified under that, but having the definitions were crucial for people to understand: ‘okay, my child meets this criterion, and this is the support that they are going to receive. And, this is what I need to do, and this is what the school is doing’. So, having that common language, definitely clears up any misunderstandings. Also, when 72 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS we talk about inclusive school, we have something to refer back to, and not have that grey area. Participant C holds the opinion that having a common language, framework and definitions for inclusion at ISA are all critical for the creation of a shared understanding. This understanding can increase teacher collaboration and build partnerships with parents. Admissions. As a consequence of ISA’s unique context, it is selective based on its capacity to effectively support student applicants. The Learning Support handbook provides clarity for the selection process. In some cases, parents are required to agree to pay for additional services before students are offered a place. Having the set of guidelines in the Learning Support handbook allows the school to effectively communicate with families. Due to the past admissions process, ISA are now facing some issues and it has to support some families to find more appropriate educational settings for their children. For example, Participant C talked about a case where a child was accepted to the school before Participant C started working there, and later found that ISA was not properly equipped to meet the needs of the child. It is a degenerative disorder through which you can lose your body movement and speech if you are not being resourced properly. And here, in K city we don't have access to English speaking medical care, speech and language therapy, and OT. And so you know, I had to end up being realistic with the parents, they brought her here thinking there is a school here for their daughter! Which was a complete disservice to their child. So, we kept her until the end of the year, because technically we had to. But really, help the family to find a new home. Cost recovery model. Since the inclusion of SEN students does costs more for schools, Participant C explained that ISA charges an additional fee for support services not included in 73 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS the general learning program. He stated: I have to be able to bring in the resources we needed, we have to charge a fee for the Learning Support and EAL programs. And, we’ve actually been creative here in that we found an online speech and language therapist who works with our Learning Support teacher, and able to provide that service every week to a group of five students. And, Learning Support teachers follow through on the services. We have been creative in our context here to meet the needs of students that we can. And ideally, we love to not charge more, but the reality is... we have to. The admissions process at ISA screens student applicants carefully to ensure that the school can succeed with every child they accept. Emphasizing on SEN. Although ISA places greater emphasis on supporting students with SEN, the school does have similar support for other groups vulnerable to exclusion. Participant C explained: For the ELLs, while some of the support mechanisms are the same, where we do a lot of collaboration and included in the SST team meetings, the needs for EAL however are different than the learning support child. So, they are treated very differently, in terms of the types of the support were given. However, having said that, we talk about how all teachers are English language teacher, and again, it is about everyone supporting, not just the EAL teachers, but the classroom teachers supporting. And to some degree, the learning support teacher supporting as well, depending on the needs of the child and where the challenges are. But... English language learning is as you know, they are learning and developing the language, and then moving forward and moving on. Whereas often the learning challenges and difficulties are not necessarily about overcoming them, 74 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS but instead to work with and manage the difficulties, and those strategies are ongoing. Participant C is aware that learning differences are not conditions that one can just easily “fix.” Instead, the support needs to be ongoing mainly because a learning difference is part of who a student is as a person, and remains as a difference for the rest of his or her life. Committing to student learning. Participant C feels that ISA has made great strides in improving their learning support for students. He is happy with ISA’s progress towards inclusion thus far. According to him, when he first arrived, there were “very few policies and things in place.” Having said that, he also said that it was great to have a “clean slate” to start. Previously, Participant C claims that there were confusions around the admissions process for SEN students. Some of the students admitted were not thoroughly screened for their learning needs. As a result, ISA now has several challenging issues, and it is trying to resolve them. To avoid similar issues, Participant C implement many changes to the ISA’s admissions policy. He stated: I think having the services in place now has cleaned up a lot. So now, we have a proper admission policy, practices and guidelines where we have none before, and they are now in our board policy manual. So, the board is clear on what it means when we are talking about our admissions, and our learning support and inclusion. And, why we are having more resources in terms of learning support and inclusion. The ISA service delivery models can also be found in the Learning Support handbook, and they range from “most restrictive to least restrictive” to provide individualized levels of learning for students. Table 3 below is an image of a chart found in the ISA Learning Support handbook describing practices in each model. The definitions and expectations for those involved in each model are also clearly outlined in the Learning Support handbook. 75 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Table 3 ISA Continuum of Service Delivery Models (“Learning Support at ISA,” 2016) Perceived Value of Inclusion Making a difference. Participant C began the interview by telling his story on how his passion for inclusion began. The story was about his experience with a student when he first started teaching. She was a little girl who is missing a chromosome. When she started grade 4, she was not walking, and her speech was limited to one-word expressions. I had a full time assistant, and as the years went on, she was blossoming, and growing confidence. There was one day, she just started to walk for the first time in her life, and all on her own. So, we sent her to the office to take the attendance. So, all these changes kept happening. She started talking more, and so on… And so, I reflected. Why all this growth happening? I was a new teacher, teaching her three years, and I was doing what came naturally to me, which was including her in the classroom. Anytime we had a class discussion, she would raise her hand, and I would ask her what was the letter on the board, or something that she could grab on to or do. And, she would participate that way and worked in small groups. I also worked with her one on one while the teacher assistant was teaching the whole class. 76 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS So, different things like that to include her. So, one day we had a parent meeting, and during the meeting, the parents started to cry, and thanked me so much for all I was doing. Their child has grown so much, and she is doing all these things now. And I just said: ‘Well, I don't know what I am doing differently than the last teacher. I am doing what any normal teacher would be doing’. The teacher assistant said: ‘No, in the past, we would be at the back of the class, and we were not included. No one talked to us’, and so you know, she went on and on… So, I had that moment of like, ‘really, people don't do this normally? Treat everyone like human being’? So that's the born of this interest and passion of understanding more about inclusion. And I wasn't trained in Special Education, nothing like that. For Participant C, he saw a child learn and grew because of inclusion. That one case was enough to make it important for him to continue his work advocating for the inclusion of SEN students, as well as leading inclusion in international schools. Participant C mentioned some changes he saw due to inclusion at his current school: “Program and co-curriculum development has been a lot more meaningful, not just for students who have learning needs, but also for all other students.” Furthermore, additional resources or services implemented due to the inclusion of students with additional needs are also benefiting other students who might need the services but may not have an IEP. For example, according to Participant C, the reading program that was originally developed as an intervention for SEN is now also available to any student who might be reading below grade level. In short, Participant C claims that inclusion can impact the learning of other students positively due to increased resources and “stronger practices.” Inclusion is important because it improves learning for everyone, including the teachers 77 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS at ISA. Participant C explained that at ISA: “There is professional learning in place and teachers are growing as inclusive educators.” According to him, there are “few good examples of co- teaching” and that’s “something ongoing and developing” at the school. Participant C perceives that they “have a much stronger professional culture and people are engaged in what they’re doing” due to stronger practices on the use of MAP growth data, development of units of study, and design of learning programs. So, inclusion has positive impacts on teacher learning as well. Culture for inclusion. According to Participant C, inclusive schools have a culture that is welcoming and every student is treated equally. According to him, fortunately, ISA already has that welcoming culture. In the ISA Learning Support handbook, the following statement can be found. “Understanding and embracing students’ learning differences, we firmly believe that all of our students can learn and be successful here at ISA.” This belief is important because it promotes an inclusive community at the school. According to Participant C, while the school has “increased the number of children taken in, it certainly hasn't changed the culture... it’s already here.” However, he claimed to have seen a positive change in the professional culture. Like now when I go to Student Talks meetings, for example in high school, they are now constructive. They are not just talking about all the deficiencies of the child, instead they are talking about what do we do to meet the child's needs. Participant C shared that meetings are more productive and the professional culture now is collaborative and positive. In addition, he also perceives that “the supports they are putting in place for students, thinking outside the box, and not giving up easily” despite limited resources in the country are making a difference. The culture has shifted to be much more proactive. Now that we know what the 78 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS expectation is here, we want all of our students to try the IB diploma program. But if they are not going to be successful, then we’ve got alternate plans. And so, the teachers take the pressure off themselves, and understand that we're all in this together to support the student. For ISA, inclusion brought about greater compassion, understanding and teacher collaboration within the school. Participant C used to hear: “oh it’s Africa, we cannot do this. Or, it's K city, you can’t do this type of thing here.” Now, it is “how can we do it here?” For example, he said: “we found a very solid therapist online, someone who is willing to do it online, from the US and it worked!” However, Participant C stated that there needs to be a “Learning Support teacher on this end to bring it all together,” and this success was “transformational” for them. Lastly, Participant C claims that there is a change in teachers’ attitudes, from “‘we can't do’ speech and language to now, ‘we can’.” The school is working more with parents and external experts due to the implementation of inclusion. Participant C mentioned: Parents are also doing more intensive intervention with their kids. Now, we are bringing more people in to do intense Ed Psych testing where they come for three weeks, test some children and then go, because we don't have anyone here to do that. We're also putting it on the parents to go to South Africa or Europe to get testing done. Not only is teacher collaboration increased due to inclusion, but also partnerships with families and external experts to help support students are stronger. The strengthening of these relationships is important to ensure the success of inclusion at ISA. Participant C shared: So, we don't just hire learning support teacher and say, ‘now we are inclusive because we have a learning support teacher’. All of our teachers need to be working towards 79 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS supporting that child. Parents need to be working towards supporting that child. So, developing that common understanding is important. Moral responsibility. Participant C views the inclusion of students with SEN as a moral responsibility. This was evident when he told the story of how his passion for inclusion all began. His said: “So, I had that moment of like, really, people don't do this normally? Treat everyone like human being?” This quote shows how he was surprised as a young teacher back then that including students with SEN in the general classroom is not a natural thing to do. Participant C shared a related experience in his previous school in Asia: The elementary school there was exiting kids from the ES program and kids moving into middle school because the middle school cannot handle these students’ needs. And, we were also not accepting many kids, and we would be getting these files and we can't keep them. And so, I was wondering why are we doing this? Why can't we meet these children's needs? And, some of the kids are in grade 5, middle school leadership would exit was just ridiculous! For something like, they needed some additional reading supports. So, I became passionate there, and worked really hard together with our Director to change the culture there. Did some training myself, got affiliated with Next Frontier Inclusion organization, with Bill and Ochan Powell, Kristen and Kevin. And, so really learned a lot and changed the culture at the school. We got a lot more resources in place, and we did a lot more trainings. And, we as leaders, spoke about the importance of inclusion. Participant C is passionate about inclusion of students with SEN in international schools. He is now a consultant international schools interested in inclusive education, and he also conducts Learning Support audits for international schools. According to Participant C, “inclusion is not a 80 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS new initiative,” and “it’s not something we have to do” for school improvement. “Inclusion should be the culture we have, and support.” For Participant C, he believes that inclusion is the “right thing” to do because it makes for better schools. Influential Factors Leadership for inclusion. Participant C was instrumental in initiating and leading the implementation of inclusive practices at ISA. He described: When I arrived we only had one learning support teacher, which was 0.25% for the whole school. This was very concerning to me, and there were students that had been accepted that shouldn't have been accepted with that level of resources we had. These students have been exited because we couldn't service their needs. So, there was no proper admission processes, and nothing in place… According to Participant C, the school had an open admissions policy before he joined, but it was lacking appropriate resources and programs to support SEN students. In his opinion, some of the students were “babysat” until they had to be exited from the school when they entered the middle or high school. This practice was unacceptable for him, and he worked with his team to create inclusive pedagogical approaches and support programs. He stated: So, when I came in, I worked on a lot of changes. So now, we have two Learning Support teachers, two EAL teachers, and two counselors. And, we have admission processes and things like that so we do not get into a situation where for example, previously the school had accepted a child into kindergarten, but there was no paperwork on her whatsoever. We are clear with the community about our policies and practices around inclusion, and also challenging what that means in terms of, we can say... ‘we are inclusive’, which is number one, but everyone plays a part in that. So, we don't just hire 81 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Learning Support teacher and say now we are inclusive because we have a Learning Support teacher. All of our teachers need to be working towards supporting that child. Parents need to be working towards supporting their child. Participant C claimed that he and his team implemented the approaches with the intention to not only improve the learning for the SEN students, but also for every student in the school. According to Participant C, “spearheading” the collaboration to create the guiding statements and guidelines for inclusion at ISA was a big task, and his leadership was essential. He stated: I think, really having someone spearheading a project like that is huge, may it be policy development or guideline development. Again, making sure there is someone in this context, in our small school that was me. Previously in Asia, it was myself, as the principal, and one of our Learning Support program leader, and then it took hold for the whole school. And so, having someone spearheading some of these things is important. Otherwise, you will be just talk and nothing happens. Participant C’s advice to those who might be interested in implementing inclusion is to “be very clear on why they’re are doing it, and making sure that everyone supports it. If they do not do it properly, or just pay lip service, it affects the students.” He also added: “It is spending the time making sure people understand, and having a common definition does help. Do people understand what it means? And, developing those pieces.” Participant C led his team to develop “those pieces,” such as the guidelines, common language, definitions and expectations for roles, responsibilities and services for inclusion at ISA. According to Participant C, during his first year he “presented research to the board, as in these are our students and their profiles” and advocated for more funding for resources to meet 82 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS the needs identified. He explained: So, I think having the services in place now has cleaned up a lot. Now we have proper admission policies, practice and guidelines, where we have none before. And, they are now in our board policy manual, so the board is clear on what it means when we are talking about our admissions, and our Learning Support and inclusion, and why we are having more resources in terms of Learning Support and inclusion. At the board level, Participant C helped the members understand the value and needs of an inclusive education to gain the buy-in from them, and to help ensure the alignment between the practices and board policies around inclusion at the school. Shared understanding. Participant C holds the opinion that one of the significant factors influencing practices and policies around inclusion at ISA is the shared understanding around inclusion. He explained: “Okay, I think from the beginning, it is that common understanding of the definitions and practices” around inclusion. According to Participant C, the process of developing and documenting the guidelines in their Learning Support handbook helped with the creation of a common language and shared understanding at ISA. He thinks that the shared understanding and language are both important in guiding and supporting decisions around school practices and policies related to inclusion. Participant C further explained that, although ISA currently has two students in Level 3 (intensive needs), the school may not necessarily be able to accept others with the similar level of need for reasons such as a lack of availability of resources needed, or ISA’s context is not suitable for the student. As stated by Participant C, “having those definitions were crucial for people to understand,” and “that common definition definitely clears up any misunderstandings.” Furthermore, according to Participant C, a shared understanding on inclusive education 83 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS also helps with the orientation of new teachers, and provides direction for “ongoing sessions on professional learning” for existing staff. Also, Participant C added: “We have simple and concise documents for people to refer to, and we’re on the same page” when it comes to inclusive education. Participant C shared: “For parents for example... ‘my child meets these criteria, and this is the support that they are going to receive, this is what I need to do, this is what the school is doing, and this is why I need an assessment’.” According to him, having the shared understanding promotes effective communication and productive collaboration to meet the learning needs all of their students. ISA uses the Learning Support handbook itself as one of the tools to help build and maintain the understanding of the inclusive pedagogy and beliefs adopted at ISA. Participant C explained that, to further develop a common understanding, ISA revised its mission and adopted values to provide clarity and help create shared understanding on inclusion and diversity at the school. He stated: “We are very clear, and we changed our mission and beliefs. Our beliefs are excellence, integrity and inclusivity, and being upfront about them. And that ‘inclusivity’ for us, is not just about Special Education.” However, in reviewing their Learning Support handbook, it appears that there is an emphasis on Special Education. The will to be inclusive. ISA’s desire to be inclusive is a significant factor in initiating changes to their practices and policies around the inclusion of SEN students. According to Participant C, schools should not be afraid to include children with SEN. He explained: They are children, and all children are thirsty for learning. And you know, no matter what we do, they are going to learn, and so it's not always to be afraid of it. If you are doing it all for the right reasons, you're not going to harm a child. You’re gonna benefit them. However, Participant C advised that it is important “to know your school’s context and 84 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS challenging yourself to meet the needs of that context.” Participant C perceived that generally, school leaders with experience or training in Special Education have greater confidence, and their school are normally further along in their journey towards inclusion. He stated: I have done audits where I get into schools and review their Learning Support programs, and one thing I found very interesting was… when leaders have some sort of training in Special Education, or experience with it, or passion for it, the program is moving further along. Participant C also has the opinion that if a leader has the desire to develop an inclusive school but lack efficacy, they should do whatever it takes to make inclusion happen. In other words, the “will” to succeed. To illustrate what he meant, he shared the story below. So, I worked with someone last year at a school, and she was passionate about learning support and that they wanted to change the program and develop it more, but she kept saying, ‘I am not experience in this area, so I don't know what to do’ and you hear her saying that to her faculty and others. So, I took her aside and said, ‘you cannot say that anymore. If you believe you are not experience enough, then get experience. Read XYZ book, do whatever, but keep coming back to it’. So, I think that kind of insecurity, and you hear that from teachers and others, becomes an excuse. Especially for leaders. So, figure it out and become knowledgeable. I have learned about autism from books or talking to people, and I didn't go the university to do a degree on autism. Although I am not an expert in autism, but I feel very comfortable, and I make sure that if we have autistic children here, and we are meeting their needs. Participant C expressed that if a school leader has the desire or passion for inclusion, there is 85 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS always a way to make it happen. He asserted that if the leaders lack experience and/or knowledge, then they should persevere in gaining them and not to make excuses. The learning and experience can help the leaders further develop their efficacy and confidence to lead the implementation of inclusion in their schools. In chapter two of this paper, one of the barriers for inclusion identified was the existing perceptions and thinking around inclusion. Often, Participant C hears schools saying ‘inclusion would change the profile of our school because we are an elite or have certain academic standard, and it will bring it down and our parents will complain’. However, Participant C argues that by “not being afraid” to embrace inclusion, a school can shift their practices, beliefs, values and attitudes around inclusion. Participant C also brought up an example of how an international school transformed its identity, and it was by being transparent with their overall student learning and Learning Support data. The school managed to show that the inclusion of SEN students had insignificant impacts on the school’s overall student achievement results. Accountability. Participant C holds the assumption that the quality of the teaching and mindset of teachers directly impact the learning of students in classrooms. In addition, he claims that the mindset and pedagogy of the teachers would need to align with the beliefs and values of the inclusive education and the school’s mission to be successful. Consequently, ISA worked on building the capacity and common understanding of its teachers, together with improving their hiring and accountability practices. According to Participant C, “from a whole school perspective,” he “had to really focus on getting some people off the bus and the right people on the bus.” The process took two years, and he added: My first year I think 14 people left, and 10 of them needed to leave and had to leave, and last year I had 3 more who had to go. And that was a huge factor, having the right people 86 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS on the bus, the right attitude, and the right hiring practices in place to get the right people that you can trust to develop that culture. Participant C said that ISA “changed the professional culture in the school. Now people come for the professional experience” and “there are great opportunities for service learning.” Participant C claims that ISA used to hire anyone who is willing to work in K city, but now has shifted to focus on hiring the “right people that understood and believe in the inclusion, and to make it happen.” For example, Participant C shared: We are really fortunate to be able to bring in a teacher that I knew of her background, and she had been an assistant in my previous school. She is here now for teaching and reading interventions. We brought in the right person that I knew would be able to change practices here, and being a strong resource for people here. So, I think there has been that kind of improved level of support. Participant C advised that it is also important to make sure that teachers are given “the right tools,” conditions, and on the job training to be skilled inclusive educators. Some of the “right tools,” according to Participant C, are an established curriculum and co-curriculum “that support and encourages differentiation,” “a variety of resources and strategies,” and a curriculum development process where there is “opportunity for teachers to creatively and effectively meet the needs of students, and not just squared in.” For Participant C, the “conditions” mean that there is an ethos for inclusion at the school, and the culture is collaborative and committed. To support the development of teachers, Participant C explained: What we have done within our professional culture, or our professional growth, was we adopted the developmental continuum for teacher development, and there is a focus on inclusion in the continuum. It's the work of Bill and Ochan’s published in their book on 87 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Teacher Self-Supervision. The continuum is shown in Appendix E, and it was taken from the ISA’s Learning Support handbook. Participant C added: “We moved from having an evaluation system to professional growth system. So, I think building that professional capacity and professional growth, it’s a huge factor in the process” of changing practices around inclusion. He stated: “It’s not just having the resources, but also having the learning in place and being a part of that.” Participant C thinks that teachers at ISA would notice the following. I think for the ones that were here before and here now, they will definitely talk about the fact that there are resources in place now. There is professional learning in place and that they are are growing as inclusive educators. Throughout the interview with Participant C, the phrase “knowing your context” was stressed upon several times, and this indicates that a school’s context has significant influence on the practices and policies of the school. Participant C said: Knowing what the context is so you can best service the children, and meet the needs those children that you can meet. And here, there are only certain levels that we can meet. And, unless we have an influx of resources and income to hire an Ed psych and speech therapists, and all that..., we are limited. Whereas in my previous school, we had the resources, and we owed it to the community too. And, they now have a fully inclusive program. The context of ISA being a small school in a country with limited English speaking therapists and limited funding, it is necessary for the school to be creative in supporting students who may have SEN. In addition, ISA’s admissions practices and fee structure are greatly influenced by the context of the school. To make inclusion work at ISA, some families with SEN children pay 88 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS extra for additional services that are not included in the general Learning Support program. In short, the school is accountable for quality of services and education provided to meet students and families’ needs. Moreover, the teachers are held accountable for the learning of their students. In addition, the families are also held accountable to their agreements with the school. All of the above, according to Participant C, are important for the success of inclusion in international schools. International School in East Asia (ISEA) Participant D is currently the Director of Learner Support at ISEA, which is a Pre- Kindergarten through Grade 12 school of approximately 600 students. Participant D joined the school eight years ago. According to her, the school has been inclusive since before her arrival. During the interview, she shared: “It feels good coming to a place that believes in inclusion, and knows that it’s the right thing to do.” Also, according to her, some inclusive practices and policies were already in place, and the inclusion of students with additional learning needs was at the core of their schoolwide decision making process. Inclusion at ISEA Defining inclusion. Participant D stated: “International schools are able to be exclusive. So, they have a little more leeway in deciding who comes in and who doesn't.” In her opinion, “many national systems, especially public systems, students are brought in regardless and there is not necessarily an entrance or exit criteria.” According to her, inclusion in international schools is about “being intentional that we are going to include students of difference, and not only just to physically have them in our space, but we are going to support learning in this. That's really important.” In addition, Participant D shared that in the ISEA’s context, the school places emphasis on ensuring all of their students learn in an environment where the diversity of learning 89 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS styles reflects the general population. Consequently, ISEA is selective based on the ratio of students with intensive, moderate, mild and regular needs, family styles and language profiles. According to the ISEA website, part of their vision is to “make diversity dynamic and positive” and “diversity on its own is static and value neutral.” Therefore, for them, “the intentional inclusion of all students in every aspect of the life of the school” is to harness the benefits of diversity. Furthermore, the school believes in having; admissions and hiring policies that promote intentional diversity, differentiated teaching methods and internationally-sourced best practices that engage and respect diverse learners, inclusive classrooms and practices, and pathways to individual excellence that facilitate personal definitions of success that culminate in three paths to graduation. (“Admissions,” n.d.) However, a concise definition of inclusion was not found on the website. Instead, like both ISE and ISA, the values and beliefs around inclusion were embedded throughout their guiding statements. And, when Participant D was asked if their school had a formal definition, she explained: We do, this is kind of what we call our working definition. We come up with a definition to that, we've also created a visual where we have the characteristics of diversity and inclusion, and it's a Venn diagram to show that they are different but connected. 90 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Figure A: Diversity and Inclusion, The Interconnectedness Between Diversity and Inclusion In the Figure A, the definitions for both diversity and inclusion are stated as described by Participant D. She also elaborated on the development of their working definition. She shared: We had a think about what is the most important part of who we are as a school. ‘What are we going to include in our mission statement’? And so, we said: ‘Yes, we are diverse, but is diversity the same thing as inclusion’? ‘Is it not the same thing’? How do we make sure that we capture the importance of both of them without just saying they are all one thing? So, it was important that we went through it and actually articulate. So, what we came up with was a list of what would it look like and sound like, functioning within a diverse society. So, thinking about inclusion how it refers to active, intentional and ongoing engagement of diversity is achieved by creating a climate and a culture in an institution that fosters belonging, respect, and value for all ages. And, encourages engagement and connection throughout the institution and community. So, that's what we thought of when we think about this inclusive piece, and diversity is being more about referring to the richness of the human difference. And that might include something for more around the socio-economic status, race, ethnicity, language. Geography, sexual orientation... those types of things. So, really being able to see the value in both, and articulating both but very much connected. 91 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Again, the complexity of the concept of inclusion in international schools makes it difficult to define. ISEA presently has a working definition, and it is a set of identified characteristics of inclusion which are related to the different aspects of diversity. The following are two quotes from ISEA’s strategic priorities published on their website that supports Participant D’s claims. “Develop clear working curricular definitions that are accessible for different stakeholders that incorporate the facets of rigor and inclusion as part of the ongoing program articulation” and “Develop an inclusive learning environment to support the school’s commitment to intentional diversity: ethnicity, socio-economic, learning and individual talents.” If teachers at ISEA were asked to define inclusion, Participant C thinks that they would do the following. They would list out that they are a school that would value students with learning difference, they would also value students with different language profiles, and they would probably make connections with the inclusion for the culture components, and recognizing that social emotional needs, and mental health also come under that. However, Participant D perceives that “every school may define inclusion differently,” and it is important for ISEA to clearly articulate what inclusion at the school means to new families and staff. The intention is to allow the new community members understand how to contribute and benefit from what the school has to offer. Practices around inclusion at ISEA. According to the ISEA website, their Learner Support Services include: ● Students with a range of learner support needs learn in a mainstream environment ● Expertly staffed Learner Support Center ● Inclusion Support teachers and One-to-One Inclusion Support teachers and co- 92 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS teachers for students with needs requiring this level of support ● Full-time Occupational Therapist with an on-site OT Room ● Full-time Speech and Language Therapist The first three services are also practices in ISE and ISA. However, the hiring of full time therapists is not a common practice in international schools. Often, these are external services that recommended for families by the schools. Admissions. The admissions process at ISEA is somewhat unique, and below is a description given by Participant D. She stated: So, for our school we do something quite unique. We have what we call a is a waiting pool versus a waiting list. So, you can apply a week or two years ago, it does not necessarily give you priority. What we do look at is... each classroom, each grade level, each division and identifying a balance. What we consider a balanced pool of children, so we're looking again at mixed family styles, cultural, nationalities, gender, and learning styles. When we look at that balance in the classroom, we will intentionally look at making sure that we have the balance and a nice mixed of those students. Again, trying to represent the world we are in. So, that’s different from some places, and we still do assessments. We also look at what is the range of support that we can really make sure we are maximizing the learning in the classroom. So, if we have a child who has applied and has very intensive needs, if we don't have a child in that grade level we can absolutely consider it. If we have a child who has left and he or she falls within that moderate range, we are going to be looking for a child with moderate needs to try and fill that spot. According to Participant D, ISEA is “selective but in a way that is about trying to strike a 93 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS balance so that we are representing all culture, learning styles, and family styles.” Furthermore, she added that the school may have an emphasis for SEN students. However, according to her, the inclusion of other groups of students is also considered in their admissions process. For example, she stated: “Considering English Language Learners, children who have multiple languages, students who are exposed to different languages but not necessarily a master in one or more.” According to the ISEA website, the requirements for admissions are: Students are able to function in the mainstream classroom using English language. Assessments results are appropriate for the space available. Acceptance is not based upon the date of application. ISEA has a rolling admissions policy and will accept candidates on the basis of the given requirements all year round. (“Admissions,” n.d.) One of the ISEA published admissions priorities is: “Students who bring diversity of nationality, ethnicity, religion, age, family blend, learning styles and needs and gender are prioritized” (ISEA Website). ISEA also has a family policy, and it states: We practice a family policy that gives priority for class places to families who will enroll all their age-appropriate children at our school. This policy sustains our commitment to an inclusive classroom with differing abilities as well as our community spirit. ISEA will not enroll or re-enroll students to our Primary Section who have Secondary age siblings who are not applying. According to Participant D, the above policy is created to support inclusive education at ISEA, and to avoid having the school become a special school for students with SEN. She explained that the international school market where ISEA is located is highly competitive, and the majority of the schools there are either selective based on student abilities, or not appropriate to many due language barriers. Participant D added that the latter schools are those where the 94 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS medium of instruction is the host country’s language. Types of services and cost recovery strategies. Participant D shared that the types of provision for ALN students at ISEA include various combinations of push in and pull out models depending on the students’ learning needs. According to her, these provisions are part of students’ general tuition fees. However, she went on to explain, some of the identified students may need additional services not included in their learner support program, and families would have to pay extra. Inclusive education does cost more to implement. Participant D mentioned that ISEA uses the model that requires parents to pay for identified services. She added that to help families, the school also subsidizes some of the additional costs. Participant D shared: So, in order for us to provide additional services and resources, we hire for that. And, so we have specific teachers that have experience and kind of have expertise in different areas. We have full time OT, and a fulltime speech and language therapist. In H city, if a family were to receive those services, they would go to a center and they would pay on an hourly rate. And so, for us, following that model to some degree for families who are receiving additional services. However, the difference is for learners with differences, for learner support including the therapies is that, there is a user fee. And the school will subsidize a portion of it. We try to aim for about 20- 30% of that subsidized by the school for two reasons. One is the whole community is benefiting from the diverse student population, and they are all benefitting from the additional resources. So, the community contributes to this. And, the families who are receiving the support, will pay for the direct service and the additional support. And then that's on a graduated scale based on the level of need, or the amount of time. Participant D stated that ISEA is transparent about the additional costs, and families 95 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS know ahead of time the additional services needed and are expected to agree to them before enrollment. Participant D explained: We are very explicit about the service that they get, and very transparent. So it does not seem like they are just paying extra for the idea. They are very clear service pieces that show the distinction between a child who is getting a support or not. So, it's additional communication, its specifics ..., it's a whole range of things. They understand which level of needs required. Furthermore, according to Participant D, if recommendations came up during the school year, families will be informed and normally they would agree to have the school provide the services required. This allows ISEA to ensure that all of their students’ learning needs can be met effectively. Participant D stated: So, this is part of what makes this approach work I think.... We communicate quite a bit with our families, right from the moment they come to the school. So, the educational decisions are ours, but we work in partnership with parents. So, for example, when they come in at admissions, we say that we anticipate that your child may benefit from this level of support. We will do an observational period for this amount of time to ensure that we have the level right. And then we will reassess and provide the feedback documentation necessary. If we feel that the child really benefits from some of the services, then you have agreed from the moment you come to school and that's going to be. But we will communicate and work in partnership with parents. It's really the school's educational decision. If families challenge the school on their recommendations, Participant D shared: “We are able to talk families through it most of the time because we are upfront.” 96 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS According to Participant D, any student at the school can access the ISEA’s additional services offered, as long as there are identified needs. She stated: Any student, it can be mild, moderate, or intensive, it's not only for students with intensive needs. And, they don't necessarily have to have a diagnosis. We just identify who based on the areas that they need to focus on, and it correlates with the amount of time within a week that they are going to benefit from the support. ISEA is finding creative ways to offset some of the additional costs of inclusive education for the school and also for families requiring the additional services. For example, Participant D elaborated: We also are developing a diversity and inclusion endowment. So, when families are looking to contribute in different ways, they are not always families with SEN students. But instead they believe in inclusion and it's the right way to go. We are building up a fund to help offset the cost of having additional services. So, we don't run into a situation where we end up being exclusive because of the cost. And, many international schools depending on where you are, companies bring families over especially thinking about H city. Companies will pay for their children tuition. So, some of these things can be incorporated into the cost. So, if families are upfront about the needs of their children, then the tuition covers the needs of the students. Perceived Value Appreciation and acceptance of differences. Participant D thinks inclusion at ISEA is important. She explained: “Because we get to show other schools that it's okay, we get to show families that it's okay to have students with different needs. We get to show a creative environment for kids, show them that it's okay.” ISEA highly values diversity in their student 97 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS population, and this is evident in the way they select students for the school. As mentioned above, their admissions process intentionally select for a student population that reflects the diversity found in the general population. According to Participant D, diversity in classrooms makes for a good learning environment because “the whole community is benefiting from the diverse student population.” Participant D explained: It's necessary that we want to prepare children, whether they are children who are receiving support or not, for the world that they are going to grow up in. And, if the world we grow up in is inclusive of individuals with different learning styles, family styles, and nationalities, then our educational settings should reflect this. And, we can't just do it in a surface way like putting all the ingredients in a pie. We actually then have to facilitate the learning, and explicitly talk about how do we coexist, how do we support, and not only tolerate one another but really value the differences and gifts that we all bring to the table. So, in an international context, it's even more so. Because what we find is, you may not have as many socio-economic differences at times, but we are still reflective of different parts of the world and different learning styles. And again, it's just another great learning environment we have to construct, and then facilitate the learning. The school’s mission and guiding statements encapsulate ISEA’s value for diversity and inclusion. For example, the last sentence in their mission statement states: “ISEA is committed to maintaining a diverse, collaborative and captivating learning environment in which students become adaptable, confident and tolerant, equipping them for the future.” Furthermore, in their vision statements the following statements are included: At ISEA, diversity includes learning styles and abilities. ISEA’s student body is rich in individuals who reflect the world at large and who possess an array of talents across 98 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS multiple pathways to individual excellence: intellectual, physical, social and emotional. Diversity on its own is static and value neutral. To make diversity dynamic and positive requires the intentional inclusion of all students in every aspect of the life of the school. Making a difference. As indicated in the quotes given above, inclusion at ISEA is important for the learning of all of their students. Not only are the additional resources and support for classroom teachers important for students with additional learning needs, but they are also beneficial for the learning of other students. For example, the additional resources and services available are also accessible to those who might not be identified as SEN but could benefit from them. According to Participant D, the inclusion of SEN students in the school’s definition of diversity has enriched the learning environment. She added that the “gifts” these students possess “maximize the learning” for everyone in the classroom. Although not specifically mentioned by Participant D, it is implied that diversity and inclusion in classrooms give all students opportunities learn to collaborate and communicate effectively despite differences. Hence, for ISEA inclusion is positively impacting the learning of individuals and the school community as a whole. Moral responsibility. For Participant D, inclusion in schools is the “right thing to do,” and not only do the learning of students with SEN can be supported, but these students and their families no longer have to hide their differences. Below are qupotes from Participant D that clearly support the perceived value of inclusion at ISEA. I am always excited about inclusion, and I know it's not always the case with everybody because there are challenges that comes with it. But I do get a sense that when new 99 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS people come in, because I do get to hear about it, or teachers will speak about it to somebody else, is that there is a moral and human impetus that just makes people say, not only is this right, but I feel that this is the right thing to do. Not on just paper... where we say we are inclusive and help those kids. Instead to say this makes our environment better. I feel good coming in to a place that believes in this, and knows that this is the right thing to do. Because there is a knock-on effect for decisions made. I am in the right place. This is the baseline and this is what we feel is important to our core. Then whatever we do in the school, even in just the logistical pieces, I know that the core and the soul of the school is around doing the right thing. I think inclusion is important because we get to show other schools that it's okay, we get to show families that it's okay to have students with different needs. We get to show a creative environment for kids, show them that it's okay. Cos’ I think what happens in H city, and H city is not alone in this, and that is families often have to hide a child that has needs. So, I think being able to show the international community that not only is it okay, there is a moral impetus that goes with it, and that it's something that should be celebrated, that it's financially viable, because there is always that fear as well. And that it can be resourced, and that there is a way. It's the right thing to do. Choice for families. According to Participant D, ISEA views that their school being inclusive provides greater options for families to choose the education they want for their children. Some may want highly academic institutions where there is a homogeneous student population and the focus is on student achievement based on grades. Others might want their children to learn in a more heterogeneous environment (Kusuma-Powell, personal 100 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS communication, October 2, 2017). According to the findings of the ISC and NFI survey results in 2016, 80% of the international schools globally are selective and less than 20% of the schools surveyed provide the opportunity for students to learn in heterogeneous environments. Hence, according to Participant D, ISEA wants to be that school that offers the choice for parents, and model for the international school community that inclusion is viable, and that inclusion and academic rigor is in fact compatible. According to Participant D, in addition to more options for schools, families who would like to keep their family together and not be separated because they cannot find suitable schools for their children, can be together at ISEA. She stated: Some work I have done with the American Chambers of Commerce is, when families are coming and they want to people to work with them because they are bringing their whole family. And, so we will do whatever it takes to make sure that their whole family can come and they are not split up, where some will have to stay in their home country and some in H city. We have been able to require families to be upfront, and it's never gotten in the way of having enough applicants. If anything, we are still trying to manage numbers, so that we are finding that balance. Influential factors Beliefs. According to the ISEA website, the school is committed to a practice of inclusion based on three fundamental beliefs that all children: “Have gifts to be nurtured and celebrated.” “Can learn in one environment, collectively, collaboratively and to their mutual benefit.” “Deserve the opportunity to fulfill their greatest potential.” In addition, ISEA believe that both rigor and inclusion are compatible. Participant D shared that families worry about the quality of the education in an inclusive school. She 101 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS explained: they are worried about or it’s those fears that if we start letting ‘those kids’ in who have needs, that means our school profile is going to go down, our grades and our stats. Which kind of gives us this picture of who we are is going to go down. Other kids are not going to understand it. It's going to become overpopulated with children with needs. And then, what about my child, what are they going to get out of it? According to Participant D, the school is always aware of one of the major barriers for inclusion at ISEA. That barrier is the existing thinking of inclusion, and it is the opinion that inclusion impacts overall student performance at the school. She stated: We are always aware...our first strategic priority is balancing the perception of rigor and inclusion. And so it's seen as mutually exclusive, when in fact that they are not. So, we have had to do a lot of work around defining what rigour is. The school believes that rigor is different for individual students, and it’s appropriate based on the unique profiles of the students. This belief is evidenced in Participant D’s statement below. And, that rigor may not be in the traditional sense that of rigor as in high test scores, or high grades. But rigor is when whatever is rigorous and appropriate for every child. And, so we talk about the individualized approach. And so, it's really been very clear about our definitions are for some of these terms that kind of become this key. So, that's one piece, defining what rigor looks like? According to her, a common understanding and building a school culture for inclusion are important factors for the success of inclusion at ISEA. To further support ISEA’s views on rigor, the following statements were found on their website. The idea of educational “rigor” can mean different things to different audiences. ISEA 102 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS has adapted the definition of “rigor” put forward in Strong, Silver and Perini’s (2001) Teaching What Matters Most: Standards and Strategies for Raising Student Achievement: “Rigor is the goal of helping students develop their individual capacity to understand content and approach dilemmas that are complex, ambiguous, provocative and personally, physically or emotionally challenging.” Desire to be inclusive. ISEA’s documents and information on their website provided significant evidence for their desire to be inclusive. The school’s identity and passion for inclusive education are apparent in their documentation. For example, in their mission Participant D shared that public knowledge about ISEA was what made her interested in working at the school, and she was not disappointed. This claim is supported by the statement she gave during her interview (see below). I came to this school because of its mission, and the passion of those who are already in the school. And those who were recruiting me, what they were able to convey was just unreal. And when I got here, yeah that's real. That's who they are. I am here now 8 years and it's still exciting. Still challenging. And, we have great leadership and it helps. We work with some really great people. Leadership for inclusion. According to Participant D, the vision for an inclusive education at ISEA began with “two visionaries” before her arrival, and they knew that there was a need in H city to have an international school that was not necessarily culture specific. Participant D shared that her role as the Director of Learner Support came about because the ISEA school leadership saw the need to shift the Learning Support coordinator role to one that has greater status and not “under the supervision of the principals” (Participant D, 2017). Participant D also added: 103 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS And what they felt was that, if inclusion is going to be the core and what defines ISEA then the decision-making needs to be at the same kind of level as the principals' level. So, inclusion really is very much a major factor essentially in everything that we do. The vision that began eight years ago to have an inclusive school for expat families prompted ISEA to hire for the role of the Director of Learner Support to lead the implementation of inclusion. This practice of hiring a director for Learning Support is similar to that of ISE when they began their journey towards inclusion. The leadership for inclusion provided by the Director of Learner Support role is critical in the success of implementing inclusive education. Culture and shared understanding. Participant D perceives that another major factor essential for ISEA to succeed in providing an inclusive education for its students is having a common understand and language around inclusion. In addition, she holds the opinion that effective communication and collaboration among all stakeholders in the school is essential to create a culture and ethos for inclusion. “This is who we are” and “this is the way we do things” were two phrases that came up repeatedly in the interviews conducted for this study. These phrases can be interpreted to mean “culture.” According to Participant D, a shared understanding and language around inclusion helps overcome some of the challenges of having a transient community. Participant D shared that for students, a common understanding and language are created by making sure that when they come in to the community that teachers are explicit in classrooms about the ways we work with each other. And so, as they go year to year they understand the language that we use, the approach that we use when we work with one another. Because it's a common language that we have to have. With teachers, similarly during the recruitment, getting an understanding of why 104 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS they want to be part of the school or our setting, and what they understand about inclusion. How they feel that they can contribute to an inclusive school. And recognizing that inclusion may have meant something else in the school they come from before us. That our PD is a strategic, and inclusion is part of that. So, we really moved, many years ago, to having more of this whole school PD. Strategic professional development is important for ISEA to ensure the success of their inclusive learning program. The school have made the decision to focus its teachers professional learning on communication and collaboration. The Adaptive Schools and Cognitive Coaching designed by the Thinking Collaborative group are programs ISEA has chosen to foster their inclusive school culture and shared understanding. We know that if community is developed together then we are much more likely to use it together, and for it to be adopted as a common language. So, Cognitive Coaching for example, we now had at least the fifth cohort at least. And so, we have had at least 60 or more faculty members have been trained in it, and adaptive schools, So, there is a common language and understanding when we are communicating as educators with each other, when you are talking to the kids, and then you see each other speaking with each other speaking this way and copy that. Then it's now mirrored in the parent meetings that we have had. How do we use invitational voice, and all those types of things. With parents, ISEA begin the communication of the school’s culture and ethos begins immediately when families visit the school. Participant D stated: With our parents, we start right from the moment they come in for Open Houses, or for tours. Again, we tell them not everybody, or this is not a school that everybody wants to come to, and that's okay. But if you are going to be a member of the community this is 105 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS what's would look like. Accountability and direction. It came across strongly throughout the interview that Participant D perceives ISEA as a mission driven school, and their mission is aligned with inclusive education. She stated: And, we hold everybody to that mission. I think it's the mission and vision that is the core for us, not just a picture on the wall. And, when children are behaving outside the mission, we say ’you know what our mission is and how are you contributing to that’? The whole community is held accountable to contribute towards their mission, and expectations for all stakeholders are clearly articulated on their website. This provides clarity for practices and policies in the school, and these appear to focus on inclusive practices. For example, in the ISEA strategic plans posted on their website, rigor and inclusion is listed as their first priority. In addition, within the document definition of terms related to inclusion, academic rigor and diversity were also articulated. This is done in order to give direction and support for effective communication at ISEA, and to help members of its community understand the expectations on their collaboration and contribution to the school’s purpose and educational goals. For example, under “academic and rigor” section in the strategic priorities, the following is the rationale for the priority. A school is evaluated on the strength of its program and the extent to which the curriculum reflects the culture of learning. In order to be considered a great school, we need to be clear what learning the students will have access to, how learning happens, and how we know that learning has occurred. ISEA is a school committed to developing an inclusive learning environment to support its intentionally diverse student body, and the components of the curriculum need to be constantly reviewed to ensure that students 106 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS are provided with equal access to learning, that learning is challenging and that all students can experience success. According to the strategic priority document, the following are some of the many actions steps to be taken to ensure that ISEA provides a rigorous and inclusive education. ● Develop clear working curricular definitions that are accessible for different stakeholders that incorporate the facets of rigor and inclusion as part of the ongoing program articulation. ● Advance the educational program to provide all students with access to the knowledge and skills they will need to thrive in a complex and changing world. ● Develop an inclusive learning environment to support the school’s commitment to intentional diversity: ethnicity, socio-economic, learning and individual talents. One the several listed key performances was: “Differentiated learning experiences and differentiated instructional strategies that support access to learning for all.” Participant D shared: I think the ability to collaborate is a big piece. Although we have PD around the content of different things. The ability to work together effectively is a significant factor in everything we do. If there is a crisis, if it's planning for a subject, if it's figuring out how the classroom teacher learner support teacher, the coordinator, are all coming together, we have to know how to collaborate. Summary of Findings The summary of my findings for all three of participating schools may be best shown using a mind map. Therefore, I am including Figure B below to help readers understand some of the perceptions of the participants from ISE, ISA and ISEA that were common among the on the 107 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS concept, practices, beliefs, values and influential factors for inclusion in international schools. Figure B. Inclusion in International Schools: A Summary of the Findings 108 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION The number of international schools around the world is increasing rapidly (ISC Research, 2017). Hence, knowing more about these schools is beginning to be of interest to educational researchers (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). Compared to public education, very little is known about international schools (Tarc, 2017), and even less is known about inclusion in international schools (Kusuma-Powell, 2017; Lane & Jones, 2016; ISC & NFI, 2016; Bradley, 2000). The aims of this multiple case study are to; better understand how successful inclusive international schools work, and gain greater insights on international school leaders’ perceptions, beliefs and values around inclusion. Moreover, the findings may have implications for positive change in existing international schools. In addition, the findings may also inform the design of future inclusive international schools. The following questions guided the research. 1. How is inclusion defined in international schools? 2. How do international school leaders perceive the value of inclusion? 3. What are the perceived factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in international schools? It is not the intent of the present study to make generalizations for international schools globally. Instead, the findings are meant to be relevant and helpful for those who might be interested in gaining further insights into the leadership for inclusion in international schools. In addition, these insights could help reduce some of the confusion surrounding practices and policies for inclusion in international schools. In this chapter, you will find the answers to the above identified research questions, as well as the summary, and context and implications of my findings. Additionally, the limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are also discussed in this chapter. 109 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Inclusion in International Schools The common understanding between ISE, ISA and ISEA around the meaning of inclusion appears to emphasize on three out of six of the categories identified by Ainscow (2006). Below are the three categories and they are taken from Ainscow’s (2006) article: ● Inclusion as a concern with disabled students and others categorized as ‘having special educational needs’. ● Inclusion as developing the school for all. ● Inclusion as a principled approach to education and society. “Inclusion as a response to disciplinary exclusion,” “inclusion in relation to all groups seen as being vulnerable to exclusion” and “inclusion as ‘Education for All’” do not necessarily apply to ISEA, ISA and ISEA. This may be due to the fact that the participating schools are expensive not-for-profit private international schools, and they are also not mandated to be inclusive. Therefore, families such as those from lower socioeconomic status or marginalized minority groups may not necessarily be included. Sometimes, such schools offer scholarships to increase the diversity of their student population by including students from families with lower socioeconomic status. Inclusion can be defined differently in different schools. Both ISE and ISA are working on a formal definition, and ISEA has one that is a combination of characteristics and values connecting to diversity. For ISA, it has a set of guidelines for services offered as a way to communicate what inclusion is for them, while ISE is working on a definition at present. According to Participant B, they have “an understanding” of what inclusion is, but the school does not have an actual definition yet. The evidence above points to the reality that it is difficult to define inclusion for international schools, and it’s mainly because the definition would be 110 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS influenced by the contexts of individual international schools. Thus, the conclusion is, since the definition for inclusion in international schools can vary, it is more important for a school to have clarity on their purpose and value for inclusion, and ensure that it maintains a shared understanding around its values, beliefs and pedagogy for inclusion. The common opinion the participants have is that the core of an inclusive international school is the inclusive pedagogy and culture within the school. Although the participants had some views on the inclusion of other vulnerable learners, the common theme found was that their inclusive education is centralized on the inclusion of students with mild, moderate and intensive learning needs, including those with exceptional abilities. This aspect of inclusive education aligns with how NFI defines inclusive schools. As cited in Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2013), inclusive schools are defined by NFI (2013) as “Schools that successfully serve a managed number of students representing the full range of learning differences: mild, moderate, and intensive needs, and the exceptionally able.” All of the participants stressed that part of being in an inclusive school is their commitment to meeting the learning needs of all of their students, and this would include ensuring that the resources and expertise required are available. Consequently, this commitment has implications on their schools’ admissions policies. For instance, ISE, ISA and ISEA are all selective in their admission processes, and this approach appears to reflect NFI’s position on inclusive admissions practices. According to Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2013), the key terms in NFI’s definition for inclusive schools are: ‘successfully serve’, ‘a managed number’ and ‘representing the full range’. In other words, NFI does not advocate that schools accept all student applicants regardless of program availability, resources or student demographics. Inclusion does not mean that a 111 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS child with Down Syndrome be placed in the same class as a student taking higher level math at the IB Diploma level. NFI does advocate that schools carefully manage admissions to reflect the school’s will to serve and its growing faculty expertise. No class or grade level should be overwhelmed with large numbers of students with special needs. (p. 157) On the other hand, Ainscow et al.’s (2013) conceptualization of inclusive education is slightly different. According to them, “inclusion is concerned with all children and young people in schools; it is focused on presence, participation and achievement; inclusion and exclusion are linked together, such that inclusion involves the active combating of exclusion (Ainscow et al., 2013, p. 6).” However, NFI and Ainscow et al. (2013) state that inclusion in schools is a “never- ending process. Thus, inclusive school is one that is on the move, rather than one that has reached a perfect state. Inclusion is, therefore, a process requiring ongoing vigilance (Ainscow et al., 2013, p.6). Ainscow et al. (2013) propose that there needs to be a transformation of education, and schools should focus on removing barriers to learning and participation for all students. This shift could liberate all learners, and labeling of those with learning differences would be unnecessary. To help illustrate Ainscow and her colleagues’ (2013) views, I will use Figure C below, which was retrieved from Levinger’s (2016) article on Beyond Equity: Removing Barriers below. 112 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Figure C. Equality Versus Equity, Three Types of Practices in Classrooms (“Beyond Equity: Removing Barriers,” n.d.) The third image in Figure C (above) shows a visual of Ainscow and et al.’s (2013) ideal model for inclusion where education is transformed, and the emphasis is on removing barriers to learning and participation for all students in the general classrooms. The middle image is a visual that could be used to describe the common practice of providing accommodations for SEN students, such as giving them extra time to take an examination, having them do less questions on an assignment, or having lower expectations for them. The combination of segregation of SEN students for part of the day and having Learning Support specialist pushing into their mainstream classes appear to be a common practice (ISC Research & NFI, 2016), and it’s difficult to determine whether it’s done to remove barriers or provide accommodations. It depends on how the ‘pushing in’ and ‘pulling out’ practices are implemented. Nevertheless, such practices may be indicating that there are still some confusion surrounding the concept of inclusion for international schools (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). According to Symeonidou and Phtiaka (2009), inclusion means all students are educated in the general classrooms which are fully equipped in providing access to learning for all, including flexible curriculum and trained 113 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS teachers skilled in inclusive practices. Having said that, the participating schools are using combinations of the strategies described above. However, the participants shared that their schools are focusing on developing greater inclusive pedagogy among their teachers and co-teaching models to better meet the learning needs of a diverse classroom. In addition, the schools are also trying to implement practices such as having graduation requirements that are flexible for those who need alternate pathways. Additionally, common approaches used by the participating schools such as, redefining student success, personalizing learning, and maximizing identified student strengths, are also ways to remove barriers to learning and participation. These are also some of the examples of removing barriers to learning and participation described by Ainscow and her colleagues in their 2013 article titled From Exclusion to Inclusion. Practices and Policies Admissions. The participants all think that it is not appropriate for any school to accept SEN students without first diligently assessing the students’ learning needs and determining whether the school has the capacity to meet them all. Phrases such as: “cleaned up our admissions policies a lot,” “school was sort of open door to take anybody, resources or not, and we’re really trying to fix some big problems that arose from that,” or “it was chaos before” from Participant A, Participant B, and Participant C appear to think that their schools’ past admission practices have failed some of their existing SEN students. However, ISEA does not seem to have similar issues arising from poor admission practices. This may be due to the fact that ISE has been an established inclusive school for quite some time now. Having said that, it is not to say that ISEA did not go through the similar scenarios in the past. The participating schools are all selective in their admission processes. For ISE and ISA, 114 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS they select based on whether the school can successfully meet the learning needs of a candidate. In the event that there is a need for external services, the schools would only accept the students if families agree to conditions given by the schools (i.e. required services, additional costs, etc.). To clarify, it is important to differentiate between whether it’s truly the case that a child’s needs cannot be met by a school, or if it’s the existing fears, confusions or misconceptions around inclusion that schools deny admission to a child with SEN. According to Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2013, p. 150) schools often deny admission for the following reasons. ● Fear the unknown - how the admission of a child with learning needs will impact the culture of the school. ● Fear failure - the teachers’, the school’s and the students’. Anxiety in respect to overly demanding parents. Concern about how teachers will feel. A lack of expertise or knowledge in working with diverse learners. ● A lack of clarity surrounding the roles and responsibilities of the faculty, the administration, the parents, the student, and the community in working with children who learn differently – who is responsible for what? ● A misconception that accepting students with special needs will somehow ‘take away’ from the learning of other students. ● Confusion about the school’s existing capacity to serve. A need for certainty. A desire to uphold the school’s ‘academic’ reputation. Complacency, or contentment with the status quo. ● Fear of setting a precedent that may have far reaching educational and financial implications. For ISEA, it’s slightly different in that their selection is based on trying to strike a 115 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS balance for different learning styles, language profiles and family styles in each grade level. All three schools however, use the recommendations from NFI as guidelines to manage the number of students with differing learning needs that they admit. As cited in Chapter 6 of Powell and Kusuma-Powell’ (2013) book, NFI (Pelletier, Bartlett, Powell & Kusuma-Powell, 2011) suggests that at each grade level, school populations reflect the general population at large: 10-12% of students with mild learning disabilities, 2- 3% with moderate learning disabilities, and 1% with intensive special learning needs. Generally speaking, the 1% with special learning needs will require a separate program. (p. 157-158) NFI claims that the above ratio reflects the general student population, and they believe that students should learn in authentic learning environments that is not homogeneous. Comparing this ratio to England’s 2017 national statistics on SEN student population, the percentage for intensive needs is off by 1.8%, but the percentage for SEN mild to moderate is close to being accurate. The Department of Education for England reported that as of January 2017 the nation has 2.8% intensive needs and 11.6% mild to moderate needs, and 25.2% of the 11.6% group are students with moderate needs. In conclusion, inclusive international schools are in fact highly selective based on all of the conditions given above, and the misperception that inclusive international schools have open admissions policies could have negative impacts on a school’s performance. Accountability. ISEA’s website clearly state their policies for student admissions, and the school’s accountability and expectations for all stakeholders of the schools are also published in their Strategic Priorities document. Similarly, ISE’s newly created inclusive mission statement on their website and policies around their admission process indicate that the school is also 116 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS moving towards the direction of creating a common understanding and expectations for its community. In the case of ISA, although their policies and practices on their Learning Support program is an internal document, and the intent is also to create a common understanding of roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders in the school around inclusion. This strategy of clearly articulating expectations and direction for their community aligns with one of Ainscow et al.’s (2013) recommendations, which is: “In order to move policy and practice forward, schools must understand clearly what is meant by inclusive education.” The leadership of a school has the critical role in providing the clarity of purpose for inclusion. To ensure that parents are in partnership with the participating schools to ensure that all of their students’ learning needs are met, the schools would sometimes place conditions on their offers to families. International schools have the leeway to require parents to agree to pay for identified external services for their child, or in some cases an additional fee for internal services needed. However, paying extra for the Learning Support is not usually expected in international schools, but for external services such as therapies and testing, additional fees are quite common. For public systems, all additional costs for Special Education are usually covered by public funding. For instance, the educational Acts such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the US and India’s Right to Education (RTE) Act ensure that all children have the right to a free public education, and in many countries, school is compulsory for any school-age children. As a result, charging families more for Special Education in international schools continues to be a debate because some school leaders would view this practice as unethical. However, others think that the exclusion of SEN children due to costs is preventing many international schools from being more inclusive in their admission process. This barrier penalizes expat families with SEN children. Hence, the opposing views of ‘selective versus open 117 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS admissions’ and ‘extra costs for SEN versus everyone pays the same tuition’ may be further contributing to the lack of clarity on the practices of inclusive international schools. Essential Factors for Success Leadership for inclusion. My study found that leadership is perceived as being highly critical in driving school improvement efforts toward inclusion. In addition, buy-in and shared vision at all levels of a school’s leadership are essential. Participant D stated: Not only does it go for the administration, the principal, the head of school, and making sure that the primary school, secondary school principals are on the same page. But also the board, the board of trustees or directors who re overseeing the school also believe in the integrity of the mission and inclusion. Or else, priorities and funding for initiatives are not going to be aligned that way. Ainscow et al. (2013) claim that “leaders have a central role in working with their colleagues to foster an inclusive culture within their school.” Based on my findings, inclusive culture in international schools means that their community members contribute to the schools’ mission and educational goals, believe that all children can learn, embrace diversity, focus on learning, communicate effectively, and collaborate to improve learning for all. According to the participants, to build an inclusive school culture, important actions such as providing meaningful and focused professional development opportunities, creating shared understanding on policies and practices around inclusion, ensuring school accountability, and holding all stakeholders accountable to the success of all of their students must be taken by the school. This finding was not surprising as there are already numerous research showing associations between improved student learning and teacher PD, teacher collaboration, school accountability, partnerships with parents and shared vision in schools (Ainscow et al., 2013; 118 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Goddard et al., 2015; Kugelmass & Ainscow, 2004). Furthermore, according to a theoretical and empirical study conducted by Goddard, Goddard, Kim and Miller (2015), they concluded that “the work of school leaders toward instructional improvement, through their support of teachers’ collective work, affected teachers’ reports of collective efficacy beliefs in their schools,” and teacher collaborative efforts was found to strongly correlate with improved student achievement. The desire to be inclusive and the will to succeed. During a personal communication with Dr. Kusuma-Powell in 2017, prior to the start of my data collection process, she expressed that some international schools lack the “will” to be inclusive. This lack of “will” may have impeded progress towards inclusion in international schools. According to her, “if there is a will, there is always way” to successfully educate all students, including those with intensive needs or those with exceptional abilities. This opinion appears to be shared by the participants of this study. Participant B had used a similar phrase during his interview, “if there’s will, there’s usually a way” and he views inclusion in an international school as a “philosophical commitment.” For Participant A, she stated: “And even if we can't see the pathway, which we cannot yet here, we are committed to be creative until we have more structured pathways.” Similarly, Participant C said that “we have to think out of the box a lot, but not just giving up.” Throughout this study, I found that the desire to be inclusive and the will to succeed are not necessarily viewed as the same thing. However, they are very closely connected and highly essential for the success of inclusive international schools. The above paragraph describes Dweck’s (2007) ‘growth mindset’, and in the context of this study, the desire and will to be inclusive appear to be connected to following dispositions; efficacy, flexibility, and creativity. Efficacy. According to Participant D, it is important to think of inclusion as “not about limitations, instead it's about possibilities.” For her, the “perceived limitation of the resources, or 119 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS perceived limitation of the teacher capacity” and student abilities are all not helpful in transforming schools. The mindset instead should be “what are the possible ways that we move forward, and at the same time be realistic about what can be done right now. And it's ok to start there.” Furthermore, Participant C believes that mindset for inclusion is “not to be afraid of it, and if you’re doing it for the right reasons, you’re not going to harm the child,” and he added that “it’s from ‘I can’t do this’ to ‘I can’ attitude.” This attitude is related to ‘efficacy’, and numerous studies have shown that teacher efficacy is strongly associated with successful inclusive classrooms (Goddard, Goddard, Kim, & Miller, 2015). Flexibility. The beliefs grounded in inclusive education according to the participants, NFI, and Ainscow et al. (2013) are: All children can learn and they all learn differently, and every child has the right to education and “must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning” (Ainscow et al., 2013, p. 5). The participants of this study expressed that success can look different for different students. According to Participant A, she saw the positive difference in a student’s learning when teachers are encouraged to be flexible in assessing learning based on what is appropriate and challenging for individual students. This flexibility allows greater access to opportunities for participation and learning, and makes learning appropriately challenging for individual students. For this reason, one of ISEA first priority is to define what rigor means at their school, and as stated by Participant D: “may not be may not be in the traditional sense that of rigor as in high test scores, or high grades. But rigor is when whatever is rigorous and appropriate for every child.” This priority is supported by the work of Florian, Black-Hawkins and Rouse (2017). The researchers demonstrated that inclusion and student achievement are in fact highly compatible, and the combination of both was found to be important for the learning and participation of all students. 120 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Creativity. According to the participants, teams collaborating to successfully solve issues around inclusion require creativity and innovation. For instance, Participant C described they had to get one of their students much needed therapy using Skype because the area where ISA is, did not have appropriate English speaking medical facilities. The common theme that arose from the participants’ perceptions was the need to have teachers collaborating effectively on creative problem solving is essential for the success of servicing ALN students. As noted in Ainscow et al. (2013), one of the key drivers for encouraging teachers to develop greater inclusive practices is their engagement in collaborative inquiry. Perceived Value International schools are already selective by nature because they are normally expensive private institutions and usually for those who could afford the tuition (Hayden & Thompson, 2013; Heyward, 2002). Moreover, international schools are rarely mandated to be inclusive (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). Under those circumstances, it can be assumed that there may be compelling reasons why some existing international schools choose to be inclusive. It is likely that the perceived value of inclusion may have an influence on the decision to be inclusive. On the contrary, according to Kusuma-Powell (2018) future schools may be opening their doors because they feel the pressure to do so due to financial reasons. Regardless, many believe that inclusion is valued for reasons described below. Making a difference. For all of the participants, the idea of being able to make a difference in the lives of individual students’ learning is highly meaningful, and this thinking is fueled by their belief that all children can learn and that they all learn differently. Participants A, B and C all shared stories of individual students’ unique successes in their interviews, and during a personal communication with Dr. Kusuma-Powell on October 2, 2017, she too shared several 121 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS stories of unique achievements of SEN students she had observed in her past. The underlying theme for all of the interviewees is the importance of making a difference in the learning of those students, helping them be more efficacious, and developing the students’ skills in advocating for themselves. In fact, my study found that inclusion not only makes a difference in the lives of individual ALN students, it also improves the learning of other students, increases teacher collaboration, and further develop teachers’ differentiation and problem solving skills. In conclusion, inclusion is important because it improves the learning of individual students, promotes collaboration and organizational learning, and supports professional learning. Moral Responsibility. Another common theme that came across strongly from all of the participants is the “moral impetus,” as described by Participant D, to provide inclusive education as an option for families living overseas. Again, it’s the belief that all children have the right to quality education regardless of the various reasons why their parents have chosen to leave their home countries where there may be better opportunities for students with SEN. Inclusive international school leaders highly value the opportunity to be able “to do the right thing.” That means to also include SEN students, including those with intensive needs, in international schools. However, it is interesting to hear that on one hand, the participating schools believe that inclusion is the right thing to do, but on the other hand their admissions processes are highly selective. Their rationale for the more careful admissions processes is to ensure that their school is being intentional, principled and accountable in their policies and practices. Arguably, sometimes this rationale could also present itself as a barrier for inclusion in international schools because it is difficult to determine whether it is the lack of will to service a child with intensive needs, or if a school really does not have the capacity to meet the needs. 122 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Authentic learning environment. There is an assumption that inclusive schools promote authentic learning environments for all students. According to Kusuma-Powell (personal communication, October 2, 2017), we do not live in a homogenous society, and having children learn in a homogenous classroom may be a disservice to them. Based on my findings, it’s perceived that authentic learning environments provide greater personal and social learning opportunities for all students. Additionally, quality and holistic education should also include developing students’ profiles that encapsulate skills and qualities that would allow all of them to become contributing members of thriving and diverse communities. Evidence from my study shows that one of the perceived value for inclusion is the authentic learning environment it provides to challenge students to develop compassion, kindness, resilience, creativity and flexibility, and to allow a community to harness the benefits of diversity. Challenges To reiterate, inclusive schools are those successfully educating a managed number of SEN students with mild, moderate and intensive needs, including those with high abilities (NF1, 2013). Also, international schools are generally private organizations where their main income comes from student tuition, and their population is often transient. Hence, it’s not surprising that many of the challenges for inclusive international schools may be related to student enrollment. Financially, international schools are dependent on student enrollment numbers, and therefore their focus has to be on school reputation and marketability. The existing fear that the inclusion of SEN students may negatively impact the learning of other students, or that it would lower a school’s academic reputation are both major challenges faced by inclusive international schools (Powell & Kusuma-Powell, 2013). According to Participant D, to overcome such challenges, ISEA’s “first strategic priority is balancing the perception of rigor and inclusion” by 123 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS defining “rigor” and “inclusion” for ISEA, and showing its community how the two concepts are not mutually exclusive (Florian et al., 2017). Another challenge that inclusive international schools often face is the complexity of creating shared understanding, language and pedagogy for inclusion at their schools, and the complexity is often due to the transient nature of their communities, specifically school leaders and teachers. The literature on inclusion and school culture have identified that leaders are critical for developing school culture and best practices for inclusion, and these developments are continuous processes that occur over several years be productive (Ainscow et al., 2013). Unfortunately, many of the teachers and leaders do not necessarily stay long enough to ensure established school culture and pedagogy for inclusion. Interestingly, ISA overcome this challenge by ensuring that the “right people” are hired, and those who do not contribute to the school’s inclusive culture and ethos are moved on. Similarly, ISEA and ISE ensure that their hiring process includes inclusion as a criterion, and both schools have a Director of Learner or Learning Support to ensure that inclusion is a priority at the school. According to Participate B, the role of the Director of Learning Support was created to help build a culture and pedagogy for inclusion at ISE. It appears that all three schools found that their inclusive school mission and guiding statements were essential in helping them create shared understanding and maintain practices and policies around inclusion. Additionally, the continuous work of onboarding new members while re-orienting existing members are also essential approaches to overcome the challenge of having transient populations. 124 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Implications and Recommendations for Practice The research suggest that many international schools now include students with learning differences, and some may be experiencing pressure to admit students for financial reasons (ISC Research & NFI, 2016; Kusuma-Powell, 2018). Hence, it’s critical for school leaders to understand the full scope of inclusive pedagogy and policies. Informed international school leaders are more likely to be intentional in their practices and policies to ensure that each student admitted can be successful. A lack of conceptual understanding and procedural knowledge of inclusive education among international school leaders could have harmful impacts on student learning and overall school performance. Therefore, based on my findings, I recommend that training for school leaders should include learning objectives focused on helping the leaders develop sound knowledge and understanding of inclusion and its scope. Organizationally, the findings of this study may have implications for potential change in international schools’ practices and policies around inclusion. For example, international schools’ admissions processes may want to be more intentional in having the diversity of learners that reflects the general student population. In addition, the international schools would be wise to ensure that they have the appropriate resources and faculty expertise available to meet the learning needs of all of their students be any admission. The findings of this study may have an influence on other international school leaders’ views on the concept of inclusion in internationals schools, and this can deepen their understanding of how to successfully develop inclusive education at their schools. In addition, the findings may promote the idea for inclusive international schools to implement essential frameworks that support teacher collaboration and school-parent partnership. Schools interested in becoming more inclusive would have greater insights on how to 125 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS establish inclusive pedagogy and innovative practices to support all learners in their school. My findings may support the transitioning schools to further develop the desire and will to accept and appreciate the benefits that inclusion and diversity can bring to their community. Inclusion in schools is a responsive process of removing barriers to participation and learning for all students, and it’s never-ending (Ainscow et al., 2013). The participating schools’ practices and policies around inclusion may inspire new and innovative ideas for schools embarking on a never-ending journey of school improvement efforts. Innovations are old and useful ideas creatively and successfully implemented to benefit others (Catmull, & Wallace, 2014; Dyers, Gregerson, & Christensen, 2011). Both segregation and integration can be described as having ALNs students in the same school but not necessarily providing them the same opportunities to participate and learn like everyone else. Inclusion aims to harness the gains of diversity and increase equity for all students to access the learning or opportunities to participate in all areas of the schools’ learning programs (Ainscow, 2007; Ainscow, Booth, & Tyson, 2006; Dunne & Edwards, 2010). Internationals schools may want to consider reviewing their support programs to better align with some of the perspectives of the findings in my study. Ainscow (2007) and Ainscow et al. (2006) note that inclusion implemented well establishes quality education for all. Limitations My research design required a selective sampling method, and Dr. Kusuma-Powell, who is an established consultant for inclusion in international schools, recommended a group of schools and participants I could invite. However, since the number of known successful inclusive international schools are somewhat low, I had limited choices for the sampling for my study. 126 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Hence, the implications of my findings may only apply for some international schools and generalizations would not be appropriate for international schools globally. For the purpose of this study, I only collected the perceptions and perspectives of international school leaders, and therefore the findings are through a single lens. Although my findings would be meaningful and helpful for those interested to better understand how successful inclusive schools work, they might not necessarily be accurately representing the whole school culture of the participating schools. Recommendations for Future Research My study explored the perceptions and perspectives of international school leaders intentionally, and I recommend that future studies on inclusion to also examine the perspectives of teachers, students and parents. The individuals in these groups are the other key stakeholders for successful inclusive education in international schools, and a deeper understanding of the different perspectives can further contribute to the limited literature on inclusion in international schools. Additionally, future research on the influence or impacts of inclusion in international schools on a school’s culture and community could be significant in filling the gap in the literature found on international schools. 127 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS References Ainscow, M. (2005). Developing inclusive education systems: what are the levers for change? Journal of educational change, 6(2), 109-124. Ainscow, M. (2007). From special education to effective schools for all: a review of progress so far. The Sage handbook of special education, 146-159. Ainscow, M., & César, M. (2006). Inclusive education ten years after Salamanca: Setting the agenda. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(3), 231-238. Ainscow, M., Dyson, A., & Weiner, S. (2013). From exclusion to inclusion. En-clave pedagógical, 13. Ainscow, M., Booth, T., & Dyson, A. (2006). Improving schools, developing inclusion. Routledge. Ainscow, M., & Sandill, A. (2010). Developing inclusive education systems: the role of organisational cultures and leadership. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(4), 401-416. Ainscow, M., Dyson, A., Goldrick, S., & West, M. (2016). Using collaborative inquiry to foster equity school systems: opportunities and barriers Bradley, G. (2000). Hayden, M., & Thompson, J. (Eds.). (2016). International schools and international education: Improving teaching, management and quality. (p. 29-41). Routledge. Bates, R. (2012). Is global citizenship possible, and can international schools provide it? Journal of research in international education, 11(3), 262-274. Black ‐Hawkins, K. (2010). The framework for participation: a research tool for exploring the relationship between achievement and inclusion in schools. International Journal of 128 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Research & Method in Education, 33(1), 21-40. Catmull, E., with Wallace, A. (2014). Creativity, Inc.: Overcoming the unseen forces that stand in the way of true inspiration. New York: Random House. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications. Dunne, S. & Edwards, J. (2010). International schools as sites of social change. Journal of Research in International Education, 9(1), 24-39. Dyers, J. H., Gregerson, H. B., & Christensen, C. A. (2011). Innovators DNA.New York:Harvard Business Review. Education for the 21 st Century. (2017, February 10). Retrieved April 09, 2017, from http://www.unesco.org/education. Ferguson, D. L. (2008). International trends in inclusive education: The continuing challenge to teach each one and everyone. European Journal of special needs education, 23(2), 109-120. Florian, L. (2009) Towards inclusive pedagogy, in: P. Hick, R. Kershner & P. Farrell (Eds) Psychology for inclusive education: new directions in theory and practice (London, RoutledgeFalmer), 38–51. Florian, L., Black-Hawkins, K., & Rouse, M. (2017). Achievement and inclusion in schools. (2 nd Edition). Routledge. Forlin, C., & Chambers, D. (2011). Teacher preparation for inclusive education: Increasing knowledge but raising concerns. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1), 17-32. DOI: 10.1080/1359866X.2010.540850 Forlin, C. (2012). Responding to the need for inclusive teacher education. Future directions 129 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS for inclusive teacher education: An international perspective, 1. Goddard, R., Goddard, Y., Sook Kim, E., & Miller, R. (2015). A theoretical and empirical analysis of the roles of instructional leadership, teacher collaboration, and collective efficacy beliefs in support of student learning. American Journal of Education, 121(4), 501-530. Guskey, T. R. (2013). Defining student achievement. International guide to student achievement, 3-6. Hamilton-Jones, B. M., & Vail, C. O. (2014). Preparing Special Educators for Collaboration in the Classroom: Pre-Service Teachers' Beliefs and Perspectives. International Journal of Special Education, 29(1), 76-86. Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative data analysis from start to finish. Sage. Chapter 6 Hayden, M., & Thompson, J. J. (2008). International schools: Growth and influence. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Hayden, M., & Thompson, J. (Eds.). (2013). International schools and international education: Improving teaching, management and quality. Routledge. Heyward, M. (2002). From international to intercultural redefining the international school for a globalized world. Journal of Research in International Education, 1(1), 9-32. Hwang, Y. S., & Evans, D. (2011). Attitudes towards inclusion: Gaps between belief and practice. International Journal of Special Education, 26(1), 136-146. Idol, L. (2006). Toward inclusion of special education students in general education: A program evaluation of eight schools. Remedial and Special education, 27(2), 77-94. “Inclusion in International Schools and Those Offering International Education. FlipSnack. International School Consultancy, 2016. Web. 10 Feb. 2017. 130 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS https://www.flipsnack.com/InternationalSchoolConsultancy/inclusion-in-international- schools-and-those-offering-internatio.html Inclusion in International Schools, Global Survey [Flipsnack]. (17, November). ISC Research & Next Frontier Inclusion. https://www.flipsnack.com/ISCResearch/nfi-isc-inclusion-survey-2017- report-for-schools.html “Inclusive Pedagogy.” Inclusive Pedagogy | Office of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion | Humboldt State University. N.p., n.d. Wed 23 June 2017. <https://www2.humboldt.edu/diversity/faculty-resources/inclusive-pedagogy>. International school students considering a wider range of study abroad destinations. (2018, April 18). Retrieved from http://monitor.icef.com/2018/02/international-school-students-considering- wider-range-study-abroad-destinations/ Kugelmass, J. and Ainscow, M. (2004), Leadership for inclusion: a comparison of international practices. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 4: 133–141. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2004.00028.x Keeling, A. (2010). International Schools: Still Growing. The International Educator, 24(4), 1-2. Kusuma-Powell, O. (2018, April). Moving Towards Inclusion. International School Leader, 1(1), 12-13. doi:https://www.flipsnack.com/islmagazine/isl-magazine-april-18.html Laluvein, J. (2010). School inclusion and the ‘community of practice’. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(1), 35-48. Lane, J. M., & Jones, D. R. (2016). Inclusion in International Schools: Theoretical Principles, Ethical Practices, and Consequentialist Theories. Psychology Research, 6(5), 287-300. 131 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Leithwood, K. A., & Riehl, C. (2003). What we know about successful school leadership. Nottingham: National College for School Leadership. Levinger, J. (2016, July 25). Beyond Equity: Removing Barriers. Retrieved April 18, 2018, from https://janetlevinger.com/2016/07/24/beyond-equity-removing-barriers/ Lindsay, G. (2007). Educational psychology and the effectiveness of inclusive education/mainstreaming. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 1-24. MacBeath, J., Galton, M., Steward, S., MacBeath, A., & Page, C. (2006). The costs of inclusion. London: University of Cambridge, National Union of Teachers. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Miles, S., & Singal, N. (2010). The Education for All and inclusive education debate: conflict, contradiction or opportunity? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(1), 1-15. Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A method sourcebook. CA, US: Sage Publications. Next Frontier Inclusion. N.p., n.d. Wed. 30 June 2017. <http://www.nextfrontierinclusion.org/our-mission/> “Our Mission.” Next Frontier Inclusion. N.p., n.d. Wed. 30 June 2017. <http://www.nextfrontierinclusion.org/our-mission/> Patton, M. Q. (2005). Qualitative research. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Peters, S. J. (2007). “Education for all?” A historical analysis of international inclusive education policy and individuals with disabilities. Journal of disability policy studies, 18(2), 98-108. 132 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Powell, W., & Kusuma-Powell, O. (2013). Making the difference: Differentiation in international schools. Powell, W. & Kusuma-Powell, O. (2013). The OIQ Factor: Raising your school's organizational intelligence - How schools can become cognitively, socially and emotionally smart. Woodbridge, UK: John Catt Educational. (Ch. 6). Powell, B., & Kusuma-Powell, O. (2016). The Next Frontier of Inclusion: Re-Defining International Education One School at a Time. The Journal of the Association for the Advancement of International Education, 43(112), 9-12. Retrieved April 9, 2018, from https://www.aaie.org/uploaded/publications/InterEd/InterEd_2016/Fall_2016_InterED_o ptimized_Size.pdf. Precey, R., Entrena, M. J. R., & Jackson, C. (2013). Leadership for inclusion. In Leadership for Inclusive Education (pp. 131-148). Sense Publishers. Polat, F. (2011). Inclusion in education: A step towards social justice. International Journal of Educational Development, 31(1), 50-58. Ruijs, N. M., & Peetsma, T. T. (2009). Effects of inclusion on students with and without special educational needs reviewed. Educational Research Review, 4(2), 67-79. Savolainen, H., Engelbrecht, P., Nel, M., & Malinen, O. P. (2012). Understanding teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy in inclusive education: implications for pre-service and in service teacher education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 27(1), 51-68. Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons. Stake, R. E. (2013). Multiple case study analysis. Guilford Press. Symeonidou, S., & Phtiaka, H. (2009). Using teachers' prior knowledge, attitudes and beliefs to develop in-service teacher education courses for inclusion. Teaching and Teacher 133 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Education, 25(4), 543-550. Tarc, P. (2017). International schools: current issues and future prospects. Edited by Mary Hayden and Jeff Thompson. Thomas, G. (2013). A review of thinking and research about inclusive education policy, with suggestions for a new kind of inclusive thinking. British Educational Research Journal, 39(3), 473-490. Thomas, G., & Vaughan, M. (2004). Inclusive Education: Readings and Reflections. Inclusive Education. Open University Press. The McGraw-Hill companies, Order Services, PO Box 182605, Columbus, OH 43218-2605. Tjernberg, C., & Mattson, E. H. (2014). Inclusion in practice: a matter of school culture. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 29(2), 247-256. Unesco (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for action on special needs education: adopted by the World Conference on Special Needs Education; Access and Quality. Salamanca, Spain, 7-10 June 1994. Unesco. White, R. E., & Cooper, K. (2014). Towards an understanding of social justice in our schools: globalization, inclusive leadership and the transformation of schooling. In International handbook of educational leadership and social (in) justice (pp. 1063 1079). Springer Netherlands. Zollers, N. J., Ramanathan, A. K., & Yu, M. (1999). The relationship between school culture and inclusion: How an inclusive culture supports inclusive education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 12(2), 157-174. 134 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Appendix A – INTERVIEW PROTOCOL Introduction I: Thank you [insert name] for agreeing to participate in my study on inclusion in international schools. The idea of the study is to better understand the factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in international schools. I: According to the literature, one of the major factors is the leadership for inclusion. Therefore, I am interviewing school leaders like yourself who are currently working or who have worked in international schools that are well on their way towards greater inclusion. I: I anticipate that this interview session will take approximately 45 minutes. This interview is semi-structured, and there are approximately ten open-ended questions. Where appropriate, follow up questions may be asked. Please feel free to ask any clarifying questions at any point of this interview. I: I would like to record our conversation, and your identity will not be revealed, and the audio and transcript for this session will be stored in a secure place. Is that okay for you? I: However, I will still be occasionally jotting down some things to help me guide our conversation. I: Thank you. We shall now begin the interview. Please take your time to answer any of the questions. 135 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Interview Questions How do international school leaders perceive the factors influencing policies and practices around inclusion in international schools? How is the concept of inclusion defined in international schools? 1. Could you start by describing for me what inclusion looks like at your school? 2. Does your school have a definition for inclusion? If yes, what is your understanding of it? If none, what is your own personal definition of inclusion? 3. Are there other student groups that may be vulnerable to exclusion at your school? If yes, do your school’s practices and policies around inclusion apply to them as well? How do international school leaders perceive the value of inclusion? 4. Could describe for me some of your views on the current practices and policies around inclusion at your school? 5. In your opinion, what might be some of the changes you have observed due to recent implementations on inclusion at your school? 6. What are some of your thoughts on the gains and cost (can also mean other resources, not just money) of inclusion? 7. If I were to ask your teachers the their views on inclusion, what might they say? How do leaders perceive the influence of their roles on inclusion in international schools? 8. In your opinion, what were some of the major factors influencing practices and policies around inclusion at your school? Can you also please elaborate on each factor? 9. In your view, what role do school leaders play in influencing inclusive policies and practices? What are some of the barriers for inclusion in international schools? 136 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS 10. Can you describe for me some of the barriers for inclusion at your school? 11. What advice you would give other schools who would like to begin on their journey towards inclusion? 12. What should I have asked you that I didn’t think to ask? 137 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Appendix B – ISE MISSION GUIDING STATEMENTS “We all want to learn more” ● We support all our students to achieve educational excellence by discovering and developing their academic potential ● We foster the curiosity and creativity of each individual ● We empower our students to be future-ready, global citizens ● We encourage learning as a lifelong pursuit “We all do it in different ways” ● We value inclusion of all learners ● We innovate and adjust our approaches to teaching and learning to address student needs ● We celebrate diversity as a strength and promote equal opportunity for all “We all have fun learning” ● We offer an all-round education that serves the needs of the whole child ● We provide stimulating, connected, and relevant service learning opportunities within and beyond the classroom ● We inspire a sense of wonder in the world and optimism for the future “We all help” ● We create safe, caring, and affirming learning spaces for our international community ● We cultivate collaborative, supportive, and positive partnerships ● We nurture the values of care, compassion, and responsible action ● We respect our personal, local, and global environments 138 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Appendix C – DEFINITIONS OF SUPPORT AT ISA Mild Support ● Consultative support from a learning support specialist ● Monitoring student performance ● Literacy support (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) ● Mathematics support ● Small group instruction ● Learning Support Center (strategies and focused skills classes) ● Assistive technology (e.g. voice to text software) ● Speech and Language Therapy & Occupational Therapy (limited availability due to restricted services in Kinshasa) ● Counseling Services (as needed) ● Coaching (providing structured study & organizational skills, self-advocacy) ● Formal assessment accommodations (e.g. extended time for in-class and standardized testing) Moderate Support ● Co-taught classes in core literacies ● Specialized small group instruction ● Specifically designed course in mathematics ● Social skills support ● Assistive technology ● Speech and Language Therapy & Occupational Therapy (limited availability due to restricted services in K city) ● Curricular modifications (when required and appropriate) ● Counseling (as needed) ● Formal assessment accommodations (e.g. extended time for in-class and standardized testing) Intensive Support ● A student/teacher ratio of 2-3 students to one faculty member, depending on student need ● Individualized designed inclusion opportunities ● Pre-vocational skills (for secondary students) ● Functional academic and life skills ● Social skills ● Adaptive Physical Education, Art, and Music ● Adaptive and/or assistive technologies ● Speech and Language Therapy & Occupational Therapy (limited availability due to restricted services in K city) 139 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Appendix D – GUIDING STATEMENTS AT ISA The mission of International School in Africa is to foster the growth of our diverse student body through providing a challenging and individualized education experience, promoting personal development, and facilitating community engagement. With the ISA mission in mind our learning support program provides structures and systems to allow all students to be successful and to access an education that is customized to meet their learning needs. Our inclusive education enriches our entire school community. Understanding and embracing students’ learning differences, we firmly believe that all of our students can learn and be successful here at ISA. We serve a range of students’ mild to moderate learning needs through individualized plans. We understand the complexity of providing support for students’ with varying observed or identified learning needs, but we are confident to offer the services, resources, and accommodations that are needed. The ISA is a candidate school* for the Diploma Programme. This school is pursuing authorization as an IB World School. These are schools that share a common philosophy – a commitment to high quality, challenging, international education that The American School of Kinshasa believes is important for our students. At ISA, we believe in an inclusive IB Diploma Programme and that most students, given the proper support and learning environment, can be successful in being granted an IB Diploma. We encourage all students to strive for the Diploma but also see value in students completing courses for certificates, if appropriate for their learning and future education goals. *Only schools authorized by the IB Organization can offer any of its three academic programmes: The Primary Years Programme (PYP), the Middle Years Programme (MYP), or the Diploma Programme (and in addition the IB Career-related Certificate). Candidate status gives no guarantee that authorization will be granted. For further information about the IB and its programmes, visit http://www.ibo.org We accept students with learning differences and mild to moderate learning disabilities as long as we are confident in our ability to meet their needs. It is important to understand the context of Kinshasa and the limitations of availability of additional services that a student may need in English and meeting international standards. This includes lack of educational psychologist services, some medical services, speech and language therapy, psychiatric counseling services and occupational therapy. Our focus on student learning occurs through a collaborative approach. A preschool - grade 12 school on one school campus, provides a fertile environment for teachers to share best practices, and support one another to meet students’ learning needs. The isolation of external resources, given our geographic location, further lends to a community of trust and sharing amongst our faculty. Students accepted into the Learning Support program will have their needs addressed and documented in an Individual Education Plan (IEP). Learning Support services are delivered within the regular classroom setting to the greatest extent possible with co-teaching and resource 140 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS room support as needed. In some cases a shadow teacher is required to assist in the delivery of services. Currently we have two qualified Learning Support teachers (one who supports students in the Elementary School, and one who supports students in Middle/High School). There is a supplementary charge for Learning Support Services for those students identified by the Student Services Team as needing support and in collaboration with parents and teachers. Parents of students with identified learning needs are invited to submit an application form and any relevant assessment reports or evaluations that clarify their child’s educational needs. Learning support plans (such as an IEP) from the previous school must also be included. The school may request further assessment information, may need to interview the parent and/or the student, and may contact the previous school. The school uses all available information to decide whether the needs of the student can be accommodated within the current program. Students currently enrolled at ISA can be referred to the Learning Support Resource Team by their classroom teacher at any time after informing the parent. Once the referral is reviewed, the Student Services Team will make a recommendation that can include formal Learning Support services. 141 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Appendix E – ROLES AND RESPONSIBILIRTIES AT ISA Student Services Team (SST) The Student Service Team consists of the Director, High School Principal, Elementary/Middle School Principal, Guidance Counselor, Learning Support (LS) teachers, and English-as-an- Additional-Language (EAL) teachers, and will include classroom teachers on a case-by-case basis. The purpose of the SST will be to provide a review of current practices, guidance and recommendations on the overall support services that are provided to students at ISA. The SST will discuss individual student concerns/issues, new admissions, change in programs, referrals from classroom teachers, and review cases to provide recommendations. The Student Services Team meets every two weeks. This team reports directly to the Director. Learning Support Teacher Job Description The Learning Support teacher understands that students with special educational needs may require specialized instruction. The teacher is able to deliver specialized instruction and support within the regular classroom and in other settings. The Learning Support teacher is able to assist colleagues in understanding the needs of the students. The Learning Support teacher will be the case manager of a group of students identified as needing Learning Support services for level 1, 2, 3, or monitor. The Learning Support teacher is to communicate these needs to the parents and teachers and maintain frequent contact with parents regarding their child’s learning. The Learning Support teacher is also responsible for creating Individualized Educational Plans (IEP’s) with the parents, teachers, and students while updating documentation on a regular basis. Additionally, the Learning Support teacher provides guidance to the classroom teacher on classroom accommodations and modifications. The Learning Support teacher may also work directly with Assistant Teachers. It is the responsibility of the LS teacher to assign roles to the Assistant Teachers, inform them of the student’s needs, and keep in constant communication to deliver instructional supports. Responsibilities of a Learning Support Teacher Leadership Learning Support Teachers are responsible for: ● Developing a deep, enduring understanding of the ISA curriculum and teaching standards. ● Supporting ISA approaches to learning and ensuring implementation in line with the mission of the school. ● Keeping current on the developments in the ISA curriculum and other related approaches to learning (e.g. inquiry teaching and differentiation) ● Continually developing and sharing expertise in the area of differentiated instruction and specific research based remediation ● Case managing a group of students including monitoring students identified but not receiving direct services ● Collaborating through a multidisciplinary team based approach with the guidance counselor,teachers, parents, administrators, etc. ● Working collaboratively with the Leadership Team on a coherent school wide support approach 142 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS ● Actively participating in the Student Services Team process Teaching and Learning Learning Support Teachers are responsible for ● Full-time teaching of students with mild to moderate learning disabilities. Teaching structure will be a combination of co-taught, small group, in class, or individualized instruction depending on need ● Case managing students with learning disabilities which include facilitating multidisciplinary team and parent meetings, writing and implementing individualized educational plans (IEP), and overall student advocacy. ● Knowing students exceptionally well and supporting them in their development of self- knowledge, self-advocacy, and independent learning strategies ● Keeping current with the latest theories in learning, the art of differentiation, and classroom management ● Conducting student assessment to inform the instructional process, modify pedagogical practice and/or curriculum planning and review, and to track and monitor progress ● Using appropriate strategies and tools to regularly record and report on student learning growth (e.g. written reports, IEP meetings) ● Modeling and supporting the integration of assistive technology for students Shadow Teacher Job Description The Learning Support teacher understands that students with special educational needs may require specialized instruction. A shadow teacher is the attachment of a support person to a student with identified special needs in order to facilitate learning and inclusion in general classroom or school settings full-time. The professional focuses on the specific needs of the student, working closely with the individual and assisting with communicative, cognitive, mobility, social, or behavioral needs. The determination to support a student through the expertise of a Shadow Teacher is determined by the stakeholders and agreed upon between school and parents. The overall responsibilities of the shadow teacher will vary depending on the needs of the student in collaboration with the learning support teacher. Responsibilities of a Shadow Teacher The Shadow Teacher will: ● Read through files and learn about the strengths and weakness of each child and determine how to meet individual student needs ● Observe, interact, listen, and respond to students at play and at work. ● Exchange information frequently and regularly with the classroom teacher and learning support teacher. ● Work collaboratively with the classroom and learning support teacher to create and maintain a safe, nurturing, and intellectually engaging classroom. ● Promote positive integration of students with special needs into the ISA community. ● Deliver support to individual students by providing access to curriculum content through accommodations, modifications, and general support. Responsibilities of a Differentiating Teacher Typically, teachers personalize learning for student readiness levels by addressing content, 143 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS product, and process in four ways: ● By varying the degree of dependence or independence of the learning activity. ● By modifying the task clarity. ● By varying the degree of structure or open-endedness of the learning activity. ● By teaching or reteaching particular skills in small groups as students need them 144 INCLUSION IN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS Appendix F – SUPPORT SERVICES AT ISA
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The slow progress of inclusive education in international schools, and an increase in the number of students with learning differences in classrooms have made it important for international schools to work on improving their practices and policies around inclusion. Unfortunately, not much is known about the concept of inclusion in the international school context (ISC Research & NFI, 2016). In fact, the confusion around the definition of inclusion may be impeding the progress of inclusive international education (Ainscow, Dyson, Goldrick & West, 2016
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A multiple case study: inclusion in international schools
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