University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Academic advising, engagment with faculty, course load, course type, and course completion rates for urban community college students with learning disabilties

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Academic advising, engagment with faculty, course load, course type, and course completion rates for urban community college students with learning disabilties

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“ACADEMIC ADVISING, ENGAGMENT WITH FACULTY, COURSE LOAD,
COURSE TYPE, AND COURSE COMPLETION RATES FOR URBAN
COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILTIES”

by

Shalamon A. Duke

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2007

Copyright 2007 Shalamon A. Duke

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables iv
Abstract vi

Chapter One: INTRODUCTION
Introduction 1
Purpose of Study 8
General Research Questions 9
Specific Research Questions 9
Research Hypotheses 9
Limitations 10
Delimitations 11
Definitions of Terms 11
Methodology 12

Chapter Two: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction 14
Persistence 14
Academic Advising 29
Course Load 39
C

ourse Type 45
Chapter Three: METHODOLOGY
Introduction 60
TRUCCS Study 60
Procedures 61
Data Collection 62
Transcripts 63
Statistical Analysis 63
Measures of Dependent Variable 63
Measures of Independent Variables 66
Research Design 68
Participants 70
Demographics 70

Chapter Four: RESULTS
Introduction 73
General Research Questions 76
Specific Research Questions 76
Research Hypotheses 77
Persistence-Course Completion 77

ii

Persistence-Enrollment in at Least 96
One Semester Per Year
Persistence-Continuous Enrollment 96

Chapter FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Summary of Study 105
Discussions and Conclusions 108
Implications for Practice 113
Implications for Further Research 115
Recommendations 116

REFERENCES 120

iii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Ethnicity of Students with Learning
Disabilities from TRUCCS 71

Table 2: Age of Students with Learning
Disabilities from TRUCCS 72

Table 3: Gender of Students with Learning
Disabilities from TRUCCS 72

Table 4: Campus of Students with Learning
Disabilities from TRUCCS 79

Table 5: Pearson Correlation between Course
Completion Ratio and Academic Advising 80

Table 6: Course Completion Rate of Students with
Learning Disabilities by frequency of 81
Talking to Instructor Before or After
Class

Table 7: Course Completion Rate of Students with
Learning Disabilities by frequency of 82
Talking to Instructor During Office Hours

Table 8: Course Completion Rate of Students with
Learning Disabilities by Frequency of 83
Speaking with Academic Counselor

Table 9: Course Completion Rate of Students with
Learning Disabilities by frequency of 84
Asking Instructor Questions

Table 10: Mean Completion Ratio of Students with
Learning Disabilities Enrolled in 86
Spring 2001, Fall 2001, Spring 2002, and
Fall 2002 by Course Load.

Table 11: Transferable and A.A. Applicable: Mean
Completion Ratio of Students with
Learning Disabilities Enrolled in 89
iv

Spring 2001, Fall 2001, Spring 2002, and
Fall 2002 by Course Type.

Table 12: Non A.A. Applicable and Non Degree
Applicable: Mean Completion Ratio 92
of Students with Learning Disabilities
Enrolled in Spring 2001, Fall 2001, Spring
2002, and Fall 2002 by Course Type.

Table 13: Students with Learning Disabilities
Enrolled in Fall 2001 and Fall 2002 by 97
Course Load.

Table 14: Transferable and A.A. Applicable: Students
with Learning Disabilities Enrolled in 98
Fall 2001 and Fall 2002 by Course Type

Table 15: Non A.A. Applicable and Non Degree
Applicable: Students with Learning 101
Disabilities Enrolled in Fall 2001
and Fall 2002 by Course Type

v

ABSTRACT
Published literature suggests that students with
learning disabilities have difficulty completing
academic programs in higher education (Mull,
Stilington, and Alper, 2001). Furthermore, the
literature contends that the successful academic
integration of these students will increase their
rates of persistence in postsecondary education.
This study utilizes academic advising as discussed by
Crookston, O’Banion, and Lowenstein and retention as
discussed by Tinto, Spady, and Bean. Additionally,
this study hypothesizes that student success is
correlated with a student’s course load and the types
of courses taken. Institutional efforts, such as
academic advising, lead to the overall integration of
students with disabilities and course-taking patterns.
The purpose of this study is to analyze how
persistence is correlated with academic advising,
course load and the types of courses students with
learning disabilities enroll. The analysis will use
the data obtained from the Transfer and Retention of
vi

Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS) database.
This study also offers some recommendations and
intervention strategies for administrators, counseling
and instructional faculty, and staff who assist
students with learning disabilities in the community
college setting.

vii

1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents an introduction to and
overview of the dissertation. The chapter begins with
the background of the problem, followed by the purpose
of the study, general and specific research questions,
research hypotheses, assumptions, limitations, and
delimitations, and definition of terms. The chapter
concludes with an overview of the methodology.
Background of the Problem
Learning disability is a generic term that refers
to “a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by
specific difficulties” (National Joint Committee on
Learning Disabilities, 1987, p. 107). Students with
learning disabilities make up 3.4% of the total
enrollment in postsecondary institutions and have been
found to have the same motives for obtaining a college
degree as their non-disabled peers (Stage & Milne,
1996). Research indicates that students with learning
disabilities have difficulty completing academic

2

programs in higher education (Mull, Stilington, &
Alper, 2001). Further, the literature contends that
the successful academic integration of these students
will increase their rates of persistence in
postsecondary education. Institutional efforts, such
as academic advising, lead to the overall integration
of these students and affect how they take courses.
Tinto (1988) suggested that, before students can
become academically integrated, they must first go
through a rite of passage within the community in
which they hope to become integrated. Tinto built his
framework on the work of Spady and Durkheim (as cited
in Cabrera, Nora, & Castaneda, 1993), whose research
was based on the assumption that the likelihood that
an individual would commit suicide would be predicted
by the level of his or her integration in the fabric
of society (McCubbin, 2003). As such, Tinto asserted
that involvement in the college community increases
academic integration and that academic integration
enhances a student’s experience within academic

3

systems and communities.
Tinto (1998) further explained that greater
academic integration in college is positively
correlated with persistence. Specifically, he
suggested that the more integrated students are in the
academic systems of their institution, the more likely
they will persist and be retained. Further, academic
advising promotes academic integration.
The process of becoming a new college student is
similar to the process for becoming a new member of a
community. Van Gennep (as cited in Tinto, 1988)
believes that institutions should seriously consider
employing public rituals to help promote academic
integration. Student admissions, assessment,
orientation, and advising are examples of some public
rituals that exist at many community colleges. Van
Gennep proposed three phases to academic rites of
passage: separation, transition, and incorporation.
Separation involves the severance of past
associations, such as high school affiliations.

4

Transition is the period in which students interact
with members of the new group, for example, peers,
counselors, or professors. Finally, incorporation
involves full participation in new patterns of
interaction with the new group.
Academic advising is a broad-based approach that
helps to ensure integration and academic success. The
academic advising function integrates the student into
the campus culture, community, and classroom. An
example of such integration in the community college
is the matriculation process. The matriculation
process carries the student from application, to
assessment, to orientation, and to counseling.
Academic advising offers the potential of linking
students’ goals with institutional resources.
The content of the academic advising function
becomes extremely important when assisting in the
planning of a student’s academic future, and high
quality advising can help students identify their
goals early in the matriculation process, thus

5

increasing the likelihood of persistence. Moreover,
research has found that academic advising is an
important component of persistence.
Based on Tinto’s theory of academic integration,
the researcher believes that there is a relationship
between the frequent use of academic advising and
increased persistence for students with learning
disabilities. The researcher contends that students
with learning disabilities benefit from receiving
frequent academic advising, primarily because of its
positive effect on integration and persistence.
Academic advising can be considered a rite of passage
that increases persistence for most community college
students, supporting them in their integration into
the campus community at large.
It was hypothesized that there is a positive
relationship between the frequent use of academic
advising and increased persistence rates for students
with learning disabilities. Academic advising refers
to the support services that assist students in the

6

planning of their academic curriculum. Frequency
refers to the number of times that advising is
accessed in a semester.
Persistence is examined as semester to semester
enrollment, continuous enrollment, enrollment in one
semester, persistence within a time frame, and course
completion ratio. In regard to course load, the
perspectives of researchers differ. Course load refers
to the total number of semester hours in letter
graded, college credit, pass/fail, and developmental
courses (Szafran, 2001). Tight (1994) believes that
part-time enrollment is an excellent way to gain a
meaningful education and facilitate the learning
process. In contrast, Szafran (2001) found that
lighter course loads do not correlate with academic
success. Overall, although there is little research on
course load, researchers such as Seidman (1995),
Szafran (2001), and Adelman (2005) have found a
relationship between the numbers of units students
take and their persistence and overall academic in

7

community colleges.
Course type is a general term that is used to
define the methods by which community college students
take courses and what types of courses. Course type
refers to remedial, Associate of Arts (A.A.),
transferable, and non-transferable courses.
Researchers have come to a general understanding
regarding how a course type affects a student’s
success and persistence (Adelman, 2005; Crews &
Aragon, 2004; Hagedorn, 2000; Maxwell, 2002, 2003;
National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1996;
Roksa, 2006; Szafran, 2001). Examples of the types of
courses community college students take are math,
English, psychology, English as a Second Language
(ESL), business, office administration, chemistry,
computer science, automotive technology,
administration of justice, and child development. The
sequencing of courses and types can determine how well
students perform and how long they persist.

8

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the
relationship between academic advising and persistence
among students with learning disabilities in the Los
Angeles Community College District who took the
Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College
Students (TRUCCS) survey in Spring 2001. Academic
advising is that which is prescriptive, developmental,
or academic-centered advising. The researcher is also
interested in determining the relationship between
course load and types of courses and persistence.
Course load is the number of units a student takes
during the semester. Course types consist of remedial,
A.A., transferable, and non-transferable courses.
General Research Questions
Based on the literature and the purpose of the
study, the following general research questions guide
the study:
1. What are the course taking patterns of
students with learning disabilities in community

9

colleges?
2. How does frequent academic advising affect
persistence for students with learning disabilities?
3. How does frequent academic advising affect
course taking patterns for students with disabilities?
Specific Research Questions
The general research questions are broken down
into the following specific questions:
1. Does the frequent use of academic advising
increase the persistence rates of students with
learning disabilities?
2. Does full-time, three quarter, half-time, or
fewer enrollments influence persistence for students
with learning disabilities?
3. Do the types of courses influence persistence
for students with learning disabilities?
Research Hypotheses
Underlying the research questions are the
following hypotheses:
1. There is a positive relationship between the

10

frequent use of academic advising and persistence for
students with learning disabilities.
2. There is a positive relationship between the
number of units/courses (course load) that students
with learning disabilities take during the semester
and their persistence.
3. There is a positive relationship between the
types of courses students with learning disabilities
take during the semester and their persistence.
Limitations
The following limitations are noted:
1. The study is limited to the 2001 TRUCCS
dataset
2. The research is descriptive in nature.
3. The results of the research will not be
generally applicable to all students with learning
disabilities.
4. The study does not account for secondary
disabilities.

11

Delimitations
The study uses the spring 2001 TRUCCS cohort of
students who were enrolled in the Los Angeles
Community College District. The study focuses only on
persistence, academic advising, course load, course
types, and other academic related outcomes.
Definition of Terms
Academic advising is prescriptive, developmental,
or academic-centered advising.
Course load refers to the number of units a
student takes during the semester and usually follows
the financial aid model of full (12+), three-quarters
(9.5-11.5), half (6-9), or less than half (.5-5.5)
unit load.
Course type refers to remedial, A.A.,
transferable, and non-transferable courses.
Persistence is defined as course completion
ratio, continuous enrollment, and enrollment in at
least one semester per year.

12

Methodology
TRUCCS is a three-year longitudinal study, which
took place from 2001 to 2003. The purpose of the
TRUCCS study was to examine goals, success, and
academic patterns of 5,000 community college students
in urban Los Angeles. This study was a joint project
with the University of Southern California (USC),
Rossier School of Education and the Los Angeles
Community College District (LACCD). The TRUCCS survey
encompassed over 40 questions regarding demographics,
course taking, grade point average (GPA), and degree
aspirations.
The TRUCCS survey was administered beginning in
Spring 2001 to LACCD community college students from
varying backgrounds, ethnicities, gender, and ages.
The participants were not randomly selected. The
sample instead involved selected classrooms with the
objective of maximizing variance in some of the
study’s main independent variables. Two follow-up
surveys also were administered. Students from LACCD

13

signed release authorizations for their college
transcripts to be examined. The analysis of the
student’s course taking history is based on transcript
data. All data are contained in a Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) database. Data from the
TRUCCS database were analyzed using multiple
statistical methods, including crosstabulations,
frequencies, descriptives, and correlations, using
SPSS.

14

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literature relevant to
the purpose of the study, which is to determine the
relationship between academic advising and persistence
among students with learning disabilities. As such,
included in this chapter is the literature on
persistence, academic advising, course load, and
course type.
Persistence
Community colleges are referred to as the
revolving door of higher education. This lack of
constant participation has rendered community college
students’ enrollment and persistence difficult to
measure. Several researchers, including Astin (1991,
1993), Braxton (2000), Terenzini and Pascarella
(2005), and Tinto (1997, 1998), have studied
persistence in two-year community college and four-
year university settings.

15

There is no consensus among researchers on how
best to define the outcome measure of persistence.
Some define it using a course completion ratio
(Hagedorn, 2005), continuous semester to semester
enrollment (Bean & Metnzer, 1985; Leppel, 2002;
Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005), enrollment in at least one
semester each year (NCES, 1996), or enrollment in a
given number of semesters within a particular
timeframe (Derby & Smith 2004). Each of these factors
is discussed below.
Course Completion Ratio
Hagedorn (2002, 2005) defined persistence as
course completion rate, which measures success against
students’ self-proclaimed goals. Hagedorn (2005)
stated that course completion rate is the most
appropriate measure of success for community colleges,
in that it provides a valid and reliable measure of
success. Hagedorn (as cited in Seidman, 2005) added
that, due to high turnover rates, measuring college
student retention is complicated and context-dependent

because of high turnover rates.
This type of measurement is also considered
retention within a course or several courses and is
applicable in the community college setting because
students either do not enroll in or attend courses
sequentially. Completion ratios are calculated as the
quotient of the number of courses attempted and the
number of courses successfully completed with a letter
C or better (Hagedorn, 2002). The equation for course
completion rate is as follows:
Number of courses with the grade of
A, B, C, CR, or P
SCCR=
Number of courses of enrollment

Other studies by Hagedorn and colleagues (1996,
2000, 2002, 2003) have looked at course completion
from a variety of perspectives. Using the metaphor of
an “all American Game,” Hagedorn likens persistence to
the sport of baseball. Within the Los Angeles
Community College District, the nine campuses act as
individual baseball teams. The sample from this study

16

17

consisted of 3,318 students who intended to transfer.
The results indicated that women completed science
courses in higher numbers than men, students under the
age of 30 were more likely to finish mathematics,
arts, and humanities at higher rates as compared to
their older counterparts, and Asians were more likely
than any other ethnic group to finish math.
Nishimoto (2003) looked at course completion in
relation to Asian American students. According to
Nishimoto, the lack of Asian persistence is largely
due to limited social integration. Nishimoto’s
correlational study used a sample of 731 Asian
students and considered the variables of course
completion, GPA, socio-economic status (SES), and
other indicators of success. The results indicated a
relationship between Asian students and course
completion ratios, as mediated by social integration.
Continuous Enrollment
Bean and Metzner (1985) defined persistence as
semester-to semester-enrollment and stated that “stop

18

outs” and “drop outs” enroll in one semester, but not
the next. Bean and Metzner’s comprehensive literature
review focuses on the conceptual model of
nontraditional undergraduate student attrition. They
analyzed older, part-time, and commuter students in
their study. When developing their model, Bean and
Metzner identified direct, compensatory interaction,
and possible effects that are related to
nontraditional student attrition. These effects
included age, enrollment status, ethnicity, gender,
academic advising, course availability, employment,
stress, GPA, and family responsibilities.
In their review, Bean and Metzner (1985) did a
meta-analysis of 43 community college and 31 four-year
institutional studies with similar backgrounds which
had sample sizes ranging from 49 to over 20,000
participants. They examined full- and part-time
enrollment and described how the above noted variables
affected continuous enrollment. They found that
academic performance, ethnicity, gender, employment,

19

social engagement, family responsibilities, and
particular academic variables show some association
with the semester-to-semester enrollment in
nontraditional students.
Leppel’s (2002) quantitative study investigated
the similarities and differences between the college
persistence of men and women. The study was based on
data from the 1989-1990 NCES study that included 2,647
male and 2,737 female students. Leppel’s (2002)
defined a student as having persistence if he or she
continued enrollment from one year to the next.
Leppel’s conceptual framework included factors of
persistence and academic performance, as set forth by
Tinto (1994) and Astin (1991). Leppel measured and
compared persistence levels of men and women as
related to race, age, marital status, family
obligation (children), employment, college
involvement, GPA, and faculty interaction.
Before analyzing the data, Leppel (2002) used
base cases for men and women college students as the

20

norms for each gender. This was done to predict
persistence probability for selected values of the
independent variables. The base case for a male and
female student was 18 years old, Caucasian, unmarried,
childless, average academic ability, and income of
$50,000.
The results were statistically significant when
disaggregated by gender and GPA. Leppel (2002) found
that persistence rates of women were higher than those
of men, older students had lower persistence rates,
and the GPA of African American men was lower than
that of Caucasian men, but the GPA of African American
women was higher than that of Caucasian women.
Finally, Leppel found that 71% of the participants
persisted to the following semester. The conclusions
of this study were that there was a negative impact on
the persistence rates of men with children, but
significantly positive for women. The impact of
persistence on men and women for the age, marriage,
and hours worked were nearly similar.

21

Lohfink and Paulsen (2005), in a quantitative
study on the persistence of first-generation and
continuing-generation students, examined the outcomes
of semester-to-semester continuous enrollment. Using
1,167 first generation students and 3,017 continuing-
generation students, they conducted a longitudinal
study using data from the Beginning of Postsecondary
Students (BPS) survey. The data obtained were used to
assess participants’ enrollment from one semester to
the next.
A major limitation of this study was that it
primarily focused on four-year institutions and, as
such, the results may not be generalizable to two-year
institutions. Nevertheless, there were several major
findings. Substantial differences were found between
persistence related characteristics, behaviors, and
experiences of disadvantaged first-generation and
continuing-generation students, who similar to
community college students. There was a strong
relationship between semester-to-semester enrollments

22

and intervening variables, described below, which
support the persistence of economically disadvantaged
first-generation and continuing-generation students.
Using a logistic regression analysis, the study
found that first-generation and continuing-generation
students were more likely to persist when
appropriately financially packaged, satisfied with
various college aspects, and attending full-time.
Additionally, analyses showed that ethnicity, gender,
pre-college achievement, and marital status had some
affect on continuous semester enrollment.
Enrollment in at Least One Semester
NCES (1996) defines persistence as enrollment
from one fall semester to the next. This longitudinal
study surveyed students in 1996 and interviewed them
again in 1998 and 2001. In 1995-96, the largest
proportion of beginning students enrolled in the
community colleges (46%) (NCES, 1996). The sample in
this study was 58% of an initial three million
students. The ethnicity of the participants included

23

Caucasian, African American, and Asian and about half
of the students were nontraditional.
NCES (1996) found that continuous enrollment from
fall to fall is the best predictor of community
college student persistence among “beginner” 2-year
students. Further, full-time enrollment increases the
likelihood of persistence as part-time students have
an increased risk of not completing community college
(NCES, 1996). The study also found that nontraditional
students are more likely to have barriers to
completion. In fact, one third of the participants
did not persist and at the end of the survey period
were not enrolled in any institution.
NCES (2005) conducted a study on changes in
persistence rates between 1994 and 2000. The data were
taken from two administrations of the Beginning
Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study, involving
students who enrolled in postsecondary education for
the first time. In the NCES study, completion referred
to the attainment of a degree or certificate, and

24

persistence referred to the reports of students who,
although not having completed a credential, were still
enrolled in postsecondary education give years after
entering. This study included all categories of
attainment or continued enrollment.
The data analysis examined changes over time
between the two cohorts. The focus of the study was
how have rates of overall postsecondary degree
completion and total persistence changed, taking into
account the type of institutions in which students
first enrolled and differential changes in rates of
attainment and persistence by gender, race/ethnicity,
and income levels.
The results indicated that Caucasian and Asian
students were more likely to persist than were African
American students (54% and 63% vs. 42%), and high-
income students were more successful than were low-
income students in completing a degree (62% vs.42%).
ANOVAs to detect differential changes in degree
completion and persistence showed no significant

25

differences (NCES, 2005). Additionally, there was no
statistical evidence to indicate overall postsecondary
attainment gaps between men and women, racial/ethnic
groups, or those who first enrolled six years later.
The study also found that traditional community
college students were more likely to be successful and
persist than were non-traditional students. Finally,
among transfers who began in the community colleges,
those in the later cohort were more likely to be
enrolled in a four-year institution (22% vs. 12%).
NCES (2006) also studied college cost and
attendance as they pertain to student persistence. The
study was based on data collected in the 2003–2004
National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, which
collected information from a sample of 25,000
community colleges students. The survey included
students enrolled at any time over a 12-month period.
The response rate for the survey for community
colleges was 84%. For this study, persistence was
measured as one-year enrollment continuity. The

26

results indicated that most community college students
are more likely to use federal aid due to having other
non-academic commitments such as family and work
(NCES, 1996).
Additionally, the study collected information for
the 2003–2004 academic year. The results indicated
that students who reported that they had obtained or
expected to obtain a credential in that year were more
likely to be enrolled for nine or more months and were
considered to have shown strong enrollment continuity
for the academic year (NCES, 2006).
Other findings indicated that students who were
identified as more committed to their field of study
maintained stronger enrollment continuity for one year
than did less committed students (83% vs. 70%).
Moreover, within each individual track, the likelihood
of maintaining strong enrollment continuity for one
year was higher for students identified as more
committed than it was for those identified as less
committed.

27

Persistence within a Timeframe
In a quantitative study, Derby and Smith (2004)
observed an orientation course and how it affected
student persistence in Midwestern community colleges.
Their comparison group consisted of 7,466 diverse
matriculants. Of the sample, 85% were Caucasian, 9%
were Hispanic, 3% were African American, 1.1% were
Asian, and 2% were “other.”
Derby and Smith (2004) defined community college
persistence as completion within a two-year timeframe.
Within their definition, they considered students to
have persisted if they had successfully carried an
average course load over the four semesters. Students
were considered dropouts if they completed less than
three semesters of coursework and were considered
stopouts if they had a break in enrollment at any
time.
From the data collected, Derby and Smith (2004)
found significant associations between the orientation
course and degree attainment. Matriculants who took he

28

orientation course were less likely to drop out or
“stop out” during the specified timeframe. Moreover,
additional analyses confirmed that a smaller
proportion of students who took the orientation course
had a break in their enrollment.
As noted above, community colleges are referred
to as the revolving door of higher education and
service more than 2.5 million students annually in
California. These students are The students are
usually non-traditional and, when entering into the
community college, there are many goals from which
they can choose. Thus, when attempting to determine
progress towards these goals, multiple measurements
should be employed. Course completion, continuous
semester-to-semester enrollment, enrollment in at
least one semester each year, and enrollment in a
given number of semesters within a particular
timeframe can all be considered measures of
persistence.

29

Academic Advising
Academic advising refers to a support service
that assists students in the planning of their
academic curriculum. Academic counseling lays out a
plan for students to follow to achieve a desired
academic goal. Participating in academic counseling
assists students in clarifying the sequence of classes
that are needed and balances general education courses
with other major related courses. Research has shown
that interfacing with faculty outside the classroom is
one factor that differentiates students who persist
and those who drop out of college. Researchers such as
O’Banion (1994), Crookston (1994), and Lowenstein
(1999) have laid a foundation for advising theories.
Additional researchers, including Herdon, Kaiser, and
Creamer (1996), Shultz, Colton, and Colton (2001),
Thompson (2001), Smith (2002), Lundberg and Schreiner
(2004), Reiff (1997), and McAuther (2005) have used
these foundations in their studies.

30

Developmental, Prescriptive, and Academic-Centered
Advising
The term academic advising has varying
definitions among researchers. O’Banion (1994)
described a developmental model if academic advising
that encompasses five processes: exploration of life
goals, exploration of vocational goals, program
choice, course choice, and scheduling courses.
Developmental advising facilitates the student’s
intra-personal growth and development, including
cognition.
Crookston (1994) describes academic advising as
prescriptive. This process of academic advising
measures itself by abilities, motivation, rewards,
maturity, initiative, control, responsibility,
learning, evaluation, and relationship (Crookston,
1994). Prescriptive advising proposes that advisers
look at the whole student and try to empower the
student to take charge of his or her educational
planning.

31

Lowenstein (1999) uses the term academic-centered
advising. In his framework, Lowenstein (1999) looks at
two different approaches to advising--the
developmental approach of O’Banion (1994) and the
prescriptive approach of Crookston (1994).
Lowenstein’s academic-centered advising is an
alternative to the use of developmental or
prescriptive advising. His academic-centered advising
approach centers on the student’s academic learning
and is both student and academic related.
Prescriptive Advising
Herndon, Kaiser, and Creamer (1996) interviewed
424 community college students regarding their
preference of advising styles. The participants
included African American and Caucasian students, for
whom the researchers also examined their successes in
math. Math was chosen because it was a required course
for all students. They used the three-part Academic
Advising Inventory (AAI), which measures the
prescriptive and developmental advising sought by

32

students. The Cronbach alphas for the first two parts
are .74 and .76, respectively. The third part concerns
demographics only.
Statistical analyses were performed to determine
whether gender, major, ethnicity, and enrollment
influenced the variables of prescriptive and
developmental advising. The results indicated that
most of the groups received more prescriptive
advising. However, there were several exceptions,
including full-time Caucasian males and full-time
African females, who received more developmental
advising. They also found that students who identified
their goal as transfer preferred prescriptive
advising, while non-transfer students preferred
developmental advising. Finally, researchers found
that men preferred prescriptive advising, while women
preferred developmental advising (Herndon et al.,
1996).
Reiff (1997) conducted a study investigating
academic advising as an approach of learning regarding

33

disability research. This study was a qualitative
study that surveyed students with learning
disabilities at an institution of higher education.
The data collection for this study was twofold: by
telephone interview and 130 open ended questions. The
questions were analyzed across nine categories:
success, vocation, education, family, social issues,
daily living, and recommendations for children with
learning disabilities. The interviews last three to
eight hours, and on average 4.5 hours. The analysis
of the data was conducted to identify key themes.
Reiff (1997) used a prescriptive model of academic
advising to ascertain data for the study. The sample
size for this study was N=71, 46 high success and 25
moderate success. The measured academic years were
Fall 1994 to Spring 1995 and Fall 1995 to Spring 1996.
Reiff (1997) used the Goal Planning Program as a
method of prescriptive advising. The Goal Planning
Program is considered a blueprint for time management
and was able to monitor success in enrolled courses.

34

The program resulted in increases in GPA. The mean GPA
for Fall 1994 was 1.6 and increased by .5. In
addition, the mean GPA for Spring 1995 was 1.8 and
increased by .2. Finally, of the 78 students studied,
62 had an increase in GPA, while only 15 had a
decrease (Reiff, 1997).
Smith (2002) interviewed first year college
students about their perceptions of developmental or
prescriptive academic advising. Smith also conducted a
qualitative survey on a sample of 34 students and
hosted focus groups of no more than ten students per
session, consisting of a total of 23 men and 11 women.
Overall, the results indicated that students
preferred prescriptive advising. In addition, Smith
(2002) found that students used the term “advisor”
synonymously with “high school guidance counselor.”
Further, the results indicated that students did not
want to “bond” with their counselor, but preferred
just to obtain necessary information. The results,
however, were limited by the fact that the sample size

35

was relatively small and, as such, may not have been
representative of all first-year college students
(Smith, 2002)
Developmental Advising
McArthur (2005) investigated faculty-based
advising and its effect on student persistence at
Atlantic Cape Community College, which has an
enrollment of over 5000 students. Participants
included students from the Arts and Humanities
department of the college. The researcher sent 404
surveys to the students and 225 were returned, for a
response rate of over 50%. The survey measured the
student satisfaction with academic advising using
seven questions, answered on a Likert-type scale and
allowed space for students to add comments about their
experiences.
The results indicated that many students felt that
their academic advisor was knowledgeable, available,
and caring. Moreover, the students indicated that
their academic advisor made an effort to contact them

36

and that the time spent is valuable. McArthur (2005)
also conducted a separate internal analysis that
determined that actively increasing academic advising
increase persistence. Lastly, McArthur (2005) used the
developmental approach to advising to support the
finding in his study.
Academic-Centered Advising
Thompson (2001) investigated informal student-
faculty interactions in relationship to math and
science courses in community colleges. The researcher
used a random sample of 5,276 full-time and part-time
students, of 2,638 were female and 2,638 were male;
the demographic composition was fairly distributed
evenly distributed in terms of ethnicity and age.
Thompson also considered the variables of timework,
job, family, gender, student-faculty interaction, and
quality of effort to measure success in these courses,
but, more generally, persistence in community
colleges.
Thompson (2001) used the Community College

37

Student Experiences Questionnaire (CCSEQ) due to its
appropriateness for reflecting opportunities and
experiences within two-year colleges. The results
indicated that both formal and informal student-
faculty interaction is effective, for math and science
courses. Students who have higher levels of
interaction demonstrated higher levels of effort.
More specifically, Thompson (2001) found that
informal student-faculty interaction was the greatest
indicator of persistence for community college
students. The researcher noted that the students in
math and science courses needed both a prescription
towards success (prescriptive) and to be nurtured
(developmental) to ensure continuation. Thompson used
both developmental and prescriptive approaches to
advising to support the findings in this study.
Shultz, Colton, and Colton (2001) investigated
Adventor, an advising and mentoring program for non-
traditional students in higher education. The name
Adventor uses part of the words advisement and mentor.

38

The program uses both prescriptive and developmental
forms of counseling with the goal of increasing the
persistence of non-traditional students. The Adventor
program was piloted in the 1995-1996 academic year.
The participants included 18 students and 16 faculty
members, who were 65% African American and 40%
Hispanic.
Shultz et al. (2001) found that both students and
faculty enjoyed the advising and mentor relationship.
The response rate for the survey administered after
the pilot was 73% for students and 42% for faculty.
Further, as a result of the program, the GPAs of
student participants increased by .13.
Academic advising is essential to the functioning
of community colleges. It not only increases student
engagement, but also increases the persistence of
traditional and non-traditional students. Using
several approaches to measure advising, such as
developmental, prescriptive, and academic centered
advising is essential due to the diversity of age,

39

ethnicity, gender, and life experiences often seen in
the community colleges. Researchers have found that
transfer-ready students prefer prescriptive advising
and non-traditional students prefer developmental
advising. Most important is the understanding that all
students need a synthesis of both models, as
Lowenstein (1999) has developed.
Interaction with faculty, both instructional and
non-instructional, as well as formal and informal, are
need for the success of community college students.
Course Load
Course load is a general term that refers to the
number of units a student takes during the semester
and usually follows the financial aid model of full
(12+), three-quarters (9.5-11.5), half (6-9), or less
than half (.5-5.5) unit load. Researchers have come to
a general consensus on how course load affects a
student’s success and persistence (Adelman, 2005;
NCES, 1996; Szafran, 2001; Yang, 2006).
Szafran (2001) studied the effect of academic

40

load on the success of a sample of 487 students. Data
were drawn from the institution’s database. Szafran
used GPA, first-year persistence, course difficulty,
gender, ethnicity, college orientation, and employment
as variables affecting course load.
Szafran (2001) found that the students typically
registered for 12 to 19 units during the first
semester and 14 units the second. Many enrolled in
regular college courses, while others enrolled in
developmental courses. Course difficulty was a key
variable for the number of units a student carried. Of
the sample, 69% persisted to the next semester, with
an average GPA of 2.18. Szafran concluded that a
larger course load was related to persistence.
NCES (2006) conducted a study based on data
collected in the 2003–2004 National Postsecondary
Student Aid Study, which had a sample of 25,000
community college students, enrolled at any time over
a 12-month period, who were administered a survey to
determine The response rate was 84%. Course load was

41

considered either part-time or full-time enrollment.
Part-time enrollment is three or fewer courses, and
full-time enrollment is four or more courses.
The results of the NCES (2006) study indicated
that attending college part-time and working full-time
are common practices among community college students.
In the 2003–2004 cohort, the majority attended classes
part-time, including 26% of those who attended less
than half time. Additional findings indicated that
students attending college full-time had borrowed an
average of $4,100, while 9% of all others borrowed an
average of $3,300. Finally, although a large body of
research demonstrates that students who attend college
full time are much more likely to complete a degree
and be successful, few community college students are
able to attend full time due to family, work, or other
responsibilities, which only allow them to attend on a
part-time basis.
Yang (2006) studied reverse transfer and how it
relates to the multiple missions of the community

42

colleges. Yang describes reverse transfer as a
particular college attendance pattern whereby students
matriculate to the four-year institution, but
periodically return to the community colleges. These
students are typically part-time, enrolling in courses
at community colleges during summer and winter breaks,
but rarely concurrently.
Yang (2006) further described these students as
falling into two categories. Undergraduate reverse
transfer students are those who transfer from
community colleges and then transfer back to the
original institutional. Post-baccalaureate reverse
transfer students are those that hold a bachelor’s
degree, but return for personal development or career
advancement.
Yang (2006) reported that these part-time
students comprise about 10-20% of the student
population at one institution and nearly 15%
nationally. Yang stated that having these students in
community colleges positively affects the courses in

43

which they are enrolled by bringing the students’
different educational experiences into the class. The
classes also allow them to accelerate their progress
toward bachelor’s degree completion. Yang also
reports, however, that these part-time students have
some negative impact, which is seen when the colleges
are measure for persistence, transfer rates, and
educational expectations.
Using data from the NCES (1996), Adelman (2005)
examined community colleges as traditional-aged
students. The data were drawn from National
Longitudinal Study of 1988, which began with a sample
of 25,000 eighth graders. Subgroups from this cohort
were tracked and the transcripts of 8,900 of these
students, when they reached the ages of 26-27 years,
were examined. Data from two other National
Longitudinal Studies were included for comparative
reasons. The sample was diverse in regard to age,
gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and language.
Adelman (2005) used a community metaphor for the

44

study. The word “town” was used to describe the
community college setting, “homeowners” (37%) for
those who earned more than 30 credits from community
colleges, “tenants” (18%) for those who earned less
than 60% of their credits from community colleges, and
“visitors” (45%) for those who earned between 1 and 29
credits.
The results of Adelman’s (2005) study showed that
12
th
graders in the 1992 cohort earned a substantial
number of credits from community colleges.
Specifically, 1-29% earned an average of 35.9 credits,
30-59% earned an average of 63.3; 60-89% earned 79,
and 90% or more earned an average of 64.4 credits.
Using Adelman’s metaphor, the “homeowners” earned 65.2
credits, the “tenants” earned 56.5 credits, and the
“visitors” earned 13.6 credits from community
colleges. Within the first year of entering community
colleges, many of the 1992 cohort enrolled in more
than 4 units during their fist semester, but increased
their enrollment in continuing semesters.

45

Course Type
Course type is a general term that is used to
define the types of courses and the methods by which
students in the community college take courses. Course
type refers to remedial, A.A., transferable, and non-
transferable courses. Researchers have come to a
general consensus on how a course type affects a
student’s success and persistence (Adelman, 2005;
Crews & Aragon, 2004; Hagedorn, 2000; Maxwell, 2002,
2003; NCES, 1996; Roksa, 2006; Szafran, 2001).
In a quantitative study, Maxwell, Hagedorn,
Brocato, Moon, and Perrakis (2002) investigated
community college students’ patterns of multiple
college enrollments. The researchers used a sample of
5,000 students, across nine Los Angeles Community
College District campuses, who filled out a 50-minute
questionnaire. The exploratory questions sought to
discover their enrollment patterns in urban community
colleges and whether social position and educational
experiences explain these patterns.

46

The results indicated that most of the students
surveyed attended another college in the LACCD. Many
indicated that they had enrolled in courses at a four-
year college. At the time of the survey, 15% of the
students indicated that they were currently taking
courses elsewhere. Many of the students noted that, in
the following semester, they would probably enroll in
two community colleges. Maxwell et al. (2002) also
looked at the relationships between social position,
previous credits, and educational patterns, but found
no significant correlations.
In another quantitative study, Maxwell et al.
(2003) examined diversity in urban community colleges
as it related to course taking among first-year
entering students. The researchers considered 15
courses in relation to four variables (gender, age,
and part-time or full-time enrollment status) by
examining transcripts from 6,196 first-semester
students. Students were defined as enrolled if they
remained in the course past the census date or

47

received a letter grade. The courses examined were
remedial, A.A., applicable/not transferable,
applicable/transferable math and English courses,
psychology, English as a Second Language (ESL),
business, office administration, chemistry, computer
science, automotive technology, administration of
justice, and child development.
The demographics were as follows Hispanic (48%),
African American (19%), Caucasian (16%), Southeast
Asian (6%), East Asian (6%), non-White (2%), Pacific
Islander (1%), and American Indian (1%). Women
comprised of 59% of the total sample. Moreover, 33% of
the sample was enrolled full-time, while 67% were
enrolled part-time.
The results indicated that introductory ESL
courses were dominated by first-time students (55.6%).
Remedial, A.A., applicable/not transferable,
applicable/transferable math courses were filled with
25% of the students. Additionally, 7% to 20% were
enrolled in remedial, A.A., applicable/not

48

transferable, applicable/transferable English courses.
Other findings indicated that females accounted for
85% of first time enrollments in child development,
office administration, and pre-health courses that led
to nursing. Of the first year male enrollees, 98% were
in automotive technology, accounting, business, and
computer science (Maxwell et al., 2003).
The results also demonstrated that Hispanic
students dominated enrollment in introductory
automotive technology, remedial math, and child
development courses. Further, African American
students were more likely to enroll in business,
computer science, and administration of justice
courses, while Asian student enrolled in computer
science courses. Younger students enrolled in a
variety of courses, and older students took a set of
courses directly related to some vocation (Maxwell et
al., 2003).
Hagedorn, Maxwell, Chen, and Cypers (2000)
researched course shopping in the urban community

49

college setting. The researchers differentiated
between course shopping behaviors as cyclic or bulk.
Cyclic shopping is the pattern of dropping a course
and adding other courses in its place. Bulk shopping
is defined as enrolling in more courses that can be
handled, thus dropping courses later in the semester
Other shopping definitions that Hagedorn et al. used
were true cyclic shopper and mixed bag shopper. A true
cyclic shopper is a student who displays cyclic
shopping behaviors in 30% or more of his or her
enrollments (three over the two-year time period). A
mixed bag shopper is a student who was a bulk shopper
during at least one semester and a true cyclic
shopper.
Hagedorn et al. (2000) were interested in
determining the kinds of course shopping behaviors
that students perform, how prevalent such activity is,
whether there are discernible demographic patterns of
students who course shop, whether course shopping
differed by discipline or type of course, and whether

50

students who course shop have significantly different
GPAs or course completion ratios than do students who
do not practice this behavior.
Hagedorn et al. (2000) used a sample of 5,000
students from the TRUCCS database in 2001. GPA was
defined as the student’s cumulative grade point
average and success ratio as the number of classes
successfully passed with a letter grade divided by the
number of classes attempted. Hagedorn et al. used
success ratios or course completion because it
promotes that the course units is a measure of
success.
The results of Hagedorn et al.’s (2000) study
were reported in terms of three tiers. The measurement
of GPA and success ratio by shopping behavior was
analyzed through analysis of variance. The results
were significant and indicated that cyclic and mixed
bag shoppers had the worst GPA of the sample. The
second tier considered shopping as it related to
gender, age, and ethnicity. Chi square tests were run,

51

which showed that there was a significant relationship
between shopping and gender, but there was no
significant finding for age and ethnicity. The third
tier concerned shopping behaviors by course type and
enrollment. It was found that math and English courses
were shopped the most.
NCES (2006) investigated college cost and
attendance as they pertain to the types of courses
students take in the community college. The study was
based on data from the 2003–2004 National
Postsecondary Student Aid Study, from a sample of
25,000 community colleges students. The survey
included students enrolled at any time over a 12-month
period. The response rate of the survey for community
colleges was 84%. Course type was measured in terms of
remedial, A.A., transfer, and vocational courses.
Commitment levels as they pertained to types of
courses also were a focus. The commitment measure was
based on degree completion and college attendance
intensity and reported intentions.

52

Findings from the NCES (2006) study indicated
that 49% of the students were considered committed. Of
this group, 29% were on the four-year transfer track,
9% A.A. track, and 9% were working towards a
certificate. Of the less committed group, 39% were on
the four-year transfer track, 9% on the A.A. track,
and 4% on the certificate track. Finally, 12% were
considered not committed. Approximately 26% of
community college students did not meet this
attendance level for this study.
Students classified as less committed attended
less than half-time (NCES, 2006). The study also
suggests that students who were classified as more
committed were required to have attended at least half
time. Additionally, larger proportions attended full-
time, as compared with those classified as less
committed.
Finally, another aspect of the NCES (2006), based
on first-time freshmen, found that when students were
asked about what degree they expected to obtain at the

53

community college, many responded that they expected
to complete a sub-baccalaureate credential or transfer
to a four-year institution. In contrast, according to
the results of an early NCES (1996) study, community
college students did not report enrolling in courses
that lead towards transfer or completing a credential.
Roksa (2006) conducted research to determine
whether the vocational focus of community colleges,
when controlling for student and state
characteristics, hinders the educational attainment of
students. The sample for this study included 2,680
students, enrolled in 600 community colleges
nationally, who entered postsecondary education in
September 1994. Three variables were measured: (a) the
likelihood of earning an associate degree compared to
earning only certificated or no credentials, (b) the
likelihood of transferring to a four-year institution,
and (c) the likelihood of completing a bachelor’s
degree for students who transferred to four-year
institutions Roksa also focused on the proportion of

54

community college credentials awarded and the
proportion of associate degrees awarded in vocational
fields of study.
Roksa (2006) used regression analysis was used to
analyze the data. The results indicated that taking
vocational courses had no effect on educational
attainment. It was further found that, when community
colleges concentrate on awarding certificates,
educational attainment is adversely affected. Students
who took vocational courses and received a certificate
were 60% less likely to transfer; however, the
awarding of vocational certificates had no impact on
the progression to achieve an associate’s degree.
Finally, Roksa found that students taking vocational
courses do not have lower educational attainment, but
when controlled by individual and state
characteristics.
Crews and Aragon (2004) studied the influence of
developmental writing courses on academic performance
in community colleges. They looked at relationships

55

between community college developmental writing
courses and short- and long-term academic performance
within a three-year period. Crews and Aragon used an
ex post facto research design to study a public rural
community college in the Midwest. The independent
variable was participation in the course and ten
dependent variables were identified (age, gender,
ethnicity, high school experience, writing test score,
initial enrollment status, degree certificate intent,
transfer intent, GPA, and English 101 grade.
The developmental course that Crews and Aragon
(2004) analyzed was a five-credit course, given one
hour each day of the week. The course consisted of
essay writing, sentence structure, grammar, word
usage, punctuation, diction, and spelling and was
designed to prepare students for the first level of
English. The sample included 669 students, who were
drawn from 1,269 first-time community college students
who self-identified as needing a developmental writing
course. Crews and Aragon further divided the sample

56

into first semester participation (n = 384) and non-
participation (n = 285). The total sample was split
into cohorts from Spring 1995, Fall 1995, Spring 1996,
Fall 1996, Spring 1997, Fall 1997, Spring 1998, and
Fall 1998. Data analysis consisted of one-way ANOVAs,
as well as t and chi-square tests.
The results indicated that there was no
significant relationship of the writing course with
age, high school experience, writing test score,
initial enrollment status, degree or certificate
intent, and transfer. However, there was a significant
relationship between the course and gender (p = .20, p
= .17, ethnicity (p = .23, p = .01) and the
developmental writing course. Additionally, when t-
tests were conducted to measure GPA, a significant
association (p = .01) was found with the course. There
was no significant relationship between English 101
grade and developmental writing (Crews & Aragon,
2004).
Adelman (2005), whose study was presented above,

57

also noted the goals of the students. Specifically,
37.3% of “homeowners” identified their goal as an
associate’s degree, while 76.9% of “tenants”
identified their goal as a bachelor’s degree or
higher. Many of the “visitors” did not identify a
goal.
Adelman (2005) also reported on the types of
courses that these students were enrolled in upon
graduation. Specifically, 19% of those who were
obtaining an associate’s degree and 23.8% of those
obtaining a certificate enrolled in remedial courses.
A substantial percentage of students majored in
general studies, math, science, and the protective
services field.
Community college students with learning
disabilities typically begin their college career
taking remedial and developmental courses. This
practice prolongs their stay in the community college,
thus increasing the risk of dropping or stopping out.
As a result, the types of courses these students take

58

are an important issue to confront as it pertains to
their persistence.
Students in the community colleges are typically
non-traditional and have other outside
responsibilities that hinder them from taking a full
credit load. The literature suggests that a predictor
of persistence is full-time enrollment, but many
students with learning disabilities take reduced
course loads. Thus, course load is an important issue
to confront as it pertains to the persistence of these
students.
Based on the literature, the following hypotheses
help guide the study:
1. There is a positive relationship between the
frequent use of academic advising and persistence for
students with learning disabilities.
2. There is a positive relationship between the
number of units/courses (course load) that students
with learning disabilities take during the semester
and their persistence.

59

3. There is a positive relationship between the
types of courses students with learning disabilities
take during the semester and their persistence.

60

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the methodology used in the
study. The chapter begins with a presentation of the
TRUCCS study, followed by a discussion of the
procedures, data collection, transcripts, statistical
analysis, dependent variable, independent variables,
research design, and participants. The chapter
concludes with a presentation of the demographics.
TRUCCS Study
TRUCCS is a three-year longitudinal study, which
took place from 2001 to 2003. The purpose of the
TRUCCS study was to examine goals, success, and
academic patterns of 5,000 community college students
in urban Los Angeles. This study was a joint project
with the University of Southern California (USC),
Rossier School of Education and the Los Angeles
Community College District (LACCD). The TRUCCS survey
encompassed over 40 questions regarding demographics,
course taking, GPA, and degree aspirations.

61

Procedures
The TRUCCS survey was administered beginning in
Spring 2001 to LACCD community college students from
varying backgrounds, ethnicities, gender, and ages.
The participants were not randomly selected. The
sample instead involved selected classrooms with the
objective of maximizing variance in some of the
study’s main independent variables. Two follow-up
surveys also were administered. Students from LACCD
signed release authorizations for their college
transcripts to be examined. The analysis of the
student’s course taking history is based on transcript
data. All data are contained in a Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) database.
Students who participated in the study provided
releases allowing access to their transcripts and
other district records for the purposes of the
research study. The initial data collection occurred
during the Spring 2001 semester. For purposes of this
study, the analysis of student behaviors was based on

62

the transcript data for the Spring 2001, Fall 2001,
Spring 2002, and Fall 2002 semesters.
Data Collection
The TRUCCS survey was administered beginning in
spring 2001 to LACCD community college students from
varying backgrounds, ethnicities, and ages. The
participants were not randomly selected. Instead, the
research team selected classrooms with the objective
of maximizing variance in some of the study’s main
independent variables. Two follow-up surveys were
also administered in following semesters. Students
from LACCD signed release authorizations for their
college transcripts to be examined. The analysis of
the student’s course taking history is based on
transcript data. All data is contained in a
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
database. As a part of this study, the student was
the unit of analysis. Statistical analysis was
performed including descriptive statistics, comparison
of means and Pearson correlations. Analysis was

63

preformed to evaluate the differences in course
completion and the frequency of academic advising.
Transcripts
TRUCCS includes transcript data from 5,000
students across the nine Los Angeles Community College
campuses. Although the initial data collection
occurred in Spring 2001, the transcript data went back
as far as each student’s first enrollment with the Los
Angeles Community College District (LACCD).
Statistical Analysis
The analysis of the student’s course taking
history is based on transcript data. All data are
contained in a Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) database. Data from the TRUCCS
database were analyzed using multiple statistical
methods, including crosstabulations, frequencies,
descriptives, and correlations, using SPSS.
Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is persistence, which
refers to course completion ratio (Hagedorn, 2002),

continuous enrollment (Bean & Metzner 1985; Leppel,
2002; Lohfink & Paulsen’s, 2005), enrollment in at
least one semester (NCES, 1996, 2005), and persistence
within the timeframe (Derby & Smith, 2004). Course
completion ratio was measured by dividing the units
completed by the units attempted from the Spring 2001
cohort.
Course completion ratio was measured by using the
equation below (Hagedorn, 2002). The equation
represents the ratio of the units earned divided by
the attempted divided. This dependent variable was
measured against the independent variables of academic
advising, course type, and course load.
Number of courses with the grade of
A, B, C, CR, or P
SCCR=
Number of courses of enrollment

Continuous Enrollment

Continuous enrollment was determined by inspection
of the Spring 2001, Fall 2001, Spring 2002, and Fall
2002 enrollment patterns. Specifically, the researcher

64

65

considered continuous enrollment as enrollment in all
consecutive semesters. Being enrolled continuously
refers to enrollment in the Spring 2001, Fall, 2001,
Spring 2002, and Fall 2002. Enrollment was not
considered continuous if there was a break in the
enrollment patterns from one semester to the next.
This dependent variable was measured against the
independent variables of course type and course load.
Because the independent variable of academic
advising only pertained to the Spring 2001 survey, it
was excluded from this analysis. The researcher
identified the student participants LACCD Student
Information System (SIS). After the information was
collected, the researcher conducted a statistical
analysis to determine the enrollment patterns of
students with learning disabilities.
Enrollment in at Least One Semester Each Year
Enrollment in at least one semester was measured
by inspecting the Fall 2001 and Fall 2002 enrollment
date. Spring semesters were not be measured because

66

Spring 2001 began the survey period. Moreover, Winter
and Summer sessions were not be considered. The
researcher considered enrollment in one semester a
year, either 2001 or 2002, enrollment. This dependent
variable as measured against the independent variables
of course type and course load. Because academic
advising only pertains to the Spring 2001 survey, it
was excluded from this analysis.
Independent Variables
There were independent variables: academic
advising, course load, and course type. Course load is
the number of units a student is enrolled in within a
designated time frame (Adelman, 2005; NCES, 1996;
Szafran, 2001; Yang, 2006). Course type is the type of
courses that students with learning disabilities are
taking (transferable, non-transferable, A.A., not
applicable) (Adelman, 2005; Crews & Aragon, 2004;
Hagedorn et al., 2000; Maxwell, 2002, 2003; NCES,
1996; Roksa, 2006; Szafran, 2001).

67

Academic Advising
Academic advising was measured by the responses
to survey questions 13.2 (talk with an instructor
before class), 13.3 (talk to an instructor during
office hours), 13.7 (speak with an academic
counselor), and 14.3 (ask the instructor questions).
The respondents answered each items on a 6-point
Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 to 5 or more times
in a seven-day period. Statistical analyses were
conducted to determine how academic advising is
correlated with the dependent variables.
Course Load
Course load is the number of units a student is
enrolled in a given semester. The Spring 2001, Fall
2001, Spring 2002, and Fall 2002 were considered for
this study. Enrollment information was obtained from
the LACCD Student Information System (SIS).
Statistical analyses were conducted to determine how
course load is correlated with persistence.

68

Course Type
Course type was measured by the types of courses
students are enrolled in a given semester. The Spring
2001, Fall 2001, Spring 2002, and Fall 2002 were
considered for this study. Specifically, A.A.-
transferable, non -A.A.-transferable, and non-degree
applicable were the categories of measurement.
Enrollment information was obtained from the LACCD
Student Information System (SIS). Statistical analyses
were conducted to determine how course type is
correlated with persistence.
Research Design
The research design is correlational. The
participants were not randomly assigned to the
comparison categories; they selected the behaviors
that categorized them. The use of the transcript data
provides a longitudinal measurement of persistence
behaviors that occurred subsequent to the measurement
of the several independent variables.
The first set of analyses addressed the question:

69

Does the frequent use of academic advising increase
the persistence rates of students with learning
disabilities? Persistence was measured by semester-to-
semester enrollment, continuous enrollment, enrollment
in one semester, persistence within a time frame, and
course completion ratio.
The second set of analyses addressed the
question: Does full-time, three quarter, half-time, or
fewer enrollments influence persistence for students
with learning disabilities? The independent variable
was course load, which represents the total number of
semester hours and letter graded courses, college
credit, pass/fail, and developmental courses. This was
determined from transcript data from the TRUCCS
database.
The third set of analyses addressed the question:
Do the types of courses influence persistence for
students with learning disabilities? The independent
variable is course type. Course type is the types of
courses students with learning disabilities enroll in.

70

Specifically, A.A.-transferable, non-A.A.-
transferable, and non-degree applicable courses were
examined. This was determined from transcript data
from the TRUCCS database.
Participants
The researcher examined the enrollment patterns of
students that completed the TRUCCS survey. The
participants in this study identified themselves as
having a learning disability by responding to survey
question 23, which asked the participant if he or she
had a disability and the type of disability. Based on
participant’s response to this question, the database
was reduced to only include students who identified
themselves as having a learning disability. This
yielded a sample of 169 participants with learning
disabilities who completed the survey in Spring 2001.
Demographics
As noted above, 169 surveyed participants
indicated that they had been diagnosed as having a
learning disability. Of these participants, 41%

71

identified themselves as males, 51% as female, and 8%
did not answer the survey question. The ages of these
students ranged from 16 to over 55 years old. The age
ranges with the significant percentages were 19 years,
20 years, 21-24 years, 30-39 years and, surprisingly,
40-54 years (Table 1).
Table 1
Ages of Students
Age n
16 years and younger 1
17 years old 0
18 years old 1
19 years old 27
20 years old 21
21-24 years old 44
25-29 years old 10
30-39 years old 28
40-54 years old 30
55 years and older 4

Of the 169 participants that were identified as
having a learning disability, Hispanics, Caucasians,
African Americans, Asians, Pacific Islanders,
Filipinos, Alaskans/Native Americans, and Middle
Easterners were represented (Table 2).

72

Table 2
Ethnicity of Students
Ethnicity n
Hispanic 82
Caucasian 43
African American 31
Asian 25
Pacific Islander 9
Filipino 2
Alaskan/Native American 1
Middle Eastern 1
Other 16

The campuses where the majority of the
participants attended were Los Angeles City College,
East Los Angeles College, and Los Angeles Trade
Technical College (Table 3).
Table 3
Campuses of Students
Campus n
LA City 25
LA Harbor 25
LA East 25
LA Mission 14
LA Pierce 20
LA Valley 18
LA Trade 26
LA West 14
LA Southwest 2

73

CHAPTER 4
Introduction
Chapter four presents the results and finding as
they relate to the research questions and hypotheses.
The researcher compiled the following results from the
data provided by the TRUCCS database and the Student
Information System Database, in an effort to answer
the research questions. The following discussion
addresses the analysis of the data, which was
collected and analyzed systematically, to answer each
of the research questions.
Due to the fragmented cohorts within the TRUCCS
database as it pertains to students with learning
disabilities, the sample size varied between analyses.
The cohorts was fragmented because there were some
students in the database who were enrolled in the
LACCD prior 2001, the year the TRUCCS 2001 survey was
initially administered. Specifically, there were
student who took the survey that began their studies
in the 1999-2000 academic year.

74

Academic advising was measured by utilizing the
survey questions 13.2: Talk with an instructor before
class; 13.3: Talk to an instructor during office
hours; 13.7: Speak with an academic counselor; and
14.3: Ask the instructor questions. An analysis was
preformed to determine how the participants responded
to these survey items. Also, academic advising was
correlated with the dependent variables. Academic
advising was measured with the course completion
ratio.
Course load is a general term that is used to
define the number units a student takes during the
semester. Course load usually follows the financial
aid model of full-time (12 or more units), three-
quarter time (9.5-11.5 units), half-time (6-9 units),
or less than half unit load (.5-5.5 units). Course
completion ratio, continuous enrollment, and
enrollment in at least one semester a year (fall 2001
and fall 2002) was used to determine which course
loads were best for students with learning

75

disabilities. Each student in the analysis was
surveyed in the spring 2001 semester.
Course type is used to define the methods by
which community college students take courses and what
types of courses. Course type refers to remedial,
associate degree, transferable, and non-transferable
courses. Scholars (e.g., Adelman, 2005; Hagedorn,
2000; and Maxwell, 2002, 2003) have studied the types
of courses students in the community colleges.
However, there have been few studies of the course
taking patterns of students with learning
disabilities. Examples of courses are math, English,
psychology, English as a Second Language (ESL),
business, office administration, chemistry, computer
science, automotive technology, administration of
justice, and child development. This section will
illustrate the types of courses in which these
students are choosing to enroll. Course type was
measured using the course completion ratio, continuous
enrollment, and enrollment in at least one semester a

76

year (fall 2001 and fall 2002). Each student in the
analysis was surveyed in the spring 2001 semester.
General Research Questions
• What are the course taking patterns for students
with learning disabilities in community colleges?
• How does frequent academic advising affect
persistence for students with learning
disabilities?
• How does frequent academic advising affect course
taking patterns for students with disabilities?
Specific Research Questions
• Does the frequent use of academic advising
increase the persistence rates of students with
learning disabilities?
• Does full-time, three quarter, half-time, or
fewer enrollments influence persistence for
students with learning disabilities?
• Do the types of courses influence persistence for
students with learning disabilities?

77

Research Hypotheses
• There is a positive relationship between the
frequent use of academic advising and persistence
for students with learning disabilities.
• There is a positive relationship between the
number of units/courses students with learning
disabilities take during the semester and their
persistence.
• There is a positive relationship between the
types of courses students with learning
disabilities take during the semester and their
persistence.
Persistence-Course Completion
Academic Advising
There were 169 students in the TRUCCS database
identified as having a learning disability. Some of
the students did not answer all of the advisement
questions, thus sample sizes in this section will
slightly vary.

78

Table 5 is a Pearson correlation matrix. As seen
in Table 5, when measuring the dependent variable of
course completion and the independent variable of
academic advising some of the following survey items
were determined to be correlated at statistically
significant levels, but weakly correlated. “Talking
with the instructor before or after class (r=.14),”
“Speak with academic counselor (r=.10),” and “Ask
instructor questions (r=.03)”. “Talk with instructor
during office hours (r=-.02),” has a negative
correlation with course completion. However, because
of the small sample size, the significance and
correlations could not be determined if applied to a
larger sample.

79

Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Academic Advising
Advising N Mean Std
Talk with
instructor
before or
after class
162 2.71 1.60
Talk with
instructor
during office
hours
161 1.86 1.46
Speak with
academic
counselor
160 1.94 1.42
Ask the
instructor
questions
165 3.04 1.76

80

Table 5
Pearson Correlations between Course Completion Ratio
and Academic Advising
Components of
Academic Advising
Course Completion
Rate
IV1-Talk with
instructor before
or after class
r=.14
IV2-Talk with
instructor during
office hours
r=-.02
IV3-Speak with
academic
counselor
r=.10
IV4-Ask
instructor
questions
r=.03

Talk To Instructor Before or After Class
Table 6 displays, in detail, the inconsistent and
very weak relationship between talking with an
instructor before and after class and course
completion. However, as listed below, speaking to an
instructor three times demonstrates a substantial
increase in the course completion rate (.79).

81

Table 6
Course Completion Rates by Frequency of Talking to
Instructor Before or After Class
Talk with
instructor
before or
after class

N

Mean Rate of
Course
Completion
Std
None 42 .55 .39
1 time 48 .59 .41
2 times 31 .65 .34
3 times 15 .79 .28
4 times 8 .67 .33
5 or more
times
18 .67 .32
Total 162 .62 .37

Talk to Instructor During Office Hours
Table 7 shows that there is no appreciable
correlation between talking to an instructor during
office hours and course completion for the majority of
the items. However, five students showed a .77 course
completion rate when talking to an instructor four
times during their office hours. There was a weak
correlation (r=-0.02) found for these variables
overall.

82

Table 7
Course Completion Rates by Frequency of Talking to
Instructor During Office Hours
Talk with
instructor
during
office hours

N

Mean Rate of
Course
Completion
Std
None 105 .64 .37
1 time 20 .52 .36
2 times 12 .55 .41
3 times 10 .56 .38
4 times 5 .77 .44
5 or more
times
9 .64 .34
Total 161 .62 .37

Speak to An Academic Counselor

Table 8 exhibits the inconsistent and very weak
relationship between talking to an academic counselor
and course completion, with the exception of those
students who visited their counselor five or more
times (n=11).

83

Table 8
Course Completion Rates by Frequency of Speaking with
Academic Counselor
Speak with
academic
counselor
N
Mean Rate of
Course
Completion
Std
None 90 .61 .38
1 time 32 .56 .36
2 times 19 .74 .30
3 times 7 .58 .45
4 times 1 0 0
5 or more
times
11 .78 .22
Total 160 .62 .37

Ask Instructor Questions
Table 9 exhibits the inconsistent relationship
between asking the instructor questions and course
completion.

84

Table 9
Course Completion Rates by Frequency of Asking
Instructor Questions
Ask
instructor
questions
N Mean Rate
of Course
Completion
Std
None 44 .61 .39
1 time 29 .64 .41
2 times 31 .64 .34
3 times 26 .60 .37
4 times 8 .68 .37
5 or more
times
27 .65 .33
Total 165 .63 .37

Course Load
Table 10 demonstrates that the students who were
enrolled in 9.5-11.5 units in the spring 2001 semester
were the most successful (.71) (n=19). The course
completion ratio was .64 for students (n=81) who took
12 or more units.
This table also examines the students with
learning disabilities in fall 2001. The table shows
that, among the original 169 students, 115 were
enrolled the following semester; thus, demonstrating a

85

slight decrease in enrollment into the next semester.
Of those that continued, 19 took .5-5.5 units and had
a completion rate of .46; 37 took 6-9 units and had a
completion rate of .54; 10 took 9.5-11.5 units and had
a completion rate of .62; and 49 took 12 or more units
and had a completion rate of .71.
In spring 2002, 103 of the original 169 students
in the database with learning disabilities were
enrolled. Following the above trend, seemingly more
students with learning disabilities were not enrolling
into the next semester. Of those that continued, 17
took .5-5.5 units and had a completion rate of .62; 35
took 6-9 units and had a completion rate of .55; 12
took 9.5-11.5 units and had a completion rate of .57;
and 39 took 12 or more units and had a completion rate
of .78.
Finally, table 10 also presents the students with
learning disabilities in fall 2002. The table shows
that 87 of the original 169 students enrolled into the
fall 2002 semester. Of those who enrolled in this

semester, 19 took .5-5.5 units and had a completion
rate of .43; 26 took 6-9 units and had a completion
rate of .60; 9 took 9.5-11.5 units and had a
completion rate of .65; and 33 took 12 or more units
and had a completion rate of .63.
Table 10
Mean Completion Rates of Students by Course Load
Mean Rate of Course Completion

Course
Load
Spring
2001
Fall
2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
.5-5.5
units

.68 (23) .46 (19) .62 (17) .43 (19)
6-9 units

.54 (46) .54 (37) .55 (35) .60 (26)

9.5-11.5
units

.71 (19) .62 (10) .57 (12) .65 (9)

12 or more
units
.64 (81) .71 (49) .78 (39) .63 (33)
(169) (115) (103) (87)

Course Type

Tables 11 and 12 illustrate the types of courses
the students were taking in the spring 2001, fall

86

87

2001, spring 2002, and fall 2002 semesters. As seen
below, 169 students enrolled in the spring 2001
semester. Of the 169, many students were enrolled in
associate degree applicable or transferable courses.
During this semester, students were successful in
completing courses such as accounting, anthropology,
astronomy, finance, geology, and physical education.
The students with learning disabilities who enrolled
in English within this semester demonstrated
completion rates of .66. Another course that had a
substantial number of student enrollments was business
and of the students with learning disabilities
enrolled, the completion rate was .67. Students who
enrolled in math were moderately successful, but the
numbers were dismal.
Moreover, during this semester there were few
students enrolled in non associate degree applicable
and transferable courses. Students who enrolled in
culinary arts (n=6) were not successful; however,
students were successful when enrolled in open

88

entry/open exit courses such as learning skills
(n=36). The completion rate for learning skills was
.75.
In fall 2001 students with learning disabilities
were enrolled in a variety of courses. The data
demonstrates that students enrolled in courses such as
art (.82), biology (1.00), computer science (.86),
English (.81), and child development (.60) were
successful. However, in courses such as math and
special education, students were not successful.
In spring 2002, students proved to be moderately
successful in accounting (.67), child development
(.86), computer science (.82), English (1.0), and
learning skills (.70). Courses in which students were
not successful were anthropology, math, and Chicano
studies.
Finally, table 11 and 12 also examines the
students with learning disabilities in fall 2002.
Students enrolled in this semester were successful in
accounting, fire technology, art, and learning skills.

89

However, the students in the fall 2002 encountered
difficulty in computer science, earth science, and
anthropology.
Table 11
Transferable and A.A. Applicable Courses: Mean Rate of
Completion by Course Load
Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
ACCTG
.50
1.00
.
.67
1
.00
ADM JUS
.00
.83
.
.25
1
.00
AFRO AM 1.00
1
.00

ANATOMY
.00

1
.00

ANTHRO
.00
.33
.
.57 .38
ASTRON .67
1
.00
1
.00
ARCH
.00

BIOLOGY
.14
1.00
.
.67 .86
BUS
.67 4
.38
.
.80
1
.00
CH DEV
.75 6
.60
5
.
.86 4 .56
CHEM
.00
1.00
1
.00

90

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 11 continued
CHICANO
.50
.67
.
.33
1
.00
CINEMA
.00
.67
1
.00
1
.00
CO SCI
.57 3

.86 4
.
.82 1 .50 0
DRAFT
.00

EARTH
1
.00 00
ECON
.80
.50
.
.50 0
1
.00
ECONMT
.67

1.00

EDUC
.00

1
.00

ENG GEN
.00

1
.00

ENGLISH
.66 2

.81 1
.
.64 1 .43 4
ETNTLGY
.00

ENV SCI .67
FAM & CS .00
1
.00
FINANCE .50
1
.00
FRENCH
.50
1.00
1
.00

GEOG
.67
.50
.
.50 .70 0
GEOLOGY
.00

.
.67
1
.00
HEALTH
.76 7
.43
.
.67 .50

91

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 11 continued
HISTORY
.63 4
.47
5
.
.78 .50
HUMAN .50 .67 .75 . 67
IMPORT .00 1.00
INTBUS
1.00 1
JAPAN
1.00 1 1.00 1 1.00 1 1.00 2
LAW
.67 3 1.00 4 1.00 1
MARKET
.50 2 1.00 1 .50 2
MATH
.86 7 .50 4 .57 7 1.00 3
MGMT
.67 3 1.00 2
MICRO
.00 1 1.00 1
MUSIC
.80 10 .75 8 .75 12 .67 9
OCEANO
.57 7 .33 6 .75 4
PHILOS
1.00 5 .33 9 .80 5 .60 5
PHYS SC
1.00 1 .00 1 .50 2
PHYSICS
.50 2 1.00 2
PHYSIOL
.00 1 .00 1
POL SCI
.63 8 .88 8 .83 6 .67 6
PSYCH
.65 23 .75 16 .67 12 .62 13
PUB REL
1.00 1
REGNRSG
1.00 1

92

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 11 continued
SOC
.83 6 .75 4 .85 13 .71 7
SPANISH
.50 6 .67 6 .75 4 .67 6
SPEECH
.55 11 .80 10 .79 14 1.00 7
STAT
.00 1 1.00 3
THEATER
1.00 3 1.00 2 .50 2 1.00 1
TOTAL
.66 286 .67 218 .72 209 .68 160

Table 12
Non-A.A. and Non-Degree Applicable Courses: Mean Rate
of Completion by Course Load
Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
A S L
.00
.50
.00
A S T
.00

ADDICST 1.00
1
.00 .00
ART
.88 6
.82
1 .80 0 .00
AUTORTK
.00
.50
AUTOTEK
.00
1.00
1
.00

93

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 12 continued
CAOT
.00
.40 .00
CBNTMKG
.00
1.00
1
.00
CINEMA 1.00
CLN ART
.00

CO INFO
.50
1.00
1
.00 .00
CRPNTRY
.75

DEV COM
.82 1
.73
1 .50 .00
DRAFT
.00

ECON
.00
ENG TEK 1.00
ENGLISH
.59 5
.62
1 .47 7 .28 8
ESL
.00
.00
FASHDSN
.33
.33
.00
FIRETEK
.00
1.00
1
.00 .00
HEALTH
1
.00 .00
HLTHOCC
.00
1.00
00
HUMAN 1.00
1
.00
LIB SCI
.00
.50
1
.00

94

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 12 continued
LRNSKIL
.75 6
.80
0 .70 3 .67 8
MATH
.42 5
.49
1 .26 3 .23 0
MSCNC
.00

MUSIC 1.00
.00
OFF ADM
.54 4
.50
OFF MCH .00
.00
P.E.
.00
1.00
1
.00
PERSDEV
.00
1.00
.80 .33
PHOTO
.50
.00
.71 .00
PHYS ED
.77 5
.67
8 .85 6 .74 7
PHYSIOL
.00
POL SCI
.00
POFBKG .00
.00 .00
RAD TEC
.00
REAL ES
.00
1.00
.00
REF A/C
.78
1.00
1
.00 .67
SPEC ED
.00
.00

95

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 12 continued
TAILRNG
.00
1.00
TRANS
.00

.00
TRAVEL
.00
.40
TOTAL
63 32
.64
76 64 55 55 38

96

Persistence-Enrollment in at Least One Semester per
Year
Course Load (Fall 2001 and Fall 2002)
The National Center for Education Statistics
(1996) suggests that persistence is best measured from
fall to fall. Of the original 169 students, 115
enrolled in fall 2001 and 87 enrolled in fall 2002.
The analysis of these semesters demonstrated that as
time progressed, students with learning disabilities
enrolled in fewer units in comparison to spring 2001.
Consistently, these students were enrolling in .5 to
12 or more units and showing moderate success.
Persistence-Continuous Enrollment
Course Load (Spring 2001 through Fall 2002)
Table 13 summarizes the course load patterns of
students with learning disabilities who were enrolled
in all four semesters during the survey period. Of
the 169 students, only 77 were enrolled continuously
throughout the survey period. During this time, these
students with learning disabilities were enrolled in

.5 to 12 plus units throughout the four semesters.
The table demonstrates that those enrolled in 9.5 to
12 units had a higher completion rate of those
enrolled in fewer units.
Table 13
Students Continually Enrolled by Course Load
Mean Rate of Course Completion

Course Load Spring
2001
Fall
2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
.5-5.5 units .83 (6) .50 (6) .81 (8) .48 (17)

6-9 units .74 (22) .56 (25) .67 (24) .63 (23)

9.5-11.5 units .84 (10) .62 (10) .57 (12) .68 (8)

12 or more
units
.72 (41) .73 (35) .78 (33) .66 (29)
Total (79) (76) (77) (77)

Course Type (Spring 2001 through Fall 2002)
Table 14 summarizes the types of courses the
students with learning disabilities who were enrolled
in throughout the four semesters in the survey period.
The results of this analysis showed that over four
semesters, these students took transferable/A.A.
applicable courses such as English, child development,
history, and math. Additionally, these students took

97

98

non transferable/non A.A. applicable courses such as
developmental communication, auto repair, auto
technology, and learning skills courses.

Table 14
Transferable and A.A.-Applicable Courses: Students
Continually Enrolled by Course Load
Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
A S L
.00
ACCTG 1.00
1
.00 .00
ADM JUS
.00
1.00
00

AFRO AM 1.00
1
.00

ANATOMY
1
.00

ANTHRO .20
.75 .43
ART
.00
ASTRON 1.00
1
.00 .00
BIOLOGY
.00
1.00
1
.00 .00
BUS
.88
.67
1
.00 .00
CH DEV
.90 0
.64
1 .92 2 .57

99

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 14 continued
CHEM
.00
1
.00

CHICANO
.50
1.00
.40 .00
CINEMA .67
1
.00 .00
CO INFO
.00
CO SCI
.67
1.00
2 .82 1 .44
EARTH .00
1
.00 00
ECON
.00
1.00
.71 .00
ECONMT
.00
1.00
EDUC
1
.00

ENG GEN
.00
1
.00

ENGLISH
.67 8
.85
3 .64 1 .50 2
ENV SCI 1.00
FAM & CS .00
.00
FINANCE .00
.00
FIRETEK
.00
FRENCH
.50
1.00
1
.00

GEOG
.00
1.00
.60 .75
GEOLOGY
.50 .00

100

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 14 continued
HEALTH
.80 0
.67
1
.00 .00
HISTORY
.75 2
.38
.75 .40
HUMAN .50
.67 .67
IMPORT
.00
1.00
JAPAN
.00
1.00
.00
LAW
.00
1
.00 .00
MARKET
.00
1.00
MATH
.00
.00
67 .00
MICRO
.00
MGMT
.00
1.00
MUSIC
.00
.71
.73 1 .75
OCEANO
.00
.00
.75
PHILOS
.00
.33
.80 .75
PHYSICS
1
.00

PHYS ED
.80 0
PHYS SC 1.00
.50
POL SCI
.00
1.00
.75 .67

101

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall 2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 14 continued
PSYCH
.73 1
.75
.78 .67
REGNRSG
1
.00

SOC
.00
1.00
.91 1 .50
SPANISH
.50
1.00
.50 .67
SPEECH
.50
.78
.88 .00
STAT .00
1
.00

THEATER
.00 .00
Total
78 20
.71
33 79 56 73 54

Table 15
Non-A.A.-Applicable and Non-Degree Courses: Students
Continually Enrolled by Course Load
Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
A S L
.00
.50
.00
A S T
ADDICST 1.00
1
.00 .00
ADM JUS
.00

102

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 15 continued
ANTHRO

.00
ART
.89
.75
86 .00
AUTORTK 1.00
BIOLOGY
.50
CAOT .00
67 .00
CBNTMKG 1.00
CH DEV
.00
CLN ART
.00

CO INFO
.50
1.00
1
.00
CO SCI
.00
CRPNTRY
.75

DEV COM
.00
.88
.67 .00
ECON
.00
ENGLISH
.71 8
.65
7 .43 4 .33 2
ESL .00
GEOG
.00
FIRETEK
.00
1.00
1
.00
HEALTH
.00

103

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 15 continued
HLTHOCC
1.00
00
HISTORY
.00
HUMAN
1
.00
LIB SCI
.00
1.00
1
.00
LRNSKIL
.75 6
.83
8 .70 3 .67 8
MATH
.60 0
.56
2 .33 5 .26 3
MUSIC
.00
OFF ADM
.67 2
.60
OFF MCH .00
00
P.E.
.00
1.00
PERSDEV
.00
1.00
75 .00
PHOTO
.50

1
.00 .00
PHYS ED
.89 8
.64
4 .81 1 .80
PHYSIOL
.00
POL SCI
.00
PROFBKG
.00 .00
PSYCH
.50

104

Mean Rate of Course Completion
Course
Type
Spring
2001
Fall 2001
Spring
2002
Fall
2002
Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N
Table 15 continued
RAD TEC

.00
REAL ES
.00
REF A/C
.00
1.00
1
.00 .67
SOC
.00
SPANISH
.67

105

CHAPTER 5
Summary of Study
The general purpose of this study was to
determine if there was a positive relationship between
the frequent use of academic advising, course load,
and course types with persistence in students with
learning disabilities.
The general research questions were: What are
the course taking patterns are for students with
learning disabilities in community colleges; how does
frequent academic advising affect persistence for
students with learning disabilities; and how does
frequent academic advising affect course taking
patterns for students with disabilities? The specific
research questions were: Does the frequent use of
academic advising increase the persistence rates of
students with learning disabilities? Does full-time,
three quarter, half-time, or fewer enrollments
influence persistence for students with learning
disabilities? Do the types of courses influence

106

persistence for students with learning disabilities?
Scholars have not adequately explored issues
relating to student with learning disabilities in the
community colleges. Due to the limited research on
students with learning disabilities, this study will
be useful for researchers and other professionals in
the disability related professions. This study offers
much needed insight into the course taking patterns of
students with learning disabilities. The statistical
evidence gathered regarding academic advising, course
load, and course types was computed. The small sample
size may have contributed to the weak correlations.
However, useful information can be gathered from the
analysis, in relation to the research questions and
hypotheses.
The hypotheses in this study were:
• There is a positive relationship between the
frequent use of academic advising and persistence
for students with learning disabilities.
• There is a positive relationship between the

107

number of units/courses students with learning
disabilities take during the semester and their
persistence.
• There is a positive relationship between the
types of courses students with learning
disabilities take during the semester and their
persistence.
The data on the frequency of academic advising
indicated that there was weak positive relationship
and correlation between the course completion ratios.
Useful information can be inferred from survey items
13.2: Talk with an instructor before class; 13.7:
Speak with an academic counselor; and 14.3: Ask the
instructor questions. However, because of the small
sample size, the significance and predictability could
not be determined.
The data on course load by the persistence
variables revealed a several main findings. It
revealed that students who were enrolled inconsistent
numbers of units throughout the survey period were not

108

successful. The data also revealed that those who
took more units had a higher course completion rate
than those who took fewer units. Lastly, as shown in
the previous tables, each semester the enrollment
decreased for students with learning disabilities.
However, there was almost half that persisted in all
four semesters. Students with learning disabilities
enrolled in the same types of courses than non-
disabled students. These courses were English,
learning skills, developmental communication, and
other courses across the curriculum. The same holds
true as it relates to the fall 2001 and fall 2002
academic semesters.
Discussion and Conclusion
Hypotheses #1
There is a positive relationship between the
frequent use of academic advising and persistence for
students with learning disabilities.
Findings from this study as it relates to academic
advising are grounded in the literature. Crookston

109

(1994), O’Banion (1994), and Lowenstein (1999) suggest
that student/faculty contact inside and outside of the
classroom are correlated with student persistence.
Findings confirmed that talking to the instructor
frequently before and after class assists in improving
course completion rates; speaking to an academic
counselor frequently improves course completion rates;
asking the instructor questions frequently improves
course completion rates. Again, because of the small
sample size, the significance and predictability could
not be determined if applied to a larger sample.
In all the findings on academic advising, themes
of prescriptive, developmental, and academic centered
advising exist. Thus the researcher was able to
uncover the following themes from the data to support
the hypotheses.
1. Talking to the instructor frequently before and
after class assists in improving course
completion rates.
2. Speaking to an academic counselor frequently

110

improves course completion rates.
3. Asking the instructor questions frequently
improves course completion rates.
Hypotheses #2
There is a positive relationship between the
number of units/courses students with learning
disabilities take during the semester and their
persistence.
Scholars who have researched course load have
found that it affects the persistence of community
college students in various ways. Szafran (2001)
found in his study that students were more likely to
persist if enrolled in 12 or more units. One finding
from this study suggests that the students who
enrolled in 9.5 to 12 or more units did enroll
continuously. However, Szafran studied non-disabled
students. Nationally, community college students are
enrolling on a part-time basis (NCES, 2006).
Surprisingly, his study found that a heavy course load
for the majority of the participants with learning

111

disabilities aided in their success. Moreover, this
finding supports the hypotheses in verifying that
there seems to be a comfortable amount of units a
student with a learning disability takes in relation
to their persistence. Thus the researcher was able to
uncover the following themes from the data to support
the hypotheses.
1. Students with learning disabilities have better
success when enrolled in 9.5-12 or more units.
2. Students with learning disabilities who were
enrolled continuously were on average full-time
students.
Hypotheses #3
There is a positive relationship between the
types of courses students with learning disabilities
take during the semester and their persistence.
Course type is a general term that is used to
define the methods in which students take courses in
the community colleges. Hagedorn (2000) and
colleagues investigated course shopping as a variable

112

that influences student success in community colleges.
Maxwell et al. (2003) examined A.A.,
applicable/transferable, applicable/not transferable
courses, in this study. Findings suggest that
students with learning disabilities are enrolling in
transferable/A.A. applicable courses. Additionally,
students enrolled continuously are mostly taking
transferable/A.A. applicable courses. Lastly, the
completion rates of students with disabilities
decrease when taking English and math. Thus the
researcher was able to uncover the following themes
from the data to support the hypotheses.
1. Students with learning disabilities are enrolling
in transferable/A.A. applicable courses, and are
being moderately successful.
2. Students enrolled continuously are enrolled
mostly in transferable/A.A. applicable courses.
3. Students with learning disabilities are not
enrolling in math courses.
Lastly, this study does not take into

113

consideration other factors that may have contributed
to the lack of persistence of the students with
learning disabilities. Moreover, factors that may
have contributed could have been lack of motivation,
low self efficacy, low self esteem, family
responsibilities, employment, and/or low socio-
economic status.
Implications for Practice
Findings from this study lead naturally to
practical implications for those interested in
supporting students with learning disabilities. Thus
the recommendations for students, counseling and
instructional faculty, and administrators are offered
in this section. The implication for practice emerges
from a culmination of limited research on students
with learning disabilities.
Counseling Faculty
Counseling faculty should be cognizant of the
types of students they are counseling, especially in
diverse arenas such as the community college setting

114

(Treloar, 1999; Lauffer, 2000; Reiff, 1997).
Counselors should encourage regular advisement visits
for students with learning disabilities. Findings
from this study support this implication for practice.
In my estimation, advisement visits should cover
appropriate courses, appropriate course load, student
educational plans, and other important information
pertaining to the college. Furthermore, the data
demonstrated that those who saw an academic counselor
performed better than students who did not seek
academic counseling. Developing an educational plan
allows the student and counselor to build a
relationship (O’Banion, 1994) and identify a strategy
(Crookston, 1972).
Instructional Faculty
Instructional faculty should be aware that
students learn information differently (Treloar, 1999;
Mull, Sitlington, and Alper, 2001; Lauffer, 2000).
This holds true for students with learning
disabilities in the community colleges. Instructional

115

faculty should encourage students to ask questions and
create a welcoming environment for office hours.
Findings from this study that support this assertion
relates to students asking questions before, after,
and during class. Lowenstein (1999) suggests that
instructional faculty who has a dual purpose can
affect the persistence of college students.
Administrators
Because administrators have the ability to create
and implement programs on community college campuses,
it is my hope that administrators could find creative
ways in which all students can benefit from diverse
methods of counseling and instruction. Administrators
should be open to new and creative ideas from faculty
and staff regarding students with learning
disabilities.
Implications for Further Research
The present study was conducted within the Los
Angeles Community College District (LACCD). Thus,
examines the course taking patterns and frequency of

116

advisement for students with learning disabilities.
Moreover, this study was descriptive and investigated
quantitative data only. Qualitative information could
not be ascertained. The next step in a future study
would be to explore what events took place that made
the participants not complete courses in which they
enrolled. A qualitative study that extracted this
information from individual participants would be
needed to fully address the issue of academic advising
and course completion for student with learning
disabilities.
Recommendations
Overall research findings highlighted in this
study may help college counseling and instructional
faculty, and administrators to encourage students with
learning disabilities to seek frequent academic
advising and to appropriately enroll in courses.
Generally speaking, administration should be working
toward student success in the community college
environment. This work should involve academic

117

advising activities that interface with all faculty,
such as tutoring and mentoring (Michael, 1986). If
done correctly on a regular basis success, course
completion rates will increase and autonomy and
competence will develop between all parties.
Strategic actions with the most potential for
increasing persistence amongst this growing population
are desirable. Based on the relevant literature, these
actions must support and strengthen Disabled Students
Programs and Services (DSPS), support other student
services activities, and fully integrate students with
learning disabilities in the college community
(Michael, 1986; Lauffer, 2000). The implementation of
the following activities may assist in the course
completion rates of students with learning
disabilities participating in the college and the DSPS
program. Specifically, students with learning
disabilities should be treated with respect and
motivated to develop educational plans and to
implement academic related actions to better meet

118

their individual educational goals. Strategic actions
with the most potential for doing this are those
actions based upon best practices. In addition, they
must be those actions that both support and strengthen
student support service activities, and campus
functions dedicated to the academic success of all
community college students.
Based on the hypotheses, activities that increase
persistence would be beneficial. The following
activities may increase the persistence of student
with learning disabilities (Lauffer, 2000; Michael,
1986):
1. inviting academic counselors in the classroom
2. implementing mid-semester progress checks
3. changing the role of academic advising at the
community college to include mentors
4. implementing specialized tutoring
In addition to what is referenced in the literature, I
believe that the following are needed.
1. mandatory counselor contacts per semester

119

2. limiting the number of courses a student can take
their first semester in college
3. mandating that educational plans are linked to
financial aid to ensure students are following
logical goal
4. offering DSPS program with academic incentives

120

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Published literature suggests that students with learning disabilities have difficulty completing academic programs in higher education (Mull, Stilington, and Alper, 2001). Furthermore, the literature contends that the successful academic integration of these students will increase their rates of persistence in postsecondary education. This study utilizes academic advising as discussed by Crookston, O'Banion, and Lowenstein and retention as discussed by Tinto, Spady, and Bean. Additionally, this study hypothesizes that student success is correlated with a student's course load and the types of courses taken. Institutional efforts, such as academic advising, lead to the overall integration of students with disabilities and course-taking patterns. The purpose of this study is to analyze how persistence is correlated with academic advising, course load and the types of courses students with learning disabilities enroll. The analysis will use the data obtained from the Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS) database. This study also offers some recommendations and intervention strategies for administrators, counseling and instructional faculty, and staff who assist students with learning disabilities in the community college setting.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Duke, Shalamon A. (author)

Core Title Academic advising, engagment with faculty, course load, course type, and course completion rates for urban community college students with learning disabilties

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Defense Date 09/09/2005

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic advising,community college,course load,learning disabilties,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,retention

Language English

Advisor Maxwell, William E. (committee chair), Martin, Brandon E. (committee member), Suite, Denzil (committee member)

Creator Email dukesa@lacitycollege.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m296

Unique identifier UC1454147

Identifier etd-Duke-20070227 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-205507 (legacy record id),usctheses-m296 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Duke-20070227.pdf

Dmrecord 205507

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Duke, Shalamon A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu