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Leadership, school culture, collaborative practice, and teacher beliefs: A case-study of schoolwide structures and systems at a high performing high poverty school

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Leadership, school culture, collaborative practice, and teacher beliefs: A case-study of schoolwide structures and systems at a high performing high poverty school

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Content LEADERSHIP, SCHOOL CULTURE, COLLABORATIVE PRACTICE, AND
TEACHER BELIEFS: A CASE-STUDY OF SCHOOLWIDE STRUCTURES AND
SYSTEMS AT A HIGH PERFORMING HIGH POVERTY SCHOOL

by

Hazel Giusto

________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2011

Copyright 2011 Hazel Giusto
ii

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to the educators who fostered in me the passion to
love learning and knowledge, to all my students who inspired me to want to be a more
effective teacher for the greater good, to my family who instilled determination,
humility, and strength in me, and to my best friend who has always believed in what I
could do and who I could become, unconditionally.
iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation could not have been accomplished without the support from so
many amazing individuals. I would like to express my deep gratitude to them.
Our dissertation group chair, Dr. Kathy Stowe, who provided excellent
structure, who gave insightful feedback, and who was always flexible and supportive of
all of us. My dissertation committee: Dr. Stuart Gothold who provided helpful
suggestions and feedback during my proposal and who helped me think on a more
global level how and why leadership is essential to being effective during our APRISE
trip to China and Dr. Lawrence Picus who provided great feedback during my proposal
and took the time to meet with our group to enhance our questions. To my thematic
group, for all the support, feedback, encouragement, and great camaraderie you all
provided.
To my colleagues who always encouraged me along the way, especially Kristin
Kruizinga and Alma del Llano who both had the patience and good nature to teach my
students when I had to take time off to write. To my students who were always
supportive and understood that I couldn’t always give them 150% through this process.
To my good friends, Ashley Winfrey and Jessey Duran who stayed up with me to find
and match all my references, helped me organize all of my articles, helped me with
transcriptions, and provided the right kind of humor I needed to get through the most
difficult times. To the rest of my friends who always gave me words of
encouragement.
iv

To my mom for being understanding that I couldn’t spend time with her as
much as I would have wanted to during her difficult times and always reminded me that
she loved me, to my dad for always telling me that he’s proud of me and taking care of
me. To my sister, Claudia Giusto, for always checking on me, working on my
transcriptions, reminding me how proud she is, and always being there. To my sister,
Ivonne Giusto, for helping me clean, pushing me to be better, and taking care of me
always. To my sister, Martha Giusto, for always being supportive and providing me
with laughter. To my niece, Allyson, for providing me with the motivation to be a good
role model for her. I love you all very much and I hope you know that you all have
been my main source of inspiration from the start, your sacrifices and investments in
me are truly appreciated. I am blessed, proud, and honored to be a Giusto.
I especially thank my best friend, Kristin: You have been my constant, the rock
that I have been able to depend on throughout many hardships. Your resilience and
commitment to support me in every way possible has meant the world to me. You are a
great teacher, colleague, leader, and such a good, good person. A million “thank-
you’s” and “I love you’s” could never suffice. You have been a true blessing.
v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION................................................................................................ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................iii

LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................viii

LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................ix

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................x

CHAPTER 1: Overview of the Study...........................................................1

Introduction.......................................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem..................................................................................6

Purpose of the Study.........................................................................................8

Research Questions...........................................................................................9

Importance of the Study....................................................................................9

Limitations......................................................................................................11

Delimitations...................................................................................................11

Definitions ......................................................................................................12

Organization of the Remainder of the Study ..................................................16

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review................................................................17

Introduction.....................................................................................................17

Historical Background ....................................................................................18

High Poverty Effective Schools......................................................................21

Leadership.......................................................................................................26

Transformational Leadership ......................................................................29

Structural Leadership ..................................................................................30

Theoretical Frameworks .................................................................................32

Collaborative Practice.....................................................................................35

Teacher Beliefs ...............................................................................................38

Deficit Thinking..........................................................................................40

Teacher Expectations ..................................................................................42

Influence of School Culture, Collaboration, and Teacher Beliefs through the
AVID Lens .....................................................................................................43

AVID Overview..........................................................................................44

AVID Placement of Students......................................................................44

AVID Curriculum .......................................................................................45

AVID Elective Class Structure ...................................................................45

AVID School-wide .....................................................................................46

Concluding Discussion ...................................................................................47

vi

CHAPTER 3: Research Methodology........................................................48

Introduction.....................................................................................................48

Research Design .............................................................................................50

Sample and Population Size ...........................................................................51

Selection Criteria ........................................................................................51

Sampling Procedure....................................................................................53

Participants..................................................................................................53

Overview of the District and School...........................................................54

Conceptual Framework...................................................................................56

Instrumentation ...............................................................................................58

Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................60

Semi-Structured Interviews ........................................................................60

Observations ...............................................................................................62

Document/Artifact Analysis .......................................................................64

Data Analysis..............................................................................................66

Ethical Considerations ................................................................................67

CHAPTER 4: Findings, Analysis, and Discussion ....................................68

History of Casa Magna High School ..............................................................69

Research Question One...................................................................................69

Increase A-G Eligibility..............................................................................70

Direct and indirect mentoring and relationships.........................................73

The use of data-driven decisions.................................................................80

Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) Program
Organizational Essentials ............................................................................86

District Centralization & Bell Schedule .....................................................88

Positive Teacher Beliefs .............................................................................91

Summary and Discussion of Research Question One.................................94

Research Question Two..................................................................................96

Professional Learning .................................................................................97

High Expectations for All & Open Communication.................................105

Summary and Discussion of Research Question Two..............................113

Research Question Three..............................................................................116

Instilling Ownership..................................................................................117

Involvement and Knowledge of Effective Strategies ...............................124

Summary and Discussion of Research Question Three............................130

Chapter Summary .........................................................................................132

CHAPTER 5: Summary, Implications, and Recommendations............133

Introduction...................................................................................................133

Summary.......................................................................................................135

Conclusion ....................................................................................................136

Implications for Policy and Practice.............................................................138

vii

High Expectations.....................................................................................138

Professional Learning ...............................................................................139

Recommendations for Future Research........................................................140

REFERENCES ...........................................................................................143

APPENDICES ............................................................................................149
APPENDIX A: Introductory E-mail ............................................................149

APPENDIX B: Administrator Protocol .......................................................151

APPENDIX C: Teacher Protocol.................................................................153

APPENDIX D: Classified Protocol..............................................................156

APPENDIX E: Classroom Observation Protocol ........................................158

APPENDIX F: Meeting Protocol.................................................................159

APPENDIX G: General Site Observations ..................................................160

APPENDIX H: Consent Form .....................................................................162

viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Casa Magna High School Enrollment and Demographics 2008-2009…… 55

Table 3.2: Casa Magna High School Student Data 2008-2009……………………… 55

Table 3.3: Casa Magna High School API……………………………………………. 56

Table 3.4: Administrator Interview Protocol Related to
Research Questions Matrix………………………………………………..

59

Table 3.5: Teacher Interview Protocol Related to Research Questions Matrix……... 59

Table 3.6: Classified Interview Protocol Related to Research Questions Matrix…… 60

Table 3.7: Documents Related to Research Questions………………………………. 65

Table 4.1: Dashboard General Overview……………………………………………. 83

Table 4.2: Bell Schedule...............................................................................................90

ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Vygotsky Space Applied to Professional Learning Situations…...……… 34

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………

58

Figure 3.2: Adapted from Creswell’s Model for Qualitative Data Analysis…………. 66

Figure 4.1: Coaching Program……………………………………………………… 100

Figure 4.2: 2010-2011 Professional Development Plan…………………………….. 101

Figure 4.3: Collaboration Day and Benchmark Schedule 2010-11………………… 104

x

ABSTRACT
Historically, high poverty schools have not been meeting standards for
proficiency and have been associated with low academic achievement according to
years of research and national averages. The relationship between professional learning
and student achievement may provide insight into how it influences classroom
instruction and student learning, especially in high poverty schools.
This study aimed to identify the perceived schoolwide structures and systems
that contributed to high student achievement in a high poverty school; how the
organizational systems were implemented and sustained to impact high student
achievement; and how instructional leaders and leadership help cultivate professional
learning to foster effective classroom instruction. A qualitative case-study was
conducted, including eight semi-structured interviews with administrators, teachers, and
staff along with eight classroom, school, and two collaboration meeting observations.
School artifacts were also collected and analyzed to triangulate data.
This research focused on two main structures perceived to exist that influenced
schoolwide effective classroom instruction leading to high student achievement,
including providing rigor through implementation of A-G eligibility and the bell
schedule as a result of district centralization requiring embedded collaboration time.
Within those structures, systems were in place to contribute to high student
achievement, including direct and indirect mentoring and relationships, data-driven
decisions, and positive teacher beliefs.
xi

The main systems that were found to be implemented and sustained to support
high student achievement included professional learning and high expectations for all,
including open communication. The instructional leaders supported professional
learning for their staff to cultivate effective classroom instruction by instilling
ownership and ensuring that they are knowledgeable. With high expectations held for
all and the supported collaborative practices implemented and sustained, the school has
developed a strong school culture through collective efficacy.
Although the research suggests that collective efficacy and a strong school
culture are valuable in regards to professional learning, there is still a need to
understand how and why dialogue works as an effective tool for change amongst
teachers and staff. The relationship between the dialogue that occurs during
collaborative practice and student achievement needs to be investigated further in order
to provide a deeper understanding of how to structure dialogue amongst teachers and
staff to help impact student achievement through professional learning opportunities.
1

CHAPTER 1: Overview of the Study
Introduction
Historically, high poverty schools have been associated with low academic
achievement. These educationally or otherwise deprived schools, which remain more
prevalently represented by minorities or low socio-economic students, were at first
showing a very large gap in the academic achievement test performance of black and
white children in elementary, middle, and high schools in the 1960’s (Gorey, 2009).
The achievement gap raised questions as to why students in high poverty schools were
not performing as high as their white or high socio-economic counterparts. This inquiry
led both researchers and government officials to believe that fighting poverty would
solve the problem. As a result, the war on poverty during the 1960’s attempted to
implement social programs such as Head Start to help close the achievement gap, but
the gap narrowed a small amount at first and then widened again (Gorey, 2009).
Additionally, the results of the Equal Educational Opportunity Survey conducted by J.S.
Coleman and colleagues in 1966 led to the conclusion that family factors such as
poverty or a parent’s lack of education prevented children from learning regardless of
the method of instruction in schools (Lezotte, 1995).
The correlation between high poverty and low academic achievement was
highlighted when the U.S. Department of Education published its Nation at Risk report
in 1983 indicating that illiteracy rates of our 17-year-olds were at 13 percent and college
preparation was insufficient according to national averages and standards for
proficiency (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). This data led educators to
2

incorporate accountability measures to improve student achievement and close what the
Bush administration called the achievement gap as it implemented the No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001. NCLB was designed around hope of dramatic educational
progress spurred by large increases in federal aid and strict accountability measures
through mandated yearly tests requiring that all children from all racial and ethnic
backgrounds attain 100 percent proficiency, thus closing the achievement gap (Lee,
2006). NCLB holds schools accountable by requiring them to meet an Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP) growth target set by the state for all students, broken down by racial
and other subgroups (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). This was enacted as a
reaction to the disparities between the academic achievement of minorities or low socio-
economic students and white or high socio-economic students. For example, the U.S.
Census Bureau in 2005 pointed out that about 17 percent of African American young
people between the ages of 25 and 29, and only 11 percent of Hispanic youth, had
earned a college degree, as compared with 34 percent of White youth in the same age
bracket; this gap indicating the disparity that stems from their secondary education.
This continuum is important to mention because K-12 schooling and postsecondary
education are not separate entities since the latter is often associated with the former.
The demands of NCLB have outlined the lack of progress of schools with high
minority demographics, especially in high poverty schools. The lack of
underrepresented students performing at proficient levels or above in high poverty
schools has pointed out that the achievement gains are almost exactly what they were
before the law was enacted (Lee, 2006). The Bush administration and NCLB projected
3

that, by 2014, all schools would have to perform at 100 percent proficiency in math and
reading (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). The reality is that persistent
achievement gaps between minority or low socio-economic students and white or high
socio-economic students have not diminished in high poverty schools. For example,
African-American students are, on average, roughly two to three years behind white
students in both reading and math despite NCLB’s efforts to close this gap (U.S.
Department of Education, 2008). Furthermore, the Obama administration has
maintained the push toward holding schools accountable for their student achievement
with the intent that, by the end of the decade, America will once again have the highest
proportion of college graduates in the world (U.S. Department of Education, 2010).
Additionally, the administration recognizes that, in a global economy, a country’s
economic security depends on the skills and knowledge of its workers. Thus, there has
been continual pressure for our primary and secondary students to reach academic
proficiency.
In the past, it had been argued that students of low socio-economic status could
never achieve at levels of their high socio-economic counterparts since the Coleman
Report pronounced in the 1960’s that student success was associated to family
background, not school factors (Lezotte, 1995). This association led researchers to
search for possible variables that would disprove the conclusions of the Coleman Report
by identifying school factors that affect high poverty student achievement. Some
researchers discovered that factors such as teacher shortages, undercertified or
noncertified teaching staff, chronic illness, violence, and low-level/watered-down
4

curricula all play a role in fostering equitable practices that lead to closing the
achievement gap (Belfiore, Auld & Lee, 2005). Marzano (2003) found that 84.7
percent of the students in high poverty schools at the 99
th
percentile, in terms of their
effectiveness, would pass a test on which we would normally expect half the students to
pass and half the students to fail. This would be true regardless of the background of
the students who attend the schools, therefore contending that effective measures in
high achieving schools can help close the achievement gap in high poverty schools.
Darling-Hammond (2007) also pointed out that students in historically underrepresented
groups may be getting access to scientific information, but are not getting as much
access to the problem-solving and critical thinking skills needed to apply this
knowledge in a meaningful way. Unequal access to higher level thinking adds to the
disparities that are within the control of what happens in schools. Other studies which
have identified achievement gaps in the Chicago area attributed these to the quality of
instruction the students received, not to their socio-economic status or race (Sunderman
& Mickelsen, 2001). The findings regarding a number of variables affecting student
achievement in high poverty schools have uncorroborated Coleman’s conclusions that
high poverty students cannot achieve no matter what the school factors. The
identification of these variables led some high poverty schools to foster practices that
produce high student achievement.
Even with long-standing achievement trends, many high poverty schools have
had success in attaining high academic achievement. Such schools have had no one
reform initiative in particular that made them successful, but, instead, have had common
5

variables in place that foster high student performance (Marzano, 2003). The
identification of the achievement gap and the controversial conclusions of the Coleman
Report led many researchers to adamantly search for variables that did make high
poverty schools effective despite socio-economic status. This urgency led to the
Effective Schools Movement that supported the premise that all students could learn
and that schools control the factors necessary to assure student mastery of core
curriculum (Lezotte, 1995). This movement helped identify high poverty schools with
high student achievement.
Research has demonstrated that there are organizational structures and systems
that promote high academic achievement in high poverty schools. Once high poverty
effective schools, in which students were being successful despite their socio-economic
status or family background, were identified, common characteristics that influenced
high student achievement were deduced. The factors helping students thrive had to do
with school philosophies, policies, and practices (Marzano, 2003; Jesse, Davis &
Pokorny, 2004; Scott & Bagaka, 2004; Carter, 2000; Hughes, 1999; Reeves, 2003;
Lezotte, 1995; Ragland, Clubine, Constable & Smith, 2002; Picucci, Brownson, Kahlert
& Sobel, 2004). As a result, Edmonds (1982) introduced the Correlates of Effective
Schools, common attributes found amongst these high achieving, high poverty schools.
Some examples of these attributes were strong instructional leadership, a strong sense
of mission, high expectations for all students, and a safe school culture. These
attributes and their implications led this movement to evolve from enabling students
from all socio-economic backgrounds to achieve to also enabling equitable outcomes
6

for other subsets of the population in terms of gender, disability, ethnicity, and family
structure.
Several case studies over the years have demonstrated high student achievement
in high poverty schools. For example, the case study performed on “90/90/90 Schools”
(Reeves, 2003) exemplifies schools that have effective organizational systems in place
to allow high poverty students to achieve at high levels. Additionally, Marzano (2003)
contends that any school in the United States can operate at advanced levels of
effectiveness if it is willing to implement what research over 35 years demonstrates
about effective schooling. Other case studies also support common themes amongst
high achieving schools. Some are those focused on schools “beating the odds,” as in the
research performed by Waits, Campbell, Gau, Jacobs, Rex and Hess (2006) in Arizona
on schools with students who are mostly Latino and poor. Thus, there is hope for
effective school-wide practices that can help close the achievement gap at all high
poverty schools.

Statement of the Problem
Since the initial identification of the achievement gap highlighted in the U.S.
Department of Education’s Nation at Risk report, high poverty schools had been
identified as in need of major improvements. As a result, the standards-based reform
movement and NCLB requirements placed pressure on the public school system to
close the achievement gap between high poverty students and those from high socio-
economic status. In response, researchers and educators have been attempting to
7

identify systems and structures that lead to high student achievement in all public
schools, especially those of high poverty. These systems and structures have been a
focus of study because, despite long-time achievement trends in which the majority of
students were not scoring proficient on math and reading as determined by state tests,
various high poverty schools have had success in attaining high student achievement
(Marzano, 2003; Reeves, 2003; Waits et al., 2006). Although systems and structures
have been identified in such schools, the same positive achievement trends are only
evident in few high poverty schools. Little is known about why these systems and
structures work in some schools and not others.
Examples of systems and structures that have influenced effective practices have
been the following: the role of leadership, professional learning, organizational support,
and teacher beliefs (Galluci, 2008; Geijsel et al., 2009; Marzano, 2003; Patterson et al.,
2004). For instance, the way leadership supports the professional learning necessary for
teachers to improve their practice can affect student achievement. Successfully fostered
professional learning has allowed teachers to be effective in the classroom (Galluci,
2008; Geijsel et al., 2009). Even though there are studies that help define professional
learning and studies that help define organizational support, little is known about the
relationship between both or the impact one has on the other. In addition, there is little
known about how teacher beliefs affect the efforts of professional learning and
instructional practice. With the ongoing pressure to close the achievement gap, it is
essential to contribute to the body of knowledge on how high achieving high poverty
schools are linking their organizational support and professional learning to attain high
8

student achievement. It is also valuable to gain a closer perspective on what
organizations are doing to positively affect teacher beliefs on professional learning and
how teachers’ beliefs of professional learning are, in turn, positively affecting student
achievement.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this case study was to examine an urban high poverty high
school that is successfully closing the achievement gap and to identify effective systems
in place that have made a positive impact on student achievement. For this study, the
notion of “achievement gap” was defined as the persistent disparity in academic
performance between groups of students, particularly white and Asian affluent students
and students of color, minorities, and second language learners. In addition,
“structures” was defined as the elements that are nonnegotiable within a school setting
such as mandated policies and curriculum standards while “systems” was defined as the
negotiable aspects that positively impact high student achievement.
The research also set out to identify perceived school-wide systems and
structures, organizational systems, and the support provided by school leaders to
cultivate professional learning, all with the goal of generalizing its findings to
comparable high poverty schools, providing the assurance of considerable student
academic performance improvement to similar schools that still need to close the
achievement gap. In particular, this study focused on a school with an Advancement
Via Individual Determination (AVID) program in order to observe its positive
9

influences on school culture, collaboration, professional development, and teacher
beliefs.

Research Questions
This qualitative case study was guided by the following three research questions
asked of a high poverty and high achieving high school:
1. What are the perceived school-wide systems and structures that contribute to
high achievement in high poverty schools?
2. How are organizational systems implemented and sustained to support higher
levels of student achievement in high poverty schools?
3. How do school leaders/instructional leaders support professional learning in
fostering a collaborative culture and positive teacher beliefs in high poverty schools?

Importance of the Study
Because there are still a vast number of high poverty schools that have not
closed the achievement gap and are not attaining high student achievement, it is
essential to add to the body of knowledge that already exists for high achieving high
poverty schools in order to further identify common themes that can be implemented in
similar schools. This study was designed to increase the understanding of effective
systems in place producing high student achievement for high poverty students.
Furthermore, there is insufficient research as to how organizational systems support
professional learning and enabling positive teacher beliefs in order to produce high
10

academic achievement. Clearly, there is a need for more research in effective schools
that are predominantly high poverty in order to aid other schools with similar
demographics to close the achievement gap.
As pointed out by Galluci (2008), much of the research linking organizational
supports and professional learning has endured two main methodological limitations:
(a) treating successes in organizational support and professional learning as two
separate entities instead of as having mutual impact on one another and (b) analyzing
teacher perceptions in relation to minority students instead of their attitudes towards
professional learning aimed at closing the achievement gap. This current research,
taking a closer look at a number of systems associated with high academic achievement
at one high poverty high school with an established AVID program, may provide a
richer contextual understanding of how each works and can be applied to similar school
settings.
This case study examined one high school with an AVID program to analyze
those systems that contributed to and fostered the high academic achievement of its
underrepresented students. High school has been identified both in human development
and educational research as a time of major transitions and one during which students
are most impressionable (National Research Council, 2005). Taking into account the
vast challenges that high school students encounter, this research limited its focus to this
time frame in order to gather perspective within this context. The positive correlations
found in this study between systems that AVID helps foster such as positive teacher
11

beliefs and high academic achievement may serve as a model for other high schools
with similar characteristics in closing their achievement gaps.

Limitations
The following limitations include factors beyond the researcher’s control that
may have affected the results of the study or the interpretation of these:
1. Sample Size: Drawing upon a single school as a case-study limits the
generalizability of the findings and the conclusions to only those schools that are
distinctively similar.
2. School Selection: The findings resulting from the participant pool being
selected by the researcher from a single school limits the generalizability of the study’s
findings and conclusions to only those schools that are distinctively similar.
3. Halo Effect: The level of honesty with which participants expressed their
perceptions may reduce confidence placed in the study’s findings.
4. High Poverty Status: The honesty of reporting and lack of reporting of
students in the free/reduced price lunch program could have affected this school’s
classification of high poverty.

Delimitations
The following delimitations include factors affecting the study over which the
researcher did have some degree of control:
12

1. Limits on Sample Size: The number of participants interviewed and artifacts
observed are limited to those from a single school, thus limiting the generalizability of
the study’s findings and conclusions to those schools that are distinctively similar.
2. Criteria of High Poverty: School selected had to be over 40 percent
free/reduced price lunch.
3. Criteria of High Performing: School had to have a Similar Schools Ranking of
8 or higher and had to have either at least a 750 API or have had trajectory growth over
the last three years.
4. Geographic Region: School was chosen according to where the high poverty
criteria could be met.
5. Time Limitations: The duration of the study of 10 weeks was chosen in part
by the researcher and in part by the availability of the staff at the high school. Interview
and observation times were also determined by the availability of the school staff.

Definitions
The following are operational definitions as decided by the EdSource Online
Glossary in combination with the dissertation committee’s operational definitions:

Academic Performance Index (API): According to the 2008-2009 Academic
Performance Index Reports of the California Department of Education, API measures
the academic performance and progress of schools. It was part of the Public Schools
13

Accountability Act of 1999. API scores range from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. The
API target for all schools is 800.
Accountability: The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an
organization (e.g., a school, school district, or state department of education) should be
held responsible for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or
sanctioned for their success or lack of success in doing so.
Achievement Gap: consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests
between certain groups of children and children in other groups. The data document a
strong association between poverty and students' lack of academic success as measured
by achievement tests. While poverty is not unique to any ethnicity, it does exist in
disproportionate rates among African Americans and Hispanics, and among English
learners. The reasons behind the achievement gap are multifaceted. They do, to some
degree, stem from factors that children bring with them to school. However, other
factors that contribute to the gap stem from students' school experiences.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): According to the 2009 Annual Yearly
Progress Report Information Guide of the California Department of Education, AYP is
an accountability system mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 to monitor
annual academic performance goals. It requires each state to ensure that all schools and
local educational agency (LEA) make Adequate Yearly Progress. AYP criteria
encompass four areas: participation rate, percent proficient, API as an additional
indicator for AYP, and graduation rate.
14

Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID): AVID is a fourth- through
twelfth-grade system to prepare students in the academic middle for four-year college
eligibility. It has a proven track record in bringing out the best in students, and in
closing the achievement gap.
Equity: The belief that state governments have an obligation to equalize
students' access to educational opportunities and, thus, life chances. During the 1970’s
and 1980’s, many state courts found great disparities in base per pupil spending
between high and low property-wealth districts. They mandated that these funding
disparities be eradicated. In placing districts on a level playing field, the courts often
invoked equal protection clauses in state constitutions.
High Performing Schools: are defined as schools with at least 3 years
demonstrating progress on AYP and/or API or having at least a 750 API score.
High Poverty Schools: are defined as schools where more than 40 percent of
students receive free/reduced price lunch.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) of 1965 was reauthorized in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
The goals of NCLB were to increase accountability, focus on research-based practices,
provide quality education and empower parents.
Professional Development/Learning: Programs that allow teachers or
administrators to acquire the knowledge and skills they need to perform their jobs
successfully. Often, these programs are aimed at veteran teachers to help them update
their skills and knowledge. Researchers have found that effective professional
15

development focuses on academic content and requires adequate time, resources, and
working conditions.
Proficiency: Mastery or ability to do something at grade-level. In California,
students take California Standards Tests (CSTs) and receive scores that range from "far
below basic" to "advanced." The state goal is for all students to score at "proficient" or
"advanced."
School Accountability Report Card (SARC): An annual report on specified
aspects of a school's operation, which is required as part of Proposition 98. Other state
legislation and the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) also require SARCs.
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged: Students whose parents do not have a high
school diploma or who participate in the free/reduced price meal program because of
low family income.
Structure: Instructional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by
federal state or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure
of schools; not subject to change at the local school site.
System: Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel, students,
parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that school visions, missions,
and goals are met.
Title I: Federally funded support for schools that are considered to be "at risk."
Primary qualification is through Free and Reduced Lunch counts.

16

Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter one includes the background of the problem, a discussion as to how that
leads to the problem, and the research that still needs to be performed. Chapter two
provides a review of leading literature on effective practices that have been correlated
with high student achievement in high poverty schools. A wide range of factors
demonstrating implementation in producing proficient student performance are
presented and discussed. Chapter three presents the theoretical framework for the
study’s methodology and research design. The study’s sample, conceptual model,
instrumentation used, data collection processes and data analysis are presented. Chapter
four presents the findings of the study, discussing answers for each of the research
questions, followed by the classification of the major themes deduced from the findings.
Chapter five summarizes the findings, synthesizes conclusions and discusses the
implications of the study for future research. The study concludes with references and
appendices.
17

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review
Introduction
Significant measures of accountability have been implemented within the
educational system over the last several decades in order to help close the prevalent
achievement gap. The Obama administration has maintained the push towards holding
schools accountable for their students’ achievement with the intent that, by the end of
the decade, America will once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in
the world (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Additionally, the administration
recognizes that, in a global economy, a country’s economic security depends on the
skills and knowledge of its workers. Thus, there has been continual pressure for our
primary and secondary students to reach academic proficiency. As a result, a number of
studies have been performed to exemplify how schools are increasing their proficiency
rates through school-wide practices in high poverty schools (Marzano, 2003; Jesse,
Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Scott & Bagaka, 2004; Carter, 2000; Hughes, 1999; Reeves,
2003; Lezotte, 1995; Ragland, Clubine, Constable & Smith, 2002; Picucci, Brownson,
Kahlert & Sobel, 2004). These studies identify structures and systems that foster high
student achievement in high poverty schools. Prominent examples of such structures
and systems discussed further in this chapter include leadership roles, school culture,
collaborative practices, and teacher beliefs. However, there is need to continue the
research in this area to better understand how to implement and sustain these structures
in systems in order to produce high student achievement in all schools.
18

The purpose of this chapter is to review and discuss the literature on school-
wide structures and systems. This chapter is organized around prominent themes that
emerged from the literature and are relevant to the focus of the study. The first section
will frame the need for students to meet proficiency by discussing the historical
background of closing the achievement gap. The second section will discuss significant
research on high poverty effective schools. The third section will discuss the
importance of leadership and its impact on school culture. The fourth section will
discuss theoretical frameworks that help contextualize professional learning. The fifth
section will discuss collaborative practices. The sixth section will focus on teacher
beliefs and the consideration of deficit thinking and low expectations. The seventh
section will focus on the role of the Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID)
program and the effect of its essentials on collaboration, teacher beliefs, and school-
wide effective practices. The last section will conclude the overall review of the
literature.

Historical Background
Historically, high poverty schools have been associated with low academic
achievement. These traditionally low-performing schools, which remain more
prevalently represented by minorities or students of low socio-economic status, were, at
first, showing a very large gap in the academic achievement test performance of black
and white children in elementary, middle, and high schools in the 1960’s (Gorey, 2009).
Pointing out such statistics provoked researchers to take a closer look at other
19

subgroups and found that the gap included other races, ethnicities, and ability groups
(McCall, Hauser, Cronin, Kingsbury & Houser, 2006). These disparities raised a
number of questions as to why specific students in high poverty schools were not
performing as highly as their non-minority or wealthier counterparts. The war on
poverty in the 1960’s attempted to help close the achievement gap, but was
unsuccessful (Gorey, 2009; McCall, Hauser, Cronin, Kingsbury & Houser, 2006).
Assumptions were made about achievement being tied to socio-economic background.
J.S. Coleman and colleagues released results of the Equal Educational Opportunity
Survey in 1966 suggesting that family factors such as poverty or a parent’s lack of
education prevented children from learning regardless of the method of instruction
(Coleman et al., 1966; McCall, Hauser, Cronin, Kingsbury & Houser, 2006; Lezotte,
1995).
The U.S. Department of Education later published the Nation at Risk report in
1983, contending that we had lost sight of high expectations and the disciplined effort
needed to attain them due to insufficient national averages and standards for proficiency
(U.S. Department of Education, 2008). As a result, the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) was enacted in 2001. NCLB forced schools to be accountable for student
achievement through mandated yearly tests requiring that all students, regardless of
racial and ethnic backgrounds, eventually attain 100 percent proficiency. Thus, the
achievement gap would be closed (Lee, 2006; Gorey, 2009; U.S. Department of
Education, 2005). NCLB holds schools accountable by requiring them to meet an
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) growth target set by the state for all students, broken
20

down by racial and other subgroups (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). This target
was enacted as a reaction to the disparities between the academic achievement of
minority and non-minority students.
Despite long-standing achievement trends, many high poverty schools have had
success in attaining high academic achievement. Significant literature on high poverty
schools producing high student achievement affirms long-standing interest in school-
wide systems and structures in place that has enabled this phenomenon to transpire.
The results of this type of research gave hope to schools with populations of students
who were often expected to fail because of their socioeconomic standing, as the
findings of the Coleman Report in the 1960’s suggested (Coleman et al., 1966; Reeves,
2003; Lezotte, 1995). Necessary recent efforts to document high poverty schools
beating the odds due to accountability pressures (U.S. Department of Education, 2008;
Scott & Bagaka, 2004) have highlighted the interrelated influences of leadership,
collaborative practices, and positive teacher beliefs in high poverty schools.
Research has demonstrated that there are organizational structures and systems
that promote high academic achievement in high poverty schools. For the purpose of
this study, structures are defined as instructional mechanisms, policies, and procedures
put in place by federal state or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the
official structure of schools and not subject to change at the local school site. The term
“systems" is defined as coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel,
students, parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that school visions,
missions, and goals are met. Thus, the structures and systems of a school are the
21

research areas needed to understand the cultivation of effective school-wide practices.
The identification of such structures and systems began with research on high poverty
schools in which students were being successful despite their socioeconomic status or
family background. Although there are no exact “recipes” such schools are utilizing to
foster high student achievement, common characteristics emerge within their particular
systems and structures (Marzano, 2003; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Scott & Bagaka,
2004; Carter, 2000; Hughes, 1999; Reeves, 2003; Lezotte, 1995; Ragland, Clubine,
Constable & Smith, 2002; Picucci, Brownson, Kahlert & Sobel, 2004).

High Poverty Effective Schools
Since common characteristics emerged from the research on high poverty high
achieving schools, it is important to discuss these. Some of the most widely recognized
research on structures and systems in high poverty schools that produce high academic
achievement is Marzano’s (2003) review of research on factors affecting student
achievement. Based on his work over the last 35 years, Marzano, along with other
researchers, makes several assertions about what can be done. He stresses that effective
schools revolve around three general factors that influence student academic
achievement: school-level factors, teacher-level factors, and student-level factors
(Marzano, 2003). In this study, school-level factors are discussed to address the
research questions.
School-level factors include structures and systems produced collaboratively,
such as a challenging goals and effective feedback, a safe and orderly environment, and
22

collegiality and professionalism (Marzano, 2003; Rural School and Community Trust,
2004). Challenging goals underscore the high expectations for all students and the ways
in which these are structured. A safe and orderly environment includes a positive
school culture. Collegiality and professionalism draws attention to strong leadership
and cooperation among staff. Jesse, Davis and Pokorny (2004) also find that diverse
leadership styles are essential in maintaining focus and direction for school-level
factors. Consequently, the preceding school-level factors are structures and systems
influencing high student achievement.
Marzano’s (2003) review of research in schools and factors that produce
effective schools has been substantiated by research done on specific high poverty
schools that are beating the odds in states like Arizona, as stated by Waits, Campbell,
Gau, Jacobs, Rex and Hess (2006). The authors of this extensive study discuss 12
elementary and middle schools, whose students are mostly Latino and mostly poor, that
are “beating the odds” on reading and math scores. The approach Waits et al. (2006)
took to identify emerging themes was to compare the successful poor schools to similar
but less successful poor, Latino schools, and attempt to understand what set the two
groups apart. The researchers conducted surveys and interviews of administrators’ and
teachers’ perceptions of what makes their schools “work.” Similar to Marzano (2003),
Waits et al. (2006) narrowed down the success of the high achieving schools to three
basic ideas: disciplined thought, disciplined people, and disciplined action. All three
categories incorporate Marzano’s (2003) assertions in reference to ongoing assessment,
the importance of a collaborative culture, and the commitment to programs
23

implemented. The research performed by Waits et al. (2006) focuses more on the
overall behaviors that must accompany the factors that affect student achievement as
discussed by Marzano (2003). Waits et al. (2006) also found that the successful schools
focused on the internal things that they could control and did not look to external factors
such as new policies or new requirements as “magic bullets.”
Jesse, Davis and Pokorny’s (2004) similar identification of common
characteristics achieved through a study of nine effective high poverty high achieving
middle schools stresses the importance of coherence amongst the key core values
upheld by principals, teachers, parents, and students. This study was conducted in
Texas, at predominantly Latino middle schools in which students had shown consistent
trend of improvement on the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS). The
principal and six teachers at each site were interviewed, focus groups of 12 students at
each school site were conducted, classroom observations were made, and documents
were collected and analyzed. Examples of common characteristics deduced from all the
successful schools were identified as falling within the following categories: school
leadership, teacher expertise and relationships, organizational structure, and coherence
(Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004). This study suggested that, in addition to Marzano’s
(2003) school-level factors, what can make schools successful includes involving
advocacy of student culture (Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Izumi; 2002; Ragland,
Clubine, Constable and Smith, 2002) which can be integrated within overall school
culture. Similarly, the Rural School and Community Trust (2004) also sought to
identify high performing high poverty schools in rural areas. Five schools met the
24

criteria which identified schools where students were scoring high on state tests and
which were also considered strong in the following areas: supporting structures,
facilities, and leadership. Ultimately, all aforementioned characteristics emerged as a
result of a positive learning environment where academics are emphasized and students
alike thrive (Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Marzano; 2003; Waits et al., 2006).
Although these studies bring to attention the importance of a positive school culture,
there is still a need for descriptive research to discuss how this is cultivated and
sustained in other high poverty high achieving schools.
Similar to Jesse, Davis and Pokorny’s (2004) findings that a positive learning
environment and school culture help all students thrive, Ragland, Clubine, Constable
and Smith (2002) also found that having high expectations of all students produces high
student achievement. Ragland et al. (2002) reviewed five high performing, high
poverty elementary schools in Texas that varied in terms of their location, size, student
demographics, and special education populations. Despite these variations within the
schools in the study and in comparison to studies performed by other researchers
(Marzano, 2003; Waits et al. 2006, Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002;
Waits et al., 2006; Reeves, 2003), it was evident that, when faculty and staff regularly
communicate across teaching areas and there is a strong belief that all students can
succeed academically, high student achievement prevails. Ragland et al. (2002) also
pointed out that utilizing special education as a last resort for students, and maintaining
high expectations of all students even when they are classified as such, was a common
characteristic among the high achieving schools. Thus, high levels of bothexpectations
25

for all students and of discipline foster caring cultures (Marzano, 2003; Jesse, Davis &
Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002; Waits et al., 2006; Reeves, 2003). Therefore, it is
evident that a positive attitude in terms of approach is vital to student success in
effective schools.
Further research calling attention to high achieving high poverty schools is
Reeves (2003) work on the “90/90/90 Schools.” These schools have been identified as
such because 90 percent of their students qualify for free/reduced price lunch, 90
percent of the students are of an ethnic minority, and over 90 percent of students
achieve at high levels of proficiency. These schools are performing at levels that were
not expected and illustrate that there are school variables that can affect student
achievement no matter what the socio-economic or racial background of the student
much as Marzano (2003) and Waits et al. (2006) both suggest. The common
characteristics found amongst all “90/90/90 Schools” studied were the following: a
focus on academic achievement; clear curriculum choices; frequent assessment of
student progress and multiple opportunities for improvement; an emphasis on writing;
and external scoring (Reeves, 2003). Marzano’s (2003) school-level factors, teacher-
level factors, and student-level factors are all evident in the “90/90/90 Schools” and the
disciplined behavior dicussed byWaits et al. (2006) is emphasized in the consistency
with which each focus is implemented. Although the research on effective practices is
highlighted in the aforementioned rich literature (Marzano, 2003; Reeves, 2003; Waits,
et al., 2006; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002; Rural School and
26

Community Trust, 2004; Izumi, 2002), there exists a scarcity of research on how these
practices are implemented with fidelity and sustained over long periods of time.

Leadership
Just as countries depend on leadership to provide structure and implement
systems which facilitate the positive contributions from members of society, schools
can also rely on leadership teams to foster an effective school culture and apply systems
that produce high student achievement. Research on high poverty high achieving
schools reveals leadership as a common and effective system (Marzano, 2003; Reeves,
2003; Waits, et al., 2006; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002; Rural
School and Community Trust, 2004; Izumi, 2002).
A leader is capable of fostering a positive school culture in a way that leads to
high student achievement. Leithwood, Louis, Anderson and Wahlstrom (2004) contend
that the capacities and motivations educators need to positively affect student learning
are shaped by the direct influences organizational members have with those in
leadership roles, as well as by the organizational context within which people work.
Thus, leadership cannot be discounted in its significant role on student achievement
through the indirect influences on teachers. Goddard and Goddard (2001) support the
notion that school leaders shape factors that affect student achievement by increasing
teacher efficacy. If teachers are more confident in their capacities, then the school is
one step closer to attaining high student achievement. Furthermore, research
(Leithwood et al., 2004) reveals that the total (direct and indirect) effects of leadership
27

on student learning account for about a quarter of total school effects. This type of
evidence points at the value of utilizing leadership as a system in a manner that can
have school-wide effects. Similarly, Goddard and Goddard (2001) found principals
directly and indirectly have an impact on student achievement by influencing teacher
beliefs and commitment. Such significant elements are considered when creating a
positive school culture. Stolp (1994) contends that, when leaders deepen their
understanding of school culture, they are better equipped to shape the values, beliefs,
and attitudes necessary to promote a stable and nurturing learning environment.
Every school has a culture, and the leadership plays a significant role in
developing that school culture (Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2005). As Hanson (2001)
explains:
Schools also have their own unique cultures that are shaped around a particular
combination of values, beliefs, and feelings. These school cultures emphasize what is
of paramount importance to them as they strive to develop their knowledge base in a
particular direction, such as producing outstanding football teams, high SAT scores,
disciplined classrooms and skilled auto mechanics, or sending kids to college who come
from inner-city urban schools. Although the culture of a school is not visible to the
human eye, its artifacts and symbols reflect specific cultural priorities. (p.641)
Much of the literature that surrounds school culture emphasizes that, although a
culture is a natural by-product of people working in close proximity, it can be a positive
or negative influence on a school’s effectiveness (Marzano, 2005). A positive effect
might result in a school which values collaboration, and a negative effect might create a
28

school which does not value taking the extra time to collaborate. Fostering a school
culture that indirectly affects student achievement is a strong theme within the literature
on leadership (Marzano,Waters & McNulty, 2005; Levine, Cooper, Hilliard III, 2000).
In particular, authors stress that there must exist the promoting of coherence and the
sense of well-being among staff (Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Waits et al, 2006).
A study performed by King and Newmann (2001) found that school culture is
synonymous with building school capacity. This process stems from the organizational
features of schools which influence quality of instruction. This study was performed on
nine public elementary schools with school-wide sustained programs of professional
development with different approaches to and assistance from district, state, and
independent providers. In this case, the authors suggest that school capacity should
address the knowledge, skills and dispositions of individual teachers, professional
community amongst the staff as a whole, and program coherence within schools.
Building strong capacity can be synonymous with leadership fostering a strong school
culture that enables effective practices. Great leaders must know how to adopt the
structures necessary to support the systems that motivate teachers to influence high
student achievement for everyone (Youngs & King, 2002; Bolman & Deal, 2002;
Quint, Akey, Rappaport & Willner, 2007).
In addition to leadership’s fostering of a strong school culture, there must also
be present the development of an understanding of purpose among staff and the
development of a shared vision of what the school could be like (Jesse, Davis &
Pokorny, 2004; Waits et al, 2006; Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2003 & 2005; Reeves,
29

2003; Izumi, 2002, Rural and Community Trust, 2004). Marzano, Waters and
McNulty’s (2005) findings are in agreement with Waits et al. (2006) and Reeves (2003)
in that high poverty schools ought to encompass disciplined people, thought, and
actions in regards to building a positive school culture. Part of the responsibility of the
leadership is to cultivate and impart values at the school that allow a common vision to
have follow-through. An array of leadership styles can accomplish such a task. In the
following sections, two theories of leadership will be discussed: Transformational
leadership and structural leadership. These two forms of leadership were chosen from a
variety of leadership styles for their influence in creating both change in schools and the
necessary clear vision discussed earlier.

Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is significant to this study as it affects the positive
school culture fostered in many of the high poverty high achieving schools in regards to
collaborative practice and teacher beliefs. Transformational leadership is a form of
leadership aimed at teacher empowerment (Ross & Gray, 2006). Burns (1978) contends
that transformational leaders are visionary people whose leadership is inherently
symbolic. Accordingly, they lead by example, use symbols to capture attention, frame
experiences, and communicate a vision (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Similarly, Stolp
(1994) argued that the actions of leadership are noticed and interpreted by others as
“what is important.” Thus, modeling effective values and beliefs central to student
achievement is important within a school. Leithwood et al. (2004) point out that,
30

although many adjectives such as “instructional,” “democratic,” “transformational” and
the like are often mentioned, the same two essential objectives are critical to any
organization’s effectiveness: helping the organization set a defensible set of directions
and influencing members to move in those directions. Transformational leaders do that
and more, whilst enabling those of different traits to help in the process.
For example, charismatic leaders transform followers’ self-concepts and link the
identity of the followers to a collective identity of an organization by emphasizing the
intrinsic rewards of work and de-emphasizing the extrinsic rewards (Northouse, 2007).
In order to bring about a collective identity that embraces collaboration,
transformational leaders can embrace the trait of charisma or a similar attribute that will
impart such values. Leaders that set out to empower followers and nurture them in
change, as transformational ones do, can conquer such a task (Northouse, 2007).
Furthermore, a transformational leader is able to build confidence in teachers and
provide opportunities for teachers to learn from each other (Goddard & Goddard, 2001).
Building confidence, providing opportunities, and modeling all help build the positive
school culture and school capacity necessary for high student achievement.

Structural Leadership
Another emerging theme in the literature on high poverty high achieving schools
is the clear structure of goals and visions that schools had (Jesse, Davis & Pokorny,
2004; Waits et al, 2006; Marzano,Waters & McNulty, 2003 & 2005; Reeves, 2003;
Izumi, 2002, Rural and Community Trust, 2004). When examining leadership from a
31

structural approach, Bolman and Deal (2008) contend the focus lies upon the
architecture of an organization, specifically its rules, goals and policies. The structural
leader operates under the assumption that structures must be designed to fit an
organization’s current circumstances, including its goals, technology, workforce, and
environment (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Most of the high poverty high achieving schools
discussed earlier varied in circumstances, but each school had structures and systems in
place that helped attain set goals. Since people are motivated by goals which they find
personally compelling, a structural leader helps colleagues develop shared
understandings about the organization and its activities and goals that can foster a sense
of purpose or vision (Leithwood et al., 2004). It is vital that the leadership at a school
use every activity and event as an opportunity to highlight the desired direction
(Bolman and Deal, 2002).
Furthermore, structural leaders provide the roadmap for teachers and students to
achieve goals. Clark and Estes (2002) contend that alignment between the organization
and its employees begins with compatible goal structures. In effective schools, these
goals are specifically set to improve performance as it relates to student achievement.
If, based on the research on high poverty high achieving schools, the goals are to create
a positive school culture, collaborative practice, and positive teacher beliefs, then these
goals must be clear and the leader must set attainable performance goals. Without clear
and specific performance goals, people tend to focus on tasks that help advance their
careers instead of helping the organization achieve its goals (Clark & Estes, 2002). In
schools, teachers should be enabled to improve student learning t avoid their being
32

tempted to move into other realms for personal advancement. Similarly, Northhouse
(2007) described task behaviors as leadership actions which facilitate goal
accomplishment and help group members achieve their objectives. Having direction
and purpose helps facilitate goal attainment, and structural leaders can help with setting
goals aligned with the vision of the school.

Theoretical Frameworks
The literature is vast on what leadership can do to provide sustainability for
systems and structures in place in effective schools, how collaborative practices can
foster high student achievement, and how positive teacher beliefs have an influence
student achievement. Thus, it is important to discuss the theoretical frameworks that
can explain how collaborative practices and teacher beliefs develop and work.
Vygotsky (1978) proposed a framework through his socio-cultural theory that
characterizes how individual development is achieved through participation in social
processes. Galluci (2008) utilizes socio-cultural views to explain how “organizational
learning” supports the systems in place for professional learning to thrive. This author
contends that there are four stages that learning and change operate within a
professional context:
1. Individual appropriation of particular ways of thinking through interaction
with others.
2. Individual transformation and ownership of that thinking in the context of
one’s own work.
33

3. Publication of new learning through talk or action.
4. The process whereby those public acts become conventionalized in the
practice of that individual, in the work of others, or both.
Galluci (2008) adopts this model of the Vygotsky Space (see Figure 2.1) to
illustrate how collective events such as professional development sessions can serve as
instances for the introduction of new ideas regarding instructional practice. The new
concepts and practices discussed at these collective events may be taken up and
interpreted by individual educators such as principals, instructional coaches, and
teachers (appropriation part of stage 1). Practitioners may have various reactions to
these new ideas. Some might try to implement them and others might question or reject
them. This goes hand in hand with Packer and Goicoechea's (2000) assertion that
learning is often perceived to be epistemological, the consideration of knowing
something, and not recognized as ontological, what is or what exists. Some will claim
to know the ideas, but few will acknowledge and reflect on the reality of what it means.
The ones who do acknowledge it will work to reinterpret the concepts and practices
within their own work contexts, consequently transforming their practices (stage 2).
Once new concepts and transformed practices are demonstrated and reflected upon,
individual learning can take place (stage 3). Then, those practices have the opportunity
to become conventionalized (stage 4).
34

Figure 2.1: Vygotsky Space Applied to Professional Learning Situations

Galluci’s (2008) application of professionals’ reinterpreting of concepts to
transform their own practices complements the work Penlington (2007) discusses when
contending that professional learning can be understood with Kant’s theory of practical
reasoning. Penlington (2007) uses Kant’s version of practical reason because it focuses
on how our actions are derived from our decisions and how we can improve our
reasoning in order to improve practice. Organizations are also known to work best
when rationality prevails over personal agendas (Bolman and Deal, 2008). Thus,
options that make sense will benefit educators more than movements that are being
implemented without discussion or buy-in. Both socio-cultural theory and the theory of
practical reasoning revolve around the idea that we intricately learn through deep
reflection and application of how we have internalized new concepts.
In addition, Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory can also provide a lens
from which to view the role instructional leaders and teachers can play in producing a
collaborative environment for student growth. Bandura (1986) outlines four sources of
35

self-efficacy: enactive mastery (past performance accomplishments resulting from
previous experiences or training); vicarious experience; social/verbal persuasion such as
that resulting from collaboration and performance-related corrective feedback; and
physiological arousal including changes in emotional states such as anxiety, fear, or
positive anticipation. Social cognitive theory gives us an opportunity to look at
instructional leadership and collaboration surrounding what it has and has not been able
to accomplish. It also allows room for each participant at every level to experience,
dialogue, and internalize learning. Thus, changes in learning that result from
professional learning have to occur internally through individual acknowledgements
and reasoning and externally through collaborative practices.

Collaborative Practice
Understanding how learning is internalized, externalized, and then transformed
allows a better appreciation of how collaborative practice evolves and influences high
student achievement. In accordance with school capacity having been enabled in a
positive direction by having necessary structures and systems in place, then there are
levels of collaboration amongst teachers and instructional leaders that must unfold.
Studies indicate that groups of teachers who value professional development sessions
are those who fees that they cN interact with and learn from their peers and cn do so
safely (Galluci, 2008; Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2003 & 2005; Penlington, 2007;
Quint et al., 2007; Smith & Rowley, 2005; Supovitz, 2002; Reeves, 2003; Waits, et al.,
2006; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002; Rural School and
36

Community Trust, 2004; Kennedy & Shiel, 2010). The environment to enable this type
of interaction must be one where individuals are free to question one another and able to
scrutinize perspectives without harboring resentment. Smith and Rowley (2005) find
that teachers participate more in professional development when they have relatively
more influence on policy and are in schools with more collaborative environments.
Thus, shared-decision making and knowing that they can work with their peers
increases their collaborative practices. Additionally, Kennedy and Shiel (2010) find
that, when the facilitator of professional development and the participants both make
contributions to the learning practice, collaboration is productive. Researchers have
also found that, in order for professional development to be effective, collaboration,
reflective practice, and focus on a primary task must be in place (James, Connolly &
Elliott, 2007). This builds a professional learning community in which educators share
visions, set common beliefs, and share common practices. All of the aforementioned
elements of professional development are part of collaborative practices that produce
growth towards high student achievement because the assumption is that people get
better at what they do by continually exploring and refining ways to perform (Galluci,
2008; Marzano,Waters & McNulty, 2005; Supovitz, 2002).
Although the literature documents that teachers value professional development
more when they are heard and can have more interaction with their peers, there is still a
need to understand how and why dialogue works as an effective tool for change. Action
research, teacher networks and communities show that teacher-teacher dialogue is the
glue that holds central activities or development activities together (James, Connolly &
37

Elliott, 2007; Penlington, 2007). Dialogue allows for reflection, camaraderie, and
professional growth. Hatton and Smith (2005) define reflection to be deliberate
thinking about action with an eye toward improvement. If growth that leads to student
achievement is the goal, then reflective practice is an important piece of the puzzle.
Curry (2008), in her research on critical friends groups as a means of collaboration,
finds that relying on conversational tools deemed as “protocols” enhanced teachers’
collegial relationships, awareness of research-based practices and reforms, school-wide
knowledge, and capacity to undertake instructional improvement. Again, having a
structure that enabled such a system to take place fostered dialogue needed for
professional growth. Servage (2008) contends that administrators, teacher leaders and
professional development specialists can enhance the sustainability and long-term
effectiveness of a professional learning community by providing opportunities within its
structure for teachers to hold open-ended conversations oriented to communicative
learning. This type of dialogue could lead professional learning communities to hold
inquiry more and experience transformative learning. However, much is still needed to
understand the “how” of why these dialogues work as a catalyst for teacher change. In
addition, more literature needs to be seen in reference to pedagogical content
knowledge growth as a result of collaborative practice.
Once the dialogue takes place and reflective practice is embedded within the
school culture or school capacity, there have to be measures in place to support this
systematic practice. Researchers contend that the instructional leadership team,
consisting of principals and instructional coaches, needs to spend time in teachers’
38

classrooms to ensure that teachers are putting into practice what they have learned in
their professional development sessions (Marzano,Waters & McNulty, 2005; Quint et
al., 2007; Ware and Kitsantas, 2007). Teachers can be an unreliable source about their
own teaching and holding them accountable to implementing effective instructional
practices means being part of a team that is constantly collaborating together and
providing feedback. In addition, studies have found that teachers are more likely to
participate in professional development activities in schools with more collaborative
environments (Rowley & Smith, 2005). This may suggest that teachers are more likely
to invest in learning opportunities if the positive culture clearly supports their
contributions.

Teacher Beliefs
Additionally, positive attitudes toward reform movements and practices can
enhance the power a particular system can have. Research analyzing school surveys
reveals that schools organized with a stronger commitment strategy may have better
success in achieving their reform goals because of increased teacher participation in
content-related professional development (Smith & Rowley, 2005). Teachers who tend
to have a hand in designing or choosing their professional development are more likely
to benefit and grow professionally because they have a personal investment. Smith and
Rowley’s (2005) study of 8,034 schools revealed a within and between-school
relationship between teachers’ perceptions of their level of influence over school policy
and their level of participation in professional development activities. In such cases,
39

believing in a reform movement or practice means exuding power, choice, and
contribution.
Positive attitudes also have influence in regards to student achievement. The
attribute of believing in all students is recognizable and has been consistently positively
related to student outcomes (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004;
Marzano, 2003; Waits et al, 2006; Reeves, 2003; Izumi, 2002, Rural and Community
Trust, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002). Moreover, educators as leaders should intrinsically
care deeply about their work and making a difference (Bolman & Deal, 2002). When
educators care deeply, then confidence in what one does matters. Thus, teacher efficacy
influences teacher beliefs.
Bandura (1997) referred to self-efficacy as an individual’s belief in his or her
capability to organize and execute the course of action required to manage prospective
situations. Consequently, teacher efficacy is a teacher’s belief in his or her capabilities
to produce high student achievement. Research has demonstrated that schools with
high performance professional development integrate key dimensions that support and
reinforce skill development and efficacy beliefs (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Marzano,
2003; Smith & Rowley, 2005). Improving one’s own self-efficacy could lead to better
student outcomes because strongly believing in one’s ability to grow and learn can be
transparent in classroom practices. Similarly, a study of 26, 257 public school teachers
and 6,711 public school principals regarding self-efficacy and collective efficacy
revealed that beliefs are coupled with teacher commitment and should be considered
when creating positive work environments or school culture (Ware and Kitsantas,
40

2007). Puchner and Taylor (2006) add that through planning and working with other
teachers, student engagement can be increased as teacher efficacy is strengthened.
Furthermore, schools that are being effective tend to hold the common belief that
teachers give students no other choice but success (Corbett, Wilson & Williams, 2005;
Ware & Kitsantas, 2007; Marzano, 2003; Ragland, Clubine, Constable & Smith, 2002;
Waits, Campbell, Gau, Jacobs, Rex & Hess, 2006).
Brown and Medway (2007) studied a high poverty high achieving elementary
school located in South Carolina, made up of a majority of African-American students,
where they interviewed teachers and made classroom observations found that teachers
had high expectations for all students and encouraged their students to meet them
through multiple ways to demonstrate mastery. Hillard (1992) also argued for high
teacher expectations to promote academic success among minority students.

Deficit Thinking
Positive teacher beliefs need to be fostered and maintained in order to combat
what is often prevalent in ineffective schools: deficit thinking and low expectations.
Deficit thinking can be seen as a belief that students are missing a key element and
place blame on the student (Garcia & Guerra, 2004). It exists when educators hold
negative, stereotypic, and counterproductive views about culturally diverse students
(Ford & Grantham, 2003; Ogbu, 1994; Menchaca, 1997). Placing blame on the student
leads to beliefs that can negatively influence student achievement. For example,
teachers who hold stereotypes about diverse students are not likely to create a culturally
41

responsive learning environment relative to learning, communication, and behavioral
styles (Ford & Grantham, 2003). Thus, some students will be neglected for their
cultural differences and high student achievement may not be accessible for such
students. Without the acknowledgement of the teachers’ and school role in student
performance, not much can be done to improve student achievement (Garcia & Guerra,
2004).
Garcia and Guerra (2004) discussed five assumptions made in a study that
challenged the deficit thinking of teachers and administrators: teachers and schools are
only reflecting the deficit thinking that is present in society; teachers of all cultures can
benefit from professional learning on diversity; culture is present in all aspects of
learning; there are superficial attempts to be culturally sensitive; professional
development needs to explicitly link the theory of multicultural education to classroom
practice. The researchers found that many teachers have the knowledge of equity
practices, but need to believe in them and know how to view student behavior in terms
of student culture (Garcia & Guerra, 2004). Additionally, Ford and Grantham (2003)
discuss the idea of dynamic thinking to also combat deficit thinking. Dynamic thinking
includes defining intelligence in various ways to acknowledge potential, utilizing
multiple forms of testing and assessments, and becoming more culturally competent by
engaging in critical self-examination that explores teacher attitudes and perceptions
concerning cultural diversity (Ford & Grantham, 2003). This research illustrates that
some schools do not have the necessary structures and systems in place to support the
effective professional learning of teachers. Furthermore, since deficit thinking leads to
42

counterproductive views of culturally diverse students, they tend to lower their
expectations of these students accordingly (Ford & Grantham, 2003).

Teacher Expectations
In accordance with deficit thinking, Ogbu (1994) discusses how minority
children often encounter attitudes and forces that discourage educational effort (because
it does not pay) or discourage behaviors that are viewed positively by majority cultures.
The prominent achievement gap highlights the low achievement of certain minority
groups who are more susceptible to negative attitudes. Additional research has
confirmed that teachers often hold misperceptions about the abilities of minority
students (Rist, 2002; Ford & Grantham, 2003). Kennedy (as cited in Raths, 2001)
argues that beliefs may be a product of a person’s upbringing, a reflection of his or her
life experiences, or a result of socialization processes in schools. Thus, this type of
deficit thinking must be addressed early on as a part of constructing the school culture.
Van den Bergh, Denessen, Hornstra, Voeten and Holland (2010) analyzed the
prejudiced attitudes of 41 elementary school teachers in the Netherlands who were
assessed via self-report and an Implicit Association Test. The Implicit Association Test
was found to explain differing ethnic achievement gap sizes across classrooms via
teacher expectations. Van den Bergh et al. (2010) suggest that educators be made
sufficiently aware of the potentially negative effects of sociopolitical contexts on
teacher attitudes, expectations, and the academic achievement of students. Being
43

careful to consider the immigrant and minority sociopolitical context in America,
teachers need to be conscious of perceived teacher beliefs.
Similarly, Shodavaram, Jones, Weaver, Marquez and Ensle (2009) conducted a
study that investigated the beliefs of suburban teachers regarding the growing
immigrant population, especially students from Mexico, South and Central America,
and African and Asian countries. Their contention was that it is essential to investigate
personal and professional beliefs of teachers to determine whether or they need to be
better prepared to meet the educational needs of immigrant children.

Influence of School Culture, Collaboration, and Teacher Beliefs through the
AVID Lens
Although there is no one reform effort that has allowed high poverty high
achieving schools to be effective, there are programs that incorporate many of the
common characteristics that emerged from such schools. The program emphasized in
this study is AVID and its impact on effective school-wide systems and structures in
high poverty schools because of its embedded nature to influence a positive school
culture, collaborative practices, and positive teacher beliefs. The following will give an
overview of what AVID is, its placement of students, curriculum, class structure, and
school-wide process.

44

AVID Overview
AVID, Advancement Via Individual Determination, is a nationally implemented
college pathways program in the United States first introduced in 1980 in San Diego,
CA. This program is at work in over 3,500 schools in 45 states and is funded by
districts in agreement with AVID Center, where districts provide public school teachers
and college tutors for the implementation of its mission (AVID Center, 2010).
AVID parents are usually more involved with their students than the average
student. Parents sign a contract agreeing to support all AVID academic requirements;
encourage and support their student’s academic success; and attend AVID parent
meetings (AVID Center, 2010).

AVID Placement of Students
AVID has become a priority for helping out “in-the-middle” students with the
goal of attending a four-year university directly out of high school. Approximately
three quarters of AVID students who participate in the program for at least three years
are accepted to four-year universities (AVID Center, 2010). “In-the-middle” includes
students who show academic potential by attaining a G.P.A. between 2.0 and 3.5, are
first generation college-bound individuals, exemplify willingness and motivation to
succeed, and/or who generally appear to benefit from the extra support AVID can
provide to prepare them to be eligible to attend a four-year university when they
otherwise may not have the opportunity to do so. AVID students ideally begin as
freshmen and progress through the program for a consecutive four years.
45

AVID Curriculum
The curriculum, based on rigorous standards, was developed by middle and
senior high school teachers in collaboration with college professors. It is driven by
the WICR method (Writing, Inquiry, Collaboration, and Reading). AVID curriculum is
utilized within AVID elective classes, in content-area classes in AVID schools, and
even in schools where the AVID elective is not offered. Included in the curriculum are
various amounts of college preparatory strategies such as note-taking, time-management
skills, organization, rigorous writing, Socratic seminars, tutorials, leadership roles, and
team-building activities. However, students can often enter at any grade level if they
have independently remained college eligibility and if there is room in the class to
recruit students. It is highly unusual to recruit students past the sophomore year.
Within the four years, student overall progress is followed closely by the site team and
there is a significant amount of communication amongst teachers, parents, and
counselors. Students also are entitled to at least one four-year university fieldtrip a year
in which they tour campuses and interact with college students to help them determine
what schools they desire to apply to (Black, Little, McCoach, Purcell & Siegle, 2008).

AVID Elective Class Structure
At every AVID grade level, the structure of the class is the same. For the
duration of the school year, 80 percent of every week is dedicated to having students
participate in the tutorial process for half their class period. Tutorials are either led by
site-hired college tutors or by student leaders, depending on funding available or tutor
46

recruitment, in which students bring in at least two prepared higher level questions
using Costa’s levels of questioning to problem-solve within a group determined by
tutors based on topics. Students are graded based on a rubric of a 25 point scale
regarding their questions, Cornell notes taken, participation, reflections, and summaries.
The second half of every class is dedicated to AVID curriculum. Every Friday, students
are expected to turn in a binder which is required for class in order to have all subjects
organized and to ensure that they are completing Cornell notes for all core classes.
Fridays are designated to be leadership and team-building days where students, tutors,
and teachers plan activities that will enhance their personal, communication, and
collaborative skills (Black, Little, McCoach, Purcell & Siegle, 2008).

AVID School-wide
As of 2008, AVID Center assembled a task force to discuss and define the term
“school-wide” as it applies to the AVID program and AVID schools (AVID Center,
2010). AVID National Demonstration schools across the United States were identified
as a result in order to promote examples of what AVID should aim to be to foster
effective school-wide practices. Within these demonstration schools, AVID strategies
are implemented allowing systemic changes to transform attitude, leadership, structure,
instruction, and school culture in order to ensure college readiness for all students
(Watt, Yanez & Cossio, 2003; Guthrie and Guthrie, 2002; Watt, Johnston, Huerta,
Mendiola & Alkan, 2008; Watt, Powell & Mendiola, 2004; Black, Little, McCoach,
Purcell & Siegle, 2008).
47

Concluding Discussion
As the research illustrates, effective high poverty schools exist and produce high
student achievement. The literature points to various aspects of leadership,
collaborative practices, and teacher beliefs found amongst structures and systems that
sustain positive student outcomes. Galluci’s (2008) adopted model of Vygotsky’s
(1978) theory, Penlington (2007), and Bandura (1986) all provide frameworks by which
to look at the development and learning experiences that must take place in order to
promote professional growth which leads to high student achievement for all students.
AVID takes a particular approach at achieving high student outcomes through college
preparation, but nonetheless utilizes key elements discussed in the overall literature
regarding school culture, collaborative practice, and positive teacher beliefs.
48

CHAPTER 3: Research Methodology
Introduction
This chapter describes the qualitative, research framework, data collection and
data analysis procedure of this study. The purpose of this study was to investigate how
a high poverty school is producing high student achievement by taking a closer look at
how leadership fosters and maintains systems of collaboration and how professional
development positively affects teacher beliefs. In particular, this study focused on a
school with an AVID program in order to observe its positive influences on school
culture, collaboration, professional development, and teacher beliefs.
Most studies, as seen in chapter two, conducted on high poverty, high achieving
schools have documented high levels of collaboration, school culture, consistent
professional development, and positive teacher beliefs (Marzano, 2003; Reeves, 2003;
Waits, Campbell, Gau, Jacobs, Rex and Hess, 2006; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004;
Ragland, Clubine, Constable & Smith, 2002; Rural School and Community Trust, 2004;
Izumi, 2002). However, there is a lack of literature in the connection between the
organizational support leadership cultivates for collaboration, professional
development, and teacher beliefs enabling high student achievement. Principals,
counselors, lead teachers, and clerical staff at Casa Magna High School, a high poverty
and high achieving school, were selected to gain perspective on how the previously
mentioned elements work together. The qualitative case study was guided by the
following three research questions:
49

1. What are the perceived school-wide systems and structures that contribute to
high achievement in high poverty schools?
2. How are school-wide systems implemented and sustained to support higher
levels of student achievement in high poverty schools?
3. How do school leaders/instructional leaders support professional learning in
cultivating effective classroom instruction in high poverty schools?
The researcher utilized qualitative research methods to carry out an in-depth
study and analysis of the leaders, teachers, counselors, and staff of Casa Magna High
School, including personnel associated with the AVID program. Interviews,
observations, and artifact analyses were conducted based on the socio-cultural and
social cognitive framework as discussed in chapter two, in order to classify key findings
that addressed the research questions. The researcher utilized a case-study approach in
order to construct a better picture of what makes high poverty schools effective. As a
descriptive case-study, the end product will be a rich description of the phenomenon
under investigation (Merriam, 2009). Furthermore, Merriam (2009) contends that a
case-study approach is valuable for uncovering knowledge that is concrete, contextual,
and developed based on populations determined by the researcher. Thus, this particular
study focused on how leadership, school culture, collaboration, and teacher beliefs are
integrated in an AVID school.
This chapter is divided into six sections. First, the characteristics related to
utilizing qualitative, case-study research approaches, the research design, are discussed.
Second, the sample and population utilized for this case-study are described, including
50

the conceptual framework. Third, the instrumentation is outlined. Fourth, the data
collection procedures utilized in the research design are described. Fifth, the data
analysis procedures making sure to address reliability, validity, and triangulation are
broken down. Lastly, ethical considerations related to the research process are
discussed.

Research Design
This case-study utilized descriptive qualitative research methods with an
emphasis or focus on how high poverty schools with AVID programs support and
sustain structures and systems in place regarding leadership, collaboration, and teacher
beliefs.
Merriam (2009) explains that qualitative researchers are interested in how
people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning
they attribute to their experiences. Thus, the overall purpose of qualitative research is to
achieve a better understanding of how people believe and interpret processes to work.
For the purposes of this study, a “depth of understanding” (Patton, 2002, p. 10) was
gained as to how leadership worked together with teachers to collaborate and maintain
positive teacher beliefs in accordance with the AVID program and philosophy. As
Merriam (2009) points out, the case study approach offers a means of investigating
complex social units consisting of multiple variables of potential importance,
specifically leadership, school culture, collaboration, and belief systems, in
understanding the phenomenon, in this case, high student achievement. As various sites
51

were examined and compared with each other, this study employed a single case-study
research design.

Sample and Population Size
The focus of this study is on high poverty high achieving schools. The decision
to investigate one school was based on the desire to gain a deep and rich understanding
on how a school with an AVID program is organized and is supported to promote a
positive school culture, collaborate, provide ongoing professional development, and
promote positive teacher beliefs in order to produce high student achievement.
A specific set of selection criteria was utilized to identify one high school within
the state of California from districts and schools that varied in performance levels and
poverty levels. This section outlines the selection criteria, the sampling procedures, and
participants.

Selection Criteria
Within the state of California, there are a number of high performing schools in
high poverty areas that have been utilized for purposeful sampling. This study involved
purposeful sampling because the researcher selected an extreme or deviant case (Patton,
2002), this being high poverty effective schools. Patton (2002) points out that
purposeful sampling indicates to an audience that one is learning from an unusual
manifestation of the phenomenon of interest. Even with long-standing achievement
trends, some high poverty schools have had success in attaining high academic
52

achievement. Such schools have had no one reform initiative in particular that have
made them successful, but instead have shared common variables in place that foster
high student achievement (Marzano, 2003). Thus, in order to focus on how the
elements of leadership, school culture, collaboration, and teacher beliefs have worked
together to achieve effectiveness, Merriam (2009) suggests that a criterion-based
selection be utilized to have a purposeful sampling directly reflecting the purpose of the
study and lead to the identification on information-rich cases. The following selection
criteria were utilized:
The high school had a 2008-2009 API of 750 or above, and/or consistent growth
in API scores for the 2006-2007, 2007-2008, and 2008-2009 academic school years.
The high school had at least 40% or more students qualifying for free/reduced
price lunch.
The high school had a current Similar Schools Ranking of 8 or above, and a
consistent Similar Schools Ranking of 8 or above for the 2006-2007, 2007-2008, and
2008-2009 academic school years.
The high school had a student population of 500 or more.
The high school had to have an established AVID program embedded within the
mission of the school.

53

Sampling Procedure
A variety of resources from the California Department of Education (CDE) and
the Great Schools website including 2006-2009 API scores, Similar Schools Rankings,
school demographic characteristics, and Title I rankings were utilized.
The selection process began by searching through the California Department of
Education (CDE) website and the Great Schools website. Several schools were
identified in this manner, and a list was compiled to look at each school website and
their School Accountability Report Card (SARC) more thoroughly to narrow down the
search that would meet all the previously mentioned criteria. The percentage of
students on free-and-reduced lunch, API score, AYP growth, and AVID model were
located and identified from each website. The district and school were chosen in this
manner due to meeting all the criterion factors. Once identified, an e-mail was sent to
the school’s principal and district superintendent asking for permission to study the
school site (see Appendix A). Upon consent of the school’s administration to
participate in this case-study, observations and interviews were scheduled via e-mail
and phone calls.

Participants
The study involved administrators, AVID elective teachers, core teachers, the
AVID and Staff Development Coordinator, a counselor, and clerical staff. The
principal and assistant principal, AVID coordinator, clerical office manager, and four
AVID teachers at the school site directly informed this study through semi-structured
54

interviews. The semi-structured interviews consisted largely of a list of questions to be
explored in no pre-determined order, with specific data required from all respondents
(Merriam, 2009). This was done to allow flexibility for how or in what order the
research questions were addressed. The teachers were members of the leadership team,
AVID team, and/or content area department chairpersons and were self-selected
volunteers. These teachers represented a wide range of teaching experiences.

Overview of the District and School
The high school selected for this study was Casa Magna High School
(pseudonym), as stated earlier. Casa Magna High School is located within the Rose
Garden Unified School District (RGUSD) located in Southern California. RGUSD has
over 48,000 students in 47 elementary schools, 11 middle schools, and 11 high schools.
Casa Magna High School has a current student population of 1,985 students.
The enrollment and demographic breakdown is as follows: 53.7% Asian, 36.22%
Hispanic or Latino, 6.5% White (not Hispanic), 1.61% Pacific Islander, 1.21% Filipino,
.55% Black or African American, and .20% American Indian or Alaskan Native. Table
3.1 described the student demographics of Casa Magna High School.

55

Table 3.1: Casa Magna High School Enrollment and Demographics 2008-2009

Casa Magna High School has a large English Language subgroup at 33%, with
the majority being Vietnamese-speaking (46%) and Spanish-speaking (44%), as well as
a large socio-economically disadvantaged population (70% of Casa Magna students
receive free or reduced-priced meals). Due to its high socio-economically
disadvantaged population, Casa Magna High School has been designated as a school-
wide Title I school. Table 2 illustrates the populations of English Language Learners
and students receiving free/ reduced-priced meals for Casa Magna High School.

Table 3.2: Casa Magna High School Student Data 2008-2009

Number of Students Percent Enrollment
English Learners 595 30%
Free/Reduced-Price Meals 1390 70%

Casa Magna High School has a current API of 789 with a nineteen-point growth
from the previous year and a Similar School Ranking of 9. Casa Magna High School
has demonstrated steady, consistent API growth over the past several years; in 2008 the
AAsian Hispanic
or
Latino
White
(not
Hispanic)
Pacific
Islander
Filipino Black or
African
American
American
Indian or
Alaskan
Native
Total
Enrollment 1066 719 129 32 24 11 4 1,985
Percent of
Total
53.7% 36.22% 6.50% 1.61% 1.21% 0.55% 0.20% 100%
56

API was 770 with a seven-point growth, and in 2007 the API was 763 with a twelve-
point growth. Table 3 illustrates the API growth of Casa Magna High School over the
past several school years.

Table 3.3: Casa Magna High School API
Academic Year Base API API Growth API Similar Schools
Ranking
2009 770 19 789 9
2008 763 7 770 9
2007 751 12 763 9

Additionally, Casa Magna High School has one section of AVID 9, one section
of AVID 10, one section of AVID 11, and one section of AVID 12. Over 100 students
are enrolled in the AVID program. The demographics of those students are
representative of the overall school’s demographics as well as of those of the four
female teachers who teach the AVID elective courses and the one female AVID
coordinator who oversees the program.

Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework (see Figure 2) was developed by the dissertation
thematic group to guide the investigation of school-wide systems and structures that
contribute to high achieving high poverty schools. Merriam (2009) describes the
conceptual framework of a study as the underlying structure or frame that draws upon
57

the “concepts, terms, definitions, models, and theories of a particular literature base and
disciplinary orientation” (p. 67). Furthermore, Merriam (2009) and Patton (2002)
explain that the framework helps generate research questions, emphasize different
questions, guide data collection and analysis, and helps interpret the findings. The
framework also carries messages about what and who is important (Patton, 2002, p.
130). The research questions and type of study help determine what is important. The
conceptual framework developed to guide this study was adopted by the thematic
dissertation cohort based on McDavid and Hawthorn’s (2006) Logic Model, designed to
evaluate the effectiveness of a program, or in this case a school (see Figure 1). The
Logic Model consists of six main components: 1) needs 2) objective 3) input 4)
activities 5) output 6) actual outcomes. For the purpose of this study, the needs
represent the particular needs of students aiming to close the achievement gap. The
objective, based on the needs of the population, was to encompass a high achieving high
poverty school. The inputs in this study were the structures of the school. The
structures in the study are instructional mechanisms, policies, and procedures not
subject to change at the local school site, such as NCLB and the California State
Standards, and structures within the school, such as the bell schedule, core classes
offered, and class sizes. The systems within the study are coordinated and coherent use
of resources that the school has choice over such as the role leadership plays, how
school culture is fostered, professional learning offered, and how collaboration is
cultivated. The following are additional systems amongst these overarching aspects that
serve as systems: collaboration time embedded within the bell schedule, professional
58

development offered, and reflective communities of practice. The outputs of this study
were the collaborative lessons planned, engagement and incorporation of professional
development, and positive teacher beliefs. Finally, the actual outcomes were the impact
the structures and systems had on the output of high student achievement. The goal in
evaluating a program was to confirm whether or not the outcomes have met the
objective of the program, or, in this case, the school. If the outcomes have met the
objective, the school is labeled effective. In this study, the school has been identified as
highly effective because the outcomes of the school (API scores) have shown that the
school has met its high achieving objective.

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework based on McDavid, J. and Hawthorne, L. (2006).

Instrumentation
In order to ensure internal validity and strengthen the results of the study a
variety of data sources were utilized, better known as triangulation of data (Merriam,
2009; Patton, 2002). The instruments used for this research study were semi-structured
59

interview protocols for administrators, teachers, and classified staff/office manager (see
Appendix B, C, and D), observation protocols (see Appendix E, F, and G), and
document/artifact analysis. The interview protocols were constructed through cohort
field tests to ensure validity and adequate correlation to the three research questions of
the study. Tables 4, 5, and 6 illustrate the correlation between the research questions
and data collection for the administrator interview protocol, teacher interview protocol,
and classified interview protocol, respectively.

Table 3.4: Administrator Interview Protocol Related to Research Questions Matrix
Interview Question RQ1 RQ2 RQ3
1
2 X
3 X
4 X
5 X
6 X
7 X X X
8 X X
9 X X
10 X X X
11 X X

Table 3.5: Teacher Interview Protocol Related to Research Questions Matrix
Interview Question RQ1 RQ2 RQ3
1

2 X
3 X
4 X
5 X X
6 X X X
7 X X
8 X X
9 X X
10 X X X
60

Table 3.6: Classified Interview Protocol Related to Research Questions Matrix
Interview Question RQ1 RQ2 RQ3
1
2 X
3 X
4 X X
5 X
6 X X
7 X X

Data Collection Procedures
The data collection process consisted of semi-structured interviews,
observations, and document/artifact analysis. The researcher first met with each
participant to discuss the study, interview and observation processes, ensuring overall
confidentiality. Each participant signed informed consent forms for participation in the
research study. This section outlines the specific procedures for data collection. The
first section will discuss the semi-structured interviews. The second section will discuss
observations. Finally, the third section will discuss document/artifact analysis.

Semi-Structured Interviews
In order to gain insight into perspectives about how certain aspects work at Casa
Magna High School, semi-structured interviews were conducted. The purpose of the
qualitative interview was to allow the researcher to take part in another person’s
perspectives, which can be assumed to be meaningful and able to be made explicit
(Patton, 2002). The thematic dissertation cohort first developed protocols for
interviews with administrators, teachers, and classified staff. According to Patton
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(2002), development of an interview guide or protocol ensures that the same lines of
inquiry are pursued with each person interviewed while providing the researcher the
freedom to ask probing, exploratory questions. Merriam (2009) further clarifies that the
interview guide of a semi-structured interview included a mix of more or less structured
questions. Thus, depth and breadth was constructed within the flexibility of the semi-
structured interview questions (see Appendix B, C, and D).
The first interview protocol developed was for the administration. The primary
focus of the administrative interviews was to determine which structures and systems
had been established at the school’s site which contributes to the high achievement of
students, and how those structures and systems were implemented and maintained
school-wide. The secondary purpose was to determine how instructional leaders
fostered collaboration and effective classroom instruction school-wide. The purpose of
the teacher interviews was similar to that of the administrative interviews, but from a
teacher’s perspective. The primary focus of the classified interview was to examine his
or her perspective on how well structures and systems had been implemented and
maintained, as well as the dynamics of administrator/teacher/staff interactions.
Interviews were conducted at Casa Magna High School with the principal, head
school counselor, staff development/AVID coordinator, office manager, and one AVID
elective and science core teacher, core teachers or department chairpersons. In total,
there were eight semi-structured interviews completed. Each interview occurred in the
private setting of the participant’s office or the staff development center in order to
provide the most familiar and comfortable environment for the participants. Every
62

effort was made by the researcher to build a rapport with the participants, assuring them
of complete anonymity in the reporting of the study’s results in keeping with the ethical
guidelines prescribed by the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review
Board (IRB). Each interview lasted between 30 and 45 minutes and was conducted
from October 2010 to November 2010.

Observations
In addition to gaining perspective from semi-structured interviews, the thematic
dissertation cohort included observations to triangulate the data. The purpose of the
observation was to obtain direct, personal observation of the aspects related to the
research questions in order to increase what Patton (2002) calls the researcher’s
understanding of the program. According to Patton (2002) there are several benefits to
conducting observations; direct observations allow the researcher to better capture the
context within which the participants interact, firsthand experience allows the
researcher to be open, discovery-oriented, and inductive, and the researcher has the
opportunity to observe things that may routinely escape awareness of the participants.
The classroom observation protocol (Appendix E) was developed by the
thematic dissertation cohort to determine the structures and systems playing a role
within the classroom that contribute to high student achievement at Casa Magna High
School. The cohort established the following four specific areas to observe within the
classroom relevant to the research questions: styles of interaction between individuals,
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established classroom routines, the physical environment, and instructional strategies
utilized within the classroom.
Similarly, a protocol format was developed for meeting observations (Appendix
F). The primary purpose of the meeting observation protocol was to determine how the
administration, faculty, and staff contributed to the establishment and implementation of
structures and systems at Casa Magna High School. The meeting observation protocol
was comprised of the same four specific areas as the classroom observation protocol.
Finally, the general site observation protocol (see Appendix G) was developed in order
to examine the overall physical environment, established routines, and interactions
between individuals at the school site.
Observations were conducted at Casa Magna High School over a period of five
days. The general site observation was conducted on the first day at the school site,
prior to any interviews or other observations. In total, eight classrooms were observed.
Two of these were AVID elective courses and six were core and elective subject
classes. The duration of each observation was approximately 25 minutes. The two
AVID elective courses observed were junior and senior courses. Core classes observed
were math, biology, and English. Elective classes observed were one foreign language
(Spanish),one freshman academy class, and one choir class.
The meeting observation protocol was utilized to observe collaboration
meetings, AVID site team meetings, and professional development. The purpose of the
meeting observations was to document the interactions between school members and
decisions made exemplifying the structures and systems in place at the school site.
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Document/Artifact Analysis
The analysis of school documents and artifacts provided the researcher with
information about many aspects that could not be observed, including events that may
have occurred before the study began, private interchanges, and goals and decisions that
might otherwise remain unknown to the researcher (Patton, 2002). A document
analysis was conducted to gather information on the school’s background and profile.
The School Accountability Report Card (SARC) and the Single Plan for Student
Achievement provided information on class sizes, attendance rates, number of
suspensions and expulsions, instructional minutes, student population demographics,
special programs, enrichment opportunities, electives, extra-curricular clubs,
professional development opportunities, teacher credentials, and other informational
data. Also examined were the agendas and minutes of school groups’ meetings (i.e.
staff meetings, AVID site team meetings, department meetings, professional
development meetings, collaboration meetings, leadership team, and School Site
Council meetings), vision and mission statements, and professional development plans
embedded within the School Site Plan. Additional documents included the student and
teacher handbooks, school-wide behavior policy, master schedule, bell schedule, and
lesson plans. Table 7 indicates the relationships between the documents and the
research questions.
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Table 3.7: Documents Related to Research Questions
Document RQ1 RQ2 RQ3
School Background and Profile

SARC X
List of Teachers and Support Staff X
Professional Development Plan X
Daily and Instructional Schedule / Bell Schedule X
English Learner’s Master, technology, and safe schools plan X
Agendas & Minutes X
Lesson Plans X
Achievement Results

CST and Local Assessments Data for a 3 year period X X
Local Benchmarks X X
Parent / Community Involvement

SARC
School / Parent Handbook
School Website
Single School Plan
X
X

X

X
Fiscal Information

Single School Plan
CPM Report

X
X

X
Other Information

WASC Action Plan / Self-Study / Visiting Team Report
CA Distinguished School Application
School-wide Behavior Plan
AVID Essentials

X
X
X
X

X
X

X

Artifacts of the school were also analyzed and included student work on the
walls, announcements, symbolism found within the school, plaques, dialogue amongst
faculty and staff, and elements other than documents. It was essential to analyze
artifacts because as Merriam (2009) poses artifacts are “things” or objects in the
environment differentiated from documents that represent some form of
communication.
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Data Analysis
Data from this study was analyzed using the six step method identified by
Creswell (2003) as listed in the following: 1) organize and prepare data, 2) read data
thoroughly to get a general sense, 3) chunk or code the data, 4) design a detailed
description of the data, 5) convey the findings, and 6) interpret and assign meaning to
the data (see Figure 3). The researcher tape-recorded data from interviews and
observations as well as transcribed notes about aspects of the data that the tape-recorder
could not capture (i.e. facial expressions or gestures). The data was transcribed as it
was collected. The transcribed data was initially coded according to the three research
questions that guided this study. Common themes emerged from the coded data, which
were generalized into the aspects of the research study. Finally, conclusions from this
analysis were generated in regards to the three research questions.

Figure 3.2: Adapted from Creswell, J. W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative
and Mixed Methods Approaches (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA

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Ethical Considerations
This case-study followed the principles outlined in The Belmont Report (The
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research, 1978) and the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB) guidelines in which all participants were treated in an ethical
manner designed to maximize the benefits to those involved in the research. This
investigation was conducted so that no individual was placed at risk of harm, each
individual was fully informed of the purpose and intent of the study, participation was
made completely voluntary, and confidentiality of participant responses was assured to
maintain the anonymity of all participants. All data collection instruments and research
methodology utilized in this study received full University of Southern California IRB
approval before the research began. Finally, use of all existing public records, test data,
written observations, and interviews was handled with the utmost ethical care.
Pseudonyms were used to maintain anonymity for all involved.
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CHAPTER 4: Findings, Analysis, and Discussion
The purpose of this study was to identify the organizational systems and
structures perceived to contribute to high academic performance in high poverty
schools. In order to contribute to the knowledge base about systems and structures
implemented and sustaining high academic achievement, one high poverty high school
was selected as the focus of this case study. The findings in this chapter are based on
data from interviews, observations, and school artifacts. A total of eight semi-
structured interviews were conducted with administrators, teachers, and staff. The data
from interviews were triangulated with observations of eight classrooms, collaboration
observations, school observations, and the review and analysis of artifacts provided.
The following sections describe a brief history of the research site and the findings of
this qualitative study on one high poverty high achieving school and are organized
around the following research questions:
1. What are the perceived schoolwide systems and structures that contribute to
high achievement in high poverty schools?
2. How are organizational systems implemented and sustained to support higher
levels of student achievement in high poverty schools?
3. How do school leaders/instructional leaders support professional learning in
cultivating effective classroom instruction in high poverty schools?

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History of Casa Magna High School
Casa Magna High School (CMHS) is a comprehensive high school located in
Southern California as part of the Rose Garden Unified School District (RGUSD). It
currently enrolls just under 2000 students, grades nine through twelve, who reside in
Southern California cities. CMHS is currently in its fifty-first year of operation after
opening its doors in the Fall of 1959. CMHS has a very diverse student population;
53% of students are Asian, 36% Hispanic, 7% Caucasian, with the remaining students
being a mix of several other ethnicities. The school was one of the few in the RGUSD
to be recognized as a California Distinguished school. CMHS was awarded a six-year
accreditation, the maximum term a school can receive from the Western Association of
Schools and Colleges, in the 2004-2005 school year. CMHS’s API rose from 789 in
2009 to 797 in 2010.

Research Question One
The intent of research question one was to identify perceived schoolwide
systems and structures that contribute to high student achievement. It is important to
recall that, for the purpose of this research, “structures” are defined as institutional
mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by federal, state, or district policy
and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of the schools; not subject to
change at the immediate school site (i.e., instructional minutes, personnel policies,
program regulations, etc.); whereas “systems” are defined as coordinated and coherent
use of resources (time, funds, facilities, faculty, students, etc.) constructed by the school
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site to ensure that the school’s vision, mission, and goals are achieved. The following
section will discuss the systems and structures operating at CMHS to ensure high
student achievement for all students as revealed by interviews, observations and artifact
analysis. This section is categorized by overarching perceived structures and their
relevant systems, as well as analysis of how such systems and structures relate to the
high achievement of students. Finally, the summary restates the major elements of each
section.

Increase A-G Eligibility
At the time of this study, one of the main district goals of the RGUSD was to
ensure that students who have been in the district for at least five years or longer will
meet grade-level proficiency in core academic subjects as measured by the CST.
CMHS provides students all opportunities to meet the current Expected Schoolwide
Learning Results (ESLRs) to be “academically proficient, socially and personally
responsible, skilled communicators, and technologically competent.” The district and
school integrated the expectations of the California university eligibility requirements,
which call for similar outcomes for their incoming undergraduates, within the ESLRs.
Having high expectations through rigorous preparation exemplified the school-level
factors that research has identified to contribute to high student achievement (Marzano,
2003; Rural School and Community Trust, 2004). Thus, in conjunction with district
and CMHS goals, there had been a big push and focus ensuring that students had the
opportunity to pursue and succeed in completing California universities’ A-G
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requirements while simultaneously meeting grade-level proficiencies in the coinciding
and overlapping academic core subjects. Additionally, since NCLB requires that, by
2014, all students will be performing at “proficient” levels on state tests, students need
to have access to rigorous, standards-based content instruction readily made available
through A-G eligibility and graduation requirements. RGUSD addressed this need by
designating it as part of the district goal as evidenced in the Single Plan for Student
Achievement, parent and student handbook, district website, and student planners. The
district goal read as follows:
It is the goal of the district to ensure that all students have the opportunity upon
leaving high school to choose from a wide variety of options including four-year
colleges and universities, technical education, or a skilled career. The
opportunity to choose among these paths requires that students achieve
proficiency as defined by state standards in core academic subjects (Goal 1) and
achieve proficiency in the use of the English language (Goal 2). These
proficiencies will make it possible for students to access rigorous high school
courses and enable them to graduate ready for college and skilled careers.

Placing an emphasis on A-G awareness, eligibility, and enrollment made
meeting the district goal of achieving proficiency attainable. The rigor and instruction
provided within A-G curriculum demands critical thinking and learning that helps
students reach understanding at proficient and above-proficient levels. At the time of
this study, CMHS had shown consistent growth over time as outlined in the School
Accountability Report Card in the percentage of students scoring at proficient or
advanced levels on the STAR. To help meet this growth, the Single Plan for Student
Achievement identifies providing “teachers, administrators, and teacher leaders with
practical strategies, models, and tools necessary for helping students succeed in a
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rigorous course of study” as a growth goal. Action steps to implement and support rigor
include the following:
• Provide teachers with demo lessons and peer coaching on Direct
Instruction.
• Provide inservices for all teachers on how to use and implement the
writing process.
• Inservices on the use of differentiated instruction will be provided.
• Counselors and Department Chairs (or representatives) will be in-
serviced on the assessment data available for registration and on the
agreed upon criterions for placement in classes.
• Provide teachers with necessary materials and supplies to implement
rigorous course of study.
• Teachers will be given release time to attend professional conferences
and workshops for the purpose of learning about or becoming more
skilled in standards-based strategies and practices.
CMHS focused its efforts toward a rigorous Advanced Placement (AP) program.
As a result, the school’s AP program grew almost 400% over the last decade. In the
year 2000, a total of 73 students took a total of 159 AP exams. In 2010, 587 exams
were taken. In 2009, 61% of all students scored a three (3) or higher on AP exams.
Every year students are encouraged to take as many AP courses as possible as indicated
in the student planner and Parent Student Handbook. AP courses offered at CMHS
include English AP, Calculus AB AP, Calculus BC AP, Statistics AP, Biology AP,
Chemistry AP, Physics AP, Psychology AP, Spanish AP, World History AP, European
History AP, United States History AP, Government AP, and Macroeconomics AP.
Meeting challenging goals like A-G requirements are an example of the high
expectations held for all students at CMHS. Providing a positive learning environment
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where academics are emphasized and students alike thrive has been shown in the
research to help high student achievement in high poverty schools (Jesse, Davis &
Pokorny, 2004; Marzano; 2003; Waits et al., 2006).

Direct and indirect mentoring and relationships
At the time of this study, the first system perceived to contribute to the
alignment of students enrolling and completing A-G courses was a mentoring process in
which faculty and staff receive training and pertinent information. The new principal at
CMHS, who was assigned at the beginning of this year, but was in her sixth year as a
principal and in her thirteenth year in administration, said the following about her
leadership approach:
I try to be very strategic with my office staff, with my administrators to where I
come to know them, and to make sure what is under their direction are things
that they know, that they are passionate about, so that they can push the program
forward.

The principal at CMHS had a vision and set goals that she desired to attain and
strongly believed that professional learning in large part takes place through leading by
example just as Bolman and Deal (2002; 2008) have found structural leaders doing
when providing roadmaps for their employees. Her belief was that, if she consistently
kept in communication with her staff and mentors, then, in a way, they will feel
comfortable enough and empowered to complete their tasks. This will translate into the
success of students. “Mentoring,” for the principal meant leading, training,
communicating a vision, instilling ownership, and providing support. For counselors
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and teachers interviewed, “mentoring” meant leading by example, having and open and
positive outlook, communicating a vision, working together, and providing guided-
support. This was evident when observing collaboration meetings as the principal
approached the staff development coordinator informally about approaching the
upcoming “Gradual and Release of Responsibility” training in a manner where teachers
would find it beneficial. The staff development coordinator agreed that they needed to
ensure that teachers received relevant examples and the staff development coordinator
proceeded to lead the training with the informal conversation in mind. Checking in and
communicating with the staff development coordinator was an aspect that occurred
various times while observing the campus and meetings. Additionally, during
collaboration meeting times, the principal was observed walking in and out of
classroom meeting sites, which, later, the staff development coordinator described as
“routine, especially on collaboration meeting days so that the leadership can know what
is going on and make contributions.” Six out of the eight individuals interviewed stated
that their expectations and goals were made clear because of consistent and frequent
staff, leadership, and collaboration meetings. When asking the school clerk about her
observations regarding the communication that occurs amongst administrators and staff,
she emphasized its frequency and how helpful it was for everyone.
From what I have seen, communication between them is often informal, but
effective. Very often it’s not complicated. The recommendations that I hear
make sense to the staff and they make plans together to make things happen.
It’s pretty supportive.

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Research has pointed out how providing a safe and orderly environment where
collegiality is fostered contributes to high student achievement in high poverty schools
(Marzano, 2003; Rural School and Community Trust, 2004). This was evident in the
weekly afternoon leadership meetings embedded within the schedule to meet with
counselors, administrators, and department heads so that information can be discussed
and the focus on how to support A-G eligibility maintained. Additionally, the principal
pointed out that the weekly leadership meetings served as an arena to foster the
mentorship process. It was through these meetings that the principal began the
mentoring process with the assistant principals, counselors, department chairs, and lead
teachers. She explained that the expectation was that “you mentor your department
chairs and your department chairs mentor their department.” The head counselor found
that this type of mentoring process indicates support and empowerment to lead others in
meeting school and district goals.
Leading through mentorship influenced the professional learning that took place
at CMHS because it appeared to occur consistently and frequently at CMHS, formally
and informally. The principal was observed to be in her assistant principals’ offices
multiples times a day, which she considered “informal management.” She then had
scheduled formal meetings at least twice a month with her assistant principals and two
separate meetings with counselors included. The principal also had weekly meetings
with assistant principals, head counselors, two athletic directors, the activities director,
the plant supervisor, the head of all custodians and facilities, and the staff development
coordinator who was also the AVID coordinator. When speaking to the head counselor
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about being included in these meetings, she explained that CMHS had been successful
because data and concerns were “discussed as a team” in these meetings, every
perspective was considered and a resolution evolved by staying consistent with meeting
district goals and students’ best interests. Staff meetings were held after school once a
month and department chair meetings were held once a month as well. As indicated by
the principal, staff development coordinator, teachers and meeting agendas, staff
meetings included whole-group instruction or break-out sessions led by administrators
or other instructional leaders who focus on providing staff with current district
information, refresher trainings, or overall professional learning. The department chair
meetings targeted teacher and student needs and the discussions led to the items
addressed at staff meetings. Some examples mentioned and indicated were refreshers
on utilizing the Aeries gradebook, instructional modifications for special education
populations, presentations on “bridging the motivation gap” for all students, and
counselors presenting about A-G requirements. Through department meetings,
instructional leaders are mentored to lead the professional learning that occurs at staff
meetings where everyone receives training on how to better support their students.
The principal also chose specific leaders to mentor in specialized areas so that
each can oversee aspects that are part of the bigger goal such as the administrator who
oversaw meeting A-G eligibility, the administrator who worked with the community,
and the staff development coordinator who oversaw the organization of professional
learning at CMHS. Since the principal played a large and initial role in mentoring, she
caused a trickle effect through assistant principals, department chairs, and other
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instructional leaders like the staff development coordinator. The overall approach of
the principal was to have key staff members mentored by her who were then expected
to continue the process. For example, the principal explained, “because I have one
assistant principal in charge of working with counselors, I mentor him and he mentors
the counselors where A-G is a huge focus.” This was constantly the case while making
observations of the administrative office when administrators frequently communicated
with the principal and followed up communication with counselors and other staff
members, producing a trickling effect of information, decisions, or strategies that were
being discussed and implemented. The head counselor interviewed indicated that, at
leadership meetings, the administrators discussed the school and district visions
regarding A-G eligibility and developing a plan to get more students to attend college
directly after high school. The counselors acknowledged the strategies and concerns
and contributed their own ideas. Together, she says “we work as team to come up with
a plan that’s consistent with the district philosophy and one that we will be able to
communicate clearly to the staff and students.” The counselors then were empowered
to mentor the students and staff as necessary.
Similarly, the principal pointed out how she had another assistant principal who
was in charge of sharing her vision with the community. Since the community is
perceived as an important stakeholder to CMHS, the Single Plan for Student
Achievement outlines the following goals that need to be met regarding the School
Parental Involvement Policy:
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• The district website will post information and copies of the School
Parental Involvement Policy in multiple languages on the school website.
• The school will provide copies for distribution within the local
community (e.g., Boys and Girls Clubs, ASES programs, local market,
etc.).
• The school will promote the policy in local media (e.g., local newspaper,
local radio station, etc.).
• The school office will have copies of the policy and related parent
involvement information.
The principal states, “I have another assistant principal. I mentored her, shared
my vision, she’s working with a community liaison and already in this short period of
time we’ve seen a passionate community group develop.” Through the process of
mentorship, the principal began to build a group of 20 individuals included in the
educational process in order to provide more input into meeting academic proficiencies
and succeeding overall. The principal’s style of leadership, inclusive of mentorship,
emphasized the value of working together by increasing teacher efficacy as Goddard
and Goddard (2001) discussed regarding the impact leaders make when affecting
student achievement. Collaborative efforts were very evident in the ways in which the
principal worked with other staff members and was illustrated in a portion of her
message to students found within the daily planner students utilize:
It is my hope that by working together, we can make our school the perfect place
for a positive education. Stay involved, attend school regularly, and actively
participate in your education. Grab all opportunities available to you, realize
your goals and aspirations, and have a tremendous school year.

Additionally, an indirect way of mentoring staff at CMHS that is considered
common was through what the principal called “hall talk.” The principal constantly
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walked in and out of her office delivering messages to various secretaries, assistant
principals, and counselors in their offices or in the middle of the administration
building. If the principal was not outside of her office, staff members walked freely
into her office to have conversations about procedures or possible ideas. It was clear
while observing staff interactions with each other and other students that informal
conversations that happened when going from one place to another, were a way of
mentoring, supporting each other, and making plans. For instance, the principal
mentioned having spoken informally to social science teachers earlier that day and
discussed coming up with a “strategic focus” to increase the number of students
enrolling in AP classes. The foreign language teacher interviewed emphasized that part
of what makes CMHS highly effective is that “teachers and administrators work
together to design a plan that reaches out to all students.” Thus, open communication
and working well together was vital to student achievement at CMHS.
The mentoring process was also evident when it came to staff development. At
CMHS, the staff development coordinator was a full-time individual dedicated to
supporting the professional learning of staff members. She mentored through
observations, through informal and formal discussions on planned and unplanned
topics, through attending training alongside teachers so that she could serve as a campus
resource, and through providing trainings on-campus.

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The use of data-driven decisions
Data has driven federal officials to implement policies like NCLB in an effort to
achieve more equitable outcomes for all students. Since data can speak volumes and
can shed light in regards to student strengths, weaknesses, and gaps, it formed an
integral part of CMHS’s decision-making process that directly and indirectly affected
student achievement. One aspect that made CMHS high achieving and was pointed out
by all of those interviewed was that “at CMHS there are more people trained on more
research-based strategies then you would find at most high schools,” as first indicated
by the principal. Teacher-levels factors like disciplined behavior that tie into a focus on
academic achievement, clear curriculum choices, and frequent assessment of student
progress are what the research explains to be essential to high student achievement in
high poverty schools (Marzano, 2003; Reeves, 2003; Waits, et al., 2006; Jesse, Davis &
Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002; Rural School and Community Trust, 2004; Izumi,
2002). At CMHS, that meant that the staff found value in making sure instructional and
administrative decisions were informed by strategies proven to work in similar areas.
Additionally, the Single Plan for Student Achievement for CMHS includes actions steps
to support the utilization of research-based strategies for its staff. The Single Plan for
Student Achievement indicates that teachers were to be given release time to attend
professional conferences and workshops for the purpose of learning about or becoming
more skilled in standards-based strategies and practices. Substitute requests and
registration sheets serve as evidence that this took place. The principal also explained
that since utilizing data is so integral to making CMHS successful:
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One of the things we’re doing is we are including data as a piece in
administrative evaluation. So everyone has to pick a focus of analysis and look
at progress. I was just meeting with my AP’s and drilling down and talking
about what their data pieces are going to be, where they are going to share that
out, how it’s going to be used to examine student achievement, student progress,
and whether they are going to share it with departments, share it with the staff,
or share it with the parents.

Because data was deemed to be so important for CMHS, it was what began
discussion in the first place when teachers first came back to begin a new school year.
At the time of this study, staff members had access to what is called Data Director and
the expectation was that teachers go on Data Director to learn more about their students
through a Dashboard organized by instructional leaders. The Dashboard broke down
student information by period and included demographic information, CST scores,
CELDT scores, special education categorizations, English language development levels,
primary language, and other data information that a teacher might need for devising
appropriate instruction. Then, the administrative team devised a sheet to help teachers
analyze data. It asked, for example, “How many English Learners do you have?” or
“How many students scored below basic on last year’s CST?” With such guided
questions, teachers were then expected to consider strategies needed for each subgroup
of students that they had per class. It was then that teachers, taking a close look at this
data, really got to know their students, and determined whether or not they needed to
build content knowledge for certain subgroups that could be addressed through
professional learning. Utilizing all the student data available at the beginning of the
school year was deemed essential because, as the staff development coordinator
explained, that serves as “building background knowledge” about their students.
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Utilizing the Dashboard on from the Data Director program is clearly outlined in the
Single Plan for Student Achievement as an action step to implementation of measurable
solutions to meet student proficiency. Teachers were expected to at least access
Dashboard during two points in the year, at the beginning of October and the beginning
of March, to identify students by subgroups and begin goal-setting discussions. All the
teachers and the head counselor interviewed regarded Dashboard as an “essential tool”
helpful in differentiating instruction and plans for students. The Single Plan for Student
Achievement also indicates that the department chairs, administration, and staff
development coordinator will be the ones responsible in monitoring that this takes place
while observing it in collaboration meetings, during professional development
opportunities, or during one-on-one conferences as indicated by the staff development
coordinator. Additionally, all teachers interviewed indicated that looking at informal
and formal data was a regular practice that enabled them to teach students better
because they were able to do so during collaboration time. As illustrated in Table 4.1
below, Dashboard provides disaggregated data of students to teachers by subgroups
specific to their classes.
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Table 4.1: Dashboard General Overview

After teachers were given a Dashboard overview, as illustrated in Table 4.1,
they received Dashboard per class taught and the breakdown becomes more specific,
including basic, below basic, far below basic scores. Teachers then were guided in
reading and interpreting the data in order to implement differentiated instruction as
pointed out by most of the interviews.
Another aspect of data utilization mentioned by almost all those interviewed was
the constant discussion and use of district-wide benchmarks. All teachers interviewed
mentioned that during collaboration meetings, benchmark results were looked at,
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analyzed, and used to produce new ways of approaching student learning. Within the
Single Plan for Student Achievement, an action step identified to be implemented in
order to meet school and district goals was that teachers continue to have reflection
meetings using rubric and assessment results to discuss student progress and modify
instruction. Copies of meeting minutes, differentiated student work in classrooms, and
growing benchmark results provide evidence that this is consistently occurring. The
foreign language teacher interviewed indicated that one of the ways that teachers met
individual needs was by offering tutoring for students in need of extra time to meet the
demands of their classes. This was evident in classes like biology which had their
tutoring hours posted for Tuesdays after school. Both AVID classes observed of juniors
and seniors were meeting differentiated needs through tutorials led by college tutors.
While one group was working on breaking down the American Revolution, another one
was working on how rate of change is affected by “x” and “y” values. Additionally,
observed classrooms usually had differentiating objectives depending on the period
being taught. For example, while one English class was working on a Greek Theater
scene, a more advanced period was working on motivation and tactics for another
workshop scene. A different English class was observed utilizing auditory devices to
enable students to learn through listening. A history teacher interviewed pointed out
that having access to Data Director had been extremely helpful because teachers now
had access to CST’s and all other kinds of data for all students. This teacher said,
“Now, I know which students I need to spend a little more of extra time with and which
students need differentiated instruction.”
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What has made CMHS unique was that, because district benchmarks did not
seem sufficient enough, CMHS staff members and their corresponding departments
decided to create their own mid-quarter benchmarks to inform their practice better and
more often. This system was developed as a result of the standards movement, course
alignments, district goals to increase proficiency levels for all subgroups, and district
goals to meet A-G eligibility requirements. The purpose of a benchmark was to see
where students were at periodic times of the year, but CMHS found that waiting until
the quarter ends means waiting too long. Thus, they devised mid-quarter benchmarks
so that there were assessments and data to look at every four and a half weeks. Once
the data was processed through Data Director, each teacher received disaggregated
feedback, divided by standard so that they could tell as a whole how each class did on
each standard by proficiency levels. Then, the teacher was able to go back and re-teach
that standard and use the color-coded information to differentiate instruction for
students who were identified as performing below proficiency. All of the teachers
interviewed discussed how Data Director helped them in differentiating instruction and
re-teaching standards because it easily disaggregated data for them. The staff
development coordinator contended that the mid-quarter benchmark process had been
an effective system that was initiated by CMHS staff:
The mid-quarter benchmark process has been huge and the teachers what they
do is they’ll sit down during our late collaboration days and they will discuss
their mid-quarters and quarter benchmarks and they will talk about for example
if your kids did really, really well in a particular standard and my kids didn’t,
most of my class failed that standard. What I might say to you is, ‘What did you
do? What kind of strategy did you use or did you put in some type of note-
taking format, what was it?’ Then you will explain it to me, we’ll discuss it as a
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group, and then we kind of go: ‘oh, o.k. that’s great. Maybe I can use that in my
re-teaching.’

Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) Program Organizational Essentials
AVID is a four-year program designed to prepare students in the academic
middle for four-year college eligibility. At the time of this study, CMHS’s school
website emphasized that AVID “has a proven track record in bringing out the best
students, and in closing the achievement gap.” At CMHS, AVID was offered as
another system to ensure that students who needed the extra support to meet A-G
eligibility received it. At CMHS, the staff development coordinator was also the AVID
coordinator and made sure to provide consistent support to her AVID teachers. There
were four teachers of AVID with four sections when this study was conducted. The
principal explained that AVID “is built into the master schedule and is supported, but I
would like to see is a more universal adopting of the AVID teaching strategies.” AVID
students were supported in meeting proficient levels as the district and school goals
aimed to do through the offering of rigorous courses such as Advanced Placement (AP)
and honors courses without scheduling conflicts.
AVID’s essential elements had an overall influence on better alignment with
meeting A-G eligibility and university requirements. AVID freshman curriculum has a
strong emphasis on study skills and teaching students how to read and how to learn.
Counselors made it a point to ensure that, when meeting with all students on an
individual basis or as a group, similar study skills are introduced and discussed. At the
sophomore level, students begin to focus more in their writing skills and CAHSEE
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preparation. Juniors focus on personal statement development while seniors have an
emphasis on FAFSA requirements and leadership analysis. Overall, the schoolwide
impact that AVID had, as perceived by the principal, staff development coordinator,
counselor, and interviewed teachers was to guide counselors in aligning what should be
emphasized at each grade level and such expectations became embedded as part of the
school culture in regards to high expectations. A history teacher stated,
Part of what we’re being exposed to in our collaboration or staff meetings is
learning about how to support our students with A-G requirements that
counselors give us presentations about. They also have teachers like the AVID
teachers present on strategies that they’re using in their classes and what you
find is that many of our teachers in our collaboration meetings say, ‘We should
try that for this concept.’

Additionally, the principal explained that, in order to support the districts’ goal
of allowing all students to have the opportunity to meet college eligibility, there are
further plans to serve the subgroup of AVID students better through better alignment.
She indicated that she would like to ensure that, when incoming freshmen AVID
students register, they are all enrolled with the same content area teachers. She wants to
make sure this occurs to increase collaboration opportunities between the grade level
AVID teacher and the content area teachers. Through increasing collaboration
opportunities, the principal envisioned AVID research-based strategies spreading
informally and reaching out to all students beyond AVID. The AVID elective teachers
had already found that through exposure to the tutorial process and critical reading
strategies, they were able to better differentiate instruction in their content areas to meet
student needs. The chemistry teacher stated,
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Being involved in tutorials has really helped me re-think how to approach my
students in science. I have been able to learn how to break them up into groups
and provide different focus questions to work out. It has also made me more
aware about asking my students questions at a higher level.

Overall, AVID elective teachers contended that AVID strategies helped them
increase the rigor for all students by learning how to incorporate higher levels of
questioning in their instruction.
The utilization of AVID strategies was also noted throughout several classroom
observations. Students took Cornell notes, teachers asked higher-level questions in
accordance with Costa’s Levels of Questions, and references to college were found in
most classrooms. Having AVID strategies incorporated within AVID classrooms and
some core content classes helps illustrate how these critical reading and writing
strategies can help students succeed in rigorous courses. The head counselor believed
that, through what AVID students can do by applying certain strategies, more teachers
are prone to see how all students can achieve at high levels and meet rigorous standards
like A-G requirements.

District Centralization & Bell Schedule
One of the unique aspects of the RGUSD, at the time of this study, was its being
a centralized district. The district administrators set the overall mission, goals, and
other structures that all schools have to adhere to. One of these main structures is the
bell schedule. The RGUSD found it essential to implement a bell schedule that has
embedded collaboration time within it. At least every three weeks, students and
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teachers had what they call a “late start schedule.” During these days, the school day
started with collaboration meetings lasting for an hour and twenty minutes. Teachers
met by department to collaborate using benchmark data, student sample data, or
research-based strategies. The RGUSD decided to embed collaboration time into the
schedule keeping in mind that staff members have other obligations outside of their
professions and cannot always dedicate this kind of time outside of the regular workday.
The staff development coordinator contended that teachers as professionals “have the
desire to talk about their kids and the desire to improve their instruction.” Building it
into the school day enabled them to do that while recognizing that they are also human
beings with time constraints.
Table 4.2 illustrates the regular schedule and late start schedule implemented at
CMHS and other high schools within the district due to centralization.

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Table 4.2: Bell Schedule

The incorporation of collaboration into the schedule also ties into what
Leithwood and colleagues (2004) discuss about a strong leader who helps colleagues
develop shared understandings about the organization and its activities and goals that
foster a sense of purpose. Embedded collaboration time emphasizes the need for
coming together, reflecting, discussing, analyzing, and growing to attain high student
achievement. Additionally, teacher input and contributions are valued and reflected
within a structure deemed necessary for the school district. The collaboration bell
schedule allots an hour and twenty minutes every three weeks for departments to hold
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their collaborations and, as a result, the students start later in the day with shortened
periods.

Positive Teacher Beliefs
Being part of a centralized district whose idea behind implementing
collaboration within the bell schedule of each school gives teachers the opportunity to
see each other more often, analyze student outcomes regularly, and time to reflect on
strategies that could work for high student achievement indicates that there is trust in
the expertise of teachers, their beliefs, and what they can do as a result of such aspects.
Research has shown that positive teacher beliefs impact student achievement
(Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Marzano, 2003; Waits et al,
2006; Reeves, 2003; Izumi, 2002, Rural and Community Trust, 2004; Ragland et al.,
2002). It was evident that all teachers interviewed genuinely believed what they stated
they believed about students. Having high expectations for their students, and being
willing to take risks are essential characteristics that all teachers should have in order to
implement effective instructional practice. The choir teacher was an excellent example
of holding positive teacher beliefs when he explained that what has kept CMHS doing
so well is that they only “expect greatness from the kids.”
We tell them that and we do not accept the kids saying that anything is too
difficult or that it can not be done. If they express that, then we probe them,
“why?”

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When observing the choir teacher in his beginning level choir class, he
constantly gave students positive reinforcement. When they hit a note well, he
responded with an enthusiastic “bravo.” When he wanted more out of them, he
acknowledged their efforts and said, “Not bad, but I have to correct your vowels.” The
various approaches that the choir teacher took to teaching resembled his positive belief
in their learning. Every concept he taught was associate with a musical note and he
utilized humor to help them remember. He gave various examples frequently. For
example, when teaching about the difference between “major” and “minor” notes he
utilized songs like Jingle Bells to ensure it was something that students could relate to.
He helped them grow by providing constructive feedback constantly with statements
like, “I need you to be a little braver” or relating to their concepts of love when
understanding what “major” sounds like. Additionally, checking for understanding was
frequent in his lessons when he checked for their vowel singing and did segments in
pieces. Students at all times appeared positively and enthusiastically engaged from the
moment they entered the class until the moment the class was dismissed.
Similarly, a freshman academy teacher, teaching students study skills to better
support them in all classes, provided them with wait-time and showed support for
student presenters with phrases like “you’ve got this.” Student contributions were
acknowledged with feedback like “beautiful.” The freshmen academy teacher also
constantly checked for understanding by asking, “how are we doing?” believing that her
students could understand the material if she knew where to meet them, as she
explained later within a brief conversation regarding the lesson. The senior AVID
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teacher, while amongst them, would provide encouragement by saying “let’s explain
this bad boy” or “let’s do this, we are still in these classes and we need to be able to at
least survive.”
Observing all the positive attitudes and support students were receiving in all
classes observed made it evident that at CMHS, positive teacher beliefs were about
believing in the students and making them aware that they would learn. If the students
did not understand, then teachers were readily open to teach the content in another
manner so that students would understand it. When the choir teacher was specifically
asked in his interview about how teacher beliefs affected student achievement, he re-
emphasized that teachers had to model what they expect of their students.
Well, we’re the mirrors, whatever we present in front of them, what we expect
of them, they’re going to have to start seeing. ‘What do you mean you don’t
know that part? Let’s go over it again! What do you mean you forgot the notes?
Let’s go over it again. What do you mean you forgot the formula? Let’s practice
it again.’ We tell them right upfront they are going to have to learn. We let the
kids know we really care about them.

Positive teacher beliefs were also clear when the principal was asked about her
perception of what good teaching was.
I will tell you that good teaching starts with a passion for kids and education.
Not a passion necessarily for the subject matter. It always comes back to people
and it always comes back to the relationships that the teachers have with those
kids. Its comes back to flexibility and willingness to risk and try those new
instructional strategies and to adopt what’s going to fit and work and make those
fit and work into your own personal style. Good teaching isn’t about
dogmatically following some pacing chart, it’s about the teacher that can
capitalize on that teachable moment, it’s about the teacher that can see the whole
classroom instead of just the kids in the first two rows. You know there are so
many things that go into it.

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The principal’s concept of good teaching was observed in the choir teacher’s
willingness to be goofy, humorous, and his constant checking for understanding and re-
teaching. It was evident in the Spanish teacher’s explicit respect for students, the AVID
teachers’ team approach to learning, and all the teachers’ constant acknowledgement of
effort and frequent use of praise.
When the head counselor was asked about the impact teacher beliefs has on
students she re-iterated that it was up to teachers to give students all opportunities
possible to succeed, like that of meeting A-G requirements by allowing to take all those
courses, so that students believe that they are capable of high achievement. The foreign
language teacher interviewed contends that the teacher “is the most influential student
in the class.” Therefore, he or she must be a reflective learner since teaching is a
constant learning process and the teacher is the one who must inspire. He believes that,
as a teacher, one has the power to influence student minds and that should be considered
a privilege and a great responsibility.

Summary and Discussion of Research Question One
At the time of this study, CMHS sought to ensure that all students are exposed to
rigor in their coursework and held to the highest expectations in order to have as many
opportunities open to them through A-G eligibility, with the help of the essentials that
AVID has provided for preparation at each grade level. It was evident that CMHS
holding high expectations and providing rigor was similar to what research has found
effective to promote academic success, especially amongst minority students (Brown &
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Medway, 2007; Hillard, 1992). The principal, although new to the CMHS in the year of
this study, made sure that faculty and staff continue to be well-supported to meet the
needs of CMHS students through direct and indirect mentorship. She began by
empowering her administrators, who then, in turn, mentor instructional leaders and
other staff members to oversee specific tasks. In the process, there was a clear
emphasis on making sure that decisions were data-driven from a management
perspective within leadership meetings and through instructional perspectives through
department and collaboration meetings. This principal clearly operated as a structural
leader as Bolman and Deal (2002) describe one in that she utilized every activity and
event as an opportunity to demonstrate the desired direction. However, mentoring was
also a system that was already in place where staff and faculty learn from each other
and continued to be identified as helpful to professional growth.
Additionally, the district’s collaboration bell schedule allowed CMHS to
continue supporting teachers to work together to look at data, lessons, and be more
reflective practitioners. Clark and Estes (2002) contend that alignment between an
organization and its employees begins with compatible goal structures, and providing
collaboration time for busy professionals helps meet the schools’ and staffs’ goals. The
consistent implementation and availability of professional learning also enabled CMHS
staff to be better equipped as open and knowledgeable practitioners. Research revealed
that schools organized with a stronger commitment strategy may have better success in
achieving their reform goals because of increased teacher participation in content-
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related professional development, in this case, structured collaboration time (Smith &
Rowley, 2005).
Additionally, positive teacher beliefs, through their actions, appear to play an
essential role in supporting students by instilling in them that their contributions are
valuable and that no matter where they are on the learning curve, they will achieve.
This is consistent with what the research has found regarding schools that are being
effective because they tend to hold the common belief that teachers give students no
other choice but success (Corbett, Wilson & Williams, 2005; Ware & Kitsantas, 2007;
Marzano, 2003; Ragland, Clubine, Constable & Smith, 2002; Waits, Campbell, Gau,
Jacobs, Rex & Hess, 2006).

Research Question Two
The second research question asked, “How are the systems implemented and
sustained at a high poverty, high achieving school?” Research on high poverty
successful schools identified systems such as school leadership, teacher expertise and
relationships, organizational structure, and coherence to influence high student
achievement. Variations of these systems were observed at Casa Magna High School.
Research has also shown that when faculty and staff regularly communicate across
teaching areas and there is a strong belief that all students can academically achieve,
high student achievement prevails (Marzano, 2003; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004;
Ragland et al., 2002; Waits et al., 2006; Reeves, 2003). Casa Magna High School
demonstrated these aspects of coherence, which will be discussed as systems that have
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been implemented and sustained to influence high student achievement as part of a
positive and strong school culture.

Professional Learning
Professional learning at CMHS is a system that identified by faculty and staff as
an essential contribution to high student achievement. At the time of this study,
professional learning developed at scheduled collaboration meetings where assessments
such as benchmarks or disaggregated data were analyzed and discussed. Professional
learning occurred at the staff development center where the staff development
coordinator led trainings on research-based strategies such as “thinking maps” or
“constructing meaning.” The staff development coordinator also facilitated professional
learning informally when individuals or groups stop by and want to have discussions
where she serves as a conversation facilitator instead of training directly.
Some formal professional learning opportunities offered at CMHS after school
were known as colloquials and were set aside for faculty to get together for the purpose
of sharing a case study, problem area, or new idea. Generally, there was a topic of the
day with one individual or a team of faculty presenting the case or sharing their
experience. The presenting faculty then facilitated a time for discussion or questions
and answers. Through incorporation of colloquials within ongoing professional learning
opportunities, CMHS built a strong school capacity because teachers chose the content,
contributed their knowledge and skills, and created a sense of collective efficacy
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through their professional community. These essentials were perceived to foster a
strong school culture that enabled effective practices to transpire.
Since both the district and the school provided various professional learning
opportunities for its members, CMHS devised a way to make the learning more
attainable and productive. A way that CMHS distinctively approached professional
learning that occurred both on and off-campus is to implement a peer-coaching model
also known as a “buddy system.” This design was designated to train staff in research-
based strategies either at the district level or, preferably, at the school site led by the
staff development coordinator. For trainings, each teacher was designated to attend
with a fellow teacher from their department, ideally with someone from the same
content area, so that when those teachers completed the training they had local support.
Studies have indicated that groups of teachers who value professional development
sessions were those who felt that they could interact with and learn from their peers and
could do so safely. Having teachers paired up with someone in their content area and
being afforded the opportunity to have honest conversations about their teaching
practices leads to more professional. This type of system was been found to be
effective for CMHS faculty and staff because pairing up teachers helped with retention
and support. The principal said,
Providing that support through the training model is helpful, because you know
you can’t retain everything when you go through the training. So you have a
whole other buddy there with you listening to the same information. They’re
remembering different pieces, they’re going to help you when you go back to
the classroom and you’re going to help them.

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Support was not only discussed, but also expected. At the staff development
center, the support was made explicit with a chart of individuals listed under categories
of training including strategy showcase quarter 3, constructing meaning, thinking maps,
EL teams, resource/academy and inclusion, special education, and grading consult.
When faculty needed support, it was clear who exactly had the knowledge and
resources to provide guidance.
Additionally, after teachers were paired up and went through training together,
CMHS provided additional release time for formal and informal follow-up. The staff
development coordinator and administrators helped in facilitating discussions regarding
the new learning and also participated in making observations. Teachers at CMHS
described this as helpful because the facilitators of professional development and the
participants both have made contributions to the learning that made collaboration
productive. Additionally, instructional leaders spent time in classrooms to ensure
teachers put into practice what they learned in their professional development sessions,
as researchers have found effective for sustainment. Teachers all discussed the value in
having “data walks” and observation time provided to gather as much feedback as
possible about teaching strategies.
The following figure provides an overview of the various types of coaching
models enabled at CMHS for professional learning.
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Figure 4.1: Coaching Program
As demonstrated in Figure 4.3, there are five strands devised as part of the
coaching model for CMHS. Each strand pertains to the various needs to support
professional learning including new strategies, co-planning, collaboration practices,
new teacher support, and strategy demonstrations.
Professional learning takes place to meet subgroup proficiencies. For example,
at the time of this study, all teachers were trained for Inside, a curricular program that
addresses the needs of special education populations. English, math, and special
education department chairs made presentations at staff meetings about bridging the
motivation gap. Special education teachers, department chairs, and regular education
teachers were planning a refresher session for staff on how to utilize current data
systems to aid in instructional modifications for special education populations. English
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language development populations were supported through trainings for English
language development and regular education teachers. The following figure includes
the professional learning for the year during which this study was conducted and
demonstrates the areas of training and discussions that CMHS desired to utilize as a
starting point for growth.

Figure 4.2: 2010-2011 Professional Development Plan
The professional development plan demonstrates the variety of ongoing
professional learning offered at CMHS through trainings, discussions, colloquiums, and
showcases. Each opportunity was either funded directly by the district office or by the
school.
Given that CMHS had the opportunity to work together with the incorporation
of late start schedules, CMHS chose to utilize teacher collaboration time for department
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collaboration, another form of professional learning. Every three weeks, during this
study, teachers got together by department to discuss student progress, review
benchmark results, lesson-plan, have curricular discussions, and attend professional
development. Assessments such as benchmarks or other disaggregated data were
analyzed and discussed. Since late start schedules provide teachers embedded time to
collaborate, the staff development coordinator explained that teachers needed
collaborative meetings “to talk about their kids” and “improve their instruction.” She
also contended “discussion was happening before collaboration days, but not to the
extent that it was going to be beneficial.” Other teachers agreed that collaboration time
allowed them more time to be reflective. The head counselor indicated that the more
people look at what the data is showing, the more people will see that certain programs
like AVID or certain research-based strategies are working and the “results are more
positive.” At CMHS collaboration meetings, the counselors played a big role in
presenting on A-G requirements and helping AVID teachers share the success rate of
their students going to four-year universities. Collaboration embedded within the
schedule allowed for all of these aspects to take place.
Additionally, collaboration time, as indicated by a foreign language teacher
allows teachers to “rely on each other” with their own resources to bring about
academic success in the classroom. As a staff, he further indicated that they are
“constantly interacting with each other and exchanging ideas to innovate or improve”
their teaching methods. A choir teacher emphasized that, because collaboration
meetings existed formally, there is a lot more necessary pressure to “be honest.”
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Having been at CMHS since the seventies, this teacher was able to see how, in the past,
no one really knew what went on in the classroom, but at the time of the interview,
there was a lot more “transparency” through meeting times that allow for sharing and
analyzing data. As part of the Single Plan for Student Achievement, teachers were
required to show how they faithfully implemented direct instruction when appropriate,
implementing student engagement and critical thinking strategies, and differentiated
instruction where appropriate based on student readiness. This was evidenced through
ongoing “data walks” through classrooms, lesson plans shared at collaboration
meetings, and assessment results discussed at collaboration meetings. This is also
illustrated in the expectations outlined in the professional development plan chart,
Figure 4.1, previously illustrated, where there are “strategy showcases” in which
teachers walk into other teachers’ classes to observe applied professional learning
techniques. There were also professional learning sessions called “share-fairs” in which
teachers were expected to bring examples of applied strategies to share and analyze.
Such examples were evident in the walls of classrooms observed in addition to what
was displayed at the staff development center. Administrators, department chairs, and
the staff development coordinator ere responsible for monitoring that this occurred as
they led, attended, or observed various collaboration or professional learning meetings.
The following figure demonstrates the collaboration schedule for CMHS for the first
semester.
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Figure 4.3: Collaboration Day and Benchmark Schedule 2010-11
The collaboration and benchmark schedule highlights the days set aside for
collaboration, approximately every three weeks, and the specific days in which teachers
awere expected to analyze and discuss mid-quarter and quarter benchmarks. Other
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collaboration meeting days are utilized for staff development or lesson-planning as
previously discussed.

High Expectations for All & Open Communication
From the start of the school year, the leaders of the school expected teachers to
know who their students were. By preparing teachers with all the data possible about
their students through Dashboard and providing time for teachers to analyze the data
and make plans to address student needs, the leaders of CMHS sent the message that
students come first, they are all expected to succeed, and, through knowing many of
their performance details, the school as a whole can help them succeed.
High expectations for all students were clearly emphasized from the beginning
of the year through preparation of Dashboard, but were also clear when faculty and staff
connected teaching to student achievement. The staff development coordinator
indicated that most of the teachers at CMHS had an overall understanding that they
could control what happens at home for their students. Thus, by making instruction
understandable and interesting, learning became more manageable for all students and
they felt more confident in their learning. In speaking with an English teacher, she
stated,
If you have the passion and students feel like you’re very interested in the
subject material, it permeates to the students. I think they learn a lot better in
that regards. If you can do things to make the subject come alive, to make that
subject interesting, to relate it to everyday life, I think you can get student
achievement to become higher because the students become involved.
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The staff development coordinator also added that a “teacher who believes in
their kids and believes that even kids walking in the door who don’t believe in
themselves can be changed, that teacher will be effective.” A foreign language teacher
explained that “a teacher’s mission is to give the student orientation and allowing
students to draw their own conclusions, present their own ideas, and think critically.”
A choir and CMHS teacher leader of many years enthusiastically stated that
what kept CMHS doing so well was that they “expect only greatness from the kids and
that students are told that.” In an observation of his own classroom, the choir teacher
indirectly made students aware of high expectations through the display of trophies of
previous years, progress charts filled with stickers showing students their ultimate goal,
and the expectation that all choir students wear their red vibrant collared shirts as a
symbol of camaraderie. Additionally, he expected nothing less from his disadvantaged
students, like one who is blind whom he consistently approaches to ensure that she
utilizes her senses to feel the strength of the sound that should be coming out by holding
her hand up to her mouth and describing the feeling or verbally explaining concepts like
where the “bass cleft is located” when he visually presents it for others. He also
explained that the expectations are high for students and faculty together. At CMHS
there was an unspoken open-door policy. The choir teacher stated, “Come and watch
me, observe me, hope my singing doesn’t bother you. It’s like everyone knows that at
any time someone could walk in and that’s fine.”
Other teachers were eager to show what was happening in their classrooms.
They were often heard to say, “stop by my classroom to see how I am utilizing it.”
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Even when the staff development coordinator walked into classrooms, teachers would
be welcoming and ready to share what they were doing with their students.
Walking through the school, the majority of classroom doors remained open
throughout all class periods and any staff or faculty easily observed the learning
occurring inside. When students were observed working together, students were
attentively listening to one another’s ideas and appeared receptive without having
assigned roles. The teacher also took the opportunity to share with the class how she
“loved how this group was discussing the material over here,” referring to their
attention to detail and contributions to one another’s thoughts. Similarly, in the
classroom of the Spanish teacher, students were expected to listen to each other as they
read their essays aloud and then provided feedback. Students shared their collective
thoughts by standing up at their sections and sharing with the class and all students in
the class appeared engaged. The Spanish teacher shared that it was essential to have
high expectations for all students when he stated,
Effective teaching happens when students are involved and take the learning
responsibility into their hands. A teacher’s mission is to give students
orientation, assistance in developing ideas or projects by modeling, but allowing
students to draw their own conclusions, present their own ideas, and think
critically.

Modeling and having students think critically was a common observation made
across classrooms. In the senior AVID classroom, as students were working on a
trigonometry problem, the teacher provoked students to think critically by posing
questions like “how did you get that?” or “why are you adding 2?” or “how do you
know where to begin?” In a tenth grade English classroom, the teacher asked students
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to consider conflicts and how conflicts related to themes. In a biology classroom, the
teacher posed higher-level questions, such as “If you break your bones, why do you
think it is going to hurt at the anatomical level?” Students were challenged critically
and teachers provided them with the opportunity to meet those high expectations
through constant exposure and support. The staff development coordinator discussed
how confident she was that holding high expectations in teaching is what facilitates
high student achievement:
I can’t control the motivation level of a student. I can’t control what happens at
home. Now, I can influence their motivation level, because if I make my
instruction understandable, if I make my instruction interesting, if I tie it to
something they already know, therefore it becomes something manageable for
them, then they feel more confident, their self-advocacy increases.

A history teacher spoke about the element of having passion as an essential
aspect to holding high expectations for all:
I think our teachers are very passionate about what they teach. When you have
teachers who are passionate about what they teach, it permeates to the students.
If they see a teacher who is very passionate, students want to learn more, but if
they see a disinterested teacher they’re going to be disinterested. Teachers being
passionate about student success, not just about what they teach, but also having
a great desire to improve student success is what you’ll find here at CMHS.

An experienced school clerk also mentioned that one of the common practices
she saw in almost everyone at the school was that they truly enjoyed what they did and
had a “deep-seeded passion” for what they do. A chemistry teacher shared a similar
point of view when asked about her thoughts on teacher beliefs impacting student
achievement. She presumed that if teachers at CMHS were all asked about how they
feel about their students, the vast majority would say that they are “invested” in their
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students and she believed that “makes a huge difference” when it comes to student
achievement. She also indicated how strongly she felt about any teacher who would
label a child as “lazy” or “not smart enough” would hinder that students’ achievement.
The choir teacher added that if students meet obstacles or give any indication that
something is too difficult for them, teachers do no accept that and probe students
“why?” The foreign language teacher shared that all students need “challenging and
rigorous curriculum” and teachers at CMHS saw their students as “valuable and real
human beings.” Thus, holding high expectations is deemed essential for high student
achievement at CMHS.
Even when students walked through the front office or throughout school halls,
a sense of achievement was exuded through banners that read “best students, best
teachers, best school.” The campus appeared very clean, students had no problem
getting to class on time, and minimal supervision was observed within the quads.
CMHS reminds their students through many forms of symbolism of their high
expectations of students. There were trophies and plaques of sport and academic
achievements all throughout the front office, such as “student of the month” awards.
The staff development center was filled with frames of students who were then
attending college and included a description of their accomplishments and goals. In all
the classrooms observed, examples of student work were posted, ranging from good
achievements that show progress to outstanding achievements. In a history and
freshman academy class, there were pictures on the wall of great leaders. In a math
classroom, there were displays of statements like “imagine,” “believe,” or “achieve.”
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Additionally, students were expected to take math beyond the classroom with the
incorporation of popular technologies of interest such as “Twitter,” a microblogging
service that allows informal collaboration and quick information sharing, with a large
banner hanging on the wall that said, “Follow me on twitter at math-on-the-go.”
College statistics were observed on the walls of both AVID classrooms and every
classroom observed had a standard, objective, agenda, and homework for the day.
The faculty and staff believed that high expectations were also held of parents.
For example, CMHS chose to implement the Aeries Parent Portal as a form of frequent
and necessary communication with parents. Through this portal, parents received
access to monitoring their child’s progress and were expected to do so at least on a
weekly basis. Within the Single Plan for Student Achievement, there are several action
steps outlined to ensure that parents are being supported in helping their corresponding
student. For example, one of the action steps states that parent education will be offered
several times each year and is evidenced within meeting notes and meeting sign-in
sheets. Parents were also included in presentations planned by the counseling
department so that they took part in the contribution of what it means to be a successful
student from their perspectives. The school’s Student Parent Handbook also
emphasizes the importance of parent involvement in the school site council by giving
input regarding school programs and budget, raising funds for student scholarships and
student programs, and remaining informed about how to support their child through a
variety of parent institutes and workshops offered at CMHS.
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High expectations were also held of teachers and a huge part of that was being
able to be open to new ideas through communication. The foreign language teacher
emphasized the value in contributions teachers make to each other.
We work together and contribute to each others’ professional development. For
the most part teachers have an open-door policy that allows for all to visit each
other, observe, and discuss different teaching strategies that ultimately will have
a positive effect on the students.

Others discussed the camaraderie that existed amongst the staff. They explained
that there was no animosity and there was always willingness to help. Being open to
new ideas was also a common characteristic found within teachers at CMHS. The choir
teacher stated,
I’m seeing a lot of newer teachers coming in with some great ideas and the
willingness to re-teach, that’s so important here. How can we dare not try to
learn something new and yet demand it of our students?

The history teacher re-iterated the expectation for teachers to be “flexible” and
“able to adapt to new and different techniques.” Additionally, all teachers mentioned
the expectation for teachers to be positive and open to feedback and communication.
Contributing to each others’ success through positivity and frequent
communication was also apparent when walking along the school and seeing teachers
come together. In all these interactions, teachers were discussing lessons, student
successes, strategies that they were struggling with, and in, all those conversations,
teachers were being reflective. During an observation of an AVID site team
collaboration meeting, one teacher shared that, when she tried implementing a think-
aloud activity, it did not turn out to be very effective for her. She and the others at the
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meeting were readily willing to admit their weaknesses and were open to feedback.
When discussing the role that teachers play in maintaining a positive school culture, the
choir teacher explained that it was commonplace for teachers at CMHS to be reflective
constantly:
Teachers are expected to stay current with practices, to ask for help if you’re not
getting the results you want, and to be coached. Because everyone is willing to
be coachable makes them better teachers because you realize that you have to be
coachable to make these kids comfortable since we’re coaching them.

Within a professional learning meeting, a group of teachers were taught or re-
taught a lesson delivery design led by the staff development coordinator and teachers
were expressed openly their experience or non-experience with the lesson design and
some shared frustration with the fact that they had not been trained, but in a positive
manner. Teachers wanted to stay current with practices and were open to new and
improved ideas.
In a collaboration meeting, a math teacher reflected on her own practice and
said, “Maybe I can start breaking down the problems in parts and asking students to
practice the parts individually, instead of doing the whole problem first and then
expecting them to practice it.” A foreign language teacher reflected upon the notion
that students have no incentive to learn a foreign language if they are not utilizing it.
Other teachers agreed and together they problem-solved. Another teacher was
reflective on homework practices. The teacher considered new ideas discussed and
stated, “I was beginning to question the efficacy of doing things in advance, so I am
really glad that we are having this discussion.” It was evident that in this professional
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learning opportunity and in others, reflection, camaraderie, and growth consistently
occurred and was highly regarded by teachers at CMHS.

Summary and Discussion of Research Question Two
Research question two sought out to explain how specific systems at CMHS
have been implemented and sustained. One system faithfully integrated at CMHS was
professional learning and played a big role in building school capacity or a strong
school culture. CMHS has devised a coaching model that includes peer-training, peer-
coaching, and collaborative coaching. Over the years, the faculty found that training
with a teacher who is of the same discipline and teaching the same content is more
effective in terms of sharing ideas, implementation, and providing support. It also kept
professional learning relevant to their practice, as research shows has proved essential
to increased teacher participation in professional development. In addition to providing
the coaching model, CMHS decided to keep most of the professional learning on-site.
This allowed the staff development coordinator and other instructional leaders to be
trained in all of the research-based strategies that the district provided in alignment with
their goals and made them readily available to train and be a support system for all
teachers at CMHS. It also kept the resources close and provided the comfort of learning
where the expertise lies, amongst the teachers. The staff development coordinator and
others helped in devising a professional development plan which included research-
based strategy training, colloquials where teachers formally or informally came together
to discuss topics, share-fairs in which teachers brought and discussed student samples,
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and walk-throughs to showcase strategies in certain classes. These forums fostered the
sustainability of professional learning because instructional leaders provided
opportunities within its structure for teachers to hold open-ended conversations oriented
to communicative learning. Professional learning was devised to take place after
school, but was incorporated within collaboration time embedded within the bell
schedule. Collaboration time also allowed teachers to analyze data from assessments
like benchmarks, have reflective discussions, and re-design lessons if necessary. Many
teachers found this effective to be able to see the common struggles their colleagues
faced and appreciated the opportunity to bring ideas together to address gaps.
Since professional learning is constantly taking place and student needs are
always changing, there are high expectations for staff and faculty to stay up to date with
the latest information to affect student achievement. Many teachers emphasized the
need of being open to new ideas, taking risks, and being reflective enough to re-teach
content in different ways. They realized that, although they have good practices, there
are new approaches that help subgroups of students. Attempting a different approach
was viewed as valuable because they walked away with new knowledge as a result.
Teachers wanted their students to be proficient, but, beyond that, wanted to model the
value of life-long learning and reflective practice that they expect from them.
Teachers were also expected to use data as often as possible to inform
instructional decisions, but did so more because it provided a deeper understanding for
each student. CMHS began this process from the start of the school year by providing
each teacher with a Dashboard that included disaggregated data by student and class to
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help teachers differentiate instruction by making learning understandable while
simultaneously challenging students to be critical thinkers. Additionally, teachers were
expected to try their best at all times and be open to collaboration with an unspoken
open-door policy where anyone could come in and observe at any time, including
scheduled observations. The instructional leadership team also spent a significant
amount time in classrooms to help ensure teachers put professional learning into
practice. This was valued as a form of accountability, but was also perceived as an
example of CMHS worked as a team.
High expectations begin with the teachers and are also held for the students.
CMHS teachers expected only the best from all their students and, when students
doubted themselves, teachers quickly provided various forms of positive reinforcement.
Students were reminded of their accolades and high expectations throughout the school
through inspirational posters, pictures, banners, trophies, and awards. It was also clear
that students were held in high regard through the cleanliness of the campus, limited
presence of security during passing periods, and clear expectations posted throughout
the classrooms.
Parents were also held to high expectations by being provided access to a web
portal where they could monitor student progress. As an integral part of the Single Plan
for Student Achievement, parents were afforded opportunities to be trained in the latest
information systems through parent education and were asked to participate in
contributing to the learning of the school community through presentations.
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At CMHS the professional learning opportunities devised and the high
expectations held for all stakeholders involved allowed for a strong capacity and
positive school culture to develop. Many teachers found that their willingness to be
flexible and communicative helped their development as reflective practitioners. A
strong sense of pride, vision, and collaboration amongst the school, staff, and faculty
existed at CMHS. These elements are associated with a maintaining a strong school
culture through high expectations, collective efficacy, and having clear goals.

Research Question Three
The intent of research question three was to identify and discuss how school
leaders/instructional leaders support the professional learning that helps cultivate
effective classroom instruction in this high achieving high poverty school. Goddard and
Goddard (2001) support the notion that school leaders impact factors that affect student
achievement by increasing teacher efficacy. If teachers are more confident in their
capacities, then the school is one step closer in attaining high student achievement.
Furthermore, Goddard and Goddard (2001) found leaders directly and indirectly impact
student achievement by influencing teacher beliefs and commitment. Such significant
elements are considered when creating a positive school culture. At CMHS, leaders
increased teacher efficacy and commitment by empowering other leaders and teachers
to be knowledgeable and have ownership. Over time, more teachers became involved
in the learning and training processes that contributed to effective classroom instruction.

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Instilling Ownership
Administrators, instructional leaders, counselors, and teachers are perceived to
all be held accountable for taking ownership of their professional learning. As a result,
students also take ownership of their learning. At CMHS it began with the principal,
and it was her belief that, through mentoring, she empowered others to be held
accountable and to be leaders as well. Promoting coherence in this manner helped build
a sense of well-being amongst staff and faculty that affected student achievement and
contributed to a positive school culture. This is what they all referred to as ownership.
When discussing how department chairs are mentored throughout weekly leadership
meetings, the principal explains:
I’m also very big on ownership, ownership of the job whatever the job is.
Owning it and owning all parts and components of it. I think that if you put the
right people in the right jobs, mentor them and establish ownership you’re going
to get good results.

Similarly, the staff development coordinator, who is also the AVID coordinator,
was observed during an AVID elective teachers’ conference period instilling ownership
in a managerial task regarding fieldtrip arrangements. The teacher expressed trouble
communicating with the district about specifics that were being required of the
paperwork for the fieldtrip and the staff development coordinator verbally explained the
necessities and encouraged the teacher to complete the task. In discussion, the staff
development coordinator explained that she wanted to make sure all of her AVID
teachers gained experience in learning how to manage certain aspects to ensure
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individual mastery, considering that all AVID teachers should be able to sustain the
program if her position ceased.
The staff development coordinator did the same when it came to ensuring that
the AVID elective classes ran appropriately. AVID classrooms were structured where
one day students work on WICR curriculum, and, the next day, they engage in a tutorial
process. The AVID elective teachers all were very comfortable in what they taught and
when they had questions, they asked the staff development coordinator for guidance or
sought out each other for help. They stated that they check in with each other on a
weekly basis and set aside time to lesson plan together. The staff development
coordinator explained that the AVID elective teachers had all been good about meeting
student needs and implementing AVID strategies within their core classes. One science
teacher shared that having taught the elective class had given her a “whole new
perspective on how to differentiate” in her classroom. She explained that the tutorial
process alone gave her the idea to break her science students into groups and focus on
certain questions. She and the other AVID teachers took ownership of AVID strategies
and expressed their attempt to incorporate them into core classes to help meet student
needs.
In their tutorial classes, teachers engaged in student learning by operating as part
of tutorial groups and leading students in higher-levels of questioning. Additionally,
AVID tutors took ownership of their roles as tutorial organizers and facilitators. The
staff development coordinator took the opportunity to train them in Costa’s levels of
questioning and Tutorology when they were initially hired and AVID elective teachers
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continued ongoing training within class. Ownership was evident in the way tutors had a
set procedure to collect, grade, and organize student tutorial forms at the start of class.
While tutors were grading tutorials, students organized themselves into groups and set
their resources out. Once tutors passed back their tutorial forms, student presenters
immediately posted their questions on easel boards or chalkboards and the rest of the
group members copied down the question. Everything ran smoothly as teachers and
tutors worked with groups in problem solving. Students were even considerate of tutors
helping other groups and reminded each other that they should attempt to get as far as
they could while tutors finished helping other groups. Overall, teachers, tutors, and
students exemplified ownership in AVID strategies and procedures in elective classes,
which explained why AVID students were contributing to CMHS’ high student
achievement.
CMHS also believed instilling ownership to be a vital role that certain lead
teachers took on to ensure that the school and district vision was followed. The leaders
and staff at CMHS believed that the objective behind everything they do was for the
students, but the teachers, in order to meet the needs of the students, needed support.
One of the ways that CMHS fostered that support was instilling ownership in a staff
development coordinator who could assess the needs of the students, devise multiple
professional learning opportunities based on what the research says, and guide training
for better instruction. The staff development coordinator position was designed so that
she, the coordinator, could devote all her time to assess, observe, plan, guide, and train.
The staff development coordinator emphasized that having her full-time dedication to
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professional learning was a “smart investment for teacher support.” The rationale
behind funding a full-time staff development coordinator is to see better instruction in
the classroom, more student achievement, and more motivated teachers. Given the
reality of the economic times and budget constraints that districts face, other lead
teachers and department chairs are also trained and available as resources through the
coaching model CMHS has devised and adopted.
There are several ways that the staff development coordinator as an instructional
leader provided support for professional learning. First, there was in-class support. If a
teacher wanted to be observed, team-teach a lesson, or be provided with any kind of
support, the staff development coordinator readily does that. For example, a foreign
language teacher stopped by the staff development center asking to meet after school to
discuss how to better implement thinking maps with her students. The staff
development coordinator immediately wrote it down into her schedule and responded
with a positive affirmation. When the staff development coordinator discussed how she
helped facilitate professional learning within classrooms, she indicated that CMHS also
wanted to provide avenues for teachers to see each other in the classroom:
I was available to either cover classes for teachers to then go out and see
somebody else or facilitate a teacher going to different classes. In other words,
help them learn from what they were seeing. I would go with them to an
observation and after the observation, come in here, sit down with them and ask,
‘What did you see?’ ‘What worked well?’ ‘What didn't work well?’ ‘How can
you incorporate this into your own classroom?’

Additionally, there was district funding to give teachers the opportunity to get
together informally at the staff development center to problem-solve, plan, co-plan
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together, or share their experiences. If it did not happen during the day, CMHS
designed similar opportunities after school, initially naming it the “café series,” and
later more commonly known as “colloquials,” informal collaboration. Thus, the staff
development coordinator ensured that there was a time and a place for professional
learning to occur. Once the opportunity was there, the role of the staff development
coordinator is to facilitate, not direct. This means that if the teachers want and need a
topic, she provides one. During these “colloquial” sessions she is there to facilitate
conversations, not necessarily to teach or train.
The staff development coordinator also ensured that she was trained in all
strategies and information staff and faculty are exposed to through the district office.
The rationale behind this approach was to provide an instructional leader who was with
the teachers to see what they were getting, so that she knew what kind of support they
might need as a resource on campus versus depending on a district or county person
who may or may not be available when teachers need support. A history teacher
emphasized the importance of having professional learning at the school site.
When you have an in-service at the school, you’re sitting with all of your
colleagues. When you go to the district, you’re sitting with people you don’t
even know, you’re not really going to see them again. When you see your
colleagues everyday, you’re going to take a much greater interest. So one of the
things we’re doing that I really find valuable is having professional development
here at school led by our staff development coordinator.

While observing interactions in the staff development center, several teachers of
various content areas came in, asked the staff development coordinator quick questions
about the training they had received earlier that day, applications of what they had done
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with material learned recently, and time to stop by that day to discuss how to apply
strategies like “constructed meaning.” The staff development coordinator was
welcoming and instantly open to meet with the teachers for support. Additionally,
being readily available and always exposing staff to current research-based strategies
enables teachers to have ownership of new strategies. This was evident in that all
classrooms observed had posters on their walls of “thinking maps” and in three
classroom observations, teachers were utilizing them to help students learn the content.
In a Spanish class, the teacher was implementing what had been discussed in that
morning’s collaboration meeting regarding giving students time to practice after small
segments of discussion. Overall, instilling ownership started with the leadership and
was being passed on through professional learning to teachers, and ultimately students.
Lead teachers were also being empowered at CMHS to lead professional
learning for staff to help address meeting the needs of all populations. As mentioned in
the discussion of research question two, special education, math and English department
chairs are collaborating to present on bridging the motivational gap for students.
Regular education and special education teachers are being trained to lead refresher
courses on data systems that will help in modifying instruction for students.
Additionally, core teachers and the staff development coordinator are being included in
district level collaborations to make plans for better addressing special education needs.
Including more teachers instilled ownership in ideas that the district would like to
implement and allows those teachers to influence other teachers to do the same. Other
staff taking ownership and being part of the team of building school capacity was also
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evident at CMHS. The head counselor explained that part of what made CMHS
effective in upholding a strong school culture and promoting high expectations for all
was counselors taking part in leading staff development like that regarding A-G
requirements, courses, and success rates of AVID students going to universities.
Counselors are taking ownership of their expertise and, because they felt empowered to
be part of the leadership team, they were more motivated to meet district and school
goals.
The administrator who oversaw the counseling department instilled ownership
in the counselors to meet with students periodically to follow-up on their overall
progress. Counselors were given the opportunity to meet with all students, one-on-one,
at least once a year to do career units and four-year plans. They also created
presentations to keep students updated with high school and A-G requirements. When
this occurred, counselors instilled ownership in the students when they asked them to
plan out their tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade courses applying a combination of
required courses. Counselors were also in charge of organizing “back on track” events
for students who received at least two “D’s” or “F’s” on their quarter grade reports and
included both parents and students to attend. At these events, the ownership were
transferred to students and parents as they were given steps, phone numbers of liaisons,
counselors, and teachers, and web portals where progress can be monitored. Students,
parents, and teachers were also involved to present at these events to provide their
perspectives on what it takes to be a successful student, concerning issues, and
involvement in extra-curricular activities. In the end, everyone having responsibility in
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the process contributes to the professional learning that ultimately affects classroom
instruction and student learning.

Involvement and Knowledge of Effective Strategies
In addition to leading by example and being able to empower staff, faculty,
parents, and students through ownership, instructional and professional leaders must be
able to remain knowledgeable about the latest research-based strategies, data, and tools
that will enable staff members to help students achieve higher. The principal, as an
instructional leader at CMHS, believed in being as knowledgeable as possible about
research-based strategies, data, and tools so that she could lead and empower her staff in
utilizing these aspects in strategic ways. When first asked about her role in supporting
her staff she explained:
Well, I would say that my role is to know all the data in general and to have the
intelligence to use it where appropriate, because I will tell you that there are
people who like data and there are people who don’t. When I say don’t, what
I’m talking about is that they are overwhelmed by data. So when you start
getting into pivot tables and drilling down into the data sometimes it’s better to
give them the data in simpler ways instead of expecting them to do all of the
work.

Knowing her staff and considering that they have many other responsibilities as
educators, being knowledgeable about data and presenting it to staff in a manner that
can be readily interpreted and utilized has proved to be a valuable way to ease the
professional development of teachers. Additionally, all assistant principals and
counselors were trained to know all about Data Director to also serve as resources to
help support data utilizations by aggregating and disaggregating data, and making
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specialized excel spreadsheets. The staff development coordinator in particular, played
a major role by coming in the month before teachers begin the school year to help create
a Dashboard from the system Data Director that includes student demographic
information, categorizations for special education, English language development
status, CELDT scores, CST scores, primary language and any other data necessary.
When teachers came in at the beginning of the school year, they pulled up the
Dashboard for themselves for every student, organized by period. Instructional leaders,
including the staff development coordinator, devised a sheet that helped teachers
analyze their data to break down student needs in order to differentiate and plan for
those needs.
This was a concept that was re-emphasized by the staff development coordinator
and other lead teachers who wanted to ensure that they were knowledgeable of all the
professional learning that occurred at the district level or site level so that they served as
resources for teachers on campus. Being knowledgeable about the latest strategies and
training received by teachers meant being able to have relevant discussions on campus
and being able to problem-solve instead of waiting for answers for extended periods of
time. The staff development coordinator, lead teachers, and administrators were
knowledgeable about all the professional learning occurring for all teachers and that
enables them to contribute to relevant discussions, facilitate dialogue, and provide
feedback. As the choir teacher pointed out, if teachers are not getting the results that
they want, they have the option of being coached by the staff development coordinator
or other lead teachers. Additionally, being organized and structured has helped the
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instructional leaders have easy access to references and examples of expertise. This
was evident in the staff development center and school office where numerous binders
and books were clearly marked and organized to be readily available if needed.
All teachers expressed a deep appreciation for leaders being invested and
staying current with professional development. A chemistry teacher noted,
I have yet to be at a professional development where a leader from the school or
district has not shown up. They are very involved, they want to know these
strategies, they want to know why they are working, and they want to see them.
I think it makes a difference.

This knowledge made teachers feel supported while holding them accountable
for what they are learning. This was also evident in professional learning meetings led
by the staff development coordinator. For example, as the AVID coordinator, she was
facilitated a site meeting by having taken detailed notes regarding observations she had
made in their classrooms. Because she had ensured that she kept notes from last years’
“data walks,” she was able to provide feedback on growth over time like the observed
increase in rigor and alignment. Being knowledgeable about productive dialogue also
enabled the coordinator to pose insightful questions like “What if you tried your think
aloud in the beginning?” or specific feedback like “Your wait-time was helpful for
student thinking.” Additionally, knowing that within junior year in AVID the
curriculum focuses on considering specific universities for admission, the coordinator
was able to observe the sophomore AVID class having a conversation about college
majors and shared with the teacher that it was a good idea to incorporate more of that in
future lessons because students have to have a good idea of what they want to study in
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preparation for the junior year curriculum. She also provided specific positive feedback
because she was aware of theories of learning. For example, she complimented one of
the teachers for utilizing an analogy of Heath Ledger and his unhappiness because
students were able to relate to it. She emphasized how from a cognitive perspective, it
was good to incorporate pop-culture examples. Being knowledgeable enabled the
coordinator to give constructive feedback.
At a separate collaboration meeting, the staff development coordinators’
knowledge of adult learning also enabled her to lead a productive training on “Gradual
Release of Responsibility.” As she led the professional learning segment, she provided
a rationale for why it was being incorporated by saying, “the reason we have adopted
this name is because it is a common language for everyone to discuss.” This provided
teachers with a sense of understanding of how it connected to the school and district
vision. Additionally, she acknowledged and value teacher expertise by saying, “as
veterans, you are aware of this already” in order to provide validation and increase
teacher and collective efficacy. Overall, being knowledgeable in training approaches
helped the professional learning be productive.
However, being knowledgeable does not end with the instructional leaders at
CMHS. Teacher knowledge helps facilitate high student achievement as well.
Instructional leaders helped teachers become knowledgeable by providing them with
time to visit other classrooms and other sites. For example, the AVID elective teachers
participated in observations of four classes at the local junior high twice a year to help
with alignment. Teachers observed practices and curriculum and brought back that
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information to share with the site team and then make plans to help serve their students’
needs based on what they have learned. Other teachers at different collaboration
meetings were also providing contributions based on what they saw at other schools that
could help with the strategies that they are attempting to implement. This was evident
in observations, but has not gone unnoticed by the office staff. An office manager
emphasized that at CMHS, “teachers were always eager to share their ideas and what
they knew worked for certain kids.”
AVID elective teachers also come in during the summer for a few weeks on a
voluntary basis to chart curriculum out and contribute ideas and plans so that there is
better alignment amongst the grade levels leaving little room to “step on each others’
toes.” Better alignment helps students get more out of the program at each grade level.
An AVID elective teacher shared,
Collaboration has been helpful because we focus on specifics. We are able to
talk about some of our overall issues and then we make plans from there to re-
teach. If we are deficient in an area, through collaboration we are able to admit
that our way didn’t work and then we ask, ‘How did you do it? Can I try that?’ I
think that’s what makes some of our strategies effective and that’s one of the
reasons why collaboration is very effective.

Many teachers also contributed their knowledge after training by incorporating
those strategies into their own classrooms and their own practices. Teachers utilized
thinking maps to help students with cause and effect concepts, brainstorming, and
categorizing amongst the classes. Teachers differentiated instruction depending on
student needs because they were equipped with research-based strategies that
contributed to effective practices. The choir teacher explained that, when attending
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various workshops, he took pride in being part of CMHS because they were already
implementing many of the techniques.
I go to workshops and say, ‘Oh my gosh, we already do that at Casa Magna!’
We are the pioneers. It always seems that we are the first ones to try the new
strategies out.

A history teacher expressed how useful it was to have inservice training that
could be utilized immediately in the classroom:
Right now in social science, we are incorporating three new strategies to help
students think critically and learn better: Socratic seminar, thinking maps, and
interactive notebooks.

Because teachers were knowledgeable, students became more knowledgeable on
how to learn and understand better. Additionally, teachers’ strong content knowledge
also helped students make deeper connections with the material. One of the foreign
language teachers stated,
As a teacher I have the power to influence my students’ minds and my words
and examples can shape their perceptions. The more I know about my subject
and the more I know about my students, the more I can relate to them and assist
them in developing ideas and drawinging conclusions.

CMHS was also unique in the district in that it was the only school to ensure that
counselors were taking extra measures to meet with all students to help them through
the college admissions process. Counselors played a significant role in being
knowledgeable. For example, counselors made it a point to be savvy about the SAT
process, including preparation and registration. Because registering for the SAT has
been found to be an intimidating process for students in the past, counselors helped all
juniors register by helping with all the questions that have caused confusion when
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students have attempted to complete it individually. Counselors were also able to help
students who are on free/reduced priced lunch obtain fee waivers that many students at
CMHS would not know about without their help. More students were becoming
eligible to apply for four-year universities their senior year because counselors were
making it a point to counsel the juniors about the SAT, including what it is, why they
need to take it, what schools require SAT’s, and how to obtain a user identification and
password. Furthermore, once those students became seniors, counselors at CMHS
required all students to start the college application process and hold workshops to walk
them through the application process in addition to the financial aid application process.
Being knowledgeable about college requirements and specific admission processes
helped students become more eligible for entrance into four-year universities.

Summary and Discussion of Research Question Three
The intent of research question three was to identify and discuss how school
leaders/instructional leaders support the professional learning that helps cultivate
effective classroom instruction in this high achieving high poverty school. At CMHS, it
was been through instilling ownership and remaining knowledgeable at all levels. Just
as Marzano’s (2003) research has found that commitment to programs implemented has
fostered high student achievement in high poverty schools, CMHS made a commitment
to the way professional learning was designed at the school site with the staff
development coordinator and other lead teachers as the instructional leaders. The
instructional leaders organized staff professional learning, received trained in all
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research-based strategies along with the teachers, and served as the main on-site
resources for the entire school. Since instructional leaders, such as the staff
development coordinator, were able to make observations of classes or provide teachers
with time to observe one another, it has really proven effective for CMHS. The
leadership team was also able to instill ownership through professional learning so that
teachers were able to embrace and implement research-based strategies in addition to
data analysis. Counselors, lead teachers, and department heads also exemplify
ownership by being the leaders of professional learning as well. In the AVID elective
classes, tutors and students were instilled ownership through tutorial procedures and a
commitment to higher level learning. Additionally, the counseling department enabled
ownership amongst students and parents by having them as contributors to outreach
events.
Being knowledgeable was also vital to the success of sustaining effective
professional learning at CMHS. Administrators, counselors, instructional leaders, and
the staff development coordinator made sure to stay current with data, how to analyze
and utilize it, and research-based strategies in order to be readily available to help their
teachers improve student achievement. Furthermore, some of the positive and reflective
traits observed in instructional leaders as a result of being knowledgeable, such as those
in the staff development coordinator, are reminiscent of transformational leaders who
are able to build confidence in teachers and provide opportunities for teacher to learn
from each other. Teacher knowledge was observed to enhance professional learning
and in making deeper connections with students through content knowledge.
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Additionally, the counseling department has enabled more students to be college-ready
because of their knowledge of the college-going process, requirements, and strategies
for success.
CMHS appeared to be succeeding in designating instructional leaders to be
readily available and knowledgeable, but it remained unclear how to empower the right
individuals to lead others to take risks. The principal and other teachers suggested that
it starts with picking the teachers that are “on board” first and having them help develop
the plan so that there is “buy-in.” The research shows that building a collaborative
culture is important and CMHS was doing that through ownership and expertise.
Instilling ownership and ensuring that individuals were knowledgeable helps build
school capacity and increases teacher and collective efficacy.

Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the findings based on the data collected for this study
followed by a detailed analysis and discussion of the answers to the three research
questions based on how they were established in the literature presented earlier in this
study. The findings offered in this study were based on interviews, observations, and
artifacts, which served to reinforce their validity. The summary, conclusions, and
implications of this study are presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 5: Summary, Implications, and Recommendations
Introduction
Historically, high poverty schools have been associated with low academic
achievement. These educationally or otherwise underprivileged schools, who remain
prevalently represented by minorities or low socio-economic students, have had a
difficult time closing the achievement gap, such so that researchers began to find
problematic enough to investigate in the 1960’s (Gorey, 2009; Lezotte, 1995). Since
data continues to point out a significant achievement gap between low socio-economic
students and their high socio-economic counterparts, policymakers are continuing to
incorporate accountability measures in compliance with the NCLB Act in order to raise
student achievement.
Even with long-standing achievement trends, many high poverty schools have
had success in attaining high student achievement. Such schools have had no one
reform initiative in particular that made them successful, but instead have had common
variables in place that foster high student achievement (Marzano, 2003). Research has
demonstrated that these common variables can be classified into organizational
structures and systems that include school philosophies, policies, practices, the role of
leadership, professional learning, organizational support, and teacher beliefs. For
example, a study performed by King and Newmann (2001) found that certain
organizational features that build school capacity could influence quality of instruction.
In looking at effective schoolwide sustained programs of professional development, the
researchers suggested that school capacity should address the knowledge, skills and
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dispositions of individual teachers, professional community amongst the staff as a
whole, and program coherence within the schools. As school capacity is strengthened,
leadership can foster a strong school culture that enables effective practices to transpire.
Although such structures and systems have been identified in high poverty high
achieving schools, little is known about why these structures and systems work in some
schools, but not others.
In accordance with school capacity having been enabled in a positive direction
by having necessary structures and systems in place, then there are levels of
collaboration amongst teachers and instructional leaders that must unfold. Studies have
indicated that groups of teachers who value professional development sessions were
those who felt that they could interact with and learn from their peers and could do so
safely (Galluci, 2008; Marzano,Waters & McNulty, 2003 & 2005; Penlington, 2007;
Quint et al., 2007; Smith & Rowley, 2005; Supovitz, 2002; Reeves, 2003; Waits, et al.,
2006; Jesse, Davis & Pokorny, 2004; Ragland et al., 2002; Rural School and
Community Trust, 2004; Kennedy & Shiel, 2010). Although the literature documents
that teachers value professional development more when they are heard and can have
more interaction with their peers, there is still a need to understand how and why
dialogue works as an effective tool for change. The relationship between the dialogue
that occurs during collaborative practice and student achievement needs to be
investigated further in order to provide a better understanding about how to structure
dialogue amongst teachers to help impact student achievement.
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The purpose of this case-study was to examine an urban high poverty high
school that is successfully closing the achievement gap by seeking to identify effective
systems in place that have made a positive impact on student achievement. The research
also set out to identify and discuss how school leaders cultivate professional learning
with the goal of generalizing its findings to comparable high poverty schools, providing
the assurance of considerable student academic performance improvement to similar
schools that still need to close the achievement gap. The qualitative case study was
guided by the following three research questions asked of a high poverty and high
achieving high school:
1. What are the perceived school-wide systems and structures that contribute to
high achievement in high poverty schools?
2. How are organizational systems implemented and sustained to support higher
levels of student achievement in high poverty schools?
3. How do school leaders/instructional leaders support professional learning in
fostering a collaborative culture and positive teacher beliefs in high poverty
schools?

Summary
Within the organization of a school exist various structures that help it function.
This case-study focused on two essential structures perceived to exist in support of
schoolwide effective classroom instruction, including providing rigor to meet A-G
eligibility and district centralization of bell schedule. Within those structures, systems
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were in place to contribute to high student achievement, including direct and indirect
mentoring and relationships, data-driven decisions, and positive teacher beliefs.
The systems at Casa Magna High School that were found to be implemented and
sustained to support high student achievement included professional learning and high
expectations for all, including open communication. The instructional leaders
supported professional learning for their staff to cultivate effective classroom
instruction by instilling ownership and ensuring that they are knowledgeable. Being
part of a centralized district who envisions increasing rigor for all students and believes
in the value of incorporating collaboration time for busy professionals has empowered
Casa Magna High School to implement systems in support of those goals while holding
high expectations for all. With high expectations held for students, teachers, parents,
and staff Casa Magna High School has developed measures to support collaborative
practice as an embedded aspect of the school culture.

Conclusion
King and Newmann (2001) found that school culture is synonymous with
building school capacity, how organizational features of schools influence quality of
instruction. In this study, the authors suggested that school capacity should address the
knowledge, skills and dispositions of individual teachers, professional community
amongst the staff as a whole, and program coherence within schools. Building a strong
capacity can be synonymous with leadership fostering a strong school culture that
enables effective practices to transpire. Leaders must know how to adopt the structures
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necessary to support the systems that motivate teachers to influence high student
achievement for everyone (Youngs & King, 2002; Bolman & Deal, 2002; Quint, Akey,
Rappaport & Willner, 2007).
The teachers at Casa Magna High School are motivated to influence high
student achievement by holding high expectations for all. In this case study, the
leaders have built a strong school capacity or school culture to foster this motivation by
implementing schoolwide systems such as an innovative professional learning model
that allows for frequent reflective practice.
In addition to leadership fostering a strong school culture, there must also be
present the development of an understanding of purpose among staff and the
development of a shared vision of what the school could be like (Jesse, Davis &
Pokorny, 2004; Waits et al, 2006; Marzano,Waters & McNulty, 2003 & 2005; Reeves,
2003; Izumi, 2002, Rural and Community Trust, 2004). The shared purpose at Casa
Magna High School is to provide rigor and high expectations for all students through
positive teacher beliefs and collaborative practices that have instilled a collective
efficacy.
Although the research suggests that collective efficacy is valuable in regards to
professional learning, there is still a need to understand how and why dialogue works as
an effective tool for change amongst teachers and staff. The relationship between the
dialogue that occurs during collaborative practice and student achievement needs to be
investigated further in order to provide a deeper understanding of how to structure
dialogue amongst teachers and staff to help impact student achievement through
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professional learning opportunities. The goal is to study more schools that are being
effective with schoolwide systems that include a positive school culture, well-developed
professional learning opportunities, and collective efficacy.

Implications for Policy and Practice
As a result of this study and prior research conducted on leadership and the role
of professional learning as they influence student achievement, two major implications
can be drawn in reference to future policy and practice for districts and schools.

High Expectations
Casa Magna High School had high expectations of everyone. Teachers and staff
had high expectations for all their students deriving from beliefs that in the classroom,
all students can learn depending on the effort teachers make to meet differing student
needs. It was also common to find that teachers attributed part of their success to
believing that they not only had to be passionate about their content, but also passionate
about student success to be effective. Because the teachers had this belief and had the
support of access to helpful data, they were able to utilize that data to differentiate
instruction and target student needs. If they were not getting enough data to inform
their practice from the school or district resources, they would collaboratively create
their own assessments to measure student growth.
Teachers also were attending collaboration time and professional learning
opportunities regularly so that they could implement best practices to reach student
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learning goals. If they found themselves struggling, they would utilize each other as
resources for feedback or the knowledgeable staff development coordinator or available
instructional leaders. Being positive and flexible with instruction and utilizing a
collective efficacy to improve instruction are essential factors that have made this high
poverty school unique amongst other similar schools.

Professional Learning
As the demands of teachers and school leaders increase, it is evident that
embedded collaboration time and relevant professional learning opportunities are
essential aspects of effective schools. It has helped that as part of a centralized district,
Casa Magna High School has collaboration time as part of the bell schedule and the
teachers and staff have taken the extra step to implement a system that enhances
collaborative practice and reflective practice. It has been easier to sustain the
professional learning systems because it is part of the structure provided by the district.
Whether the staff development coordinator organizes the professional learning or other
instructional leaders do, through observations and discussions it appears that as long as
there is a shared-vision and open communication available for these opportunities then
it can improve classroom instruction. Additionally, it has to be consistent, relevant, and
teachers must be involved in organizing the process. The collaboration schedule is set
and planned for the whole year and professional learning is as well. Benchmarks results
are discussed at designated collaboration meetings and research-based strategies are
incorporated as needed based on student needs during follow-up collaboration meetings.
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Attending professional development with their department or with a colleague who
teaches the same content has helped with relevancy, support, and motivation or
collective efficacy. A system allowing time for observations, feedback, share-fairs, and
teacher-initiated colloquials has helped with holding each other accountable for
professional learning. This has helped in building school capacity and a strong school
culture that influence high student achievement.
The professional development of teachers and the organization of collaboration
time from this study imply that both play a significant role in building a school culture
that impacts student achievement. In particular, what made this school unique from
other high poverty schools is that they chose to keep most of the training on-site.
Districts should consider providing structures that embed collaboration time within bell
schedules and training instructional leaders how to establish protocols, dialogue, and
collective efficacy amongst teachers through on-going professional learning at their
school sites.

Recommendations for Future Research
The following recommendations for future research are based on what could be
investigated to better understand how instructional leaders and professional learning
influence high academic achievement:
• Other districts who are not centralized and do not have embedded
collaboration time within bell schedules may have effective high poverty
schools that have sustained effective professional learning and
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collaborative practice. It would be beneficial to study those school sites
to investigate how collective efficacy is fostered and how it can be
utilized to build collective efficacy in other high poverty schools.
• District-level personnel perceptions were not included in this study and
would contribute to the perceived structures and systems in place at a
high poverty, high achieving school. It would also be beneficial to learn
from them how they go about training administrators and instructional
leaders to foster strong school cultures. This would benefit practitioners
when considering training for leaders who want to build school capacity
or positive school cultures.
• As the findings of this study indicated that having an on-site staff
development coordinator had a positive effect on professional learning at
this campus, future research could investigate the characteristics of
instructional leaders who are able to build school capacity through
professional learning opportunities. This would be beneficial to hire and
train the most effective leaders. Additionally, if there is limited or no
funding for one on-site coordinator, it would be beneficial to identify
those characteristics in helping identify strong lead teachers who can
play a similar role amongst their departments.
• A final recommendation would be to investigate how certain research-
based strategies that are being incorporated within professional learning
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activities are aligned school-wide (i.e., school programs, curriculum,
staff meetings, artifacts, discipline procedures, counseling practices, and
classroom practices) to cultivate sustainment. This would provide
insight regarding the relationship between alignment and strong capacity
and how it influences student achievement.
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APPENDIX A: Introductory E-mail
Introductory E-mail
April 15, 2010
Principal Sam Elliott
Casa Magna High School

Dear Principal Elliott,
Your school has been selected for a doctorate dissertation study! In a search for
high schools in southern California that are “beating the odds” – educating students of
color, high poverty, and learning disabilities at high levels – your school was one of a
very few that met this study’s criteria.

My name is Hazel Giusto. I am currently a doctoral candidate from the
University of Southern California. I am conducting a qualitative study focused on
finding out what works in high poverty, high performing secondary schools. I will be
examining the systems and structures that are in place to increase students’ academic
achievement, in particular I will be looking at how AVID and the leadership influences
school culture, professional development, collaboration, and teacher beliefs. I am
seeking your help to conduct this study with administrators, teachers, academic /
curriculum coaches, and others who are involved in ensuring your students’ academic
success.
The specific research questions guiding my study are:
1. What are the perceived school-wide systems and structures that contribute to
high achievement in high poverty schools?
2. How are school-wide systems implemented and sustained to support higher
levels of student achievement in high poverty schools?
3. How do school leaders/instructional leaders support professional learning in
cultivating effective classroom instruction in high poverty schools?
Research suggests that one of the great challenges for school researchers is to
learn how school organizations contribute to students' academic success, yet it is
essential that we identify characteristics of effective schools so that the success can be
widely replicated. Your school is a model for many comprehensive public high
schools; those schools that continue to underperform can learn a great deal from your
hard work and success. I want to understand how your school is succeeding in leaving
no child behind while other schools are failing. By gaining a clear view of what
systems and structures are at work in your school, I will be able to provide suggestions
for future research areas as well as practical implications for practitioners at the ground
level.
My criterion for selecting your school was quite rigorous. I searched southern
California for public high schools that have at least 750API and a population of over
500 students, 40% or more of whom receive free and reduced lunch. In my query, I
150

came up with very few schools that met these criteria. My study will, therefore, provide
credibility and validation to the hard work you and your staff are putting in to doing
what’s best for students.
If you agree, I will need to visit your school site approximately 4-6 times during
the 2010-11 school year. Ideally, I would like to come in the fall – September through
November. While I am at your school, I would like to conduct interviews with
administrators and staff (with as much or as little input from you, depending on your
comfort level) and observe classrooms, staff development sessions, and grade level /
leadership team meetings, if possible. As a responsible investigator, appropriate
protocol and ethical research practices will be exercised. I will not interact with
students.

If you decide that you and your staff are willing participants, I will coordinate
dates, times, and personnel with you. Please feel free to contact me, via e-mail or cell
phone, at any time with questions or concerns.
Thank you in advance for your interest in this important study. I truly believe it
will benefit administrators, teachers, and students in California, as we must strive to
continually adapt to the changing face of education. Together, we can work to ensure
that one day all children have access to a quality education. I truly look forward to
hearing from you concerning this request.

Sincerely,
Hazel Giusto

Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Biology & AVID Teacher
Lancaster High School

Contact Information:
(e) giusto@usc.edu
(c) 661-466-7940

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APPENDIX B: Administrator Protocol
Administrator Interview Protocol

School Name: ______________________________________ Date:_________
Name of Person Interviewed: ________________________________________
Position: _________________________________________________________
Researcher: ______________________________________________________
Time Started: ________ Time Ended: ____________ Total Time: ________
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with
the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying
systems and structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools. Through the
nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving urban school. The
purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve high levels of student
performance at your school.
The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new
knowledge and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to
inspire educators to improve school performance.
The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Interview Questions
Tell me briefly about your experience and role as a leader at the school.
Describe the practices and policies at your site that you believe contribute to
your students’ high student performance?
Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last 3-5 years
to improve student performance?
If this is your first or second year, what are some things that your predecessor
put in place?
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How has your school adapted to policy and practices that have been
implemented?
How did the school overcome challenges, make changes, and / or maintain
status quo?
How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students?
How does the climate in the school affect the school’s culture of ___________?
Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers / students / parents?
How do you monitor student progress?
How are teachers held accountable for student achievement?
What assessment tools do you use?
How are the expectations for meeting those goals made clear?
How are the needs of students in different sub-groups addressed in the school-
wide plan (i.e. EL, SED, Hispanic, AVID, etc.)?
How are the needs of teachers met to facilitate high student achievement?
How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the needs of
all students?
What is your role in helping teachers provide effective instruction?
Describe your level of confidence in teaching in facilitating student
achievement?

How do you think your beliefs impact student achievement?
Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that demonstrate
high student performance?
What is your role as a school leader in guiding the use of data to improve the
school climate and classroom instruction?
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APPENDIX C: Teacher Protocol
Teacher Interview Protocol
School Name: ________________________________ Date: _______________
Name of Person Interviewed: ________________________________________
Position: _________________________________________________________
Researcher: ______________________________________________________
Time Started: ________ Time Ended: ________ Total Time: ____________
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with
the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying
systems and structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools. Through the
nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving urban school. The
purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve high levels of student
performance at your school.
The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new
knowledge and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to
inspire educators to improve school performance.
The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Interview Questions
Tell me briefly about your experience and role as a teacher and a leader at the
school.
Describe the policies and practices at your site that you believe contribute to the
school’s high student performance?
Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these policies and
practices? If so, how did the school overcome them or maintain them?
How has your school adapted to policy and practices that have been
implemented?
154

What role do teachers play in maintaining a climate in the school that engages
all students?
How does the climate in the school affect the school’s culture of ___________?
Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers / students / parents?
How do you monitor student progress?
How are teachers held accountable for student achievement?
What assessment tools are used?
How are the expectations for meeting those goals made clear?
How familiar are you with the school-wide plan?
How are the needs of students in different sub-groups addressed in the school-
wide plan (i.e. EL, SED, Hispanic, AVID, etc.)?
In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the needs of
all students?
How are the needs of teachers met to facilitate high student achievement?
How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
What are the three most effective things teachers have done over the last 3-5
years to improve student performance?
What does professional development look like at your school?
What does collaboration look like at your school?
How does leadership support teachers?
Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that demonstrate
high student performance?
What is your role as a teacher leader in guiding the use of data to improve the
school climate and classroom instruction?
155

Describe your level of confidence in teaching in facilitating student
achievement?
How do you think your beliefs impact student achievement?

156

APPENDIX D: Classified Protocol
Classified Interview Protocol
School Name: ________________________________ Date: _______________
Name of Person Interviewed: ________________________________________
Position: _________________________________________________________
Researcher: ______________________________________________________
Time Started: ________ Time Ended: ________ Total Time: ____________
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am currently working with
the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education and am studying
systems and structures in high achieving, high poverty urban schools. Through the
nomination process, your school was identified as a high-achieving urban school. The
purpose of this interview is to learn more about how you achieve high levels of student
performance at your school.
The information garnered from this research will be used to spread new
knowledge and innovation about achieving high levels of student achievement and to
inspire educators to improve school performance.
The interview should take about 45 minutes. Do you have any questions for me
before we begin?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Interview Questions
Tell me briefly about your experience and role at the school.
Describe the policies and practices at your site that you believe contribute to this
school’s high student performance?
Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these policies and
practices? If so, how did the school overcome them or maintain them?
How has your school adapted to policy and practices that have been
implemented?
How would you describe the school climate here?
157

In what ways does the school engage/involve all students?
What do you think your role is in contributing to the school climate?
What are the expectations for meeting academic achievement goals here?
Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
What indicators let you know how they are doing?
How are the needs of all students being met at this school?
What is in place to support these students?
What is in place to support the staff?
How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?
How do you know when a teacher is doing a good job?
How do you see teachers and administrators working together?
How do you work with teachers and administrators at the school site?
158

APPENDIX E: Classroom Observation Protocol
159

APPENDIX F: Meeting Protocol

160

APPENDIX G: General Site Observations

161

162

APPENDIX H: Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038

INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

**********************************************************************
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
School-Wide Implementation of the Elements of Effective Classroom
Instruction: Lessons From High-Performing, High-Poverty Urban Schools
School Staff
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Vishodana
Thamotharan, Leila Gabriel, Hazel Giusto, Vickie Harri, Shannon Manista, Rachelle
Snyder, and Kathy Stowe, Ed.D., Principal Investigator and Faculty Advisor, from the
Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California. This study is
being completed as part of a thematic dissertation team investigating school-wide
implementation of effective classroom instruction in a high performing urban school.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study based on your status as an
employee at a high performing urban school. Your participation is voluntary. You
should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not
understand, before deciding whether or not to participate. Please take as much time as
you need to read the information sheet. You may also decide to discuss it with your
family or friends. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to identify the practices and strategies that lead to
high performance in students of color in high poverty urban school and how they are
implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promote
student learning.
163

Response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in this
research project.
PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the
following things:
Participate in a recorded interview, which may take from 30-60 minutes to
complete. The interview questions will focus on describing the practices and policies at
your school site that you believe contribute to your students’ high student performance
practices. It should be noted that the researcher is focusing on positive school practices
that helped make your school successful.
Additionally, the investigator will conduct field observations on site, gather
information and record notes. The investigator will also observe some classrooms,
faculty meetings and campus activities.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Any discomforts you may experience with questions may be managed by simply
not answering these questions. You will not be identified in any part of the interview
by name.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not benefit from your participation in this research study. However, it
is hoped that the results may contribute to the existing knowledge base of best practices
in urban schools. These results may also provide insight into practices and strategies
that may prove successful in other schools, which in turn may benefit the students at
those schools..
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive payment for your participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be
identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law. When the results of the research are published or
discussed in conferences for educational purposes, no information will be included that
would reveal your identify. Audio recordings will be secured and stored in the office of
the investigator and destroyed immediately upon transcription. Personal information,
research data, and related records will be coded, stored, and secured in the home of the
164

investigator. Only the investigators will have access to the data. The data will be stored
for three years after the study has been completed and then destroyed, except audio-
tapes which will be destroyed immediately.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also
refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the study.
The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which
warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation
without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of
your participation in this research study. If you have any questions about your rights as
a study subject or you would like to speak with someone independent of the research
team to obtain answers to questions about the research, or in the event the research staff
can not be reached, please contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost
for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact Dr. Kathy Stowe at kstowe@usc.edu.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Historically, high poverty schools have not been meeting standards for proficiency and have been associated with low academic achievement according to years of research and national averages. The relationship between professional learning and student achievement may provide insight into how it influences classroom instruction and student learning, especially in high poverty schools.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Giusto, Hazel Michelle (author)

Core Title Leadership, school culture, collaborative practice, and teacher beliefs: A case-study of schoolwide structures and systems at a high performing high poverty school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/09/2011

Defense Date 03/21/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag coaching model,effective schools,high expectations,high poverty,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,professional learning,school culture,structures,systems

Place Name California (states), USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair)

Creator Email giusto@usc.edu,hgiusto@avhsd.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3932

Unique identifier UC1452284

Identifier etd-Giusto-4494 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-477776 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3932 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Giusto-4494.pdf

Dmrecord 477776

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Giusto, Hazel Michelle

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu