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Lack of diversity in leadership: An organizational problem

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Lack of diversity in leadership: An organizational problem

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Content Running head: LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP 1

LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP: AN ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEM:
AN INNOVATION STUDY

by

LisaRae Jones

_______________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 LisaRae Jones

LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP

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DEDICATION
To my Mother, Queen, you started me on this journey of education and gave me the
unconditional love and support to always keep reaching. Thank you for your strength and
showing me how to be strong.
To my daughter, Jade, you are a wonderful gift and the best part of me. You are the
source of my motivation . . . All I do is for you.
To my Sister and Best Friend, Kim, thank you for all of your love, support, and
encouragement throughout this process, you mean the world to me.
To my love, Matt, you have been incredibly supportive, loving, and encouraging
throughout this process. Thank you for listening and always reminding me of the light at the end
of the tunnel.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Giving honor to God who is the head of my life. Thank you for ordering my steps,
through you all things are possible.
Thank you, Dr. Monique Datta, my dissertation chair, for your guidance, efforts, and
patience. You helped me to understand that my dissertation was an experience and a story that
needed to be explored for the betterment of society. THANK YOU ten times over for being the
best chair ever! To my dissertation committee, Dr. Larry Picus and Dr. Mark Pearson, through
your insight and guidance, I was able to bring forth a meaningful piece of work. I am grateful
that you consented to be a part of my journey, and I could not have asked for a better dissertation
committee.
This dissertation would not have happened if it were not for my city colleagues, thank
you very much for providing one of the most important pieces in my dissertation — the data.
Your time, honesty, and support were very much appreciated.
Dr. Richard Banz, thank you for not only being a supportive colleague, but also for being
one of my biggest advocates. Your guidance, examples of work, and insight were invaluable.
Thank you for always offering to assist in whatever way possible.
And last, but certainly not least . . . MY COHORT. I am honored to have shared this
experience with you. We started this journey looking into the unknown, and we never looked
back. We had our challenges along the way, but there were some that made the challenges a lot
less difficult — Mary Beth, Joelle, Bob, Laurence, Summer, and Susan. You all are remarkable
life-long friends that I will never forget. FIGHT ON! #NODOCTORSDOWN

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 9
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Related Literature 10
Importance of the Organizational Innovation 13
Organizational Performance Goal 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups 15
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions 17
Methodological Framework 18
Definitions 18
Organization of the Dissertation 19
Chapter 2: Review of Literature 20
Diversity Impact 20
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences 29
Stakeholder Organizational Influences 38
Conclusion 43
Chapter 3: Methodology 44
Purpose of the Project 44
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 45
Methodological Framework 47
Assessment of Performance Influences 49
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection 54
Data Collection and Instrumentation 55
Data Analysis 57
Validity and Reliability 57
Credibility and Trustworthiness 58
Ethics 58
Limitations and Delimitations 59

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Chapter 4: Results and Findings 61
Definition of Validation 61
Respondent Demographics 62
Research Questions 64
Document Analysis 65
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 68
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 74
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes 78
Summary 85
Chapter 5: Recommendations 86
Purpose of the Project and Questions 86
Declarative Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets 89
Motivation Recommendations 90
Organization Recommendations 94
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 100
Chapter Summary 113
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 114
Recommendations for Future Research 115
Conclusion 115
References 117
Appendices 127
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 127
Appendix B: IRB Consent Form 129
Appendix C: Survey Following Course Session 132
Appendix D: Survey Post Training 133
Appendix E: Survey for Delayed Use Post Training 134

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 16
Table 2. Assumed Knowledge Influences 33
Table 3. Assumed Motivational Influences 37
Table 4. Assumed Organizational Influences 42
Table 5. Sources of Assumed Influences — Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization 50
Table 6. Knowledge Assessment 52
Table 7. Motivation Assessment 53
Table 8. Organizational Assessment 54
Table 9. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 88
Table 10. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 91
Table 11. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 95
Table 12. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 102
Table 13. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers 104
Table 14. Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors 105
Table 15. Components of Learning for the Program 109
Table 16. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 110

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the study 47
Figure 2. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process 48
Figure 3. How long have you served in your role for your organization? 63
Figure 4. How many employees do you manage? 64
Figure 5. Dashboard post-training 112

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ABSTRACT
Despite the growing diversity among leaders within organizations, the still-present
underrepresentation of women and of racial and ethnic minorities in leadership roles demands an
explanation. To date, there is limited research investigating factors that influence an
underrepresentation of women and of racial and ethnic minorities in leadership roles. The
purpose of the study is to discover what factors influence a lack of diversity in leadership within
organizations. This qualitative study was conducted in a public, government organization,
located in the southeastern region of the United States. Participants included twelve department
leaders who were directly involved with the organizational goals and were the change agents that
drove organizational success through effective goal management. The researcher investigated
factors that influence leadership behavior through the use of interviews and document analysis.
Data was coded resulting in the categorization of relevant information that ultimately aided in
facilitating the development of theoretical concepts. The results of the study offered a richer
depiction of what organizations look like when there is an absence of women and of racial and
ethnic minorities within leadership roles. It also provided insight into what influences a lack of
diversity in leadership within an organization. Knowledge of such factors may help
organizations better understand how a diverse workforce can lead to long-term success of the
organization.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Workforce diversity has continued to grow in importance to organizations (Akinola &
Thomas, 2008). Globalization of the U.S. economy has driven this increased focus on diversity,
the growing demographic diversity in the U.S. population, and greater knowledge of the benefits
that can ensue from effective management of diversity (Akinola & Thomas, 2008). To reap
these benefits, efforts to increase diversity in organizations have been underway for more than
two decades (Thomas & Ely, 1996). While diversity efforts continue to be ongoing, minoritized
groups continue to be underrepresented in the upper-management ranks within organizations.
Despite the growing diversity among leaders within organizations, the still-present
underrepresentation of women and of racial and ethnic minoritized groups in leadership roles
demands an explanation. In the United States, public and private sectors, chief executives are
inclusive of 23% women, 4% African American, 4% Asian, and 5% Hispanic (Chin & Eagly,
2010). Among the members of the 111th Congress, 17% are women, 8% are African American,
1% are Asian, and 6% are Hispanic (Chin & Eagly, 2010). Simultaneously, the growing
diversity among the workforce challenges all leaders to consider the perspectives of people
representing backgrounds and beliefs. According to Christian, Porter, and Moffitt (2006), the
minoritized group workforce in the United States is expected to rise from 16.5% in 2000 to an
estimated 25% in 2050. As the economies shift and globalization increases, it will be imperative
to have a diverse leadership team and employee base, within organizations, to meet the needs of
growing, diverse stakeholders.
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Organizational Context and Mission
The City of Carina (pseudonym for the organization of study), incorporated in 1887, is a
city located in Bocc County, Georgia, with approximately 32,000 residents and 220 employees.
As a city form of government, municipality, the City of Carina provides citizens with many
services including police services, parks and recreation, residential garbage service, business
license issuance, criminal background checks, planning and zoning, economic development, 911
emergency services, public works, and tourist attractions, such as the museum and city gardens.
The mission for the City of Carina, in partnership and communication with residents, businesses,
and schools, is to provide a safe, healthy, welcoming atmosphere where people choose to live;
promote economic vitality, and strategically position Carina for the future; support planned
growth and influence decisions that impact the city; build an inclusive city with opportunities for
all; and meet service demands through high quality customer service, innovation, a positive work
environment, and a commitment to excellence. The prospective leaders and employees are
between the ages of 35 and 50, with 70% male and 30% female. The racial-ethnic composition
of the prospective leaders and employees, within my organization, is 85% Caucasian and 15%
African American.
Related Literature
Nearly fifty years have passed since Congress enacted Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of
1964, prohibiting discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or
national origin (Parker, Karlsson, Hjerpe, & Linnér, 2012). In 1964, more than 88% of the U.S.
population was white, every justice on the U.S. Supreme Court was a White male, and there were
only six African Americans and three female judges at the federal level (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 1976). By 1989, the U.S. population was 84% White and 12% African American; a
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woman and an African American were members of the Supreme Court (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 1991). Notwithstanding the progress made to date, women and people of color continue
to be underrepresented in the workforce (Chin & Eagly, 2010). Research shows that women
currently hold 46% of administrative, managerial, and professional positions, and comprise only
3% of CEOs at Fortune 500 companies (Haverman & Beresford, 2012). In addition, only 19%
CEOs of Fortune 500 companies are people of color, including two women of color (Surinder,
2011). In law firms, while 45% of the associates are women, only 20% of partners are women.
Minoritized groups comprise 20% of law firm associates but make up less than 7% of law firm
partners (National Law Journal, 2011).
While substantial progress toward workplace equity has been made since the passage of
Title VII, disparities in the workplace continue to persist. In January 2014, the CIA formed a
group to conduct the Diversity in Leadership Study (DLS) (Garr, 2014). The study identified the
dramatic gap between the composition of the workforce and that of the leadership ranks (Garr,
2014). Racial and ethnic minoritized group officers make up 23.9% of the entire CIA workforce,
but account for only 10.8% of the Senior Intelligence Service (SIS), 15.2% of GS-15s (the 15th
paygrade in the general schedule reserved for top-level positions), and 21.0% of GS-14s (the
14th paygrade in the general schedule generally reserved for top-level positions) (Garr, 2014). A
similar gap between the workforce and the leadership ranks exists for minoritized group female
officers and officers with disabilities (Garr, 2014). Moreover, the occupations that most
commonly serve as paths to executive ranks (Analysis, Technical Intelligence, and Operations)
have minoritized group representation lower than 10% at the GS-15 level or above (Garr, 2014).
Women are also missing in top leadership roles in healthcare, at a time when the U.S.
healthcare system faces many challenges (McDonagh, Bobrowski, Hoss, Paris, & Schulte, 2014).
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Out of 474 chief administrators in the Solucient 100 top hospitals, 114 or 24% were women
(McDonagh et al., 2014). Researchers also found that 30% of the Solucient 100 top hospitals
employed no female chief administrators, and 34% employed only one female chief
administrator (McDonagh et al., 2014). In addition to the Solucient top hospitals, minoritized
groups are also underrepresented as faculty members in medical schools (Nivet, 2010).
Minoritized group faculty in predominantly white medical schools make up only 7.3% of all
faculty (Nivet, 2010).
Although women and members of non-White racial and ethnic groups have been gaining
access to leadership roles in the last couple of decades, they remain underrepresented relative to
their numbers in the population (Chin & Eagly, 2010). The glass ceiling is still a barrier to jobs
in middle and upper management for women and members of racial and ethnic minoritized
groups (U.S. Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). The number of Fortune 500 companies
having at least one woman holding a corporate directorship grew from 0.16% in 1978 to 89.2%
in 2003; however, only 7.9% of those holding the top title in these companies were women (Chin
& Eagly, 2010). In 2004, 8.1% of board seats on Fortune 500 companies were held by Blacks
(Chin & Eagly, 2010). In 2001, there were seven Black CEOs of Fortune 100 companies, all of
them men (Chin & Eagly, 2010). In 2005, the number of Hispanic directors on Fortune 500
boards was 69, or 1.4%; there were six Latinex CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, all of them men
(Chin & Eagly, 2010). For Asians, 96 men and women held 127 seats at S&P 1500 companies,
representing less than 1% of the total (Chin & Eagly, 2010). Despite their ostensibly higher
levels of education and success, Asians accounted for less than 1% of the total number of
executives, officers, and directors listed by Standard & Poor’s during 2004 (Chin & Eagly,
2010).
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Diversity within government is also low. In 2010, women held 90 (16.8%) of 535 seats
in the 111th Congress: 73 women served in the House of Representatives of 435 members
(16.8%), and 17 women served in the Senate (17%) (Chin & Eagly, 2010). Racial and ethnic
minoritized groups remain thinly represented, with 74 (17%) in the House and 6 (6%) in the
Senate (Chin & Eagly, 2010). Currently in the 192 member countries of the United Nations,
there are eight female presidents, nine women prime ministers, and three reigning queens, or
10.4% female heads of state in the world (Chin & Eagly, 2010).
Organizations are making steady but slow progress towards a more inclusive workplace.
Google says that 69% of its employees are now male, while 31% are female (Eadicicco, 2016).
However, only 19% of Google’s technical roles are held by women, while 81% of them are held
by men (Eadicicco, 2016). Google has progressed when it comes to leadership roles: In 2016,
women held 24% of leadership positions in the organization, up from 22% from 2015
(Eadicicco, 2016). Similar progress has been made when it comes to ethnicity, as 59% of
Google employees are white, while 32% are Asian, 3% are Hispanic, and 2% are black; 70% of
Google leadership roles and 57% of tech position are held by white employees (Eadicicco,
2016). Creating a diverse workforce has been a challenge for many tech companies, resulting in
a slow progression (Eadicicco, 2016).
Importance of the Organizational Innovation
The workforce is more diverse than ever before. As a result of this diversity, it is vital for
organizations to implement a workforce diversity plan. The long-term success of any business
calls for a diverse body of talent that can bring fresh ideas, perspectives, and views to their work
(Lindenberger & Stoltz-Loike, 2016). Research suggests that diverse working groups can be
more innovative, flexible, and productive; can offer valuable perspectives on critical issues; and
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can better appeal to a consumer base likely to include a growing number of minoritized groups
(Marquis, Lim, Scott, Harrell, & Kavanaugh, 2008). In a study, utilizing 14 ethnically diverse
organizations from Fortune Magazine’s 50 Best Companies for Minorities, ten of the 14
companies cited both competitive advantage and consumer services as motivations for diversity
(Marquis et al., 2008). In addition, seven of the companies stated that diversity created an
improved work environment (Marquis et al., 2008).
The disconnect between the value placed on diversity and the actions taken to diversify
nonprofit organizations perpetuate many negative outcomes (Thurman, 2011). Organizations
demonstrating a lack of commitment to diversity often experience an inability to attract
employees of color (Thurman, 2011). “People of color” is a term primarily used in the United
States and Canada to describe any person who is not white (Moses, 2016). For example, more
than 66% of employees of color attempt to evaluate a prospective employer’s commitment to
diversity during the interview process. In addition, increased employee dissatisfaction is another
consequence resulting from an organization’s lack of commitment to diversity (Thurman, 2011).
If diversity is not embodied within the staff, employees of color may experience a sense of
tokenism or alienation in the workplace (Thurman, 2011). Even within organizations that have
multicultural staff, many employees of color have reported perceiving bias in the form of lack of
professional development or upward mobility opportunities (Thurman, 2011). Employees that
perceive even subtle forms of bias are more likely to feel demoralized, which can have negative
repercussions on employee productivity, output, and retention (Thurman, 2011).
Organizational Performance Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina will increase the diversity of employees in senior
leadership positions by 25%. The methodology for increasing diversity of employees in senior-
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level positions includes informed and committed leadership, comprehensive scope of goals and
activities, integration of objectives within business plans throughout the organization, and
focused education and training opportunities. This goal will promote an understanding and
appreciation of diversity, facilitate a two-way dialogue between city government and the
community, based on the dissemination of critical information; and bring awareness of
community opportunities by improving access to city services and programs. The Mayor and
City Council established this goal after identifying the significant gaps in community relations,
concerning diversity, citizen communication, and an overall understanding of city services and
programs. The achievement of this city goal will be measured through an audit of city services
and programs, participation-response in the 2018 citizen survey, and engagement in official city
meetings.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholder group in the City of Carina are individuals that directly contribute to and
benefit from the achievement of the city’s performance goal. For the City of Carina, the
stakeholder group consists of the city department heads, city employees, and the citizens that
reside in the City of Carina. The city department heads are directly involved with the
organizational goals, as they are the agents that drive organizational success through effective
goal management. Each city employee contributes to the achievement of the organization’s
goals by working on achieving their individual goals. When individual goals are achieved, the
city will be able to reach their objectives. Lastly, citizens are instrumental in contributing to the
achievement of city goals through public support for planning decisions.

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Table 1
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission for the City of Carina is to provide a safe, healthy, welcoming atmosphere
where people choose to live; promote economic vitality and strategically position the city for
the future, and build an inclusive city with opportunities for all.
Organizational Global Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina will increase the diversity of employees in senior
leadership positions by 25%.
Stakeholder 1*
City of Carina Leaders
Stakeholder 2
City of Carina Employees
Stakeholder 3
City of Carina Citizens
Stakeholder 1
Proficiencies/Competencies
To accomplish the City goals,
leaders will need to be
strategic thinkers, team
builders, and possess external
awareness.
Stakeholder 2
Proficiencies/Competencies
The City of Carina
employees will need to have
a customer service focus,
integrity, and interpersonal
skills.
Stakeholder 3
Proficiencies/Competencies
The citizens of the City of
Carina must possess
initiative, customer
orientation, and integrity.
Stakeholder 1
(Intermediate) Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of
Carina leadership team will
implement a diversity
program, which includes
regular communication of
organizational vision and
commitment to equity, and
communication of
multicultural competencies
for staff to demonstrate in
their daily work and all
aspects of their work
activities.
Stakeholder 2
(Intermediate) Goal
By March 1, 2018, all city
staff will receive diversity
training; training will focus
on building an understanding
of diversity; learning will be
supported through
formal/informal discussions,
and linked to vision/mission.
Stakeholder 3
(Intermediate) Goal
By March 1, 2018, the
citizens of Carina, will
participate in a citizen
survey that is built around
customer focus and
engagement.

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Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the overall
organizational goal of implementing systematic methods and resources for purposes of building
inclusion with opportunities for all, the stakeholder focus for this problem of practice will be the
City of Carina leadership team. The City of Carina leadership team not only shape institutional
strategies, inclusive of their execution and effectiveness, but also determine values, culture,
change tolerance, and employee motivation. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by the elected
officials, is that the leadership team will implement a diversity program, which includes regular
communication of organizational vision and commitment to equity, and communication of
multicultural competencies for staff to demonstrate in their daily work and all aspects of their
work activities. Compliance procedures will include surveying of employees relative to the
perceptions of the company’s efforts, recollection of data to refocus the diversity and inclusion
program, and assignment of oversight and responsibilities of the program. Failure to accomplish
the stakeholder goal will lead to a lack of diversity within the leadership team and employee
base. The gap in performance is 100%.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of increasing the diversity in employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. The analysis
began by generating a list of possible needs and then moved to examining these needs
systematically to focus on actual or validated causes. While a complete needs analysis would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus in this analysis was the
City of Carina leadership.
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As such, the questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. Why is there a lack of diversity in the City of Carina leadership team?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for the City
of Carina leadership team to implement systematic methods and resources for
purposes of building inclusion with opportunities for all?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
those needs?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to
clarify organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the
preferred performance level within an organization, was adapted for needs analysis. Assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs were generated based on personal knowledge
and related literature. These needs were validated by using interviews, literature review and
content analysis. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated comprehensively.
Definitions
Diversity: The inclusion of different types of people (as people of different races or
cultures) in a group or organization.
Minoritized Groups: A group of people that differ in some way from the majority of the
population, or any part of a whole that is smaller than the other parts.
People of Color: Primarily used in the United States and Canada to describe any person
who is not white.
The Mix: A term used to indicate a diversity population or diversity.
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Organization of the Dissertation
Five chapters are used to organize this dissertation. This chapter provided the reader with
the fundamental concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about diversity and a
lack of diversity in leadership. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the
initial concepts of gap analysis adapted to needs analysis were introduced. Chapter 2 provides a
review of the current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of diversity
importance, organizational impact, and diversity commitment are addressed. Chapter 3 details
the assumed needs for this study as well as methodology relative to the choice of participants,
data collection, and analysis. In Chapter 4, the data and results are assessed and analyzed.
Chapter 5 provides solutions, based on data and literature, for addressing the needs and closing
the performance gap as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for
the solutions.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the current literature that examines the lack of
diversity in leadership, an organizational problem. The literature review begins by focusing on
the impact to organizations due to a lack of diversity. The second section addresses the
leadership attributes that hinder effective diversity program strategies. Lastly, the third section
focuses on the organizational and cultural influences that impede diversity strategies. The last
section of Chapter 2 focuses on the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that
impact leadership’s ability to incorporate diverse program strategies.
Diversity Impact
Impact to Organizations Due to Lack of Diversity
Workforce diversity means similarities and differences among employees regarding age,
cultural background, physical abilities and disabilities, race, religion, gender, and sexual
orientation (Saxena, 2014). Demographic shifts in the U.S. labor market, specifically the
projected rapid growth of the minoritized group labor force over the next ten years (U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2004), impact organizations on a number of fronts (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).
Konrad (2003) stated three primary arguments in the business case for diversity. First,
competition for the best talent requires organizations to reach out and embrace an increasingly
diverse labor pool (Konrad, 2003). Second, a global economy requires that organizations have a
diverse workforce so that they can efficently deal with an increasingly diverse customer base
(Konrad, 2003). Thus, a diverse workforce can lead to an increased market share, whereas lack
of diversity in the workforce can lead to a shrinking market share (Konrad, 2003). A third
argument is that demographic diversity unleashes creativity, innovation, and improved group
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problem solving, which in turn enhances the competitiveness of the organization (Konrad, 2003).
In addition, concerning the context of the debate and controversy surrounding affirmative action
programs, diversity is a more palatable and “socially acceptable” way to address race and gender
issues (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004). Finally, in a multicultural society, attempting to increase
workforce diversity is merely the right thing to do as corporate citizens, regardless of the
economic implications (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).
Employee creativity. There are numerous benefits to employing a diverse group of
employees. Not only does it allow you to draw from a vast pool of talent and ideas based on the
different backgrounds and experiences, but it also helps the organization to be more attractive to
those looking for diverse working conditions (Talent Intelligence, 2014). In a study measuring
the attitudes of homogeneous teams compared to heterogeneous teams, a difference in creativity
was noted (Cox & Blake, 1991). The problem, solution creativity, was judged on originality and
practicality, lending the results to indicate that as long as the team members had similar ability
levels, the heterogeneous teams, demonstrating different levels, would prove to be more creative
than the homogeneous team (Cox & Blake, 1991).
Diversity of thought is compelling. New perspectives, constructive conflict resolution,
and fresh problem-solving approaches come to the forefront when people of varied backgrounds
work together (Grillo, 2015). It seems that the ability to integrate different points of view is
what enhances individual creativity (Viki, 2016). In research by Carmit Tadmor, bi-cultural
individuals who were able to identify with both their home and host cultures showed enhanced
creativity (Viki, 2016). What Tadmor and colleagues found was that these bi-culturals had more
significant levels of integrative complexity, which is the ability to consider and combine multiple
perspectives and points of view (Viki, 2016). Similar findings were obtained in research by Chi-
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Ying Cheng. Cheng and her colleagues found that Asian-Americans who had higher levels of
identity integration, perceived capability between their two social identities, were more creative
in coming up with food dishes, especially when using Asian and American ingredients (Viki,
2016). This research shows that when people reject or ignore their differing cultural experiences,
they may not gain from the benefits that those experiences bring (Viki, 2016). Research on
creativity and innovation has been consistent in showing the value of exposing individuals to
experiences with multiple perspectives and worldviews (Viki, 2016). It is the combination of
these various perspectives in novel ways that results in new ideas (Viki, 2016).
Workforce productivity. Employing a diversified workforce is essential for every
organization. Organizations that employ a qualified and competitive workforce, regardless of
their age, attitude, language, gender, and religion can only compete in the competitive market
(Saxena, 2014). In a recent opinion poll, 8,105 of the respondents said that it is somewhat or
very important “to have employees of different races, cultures, and backgrounds in the
workplace or businesses” (Barrington & Troske, 2001, p. 1). Businesses are under pressure to
achieve diversity because it is the “right” thing to do and because a homogeneous workforce may
be evidence of discrimination (Barrington & Troske, 2001).
Understanding the advantages of workforce diversity helps organizations establish an
organization with a competitive edge (Johnson, 2017). This advantage can include employing
workers with cultural and language skills that can lead to greater reach for the business (Johnson,
2017). The Census data states that by 2050 there will be no racial or ethnic majority in this
country (Kerby & Burns, 2012). Further, between 2000 and 2050, new immigrants and their
children will account for 83% of the growth in the working-age population (Kerby & Burns,
2012). The economy will grow and benefit from these changing demographics if businesses
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commit to meeting the needs of diverse communities as workers and consumers (Kerby & Burns,
2012).
Encouraging diversity and inclusiveness in industries is not only a matter of fairness and
ethics, but it is also smart business. In a recent study by McKinsey and Co. on the effects of top-
team diversity at a wide range of international businesses, the findings were incredibly telling:
“For companies ranking in the top quartile of executive-board diversity, the ROEs (returns on
equity) were 53% higher, on average, than they were for those in the bottom quartile” (Grillo,
2015, p. 3). The same study found that U.S. public companies with diverse executive boards
have a 95% higher return on equity than those without (Grillo, 2015). While the numbers alone
should be a call to action for leaders in organizations, the real takeaway is that by building
diverse leadership teams that reflect where our country’s demographics are headed, executives
can lead by example, showing their rank and file that they promote and support diversity at every
level (Grillo, 2015).
Leadership Attributes Hindering Diverse Strategies
Organizational scholarship, which focuses on companies creating positive work life and
performance, has devoted little attention to understanding the attributes and processes that are
required for diversity initiatives to foster greater diversity in organizations (Akinola & Thomas,
2008). Efforts to employ a more diverse workforce commonly come unstuck because firms fail
to manage diversity programs properly, become confused about what they want to do and get
wrapped up in percentages (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2006). Research conducted by J. Howard
and Associates identified reasons why there are challenges in diversity programs (Goldsmith &
Goldsmith, 2006). The first is that firms often get confused between diversity and inclusion
initiatives (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2006). The metrics firms use to define a successful
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24
diversity program differ from those used to assess an inclusion initiative (Goldsmith &
Goldsmith, 2006). While diversity centers mostly on representation, inclusion needs to reflect
organizational health factors, including employee engagement (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2006).
Another factor is that companies fail to manage their initiatives well, frequently struggling with
who is taking ownership of them (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2006).
When faced with the complexity of leading a diversity change process, even committed
senior leaders often find themselves confused, frustrated, and looking for someone to simply
give them the best practices and tell them what to do (Williams, 2013).
Commitment to diversity and diversity policies. Companies who have experienced the
most significant increase in leader diversity have typically had active, effective senior leadership
support (Kilian, 2009). In addition, the majority of companies with successful track records
possess direct CEO involvement, either formally or informally, in promoting events, holding
diversity reviews with senior executives and linking the diversity strategy to the overall business
strategy (Kilian, 2009).
Organizations that are successful in achieving managerial diversity clearly have human
resource systems and practices that hold managers and executives accountable for achieving
diversity objectives and encourage them to actively develop women and people of color (Kilian,
2009). Measurement tools used range from 360-degree feedback to peer reviews, employee
attitude surveys, performance reviews that incorporate diversity objectives, and periodic reviews
of workforce demographics (Kilian, 2009). About three-quarters of the companies studied report
that they directly or indirectly link diversity to management bonuses and incentives (Giscombe
& Mattis, 2002). Kalev, Dobbin, and Kelly (2006) found that establishing clear leadership and
responsibility for change has been the most successful of all diversity initiatives. As in the case
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25
of Sodexo USA, this organization developed a scorecard which includes the manager’s success
in recruitment, retention, promotion, and development of all employees and his or her bonus
reflects that expectation (Dolezalek, 2008).
Understanding diversity and the importance. Diversity is not a liberal ideological
movement to be supported or resisted, but instead, it is a reality in today’s business environment
(Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2003). Managed well, diversity provides benefits that increase success;
however, when ignored or mismanaged, it brings challenges and obstacles that can hinder the
organization’s ability to succeed (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2003).
Diversity by itself is not enough. Leadership in the twenty-first century demands that
executives and their organizations move beyond diversity alone to capture the potential that
comes from inclusion (Lange & Tapia, 2016). If diversity is “the mix,” then inclusion is making
the mix work by leveraging the wealth of knowledge, insights, and perspectives in an open,
trusting, and diverse workplace (Lange & Tapia, 2016). With inclusion, organizations can
capture a competitive advantage from changing demographics across the workplace and in the
marketplace (Lange & Tapia, 2016). An organization with a reputation for inclusiveness
becomes a magnet, attracting top diverse talent; in turn, that talent can better tap markets’
potential, whether in emerging economies or among a broader set of consumers (Lange & Tapia,
2016).
Organizational and Cultural Influences that Impede Diversity
Successful collaboration requires us to accurately gauge other people’s beliefs and
intentions (Kets & Sandroni, 2015). In doing so, we tap into something called “theory of mind,”
meaning I am trying to think about your mind (Kets & Sandroni, 2015). Kets and Sandroni
(2015) state that in thinking about the theory of mind, you are trying to put yourself into the
LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP

26
shoes of someone else, and to do that, you use your own experiences as a guide. The more
culture is understood, the easier it is to communicate effectively because individual thoughts and
preferences will serve as a guide to understanding others (Kets & Sandroni, 2015). Conversely,
a lack of understanding will make it difficult to internalize others’ viewpoints, which can have a
range of consequences (Kets & Sandroni, 2015). Culture works in the same manner. A strong
corporate culture sets the rules of engagement; as Kets and Sandroni (2015) explain, a manager
can choose to communicate with the team in a variety of ways, tersely or diplomatically, or even
passive-aggressively. Someone who can accurately gauge the manager’s intent will be in a good
position to succeed on the team (Kets & Sandroni, 2015).
Using game theory, mathematics concerned with the analysis of strategies for dealing
with competitive situations, researchers modeled how people might decide to join groups (Kets
& Sandroni, 2015). Researchers assumed that in each group, it would be easier for a pair of
individuals to coordinate on a task when they shared a common culture, as they would also share
a common vision for how the task should proceed (Kets & Sandroni, 2015). Researchers
demonstrated that when coordination was rewarded, and when a group’s culture was strong, its
members became increasingly like-minded: individuals who were a good fit for the culture were
disproportionately attracted to that group, while individuals with a different vision opted to go
elsewhere (Kets & Sandroni, 2015). In other words, over time, a strong company culture
increases homophily, tendency to gravitate to like-minded people (Kets & Sandroni, 2015).
Organizational behavior. Organizations usually take one of two paths in managing
diversity. In the name of equality and fairness, they encourage (and expect) women and people
of color to blend in (Thomas & Ely, 1996). In addition, they set them apart in jobs that relate
specifically to their backgrounds, assigning them to areas that require them to interface with
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27
clients or customers of the same identity group (Thomas & Ely, 1996). Managing diversity
means acknowledging people’s differences and recognizing these differences as valuable (Bedi,
Iakra, & Gupta, 2014). In addition, managing diversity focuses on maximizing the ability of all
employees to contribute to organizational goals (Bedi et al., 2014).
Ignoring diversity issues costs time, money, and efficiency (Bedi et al., 2014). Some of
the consequences can include unhealthy tension, loss of productivity because of increased
conflict, inability to attract and retain talented people of all kinds, complaints and legal actions,
and inability to retain valuable employees, resulting in lost investments in recruitment and
training discrimination and promoting inclusiveness (Bedi et al., 2014). Many organizations
think that fairness is treating everyone the same; however, this type of treatment does not fare
well with a diverse staff (Bedi et al., 2014). When employees have limited English language
skills or reading proficiency, transmitting vital information through complicated memos is not an
effective way of communicating with them (Bedi et al., 2014). A process that takes into account
the diverse levels of English language and reading proficiency among the staff are efforts on the
part of the management team that should be supported as good management practices (Bedi et
al., 2014).
Organizational strategies and programs. Resistance to diversity occurred during the
pre-civil rights movement in the U.S. and the post-colonial era in Europe, where there were clear
lines between racial and ethnic groups and few pressures for workforce diversity (Dass & Parker,
2001). As the pressures increased in the 1960s, concerns that minoritized groups might displace
the established majorities became an important reason to resist diversity (Dass & Parker, 2001).
Pressures for diversity range in intensity and can vary and even conflict. In the U.S.,
some pressures favor immigrant hiring, while other pressures oppose it (Dass & Parker, 2001).
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28
The implementation of diversity initiatives depends not only on these pressures, perspectives,
and responses but also on where managers place diversity on their lists of organizational
priorities (Dass & Parker, 2001). One manager may view all forms of diversity as strategic,
while another sees gender diversity as marginal and ethnic diversity as strategic (Dass & Parker,
2001). These priorities and pressures combine to yield three approaches to implementation:
episodic, freestanding, and systematic (Dass & Parker, 2001). These three approaches to
implementation are more or less integrated with core organizational activities (Dass & Parker,
2001).
Episodic approach is usually dominant when there are few pressures for diversity and
managers view diversity as a marginal issue (Dass & Parker, 2001). The diverse approaches of
these managers tend to be isolated, disjointed, and separate from core organizational activities
(Dass & Parker, 2001). They may make it difficult to identify, understand, or connect various
diversity issues and pressures (Dass & Parker, 2001).
Executives who experience moderate pressures for diversity and think of it as a
significant, but side issue are likely to formalize diversity initiatives, but without integrating
them fully with core activities (Dass & Parker, 2001). The freestanding approach can create a
plethora of unrelated programs and generate more sanctions than rewards (Dass & Parker, 2001).
If multiple freestanding programs and projects are introduced serially, diversity may be viewed
as serving political expediency more than organizational plans (Dass & Parker, 2001).
Executives who experience high pressures for diversity and view diversity as a strategic
issue are most likely to adopt a systematic approach to diversity (Dass & Parker, 2001). This
approach involves linking diversity initiatives with existing systems and core activities of the
organization (Dass & Parker, 2001). While a systematic approach is expected to be
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29
comprehensive, it also incorporates simplicity and flexibility (Dass & Parker, 2001). Although
both the freestanding and systematic approaches may involve such diversity initiatives as work
and family issues or veterans’ affairs, only systematic approaches would integrate programs with
one another and with structural mechanisms (Dass & Parker, 2001).
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
Knowledge and Skills
During the 2008 presidential race, public attention to the importance of gender and race
for leadership escalated dramatically in the United States (Chin & Eagly, 2010). When a
Caucasian female and a biracial male emerged as the Democratic front-runners, and a Caucasian
female was selected as the Republican vice-presidential nominee, questions about how gender
and race might affect the election and presidential leadership preoccupied journalists and
dominated many conversations (Chin & Eagly, 2010). Never before had the American public
discussions about leadership been so intensely focused on the confluence of gender and race
(Chin & Eagly, 2010).
The growing diversity among the workforce challenges all leaders to take into account
the perspectives of people representing backgrounds and beliefs. As economies shift and
globalization increases, it will be imperative to have a diverse leadership team and employee
base. In order to have a diverse workforce, leaders must possess the necessary knowledge and
skills. In the theoretical model linking achievement, choices are related to two sets of beliefs, the
individual’s expectations for success and the importance or value the individual attaches to the
various options perceived by the individual as valuable; essentially, “Can I do it?” “Do I want to
do it?” (Eccles, 2006). “Can I do the task?” predicts better performance and more motivation to
select more challenging tasks (Eccles, 2006). These knowledge types are discussed in upcoming
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30
sections. This section of the literature review focuses on the knowledge and skills necessary for
leadership to achieve, by March 1, 2018, the stakeholder goal of implementing a diversity
program, which includes regular communication of organizational vision and commitment to
equity, and communication of multicultural competencies for staff to demonstrate in their daily
work and all aspects of their work activities.
Knowledge influences. Leaders must possess the knowledge and skills that are
necessary to support a diverse workforce. The literature analyzed in this section will encompass
the four knowledge types. Krathwohl (2002) defined the different types of knowledge as
declarative (factual and knowledge concept); conceptual (knowledge about the differences
between different approaches to learning and performance); procedural (knowledge of how to do
something); and metacognition (evaluating strengths and challenges).
Value of diverse workforce. Leadership needs knowledge of the importance of diversity
in the workplace. Diversity refers to the co-existence of employees from various socio-cultural
backgrounds within the company (Henry & Evans, 2007). Diversity includes cultural factors
such as race, gender, age, color, ethnicity, and physical ability (Henry & Evans, 2007). As a
result of these cultural factors, the literature states that companies need to embrace diversity and
look for ways to become inclusive organizations because diversity has the potential to yield
greater work productivity and competitive advantages (Green et al., 2015). The literature goes
on to attest that diversity in the workplace can reduce lawsuits and increase marketing
opportunities, recruitment, creativity, and business image (Green et al., 2015). Cultural diversity
in the workplace has grown as a trend over the passage of time with the increase of globalization
in the world (Martin, 2014). This growth requires leaders of large and small organizations to
learn how to deal with this diversity as well as to adopt new policies and guidelines for workers
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31
(McFarlin, 2016). Employees belonging to different cultures usually have different ways of
thinking and can thus analyze a matter at hand from a variety of perspectives (Martin, 2014). As
a result, leaders must capitalize on the strengths of cultural diversity in order to grow and expand
the organization, and better serve the customers.
Recruitment strategy. Leadership needs to know the purpose of a diversity program.
Shackleford (2010) suggests that the competitive edge and survival of an organization depends
on how well that organization manages its hiring, recruitment, and retention practices. The
literature states to reach the highest levels of success, organizations must abandon tactical
approaches to recruiting, a series of unconnected activities, and turn to a Strategic Diversity
Recruiting process (SDR) (Shackleford, 2010). Leaders must understand that long-term success
comes from a process that starts with building relationships with critical sources and includes
implementing robust strategies for retention (Shackleford, 2010). The author states that the
strategic approach to diversity recruiting links all activities together such that the synergy
accelerates success (Shackleford, 2010). An SDR has five components. The first component is
culture shift. Culture shift is where employers understand diversity as a business and value
diversity as a necessity (Shackleford, 2010). The second component is outreach. Outreach is
where the goal is to build a positive and consistent image of the organization (Shackleford,
2010). The third component is recruiting. Recruiting states that the goal is to identify and attract
talent from a diverse pool and ensure those candidates are treated fairly throughout the process
(Shackleford, 2010). The fourth component is retention. The goal of retention is to ensure the
organization has a strong onboarding, mentoring, and development process (Shackleford, 2010).
The last component is management infrastructure. This component is designed to support the
long-term diversity outreach, which is recruiting and retention efforts (Shackleford, 2010). All
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32
of these components working together create a successful SDR process (Shackleford, 2010).
Leaders must realize that success is not dependent on any one of the components, but in the
collective effect of all five (Shackleford, 2010). Practical strategies for all five components must
be present for diversity recruitment to be successful (Shackleford, 2010).
Leadership strengths. Leadership needs to know how their strengths can assist in
developing an effective diversity program. The literature informs that a successful leader must
know what leadership is expected of their roles and execute it accordingly (Chuang, 2013).
However, individuals with different cultural backgrounds may vary in their conception and
expectations of leadership (Chuang, 2013). In order for leadership to be effective in their roles,
as well as effective in communication, leaders and human resource managers must redefine
management and leadership (Kreitz, 2007). Segments of society are growing and changing, and
leadership teams must ensure that their professional development coincides with the growing
changes. Leadership must have a stake in the prosperity of society as creating and managing a
diverse workforce should be seen as a social and moral imperative (Henry & Evans, 2007).
Organizations employing a diverse workforce can supply a greater variety of solutions to
problems in service, sourcing, and allocation of resources (Srivalli & Rajesh, 2013).

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Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission for the City of Carina is to provide a safe, healthy, welcoming atmosphere
where people choose to live; promote economic vitality and strategically position Carina for
the future, and build an inclusive city with opportunities for all.
Organizational Global Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina will increase the diversity of employees in senior
leadership positions by 25%.
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina leadership team will implement a diversity program,
which includes regular communication of organizational vision and commitment to equity,
and communication of multicultural competencies for staff to demonstrate in their daily
work and all aspects of their work activities.
Knowledge Influence
Knowledge Type
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural,
or metacognitive Knowledge Influence Assessment
Leadership needs
knowledge of the
importance of diversity
in the workplace.
Declarative Knowledge Leadership was asked to identify the
value of a diverse workforce.
Leadership needs to
know the purpose of a
diversity program.
Conceptual Knowledge Leadership was asked to identify five
methods that demonstrate effective
communication and engagement.
Leadership needs to
know how their strengths
can assist in developing
an effective diversity
program.
Metacognitive
knowledge
Leadership was asked to assess their
effectiveness by utilizing the 360-
review process, in order to determine
their effectiveness in communication
and inclusion.

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34
Motivation
Leaders must possess the necessary knowledge and skills to manage a diverse workforce;
however, they must also possess the necessary motivation. According to Eccles (2006),
motivation is defined as actively starting something, persisting until it is finished, and investing
enough mental effort to reach performance standards. Eccles (2006) states that people will be
most likely to engage fully in learning activities if they have confidence in their ability to do well
and place high value on doing well. Leaders must possess intrinsic value in workplace diversity,
and view the perceived effort or cost value as a means of accomplishing the goal. The two
theories that will be analyzed in this literature review, as it relates to leadership motivation, are
self-efficacy theory and the expectancy value theory.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy theory refers to personal beliefs and expectations
about one’s own capability to organize and implement (Pajares, 2006). According to social
cognitive theory, self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being,
and personal accomplishment (Pajares, 2006). Unless people believe that their actions can
produce the outcomes they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of
difficulties (Pajares, 2006). The literature states that in order for an organization to become
diverse, senior leadership must express a commitment to diversity and follow the applicable
policies (Marquis et al., 2008). Diversity at the top of the organization demonstrates the
leadership’s value and support for diversity.
Leadership self-efficacy. Leadership need to believe they are capable of effectively
implementing a diversity program in order to recruit diverse employees of all levels. The
literature suggests that even within organizations where diversity recruiting is recognized, many
struggle with achieving the level of employee diversity desired or often required for success
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35
(Shackleford, 2010). Diversity self-efficacy encompasses an element of self-awareness about
one’s own beliefs about diversity (Combs, 2002). Leadership in organizations must provide a
more systematic and innovative approach to harnessing and utilizing the positive influences of
difference (Combs, 2002). Leadership cannot focus solely on “awareness” about the need for
diversity, but rather regard themselves as being capable of regulating and directing their actions
regarding diversity (Young, Madsen, & Young, 2010). In addition, leadership must have the
capacity to be active diversity change agents, if they want to create an inclusive organization.
Leaders must perceive a high level of confidence in their management capabilities to address
intergroup conflicts and establish relational partnerships among demographically diverse groups
(Young et al., 2010). Research reveals that when leaders are given the skills and confidence to
respond to issues of diversity, they will bridge the gap between diversity training and diversity
performance (Young et al., 2010).
Expectancy value theory. Expectancy value theory is a strong predictor of persistence,
mental effort, and performance, once choice has been made (Eccles, 2006). The “Can I do the
task?” question predicts better performance and more motivation to select more challenging tasks
(Eccles, 2006). Leaders often run into roadblocks when trying to accomplish goals, due to
mental effort. If a leader answers no to the question of “Can I do the task?” then they are
unlikely to fully engage in learning opportunities. However, if the leader answers yes to the
“Can I do the task?” question and no to “Do I want to do the task?” research indicates that the
leader is unlikely to engage in learning opportunities (Eccles, 2006). Asking the question, “Do I
want to do the task?” has a perceived value determined by four related constructs. The first
construct is intrinsic interest. Intrinsic interest is the enjoyment one expects to experience while
engaging in the task. The second construct is attainment value. Attainment value is the extent to
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36
which engaging in the task is consistent with one’s self-image or identity. The third construct is
the utility value. This construct is the value of the task for facilitating one’s long-range goals or
in helping one obtain immediate or long-range external rewards. The fourth and last construct is
the perceived cost of engaging in the activity.
Leadership attributions. Leaders should feel that an ineffective diversity program is
due to their own disengagement in diversity efforts, rather than a lack of diverse talent pools. If
failure seems likely, some will not try, because trying and failing threatens their ability self-
concepts (Eccles, 2006). The literature indicates that avoiding challenging tasks is a good way to
avoid or minimize failure experiences (Eccles, 2006).
Perceived costs. The value of a task also depends on a set of beliefs that can best be
characterized as the cost of participating in the activity (Eccles, 2006). Perceived costs are
influenced by anxiety, fear of failure, fear of social consequences, and rejection by peers (Eccles,
2006). In addition, cost, as indicated in the literature, can also be conceptualized in terms of the
loss of time and energy (Eccles, 2006). People have limited time and energy, they cannot do
everything they would like, and they must choose among activities (Eccles, 2006). Eccles
(2006) further indicates that cost is especially significant in choosing among activities and that
socio-cultural processes linked to social identity formation and cultural socialization should have
a big influence on the anticipated cost of the various activities competing for the leader’s time
and energy.

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37

Table 3
Assumed Motivational Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission for the City of Carina is to provide a safe, healthy, welcoming atmosphere
where people choose to live; promote economic vitality and strategically position Carina for
the future, and build an inclusive city with opportunities for all.
Organizational Global Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina will increase the diversity of employees in senior
leadership positions by 25%.
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina leadership team will implement a diversity program,
which includes regular communication of organizational vision and commitment to equity,
and communication of multicultural competencies for staff to demonstrate in their daily
work and all aspects of their work activities.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Attributions — Leadership should feel that an
ineffective diversity program is due to their
own disengagement in diversity efforts, rather
than a lack of diverse talent.
Written interview question: “Do you feel
that a diversity program strategy is
strongly influenced by the amount of
effort that is put into the process?”
Self- Efficacy — Leaders need to believe they
are capable of effectively implementing a
diversity program in order to recruit diverse
employees of all levels.
Written interview question: “Do you have
confidence in your ability to effectively
recruit diverse talent in order to have a
diverse workforce?”

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38
Stakeholder Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) identified that to close performance gaps and achieve business
goals, one should first identify the cause of the gap, and therefore, the type of performance
improvement program required. Three critical factors that must be examined during this analysis
are people’s knowledge and skills, their motivation to achieve the goal, and organizational
barriers such as a lack of necessary equipment and missing or inadequate work processes (Clark
& Estes, 2008). The following review examines organizational barriers that contribute to the
lack of diversity, at the leadership level, within organizations.
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) define cultural models as shared mental schema or
normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work. The concept incorporates
behavioral activity, as well as cognitive and affective components (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). Cultural models encode shared environmental and event interpretations, what is valued
and ideal, what settings should be enacted and avoided, who should participate, the rules of
interaction, and the purpose of the interactions (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). In more
colorful terms, cultural models can be described as “tools for the mind” (Cole, 1985, p. 47), that
represent, in a given community or ecological niche, historically evolved and shared ways of
perceiving, thinking, and storing possible responses to adaptive challenges and changing
conditions (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). In addition, cultural models define for individuals,
the way things are and should be, and fit well with cultural settings.
Cultural settings, as defined by Tharp and Gallimore (1988), are the simple, familiar,
social furniture of our family, community, and work lives. Tharp and Gallimore (1988) further
state that cultural settings are the small recurrent dramas of everyday life played on the stages of
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39
home, school, community, and the workplace. Both cultural models and settings are constrained
and enabled by the “ecological niche” (p. 336) in which they reside (Weisner, 1984).
To assess the impact of organizational factors on achievement of stakeholder goals,
cultural models, and cultural settings will be evaluated. The cultural models and settings that
will be examined in this literature consist of leadership resistance, and cultural lack of awareness,
overwhelmed leadership, and role models, as shown in Table 4.
Cultural model: leadership resistance. There is a general resistance by leadership to
change staffing methodologies in order to recruit diverse employees at all levels. Leadership is a
critical component of an agency’s organizational context and has an important influence on an
organizational change strategy and how it impacts the organization (Prindle, 2012). Business
trends in the early part of the 21st century include more organizational changes for purposes of
streamlining operations to better adapt to the dynamic business environment (Prindle, 2012).
Because of these changes, the leadership theory and purposeful resistance was proposed. The
purposeful resistance theory refers to organizational leaders resisting organizational change for
purposes of retaining their position of power in that organization (Prindle, 2012). The purposeful
resistance theory relates to the power dimension of leader role behavior in the context of the
organizational setting (Prindle, 2012). The basic principles of the theory are derived from certain
aspects of the style approach to leadership, psychodynamic approach to leadership, and
contingency theory (Prindle, 2012). The style approach emphasizes the behavior of the leader
and focuses on what leaders do, rather than who leaders are; alternatively, the psychodynamic
approach presumes that leaders are not conscious of the organizational consequences of their
behavior (Northouse, 2001). The contingency theory is concerned with styles and situations and
suggests that organizational cultures will develop a specific set of characteristics in order to
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40
adapt to a particular internal and environmental configuration (Prindle, 2012). To that end,
leaders must be able to effectively lead change in order to remain competitive in the marketplace.
Cultural model: cultural lack of awareness. There is a cultural lack of awareness,
among leaders, relative to diversity, hindering the institutional goal of increasing the diversity of
employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. Cultural awareness is the next stage of
understanding other groups, as well as being open to the idea of changing cultural attitudes
(Hogan-Garcia, 1999). In addition, cultural awareness is the foundation of communication and
involves the ability to stand back from ourselves and become aware of our cultural values,
beliefs, and perceptions (Henry & Evans, 2007). Leadership is a key component of all
organizations, but its function and capacity are getting more complicated with increased
involvement in globalization and technology development (Chuang, 2013). Technological
advances extend the possibility of a global economy, which has changed the way people do
business and communicate (Chuang, 2013). Leaders must look at the world change as a
challenge and an opportunity for organizational growth and individual development (Chuang,
2013).
Cultural setting: leadership is overwhelmed by departmental goals. Leadership is
overwhelmed by departmental goals and shortages in staff, which keeps them from investing in
diversity efforts into diversity initiatives. Research shows that memory, attention, and
concentration suffer when people try to manage a heavy workload, which often involves a
constant stream of communication and distractions that are a regular part of the workplace
(Mosow, 2015). Mosow (2015) further indicates that many leaders struggle to focus at work,
and while thinking, writing, and strategizing deserve uninterrupted time, busy tasks and meetings
often consume the day, pushing important projects to the side. The first thing that leaders need
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41
to understand about diversity is that companies who handle diversity most effectively do not
have to separate diversity initiatives from everyday initiatives (Thomas, 2011). When diversity
is integrated into all processes of the organization, it becomes a lens for looking at, identifying,
developing, and advancing talent (Thomas, 2011). Leaders need to understand that they must
build accountability into their systems with regard to their managers taking responsibility for
creating a diverse and inclusive work environment (Thomas, 2011).
Cultural setting: lack of role models. There is a lack of role models within the
organization that has incorporated a diverse workforce. Companies who have seen the greatest
increase in leader diversity have typically had active, effective support from the top (Kilian,
2009). Having CEOs and top executives support any diversity and inclusion initiative is
important, but managers and supervisors are equally important (Santana, 2011). If managers do
not see the connection to their function and diversity, they will not feel compelled to behave in a
manner that implements a diverse vision for their teams, resulting in the organization not moving
toward a diverse workforce (Santana, 2011). Senior executives must create the message that
diversity is encouraged, and actively reinforce the message at every opportunity (Kilian, 2009).

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Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational Mission
The mission for the City of Carina is to provide a safe, healthy, welcoming atmosphere
where people choose to live; promote economic vitality and strategically position Carina for
the future, and build an inclusive city with opportunities for all.
Organizational Global Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina will increase the diversity of employees in senior
leadership positions by 25%.
Stakeholder Goal
By March 1, 2018, the City of Carina leadership team will implement a diversity program,
which includes regular communication of organizational vision and commitment to equity,
and communication of multicultural competencies for staff to demonstrate in their daily
work and all aspects of their work activities.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
There is a general resistance by leadership to
change staffing methodologies.
Interview question about the resistance
to change or observations of resistance
to change.
Cultural Model Influence 2:
There is a cultural of lack of awareness relative
to diversity, hindering the institutional goal of
increasing diversity in senior leadership positions
by 25%.
Interview questions about lack of
awareness of diversity.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Leadership is overwhelmed by departmental
goals and shortages in staff, which keeps them
from investing efforts into diversity initiatives.
Interview questions about daily routines
and feelings of being overwhelmed.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
There is a lack of role models within the
organization that has incorporated a diverse
workforce
Interview questions about knowing
others they could turn to ask how they
have incorporated diversity into the
workforce.

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Conclusion
The Carina City established an organizational goal of increasing the diversity of
employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. The purpose of this study was to conduct a
needs analysis in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to
reach the organizational performance goal of promoting an understanding and respect for
diversity. In addition, the study determined the recommended knowledge, motivational, and
organizational solutions. Literature relative to the declarative, conceptual, and metacognitive
knowledge of the stakeholder has been analyzed. Literature regarding the stakeholder’s assumed
motivational influences, from the perspective of attributions and self-efficacy, has been
reviewed. Stakeholder organizational influences have also been reviewed, analyzing the cultural
model influence and the cultural setting influence. A qualitative method that involves interviews
was utilized to validate the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences, for the
Carina City stakeholders; the method is discussed in Chapter 3.

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44
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project
Cultivating a diverse workforce should be one of the biggest priorities within
organizations (Santos, 2014). Diversity is about including different ideas, backgrounds, and
opinions in the mix when making key decisions, developing and generating new ideas and
solutions to our internal challenges, and also to our clients’ toughest challenges externally
(Santos, 2014). In addition, diversity is about encouraging a variety of thought, embracing new
ideas, and creating a culture that fosters innovation by valuing these differences (Santos, 2014).
According to the research, there is a significant lack of diversity in various industries,
such as the commercial real estate industry (Santos, 2014). Just 79 of the Fortune 500 companies
(15.8%) have boards with more than 40% diversity representation (Santos, 2014). Only six out
of 175 commercial real estate companies (3.4%) have boards with more than 40% diversity
representation (Santos, 2014). This data represents missing key opportunities to optimize
because there is a lack of diversified talent necessary to innovate at a competitive level (Santos,
2014). The research indicates that creating a diverse workforce can contribute to increased
retention and productivity, contribute to an organization’s responsiveness to an increasingly
diverse world of customers, improve relations with the surrounding community, increase the
organization’s ability to cope with change, and expand the creativity of the organization overall
(Santos, 2014).
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. The analysis
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45
began by generating a list of possible needs and moved to examining these systematically to
focus on actual or validated needs. While a complete needs analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus in this analysis was all City of
Carina leadership.
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
A conceptual framework is a component of establishing a foundational model for
understanding influencers of the research study. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) define a conceptual
framework as an underlying structure, the scaffolding or frame for a study. Based on this
definition, this study contained two constructs — leadership and organizational practices. These
constructs, while independent of each other, enabled me to understand the leadership knowledge
and motivation that will influence their ability to support the implementation of increasing the
diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%.
The purpose of a conceptual framework is to construct the research design around the
questions the study is exploring (Maxwell, 2013). The framework is intended to build an
understanding of the problem and the factors that influence it, rather than solely looking for
solutions that exist in the literature (Maxwell, 2013). Through this framework, this research
study sought to gain a better understanding of the relationship between leadership, their
understanding of diversity, and organizational influences that contribute to their development.
This proposed research achieved the following objectives: determine why there is a lack
of diversity in organizational leadership; determine the knowledge influences stakeholders must
possess to support a diverse workforce; determine the motivational factors necessary for the
stakeholders to support a diverse workforce; and determine the organizational assumed
influences stakeholders must possess to support a diverse workforce. To begin, the researcher
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46
understood that there was a gap in knowledge relative to the importance of diversity for the
leadership team. As a Human Resources professional for over 24 years, professional learning
has always been a priority. In city government, training is provided to all levels of leadership, on
a consistent basis; however, training is not always perceived as essential or necessary. The
researcher in this study sought to understand if there was a correlation between a lack of
understanding of diversity and low levels of diverse employees within the leadership team.
Utilizing the conceptual framework (Figure 1), the following questions can be answered:
1. Why is there a lack of diversity in the City of Carina leadership team?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for the City
of Carina leadership to implement a diversity recruitment strategy in order to recruit
diverse employees at all levels?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
those needs?

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Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the study

Methodological Framework
This study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework (Figure 2), a
systematic analytical method that helps to clarify organizational goals and identify the gaps
between the actual performance level and the preferred performance level within an
organization. The analysis is divided into eight stages as shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process

To close performance gaps and achieve business goals, we must first identify the cause of
the gap, and therefore the type of performance improvement program required (Clark & Estes,
2008). The more novel and complex a goal, the more extensive the performance support
required for people to achieve it (Clark & Estes, 2008). Performance support can only be
determined after an analysis of what is required to close a specific gap, and whether those
required elements are readily available in the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Clark and Estes (2008) identify three critical factors that must be examined during the
analysis process: people’s knowledge and skills; their motivation to achieve the goal (particularly
when compared with other work goals they must also achieve); and organizational barriers such
as a lack of necessary equipment and missing or inadequate work processes. The purpose of the
individual and team gap analysis is to identify whether all employees have adequate knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support to achieve important work goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
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49
All three of these factors must be in place and aligned with each other for successful goal
achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process utilizes various approaches for gathering
and analyzing data. This study utilized methods such as interviews and document analysis. Data
was collected through interviews consisting of open-ended questions for purposes of gauging an
overall understanding. In order to have an effective qualitative interview process, probing
questions were asked.
Assessment of Performance Influences
The KMO framework provided the researcher with an opportunity to assess all three
components in each analysis phase. This study design included individual interviews and
document analysis. Data was collected for declarative, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge influences through interviews. Motivational influences intended to gather data
relative to attribution theory and self-efficacy theory were collected through interviews.
Organizational influences were collected primarily through interviews and document analysis.
Table 5 outlines the KMO factors.

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Table 5
Sources of Assumed Influences — Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Source Knowledge Motivation Organization
Learning and
Motivation
and
Organizational
Theory
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Leadership needs
knowledge of the
importance of diversity in
the workplace.
Leadership needs to know
what a diversity program is.
Leadership needs to know
how to recruit diverse
employees.
Leadership needs to know
how their strengths can
assist in developing an
effective diversity program.
Motivational Influences
Attributions:
Leadership should feel
that an ineffective
diversity program is due
to their own
disengagement in
diversity efforts, rather
than a lack of diverse
talent.
Self-Efficacy:
Leadership needs to
believe they are capable
of effectively
implementing a
diversity program in
order to recruit diverse
employees of all levels.
Organizational Influences
Cultural Model:
There is a general resistance by
leadership to change staffing
methodologies.
There is a culture of lack of
awareness relative to diversity,
hindering the institutional goal of
increasing the diversity of
employees in senior leadership
positions by 25%.
Cultural Setting Influence:
Leadership is overwhelmed by
departmental goals, and shortages
in staff, which keeps them from
investing efforts into diversity.
There is a lack of role models
within the organization that has
incorporated a diverse workforce.
Companies need to embrace
diversity and look for ways
to become inclusive
organizations because
diversity has the potential to
yield greater work
productivity and
competitive advantages
(Green et al., 2015).
Shackleford (2010) suggests
that the competitive edge
and survival of an
organization depends on
how well that organization
manages its hiring,
recruitment, and retention
practices.
Leadership must have a
stake in the prosperity of
society as creating and
managing a diverse
workforce should be a
social and moral imperative
(Henry & Evans, 2007).
Unless people believe
that their actions can
produce the outcomes
they desire, they have
little incentive to act or
to persevere in the face
of difficulties (Pajares,
2006).
Unfortunately, far too
many hiring officials,
responsible for creating
diversity in their
organizations, fail to
realize that recruiting
diversity is indeed a
science (Shackleford,
2010).
Leadership is a critical component
of an agency’s organizational
context and has a significant
influence on an organizational
change strategy and how it impacts
the organization (Prindle, 2012).
The psychodynamic approach
presumes that leaders are not
conscious of the organizational
consequences of their behaviors
(Northouse, 2001).
Leadership must look at the world
change as a challenge and an
opportunity for organizational
growth and individual
development (Chuang, 2013).
The first thing that leaders need to
understand about diversity is that
companies who handle diversity
most effectively do not have to
separate the program (Thomas,
2011).

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51
Knowledge Assessment
Leadership must possess the knowledge and skills that are necessary to support a diverse
workforce. For this study, knowledge was measured in the form of interviews and document
analysis. Krathwohl (2002) defined the different types of knowledge as declarative (factual and
knowledge concept); conceptual (knowledge about the differences between different approaches
to learning and performance); procedural (knowledge of how to do something); and
metacognition (evaluating strengths and challenges). Interview questions to assess conceptual or
factual knowledge involved open-ended questions asking leaders to identify methods that
demonstrate effective communication and engagement. To gain an understanding of procedural
knowledge, the researcher applied interview questions to assess evidence of inclusion.
Metacognitive knowledge, relative to evaluating strengths and challenges, was assessed through
interview questions, meant to solicit specific responses to their reflections relative to diversity.

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Table 6
Knowledge Assessment
Assumed Knowledge Knowledge Influence Assessment
Declarative: Leadership needs
knowledge of the importance of
diversity in the workplace.
Interview:
Leadership was asked to identify the value of a
diverse workforce.
Conceptual: Leadership needs to know
what a recruitment strategy is.
Interview:
Leadership was asked to identify methods that
demonstrate effective communication and
engagement.
Procedural: Leadership needs to know
how to recruit diverse employees.
Interview:
Leadership was asked to draft a sample
recruitment strategy that would be effective in
recruiting diverse talent.
Metacognitive: Leadership needs to
know how their strengths can assist in
developing an effective diversity
recruitment strategy.
Interview:
Leadership was asked to assess their own
effectiveness by utilizing the 360-review process,
in order to determine their effectiveness in
communication and inclusion.

Motivation Assessment
Leaders must possess the necessary knowledge and skills to manage a diverse workforce;
however, they must also possess the necessary motivation. Motivation is defined as actively
starting something, persisting until it is finished, and investing enough mental effort to reach
performance standards (Eccles, 2006). Eccles (2006) stated that people would be most likely to
engage fully in learning activities if they have confidence in their ability to do well and place a
high value on doing well. Leaders must possess intrinsic value in workplace diversity, and view
the perceived effort or cost value as a means of accomplishing the goal. The two theories that
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53
were analyzed are self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory. A qualitative interview was
utilized to measure the assumed motivational influences.

Table 7
Motivation Assessment
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Attributions — Leadership should feel that an
ineffective diversity program is due to their
own disengagement in diversity efforts, rather
than a lack of diverse talent.
Written interview question:
“Do you feel that a diversity program is
strongly influenced by the amount of effort
that is put into the process?”
Self-Efficacy — Leaders need to believe they
are capable of effectively implementing a
diversity program in order to recruit diverse
employees of all levels.
Written interview question:
“Do you feel confident about your ability
to effectively recruit diverse talent in order
to have a diverse workforce?”

Organizational Cultural Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) identified that to close performance gaps and achieve business
goals, we should first identify the cause of the gap, and therefore, the type of performance
improvement program required. The three critical factors that must be examined during this
analysis are people’s knowledge and skills, their motivations to achieve the goal, and
organizational barriers such as a lack of necessary equipment and missing or inadequate work
processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). The assumed organizational influences, cultural models, and
cultural settings were viewed utilizing an interview instrument.

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Table 8
Organizational Assessment
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
There is a general resistance by leadership to change
staffing methodologies.
Interview question about the
resistance to change or observations
of resistance to change.
Cultural Model Influence 2:
There is cultural of lack of awareness relative to
diversity, hindering the institutional goal of
increasing diversity in employees in senior leadership
positions by 25%.
Interview questions about lack of
awareness to diversity.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Leadership is overwhelmed by departmental goals
and shortages in staff, which keeps them from
investing efforts into diversity.
Interview questions about daily
routines and feelings of being
overwhelmed.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
There is a lack of role models within the organization
that have incorporated a diverse workforce.
Interview questions about knowing
others they could ask how they have
incorporated diversity into the
workforce.

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the overall
organizational goal of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by
25%, the Carina leadership team served as the stakeholder of focus for this study. There are 14
individuals that serve as the leadership team for the City of Carina. Each of these leaders is
directly involved with the organizational goals; together, they are the agents that drive
organizational success through effective goal management.
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55
The research design for this study was a qualitative approach, which encompassed
interviews and document analysis. The interview method contained a sampling strategy, which
highlighted what is typical, normal, and average (Patton, 2015).
Participant Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Must be a full-time member of the leadership team.
Criterion 2. Employed as a leader for at least six months.
Criterion 3. Must have direct reports.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Must be a full-time member of the leadership team.
Criterion 2. Employed as a leader for at least six months in order to have exposure to
organizational culture.
Criterion 3. Must have direct reports.
Interview Strategy and Rationale
In this study, the stakeholder group was the Carina leadership team. The nonprobability
or purposeful sampling followed a maximum sampling. The maximum variation sampling
sometimes looks for negative or disconfirming instances of the phenomenon (Miles, Huberman,
& Saldaña, 2014). In addition, the maximum variation sampling involved identifying and
seeking out those individuals who represent the widest possible range of the characteristics for
this study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study employed a qualitative methods approach to examine the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that influence leadership behaviors toward diversity.
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Qualitative methods rely on text and image data, have unprecendented steps in the analysis, and
draw on diverse designs (Creswell, 2014).
Interviews
The qualitative phase of this study consisted of interviews with the leadership team from
the City of Carina. The interviewees were purposefully selected and included all leaders who
have direct reports, with the exception of one leader that declined to interview.
Each leader was formally interviewed one time. Prior to conducting the interview, the
leader was informed that the interview would be audio recorded, with their consent. If the leader
opted not to be audio recorded, they were not interviewed. As a result, all leaders consented to
being audio recorded. In addition to being audio recorded, hand-written notes were taken during
each interview.
The formal interview took place in the leader’s private, closed-door office, in order for
the leader to feel comfortable and open with responses. Instructions for the interview were
provided prior to the commencement of the interview, and all interviews and questions were
completed in English. The specific list of questions for the interview, which were consistently
asked of each manager, were open-ended. Open-ended interview questions are those that yield
descriptive data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Where applicable, follow-up questions were asked
in order to either clarify the interviewee’s answer or to gain additional information. The
researcher did not engage in the interview, from a discussion perspective, as the goal was to
collect the interview responses from the interviewee. The interview protocol is attached in
Appendix A.
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57
Documents and Artifacts
The last data collection strategy is documents and artifacts. During the process of
research, documents were collected, relative to public or private documents (Creswell, 2014).
This collection strategy was for the purpose of obtaining documents relative to formal policies
and procedures regarding the open-door policy, discrimination, and social media. The
documents mentioned above were also referenced by some of the participants during their
interview.
Data Analysis
The stakeholder group consisted of 13 leaders. All 13 leaders were eligible for the
interviews based on the sampling criteria; however, one leader opted not to participate in the
study.
At the conclusion of all interviews, transcripts were drafted and reviewed for any
discoverable themes that could be depicted. Each transcript was open coded, identifying any
empirical codes that correlated to the study’s conceptual framework, addressing knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. Secondly, the data was analyzed into axial codes,
which allowed the researcher to identify patterns and themes that related to the conceptual
framework of the study. The transcripts were professionally transcribed using Rev.com.
Validity and Reliability
Validity is one of the strengths of qualitative research and is based on determining
whether the findings are accurate from the standpoint of the researcher, the participant, or the
readers of an account (Creswell, 2014). In this study, the researcher utilized a custom-made
interview protocol design. To establish validity and reliability, several strategies were applied.
Some of the strategies consisted of member checking, where the report was taken back to the
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participants for purposes of accuracy; and clarification of research bias on behalf of the
researcher (Creswell, 2014).
It was not the goal of this research to lead to unfounded conclusions, so it was critical to
ensure that threats to internal and external validity were addressed. To address internal validity,
“peer review” was utilized to ensure that the research was valid and credible. To address threats
to external validity, the researcher confirmed that the qualitative tool was consistent for each
respondent.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) define quality studies as those demonstrating trustworthiness
and credibility. In this qualitative study, credibility and trustworthiness were enhanced by way
of persistent field work, reflexivity or clarity of researcher’s bias, mechanically recorded notes,
and verbatim data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the researcher had a leadership role
in the organization being studied. As a result, this internal relationship could have been
perceived as a bias; however, to ensure a professional level of credibility, the researcher utilized
the member checks process. Member checks occur when the researcher asks participants to
review both the data collected by the interviewer and the researcher’s interpretation of the
interview data (DeVault, 2017).
Ethics
In conducting qualitative research, researchers are interested in understanding how
people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they
attribute to their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The critical concern is understanding
the phenomenon of interest from the participant’s perspectives, and not the researcher’s
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), which involves making ethical choices when conducting the study.
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In order to conduct this study, informed consent forms were presented to all participants at the
inception of the study. Glesne (2015) informed that consent is necessary to ensure participants
are aware that their participation is voluntary, all discussions will be kept confidential, and they
can withdraw at any point without penalty. Prior to any contact being made with the
participants, the researcher submitted the study to the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a committee formally designated to review,
approve, and monitor research activities involving human subjects. The IRB assures that human
subject research is conducted in accordance with federal, institutional, and ethical requirements.
In conjunction with the IRB process, participants were given consent forms for their review and
signature. The consent forms disclosed the purpose and intent of the research, the types, and
kinds of data to be collected, examples of interview questions, request to record individual and
group conversation, and the assertion that confidentiality would be maintained throughout the
study. The IRB consent form is attached in Appendix B.
Limitations and Delimitations
This research study was intended to explore the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences relative to the leadership team and their knowledge of diversity. This
research was not without limitations, as the stakeholder group was small in size. The target
number of interviews sought was 13; however, one stakeholder opted not to participate. The
researcher incurred issues with time constraints on behalf of the stakeholders, as many of the
stakeholders have field responsibilities.
Delimitations did not impact the analysis of data. Surveys were not utilized as a part of
this study due to the size of the stakeholder group, and non-leaders were not considered as a part
of the stakeholder group due to their indirect impact on the organizational goals. The researcher
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held an optimistic mindset that the study would have a significant effect on the organization and
stakeholders in order to bring forth future change.

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. Specifically, the
study sought to explore the barriers that prevent the achievement of the stakeholder goal. As
mentioned in Chapter 3, while there was no documented performance gap, there was some
indication that performance was affected based on the leadership knowledge of diversity. This
problem of practice is significant because it raises concerns regarding the long-term success of
any organization.
During this study, one form of data was collected to validate the assumed causes.
Qualitative data was obtained in the form of interviews. The initial plan also encompassed
document analysis, which included public organizational documents — open door policy, non-
harassment policy, and the social media policy. These documents were referenced during the
data collection processed and were collected and analyzed as a part of this study. The results in
this chapter are organized by the categories of knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes.
Each section discusses the results of the interviews. Tables are added, where applicable, to
provide a visual of the data collected.
Definition of Validation
Each of the influences discussed in this chapter had gaps validated, partially validated,
not at all validated or unable to be validated based on the data presented. A validated gap is one
where 50% or more of the responses either agreed that the influence was necessary or had some
variety of agreement that things are not working and need to be adjusted and was confirmed by
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62
one instrument (if only one instrument were used). An influence was determined to be partially
validated when one source of data showed 50% or more agreement that everything is working,
and nothing needs to be changed. An influence was determined to be not validated when, based
on the responses of one or both instruments (where two were used), participants concluded that
everything is working well, and no changes needed to be made. When the influence was not able
to be validated, there was not sufficient data available to determine a gap.
Respondent Demographics
One of the conditions of being able to interview the stakeholders in the City of Carina
was anonymity of the respondents. Basic demographic information was captured for the
respondents participating in the interviews. Requests to interview were sent to 13 City of Carina
senior leaders, that met the basic criteria of being a full-time member of the leadership team,
employed as a leader for a minimum of six months in order to have exposure to the
organizational culture, and have direct reports. Of the 13 respondents, 12 were successfully
interviewed, with one decline. One of the demographic questions in the interview asked, “How
long have you served in your role for your organization?” Figure 3 shows that 33% of the
respondents have been employed with the City of Carina for 1–5 years, while 17% have been
employed 15+ years. Other respondents, 25%, had been employed with the city for 6–10 years,
while another 25% had been employed with the city for 10–15 years.

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Figure 3. How long have you served in your role for your organization?

The interview also asked, “How many employees do you manage?” This question
revealed that leaders with 1–5 years of service managed 25% of the city employees; leaders with
6–10 years of service managed 15% of the city employees; leaders with 10–15 years of service
managed 46% of the city employees, and leaders with more than 15 years of service managed
13% of the city employees. These results, shown in Figure 4, demonstrate that recently hired
leaders, those with up to five years of service, and the leaders with 10–15 years of service
manage the majority of the employees in the city.
In order to ensure anonymity, each of the participants is referred to throughout this
chapter as LR+ the participant number (e.g., LR1).

33%
25% 25%
17%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
1-5 years 6-10 years 10-15 years 15+years
Tenure
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Figure 4. How many employees do you manage?

Research Questions
Summarized in this chapter are the findings of the interviews related to research
questions 1 and 3. The second research question, which addresses the recommended knowledge,
motivation, and organizational solutions, is discussed in the recommendations section of Chapter
5. The following section provides key themes that emerged from the qualitative interviews, as
well as organizational documents collected as a part of the study. The section is organized by
key stakeholder influences, including knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes.
26%
15%
46%
13%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
up to 5 yr up to 10 yr up to 15 yr over 15 yr
Tenure
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As a reminder, the research questions for this study were as follows:
1. Why is there a lack of diversity in the City of Carina leadership team?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for the City
of Carina leadership team to implement systematic methods and resources for
purposes of building inclusion with opportunities for all?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
those needs?
Document Analysis
City of Carina Open-Door Policy
The City of Carina has an open-door policy documented in the Personnel Policy and
Procedures Manual. The policy states:
The Policy of the City of Carina is to create a positive, inclusive work environment where
all can contribute to the best of their abilities. In cases where disagreements or problems
arise, it is the City’s preferred practice to resolve employee problems or complaints
informally. This is the first step in our Open-Door process. If the problem is with a co-
worker, a simple discussion may resolve the matter.
The policy goes on to discuss the first point of contact, being the supervisor, then on to the next
level of management. Unresolved complaints or dissatisfaction can move straight to Human
Resources.
To question 11 of the interview tool, which asked, “Explain the organization’s stance on
the free and open expression of ideas, opinions, and beliefs,” respondent LR5 indicated, “The
open-door policy exists, but management cannot handle the truth.” In a similar response, LR3
asserted, “I don’t know that there is an organizational stance. People would rather not say
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anything . . . .” LR8 declared, “I don’t understand the city’s stance, but staff input is needed.” In
analyzing this document, the responses revealed to the researcher that, while an open-door policy
exists in the organization, it is either not utilized or it is not promoted. Open-door policies can be
a resource that expands the level of communication from merely asking a work-related question,
to discussing long-term goals. Huo (2012) concludes that inclusion requires supporting people
from diverse backgrounds, and establishing an open-door policy encourages employees to come
and discuss their concerns.
The city’s open-door policy emphasized submitting complaints within five days and did
not state what would occur if the claim was more than five days old. Incorporated into the open-
door policy was information regarding terminations. If a full-time employee was terminated,
they were entitled to an appeal of said termination. Further analysis of the city’s open-door
policy revealed to the researcher that the policy was drafted mainly as a resource to handle
complaints, rather than being a resource for employees to meet and discuss the mission, goals, or
even future career objectives. Information on the number of complaints could not be obtained
for confidential reasons.
Non-Harassment Policy
The City of Carina has a non-harassment policy documented in their Personnel Policy
and Procedures Manual. This policy states:
Harassment of applicants, employees, citizens or vendors will not be tolerated and is
unlawful however it is communicated, including but not limited to text message, email or
spoken word. Any form of harassment relating to an individual’s race, color, religion,
national origin, sex (including same- sex), pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical
conditions; age, disability, or handicap; citizenship status, service member status, genetic
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information, or any other classification protected by federal, state, or local law is a
violation of this policy and will be treated as a disciplinary matter. Any employee who
reports such activities will be treated in a fair and equitable manner and will receive the
cooperation of the City Administration in resolving problems.
The policy defines what is harassment, the responsibility of the employee to report activity,
responsibility of the supervisor and Human Resources, and investigation steps. Reviewing this
policy made the researcher question the reasons for having such a policy if diversity is not
promoted or sought.
Social Media Policy
The City of Carina has a Social Media policy documented in the Personnel Policy and
Procedures Manual. This policy states, “The City of Carina has a duty to maintain its positive
image. Therefore, the city requires that all employees practice proper business ethics, as
determined by the Code of Ordinances. This policy includes the Mayor, Council, and all City
employees.” In question 11 of the interview, it states, “Explain the organization’s stance on free
and open expression of ideas, opinions, and beliefs.” Respondent LR4 stated:
That’s an interesting question — our elected officials feel very free to express all of their
opinions in a public and inappropriate way, we have a policy that says as an employee
you have to be guarded of the information you put out in public . . . .
The policy located in the manual seems to contradict the claims of this respondent. The city’s
Social Media policy covers not only employees but also the elected officials.
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Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
Knowledge Influence 1: Leadership Team Need Knowledge of the Importance of Diversity
in the Workplace
As referenced in the literature, diversity is not a liberal ideological movement to be
supported or resisted, but rather, it is a reality in today’s business environment (Gardenswartz &
Rowe, 2003). Managed well, diversity provides benefits that increase success; however, when
ignored or mismanaged, it brings challenges and obstacles that can hinder the organization’s
ability to succeed (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2003). As a result, the respondents were asked about
their level of understanding regarding diversity. The overall responses indicated that the
respondents were fairly clear on what diversity means. The repetitive theme that materialized
from this question was that diversity was mainly about race, sex, gender, religion, ideas,
perspectives, and cultural experiences. When asked, “Describe your understanding of diversity,”
LR1 mentioned, “Diversity is understanding the make-up of the population of people you are
managing or encountering daily, it is color and religious diversity.” LR3 answered, “Diversity is
anybody from any role, not just about race. It can be sexual preference, handicap or people not
like me.” LR4 articulated:
Diversity is the understanding and respect of perspectives of everyone you have dealings
with; knowing that you come from a different background, raised differently. Embrace
those who are different and embrace the perspectives of others that are not like your own.
Diversity is not just male or female or racial; it’s diverse points of view, it’s baby
boomers versus millennials.
While these responses regarded diversity as color, religion, and gender, other respondents felt
that diversity was more of a cultural experience, as well as the ability to accept and learn about
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cultural genders. LR11 asserted: “In context in the organization, diversity involves knowing
multiple views, perspectives, culture, and experiences. Diversity is how you make decisions; it
is men, women, races, geographic, etc.” These responses revealed to the researcher that there
was general knowledge about what diversity meant.
In order to further understand the respondents’ knowledge level regarding diversity, the
researcher inquired about diversity as it relates to the respondents’ role within the organization.
When asked, “In what ways do you think diversity is important as it relates to your position?” the
consensus was that diversity allows the leader to experience different points of view and the
personalities of their employees. LR2 replied:
It brings ideas and perspectives from others that may not always be those like-minded
with the CEO. It gives an opportunity for the organization to grow; it opens doors and
ideas to things that if it were not a diverse organization, we would lose the opportunity of
various ideas.
Many of the respondents related diversity and their role to the community, positing that
their positions deal with changing environments and it is their responsibility to provide a service
to the community. LR11 indicated, “Our group or department’s interaction is 90% external,
which is a wide range. We work with customers such as business owners, developers, and
bankers.”
Once the knowledge level of diversity was assessed from an individual viewpoint, it was
pertinent to look at diversity from the organizational perspective. When asked, “In what ways do
you think diversity is important as it relates to the organization?” four of the 12 respondents
communicated that diversity is essential as it relates to the organization because it opens the
organization to new perspectives and new ways. For this question, the respondents varied in
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their responses, indicating that diversity attracts different people to the organization, and it is
important due to the customers. LR3 stated:
It shows willingness to move forward. It shows that the city is no longer a good ole boy
system; attracts different kinds of people, many have lived in this city for years and only
know this city, we can’t be limited to just one type of individual.
LR12 noted, “The city seems to have white history, not a lot of diversity. In city government, we
deal with the public and are the closest to the people; you have to deal with all levels of people.”
The gap for this influence was partially validated. The interview data for this influence
revealed that the majority of the respondents were clear regarding an understanding of diversity
and the importance of diversity as it relates to their roles as leaders. The interview data
suggested that, while most of the respondents had somewhat of an understanding of how
diversity impacts the organization, they were not clear on the level of impact and importance, so
this gap was partially validated.
Knowledge Influence 2: Leadership Needs to Know the Purpose of a Diversity Program
The literature suggested that the competitive edge and survival of an organization
depends on how well that organization manages its hiring, recruitment, and retention practices
(Shackleford, 2010). The literature further asserted that to reach the highest levels of success
organizations must abandon tactical approaches to recruiting, as series of unconnected activities,
and turn to a Strategic Diversity recruiting process (Shackleford, 2010). Thus, it was important
to see how respondents viewed their own experiences with bringing in diverse talent to the
organization. This question sought to determine how much experience the respondents had in
the areas of staffing, supervising, and training diverse working groups. The interview responses
to the question “Explain the experiences you’ve had with recruiting, hiring, training, and/or
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supervising a diverse workforce,” revealed that all of the respondents were currently responsible
for hiring and supervising staff, which was a part of the sampling criteria to participate in the
interviews. Two of the respondents had smaller departments and did not gain much of an
opportunity to hire staff. A consistent theme among the respondents was that they were not
responsible for recruiting, as that was a Human Resources function. LR2 answered, “Our
department has challenges obtaining a diverse workforce due to the nature of the job and societal
views.” Two of the respondents communicated that they had taken extra measures to ensure that
their departments were diverse. LR4 responded:
In a previous job, I would argue for the diverse employees. We interviewed someone
with pink hair, and people had an issue with the way she looked. As a result, she turned
out to be the best operator, and it would have been such a loss if we had not hired her.
LR9 noted:
I made a chart of the recruitment that we have received in our department. We have more
white women, so I have not had much of a chance to supervise diverse workers.
However, our recent pools and hires are diverse.
What was interesting to note is that while the respondents were responsible for hiring and
supervising, none of the respondents mentioned training. In addition, four of the 12 respondents
identified that they had minimal opportunities to hire diverse employees.
For this influence, a gap was not validated. The interview data revealed that all
respondents are responsible for the hiring process, and Human Resources is responsible for
recruitment. As a result, no gap was found.
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Knowledge Influence 3: Leadership Needs to Know How Their Strengths Can Assist in
Developing an Effective Diversity Program
The literature informed that a successful leader must know what leadership is expected of
their roles and execute it accordingly (Chuang, 2013). However, individuals with different
cultural backgrounds may vary in their conception and expectations of leadership (Chuang,
2013). The interview responses to the question, “Explain what you do as a leader to ensure
inclusion within your staff,” concluded that four of the 12 respondents conducted staff meetings
and mentored as a means of showing inclusion. LR4 asserted, “I guess I primarily take seriously
my role as a mentor. The person I supervise is younger, less experienced and of a different
generation.” LR5 declared, “I don’t just manage, but I mentor and lead by example. I promote
and grow from within and listen to the passions of my staff.” Two of the respondents expressed
that they did conduct staff meetings, but they were not typical meetings — “We go out together,
and everyone is included in things like bowling or breakfast,” was a response from LR6. LR8
expressed, “I am not a big proponent of just meeting, we have short meetings and allow staff to
say anything. We also have staff lunches and staff events that do not exclude anyone.” While
each of the respondents articulated examples of how they demonstrated inclusion, one
respondent felt that their staff was already diverse, but not because of diversity strategies, and
that practicing inclusion was not necessary. The researcher noted that the respondents
understood inclusion and the value impact on their staff, except for the one respondent that did
not practice inclusion.
As the literature previously cited, a successful leader must know what leadership is
expected of their roles and execute it accordingly (Chuang, 2013). Based on this principle, it
was important for the researcher to ascertain how the respondents felt about managing a diverse
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workforce. When the respondents were asked, “What are some of the challenges you think you
will face in working with a diverse population?” LR3 replied:
I think that people have preconceived ideas about other people. There are some people
from another country and others will make comments about the way they talk. I have an
employee from another country, and people have made fun of him, but you cannot say
you won’t hire someone because of their word inflections.
Additionally, LR4 responded:
That is a hard question to answer. Over my career, I’ve had unique experiences because
even though I am a white female in my 60s, I have been exposed to prejudice. I was an
Air Force Officer in 1974 when women were new to the military and not highly accepted.
People thought you were a lesbian back then and did not want to accept authority. Based
on my experience in the Air Force, it made me more open-minded. I have a greater
sensitivity because of it. Men are shown more respect in the city than women, outside of
the Finance Director who is a female.
Some of the respondents felt that religion would pose as a challenge when managing a diverse
workforce, yet other respondents believed that age and gender would be a challenge. LR8
communicated:
There are always challenges in age diversity and gender. I have never had issues with
racial diversity. You have to think like that person. Guys in the military want to be too
of familiar, but you have to be careful with that due to gender.
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LR9 expressed a similar view, stating:
The biggest thing is learning a new population. We’ve had a set age group within the
city, and some managers won’t learn the new population for fear of change. When there
are differences, embrace them and be uncomfortable.
For this influence, a gap was partially validated. The interview responses indicated that the
respondents understood what is expected of them as a leader; however, there were challenges in
the area of managing a diverse workforce.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Utilizing the same qualitative interview tool to assess the knowledge influence, the
assumed motivational influences were examined. The interview questions were related to the
leaders’ self-efficacy, the motivational factor identified in the literature for motivational
influences. Each of the individual interview questions sought to determine if the motivation
barriers outlined in the literature were present in the work environment.
Motivation Influence 1: Attributions — Leadership should Feel That an Ineffective
Diversity Program is Due to Their Own Disengagement from Diversity Efforts, Rather
Than a Lack of Diverse Talent
The literature suggests that if failure seems likely, some will not try, because trying and
failing threatens their ability self-concepts (Eccles, 2006). In addition, the literature
acknowledges that avoiding challenging tasks is a good way to avoid or minimize failure
experiences (Eccles, 2006). This question sought to find if there were any past issues with
diversity that may prevent engagement of future diversity strategies. The interview responses to
the question, “Describe the most challenging situation dealing with diversity that you have had to
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face,” bared a theme that indicated each respondent had experienced a diversity concern in their
past, but those issues had not resurfaced. LR1 affirmed:
A white male employee approached me while I was at work with an employee that I
supervise. We were in another department checking on some departmental matters when
we were approached. The employee asked me and my employee, with an attitude, what
we were doing. My employee tried to explain that I was a manager and that we were
checking on some issues. The employee continued to talk in a rude manner as if he was
from years ago.
LR8 recalled a past experience of discrimination, citing:
One of my memorable experiences was in a prior company. One of the employees
thought I discriminated against him because I thought he was black. He was from the
Dominican Republic and felt that I looped him in with people of color. I was meeting
with him because he was having some performance issues, but because of the way I
looked, he assumed it was racial. You have to be careful when it comes to color because
a South African clearly considers them different from an African American.
Although some of the respondents provided specific situations, relative to their past, other
respondents offered their opinion about diversity challenges. LR2 noted, “People assume you
think one way because of the way you look. There are societal stereotypes.” LR10 posited a
similar response: “Some preconceived notions that come from others may not be true. There is
no basis for the notion.” Lastly, LR9 articulated:
The current issues with the confederate memorials and symbols are a challenge. I
understand the issues on both sides and how people feel, but it is complex. If we serve
people in this department, we have to serve all people regardless of their views.
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Based on the responses given, it was not clear if the respondents understood why
diversity programs could fail due to their disengagement. Thus, this gap is validated. The
interview responses indicated a lack of information about how disengagement interferes with
developing diversity programs. As a result, this gap was validated.
Motivation Influence 2: Self-Efficacy — Leaders Need to Believe They Are Capable of
Effectively Implementing a Diversity Program in Order to Recruit Diverse Employees of
All Levels
The literature implied that even within organizations where diversity recruiting is
recognized, many struggled with achieving the level of employee diversity desired or often
required for success (Shackleford, 2010). The literature went further to state that diversity self-
efficacy encompasses an element of self-awareness about one’s own beliefs about diversity
(Combs, 2002). As a result, the questions for this motivational influence sought to understand
the respondents’ knowledge of how leaders are acquired into the organization, which is another
opportunity to influence diversity; and secondly, what are the respondents’ beliefs regarding
diversity. The interview responses to the question, “Explain your understanding of the
recruitment process for the leadership position,” exposed a consistent theme that the respondents
were not aware of how leadership talent was acquired into the organization. Only one out of the
12 respondents knew a portion of the process regarding the recruitment process for leadership
positions. This particular respondent acknowledged that the only reason they knew about the
process is because they were currently involved in an interview panel. LR1 affirmed, “Tenured
staff is promoted from within, even if they are not skilled. When tenured staff are promoted
there is no diversity.” LR6 posited, “Ideally process starts in Human Resources, I think, and then
referred to the departments. I think there may also be a panel.” These responses communicated
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to the researcher that the stakeholders are not engaged in a critical process that impacts the future
of the organization.
When asked, “How has your thinking, relative to diversity, changed over time?” two
consistent themes materialized: (1) the conventional thought of diversity had not changed; and
(2) there was astonishment that diversity was still an issue. LR1 responded, “Nothing has
changed in terms of my thinking, diversity is number one.” Similarly, LR3 expressed, “I am
surprised that there is not more diversity. I think about things differently, and different is not
wrong. I am really surprised that it is still such an issue.” Two of the respondents felt that their
personal experiences allowed them to always have an open-mind and respect for diversity. LR4
articulated:
My perspective is different than most because of my exposure during the military. I think
I have always been open-minded about the value of diversity. In my older age, I am a
little settled in my opinion, and I have a little less patience for some of the points of view,
but I have worked hard to ensure that is not telegraphed.
LR5 expressed, “Because of my personal experiences, it has strengthened the thirst for diversity.
I see the value and the good in having diversity.” LR6 responded, “As you get older, some of it
changes. I grew up where there was no interaction with black people.”
When the respondents were asked to “Explain your understanding of the organization’s
culture,” various responses were provided. Many felt that the organization’s culture has a racial
undertone, while others felt the culture was positive and open. LR1 asserted, “The city’s culture
is trapped in a time zone that is based on history from the 1800s and the civil war. The people in
this city still believe in the history based on the civil war. It needs to change.” LR2 replied,
“The city’s culture is not open, and the city needs to work on the culture.” LR3 responded, “I
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think the culture is very community- minded. The city expects us to make ethical decisions and
do what is right by the community.” LR4 asserted:
Laugh . . . the culture is such a nebulous concept. The culture here in the city springs
from the top and was so much more different when our prior city manager was here.
How it feels to work here really comes from the top, and the current city manager style is
not employee-oriented. He demonstrably cares about projects, events, and budgets, and
not so much about people. The culture is pretty much anti-employee.
LR5 expressed, “The culture is suppressed, underhanded level of intimidation, and
smothering of new ideas.” LR7 stated, “Personally, I think it is family oriented. We have bumps
and bruises, but we get along. I don’t think we support any type of non-inclusion.” These
responses caused the researcher to question that if organizational culture is consistent, observable
patterns of behavior in organizations (Watkins, 2013), will a diversity program be able to thrive
under the City of Carina culture?
A gap was validated for this influence. The interview responses indicated a lack of
information regarding the leader’s belief in their ability to implement a diversity program. As a
result, this gap was validated.
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes
The same qualitative interview tools used to assess the knowledge and motivational
influences were utilized to assess the organizational influences that contribute to the lack of
diversity, at the leadership level, within the organization. There were more organizational
influences, compared to the identified knowledge and motivational influences, because the
problem of practice was more influenced by the organizational barriers.
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Organizational Cultural Model Influence 1: There is a General Resistance by Leadership
to Change Staffing Methodologies
The literature pointed to the fact that leadership are a critical component of an agency’s
organizational context and have an important influence on an organizational change strategy, and
how it impacts the organization (Prindle, 2012). To that end, leaders must be able to effectively
lead change in order to remain competitive in the marketplace. The interview sought to obtain
data on how the leaders influence the organizational context and the organizational strategy.
Question 7 of the interview tool asked, “Explain how your organization demonstrates a
commitment to diversity.” The consistent theme that materialized was that the city provided a
formal diversity course. LR1 noted:
The city has formal diversity course of sorts, it somewhat discusses the importance of
diversity, and serves a purpose, but it is not enough. Once people walk away from the
course, diversity is no longer discussed, and people forget what they learned. Diversity is
something that should be talked about all the time.
LR5 responded, “That is a difficult question, I have not seen a great change in methods. I
see a glimpse of hope in new staff and diverse elected officials.” LR8 replied, “We have a
diverse group in my department, but the commitment comes through Human Resources.” LR11
mentioned, “Education in the city is limited, and we could benefit by having more diversity in
the city. Look at the composition of the management team, it is more insular and myopic
because of how we deal with things.” LR12 indicated, “In the 13 years I have been here, I see
more blacks hired, few Latina population, gays, but that’s it.”
A part of leading change for the organization incorporates open communication. The
following question sought to gather data on how the organization values open communication.
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When asked, “Explain the organization’s stance on free and open expression of ideas, opinions,
and beliefs,” many responses were generated. The resounding theme for this question was that
the city does not have a stance, and if so, it is unclear. LR1 noted, “Communication is not where
it needs to be. There is fear among the leaders that if they express, they will be penalized.” LR3
replied in a similar manner: “I don’t think that there is any freedom to express, people would
rather not say anything. There is no comradery.” LR5 referenced the city’s open-door policy:
“We have an open-door policy, but management can’t handle the truth.” Other respondents
indicated that within their own departments, there is open and free communication; however,
there are boundaries. LR7 responded, “In my department, I am open to opinions and ideas, but I
told my employees the workplace is not a place to get into political debates.”
The gap was partially validated. The interview data showed that the respondents
understood their responsibilities but were not clear on how to achieve them. The interview data
was not clear on whether or not the leaders were purposefully resisting their responsibilities. As
a result, this gap was partially validated.
Organizational Cultural Model Influence 2: There is a Cultural Lack of Awareness
Relative to Diversity Hindering the Institutional Goal of Increasing the Diversity of
Employees in Senior Leadership Positions by 25%
The literature indicated that cultural awareness is the next stage of understanding the
groups, as well as being open to the idea of changing cultural attitudes (Hogan-Garcia, 1999).
The interview questions sought to understand how leaders learn more about diversity, as well as
how employees are developed for leadership. When asked, “If you wanted to gain more
knowledge about diversity, explain what steps you would take,” eight of the 12 leaders replied
that they would seek out resources on the Internet, go to the library to read books, and take
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advantage of formal courses. LR2 mentioned, “I have been to just about every formal class on
diversity, but I look for more formal opportunities to intentionally meet those that are diverse.”
LR4 articulated:
There are so many ways to learn more about diversity, such as participation in events,
service organizations, schools, churches, and college campuses. However, it all goes
back to the concept if you value that everyone doesn’t think like you, and you don’t want
to live in a world where everyone is just like you, then expose yourself to the diversity.
Other respondents felt that they possessed all of the knowledge that was needed relative
to diversity. LR3 answered, “I read a lot of books and attended seminars, but I have a diverse
group of friends outside of the city. The city does not offer anything about diversity.” LR6
affirmed, “I think I am pretty knowledgeable through my upbringing. I had many friends that
were diverse, and family members of multiples races, sexual orientation, and religion.”
Chuang (2013) indicated that leaders must look at the world change as a challenge and an
opportunity for organizational growth and individual development. When asked, “Explain how
employees are developed for growth within the organization,” the themes that resounded the
most were mentoring and training. LR1 indicated, “I manage by walking around and having
discussions. I help the staff build their experience portfolios.” LR2 responded, “We develop
staff through immediate peer training.” LR3 maintained, “I try to find training all year to send
my staff to.” LR5 answered, “We have an interactive Human Resources department. Human
Resources is always available and recommending solutions.” LR10 noted, “We are a small city,
and I develop by mentoring, training, and spending time with the staff.” Some respondents felt
that there was no staff development. LR4 posited:
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In this organization, there is no staff development. We talk a good game about
succession planning, but it is a joke. There may be some reasons for this because there is
not a lot of upward mobility. The other limiting factor is financial incentives. If you
want people to do better work and work harder, you need to incentivize them, other than
that the city is ok with the status quo.
This gap was partially validated. The interview data showed that the respondents
understood how to learn more about diversity; however, the respondents were not clear on how
to develop their staff for organizational growth. As a result, this gap was partially validated.
Organizational Cultural Setting Influence 1: Leadership is Overwhelmed by Departmental
Goals and Shortages in Staff, which Keeps Them from Investing Efforts into Diversity
Initiatives
The literature suggests that the first thing leaders need to understand about diversity is
that companies who handle diversity most effectively do not have to separate diversity initiatives
from everyday initiatives (Thomas, 2011). When diversity is integrated into all processes of the
organization, it becomes a lens for looking at, identifying, developing, and advancing talent
(Thomas, 2011). The interview question, “Explain why you think it is important to address
diversity and equity issues in your organization,” wanted to understand if the respondents felt
that it was important to address diversity and equity issues. LR1 answered, “Diversity is
something that people have skimmed over for years.” LR2 declared:
There are a lot of societal issues. It is critical, as an organizational leader, to address
diversity issues based on the way we do business. We have to meet customers and
society’s expectations, if not we will be held back.
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Similarly, LR4 expressed, “We can’t do our jobs without having an open mind. It makes
no sense to categorize people and disrespect them for issues that have nothing to do with their
job. Diversity issues should be a non-issue.” LR5 noted, “We should address diversity issues
because we are only as good as the people who work there.” LR12 informed, “I am not
originally from the south or a part of the heritage, we are all God’s children and should have
equal pay. Color should not be an issue, do the work, you should get paid for it.” The responses
demonstrated to the researcher that diversity and equity issues are important to address.
This gap is partially validated. The interview data showed that each respondent felt that
it was important to address diversity and equity issues, but it was not clear as to whether
addressing the issues were more important than, or equally important as, departmental goals and
staff shortages. As a result, this gap is partially validated.
Organizational Cultural Setting Influence 2: There is a Lack of Role Models Within the
Organization that has Incorporated a Diverse Workforce
If managers do not see the connection between their function and diversity, they will not
feel compelled to behave in a manner that implements a diverse vision for their teams, resulting
in the organization not moving toward a diverse workforce (Santana, 2011). Senior executives
must create the message that diversity is encouraged, and actively reinforce the message at every
opportunity (Kilian, 2009). When asked, “Explain what you believe to be an effective strategy to
introduce diversity to individuals who have only experienced a limited number of cultures,” the
theme that emerged was that diversity needed to be discussed. LR1 noted, “You have to
determine the approach. Diversity is all the time, not just February, it’s an everyday
conversation.” LR2 expressed: “There is an apprehension of the unknown, as well as fear. I
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think you should put people together, who are different, to obtain a goal. This can open doors to
discuss experiences and gain respect.”
Other respondents felt that you should talk openly in order to discuss the “why” because
generational gaps could be the rooted issue, and diversity could be introduced through education.
One out of the 12 respondents felt that introducing diversity was not a part of the leadership role.
LR4 responded:
As a supervisor, I am not sure that it is a part of my role to introduce diversity. If there
was behavior that went against diversity, such as discrimination, then I would encourage
the person to be more open. You can encourage open-mindedness, but you can’t train it
or teach it.
When asked to “Describe what you feel an objective workplace looks like,” some of the
responses were that leaders are not biased in an objective workplace, cliques are not promoted,
everyone understands the open-door policy, and an objective workplace would encompass staff
knowing the mission. LR3 responded:
The workplace would be representative of the community. The city has been old citizen
related, but now we have a college nearby, and we need to learn to work within that. We
may need to look at childcare and flexible work schedules because of the employees that
are working here.
LR4 replied, “An objective workplace starts at the top — leadership that values all of the
different perspectives that people bring that are not like you. It is a vibrant organization,
enthusiastic, enjoy each other’s company.” LR5 answered, “It is a clear matrix with a free flow
of ideas.” LR12 articulated: “In my happy world, an objective workplace would show that
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women are not the only ones in lower positions. There would be Spanish-speaking leaders and
women in positions of authority; there would be a rainbow of colors.”
While most of the responses incorporated some form of diversity, one of the 12
respondents did not. LR7 responded, “An objective workplace would hire based on
qualifications and promote based on qualifications. The organization would treat staff just as
they would any other.”
This gap was partially validated. There was a lack data from the interviews to
demonstrate CEO executive support of diversity. As a result, this gap is partially validated.
Summary
This chapter presented all of the data collected from the qualitative interview tool utilized
to assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences outlined in Chapter 3. For
the knowledge influences, two were partially validated, and one was not validated. For the
motivational influences, both were validated. For the organizational influences, three were
partially validated, and one was validated. In Chapter 5, the validated influences are further
discussed, and recommendations provided for the leaders in order to meet the organizational goal
of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%.

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CHAPTER 5
RECOMMENDATIONS
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. The analysis
began by generating a list of possible needs and then moved to examining those needs
systematically to focus on actual or validated causes. While a complete needs analysis would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus in this analysis was all
City of Carina leadership.
As such, the questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. Why is there a lack of diversity in the City of Carina leadership team?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for the City
of Carina leadership team to implement systematic methods and resources for
purposes of building inclusion with opportunities for all?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
those needs?
Introduction
Despite the growing diversity among leaders, the underrepresentation of women of racial
and ethnic minoritized groups in leadership roles continues to create dialogue. In the United
States, public and private sectors, chief executives are inclusive of 23% women, 4% African
American, 4% Asian, and 5% Hispanic (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). Among the
members of the 111th Congress, 17% are women, 8% are African American, 1% are Asian, and
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6% are Hispanic (Marzewski, Marzewski, & Case, 2009). Simultaneously, the growing diversity
among the workforce challenges all leaders to take into account the perspectives of people
representing backgrounds and beliefs. As economies shift and globalization increases, it will be
imperative to have a diverse leadership team and employee base. In order to have a diverse
workforce, leaders must possess the necessary knowledge and skills. In the theoretical model
linking achievement, choices are related to two sets of beliefs: the individual’s expectations for
success and the importance or value the individual attaches to the various options perceived by
the individual as valuable; essentially, “Can I do it?” “Do I want to do it?” (Eccles, 2006). “Can
I do the task?” predicts better performance and more motivation to select more challenging tasks
(Eccles, 2006). These knowledge types are discussed in upcoming sections. This literature
review focused on the knowledge and skills necessary for leadership to achieve, by March 1,
2018, the stakeholder goal of implementing a diversity program, which included regular
communication of organizational vision and commitment to equity, and communication of
multicultural competencies for staff to demonstrate in their daily work and all aspects of their
work activities.
Table 9 highlights the validated knowledge influences that were determined in Chapter 4
and designates proper principles and context-specific recommendations that can guide the
organization toward appropriate change.

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Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Validated:
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority:
Yes, No
(Y, N) Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Leadership
needs
knowledge of
the importance
of diversity in
the workplace.
Yes Y Procedural knowledge
increases when
declarative
knowledge required
to perform the skill is
available or known
(Clark and Estes,
2008).
Establish regular forums
and educational
programs in which
leaders are trained to
understand, be sensitive
to, and appreciate
diversity, as well as
maintain desirable
organizational behavior.
Assist leaders in
engaging in feedback,
teamwork, and team-
building activities with
staff.
Leadership
needs to know
how their
strengths could
assist in
developing an
effective
diversity
program.
HP Y Leaders are more
motivated to
participate (and
learn), when they see
the relevance of
information, a
request, or task (the
why) to their own
circumstances. They
are goal oriented
(Knowles, 1980).
Facilitate discussions in-
group, and one-on-one,
to discuss
misconceptions and
biases regarding
diversity.
Implement a Cultural
Committee to assist
leadership in identifying
areas of opportunity.

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Declarative Knowledge Solutions, or Description of Needs or Assets
Leadership needs knowledge of the importance of diversity in the workplace. This
assumed influence is important to note because it is a critical factor in understanding why there is
a lack of diversity in leadership. Clark and Estes (2008) found that procedural knowledge
increases when declarative knowledge required to perform the skill is available or known. This
suggests that providing leaders with an understanding of a concept would improve their
understanding of how to manage that concept. The recommendation will be to establish regular
forums and educational programs in which the leaders are trained to understand, be sensitive to,
and appreciate diversity, as well as maintain desirable organizational behavior. The second
recommendation for this influence will be to provide assistance to the leaders in engaging in
feedback, teamwork, and team-building activities with staff.
Diversity is not a liberal ideological movement to be supported or resisted, but rather, it is
a reality in today’s business environment (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2003). Managed well,
diversity provides benefits that increase success; however, when ignored or mismanaged, it
brings challenges and obstacles that can hinder the organization’s ability to succeed
(Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2003). Diversity includes cultural factors such as race, gender, age,
color, ethnicity, and physical ability (Henry & Evans, 2007). As a result of these cultural factors,
the literature states that companies need to embrace diversity and look for ways to become
inclusive organizations because diversity has the potential to yield greater work productivity and
competitive advantages (Green et al., 2015). The literature goes on to attest that diversity in the
workplace can reduce lawsuits and increase marketing opportunities, recruitment, creativity, and
business image (Green et al., 2015).
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Leadership needs to know how their strengths could assist in developing an effective
diversity program. Clark and Estes (2008) found that procedural knowledge increases when
declarative knowledge required to perform the skill is available or known. This would suggest
that providing leaders with the applicable schema would support their learning. As a result,
recommendations for the leadership team will be discussion groups and one-on-one meetings, for
purposes of discussing misconceptions and biases regarding diversity. Secondly, the
implementation of a Cultural Committee will be recommended to assist leadership in identifying
areas of opportunity for diversity.
The literature informs that a successful leader must know what leadership is expected of
their roles and execute it accordingly (Chuang, 2013). However, individuals with different
cultural backgrounds may vary in their conception and expectations of leadership (Chuang,
2013). In order for leadership to be effective in their roles, as well as effective in
communication, leaders and human resource managers must redefine management and
leadership (Kreitz, 2007).
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction
Leadership must possess the necessary knowledge and skills to manage a diverse
workforce; however, they must also possess the necessary motivation. According to Eccles
(2006), motivation is defined as actively starting something, persisting until it is finished, and
investing enough mental effort to reach performance standards. Eccles (2006) stated that people
are most likely to engage fully in learning activities if they have confidence in their ability to do
well and place a high value on doing well. Leadership must possess intrinsic value in workplace
diversity, and view the perceived effort or cost value as a means of accomplishing the goal. The
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91
two theories that were analyzed in this literature review, as it relates to leadership motivation, are
self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory.
Table 10 highlights the validated motivational influences that were determined in Chapter
4, and designates the proper principles and context-specific recommendations that lead the
organization toward productive change.

Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Validated:
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority:
Yes, No
(Y, N) Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Attributions —
Leadership should
feel that an
ineffective diversity
recruitment strategy
is due to their own
disengagement in
diversity efforts,
rather than a lack of
diverse talent.
HP Y 1. Learning and motivation
are enhanced when
individuals attribute success
or failures to effort rather
than ability (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009).
2. Adaptive attributions and
control beliefs motivate
individuals (Pintrich, 2003).
Partner the
leadership team
with a local
municipality that is
successful in their
on-going diversity
efforts.
Self-Efficacy —
Leadership need to
believe they are
capable of effectively
implementing a
diversity strategy in
order to recruit
diverse employees of
all levels.
HP Y Feedback and modeling
increases self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2006).
Individuals with higher
self-efficacy, greater belief
in their own competence,
and higher expectancies for
positive outcomes will be
more motivated to engage
in, persist at, and work hard
at a task or activity (Rueda,
2010).
Encourage
leadership to set
productive goals
for themselves that
are challenging, yet
achievable, and
encourage self-
evaluation.
Provide timely
feedback that links
use of learning
strategies with
improved
performance.

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Attributions
Attribution theory attempts to explain the interpretive process by which people make
judgments about the causes of their own behavior and the behavior of others. Leadership should
feel that an ineffective diversity strategy was due to their own disengagement from diversity
efforts, rather than a lack of talent. Anderman and Anderman (2009) found that learning and
motivation are enhanced when individuals attribute success or failures to effort rather than
ability. Weiner (2005) describes three dimensions of attribution: stability, whether one believes
the attribution is temporary or permanent; locus, whether an individual attribute relates to an
internal source or an external source; and control, whether an individual attributes events as
something that one can control or as uncontrollable events. This would suggest that leader
motivation will depend on the locus of control, stability, and controllability of the situation. The
recommendation will be to partner the leadership team with a local municipality that has
demonstrated success in their on-going diversity efforts.
The value of a task also depends on a set of beliefs that can best be characterized as the
cost of participating in the activity (Eccles, 2006). Perceived costs are influenced by anxiety,
fear of failure, fear of social consequences, and rejection by peers (Eccles, 2006). In addition,
cost, as indicated in the literature, can also be conceptualized in terms of the loss of time and
energy (Eccles, 2006). People have limited time and energy, they cannot do everything they
would like, and they must choose among activities (Eccles, 2006). Eccles (2006) further
indicated that cost is especially important in choosing among activities, and that socio-cultural
processes linked to social identity formation and cultural socialization should have a big
influence on the perceived cost of the various activities competing for the leader’s time and
energy.
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93
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors
necessary to produce specific performance attainments. Leadership needs to believe they are
capable of implementing a diversity strategy in order to recruit diverse employees at all levels.
Rueda (2010) found that individuals with higher self-efficacy, greater belief in their own
competence, and higher expectancies for positive outcomes, are more motivated to engage in,
persist at, and work hard at a task or activity. This suggests that leaders who are highly confident
in their abilities are more likely to engage in organizational tasks and activities. The
recommendation for leadership is to establish achievable, challenging, and productive goals,
incorporating self-evaluation, relative to recruitment strategies. A second recommendation is
timely feedback, which allows a linkage between learning strategies and improved performance.
The literature informs that even within organizations where diversity recruiting is
recognized, many struggled with achieving the level of employee diversity desired or often
required for success (Shackleford, 2010). Diversity self-efficacy encompasses an element of
self-awareness about one’s own beliefs about diversity (Combs, 2002). Leadership in
organizations must provide a more systematic and innovative approach to harnessing and
utilizing the positive influences of difference (Combs, 2002). Leadership cannot focus solely on
“awareness” about the need for diversity, but rather regard themselves as being capable of
regulating and directing their actions regarding diversity (Young et al., 2010). In addition,
leadership must have the capacity to be active diversity change agents, if they want to create an
inclusive organization. Leaders must perceive a high level of confidence in their management
capabilities to address intergroup conflicts and establish relational partnerships among
demographically diverse groups (Young et al., 2010). Research reveals that when leaders are
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given the skills and confidence to respond to issues of diversity, they will bridge the gap between
diversity training and diversity performance (Young et al., 2010).
Organization Recommendations
Introduction
Clark and Estes (2008) identified that to close performance gaps and achieve business
goals, one should first identify the cause of the gap, and therefore, the type of performance
improvement program required. Three critical factors that are examined during this analysis
were people’s knowledge and skills, their motivation to achieve the goal, and organizational
barriers such as a lack of necessary equipment and missing or inadequate work processes (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Table 11 examines organizational barriers that contributed to the lack of
diversity, at the leadership level, within organizations.

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Table 11
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence
Validated:
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority:
Yes, No
(Y, N) Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model
Influence 1: There is
a general resistance
by leadership to
change staffing
methodologies.
HP Y Adults are more motivated to
participate (and learn) when they
see the relevance of information, a
request, or task (the “why”) to
their own circumstances. They are
goal oriented (Knowles, 1980).
Effective leaders demonstrate a
commitment to valuing diversity
through inclusive action. They
promote an organizational culture
that promotes equity and inclusion
and cultivate an atmosphere where
diversity is viewed as an asset to
the organization and its
stakeholders (Prieto, Phipps, &
Osiri, 2009).
Create a culture of
inclusion in decision-
making.
Create a collaborative
vision that aligns with
the goals of the
organization.
Establish concrete
goals aligned with the
mission and priorities
of the organization.
Cultural Model
Influence 2: There is
a cultural lack of
awareness relative to
diversity, hindering
the institutional goal
of increasing the
diversity of
employees in senior
leadership positions
by 25%.
HP Y Effective leaders know that
dimensions of diversity include
race, culture, religion, gender,
sexual orientation, age, immigrant
status, profession, personality type,
functional background, education
level, and other demographic and
socio-economic characteristics.
They integrate these dimensions as
well as the intersection of
identities into their practice
(Cornell & Hartman, 1998; Prieto
et al., 2009)
Effective leaders demonstrate a
commitment to valuing diversity
through inclusive action. They
promote an organizational culture
that promotes equity and inclusion
and cultivate an atmosphere where
diversity is viewed as an asset to
the organization and its
stakeholders (Prieto et al., 2009).
Engage in group
discussion, and one-
on-one discussion
regarding the purpose
and benefits of
succession planning.

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Table 11, continued
Assumed
Organization
Influence
Validated:
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority:
Yes, No
(Y, N) Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Setting
Influence 1:
Leadership is
overwhelmed by
departmental goals
and shortages in
staff, which keeps
them from investing
efforts into diversity
initiatives.
HP Y Leaders should not focus on
culture change. The focus should
be on the business problem: what
isn’t working. (Schein, 2004).
Learning, motivation, and
performance will be enhanced if
participants have clear, current,
and challenging goals. For
feedback to be effective, it should
be timely, concrete (task focused)
and goal-focused (Kluger &
DeNisi, 1996).
Provide timely,
concrete, goal-focused
feedback.
Support risk taking,
trial and error, and
failure, but not
incompetence.
Establish expectations
for sharing positive
and negative
feedback, data, and
other types of
information.
Cultural Setting
Influence 2: There is
a lack of role models
within the
organization that
have incorporated a
diverse workforce.
HP Y The more a leader acts in a way
that followers feel is appropriate
ethical leader behavior, the more a
leader will be trusted (Van den
Akker, Heres, Lasthuizen, & Six,
2009).
Followers use attributions of
leader integrity as a predictor for
how the leader will behave in the
future (Moorman & Grover, 2009).
Incorporate diversity
and inclusion metrics
that tie into the annual
leadership evaluation.
Encourage leaders to
demonstrate behaviors
that are consistent
with organizational
mission.

Cultural Model Influence 1
Cultural models are shared mental schema or normative understandings of how the world
works, or ought to work. There was a general resistance by leadership to change staffing
methodologies. Knowles (1980) found that adults are more motivated to participate, and learn,
when they see the relevance of information, a request, or task, the “why,” to their own
circumstances. They are goal oriented. In addition, Prieto et al. (2009) found that effective
leaders demonstrate a commitment to valuing diversity through inclusive action. Effective
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leaders promote an organizational culture that supports equity and inclusion and cultivate an
atmosphere where diversity is viewed as an asset to the organization and its stakeholders. The
recommendations include creating a culture of inclusion in decision-making, creating a
collaborative vision that aligns with the goals of the organization and establishing concrete goals
aligned with the mission and priorities of the organization.
Leadership is a critical component of an agency’s organizational context and has an
important influence on an organizational change strategy and how it impacts the organization
(Prindle, 2012). Business trends in the early part of the 21st century include more organizational
changes for purposes of streamlining operations to better adapt to the dynamic business
environment. Because of these changes, the leadership theory and purposeful resistance were
proposed. The purposeful resistance theory refers to organizational leaders resisting
organizational change for purposes of retaining their position of power in that organization
(Prindle, 2012). The purposeful resistance theory relates to the power dimension of leader role
behavior in the context of the organizational setting (Prindle, 2012). The basic principles of the
theory are derived from certain aspects of the style approach to leadership, psychodynamic
approach to leadership, and contingency theory (Prindle, 2012). The style approach emphasizes
the behavior of the leader and focuses on what leaders do rather than who leaders are;
alternatively, the psychodynamic approach presumes that leaders are not conscious of the
organizational consequences of their behavior (Northouse, 2001). The contingency theory is
concerned with styles and situations and suggests that organizational cultures will develop a
certain set of characteristics in order to adapt to a particular internal and environmental
configuration (Prindle, 2012). To that end, leaders must be able to effectively lead change in
order to remain competitive in the marketplace.
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Cultural Model Influence 2
There is a cultural lack of awareness relative to diversity, hindering the institutional goal
of increasing diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. Effective leaders
know that dimensions of diversity include race, culture, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age,
immigrant status, profession, personality type, functional background, education level, and other
demographic and socio-economic characteristics (Cornell & Hartman, 1998; Prieto et al., 2009).
They integrate these dimensions as well as the intersection of identities into their practice. In
addition, effective leaders demonstrate a commitment to valuing diversity through inclusive
action. They promote an organizational culture that promotes equity and inclusion and cultivate
an atmosphere where diversity is viewed as an asset to the organization and its stakeholders
(Prieto et al., 2009). The recommendation will encompass engaging in group discussion, and
one-on-one discussions, regarding the purpose and benefit of succession planning.
Cultural awareness is the next stage of understanding other groups, as well as being open
to the idea of changing cultural attitudes (Hogan-Garcia, 1999). In addition, cultural awareness
is the foundation of communication and involves the ability to stand back from ourselves and
become aware of our cultural values, beliefs, and perceptions (Henry & Evans, 2007).
Leadership is a key component of all organizations, but its function and capacity are getting
more complicated with increased involvement in globalization and technology development
(Chuang, 2013). Technological advances extend the possibility of a global economy, which has
changed the way people do business and communicate (Chuang, 2013). Leaders must look at the
world change as a challenge and an opportunity for organizational growth and individual
development (Chuang, 2013).
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Cultural Setting Influence 1
Leadership is overwhelmed by departmental goals and shortages in staff, which keeps
them from investing efforts into diversity initiatives. Schein (2004) found that leaders should not
focus on culture change, but instead, focus on the business problem: “what isn’t working.” The
key to problem identification is to become very specific. In addition, Kluger and DeNisi (1996)
found that learning, motivation, and performance will be enhanced if participants have clear,
current, and challenging goals. For feedback to be effective, it should be timely, concrete (task-
focused) and goal-focused. The recommendation incorporates providing timely, concrete, goal-
focused feedback; supporting risk-taking, trial and error, and failure, but not incompetence; and
establishing expectations for sharing positive and negative feedback, data, and other types of
information.
Research shows that memory, attention, and concentration suffered when people tried to
manage a heavy workload, which often involved a constant stream of communication and
distractions that are a regular part of the workplace (Mosow, 2015). Mosow (2015) further
indicated that many leaders struggle to focus at work, and while thinking, writing, and
strategizing deserve uninterrupted time, busy tasks and meetings often consume the day, pushing
important projects to the side. The first thing that leadership needs to understand about diversity
is that companies who handle diversity most effectively do not have to separate diversity
initiatives from everyday recruitment initiatives (Thomas, 2011). When diversity is integrated
into all processes of the organization, it becomes a lens for looking at, identifying, developing,
and advancing talent (Thomas, 2011). Leadership needs to understand that they must build
accountability into their systems with regard to their managers taking responsibility for creating
a diverse and inclusive work environment (Thomas, 2011).
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Cultural Setting Influence 2
There is a lack of role models within the organization that has incorporated a diverse
workforce. The more a leader acts in a way that followers feel is appropriate ethical leader
behavior, the more a leader will be trusted (Van den Akker et al., 2009). Moorman and Grover
(2009) found that followers use attributions of leader integrity as a predictor for how the leader
will behave in the future. The recommendations include incorporating diversity and inclusion
metrics that tie into the annual leadership evaluation. Secondly, encourage behavior that links to
the organizational mission.
Companies who have seen the greatest increase in leader diversity typically have active,
effective support from the top (Kilian, 2009). Having CEOs and top executives support any
diversity and inclusion initiative is important, but managers and supervisors are equally
important (Santana, 2011). If managers do not see the connection between their function and
diversity, they will not feel compelled to behave in a manner that implements a diverse vision for
their teams, resulting in the organization not moving toward a diverse workforce (Santana,
2011). Senior executives must create the message that diversity is encouraged, and actively
reinforce the message at every opportunity (Kilian, 2009).
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model used to inform this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backward and that, by doing
so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are
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both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this “reverse
order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: (1)
first, the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors; (2) next, the
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation; and (3) finally, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members were satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the performance goal of increasing
the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. The analysis began by
generating a list of possible needs and then moved to examining these needs systematically to
focus on actual or validated causes. The proposed solution, which included a comprehensive
training program that provided strategies to support leadership knowledge and motivation, along
with organizational policies and procedures designed to drive and sustain positive behavior,
produced the desired organizational goal.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 12 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes. If the internal
outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and organizational support for the new
diversity program, then the external outcomes should also be realized.

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Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes — What will outcomes look like to the public?
1. Increase
competitive
advantage.
The number of business
consumers.
Track number of consumers doing
business with the city.
Compare consumer activity from prior
years to current years.
2. Improve business
reputation.
The number of business
opportunities.
Track number of diverse pool of
applicants.
Track standing as industry leader.
3. Increase array of
business services.
The number of business
services.
Track the number of new business
services being provided. Track
customer response to new services.
Internal Outcomes — What will outcomes looks like internal to the organization?
5. Increase work
productivity.
The amount of output
measured over a period of
time.
Aggregate data from baseline
established for measuring
productivity.
Look for areas of redundancy.
6. Increase amount of
fresh ideas and
perspectives.
The number of new
innovations.
Provide quality, effective organization
goals — employee engagement and
expectations.
7. Decrease employee
turnover.
The amount of turnover. Track the amount of turnover;
compare to prior years.
7b. Positive/negative
feedback from
supervisors.
7b. Set aside regular times for 1:1
conversations (“Pull up a chair”)
between new reviewers and
supervisors.

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the leadership team, who are directly
responsible for managing the organizational goals, and ultimately responsible for implementing
the diversity program. The first critical behavior is to integrate diversity into all of the processes
for the organization. The second critical behavior is building accountability into their systems
relative to creating a diverse and inclusive environment that leverages the thinking of diverse
groups. The third critical behavior is identifying the relevant organizational dimensions,
measuring them, and incorporating them into the performance management process. The fourth
and last critical behavior is building accountability systems relative to creating an inclusive and
diverse work environment. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appear in Table 13.
Required drivers. Leadership requires the support of their colleagues, direct
supervisors, and the City of Carina to reinforce what they learn in training, and to encourage
them to apply what they have learned relative to the importance of diversity in the workplace.
Rewards should be established for the achievement of performance goals to enhance the
organizational support of the leaders. Table 14 shows the recommended drivers to support
critical behaviors of new reviewers.

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Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Leadership must
integrate diversity into
all processes for the
organization.
The percentage of
leaders incorporating
diversity into
organizational
practices.
1a. Track organizational
programs for alignment to
diversity.
1a. During first 90
days of program
implementation will be
deliberate with hiring
practices.

1b. During first 90
days of program
implementation —
align diversity
programs with
strategic plans.
2. Leverage thinking of
diverse groups for
smarter ideation and
decision-making.
The number of ideas
and recommendations
generated.
2a. Leaders shall monitor the
discussions generated through
open meetings or one-on-one
dialogue.
2a. On-going staff
meetings and one-on-
one discussions.

2b. Build in time to reflect and
revisit tough discussions.
2b. Quarterly
individual meetings.

2c. Explore ideation and
decision-making through the
art of asking, “what do you
know?”
2c. Ongoing — weekly
meetings.
3. Identify relevant
organizational
dimensions, measure
them, and incorporate
them into the
performance
management process.
The number of well-
defined measures to
assess effectiveness
and evaluate.
3a. Leader shall monitor
workforce objectives, as it
relates to the overall
organization mission and
objectives.
3a. Quarterly
performance
discussions.
4. Build in
accountability systems
relative to creating an
inclusive and diverse
working environment.
The number of
accountability systems
in place.
4a. Leader shall track
engagement of diversity
initiatives.
4a. Ongoing —
monthly

4b. Leader will ensure
responsibility of diversity
initiatives by linking
performance evaluation
elements and compensation to
successful implementation and
progress of diversity
initiatives.
4b. Ongoing —
monthly. Quarterly, if
monthly review is
successful.

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Table 14
Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported:
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing

Job Aid — from training utilized as a follow-up and refresher of
training resources.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Job Aid including checklist for application contents and details of
different programs.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Shared folder-intranet for posting information, resources, and
activities.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Use private list-serves and other internal social media to reinforce
communication outside of team meetings.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meeting to troubleshoot collaboratively and discuss best
practices.
Weekly 1, 2, 3, 4
Encouraging

Collaboration and peer modeling during team meetings. Weekly 1, 2, 3, 4
Mentoring from subject matter experts or peer champions. Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding

Performance incentive for successful practice implementation. Quarterly, or
project-based
1, 2, 3, 4
Public acknowledgement, such as a mention at staff meetings and
newsletters, when progress toward initiatives are made, or successful
implementation.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4
Monitoring

Leadership can create opportunities at staff meetings to share success
stories.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4
Course participants can self-report their confidence and self-efficacy
in job-related tasks.
Two months
after training
1, 2, 3
Assessment of the performance of the learner. Frequent, quick checks
can help the organization monitor progress and make adjustments if
results do not match expectations at that time.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
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Organizational support. In order to support the critical behaviors supporting the
organizational goal of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by
25%, the organization must be purposeful in incorporating diversity into all organizational
processes, and not viewing diversity as a separate program. Inclusive processes encompass the
organizational mission, vision, and objectives. Everything the organization executes should go
towards achieving the mission, vision, and objectives, which means diversity will be promoted
regularly. In addition, inclusive processes would include city-wide diversity training, required
for all staff to attend; benefits packages, which take into account a diverse workforce; employee
development programs designed to promote underrepresented groups into higher level positions;
and performance management tools designed to measure and monitor the performance objectives
of inclusive environments.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, the stakeholders
will be able to:
1. Recognize and understand the importance of having a diverse workforce, (D)
2. Recognize and understand the importance of implementing a diversity program, (D)
3. Recognize the details of what should be incorporated into a diversity program, (D)
4. Apply the strategies learned to effectively incorporate a diversity program, (P)
5. Integrate the strategies learned to mentor peers, (P)
6. Create an appropriate timeline for reviewing and monitoring the program, (P)
7. Plan and monitor their work to ensure they are on-task, (P, M)
8. Indicate confidence that they can create and implement a diversity program,
(Confidence)
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9. Attribute an effective program to their engagement and efforts, (Value)
10. Value the planning and monitoring of their work. (Value)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a
training program known as LEAD: Leaders Educated About Diversity, which focuses on the
workplace, behaviors, and workplace culture. The participants, city leadership team, will study a
broad range of topics about diversity. The program is an interactive, face-to-face training, that
will be conducted over three days, and eight-hour sessions for a total of 480 minutes.
During the LEAD training, which is grounded in research and application from the fields
of multicultural communication, social psychology, and adult learning, leaders will be provided
with a combination of awareness and informational tools that are to be utilized to develop greater
effectiveness of the material. The leaders will be provided with a framework of understanding in
order to continue learning after the sessions have concluded. This framework of understanding
is in the areas of workplace diversity and culture, which encompasses how culture teaches
values, behaviors, and perceptions. The leaders will be provided with a job aid of key diversity
terms and references to the program learning modules, which will have the look of a pocket-
sized, four-page bound booklet for purposes of carrying at all times. In addition, each leader will
receive course notebooks, inclusive of applicable spacing for documenting key points of
reference. Attention to adult learning styles is a critical success factor for training programs, and
as such, this program will involve developmental stages. The training will include brief lectures,
simulations, small group exercises, discussions, videotapes and other visual aids, role-playing,
self-assessments and suggested reading material. A two-person team will facilitate the training
in order to fully attend to the needs of the participants. The class size will be capped at 18
participants for purposes of class effectiveness.
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During the training, leaders will be exposed to subject matter that relates to creating
effective work groups, cross-cultural communication, cultural diversity, diverse customers,
generational differences, and many other topics will focus on diversity and inclusion.
Components of learning. Demonstrating declarative knowledge is often necessary as a
precursor to applying the knowledge to solve problems. Thus, it is important to evaluate
learning for both declarative and procedural knowledge being taught. It is also important that
learners value the training as a prerequisite to using their newly-learned knowledge and skills on
the job. However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in applying their knowledge
and skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such, Table 15 lists the evaluation
methods and timing for these components of learning.

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Table 15
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.”

Knowledge checks using multiple choice. During the session.
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair, think, share” and other
individual/group activities.
Throughout the
training.
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”

Demonstration in groups and individually of using the job aids to successfully
perform the skills.
During the sessions.
Quality of the feedback from peers during group sharing. During the sessions.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment survey asking participants about
their level of proficiency before and after the training.
At the beginning and
end of the training.
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Instructor’s observation of participants’ statements and actions demonstrating
that they see the benefit of what they are being asked to do on the job.
During the training.
Discussions of the value of what they are being asked to do on the job. During the training.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”

Survey items using scaled items During the training.
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the training.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”

Discussions following practice and feedback. During the training.
Create an individual action plan. During the training.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.

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Level 1: Reaction
Level 1: Reaction is the degree to which participants find the training favorable,
engaging, and relevant to their jobs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The key with Level 1 is
obtaining the information quickly and efficiently for purposes of confirming the quality of the
program and instructor (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). One simple and inexpensive way to
obtain the required information is to incorporate formative evaluation methods into the program
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Formative means to evaluate during the program. Table 16
captures the components to measure reaction to the program.

Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement

Post-session feedback form After each training
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the sessions
Attendance During the session and throughout training
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
Relevance

Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every session
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
Customer Satisfaction

Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every session
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course

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Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During each session of the
LEAD course, the facilitators will collect applicable data to evaluate participant engagement and
satisfaction. Formative evaluation tools, Level 1, will be utilized as follows: pulse checks, post-
session evaluation, pair share, small group discussions, and whole-group share-outs. Level 2
learning will be assessed through the utilization of action plans, which will be completed by each
participant.
Immediately following each LEAD session, the facilitators will administer session
feedback surveys via a Survey Monkey tool. The survey will solicit overall satisfaction with the
program content, delivery, and relevance. In addition, the survey will include an assessment of
any knowledge that was gained as a result of the training. The survey (Appendix A) is a Likert
scale containing open-ended questions.
At the conclusion of the LEAD training, a course evaluation will be distributed. The
evaluation encompasses a Likert scale with a combination of closed and open-ended questions
(Appendix B).
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately eight weeks
after the implementation of the training, and then again at 16 weeks, the facilitator will
administer a survey (Appendix C) containing open and scaled items to measure, from the
participant’s perspective, satisfaction and relevance of the training (Level 1), confidence and
value of applying their training (Level 2), application of the training, and the level of support
from peers and the organization as knowledge and strategies are learned (Level 3), and the extent
to which their leadership practices have been impacted as a result of participating in the LEAD
training program (Level 4).
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Data Analysis and Reporting
Before reporting the analyzed data, it is imperative to describe the size of the research
sample, as well as reiterate the research questions for the study. In order to ensure that relevant
information is provided in a timely manner, significant differences in the data will be analyzed,
as well as highlighting trends and comparisons. Data from the LEAD training program will be
shared as it relates to the session survey forms and the course evaluation forms. In addition, a
Dashboard was created to illustrate Level 1, 2, 3, and 4 items. The sample Dashboard is shown
in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Dashboard post-training

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
I am already seeing positive results
from training
I understand why it is important
for me to attend this training
I have successful applied OJT
to what I have learned in training
This course provided all of the
information I needed to be able to perform
the skills I learned successfully
Chart Title
Success % Respond Yes Actual % Respond Yes Target
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Chapter Summary
Utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model for this study assisted in the development of
creating and implementing an effective training evaluation strategy to fit, and driving training
and performance initiatives. Utilizing formative (during the program) and summative (after the
program) methods aided in evaluating the effectiveness of the training evaluation strategy, which
is critical for program improvements. If the evaluation of the training program showed that the
program was well received, and key information learned, then the program could be called
effective training.
The Kirkpatrick Model introduces four levels for evaluating training programs. The first
level is reaction, which is the degree to which participants find the training favorable, engaging
and relevant to their jobs; the second level is learning, which is the degree to which participants
acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment based on their
participation in the training; Level 3 is behavior, where participants apply what they learned
during training when they are back on the job; and Level 4 is the degree to which targeted
outcomes occur as a result of the training and the support and accountability package. These
four levels allow evaluation to occur once training has been implemented. In addition,
evaluating the training also helps to answer the research questions for the study, as well as
understand how the stakeholder and organization can achieve their goals.
The Kirkpatrick Model framework provides leading indicators, which are short-term
observation measurements that suggest critical behaviors are on track to create a positive impact
on the desired results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The leading indicators can help bridge
gaps between initiatives and organizational results.
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Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of why there is a lack of diversity
in senior leadership positions. For this problem of practice, the researcher’s organization was
utilized as the data collection site. One of the limitations of the study was the sample size. The
sample size was studying a smaller group, 12 participants, which did not represent the entire
organization’s population.
A second limitation of the study was the data gathering method and the researcher’s
identity. Typically, when the sample size of the study is small, a qualitative interview approach
is applicable. However, in this study, the researcher was considered to be in a minoritized group.
Asking diversity questions was a challenge, at times, for both the researcher and the participants.
The researcher was able to fully engage in the data collection due to having a scripted interview
protocol. The protocol provided a full overview of what the participants could expect during the
interview process. Limitations of the study also revolved around the types of diversity being
examined. The study was limited to race and gender diversity, and the findings may not apply to
other areas of diversity, such as religion and sexual orientation.
Delimitations existed in the study. The researcher chose to follow the interview
questions designated in the protocol. Because the topic presented some challenges to the
participants, follow-up questions and probing questions were limited in scope. Another
delimitation of the study was the areas of diversity assessed. Time was a factor and addressing
other areas of diversity required additional interview questions. The researcher was subjected to
the availability of the participants’ schedules.
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Recommendations for Future Research
During the data collection process, it was evident that the stakeholders had some
knowledge of what diversity means, an understanding of why diversity is important to their
positions, why the organization should address diversity and equity issues, and the problems that
linger within the organization, as it relates to diversity. However, the stakeholders did not have a
true sense of ensuring inclusion within their staff. Even though diversity literature is vast, much
research is still needed to understand how organizations can create inclusive environments that
provide opportunities for the variety of people who work together in the global economy. While
there has been a great deal of speculation and research about the practices that promote
discrimination in the workplace, much less attention has been devoted to practices that facilitate
inclusion in work groups. Thus, a recommendation for future research would be to focus on a
climate of inclusion, inclusive leadership, and inclusive practices.
Potential future research could also explore the influence of the organization’s culture on
diversity. The findings of this study indicated that the organizational culture was trapped in the
civil war era, not open, and suppressed. Furthermore, organizational culture governs how people
behave in the organization. As a result, it would be interesting to learn, in future research, how
the organizational culture impacts the manner in which diversity and inclusion are viewed and
promoted within the organization.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of increasing the diversity of employees in senior leadership positions by 25%. The literature
review discussed the benefits of having a diverse workforce, which encompasses employee
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creativity and workforce productivity. While these benefits are imperative for organizations,
they could, in turn, become an organizational issue if diversity is not incorporated. Ignoring
diversity costs organizations time, money, and efficiency. Some of these consequences include
loss of productivity, an inability to attract and retain talent of all kinds, and complaints that lead
to legal actions. It is for these reasons that organizations must not only become attentive to
diversity but also initiate strategies that demonstrate support.
It is evident, based on the research presented, that this organization still has a great deal
of work to do in order to better understand diversity. The work must comprise learning how to
demonstrate a commitment to diversity, ensuring inclusion, understanding the impact that
diversity has on the organization, and most importantly, incorporating an organizational culture
that personifies respect for all. It is clear, from the study, that some of the leaders are inclusive
in their thinking and their approach in the organization and will be vital as mentors in
implementing diversity strategies. Lastly, it will be imperative for the organization to implement
the strategies detailed in this study. Establishing forums and educational programs for diversity,
assisting leaders in staff team building, implementing a cultural committee, partnering with local
municipalities who have been successful in diversity efforts, and incorporating diversity and
inclusion metrics into the annual evaluation, are all essential, but not all-inclusive, components to
aid in fostering the city’s on-going efforts of establishing a diverse organization.

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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Moderator Interview Script
Start Audio Recorder

• Welcome and thank you for participating in the interview!
• My name is _________ and I will be conducting the interview today.
• The interview will take approximately 60 minutes or less.
• I will be audio recording this interview. Please be assured that any comments you share
will remain confidential, as my objective is to identify leaders’ awareness, attitudes, and
perceptions as it relates to diversity.
• There will be a total of 20 questions. I will not participate in the discussion, but I will ask
follow-up questions and be able to provide clarification on any question if needed.
• I want you to feel comfortable and invite you to share your opinions freely.
• In addition, if you have a cell phone please turn it off or put it in silent mode.
• To aid in capturing the information shared, the interview will be recorded, and hand-
written notes will be taken.
• If you do not want to be recorded, you will not be able to participate in the interview.

ASK: Do you agree to participate in this interview process?
Please respond Yes or No. (Wait for a response, if “yes”, proceed to next question. If “no”, end
the interview.)

ASK: Do you agree to be audio recoded?
Please respond Yes or No. (Wait for a response, if “yes”, start audio recorder. If “no”, end the
interview.)

Administer Informed Consent Form

ASK: Please take this time to thoroughly review the Informed Consent document and sign.
STATE: You may choose not to respond to any question, for any reason, and/or you may ask to
skip a question for any reason. Again, your participation in the interview is voluntary and you
may choose to end the interview at any time with no further explanation.

Begin Interview

1. Explain your role within the organization.
2. How long have you served in your role for your organization?
3. How many employees do you manage?
4. Describe your understanding of diversity. (K)
5. In what ways do you think diversity is important as it relates to your position? (K)
6. In what ways do you think diversity is important as it relates to the organization? (O)
7. Explain how your organization demonstrates a commitment to diversity. (O)
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8. Explain what you do as a leader to ensure inclusion within your staff. (M)
9. What are some of the challenges do you think you will face in working with a diverse
population? (O)
10. Explain why you think it is important to address diversity and equity issues in your
organization. (K)
11. Explain the organization’s stance on free and open expression of ideas, opinions, and
beliefs. (O)
12. Explain the experiences you’ve had with recruiting, hiring, training, and/or supervising a
diverse workforce. (K)
13. Explain what you believe to be an effective strategy to introduce diversity to individuals
who have only experienced a limited number of cultures. (M)
14. Explain your understanding of the organization’s culture. (O)
15. If you wanted to gain more knowledge about diversity, explain what steps you would
take. (K)
16. Describe what you feel an objective workplace looks like. (M)
17. How has your thinking, relative to diversity, changed over time? (K)
18. Describe the most challenging situation dealing with diversity that you have had to face.
(K)
19. Explain how employees are developed for growth within the organization. (O)
20. Explain your understanding of the recruitment process for leadership positions. (K)

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APPENDIX B
IRB CONSENT FORM
Information Sheet for Interviews
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

A LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP: AN ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEM
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by LisaRae Jones, Principal
Investigator, and Dr. Monique Datta, Faculty Advisor, from the University of Southern
California. You have been selected as a potential participant because you are a leader, director
level and above, in the City of _______. Your participation in this study is completely
voluntary. Please take as much time as you need to read the information in this form. Please ask
questions about anything you do not understand or requires clarity. This document explains
information about this study.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to explore the lack of diversity in leadership, which is an
organizational problem. Specifically, the study explores factors that are necessary to reach the
goal of promoting an understanding and respect for diversity. The research study will result in
the development of potential solutions that aid in program specific to this problem of practice.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to complete an online survey which is
anticipated to take about 20 minutes. You may also be asked to participate in a one- hour
audiotaped interview. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to, either on the
survey or during the interview. However, if you do not want to be taped, you cannot participate
in this study. Feel free to discuss your participation in this study with whomever you choose
prior to deciding to participate. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this stud will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. You
will have the option to review and edit the audio recordings and written transcript of the
recordings for the interviews. The audio recordings will be destroyed once they have been
transcribed. No information from the surveys or interviews will be given to third parties. The
data will be kept on the researcher’s password-protected desktop computer and will be kept
indefinitely.

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The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

Please note that when the results of the research are published or even discussed in conferences,
none of your identifiable information will be use.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will not result in penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or
remedies by participating in this research study.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORT
There are no known risks or discomforts related to this study.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants will not be compensated for their participation in the survey or interviews.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: LisaRae Jones
Dissertation Chair: Dr. Monique Datta

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT — IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

_____________________________________________
Name of Participant

_____________________________________________ _____________________
Signature of Participant Date
LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP

131
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all his/her questions. I believe that
he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to participate.

___________________________________________________
Name of Person Obtaining Consent

___________________________________________________ _________________
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

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APPENDIX C
SURVEY FOLLOWING COURSE SESSION
Please select the rating for each section based on the following criteria:
5=excellent | 4=good | 3=average | 2=fair | 1=poor

Please rate the trainer(s) on the following:

1. 1.Knowledge of the subject matter. 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
2. Ability to explain and illustrate concepts. 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
3. Ability to answer questions completely. 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1

Open-ended comments (use the back if you need more space):

• What specifically did the trainer do well?
• What recommendations do you have for the trainer to improve?

Please rate the content and structure of the training:

4. The usefulness of the information received in training. 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
5. The structure of the training session(s). 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
6. The pace of the training session(s). 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
7. The convenience of the training schedule. 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
8. The usefulness of the training materials. 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1
9. Was this training appropriate for your level of experience? Yes | No
If you said “No” to #9, please explain:

Open-ended comments (use the back if you need more space):

• What did you most like about the training?
• What can be improved regarding the structure, format, and/or materials?

LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP

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APPENDIX D
SURVEY POST TRAINING
About the Instructor
< Likert scale >
5
Strongly
Agree
4
Agree
3
Neither Agree
nor Disagree
2
Disagree
1
Strongly
Disagree
N/A
Does Not
Apply
1. Was well prepared for class. � � � � � �
2. Made effective use of class time. � � � � � �
3. Explained concepts and ideas clearly. � � � � � �
4. Answered questions in helpful ways. � � � � � �
5. Willing to meet students out of class. � � � � � �
6. Grading criteria was clearly stated. � � � � � �
7. Made the course content interesting. � � � � � �
8. Increased my understanding of the
subject.
� � � � � �
About the Course
< Likert scale >
5
Strongly
Agree
4
Agree
3
Neither Agree
nor Disagree
2
Disagree
1
Strongly
Disagree
N/A
Does Not
Apply
9. Course objectives were clearly
presented.
� � � � � �
10. Course expectations were clearly
stated.
� � � � � �
11. Course materials were well-
prepared.
� � � � � �
12. The course was well-organized. � � � � � �
13. Tests, projects, etc. related to the
main themes of the course.
� � � � � �
14. The course was intellectually
challenging.
� � � � � �
15. The course increased my knowledge
and understanding of the subject.
� � � � � �
16. Reason for taking the course, select
the best answer.
< dropdown >
1 — Required for Major
2 — Minor or related field
3 — General education (Core requirement)
4 — Elective for Major
17. Hours per week required outside of
class
< dropdown >
0 to 2
2 to 4
5 to 7
8 to 12
18. Please include any additional suggestions you have about the course structure. Constructive suggestions for
improvement are welcome.
< open text field for entering comments >

LACK OF DIVERSITY IN LEADERSHIP

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APPENDIX E
SURVEY FOR DELAYED USE POST TRAINING
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 = Strongly Agree
Delayed Level 1: Reaction
Relevance

Rating Scale Questions

• This course provided all of the information I need to be able to perform the skills I
learned successfully.
• The information provided in this course is fully applicable to my job.
• The timing of this course was appropriate for me.

Open-Ended Questions
• What information from this course has been most relevant to your job?
• Was there any information in this course that is NOT relevant to your job? If so,
what?
• What information should be added to this course to make it more relevant to your
work?

Customer Satisfaction

Rating Scale Questions

• I would recommend this course to others with jobs similar to mine.
• Taking this course was a good use of my time.

Open-ended Questions
• Looking back, how could this program have been improved?
• Looking back, what would you change about this course?

Delayed Level 2: Learning
Knowledge / Skill

If it is important for your chain of evidence, you can re-measure knowledge or skill. These
questions will be specific to the content taught.

Open-ended Questions
• Looking back on the training, what content do you remember most?
• Looking back on the training, what content do you wish had been covered that
wasn’t?
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135
Attitude

Rating Scale Questions

• It is clear why it was important for me to attend this training.

Open-ended Questions

• In your own words, explain why it was important for you to attend this course.

Level 3: Behavior
On-the-Job Behavior

Rating Scale Questions
• I have successfully applied on the job what I learned in training.
• I have been able to apply on the job what I learned in class.
• Instructions: Using this rating scale, circle the rating that best describes your current
level of on-the-job application for each listed behavior.

Insert major performance objective #1 1 2 3 4 5
Insert major performance objective #2 1 2 3 4 5
Insert major performance objective #3 1 2 3 4 5

• I applied what I learned to my work:
o Within a week
o Within 2-4 weeks
o Within 5-12 weeks
o I have not applied it, but plan to in the future.
o I have not applied it, and do not expect to apply it in the future.
o I have applied what I learned to my work.

• If you circled 7 or above for the previous question, rate the contributions of each of
the following factors to your effective performance of (insert major task or
objective):
Not at all Low Medium High Coaching from my supervisor
Not at all Low Medium High Support and / or encouragement
Not at all Low Medium High Effective system of accountability or monitoring
Not at all Low Medium High Belief that it would help me to be more effective
in my work
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136
Not at all Low Medium High Ongoing training, I have received after the initial
class
Not at all Low Medium High Payment of bonus for applying the knowledge
Not at all Low Medium High Other (please specify):
_______________________________________

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Jones, LisaRae (author)

Core Title Lack of diversity in leadership: An organizational problem

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 07/16/2018

Defense Date 01/29/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag diversity,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,women leaders

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Pearson, Mark (committee member), Picus, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email lisaraej@usc.edu,lrj002@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-17707

Unique identifier UC11669033

Identifier etd-JonesLisaR-6404.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-17707 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-JonesLisaR-6404.pdf

Dmrecord 17707

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Jones, LisaRae

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA