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A case study of an outperforming elementary school closing the achievement gap

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A case study of an outperforming elementary school closing the achievement gap

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Content A CASE STUDY OF AN OUTPERFORMING ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CLOSING
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP

by

Matt Torres

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2009

Copyright 2009 Matt Torres

ii

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Ernestine Torres, for her everlasting
support with her unconditional love. Her unselfish and giving heart inspires me everyday
to be a better person.
My wife, Tina, also shares in my completion in the doctorate program. She
shares a desire to grow both personally and professionally so that we may learn
something about the world and ourselves each day. Her patience and support during the
program is much appreciated, and I dedicate this dissertation to her.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation was made possible by a number of people who allowed me to
stay focused and driven in order to complete this paper. I would like to extend the most
heartfelt thanks to my Dissertation Chair, Dr. Stuart Gothold, and all the members of my
thematic group; Michelle, Mary, Vicki, Ed, Kathy, Sue, Marc and Tammy, who made
this accomplishment possible. I would also like to thank committee members Dr. Kathy
Stowe, Dr. Carl Olsen, for providing so much knowledge and encouragement during this
dissertation experience. A final thanks to Dr. Dennis Hocevar who offered so much
useful insight and suggestions early in the writing of this dissertation to strengthen the
study.
I would like to also thank the members of my Fruitvale Family, who exemplify
the very level of professionalism I strive to attain. You are all so important to me and
illustrate the genuine model of caring educators on a daily basis. Special
acknowledgements are warranted for my Superintendent, Dr. Carl Olsen, for introducing
me to the Trojan Family and making my participation in the program possible. His belief
in my ability to complete the program was encouragement that extends beyond words.
Also, to my former Associate Superintendent, Dan Peeler, who allowed me to share my
learning with our district and made me feel confident as someone who can make a
difference for our schools. His incredible leadership style and commitment for
improving the student experience is something that I will forever attempt to replicate.
Finally, a sincere recognition to my colleague and fellow USC doctoral classmate, Mary
Westendorf. The long commutes to class each week were a pleasure because of our

iv

conversations. You are an inspiration to so many and I cannot imagine how difficult this
experience would have been without you being by my side the entire time.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ............................................................................................ ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................... iii

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................... vii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction ..................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................4
Research Questions ......................................................................................5
Importance of the Study ...............................................................................5
Summary of Methodology ...........................................................................6
Assumptions .................................................................................................7
Limitations ...................................................................................................7
Delimitations ................................................................................................8
Definition of Terms......................................................................................8
Organization of Study ................................................................................13

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction ................................................................................................15
Achievement Gap Trends ..........................................................................17
Factors that Contribute to the Achievements Gap .....................................18
Academic Environment ....................................................................19
The Family and Community Environment ........................................24
Closing the Achievement Gap: Success Stories ........................................27
Proposed Reforms to Help Close the Gap .................................................31
Summary ....................................................................................................40
Conclusion .................................................................................................41

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction ................................................................................................44
Conceptual Framework ..............................................................................45
Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework ............................................................46
Research Design.........................................................................................46
Sample and Population ..............................................................................48
Process of Selection ...........................................................................49
Overview of the School .....................................................................50
Data Collection and Instrumentation .........................................................52
Documents/Records Review ..............................................................52

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Development of Interview Protocol ...................................................53
Development of the Survey ...............................................................54
Development of the Observational Tool ............................................55
Relation of Research Questions to Instrumentation...........................55
Data Analysis .............................................................................................56
Summary ....................................................................................................57

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
Introduction ................................................................................................59
Initial Impressions of Mulligan Elementary ..............................................61
Response to Research Questions ...............................................................62
Data for Research Question One................................................................62
Strong School Culture ........................................................................62
Question One Reflections ..................................................................71
Data for Research Question Two ...............................................................72
Teacher Collaboration and Support ...................................................73
The Use of Assessments ....................................................................78
Strong Leadership ..............................................................................83
Question Two Reflections..................................................................87
Data for Research Question Three .............................................................88
Focus on Vocabulary .........................................................................89
High Expectations ..............................................................................93
Question Three Reflections ................................................................98

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................99
Summary of Findings ...............................................................................100
Conclusions ..............................................................................................104
Implications..............................................................................................107
Recommendations ....................................................................................108

REFERENCES ........................................................................................111

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Document Collection ........................................................116
Appendix B: Teacher Interview Questions .............................................118
Appendix C: Administrator Interview Questions ...................................119
Appendix D: Teacher Survey..................................................................120
Appendix E: Administrator Survey ........................................................125
Appendix F: Observation Tool ...............................................................130

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Mulligan Elementary School Make-Up ....................................51

Table 3.2 Mulligan Elementary API History ............................................51

Table 3.3 Mulligan Elementary Similar Schools Ranking ........................51

Table 3.4 Background of Interviewed Mulligan Teachers.……………...54

Table 4.1 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding Cooperative Learning and Social Interaction..………..……..66

Table 4.2 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding Student Engagement...............….............................................69

Table 4.3 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding Teacher Collaboration.………………………………………75

Table 4.4 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding Use of Assessment Data….………………………………….81

Table 4.5 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding Developing Lessons to Build Upon Students’ Existing
Knowledge and Experiences.……………………………………………90

Table 4.6 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding Monitoring Students’ Understanding Content.……………...91

Table 4.7 Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys
Regarding High Expectations …………………………………………..96

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ABSTRACT
Never before have public schools encountered such a level of accountability in the
face of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. California schools attempt to meet these
daunting challenges and goals with perhaps the country’s most diverse student population
during what may be the largest economic crisis the state has ever had. These factors all
but magnify the increasing achievement gap that persists between White or Asian and
affluent students and students of color, poverty and second language learners. While the
achievement gap may arguably be the nation’s biggest educational problem, California
has certainly taken notice as Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jack O’Connell, has
declared closing the achievement gap his top priority.
This study focuses on one outperforming elementary school that has shown over a
period of years that they are making strides at narrowing the existing achievement gap.
This school, which includes a very diverse and disadvantaged population, was examined
to determine what contributes to the school’s impressive performance results. The
research questions used in this study were developed by a thematic group of nine doctoral
students from the University of Southern California. The research questions used to
guide the study were:
1. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
2. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?

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3. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of
the achievement gap?
The study is qualitative using a triangulation approach to identify what programs,
practices, and instructional strategies are being used to close the achievement gap. The
data collection instruments used was teacher and administrative interviews and surveys,
observations, and a document/records review.
This case study revealed six findings that contribute to this school’s narrowing of
the achievement gap. The findings were 1) Strong School Culture, 2) Teacher
Collaboration and Support, 3) Use of Assessments, 4) Strong Leadership, 5) Focus on
Vocabulary, and 6) High Expectations. The findings also suggest a strong parallel with
practices aligned with the Professional Learning Community model advocated by
Richard Dufour, among others.

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CHAPTER ONE

OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Introduction
The issue of the achievement gap and the continuing disparity of academic
success between white students and students of color and economically disadvantaged
subgroups is one of the largest problems in the United States today (Slavin & Madden,
2006). California Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jack O’Connell, has even made
closing the achievement gap his top priority in his second term of office, as he believes
this gap threatens the future competitiveness of our state in this demanding global
economy (California Department of Education, 2008). Schools, teachers, administrators,
and parents continue to work towards finding and implementing ways to narrow this
achievement gap and the educational, social and civil rights issues it carries.
Repercussions of an achievement gap for many will have life lasting
consequences leaving most with no hope for a higher education and limited potential
employment and earnings (Lee, 2002). Just as important, students facing this gap also go
through many damaging experiences during their educational career. The academic
disparities have lead to ridicule, embarrassment, racial biasness, low self-esteem, and
often, high dropout rates for these disadvantaged students. These ramifications are all
encompassing, often beyond the scope of the educational system. However, while
schools must remember that they are just a piece of the solution, they are part of the
solution.

2

The achievement gap may be the single largest crisis ever in American education,
one that has dated back over a century. Seldom has our country faced such a problem it
has not resolved in that length of time. As the educational standards and expectations
continue to rise, so too does the inequity in our schools. This has directed findings over
the gap to uncover many issues that schools still must work through.
The past and the present of the achievement gap also makes educators speculate if
political maneuvering and bureaucratic agendas have hurt or helped schools. Two such
measures are California’s Proposition 227 and the federal act of No Child Left Behind
(NCLB).
California enacted the anti-bilingual initiative, Proposition 227, in 1998 despite
the overwhelming research that demonstrated the effectiveness of students gaining
proficiency in their native tongue was the best course for English language acquisition.
This proposition, in theory, was allegedly reflective of the parents’ choice of language
instruction, but may have been more determined by a lack of access to relevant
information and school-community power relations (Monzo, 2005). State accountability
reforms challenge schools to confine to the regulations of Proposition 227 while
pressured to raise achievement scores. These enforced educational policies diminished
the instruction for English learners and forced teachers to adopt a more narrow practice in
their classrooms (Olsen, 2007).
Even No Child Left Behind’s greatest supporter, President George W. Bush, has
said, “There is more work to do” (Chubb, Linn, Haycock, & Wiener, 2005). As the law’s
2014 goal grows nearer, the act has come under much scrutiny. The optimists of the law

3

hoped the threat of federal accountability and demands would “whip” teachers into shape
and improve test scores, in light of the unrealistic target goals. Some, particularly
Democrats, feared that these tactics however, might corrupt schools and put a focus on
everything but quality instruction, emphasizing some things, while giving less attention
to others (Rothstein, 2008).
Politicians face the critical dilemma that directly challenges our democratic
ideals: Children’s academic skills can clearly be predicted by their race and family
economic status. Many believe No Child Left Behind has forced policy makers to pour
an excessive amount of attention to the fact that improving their schools, its teachers, and
their instruction, is the only needed school reform to close the achievement gap
(Rothstein, 2004).
Teachers also carry the unenviable burden to advocate the school vision and
mission statements that “all students can learn”, which in its simplest terms is fact. But
this mantra in relation to No Child Left Behind does not account for the truth that all
students do not start in the same place when it comes to learning, and this federal reform
rudimentarily implies schools can wipe out outside factors and differences among
children simply by trying harder (Rothstein, 2004). If schools fail to meet No Child Left
Behind’s lofty goals and do not begin closing the achievement gap, civic opinion is
certain to be that public education is hopelessly incompetent.
Statement of the Problem

As the population of California schools continues to grow more diverse, educators
are challenged with meeting the needs of an ever-changing student population. Many

4

teachers have begun to recognize that their current instructional strategies are failing to
improve the academic performance for minority and low-income students. Part of this
realization has come from the accountability element of the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) of 2001 and the indisputable and persistent disparity in academic performance
between groups of students, particularly between White or Asian and affluent students
and students of color, poverty and second language learners. This trend is commonly
referred to as the “achievement gap”.
The NCLB Act is the federal law enacted in January of 2002, which mandates
that every student in all grades, regardless of economic status, race or ethnic group,
disabilities, or language proficiency, meet the state academic content standards for
proficiency in English/Language Arts (ELA) and Mathematics by 2014. The law holds
schools accountable for meeting this goal, as they must demonstrate Adequate Yearly
Progress. The Adequate Yearly Progress system from the federal government monitors
and sets Annual Measurable Objectives (AMO’s) for schools, including their numerically
significant subgroups, and reports these results for possible sanctions and improvement
identification status.
California’s Academic Performance Index (API) has forced schools to
disaggregate their data and test results to measure the performance of their subgroups,
and hold them accountable for these students and their growth, or lack therein.
Purpose of the Study
The achievement gap that has existed for decades appears to be widening.
Educators continue to work without current research and resources to provide a learning

5

environment that allows each student to have access to a quality education and the
opportunities for future success regardless of background.
These actions make it more imperative to identify practices, programs, and
strategies that have proven effective and have narrowed the achievement gap for students.
These factors are essential for schools to provide a possible solution with the hopes that
these practices are replicable for teachers resulting in the same positive outcomes.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify practices, programs and strategies
embedded in a successful elementary school that has demonstrated evidence of closing
the achievement gap for their significant subgroups.
Research Questions
The research questions investigated and analyzed in this study were used as a
guide for developing the instruments for collecting data and information. The research
questions for this study were the following:
1. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
2. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
3. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing
of the achievement gap?
Importance of the Study
The urgency in recognizing the factors that may help schools meet the needs of
their most diverse learners is critical. While the issue of an achievement gap has existed

6

in schools for decades, educators are now presented, with the assistance of the No Child
Left Behind Act, with the task of ensuring every student meets grade level standards
despite any internal or external factor that may exist. This study allowed the school
investigated a rich description of the variables it has in place that may assist in making
policy, instructional, and fiscal decisions in the near future. The current study also allows
other schools to understand what has worked and perhaps ignite efforts that will begin
helping schools close their own achievement gap.
The study becomes especially important for California schools, with the unique
and diverse population of the state. With California housing some of the nation’s largest
percentages of Hispanic and English learning students, it is critical that research
continues in this area. The very subgroups that are at the center of the achievement gap
are California’s fastest growing populations, and schools must be proactive in meeting
the needs of these students.
Summary of Methodology
A qualitative design and triangulation approach was used to describe, in-depth,
the instructional and collegial culture of the school to better identify the practices,
programs, and strategies used to close the achievement gap. A case study was selected
using a criteria developed by a group of nine doctoral students from the University of
Southern California. Instruments were also collectively developed by the nine doctoral
students to examine the characteristics of the case study. These instruments included
interviews, surveys, observations, and documents and records to gather and analyze the

7

data. In alignment with the literature review and conceptual model, these instruments
were designed to parallel the proven practices noted by previous research.
Assumptions
The assumptions for this study is that the practices, programs and strategies
utilized by the case study will align with the review of the literature in supporting factors
that can assist other schools in repeating the identified strategies to close their own
achievement gap. It is furthered assumed that the data collected, including interviews
and surveys, was presented honestly and was sufficient in amount for the conclusions
drawn.
Limitations
This case study of a single elementary school poses potential factors that may
affect its applicability and transferability to other school sites, particularly non-
elementary schools. The make-up (size, grade span, demographics, etc.) also may limit
the findings to schools that have a similar profile as the study selected. However, it is
one of nine studies conducted by a research group, all of which will have varying
demographics. It is the entire scope of the group’s research that will have the most
influence on those wishing to extract relevant information for school improvement and
addressing the achievement gap.
The study’s additional limitation was the researcher’s opportunities to interview
and survey all relevant stakeholders possibly involved with closing the achievement gap.
Due to constraints on time and inaccessibility, no information was gathered from these

8

stakeholders who may have contributed to an increase in student performance due to staff
transfers, relocations, retirements and other events or actions in years prior to 2005.
Delimitations
This study was bounded to an analysis of practices, programs and strategies of a
single school that has shown indication of narrowing the achievement gap. The choice
not to examine schools from the same district, which may also include similar practices,
programs, and strategies, decreases the chance for other schools of replicating or applying
the findings of this case study. This may occur as outside schools may view the study as
an isolated incident with no transferrable relevance.
Another delimitation is the definition and criteria of a school closing the
achievement gap used in this study. The criterion was developed jointly by a thematic
dissertation group comprised of nine doctoral students from the University of Southern
California, which may create disagreement from outside readers and/or researchers.
Lastly, a triangulation of data was used to reduce researcher bias in this
qualitative study.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following operational terms were defined as
follows:
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE INDEX (API)
Per the California Department of Education, “the Academic Performance Index is the
cornerstone of California's Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999 (PSAA). The
purpose of the API is to measure the academic performance and growth of schools. It is a

9

numeric index (or scale) that ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. A school's score
on the API is an indicator of a school's performance level. The statewide API
performance target for all schools is 800. A school's growth is measured by how well it is
moving toward or past that goal. A school's API Base is subtracted from its API Growth
to determine how much the school improved in a year” (CDE Website).
ACHIEVEMENT GAP
According to the University of Southern California’s thematic dissertation group, the
achievement gap is the persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of
students, particularly between White and or Asian and affluent students and students of
color, minority, poverty and second language learners.
ADEQUATE YEARLY PROGRESS
Per the California Department of Education, “The federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Act of 2001 requires that California determine whether or not each public school and
local educational agency (LEA) is making Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). (An LEA is
a school district or county office of education.) AYP criteria encompass four areas:
participation rate, percent proficient (also referred to as Annual Measurable Objectives or
AMOs), API as an additional indicator for AYP, and graduation rate. Each of these four
areas has specific requirements. Participation rate and percent proficient criteria must be
met in both English-language arts (ELA) and in mathematics” (CDE Website).
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS TEST (CST)
Per the California Department of Education, “The California Standards Tests in English-
language arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science are administered only to

10

students in California public schools. Except for a writing component that is administered
as part of the grade 4 and 7 English-language arts tests, all questions are multiple choice.
These tests were developed specifically to assess students' performance on California's
Academic Content Standards. The State Board of Education adopted these standards that
specify what all California children are expected to know and be able to do in each grade
or course” (CDE STAR website).
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (CDE)
The state agency that oversees California’s public school system.
CULTURE
The traditions, norms and values that permeate an organization and influence behaviors
and beliefs of the members.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS (ELL)
Per the California Department of Education, "English learner" is defined as an English
learner or as a reclassified-fluent-English-proficient (RFEP) student who has not scored
at the proficient level or above on the CST in ELA for three years after being
reclassified” (CDE website).
FOUR FRAMES
Bolman and Deal (2003) research focuses on the four aspects or traits that a leader may
or may not encompass; structural, human resource, symbolic or political.
GROWTH TARGETS
Per the California Department of Education, “Schools must meet their annual school
wide API growth target as well as API growth targets for each numerically significant

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ethnic/racial, socioeconomically disadvantaged, English learner, and students with
disabilities subgroup at the school. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between
200 and 690, the growth target is 5 percent of the difference between the school's (or
subgroup's) Base API and the statewide performance target of 800. If the school's (or
subgroup's) Base API is between 691 and 795, the growth target is a gain of five points.
If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 796 and 799, the growth target is the
following:
API of 796 - a gain of four points
API of 797 - a gain of three points
API of 798 - a gain of two points
API of 799 - a gain of one point
If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is 800 or more, the school (or subgroup) must
maintain an API of at least 800” (CDE Website).
HIGH PERFORMING SCHOOL
A High Performing School is a school that has large percentages of students who
traditionally perform in the upper deciles of standardized tests such as the California
Standards Tests and the High School Exit Exam. Often such schools have high numbers
of students who excel in Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate programs.
Often such schools are recognized by the United States Department of Education as
National Blue Ribbon Schools or the California Department of Education as California
Distinguished Schools.

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NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM
The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a federally assisted meal program
operating in public and nonprofit private schools and residential child care institutions. It
provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost or free lunches to children each school day. The
program was established under the National School Lunch Act, signed by President
Harry Truman in 1946 (United States Department of Agriculture, 2008)
OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL
An Outperforming School is a school that has consistently performed in the upper deciles
of similar schools rankings for 2 or more years. “Outperforming” is a relative term; it
means the school is outperforming other schools like it (schools of the same type and
similar demographic characteristics).
SIMILAR SCHOOLS RANKING
Per the California Department of Education, “The similar schools rank compares a school
to 100 other schools of the same type and similar demographic characteristics” (CDE
Website).
URBAN SCHOOL
An Urban School is a school that either 1) is located within the city limits of what is
considered a large city, or 2) has two or more traditional demographics or characteristics
of schools that are located in large cities. A dictionary definition of urban is 1) of,
pertaining to, or designating a city or town, 2) living in a city, or 3) characteristic of or
accustomed to cities; citified (Random House, 2008). Characteristics that are typical of
large city schools are a diverse student body or high numbers or non-white students, a

13

diversity of commonly spoken languages, low attendance rates, high suspension rates,
low test scores, low teacher attendance, high numbers or uncredentialed teachers, high
drop-out rates and low graduation rates, low college-going rates, low parent participation,
and high rates of crime in the areas surrounding the school.
SCHOOL ACCOUNTABILITY REPORT CARD (SARC)
Per the California Department of Education, “In November 1988, California voters
passed Prop.98, also known as The Classroom Instructional Improvement and
Accountability Act. This ballot initiative provides California's public schools with a stable
source of funding. In return, all public schools in California are required annually to
prepare SARCs and disseminate them to the public. SARCs are intended to provide the
public with important information about each public school and to communicate a
school's progress in achieving its goals” (CDE website).
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (SES)
Per the California Department of Education, “Socioeconomically disadvantaged" is
defined as a student whose parents both have not received a high school diploma OR a
student who participates in the free or reduced-price lunch program (also known as the
National School Lunch Program)” (CDE Website).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One provided a background of the achievement gap, statement of the
problem, purpose, research questions, and methodology of the study, as well as
limitations, delimitations, assumptions, and definitions relevant to this investigation.

14

Chapter Two is a review of the literature regarding the achievement gap in
schools. It includes a history of the gap, possible variables that contribute to the gap, and
some proven strategies schools have used to close the gap.
The methodology of the research is presented in detail in Chapter Three. The
research design, conceptual framework, population and sample, and the data
instrumentation and collection process are included in this chapter.
Chapter Four presents the findings through an analysis of the data collected in
relation to the research questions.
Chapter Five concludes the research as it describes and summarizes the study.
Conclusions and the implications for educators and researchers are presented for future
considerations.

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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

The term “Achievement Gap” is not a phrase or concept that has suddenly
surfaced as of recent years. For the purposes of this study, the gap is defined as the
persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly
between White or Asian and affluent students and students of color, poverty and second
language learners. Schools have for years seen a disparity in achievement between
numerous groups, and their attempts to remedy any and all shortcomings for students not
meeting expectations have been hit and miss. However, the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act of 2001 has brought forward a new urgency in terms of accountability and
pointed out what society has long known but perhaps tried to ignore: White students are
outperforming their grade level peers of color.
The achievement gap has clearly been present in American schools for decades,
often due to such factors as immigration and the country’s clear distinctions of social
class. In fact, in the early 20
th
century, the United States intentionally designed a school
system that would have two tracks of learning. This industrial age period included lots of
immigrants and poor people, and the majority of them would ultimately work on an
assembly line. Therefore, the school systems were set up so that there was an academic
track and a general/vocational track. This system was acceptable by the masses, as even
the non-graduates could still get good jobs. But now, in today’s global economy, most

16

fast growing sectors of the economy and its work field require at least two years of post
high-school training (Clemmitt, 2007).
Dating back to our nation’s landmark court cases such as Plessy vs. Ferguson, and
later with Brown vs. the Board of Education, brought to the forefront the undeniable
practice of students of color receiving a different and lesser quality education than their
White counterparts brought forth through segregated schools. While the reasons for these
occurrences, be it segregated schools of a century ago to the widening achievement gap
in the 21
st
century, may vary, the obvious effects of this ever-growing achievement gap
produces similar outcomes to those past racial issues. Undoubtedly, the school system
sees more low-income and/or minority students likely to receive a watered down
education, unequal access to the opportunities of advantaged students, and an increased
chance of not completing high school (Barton, 2006).
This accountability era has educators and researchers constantly searching for the
reasons for this existing gap, and practices that have proven over considerable time to be
effective in narrowing the achievement gap. Schools and districts are critiqued annually
by their test scores, state rankings and annual measurable objectives (API and AYP), and
the credentials of their teachers (NCLB Highly Qualified Compliant). These measures
are made public for parents and the community to ill-advisedly compare schools and
districts to each other. Each of the above measures is a part of or a result of NCLB and
its objective to uncover methods that have been proven effective for schools through
research and to hold schools accountable for ensuring students achieve academic
proficiency (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Schools often find themselves having

17

to defend their efforts and results instead of concentrating on providing quality
instruction to their students. However, it should be conceded that while each state’s
accountability model based on test results may or may not illustrate the competency of its
schools, it has forced schools to recognize the underachievement of the disadvantaged
students and produce a long overdue plan of intervention (Johnston & Viadero, 2000).
Achievement Gap Trends
The achievement gap issue has seen its share of successes and downward spirals
in the last few decades (Harris & Herrington, 2006). California has seen student
achievement increasing since 2003, with 600,000 more students scoring at least proficient
in 2007 (Lee, 2007). However, as scores rise for all students, the gap continues to be an
issue as certain subgroups fail to make the same progress as others.
The close watch on this achievement gap saw significant gains in the 1970’s and
1980’s. African-American students narrowed the gap with White students by nearly half,
and the gap between Latinos and Whites declined by one-third (Haycock, 2001). These
positive effects were undoubtedly a result of the civil rights movement, school
desegregation, and the federal anti-poverty programs of the 1960’s. These movements
made it clear that all children deserved equal access to education, and that improving our
schools, specifically minority education, was to be taken seriously (Johnston & Viadero,
2000).
Unfortunately, this trend of improvement came to a halt in the late 1980’s, and
though the country saw wonderful strides for almost two decades, the gaps of
achievement of minority students continues to be one of the largest epidemics in our

18

school systems (Haycock, 2001). Educators continue to search for answers as to why this
gap has begun to widen. Many believe it is a number of factors such as the quality of
teachers, equitable financial resources for all schools, teacher expectations, parental
involvement, language barriers, the family economic status, school tracking, and/or a
change in the societal or peer culture in our country. Each of these variables may be one
of the many causes of the gap, and/or serve as a predictor, but nothing can be stated with
certainty. What is clear is that there is not a one-time, one-size fits all solution for the
achievement gap problem. Each and every child has a unique and special situation which
requires individualized intervention to account for their specialized circumstances, and it
is the responsibility of schools to approach each student on a very personal level.
Factors that Contribute to the Achievement Gap
This section of the literature review will examine two aspects, with various
variables that fit into each, that may contribute to the achievement gap in schools. The
first element will be the setting produced by the schools, which will be identified in this
review as the Academic Environment. The second component will be the Family and
Community Environment, and the various factors that may contribute to the gap. Each
element plays a significant role in the development of a child and research has
demonstrated that these components in isolation or in working with another may hinder
the academic advancement of a student. This review of literature for both the Academic
and Family/Community Environments is by no means an exhaustive list of factors that
cultivate the achievement gap, but rather is intended to provide a glimpse into the
numerous causes that may or may not show a relationship to the gap. The following

19

sections will attempt to show that the achievement gap is a culmination of several factors,
inside and outside the school, with some aspects being controllable, and others powerless
against natural causes.
Academic Environment
A student’s Academic Environment can and does stand as a considerable part in
the development of a child. Regardless of how schools and the educational system has
changed over the years, society expects schools to play a role in equalizing opportunities
for children. While schools may not entirely be able to surmount the disadvantages
students acquire from adverse family, community, or peer influences, we expect schools
to overcome these challenges to some extent (Rothstein, 2000). There have been
numerous reasons related to the school environment cited that may contribute to the
White students outperforming their peers of color.
The achievement gap problem is difficult to dissect because of all the variables
within a school’s day-to-day practices that help create this underachievement. These
conditions or circumstances, often referred to as “Opportunity to Learn”, includes such
elements as curricula, expectations, learning materials, facilities, and teacher experience.
For example, minority groups such as African-American and Hispanics are less likely
than White students to have access to teachers who emphasize reasoning and non-routine
problem solving and secondly, teachers who use computers for simulations and
applications (Flores, 2007). A lack of these elements can result, especially in the high
school setting, with school practices denying students to access of strong academic self-
identity. Therefore, students are not presented with a development of academic

20

engagement, social adjustment, and at the high school level, college-going expectations
(Cooper & Liou, 2007). Once more, minority, low-income, and students of limited
English proficiency are also more likely to be in larger class sizes, making it more
difficult to remain engaged and receive any additional, individualized attention (Barton,
2003).
Research has shown that an all too common level of expectations for our minority
and low-income students is occurring in classrooms. Educators have acknowledged that
African-American students, for example, have received lesser attention and noticed
teachers have lower expectations, as teachers do not expect them to succeed (Rothstein,
1999). It is not surprising that these students may not give their best effort in the
classroom and perceive their environment differently than their peers. Obvious outcomes
are lower performances in the classroom that often lead to these students dropping out of
school entirely. A study conducted by Claude Steele documented the harmful effects of
low teacher expectations, demonstrating that when young people believe their authority
figures do not expect them to be successful, they do poorly in school. Steele saw that
negative stereotypes of African-American students and their intellectual ability directly
resulted in lower scores on standardized tests (Rothman, 2002). Surveys have shown that
many young students feel they are not challenged in their classrooms; in addition the
expectations for those students in high-poverty schools come up short compared to
middle and upper-class schools (Haycock, 2001).
Another issue in American schools has been the practice of tracking, or ability
grouping, also linked to an overrepresentation of minority students in lower tracks.

21

Studies found only 22 percent of Latino and 25 percent of African-American high school
students were enrolled in their school’s college track courses (Wilkins et al., 2006), in
addition to a higher rate of minority students placed in vocational tracks (Becker &
Luthar, 2002; Lucas & Berends, 2002). One Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll found that
almost two-thirds of public school teachers believed the achievement gap was primarily
due to factors not related to the quality of the schooling. They believe that all students
can be successful if each student received the same opportunity to a challenging and
rigorous curriculum. Simply put, opportunities precede achievement, and tracking denies
students these opportunities. Burris and Welner (2005) studied a New York school
district and found that all groups of students improved when taught the high-track
curriculum. This assertion was plainly clear in that one way to begin closing the
achievement gap was to close the “opportunity” or “curriculum” gap.
Perhaps the greatest single factor for improving instruction and closing the
achievement gap is the quality of the teacher. This notion greatly disputes the “Coleman
Report” of 1966, which examined the impact quality schooling had on student
achievement. While the study concludes schools have a relatively small effect (10
percent variance) in student achievement, the results have been widely discredited,
mainly because the report looked closely at the influence of the school itself as opposed
to the instruction of the teacher. In fact, it is documented by William Sanders and his
colleagues that the most important factor affecting student achievement is the teacher
effect (Marzano, Pickering & Pollock, 2001).

22

While No Child Left Behind Act requires that all classrooms have “highly
qualified” teachers in every American classroom, many teachers lack the qualifications,
and the percentages increase in high-minority and high-poverty schools. In fact, schools
serving mostly African-American and Latino students are twice as likely to be taught by
inexperienced teachers (with three years of experience or less) as those schools mainly
serving White students (Wilkens et al., 2006). Thus, the least prepared teacher recruits
are inexplicably in the most disadvantaged schools (under-resourced, hard-to-staff, etc.)
further amplifying the educational inequalities (Darling-Hammond, 2001).
The No Child Left Behind Act defines “highly qualified” and districts find
avenues for identifying their teachers as such, but rarely does such an identification
reflect teacher quality (Mantel, 2005). In addition, NCLB does not require the
professional growth for teachers after they are designated “highly qualified”, limiting
their capacity to meet the needs of the disadvantaged students. The professional
development experience is critical for teachers to prepare themselves and begin
understanding the values, cultures, and life experiences that may differ from their own
(Becker & Luther, 2002).
The No Child Left Behind Act not only has expectations for highly qualified
teachers, but also require, albeit more quietly, quality principals. Research, as well as
common sense, suggests improving schools and reaching new teaching and learning goals
is cultivated through high quality principals. These principals are key levers for
continued school improvement and increased student performance. Ensuring a quality
principal in every school rests on the shoulders of district leaders who are responsible for

23

selecting, supporting, monitoring, and evaluating principal performance. Therefore,
while highly qualified teachers are necessary for each and every classroom, there is little
doubt that leadership matters, and schools and districts must have a structure and support
system in place to guarantee a quality leader is at the helm (Kearney, 2005).
The issue of mobility in schools is also a significant factor in student
achievement. This Literature Review will later discuss the matter of high mobility rates
with low-income students, but the problem of transient teachers also can manufacture
itself in lower student performance. Clemmitt (2007) reports as many as half the teachers
in high-poverty urban schools are more likely to leave their assignment in comparison to
those educators in low-poverty schools. These low-income urban schools continue to
face overwhelming odds in educating their students who enter schools at a disadvantage.
This paper has already stated the importance of high-quality, experienced teachers as the
greatest means to narrowing the achievement gap, and the data expresses that the schools
with the greatest needs for the most effective teachers are going through the largest staff
turnover.
A major factor schools must consider and contend with, particularly California
schools, is the presence and challenge teachers face with a growing number of English
language learners in our classrooms. In fact, in just a ten-year period, between 1992-
2002, the percentage of teachers who would instruct an English leaner nearly tripled,
from 15 percent to 43 percent (Rance-Roney, 2008). While California schools become
increasingly more diverse, it is important that our educational system does not
homogenize curriculum and instruction (Hill & Flynn, 2006).

24

With the growing number of English learners in our state, the contentions of key
researchers Jim Cummings and Virginia Collier should not be taken lightly. Cummings
and Collier vie that it takes an English language learner five to seven years of English
exposure before they can demonstrate proficiency levels equal to that of their native
English-speaking peers (Rance-Roney, 2008). Unfortunately, research has also shown
that teachers lack understanding of how their roles and approaches can best support the
needs of English learners. In addition, some research has even noted that some teachers
do not want English learners in their classrooms as they feel the English as a Second
Language teachers should assume responsibility for the students’ progress (Yoon, 2008).
Yoon (2008) suggests teachers must learn how to provide an environment that is free of
any risk and that encourages interaction with the teacher and the other students.
The Family and Community Environment
The environment outside the academic arena also has an impact on the pace of
learning and the overall achievement of students. In fact, while the uneducated opinion is
that schools are at the height of the ever-growing achievement gap, most evidence
indicates that schools are doing much to combat low achievement for all groups of
students (Rothstein, 2005). Therefore, many social and economic inequalities existing
outside the school walls appear to be driving factors in generating academic gaps. This
leaves educational reform to not only focus on instructional and program transformations,
but also looking at the importance of social policy (Rothstein, 2008).
One factor is children of color and/or from low-income households are far too
frequently under prepared when they enter school as they lack fundamental academic

25

skills (Haycock & Jerald, 2002). Numerous scholars have noted that working-class
families usually provide more external imposed routines and are more overly directive
with their children (showing or telling them how to do things). These patterns often lead
students to never use their critical thinking or problem solving skills. The middle-class
parents, in contrast, allow for more opportunities to use their inquisitive ability to
problem solve through their questioning thought process (Lubienski, 2007).
Research has also recorded that an achievement gap begins as early as the age of
three. Infants and toddlers unmistakably lack the early childhood care that offers the
intellectual environment that is typically experienced by middle-class homes (Rothstein,
2005).
A lack of resources for poor students has led to a loss of ability in contributing
towards the discrepancy of achievement for certain groups of students. As
aforementioned to, working-class families can inherently add to the disproportion of
academic capacity between the advantaged and disadvantaged students. An example is
the loss of reading ability over the summer months in traditional schools. This trend is
usually seen in lost ground made by poor children, due to the lack of books, supervision,
and accountability during the normal 3-month break in school (McGill-Franzen &
Allington, 2006). And while summer school and after school programs are critical to
narrowing the gap, these programs and their effectiveness will prove far stronger if they
can duplicate the experiences the lower-class students are lacking such as organized
sports, drama, museum visits, and recreational reading, to name just a few. These

26

practices often lost on the disadvantaged students result in less self-confidence,
inquisitiveness, creativity, self-discipline, and organizational skills (Rothstein, 2005).
This issue of social capital has shown a direct link in achievement, as the parents’
expectations and norms facilitate their child’s social goals. Through this lens, the parent-
child relationship is thought to be a strong predictor of achievement. While the theories
of one single parenting style (i.e. authoritarian versus non-authoritarian) having the
greatest positive influence in school success has been strongly refuted, some parenting
practices are worth mentioning. Parents sharing their decisions in regards to their
student’s daily lives are related to positive achievement, as is ongoing communication
between parents and their children. It has been widely recognized that students with
parents who are actively involved in their school often have fewer behavior problems and
more success academically (Barton, 2003).
Though communication simply concerning social implications does not have a
positive effect, communication in relation to school matters appears to be very beneficial
(Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). Parents of minority students are often hesitant to
assertively advocate for their children’s education (Johnston & Viadero, 2000). This lack
of parental input in the school decision-making process will inevitably lead to lower
expectations from teachers and an underrepresentation of minority students in the upper
tracks. This can also leak over to the children’s attitude as they often make choices to be
in a lower level class because they want to remain in environments they feel comfortable
in as well as share the same experiences as their friends.

27

Another resource that clearly plays a part in the low achievement of lower-class
families is inadequate and unstable housing. These families often lack the assets to find
stable housing, which often leads to high transition for these students. Inner-city schools
can have anywhere from a 40-50 percent student-mobility rate, which means up to half
the students change schools at least once a year due to their parents job loss, the changing
of jobs, and evictions, just to mention a few. This does not even reflect the number of
students who are homeless, which is a statistic widely underreported (Clemmitt, 2007).
This mobility issue for students not only affects their consistency in instruction and
learning, but also hinders the teachers’ ability to build a rapport and relationship with
these students and their families, eliminating any chance of building a strategy for the
teacher to assess, diagnose and remediate any student deficiencies (Rothstein, 2005).
These frequent school changers are twice as likely to be Hispanic or African-American
compared to White students, and the slower academic pacing usually results in a reduced
likelihood of completing high school (Barton, 2003). The instability within their home
lifestyles also contributes to poorer attendance due to high asthma rates, lack of
transportation to school, unsafe neighborhoods, and family responsibilities such as
serving as a caregiver for younger siblings (Clemmitt, 2007).
Closing the Achievement Gap: Success Stories
Because closing the achievement gap requires strategies specific to the needs of
children at a particular school, success in narrowing the underachievement of
disadvantaged students is seen in different districts with a different focus for different
students. The gains made by many are yet to be generalized for schools, but it does show

28

the action taken to address the achievement gap present within their academic
environments.
A Florida middle school has taken a proactive approach to addressing the
achievement gap. The school made considerable efforts in building Parent and
Community Partnerships, using Data-Based Decision Making, and celebrating their
student population and diversity through the leadership of the principal. The school’s
pursuit in getting the parents involved in their student’s education and making them feel
comfortable in having a personal relationship with the staff allows the parents to become
a valued member and stakeholder in the vision of the school. An emphasis was also put
on basing instructional decisions on student achievement which created a problem
solving community to meet the needs of all of its students. The school also has a unique
make-up of its staff that reflects that of its students, which supports the schools practice
to represent multiple perspectives through the teacher’s instruction. This approach has
seen the school improve from a “D” grade to a “B” in 3 years based on the Florida
Comprehensive Achievement Test (LaRocque, 2007).
Intervention programs and supplemental curriculum has also seen its share of
successes with attempts in closing the academic performances between certain groups.
The Student Success Skills (SSS) Program has shown effects of closing the achievement
gap for low- to mid-range achieving students. The SSS Program is based on three skills
sets directed by school counselors which include 1) cognitive and metacognitive skills
such as goal setting, progress monitoring, and memory skills; 2) social skills such as
interpersonal skills, social problem solving, listening, and teamwork skills; and 3) self-

29

management skills such as managing attention, motivation, and anger. The experimental
analysis involving the SSS Program showed an improvement in reading and math
achievement at a similar rate for all students, therefore indicating ethnicity does not
appear to be a differentiating factor (Miranda, Webb, Brigman, & Peluso, 2007).
O’Donnell and White (2005) have examined the relationship between an effective
instructional leader and student achievement. The research has shown that effective
instructional leadership from the site administrator can significantly have an impact on
student learning. While prior research mainly studied leadership in terms of resource
allocation and other accountability demands, O’Donnell and White found that a school’s
learning environment can be related to the principal’s commitment to serving the
stakeholders and pursuing a shared purpose. By doing this, the principal builds
relationships that create a positive learning environment and these behaviors indicate
higher teacher perceptions of the principal’s instructional leadership and how it affects
student achievement.
Elementary schools in Lexington, Kentucky have made great strides in closing
their achievement gap with a focus first on addressing their needs for increased
discipline, followed by a focus on literacy. This reform came after a new principal was
appointed, and in asking the staff what the school’s greatest need was, almost
unanimously each one raised concerns over the lack of discipline within the school. The
school would develop a system-wide guideline for success, rules for effective listening in
the classroom, behavioral procedures, and lessons to teach those procedures. Training on
classroom management for the teachers also followed as well as a dress code for the

30

students. This school-wide undertaking also was accompanied by expanding their
language arts block to 2 hours in the morning each day, and assessing their students in
reading 5 times a year. The school reaped significant gains after a 4-year period, as 89
percent of the students were reading at grade level – a 74 percent increase since the
beginning of the implementation. The organizational movement also saw drastic change
in student behavior problems as well, while suspensions and incidents of misbehavior
reduced 69 and 78 percent respectively over the same 4-year period (Petrilli, 2005).
Schools committed to teacher collaboration time and providing a rigorous
standards-based curriculum have shown to be a strong practice for increasing
achievement for all students. Reeves (2000) took a closer look at high poverty schools
often referred to as “90/90/90” schools (at least 90% of students qualified for free and
reduced lunches, were members of ethnic minority groups, and met the district or state
mandated standards in reading or another subject). These schools were experiencing
success and Reeves noted that while the term “90/90/90” was not a real strong moniker,
many of their practices held promise for closing the equity gap. Reeves highlighted nine
characteristics that were common across the schools with the greatest academic
improvement. These characteristics were, in no order of importance:
1. The Impact of Collaboration
2. The Value of Feedback
3. The Impact of Time
4. Action Research and Mid-Course Corrections
5. Aligning Teacher Assignments with Teacher Preparation

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6. Constructive Data Analysis
7. Common Assessments
8. The Value of Every Adult in the System
9. Cross-Disciplinary Integration
While Reeves notes that these practices are surely not the complete list of
strategies to close the achievement gap, they are replicable for schools. Educators who
begin using approaches such as these can create an environment that is not based on the
“wait-to-fail” model, but where a more proactive design is present and programs are used
as early intervention rather than remediation. This idea of remediation has become
synonymous with efforts to try to narrow an achievement gap that is too wide, instead of
more consistently and frequently addressing student needs before the gaps become too
insurmountable (Beaton, 2007).
Proposed Reforms to Help Close the Gap
Efforts at beginning to close the achievement gap extend itself to viewing the
educational experience as a number of strategies to help remediate when necessary, but
also a proactive approach to prepare every student with access and opportunities usually
only available to students with financial means. For example, increasing the quality and
stability of housing for lower-class families may begin eliminating some outside school
factors hindering learning. In addition to improving the quality of the living situation,
having a stable residence decreases the chances of mobility for these students, which has
shown to lead to lower student achievement. This mobility factor also plays a role for the
students already in the class who can be disrupted by the presence of a new student or the

32

time spent by the class catching the new student up to speed with the organization,
schedule, and routine of the classroom (Rothstein, 2004).
More access to adequate health care is also necessary for students to flourish in
their school environment. It is clear that students with health related issues with no
resources for immediate or capable medical care will have a more difficult time learning.
The health care issue for parents is also relevant, as parents not in good health themselves
cannot be the quality provider and supporter of promoting achievement in the home
(Rothstein, 2004). It is possible that providing basic dental and vision care would
provide far greater gains academically than any money spent on teacher training or
instructional reforms.
The absence of an early education for minority and low-income students may
perhaps be the single greatest detriment for students. Entering kindergarten ready to
learn with some fundamental knowledge and access to an early childhood program would
greatly enhance and expedite the learning process for those low-income and minority
students. A simple task such as reading aloud to young children promotes language
acquisition and is correlated with literacy development. These practices provide children
their first pre-kindergarten experience with the alphabet, print, and characteristics of the
written language (Barton, 2003).
There are too many social and economic conditions that place families at risk of
learning at a similar rate of the more advantaged household. However, under the right
conditions, targeting those most at risk, the timing and intensity of the intervention, and
the professional development provided by those delivering the intervention, early

33

involvement and support can dramatically increase the chances for high-risk students
(Neuman, 2007). Exposing students to the school experience – well-educated adults,
language-rich environment – can allow lower-class students to gain the familiarity of a
school setting that would otherwise not be had in the home or in a day care surrounding
(Rothstein, 2004).
Expanding high quality early childhood programs even before the birth of
children may also be necessary in beginning to close any achievement gap. This
becomes noteworthy when considering children born to unhealthy parents are more likely
to be unhealthy themselves, and sick children with a lack of nourishment are predisposed
to underachieve in the classroom (Orfield et al., 2000). Lower-class students also tend to
have poorer vision and hygiene, more lead poisoning, more asthma, and more exposure to
smoke (Rothstein, 2005).
As the findings continue to demonstrate that minority students on average lack the
academic skills of their White peers when they begin school, many believe a change in
policy affecting all of the reforms aforementioned may help solve the differences in
achievement between groups of students. Suggestions to perhaps alter the inequities in
income for the parents of the children such as the income tax credits, child allowances, or
other redistributive efforts, may reduce the achievement gap, as it appears family income
is causal in academic differences (Duncan and Magnuson, 2005).
Providing supplementary education outside the regular school day and year can
also benefit minority student learning. Implementing outside opportunities for poor and
minority students are ubiquitous in comparison with students from more affluent and

34

educated parents. Such opportunities can and should include after-school, weekend,
summer and extended day programs (Orfield et al., 2000).
United States Secretary of Education, Margaret Spellings (2007) offers as one of
her principles to strengthen No Child Left Behind is to discover new avenues for
attracting and keeping the best teachers in our neediest schools. Spellings, like many,
believe teachers are instrumental in closing the achievement gap and they need to be
equipped with the most current, research-based instructional tools to help them do their
jobs.
Eliminating the inequality of funding between our schools is an overlapping step
in leveling the learning field between the disadvantaged and advantaged students. Even
as schools see an equal per pupil spending, this area of reform can become a moral issue,
as many believe that all students should be treated the same, with the same opportunities.
But we know not all students are the same and to treat them as such is a disservice for our
disadvantaged students. Funding students and schools as if each school encounters the
same problems and require the same needs is not an effective approach to addressing the
achievement gap (Gardner, 2007).
These inadequate funding structures cause many traits that swell the gap for those
students from poorer homes. These students are often receiving malnourishment at
critical times of their developing bodies and minds, as well as developing poor self
reflection and esteem as they view a lack of resources and opportunities (clothes, cars,
homes, computers, vacations, etc.) provided to their more advantaged students
(Gardner, 2007).

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Douglas Reeves (2007) believes the challenge facing schools is not a shortage of
evidence nor a lack of goals, but rather a systematic plan to address and implement the
research and strategies proven to meet our collective goals. Reeves states that leadership
is crucial to overcome these obstacles and proposes four specific strategies that school
leaders can employ to begin making a noteworthy difference for students and teachers.
The four strategies are 1) creating short-term wins, 2) recognize effective practices
throughout the year, 3) emphasize effectiveness, and 4) make the case for change. These
general strategies are in keeping with a list of others, some noted in this paper, which
encourage a different approach to teaching and learning so that the continuous
improvement cycle is at hand. Reeves suggests that schools can accomplish this with
immediate wins, visible recognition of what works, a focus on effectiveness rather than
what is popular, and an appeal to the common, collective values that the profession
shares.
The Learning First Alliance studied five school districts that demonstrated at least
three years of improved student achievement in math and/or reading across all groups of
students, and concluded there were seven factors that were essential to the success of
these districts (Togneri & Anderson, 2003):
1) Districts had the courage to acknowledge poor performance and the will
to seek solutions.
2) Districts put in place a systematic approach to improving instruction –
one that articulated curricular content and provided instructional
supports.

36

3) Districts instilled visions that focused on student learning and guided
instructional improvement.
4) Districts made decisions based on data, not instinct.
5) Districts adopted new approaches to professional development that
involved a coherent and district-organized set of strategies to improve
instruction.
6) Districts redefined leadership roles.
7) Districts committed to sustaining reform over the long haul.
The seven characteristics listed above are seen or present in schools succeeding in
closing the achievement gap and is in keeping with each of the abovementioned traits
noted in additional research. These findings continue to give hope to those schools that
are facing large gaps in learning among their population groups in addition to providing a
roadmap for these schools to begin making strides at finding their own success in
addressing these academic discrepancies.
English learners are and have been a hot topic for schools for decades. Because
these students make up a large population of our state’s students, educators and lobbyists
have been committed to finding the best instructional strategies and practices for these
students. While many suggest that the world must prepare our students for a global
economy, and stress the importance of bilingualism and multilingualism, California has
tightened the grips on the practice of teaching more than one language to our English
learners (Met, 2008). Many studies even show that learning a second language can have
significant academics benefits.

37

One such program that may expedite the proficiency of a second language for
students is an immersion program. An immersion program can be designed in many
ways, but one of the more successful noted programs is the dual immersion program.
The dual immersion program is an approach where half the school day instruction is in
English, while the other half is taught in the students’ native-tongue. There is a
considerable amount of research that suggests that English learners are more successful in
acquiring English proficiency in dual programs compared to any other type of approach
(Met, 2008).
In addition to specific programs there are many strategies that research has noted
that can successfully develop literacy skills in English. Explicit instruction in phonemic
awareness and phonics has proven to be beneficial for the early reading development of
English learners. It has also been demonstrated that the comprehension of English
learners improves when they read texts with culturally familiar content. Therefore,
teachers should make attempts to provide such literature whenever possible. Teachers
should also anticipate that these learners will inevitable be faced with texts that are
unfamiliar, so it is critical that teachers implement pre-reading activities that build
background knowledge (Manyak & Bauer, 2008).
Hill and Flynn (2006), through a meta-analysis, identified nine categories of
instructional strategies that proved to be exceptional in increasing performance for
English learners. These nine strategies are:
• Setting objectives and providing feedback
• Nonlinguistic representations

38

• Cues, questions, and advance organizers
• Cooperative learning
• Summarizing and note taking
• Homework and practice
• Reinforcing effort and providing recognition
• Generating and testing hypotheses
• Identifying similarities and differences
By setting objectives and providing feedback, teachers can narrow the focus of
the students and give them direction for learning. Information will then be offered on
how well they are performing relative to a learning goal.
Teachers that are able to use nonlinguistic representation can enhance the
students’ ability to represent and elaborate on what they have learned based on mental
images. This can help assure that students understand the material better and can recall
the information more readily.
By using cues, questions, and advance organizers, teachers augment students’
ability to retrieve, use and categorize what they have learned. These techniques will help
activate prior knowledge for English learners.
By working in cooperative groups, students can make sense of new knowledge by
learning and interacting with each other. Teachers should be consistent with the use of
cooperative learning groups while making sure students also have time to practice skills
independently.

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Teachers can boost learning by emphasizing summarizing and note taking as it
allows students to synthesize and organize information so that the main ideas and
supporting details are highlighted. These strategies help students process information and
eventually interpret it on their own.
Assigning homework and practice is necessary, as students must have
opportunities to learn by reviewing and applying knowledge. Students will never master
a skill without a significant amount of practice, which is when conceptual understanding
usually develops. In fact, it has been suggested that students generally do not reach
competency at an 80 percent level with a skill until they have practiced it at least 24
times.
Reinforcing effort and providing recognition is crucial to the student-teacher
relationship. By doing so, teachers enhance the students’ understanding of the
relationship, and can begin distinguishing between effort and achievement.
Generating and testing hypotheses is done when teachers ask students to explain
their hypotheses and conclusions. In doing so, the explanation of their thinking deepens
their understanding of the applied principle and usually clears up any misconceptions.
The final strategy of Hill and Flynn (2006) is identifying similarities and
differences. When students engage in these practices, they begin making fresh
connections and experience new insights. Identifying similarities and differences allows
an understanding at a much deeper level.
Perhaps most importantly, teachers must also understand the unique needs and
motivations of the learner while developing a personal relationship with the student

40

(Rance-Roney, 2008). Teachers must recognize that teaching students goes beyond
language issues, and must broaden itself to include the cultural and social needs of the
students. In fact, studies of Miller and Norton in 2000 suggest that learning for English
learners may positively change as a function of the interrelationships due to social power
dynamics (Yoon, 2008).
Summary
What the existing research has shown is that schools, like students, all have their
own unique and distinct dynamics causing, perpetuating, and at times, the successful
closing of the achievement gap.
The literature makes clear that there are countless contributing factors that help
widen the achievement gap. The review of the literature generalized the factors as having
originated and/or sustained from one, or both, of two environments: Academic and
Family/Community. The research also shows that the Academic Environment, which
includes the role of teacher, may need to be expanded due to the large impact of the
classroom teacher. Robert Marzano (2003) organizes results from over 35 years of
research in his book, What Works in Schools, and develops three general factors that
influence student achievement. These three factors are 1) School-level Factors, 2)
Teacher-level Factors, and 3) Student-level Factors. Each of these factors is closely
aligned to the organization of this literature review, with the exception of placing more
importance and emphasis on the teacher value.
The implications of the importance of teachers, and the school in general, also
reveal something far more important. The Literature Review describes many successful

41

schools and studies that have yielded significant results for those students caught in the
middle of America’s achievement gap. This must be critically noted, as the successful
practices of some have proved to be more important than any of the contributing factors
of the achievement gap. This means that while there are numerous reasons that cause the
gap, many of which are uncontrollable by schools, the school and teacher impact can
overcome these factors.
For this reason, the research thus far on the most successful practices that have
made a significant difference for our neediest children has shown the educational
community one thing: There must always be a constant search for site-specific methods
that increase student performance. Regardless of the political agendas, educational
reforms, and the public scrutiny on schools, educators must never deviate from their
ultimate objective that students deserve a high-quality education and the continuous
improvement cycle for discovering the best methods for meeting the potential of every
child.
Conclusion
While educators continue to wrestle with the achievement gap, they must be
careful not to make general statements about the low performances of certain groups.
Doing so may cause or perpetuate prejudices and stereotypical images (Flores, 2007). It
is seen that an approach to students with the mind frame that all students can learn, will
benefit all. Schools whose attitudes reflect that all students can learn, regardless of skin
color or family income, are more likely to begin making considerable gains in closing the
achievement gap (Rothstein, 2004; Rothman, 2002).

42

It is important to recognize that schools that have only minority or low-income
students making achievement gains compared to their White grade level peers is not
closing the learning gap. Nor is it simply schools that are the highest performing
(Anderson, Medrich, & Fowler, 2007). This understanding of the achievement gap also
becomes further complex as the term carries with it many different definitions. If the
commonly used or more widespread definition is used, which includes the difference on
achievement tests between demographic groups, there are many instances where schools
can mask the educational equity issue with school wide test results. For instance, a
California school can score in the upper decile rank on the state’s similar schools
accountability system, and still have a considerable gap between its White students and
minority groups. A school could have also reached the Federal Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP) goal in 2007, by having 24% of its students meet proficiency or
advanced in English/Language Arts, excluding itself from sanctions such as being
identified as a Program Improvement school. But is the possibility of having three-
fourths of its students, regardless of ethnicity, family income, or parent education level,
representative of a school closing the achievement gap? Therefore, it must be clearly
communicated to all stakeholders the difference in high performing schools versus school
closing the achievement gap. Or the difference between schools ranking high on state
reporting systems or meeting Federal Annual Measurable Objectives (AMO’s) versus
schools closing the achievement gap. It would also not be unthinkable to label schools as
closing the achievement gap only when they have demonstrated such over a significant
period of time. Therefore, this researcher will attempt to identify a school(s) for the

43

purpose of this case study that has both proven to outperform other schools with similar
demographics and has demonstrated results of a high performing school over a period of
at least 2 years.

44

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This section will depict the design, sample, instrumentation, data collection and
data analysis process of this dissertation. The purpose of this study was to examine a
school that has successfully closed the achievement gap between White and/or Asian and
affluent students and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners
and to identify the factors that have contributed to its success. The focus of the paper is
to isolate specific strategies, interventions and practices that the school has implemented,
using this paper’s definition, to narrow the achievement gap. The ultimate goal is to
compare these strategies, interventions and practices with those noted in the Literature
Review and determine which may be replicable for other schools attempting to increase
academic performance for all of their students.
The case study selected is a California elementary school demonstrating over a
period of time evidence of closing the achievement gap. The school was identified using
a criteria determined by a University of Southern California thematic dissertation group.
This group is composed of nine doctoral students who serve as site or central office
administrators. The following research questions, also collaboratively determined by the
thematic dissertation group, are as follows:
1. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?

45

2. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
3. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of
the achievement gap?
Conceptual Framework

Figure 3.1 represents the conceptual framework developed to illustrate the factors
and assumed correlations examined in this research. The correlation assumed was that a
number of factors, both internal and external of the educational school system, have a
direct influence on the learning process. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has set
target goals for all schools in the United States to have every student meet proficiency in
English/Language Arts and Mathematics by 2014. These high expectations require that
schools identify students who are not meeting these targets and intervene immediately to
ensure students have an opportunity to meet the federal goals. In doing so, schools have
recognized that unequivocally there is a disparity in academic performance between
groups of students, particularly between White and/or Asian and affluent students and
students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners. The research to date
has suggested there are some practices that schools have implemented which can be
generalized for all schools experiencing an achievement gap.

46

Figure 3.1 Conceptual Model: Environmental Factors contributing to student
achievement

Research Design
This study involved a qualitative method examining the case involved.
Qualitative data analysis generally is a result of fieldwork in which the researcher spends
time in the setting under the study (Patton, 2003). Because the purpose of this study is to
uncover characteristics, themes, patterns, and practices of the case study that increases
student achievement, Patton would consider this researcher’s design as program
evaluation. This type of evaluation is the “systematic collection of information about the

School
Personnel
Practice

School
Programs

School
Culture
School-wide
Professional
Development
School
Teacher
Instruction
and Practice

School
Leadership

Achievement
Performance
Federal
NCLB
State
Testing
Community
Expectations
Global
Community
School
Population
Accountability
Parent
Communication

Improve Teacher
Quality

Early Intervention

Collaboration/
Data Analysis
Achievement
Gap
Student
Achievement

47

activities, characteristics, and outcomes of programs to make judgments about the
program” (Patton, 2003, p. 10). Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003) also suggest that looking for
themes that present and support findings is a result of creating a “thick” description of the
study. A strong depiction provided this “thick” description and uncovered the meanings
and intentions inherent within the case study.
The method of using qualitative research hinged on the purpose to produce a
wealth of detailed information to describe a smaller sample (case study) which increases
the depth of understanding but may limit the generalizability. This researcher attempts to
link the efforts and practices of the case study with those mentioned in the Literature
Review in hopes of increasing general findings for readers and practitioners.
According to Patton (2003), qualitative inquiry allows the researcher to above all,
be the measuring instrument. Therefore, the credibility of the findings is based heavily
on the skill, competence, and rigor of the person doing the fieldwork. This qualitative
method also allowed the researcher to engage in a people-oriented study thus gathering a
more intimate and personal understanding of the details and results from the data
instruments.
This study included two researchers – a primary investigator and a co-
investigator. With the addition of a second researcher, the interviews and field
observations assisted in ensuring objectivity as well as validating the data that was
collected while at Mulligan Elementary. Creswell (2003) discusses a number of
procedures to check the accuracy of the findings, including peer debriefing and using an
external auditor. The use of a second researcher who experienced the same interviews

48

and observations, as well as having access to the same survey results and documents, is a
mixture of both of Creswell’s suggestions. The primary investigator had the objectivity
of the co-investigator to confirm and substantiate the findings of Mulligan Elementary.
Sample and Population
This study observed an elementary school in a school district located in Central
California. The participants of this study included members of the school, including
certificated teachers and site administrators. The criteria for the selection of the sample
were determined by the University of Southern California doctoral thematic dissertation
group described in this chapter. The following characteristics of schools demonstrating
significant gains in closing the achievement gap, as determined by the thematic group
were:
1. The school must have at least 30% of its students participating in the
National School Lunch Program (NSLP) (free or reduced lunch).
2. And must meet at least one of the following criteria:
• The school must score 20 points higher than the statewide API for
at least two of the following traditionally underperforming
subgroups (minority, lower socio-economic status, students with
disabilities, and English Language Learners) for at least two or
more years.
OR
• School has shown significant growth in their API for two or more
years in one or more traditionally underperforming subgroups.

49

OR
• The school has received a similar school ranking, as defined by the
state, of at least a seven over two years.
Process of Selection
The process for determining the selection and sample from this study is as
follows. Schools were first narrowed by eliminating all elementary schools that did not
meet the above criteria. The researcher then tapered the sample size by identifying the
highest scoring elementary schools using the California Public Schools Accountability
Act’s Academic Performance Index Similar Schools ranking system. Those schools were
then examined to find a school whose demographics include at least two significant
subgroups that were making significant growth. The growth made is of particularly
interest as their results are compared to other schools with similar demographics and
characteristics.
After a small field of possible schools meeting the aforementioned criteria was
selected, the researcher made contact to individual schools inquiring if they would be
willing to participate as a case study. The possible participants were made aware of the
topic of this study, as well as the means for collecting data and information, including
surveys and questionnaires from individuals. The schools were also made aware of the
researcher’s intention to visit and observe the school and classrooms no more than five
times over a period of the 2008-09 school year. Therefore, the sample for this study was
purposeful as the possible schools had to meet certain guidelines to be considered for the
study, in addition to their consent to be a part of this research.

50

Overview of the School
The site selected was an excellent example of a school closing the achievement
gap. Mulligan Elementary has clearly demonstrated student performance results that
meet this researcher’s criteria. The school is located on 20 acres of land in a diverse
urban neighborhood in California’s Central Valley. Mulligan Elementary serves almost
770 students in grades Kindergarten through Fifth, consisting of three significant
subgroups which include Hispanic, Economically Disadvantaged and English Learner
populations. Percentages of the school make-up are depicted in Table 3.1. School
performance data is illustrated in Table 3.2 showing the school’s Academic Performance
Index representing the academic achievement results of the school using the California
Standards Tests, which assist in confirming the school’s eligibility in meeting this
researcher’s criteria. Further school information demonstrating meeting the criteria
previously mentioned is shown in Table 3.3 regarding Similar Schools Ranking of
Mulligan Elementary.

51

Table 3.1
Mulligan Elementary School Make-Up
Student Group Percentage of School Percentage of District
White (Non-Hispanic) 6% 11%
Hispanic 79% 75%
Asian 1% 2%
Free and Reduced-Price Lunch 84% 84%
English Learners 37% 25%
G.A.T.E 11% 10%
Average Parent Education Level 2.56* 2.33*
*Number reflects the average response (1 - Not a High School Graduate; 2 – High School Graduate; 3 –
Some college; 4 – College graduate; 5 – Graduate school).

Table 3.2
Mulligan Elementary API History

2004 API
Base
2005 API
Growth
2006 API
Growth
2007 API
Growth
2008 API
Growth
Gains
since
2004
Schoolwide 665 695 695 721 736 +71
Hispanic 655 684 689 714 736 +81
Economically
Disadvantaged
654 682 680 709 730 +76
English
Learners
NA NA 672 692 707 +35*
*Growth since 2006 Growth API (no scores in 2004 or 2005).

Table 3.3
Mulligan Elementary Similar Schools Rankings
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007
Similar Schools
Ranking
8 9 7 9

Table 3.2 shares impressive results from Mulligan Elementary, as the school has
made considerable API growth since 2004 for each of the groups listed. Table 3.2

52

illustrates an average increase in the API of 65.8 points for each group represented,
including three traditionally underperforming subgroups. Table 3.3 shows that over the
past four years, Mulligan Elementary has ranked at least in the 70th percentile, including
twice in the 90
th
percentile, of schools with similar characteristics. The school certainly
represents that of both an outperforming school compared to like schools as well as a
school making significant growth with demographic populations that are generally the
lower scoring students.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The data collected in this research was complied through a variety of sources.
These sources included interviews, surveys and questionnaires, observations, and the
gathering of documents and records. Each of the collection instruments were initially
created by a subgroup of this researcher’s thematic dissertation group. The instruments
were eventually modified and agreed upon by the entire thematic dissertation group in the
fall of 2008. Each instrument supports one of the research questions in a variety of ways
and with a different perception.
Document/Records Review
The study included a review and analysis of relevant documents and records that
had a direct correlation with each research question. The documents were used to collect
information on the school’s approach to closing the achievement gap via programs,
practices, professional development, family and community outreach and partnerships,
assessments and research. The analysis of documents and records (Appendix A)
produced a further understanding of the background of the school, its students, and focus

53

areas, which also lead to a greater understanding of interview and survey responses and
observations.
Development of Interview Protocol
The protocol used for the interview questions were created keeping in mind the
intent of each of the three research questions. The participants interviewed in this study
were staff members of Mulligan Elementary in the A.K. Union School District. The
purpose of the interview was to ascertain the subjects’ feelings, thoughts, beliefs and
ideas regarding Mulligan Elementary’s success at closing the achievement gap. A
separate set of interview questions (Appendix B and C) were designated for each
interview, depending on the participant’s role at the school (i.e. interview questions for
teachers versus interview questions for administrators). The questions were also
organized by the researcher to more easily correspond with the responses of the interview
questions to a certain research question.
Interviews were conducted in November of 2008. Interviews ranged from 45
minutes – 1 hour. This study conducted two separate interviews consisting of 1) regular
classroom teachers and two specialists, and 2) site administrators (See Table 3.4). The
researcher documented each participant’s response to the interview questions by tape-
recording the interviews after being given consent. Handwritten note taking was limited
in every attempt to lessen any distraction for the interviewees during the process. Note
taking was solely used to record the researchers own ideas, including possible follow-up
questions, and noting any other non-verbal responses (gestures, body language, etc.).

54

Table 3.4
Background of Interviewed Mulligan Teachers
Participants Grade Taught/
Position
Years at
Mulligan
Years in
Education
Teacher First Grade 6 9
Teacher First Grade 4 5
Teacher Academic Coach 6 15
Teacher Third Grade 5 12
Teacher Intervention
Specialist
6 16
Teacher Fifth Grade 6 10
Teacher Second Grade 6 12
Teacher Fourth Grade 6 7
Administrator Principal 6 15
Administrator Vice-Principal 1 19

Development of the Survey
The surveys (Appendix D and E) used by this researcher is intended to show the
perceived impressions from both the teachers and administrators of the school and its
efforts, including, but not limited to school programs, practices and strategies to close the
achievement gap. The survey also includes questions inquiring to the following domains:
Teacher Collaboration, Instructional Development, Leadership, and Use of Data. Each of
the responses were recorded using a 4-point Likert Scale (1=Strongly Disagree,
2=Disagree, 3=Agree, and 4=Strongly Agree).

55

Development of the Observational Tool
The development of the observation tool (Appendix F) was a collaborative effort
that allows the researchers to identify themes and practices that may be significant to the
case study closing the achievement gap. The observational tool was developed using
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) organizational paradigm frame. These frames include
structural, political, human resource, and symbolic themes. The purpose of the
observational tool was to witness and validate ideas stated by the participants, and
examine the practices that were said to positively impact the achievement of the minority
and low-income students.
This observational tool made possible for the researcher to witness various events
related to improving student performance, specifically for the disadvantaged students.
The observations of the case study included informal and unannounced classroom visits,
as well as an observation of a staff meetings and student recesses.
Relation of Research Questions to Instrumentation
Research Question One: Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
The intent of this question was to determine the programs utilized by the entire
school that promotes student achievement and influences academic gains for lower
performing students. The programs were then compared to programs, if any, that were
described in the Literature Review. The programs present with this case study were
noted and documented using the instrumentations of the document review, interviews,
surveys and observations.

56

Research Question Two: Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
The purpose of this question was to determine which instructional practices used
throughout the school have a significant impact on raising student performance. These
practices were compared to research noted in the Literature Review for patterns that may
be viewed as “best practices” that could be applied to any school setting. Data for this
research question was collected through document reviews, observations, participant
surveys and interviews.
Research Question Three: Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the
closing of the achievement gap?
The purpose of this question was to analyze any actions set forth due to the
recognition of underachievement by certain groups of students. The findings would
determine if these strategies had an actual impact on the improving of performance by
these groups of students. Data for research question three was collected through
document review from the school site, participant surveys, interviews, and through site
observations.
Data Analysis
The method of data collection involved four essential instruments for analyzing
the information. The core of the data analysis involved Creswell’s six steps of Data
Analysis and Interpretation (Creswell, 2003). This information was first arranged so that
the information was organized depending on how the data was gathered. This may have
involved transcribing responses from interviews and typing notes from observations or

57

survey results. The information was then read thoroughly to acquire a general sense of its
meaning. Some general thoughts and impressions were recorded by the researcher at this
point. This lead to a coding process in an attempt to unravel and “chunk” the data into
specific categories that may lead to the next stage of identifying noteworthy themes. In
this stage, a detailed description regarding the information collected is generated to
establish various themes. Three to seven themes were used as the basis of the findings
for this case study. These themes were then scrutinized to understand the evolution of
these characteristics with the school being examined to explain this study’s process in
closing the gap. The final step was relaying this researcher’s interpretation and meaning
from the themes identified and their impact on raising student performance.
Patton (2003) suggests that qualitative findings made by a researcher are findings
that imply significance, though outside readers will interpret the findings with their own
judgment and determine the level of significance, if any, for them. The full analysis and
findings reported in Chapter Four were based on the researcher’s information collected
and the observations which occurred first hand.
Summary
The purpose of this case study was to determine the characteristics and practices
present at Mulligan Elementary School. The research design included a triangulation
approach to data collection whereas major stakeholders at the school site were observed,
surveyed, and interviewed to identify the distinctiveness which has proven to narrow the
achievement gap between students at this elementary site.

58

The intent of this chapter was to provide the methods of research used to gather
information and data, including the research design, background and criteria met by the
sample observed, a conceptual map, the data collection instruments used, and the process
of analyzing the information that was collected. Chapter Four, which follows, will note
the actual findings of the research at Mulligan Elementary School with some analysis of
those findings.

59

CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS
Introduction
This chapter will present the findings of the study and an analysis of the data.
The purpose of this study was to identify the characteristics and practices that have
resulted in Mulligan Elementary raising academic performance for the traditional
underperforming subgroups that are at the center of the achievement gap. The case study
of Mulligan Elementary was one of nine as part of a thematic dissertation group, also
examining the contributing factors of closing the achievement gap for these K-12 public
schools. The research findings answered the following three research questions in this
study:
1. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
2. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
3. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of
the achievement gap?
The collection of the data at Mulligan Elementary consisted of document reviews,
participant surveys, interviews, and observations. The researcher reviewed relevant
documents related to the overall make-up of the school, including demographic and
teacher information, test results, mission statements and daily operational information.
The following documents were reviewed for this study: Single Plan for Student

60

Achievement, School Accountability Report Card, Daily Schedule, School website, and
California Standards Test Results and Accountability Progress Reports on the California
Department of Education website.
In addition to a document analysis, 32 participants completed surveys during a
staff meeting. Participants included 30 certificated teachers and 2 site administrators. A
survey for teachers and administrators were distributed according to position and each
survey consisted of 37 questions addressing the three research questions of this case
study. Both the teacher and administrative survey can be found in Appendix D and
Appendix E respectively.
Teacher and Administrative interviews were also conducted. This study used the
teacher interview questions listed in Appendix B and included responses from eight
teachers of varying grade levels and years of experience. Following teacher interviews,
both the Principal and Vice-Principal were interviewed together using interview
questions that are listed in Appendix C. The interviews of each group were audio taped
(with consent) to assist in transcribing the responses given by the participants.
The final data collection tool was classroom observations. Classroom teachers
were observed in their classroom using an observation template that can be found in
Appendix A. A short observation also took place during the time visiting a regular staff
meeting upon the initial visit to Mulligan Elementary.
Upon completion of the data collection, an analysis was conducted using
Creswell’s six steps of Data Analysis and Interpretation (Creswell, 2003) referred to in
Chapter Three. Information gathered through observations, interviews, surveys, and

61

documents were organized, studied, coded, and separated into chunks. Emerging themes
were then identified and interpreted in order to answer the three research questions.
Having access to a co-investigator also added to the accuracy of the findings that
will be presented in Chapter Four. Once initial themes were determined by the primary
researcher, the co-investigator was asked to also analyze the data and create their own
themes for the case study. In this instance, all the themes, with the exception of the exact
titles of the themes, were similar with the exception of one. The behavior of students and
the impact it has on student performance, particularly in closing the achievement gap,
was listed as a theme by the co-investigator. This researcher decided that the important
aspect of student behavior be included in a predetermined theme (Strong School Culture).
Interview transcribes that were used in this dissertation were also confirmed by
the co-investigator as accurate, as a second tape recording of interviews were conducted
as well.
Initial Impressions of Mulligan Elementary
Mulligan Elementary sits upon the southwest part of town, where the city grows
closer to the suburbs that are dominated by the agriculture economy. This part of the city
is commonplace for transients and graffiti; however, Mulligan exhibited every feature of
an affluent school where the aesthetic appearance was impressive for any area. The
elementary school sits on 20 acres and is clearly the pride and joy of the neighborhood.
Impressions of the visitors and parents were first made as the student drop-off process ran
as smoothly as if the parents had created the traffic rules themselves. Where most
schools struggle to keep parents in their cars to keep the traffic slowly moving for a safe

62

and orderly manner, Mulligan parents, without the watch of numerous staff members,
calmly waited in their cars for their turn to drop off their children in front of the school.
Parents and visitors waved and smiled at each other, and the same was true for the
greeting we received upon entering the school.
Like most successful schools, the office appeared to be coordinated by a cheerful
and welcoming group, each greeting us with pleasantries each time we made a visit, and
were always willing to provide us with directions or information to make our stay more
efficient. While the school has only been opened for 6 years, providing a clean and
inviting environment is clearly a priority for the Mulligan family.
Responses to Research Questions
Data for Research Question One
Research Question One: Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
This question was posed as a means of determining programs the teachers and
administrators felt had a significant impact on closing the achievement gap for the
students of Mulligan Elementary. Data collected to answer Research Question One was
gathered from document analysis, interviews, surveys and observations. The
information accumulated revealed there was one strong emerging theme that answered
the first research question - an emphasis on building a strong school culture.
Strong School Culture
Mulligan Elementary is an excellent example of a neighborhood school in which
the staff creates an environment that sends a message that the school is a direct extension

63

of the home. For most of the students at Mulligan, not only is their school clearly the
most conducive setting for learning they have, but Mulligan also provides the safest and
most nurturing climate as well. At this clean and inviting campus, students have come to
appreciate and take honor in their school, and it is demonstrated by the engagement and
everyday behavior of the students.
One of the aspects this researcher enjoyed, perhaps more than anything else
witnessed while at Mulligan Elementary, was observing the behavior and attitudes of the
students. Whether it was before school or near 5:00 PM during the after school program,
these students truly seemed to be happy and learning, savoring their minutes spent while
at school. A most impressive example demonstrating student behavior and respect for the
adults at Mulligan was during a primary grade morning recess. The students used their
playtime much like any typical second and third grader would – playing on the ball wall,
climbing on the jungle gym, walking with the yard duty aide, reading quietly on a bench,
etc. However, what stood out as unusual was the behavior that would immediately
follow the early bell. The students, upon hearing their auditory reminder that recess was
over, made their way quickly and orderly to their designated position on the blacktop to
await their teachers. The yard aides needed not to raise their voices to encourage students
to form a line or remain quiet for someone to retrieve their students for class. During the
one or two minute wait (an eternity for a seven or eight-year old) for their teacher to lead
them back to class, the students remained in an orderly and uncharacteristically quiet line
almost appearing to prefer to return to their class work than continue with recess.

64

In addition to more than impressive playground behavior, the office was never
observed as having to deal with difficult parents or students. In fact, not once during the
visits for the study of Mulligan Elementary was a student noted in the office for a visit to
the principal or vice-principal for a disciplinary issue.
The same would hold true for the behavior during instructional time for the more
than 35 classroom visits at Mulligan. The teachers at the school were felt by this
researcher to make classroom management and discipline a top priority in their
classrooms. Whether it was reminding students to “sit on their bottoms”, or “look at me
(teacher) when I speak to you”, or simply having students change their conduct cards if
undesirable behavior warranted such an action, teachers unmistakably established control
in each of the classrooms witnessed.
The teachers also made great efforts to assure behavior and order was permeated
in their overall organization of their classroom and its procedures. The practice of Class
Meetings was discussed during teacher interviews and how they are used to talk with the
students about what is appropriate behavior. One teacher remarked how the Class
Meetings has caused a change, from her telling the students not to do something, to the
students talking to each other about why they do not do it and what are the solutions or
alternatives to the actions. Mulligan teachers use a variety of approaches to create an
environment that promotes cooperation, accountability, and recognition that musters
strong attentiveness and conduct.

65

The principal, during the interview, credited much of the behavior and school
culture to the efforts and commitment of the school’s Student Intervention Facilitator
(SIF):
We have been pretty successful in putting things in place so that we don’t see the
same children over and over again, and I think a big part of that is our SIF person
who spends a lot of time out on the playground, interacting with kids in a positive
way and working with noon assistants, and everyone who comes into contact with
children, to give them strategies on how to deal with certain situations and handle
it out there.

The designs of the classrooms were almost unanimously set-up for regular
engagement and interaction. Desks were arranged in teams and/or table groups to
encourage cooperation and a sense of a team. The staff at Mulligan also demonstrated
the use of centers or reading groups observed during language arts blocks. These groups
were often asked to work independently without adult supervision or help, causing the
students to problem solve, self regulate, and help each other when needed.
Both teacher and administrative surveys gave strong indications that a purposeful
intent is placed on forming cooperative groups that learn the value of teamwork.
Questions 29, 34 and 35 all centered around this issue. Question 29 inquired how much
thought went into developing lessons that create cooperative learning experiences for
their students. Of the 32 responses (30 teachers and 2 administrators), 53% agreed they
consciously design lessons to create cooperative learning experiences while 47% strongly
agreed to the same. The emphasis for teachers on designing their days which include
cooperative learning is overwhelming.
Question 34 asked if teachers created social interaction among students by
requiring them to work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities. Of the

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32 responses, 14 (44%) agreed they attempt to create these interactions, while the
remaining 18 (56%) strongly agreed. Question 35 attempted to find out if teachers varied
the size and composition of learning groups. Again, 44% agreed teachers vary the size
and composition of learning groups and 56% strongly agreed this was commonplace.

Table 4.1
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding
Cooperative Learning and Social Interaction
Administrative Question Phrased in Parenthesis

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
29. When developing my lessons (teachers
develop), I (teachers) consciously consider how
to create cooperative learning experiences for
my (their) students.
Strongly
Agree
47% 15
Agree 53% 17

34. When teaching, I (teachers) create social
interaction among students by requiring students
to work as a team with both individual and
group responsibilities.
Strongly
Agree
56% 18
Agree 44% 14

35. When teaching, I (teachers) vary the size and
composition of learning groups.
Strongly
Agree
56% 18

Agree 44% 14

The principal also noted the efforts of teachers and the implications in interacting
with students as she remarked, “For me, I think looking back at my own education and
getting into classrooms here. The thing that I see that is most decisive is the teacher and
how they interact with their children.”

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The actions of self and team-reliance were evident on numerous occasions. While
the teacher met with small groups to read the story of the week from the reading series,
students were frequently seen attempting to earn points for their group by staying on task.
Actions that warranted such praise included completing art projects, quizzing each other
on Math Facts or Vocabulary Words, participating in a listening center or a software
program in the computer area, or reading to a partner to build fluency. Each of the above
manners, and countless others, build strong teamwork and a sense of fulfillment that help
create a second-to-none environment for learning.
Students also take great pride in their classrooms as a place that they help create.
Every classroom at Mulligan is decorated with great imagination, but more significant,
the classrooms are adorned with student work. The bulletin boards are lined with student
writings and test results. Mobiles drape from the ceilings and charts hang with student
progress. The white boards include group or table points earned by the teams serving as
a constant reminder that behavior is monitored and good work rewarded. Students who
engage in an environment such as these have no other choice but to understand the
classroom is there for them, to celebrate their efforts, and to send the message that they
are architects of their own learning.
Teachers at Mulligan make great efforts to build an environment where students
want to be everyday and learn. Classrooms are often identified with a pirate, beach, or
Hollywood (“Clawsonwood”) theme to excite students about their place of learning for
the next nine months. Students are given the confidence and opportunity to share about
their weekends each Monday morning, bringing something from their home and family

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lives into their world at school. And students are truly set up to be a part of their own
learning. Teachers use “actors” (volunteers) to illustrate their lessons, students create
their own flashcards as teaching tools for themselves and their neighbors, and often
teachers ask the class to turn to a shoulder partner and “think-pair-share”. These
strategies are used to build a risk-free atmosphere, prompting students who would
otherwise not feel at ease to interact and share their ideas, suggestions and answers with a
large group.
Survey results from both teachers and administrators disclosed concerted efforts
to further student and teacher engagement. Question 28 asked if conscious consideration
was given when designing lessons to create active learning experiences for students to
facilitate engagement. Thirty-two responses felt strongly that there was a conscious
decision to meet the needs of social interaction to stimulate engagement. 38% (12
responses) agreed, while 62% (20 responses) strongly agreed. Question 32 of both
surveys wondered if teachers move among the students engaging individually and
collectively during the learning experience. An astonishing 27 responses (84%) strongly
agreed they move around during the learning experience encouraging engagement, while
the remaining 5 participants agreed (16%).

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Table 4.2
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding Student
Engagement
Administrative Question Phrased in Parenthesis

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
28. When developing my lessons (teachers
develop), I (teachers) consciously consider how
to create active learning experiences for my
(their) students to facilitate engagement.
Strongly
Agree
62% 20
Agree 38% 12

32. When teaching, I (teachers) move among the
students, engaging individually and collectively
with them during the learning experience.
Strongly
Agree
84% 27
Agree 16% 5

A culture of learning is not simply bound to the inside of the classroom walls.
The first visit to Mulligan Elementary included the observation of the after school
program. The program, much in keeping with the theme of closing the achievement gap,
is called Success After School, and the visitor’s packet has printed at the top “Leveling
the Playing Field: Building the Capacity of Young People to Succeed”. The program is
offered free to parents for the first 130 students in grades first through fifth. The
program operates Monday through Friday beginning at dismissal time and ending when
the parents arrive for pick-up sometime between 5:30 – 6:00 PM. The 4-hour program
includes a myriad of activities that build school culture, responsibility, and a sense of
belongingness. Each day the Success After School Program offers snacks, class
meetings, enrichment activity centers, and homework help. The walk-through included
visits to different grade level programs operated by non-credentialed classified

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employees. The classrooms of the teachers offered to the Success After School Program
for use, classrooms were filled in some instances with 30 students. However, the absence
of credentialed and trained teachers with experience with classroom management was not
lost by this most enjoyable program. For this researcher, who has heard from teachers
and parents alike that more than a day or two of after school programs lasting more than
an hour are merely ineffective due to student engagement and loss of interest, the
attentiveness and behavior of these students of Mulligan’s after school program was truly
an awakening of what can be accomplished.
Also available for fourth and fifth graders is a sports and cheerleading program.
These extra-curricular activities again provide an outlet for pride and ownership in their
school, while establishing an appreciation of what Mulligan provides that cannot be
attained outside of their school. The Success After School Program overview states that
the sports and cheerleading program include and teach:
Appropriate warm-up procedures, the importance of teamwork, self-discipline,
team dynamics, and the importance of staying fit. Students must maintain their
grades, attend practice, and return a signed permission slip.

The handout includes goals of the Success After School Program, some of which uses the
message from the After School Alliance. This section reads:
Our goals are to provide a physically and emotionally safe environment for young
people to learn through participation and practice, to support the improved
academic achievement of young people, and to help working families by
providing a no-cost option for young people in the hours between 2:00 and 6:00
PM. Research has shown that “children in afterschool programs get better grades
than their peers. They show greater interest in school, learn new skills and exhibit
improved behavior. Youth who do not attend after school programs are at greater
risk of being involved in crime, and are missing out on important opportunities to
learn and grow.” (After School Alliance, 2004)

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The above goals of the Success After School Program are not fortuitously aligned to the
School Description and Mission Statement found in the School Accountability Report
Card. The statement reads:
Mulligan School looks upon each student as an individual. Therefore, it is
academically oriented with an environment where each child is surrounded by
caring and understanding that fosters personal growth for the child and provides
excellence, equity, and capacity to ensure academic achievement for all students.

The school has bluntly sent the message that all activities and programs will share
a similar vision for what they will offer their students, and the approach has paid
dividends for the entire Mulligan Community.
Question One Reflections
The following story of a Mulligan Elementary instructional aide is a typical
example of the staff commitment to the school and what it represents. An instructional
aide was experiencing a difficult time, as her mother was quite ill and in the intensive
care unit at the local hospital. Instead of missing work completely, she made her way to
Mulligan to drop off muffins to a group of students on her way to being with her mother
at the hospital. The instructional aide’s reasoning for this gesture, which many would
assume be postponed for a later date, was simply that she had promised the students the
muffins and it was important to them.
The teachers of Mulligan Elementary are not necessarily attempting to experiment
with cutting-edge methods of building a strong community, resulting in first-rate student
behavior and engagement. The teachers are merely consistent and thorough in their
management, including genuinely believing that their efforts will produce a setting that is

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conducive to learning. They are proactive and understand that their hard work will reap
long lasting ramifications that will allow students to meet their highest potential.
Whether by sheer fortune or purposeful design, the assembly of the Mulligan staff
is a nice mix of diversity, both in age, teaching experience, backgrounds, gender, and
ethnicity. This blend of outstanding staff members indirectly seeps into the perspective
of the students and parents of Mulligan Elementary, representing excellent role models
and the best life has to offer. Perhaps most importantly, the students view the teachers as
an extension of themselves, and/or their own way of life. These teachers represent
everything these students know, making strong connections to their life outside of school,
and thus building aspirations for a future of their own.
The strong school culture of Mulligan can be seen through the lens of Bolman and
Deal’s Four Organizational Frames (2003). Two of the frames stand out as clear
depictions of the school and the culture created. Mulligan is without a doubt a school
who represents the Human Resource Frame. The staff emphasizes the importance of
people and teamwork, both in and out of the classroom. The Symbolic Frame also has a
strong presence. It seems the people involved with students at Mulligan care about
getting people excited and committed to the school’s vision. This approach proves to be
working, and is unmistakable in student test scores and behavior.
Data for Research Question Two
Research Question Two: Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievements gap?

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A school that has as much success as Mulligan Elementary with perhaps some of
the most challenging demographics in the county would ultimately, but not surprisingly,
demonstrate a number of practices that is undeniably making an impact in closing the
achievement gap. Through the data collection process using the instrumentation of
surveys, observation, interviews and document reviews, three themes surfaced and
resonated as to why Mulligan is making considerable headway at closing the achievement
gap. The following three themes are at the center of strong practices for Mulligan
Elementary: 1) strong teacher collaboration and support, 2) use of assessments to drive
instruction, and 3) strong leadership.
Teacher Collaboration and Support

“It truly is all about taking care of each other and that open communication is just key”.
– Mulligan Principal during the Administrative Interview

The teachers at Mulligan Elementary epitomize a staff that unconditionally learn
from and support each other on an ongoing basis. While the school has a systematic and
formalized schedule for teachers to meet, share, and plan instruction, it would not be
difficult to assume these dedicated teachers would continue their level of collaboration
informally if it were not built into their calendars.
Teachers are afforded opportunities to meet regularly through grade level
meetings every other week. The purpose of these meetings is used for numerous reasons,
including in-servicing, planning, sharing of best practices, and data analysis. Grade level
meetings have also been used for developing SMART Goals for reading, writing and
math. The teachers assigned to the Leadership Team also meet frequently to discuss and
learn new proposed district practices and assessments, instructional strategies, or

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brainstorm a new activity for Mulligan. Grade level meetings are also used for the
Leadership Team to present this new information, and write-ups from these meetings
must be sent to the principal and vice-principal.
Survey results more than supported the idea that collaboration was a focus for
Mulligan teachers. Three of the survey questions (#7, #8, and #14) probed as to what the
level and acceptance of collaboration is for the Mulligan staff. Question 7 asked if
teachers were encouraged to collaborate with each other on instructional matters
regularly. While all agreed that this practice is encouraged, 28 out of 32 of the responses
(88%) strongly agreed collaboration was promoted. The question of whether or not
teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional development
goals and objectives for the school was number eight on the teacher and administrative
survey. While one response disagreed with the notion, 15 agreed and 16 strongly agreed.
The final question regarding collaboration on the survey asked if teachers sought
feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching. This question (#14 on the
surveys) received 19 responses (59%) that strongly agreed, 12 that agreed (38%), and 1
that disagreed (3%).

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Table 4.3
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding Teacher
Collaboration

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
7. Teacher are encouraged to collaborate with
other teachers on instructional matters on a
regular basis.
Strongly
Agree
88% 28
Agree 12% 6

8. Teachers have an active role in identifying
and implementing professional development
goals and objectives for the school.
Strongly
Agree
50% 16
Agree 47% 15

Disagreed 3% 1

14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers
to improve their teaching.
Strongly
Agree
59% 19

Agree 38% 12

Disagreed 3% 1

Interviews were perhaps the greatest supporter of data collected that stresses the
collaboration at Mulligan. The vice-principal stated:
Collaboration is big within our grade levels and we are even trying to get it
between grade levels so that the teachers talk, you know, “what do we expect
when they come to us”. Communication, that’s what I think is the most
important. Between teachers, between teachers and us (administrators), between
teachers and parents, I think communication is really the key so everybody knows
that everybody is on the same page and that we all have the same vision, and
that’s to have our students succeed.

The interviews with administrators also revealed the evolution of teacher
collaboration at Mulligan, and the challenges and realities of a systemic approach to
professional dialogue. With a structure that encourages and mandates collaboration,
many productive truths have surfaced, as noted by Mulligan principal:

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They’ll have to sit and honestly expose themselves and pick apart their data, but
the level of comfort that they have with each other is better than it has ever been.
So they can allow themselves, they can open themselves up to be a little more
vulnerable because they know it is going to improve their teaching.

The vice-principal commented, adding on the professionalism of the sometimes tough
aspects of collaboration, “We also respectfully disagree with each other. They disagree
with the point, but they don’t tear the person down.”
Collaboration was also seen as a commitment to similar rigor and expectations in
each classroom for every student. It was not uncommon to see like topics and lessons
within the same grade levels. If one Kindergarten class was learning using a thematic
unit on the color “orange”, the color of the week, then the Kindergarten class next door
was also teaching the same color at the same time of day. Collaborative planning is
noticeably evident for the teachers, which creates common goals, expectations, and
instructional techniques. Not only does this collaboration benefit the teacher in his or her
craft, but it makes a difference for the students and what is being learned, and even
positively impacts the credibility with parents, as they know students are learning the
same thing in every classroom.
Teacher support is also seen, as teachers want to prepare their students for the
next grade level so that the next year’s teacher can meet his or her goals. A first grade
teacher gave an example during interviews that her students, coming from Kindergarten,
already know what the “tree map” is and how to organize and brainstorm the writing,
allowing the teachers to move them forward. Another example of teacher support from a
fourth grade teacher surfaced during interviews:

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[Teacher’s name] is next door to me, she’s a third grade teacher, going over there
and she would show me, “Look, this is what we’re doing this trimester in third
grade”. And it’s already meeting fourth grade standards, so that’s one of those
things that really promotes student achievement.

A third grade teacher would remark immediately following the above statement that
teachers try “going above the standards”. She noted that third graders are supposed to be
able to write one good paragraph, but the third grade team wants to help the fourth grade
teachers, so they teach their students the skeleton of a five-paragraph essay to help get
them ready for the next grade level.
Proof of collaboration and support was also observed in other curricular areas.
Mulligan does not have a Physical Education (P.E.) specialist, therefore the teachers are
responsible for providing the state mandated requirements for P.E. to their students.
Teachers entrust their students with others, as teachers take turns rotating P.E. units. The
English Language Development (ELD) rotations are also additional testimony of
planning and collaboration to ensure commonalities with their teachings. While
providing instruction that is appropriate for students’ ability level, efforts are made to
ensure students are learning material that will support their content learning outside of the
ELD lesson.
In regards to ELD, Mulligan principal noted:
They had to work in collaboration with each other. So whatever was being taught
in one classroom was also being taught in the classroom next door regardless of
ELD level. So the content was the same, just the way that they presented it and
what they were requiring the kids to do, you know, as far as their responses, were
different. But they were trying to hit all four domains – reading, writing, listening
and speaking – every single day. If they were covering, for instance, synonyms
one day in one classroom, then that was going to be covered across the board of
how they approach that with the different proficiency levels, but the kids would at
least come back with a common language.

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Staff does not only appreciate the level of support and collaboration at Mulligan,
but it is recognized as a special culture that creates a vehicle for success. A summation of
the staff’s perspective of collaboration is stated by one teacher as, “I want to say that it’s
pretty unique to this campus, because I’ve worked at other campuses too, but this group
of teachers, that’s what they focus on is collaboration with one another and across grade
levels.”
The Use of Assessments
“I think the increase in data-driven instruction, just accountability, has really made a
difference in the way that we teach.” – Teacher statement during interview.

Both the new and veteran teachers at Mulligan Elementary understand that
standards-based curriculum is a non-negotiable part to raising student achievement. In
this era of high stakes testing and accountability, teachers must be able to use
assessments to drive instruction, and be able to analyze the assessment results to better
understand the needs and trends of student performance. Teacher and administrative
interview responses and classroom observations also concealed that using evidence to
prove learning is central to every teacher’s planning, instruction and re-teaching
approach.
As previously mentioned, teacher collaboration is a practice that has clearly made
a difference in the achievement for Mulligan students. This formalized collaboration also
takes shape in the form of unwrapping standards, analyzing data, and making
instructional decisions based on the assessment results. The principal commented on
what the data has done for collaboration and improving instruction during the interview:

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Once they started pulling apart the data and they know that their friend next door
has 80% proficient on the exam and they are that teacher sitting at 27% proficient,
they are going, “wow, what is she doing that I’m not doing.” It opens up that
dialogue between them as professionals.

As the power of using assessment results became necessary, the administration set
up “Data Days”. These days for grade levels teams, occur at the beginning of the school
year, and once following the end of each quarter. This beginning of the year “Data Day”
includes identifying and learning about their incoming classes and individual students, as
well as reviewing their scope and sequence. Subsequent “Data Days” involve analysis of
grades, benchmarks, and teacher-created SMART Goals. Teachers also use the
blueprints for the California Standards Test (CST) to guide their instruction to better
prepare students for what is expected of them. Teachers also commented on the item
bank of questions that the school has as a resource. This item bank allows teachers to
pull questions based on the standards the students seemed to perform poorly on, and ret-
teach concepts to ensure mastery.
The power of assessments has also been supported and encouraged by the
principal. On the walls of the principal’s office are class lists that include every student’s
name. These class lists serve as an assessment gauge, as each grade level’s essential
standards are featured at the top. Each student has a green color next to their name when
a standard has been mastered. The principal uses these lists to monitor progress, follow-
up with encouragement for the students, and to keep a line of dialogue open with the
teachers in order to support them when needed. These lists also assist the principal in
referrals for special programs and interventions, as well as communicating with parents.

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The use of assessments has been widely accepted by teachers and the value it
brings to improving instruction and improving student achievement. Data, for Mulligan
teachers, seems to come first when it comes to instruction. The following statements by
teachers illustrate this opinion:
[Principal’s first name] could come up to me and say “what’s the score on so and
so”, and I would know. It’s just locked into my brain.

All of our teachers know EL levels without looking in their running records.
They can tell you if they’re proficient or not, they can tell you where they are
struggling, where their strengths are. Every kid, they know.

Teacher and Administrator Surveys also demonstrated a belief and commitment
by the staff to use assessment data as a constant central practice. Question 5 from both
surveys examined if the staff believed the school had a school-wide program to assist
teachers in the use of academic assessments to provide meaningful information to
improve instruction. All 32 responses were of the opinion that there was a program in
place to use academic assessments to better the instructional program, while 17 of those
32 strongly agreed.
Question 12 posed the issue of whether or not assessment of student learning was
used to improve student performance, not just monitor the results. Out of 32 responses,
75% strongly agreed and 25% agreed that assessments are used to improve achievement
as opposed to simply just monitoring performance.
The final question targeting the use of data was # 13 of both surveys. The
question raised was if the assessments of student learning were based on specific
identifiable academic standards. More than a third of the responses (25 responses; 78%)

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strongly agreed, while 22% (7 responses) agreed that the assessments of student learning
were aligned to specific academic standards.

Table 4.4
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding Use of
Assessment Data

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
5. My school has a school-wide program or
programs to assist teachers in the use of
academic assessments to provide information
on, and to improve, the achievement of
individual students and the overall instructional
program.
Strongly
Agree
53% 17
Agree 47% 15

12. Assessment of student learning is directed to
improving, rather than just monitoring, student
performance.
Strongly
Agree
75% 24
Agree 25% 8

13. The assessment of student learning is based
on specific, clearly indentified academic
standards for student performance.
Strongly
Agree
78% 25

Agree 22% 7

Teachers can also make the distinction between formal and informal assessing.
Formal assessing takes shape in many forms at Mulligan including district-created
benchmarks, DIBELS, AIMS, Reading A-Z, Fast Track, Accelerated Reader, Theme
Skills Tests, Early Success, and CST testing, just to name a few. However, Mulligan
teachers work diligently at informal assessing to gauge student mastery and

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understanding. This informal assessing guide the teaching pace and allows teachers to re-
teach daily when it is evident one or more students are not learning. Teachers were
observed informally assessing using nonstop interaction and manipulatives. Using
students to describe the solutions verbally to the class, coming up to the board or
overhead projector to demonstrate understanding, or sharing on their own white boards to
show the answer, has become a strong and effective practice for classrooms. Teachers
also have noticed these exercises have allowed students to feel comfortable learning from
each other and the genuine excitement that comes from everyone mastering a skill,
concept, or standard. One teacher made reference to the power of informally assessing
and including the students in their own learning during the interviews:
With regard to the relationship between me and my students, I’ve noticed a
difference in the way that I have been informally assessing them. I know it seems
like two separate things, but it links together with regard to their motivation and
how encouraged they are. I’ve kind of changed a little bit, rather than just
disseminating the information one way, I have been involving them more in
making them feel a part of the teacher process, so when we do, for example, we
create our writing rubric, we create it together and they have a voice to where they
have ownership. So every time we are done with something we evaluate it
together and we talk about what criteria did we establish, why did we meet that
criteria, why is it great work, so there’s this sense of pride that just kind of comes
out of them just from the fact that they communicate their work.

The entire A.K. Union School District, which includes Mulligan Elementary,
unofficially serves as the model district in the county for the Response to Intervention
(RTI) approach. This multi-tiered approach adopted by the district is focused on helping
struggling students and eliminate the chance of the over-identification of special
education students. Mulligan, in its third year of implementing RTI, has created a three-
tiered intervention approach that involves closely monitoring these struggling students

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using assessments. These assessments serve the general education teacher and
intervention specialists by narrowing down individual needs and weakness of each
student.
Students involved in RTI have been screened for both reading and math, and use a
triangulation of the assessment data to determine placement in the program, as well as
placement in the appropriate tier of intervention. These students participate in their
assigned tier four times a week, four days a week. Tier I includes the lowest of the
intervention students, and what the principal refers to as “urgent care”, in which assessing
occurs once a week. Tier II students are assessed every other week, while Tier III
students are assessed once a month. Student improvement has even persuaded the
teachers to implement more assessment into their classroom, as screenings are used to
properly identify the needs of their students.
Strong Leadership
Like most schools, the strength of the organizational leader sets the tone and
attitude for the staff, and Mulligan is fortunate to have a strong principal that promotes a
vision of serving first. The principal of Mulligan sets the example of work ethic and
dedication to serving the students, and the staff has clearly reciprocated those efforts in
an attempt of bettering the lives of their clientele. Not only does the lead site
administrator provide an exemplar for others, but she also empowers others to assume
leadership roles and responsibilities. This shared leadership has given the teachers a
voice in how the school operates both culturally and instructionally, and provides a sense
of ownership in the decision making for the school. Because the teachers have a voice in

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the practices of their school, they are more willing to provide their input and ideas, as
well as assume responsibilities without hesitation.
Mulligan principal is an excellent example of a servant leader who is concentrated
on empowering others so that as a collective group, much is accomplished for the greater
good of the school community. In all discussions with the principal, every attempt was
made by this leader to recognize and celebrating everyone else’s contributions. The
principal made points to acknowledge the teachers, office staff, custodians, instructional
aides, the academic coach, psychologist, district office administrators, the intervention
teacher, and the Student Intervention Facilitator, without assigning herself any credit. In
fact, as this researcher made his first visit to Mulligan to be introduced at a staff meeting,
the principal began the meeting by celebrating one of the staff for being recognized for a
county teacher award.
The vice-principal included a complimentary observation of the principal during
her interview that illustrates the character of the principal:
I can be in my office and I don’t know who [the principal’s name] is talking to. It
doesn’t matter. She talks to them with the same respect. That’s the way she treats
all people. And I think that’s one of the most unique things about [school’s
name], is that everyone is here because they are treated well and they are well
respected and they respect each other, and I think that’s what shows.

The mutual respect of the teachers is acknowledged by the principal:
Teachers on our staff are very, very open to wanting feedback. I can ask my
teachers to do just about anything and they are going to give it a try, whether they
agree with it or disagree with it, they are going to give it a try because I asked
them to do it.

The principal and teachers noted the appreciation and respect they have for the
leadership from the District Office. It was echoed by each panel (teachers and

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administrators) as to the level of comfort and approachability with District
Administrators, including the superintendent. They both suggest that their Central Office
still has a “small-district feel”, as appointments are not necessary if meetings are wanted.
You can sit down with whomever you need, and get whatever help needed and whatever
questions you have, answered. Getting anyone on the phone at anytime is not difficult,
and the District Administrators make themselves visible by attending school functions
and visiting classrooms when time allows. These leaders, while running a large
organization with hundreds of employees, still recognize the staff and address them by
name. One teacher acknowledged this notion during interviews:
When you go into our District Office, everybody knows everybody. You can
walk in and they know who you are, they know you by name, they even know
what school you work at. Even the superintendent will recognize his teachers.

This commitment to building relationships and demonstrating respect and value is
cherished and another example that shapes behavior for all employees.
Teachers also noted the ability of the District’s Administration, as stated below, to
serve as leaders in terms of keeping up with research and providing current information
of effective instructional practices and programs. On teacher stated, “I think our District
has a lot of vision, foresight vision. Seems like they are always catching things a couple
of years before everyone else (other school districts) does. They are cutting edge.”
The idea of shared leadership was complimentary of both site administrators.
Each acknowledged the teacher leaders on their site and noted the worth they bring to the
culture of the school and the impact they have on instruction. One example was the
recognition of the school’s Academic Coach who in many ways, serves as a quasi-

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administrator. This Academic Coach is possibly the school’s greatest instructional
leader, as she is involved with developing lesson plans, modeling lessons, providing
constant feedback regarding instruction, and serving as a guide for first-year teachers,
including serving as their Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment (BTSA) Support
Provider. The Academic Coach also has new teacher meetings providing emotional and
practical support. Role playing is even conducted at times with new teachers so they are
more aptly prepared for parent conferences. Observations by the researcher also caught
the Academic Coach covering a teacher’s class so that the teacher could observe another
teacher, thus providing further evidence of the Teacher Collaboration and Support
Theme. The Academic Coach is also responsible for creating district benchmarks with
the other academic coaches in the district.
The Principal states a further compliment of Mulligan Academic Coach below:
We are very fortunate here because the Academic Coaches is one of those
situations, I mean, I know there are a lot of districts out there that don’t have that.
We happen to have [Academic Coach’s name] who is awesome and it is very safe
to say that she is the strongest one in the district.

Acknowledgement of the school’s Leadership Team and their responsibilities
during teacher interviews was also noteworthy as another reason the school works so well
together:
The people that are on our Leadership Team are usually the ones that everybody
kind of turns to naturally anyway, so they (teachers) kind of turn to them and use
Leadership (team) to kind of pass the messages along and to kind of implement
things first and work out the kinks before we take it to the whole group.

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Question Two Reflections
Mulligan has some constants that have been in place for a number of years, no
doubt making a difference for the students and assisting in closing the achievement gap
for the school. Three of these constants observed that headline much of the success at
Mulligan are the collaboration and support of teachers, the use of assessments to advance
instruction, and the different leadership qualities that drive the school through the
continuous improvement cycle.
While many schools have tried to break the autonomy of teachers, few are able to
sustain the practice, and even fewer have the sense of team that Mulligan shares. These
teachers understand that not only can they learn from their fellows colleagues, but they
have to learn from each other in order to meet the very unique and challenging needs of
their population. The Human Resource Frame and the Symbolic Frame can be seen in
the collaboration and support of the teachers. The staff knows no other way to work
together unless it is as a team (Human Resource), and they provide hope and direction for
each other for the greater good of the organization’s mission of serving students.
Most schools have made the move to looking at data, but few know what to do
with it once it is found, or more importantly, know what to look for at all. Mulligan has
not only created a systematic approach for analyzing assessment results, but the teachers
have buy-in that assessments are the only genuine tool for measuring learning, while at
the same time using the data to make better decisions for their classrooms and instruction.
The Structural Frame is seen with the teachers’ use of assessments. The assessments
allow the teachers to think more clearly using the empirical and logical nature of the data.

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This researcher believes one would be hard pressed to find any successful school
that does not include strong leadership. The school in this case study is led by a dynamic
principal that has purposely built a culture from the school’s opening, to care and believe
in its students and parents. Mulligan is a very selfless place, where the hard work is
always to benefit another. The leadership begins with the principal, but also extends
beyond the principal, and its serves as an inspiration and model for others to follow. Two
of Bolman and Deal’s Frames exist when examining Mulligan’s leadership: Political and
Human Resource. The Political Frame represents the ability to manage others and
emphasize the importance of a coalition of the school’s values. The Human Resource
Frame can also be seen as the existence of both leaders and teachers find meaning and
fulfillment in their occupation, as it serves as satisfying work.
Data for Research Question Three
Research Question Three: Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the
closing of the achievement gap?
While Mulligan Elementary recognizes the absolute need to create a strong sense
of community and ownership of the school, the staff also acknowledges that effective
instructional strategies will have the greatest direct impact on raising academic
performance and thus, begin closing the achievement gap. Two obvious themes appeared
from the gathering of the data that address questions three. These two themes include 1)
a focus on vocabulary and 2) high expectations.

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Focus on Vocabulary
Teachers noticeably make strong efforts to include vocabulary instruction a part
of every lesson each day. It begins as many teachers require students to not only share
the purpose of the lesson orally, but also call for the learning objective(s) to be written at
the top of their papers before beginning a lesson and delving into their independent and
practice work. Terms and unfamiliar words are shared and taught at this time and are
revisited as the lessons and units move forward. Students are prompted to look for the
“magic” or “key” terms as they scan lesson objectives and stories, and the vocabulary
words from the week’s story are also always pointed out and the time is used as a
teachable moment. Classrooms often have “Magical Math Words” or “Math Focus
Walls” to help remember concepts such as Fact Families, and the students often use their
self-created flash (vocabulary) cards to help answer questions from their standards based
reading series. Moments such as when a third grade class stops to discuss the vocabulary
word “pueblo” during shared reading of the story to define the term in kid-friendly
language, allows them to make real world connections, enhance, and perhaps elongate
learning.
The staff surveys also showed signs that serious attempts are made to make
connections with the student’s prior knowledge to make content meaningful. Question
27 of both the Teacher and Administrative Survey asked if teachers make conscious
efforts when developing lessons to build upon students’ existing knowledge and
experiences. Responses included 25 that strongly agree and 7 that agreed, equally 78%
and 22% respectively.

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Table 4.5
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding
Developing Lessons to Build Upon Students’ Existing Knowledge and
Experiences
Administrative Question Phrased in Parenthesis

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
27. When developing my lessons (teachers
develop lessons), I (they) consciously build
upon my (their) students’ existing knowledge
and experiences.
Strongly
Agree
78% 25
Agree 22% 7

Mulligan Elementary, because of its very large English learner population, use
ELD blocks to provide instruction for their limited English proficient students at an
appropriate level. According to their level, students rotate to another designated
classroom with other students of the same grade level and language proficiency. During
these learning blocks, vocabulary instruction is a constant when frontloading for their
current language arts and reading series. Teaching vocabulary that is aligned to their
grade level material allows for prior learning to occur while building background
knowledge. Thematic teaching of a single vocabulary word is also a customary practice,
where teachers attempt to make as many associations with the word as possible for
sustained learning. One such example was the use of the below word map:
Definition

Synonym VOCABULARY WORD Picture

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Constructive teaching such as this allows the students to create mental notes to help recall
information and will create long lasting impressions.
Hands-on learning is often endemic when vocabulary instruction is occurring.
Both in the ELD blocks and in the regular classroom, teachers frequently utilize the help
of white boards, playing cards, poker chips, and counters to check for understanding and
supporting parts of speech. Mulligan principal supports the observations of above during
an interview:
We go through classrooms on a regular basis, and we are looking at student
engagement, and we are looking at positive interactions between teachers and
students. Checking for understanding. Looking for that every single time you are
in a classroom.

Survey Question 31 asked about the monitoring of students’ understanding. Of
the 32 surveys administered, 27 (84%) responses indicated they strongly agree that
students’ understanding of content is monitored, including making adjustments
accordingly. The 5 remaining responses indicated they agreed to the same question
(16%).
Table 4.6
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding
Monitoring Students’ Understanding Content
Administrative Question Phrased in Parenthesis

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
31. When teaching, I (teachers) monitor
students’ understanding of the content and make
adjustments accordingly.
Strongly
Agree
84% 27
Agree 16% 5

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The teachers are clearly intentional about teaching vocabulary, especially to
ensure comprehension. Teachers also are devoted to knowing what each other is doing
and teaching, and keeping consistency, not just within a grade level, but across the
school. In the interviews, one teacher made the observation:
What’s nice about having it consistent through all the grade levels is the language
stays consistent, the expectations are consistent. So it’s not like every year when
they jump from grade to grade they learn an entire new language that’s foreign to
them and it takes x amount of time to grasp it.

The Resource Specialist noted during interviews that a common language was nice for
her when she provides intervention to struggling students because even though she may
have to adjust the instruction that they receive, she knows that the terminology is
constant. She said that students are not as lost because the vocabulary is something they
have in their regular classroom.
The deliberate nature to set aside time to concentrate on the terms that make
stories and concepts meaningful and practical, which makes comprehension a possibility,
is designed in their planning and lesson delivery. Teachers and their strategies are in
keeping with some effective researched activities specific for English learners. Success
is more likely when the content is meaningful and relevant to the learner, which usually
leads to enhanced motivation. This content instruction is very effective as it builds on
learners’ prior knowledge and experiences (DelliCarpini, 2008).
This emphasis on vocabulary and the discipline to model correct and proper
English is imperative for a diverse group of students, including a large Mulligan
population of English learners. Teachers observed do not replace the language necessary
for success in the classroom with the everyday and social language, often referred to as

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Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), which so many classroom teachers
mistakenly do. Mulligan teachers are diligent and regimented in providing their students
with what prominent bilingual education researcher, Jim Cummins, calls Cognitive
Academic Language Development (CALP). This type of vocabulary use is language
skills students must master to be successful academically. While students inadvertently
acquire BICS as a result of their casual and social interactions that is required in their
environment, CALP can be much more difficult to ascertain. CALP is not presupposed,
and could take as many as 12 years, if at all, depending on their education and literature
experiences (Dellicarpini, 2008). For Mulligan students, the only setting they will ever
have exposure to modeled academic language is in their classrooms. The teachers realize
this, therefore academic language is the constant delivery of speaking to provide students
with the best possible example of how to speak and write.
High Expectations
“We’ve got some huge obstacles out here, but I gotta tell you, I mean my teachers have
high expectations of these kids and having a second language isn’t an excuse, living in a
hotel isn’t an excuse”. – Mulligan Principal during the Administrative Interview

The teachers understand that Mulligan students enter their classroom with certain
disadvantages and at times, lesser social capital, but when it comes to the standards they
expect, a no-nonsense approach is taken where nothing is excused for meeting the high
expectations of the staff. These teachers believe their students can accomplish anything
that others can do regardless of their parent’s education level, income, language, or home
environment.

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Two of the data collection instruments (surveys and interviews) uncovered the
theme of high expectations for Mulligan Elementary, while the observations confirmed
that the theme is not bound to purely words.
The first response from the Administrative Interview of the principal and vice-
principal, was the following statement from the principal:
One of the things that promotes students achievement more than anything
else is just connections and high expectations. That is something we have talked
with our teachers for a number of years but have really tried to focus in on.
Knowing that my teachers that have the highest performance levels also are
my teachers that have the highest expectations of themselves, and of their
children, and of their parents, and of their families. That is truly something that I
think makes a difference. And I think we hold ourselves to that same standard. I
mean to me it is totally important to have connections with my teachers and my
students and my families and to hopefully communicate high expectations all the
way around.

The principal demonstrates that high expectations also apply to parents with parent
conferences and extend outside merely academics:
Our expectation is 100% and honestly at the end of our week I did a summary out
to my teachers and we had 96% at the end of our conference week and within the
very next week, we were up to 98%.

Expectations were also found to be important outside of the classroom. An example the
principal shared concerning parent challenges and expectations that are not always
academics based is the following:
I’ve had a dad sitting in my office before that has said “why does she need to
learn how to read? She’s just going to grow up and get married and have babies.”
And I was able to look at him and say “you’ve got to be kidding? That’s the only
goal you have for your daughter?” And to try to break down the mentality of
what her life looked like and get her to the point where it was about achievement
and to change ideas. But it’s tough.

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The above situation demonstrates the type of obstacles, resistance, and way of thinking
from the community that the staff at Mulligan has to overcome and persevere. The
principals’ attitude regarding expectations is a constant and is certainly imitated by staff
because it is modeled so thoroughly and frequently by the school leader.
The surveys support high standards as they included two questions targeting
expectations of the school and its students. Question 16 queried if teachers at Mulligan
have comparable expectations regarding student academic performance. With 20
strongly agreeing (62%) and 12 agreeing (38%), the staff unquestionably is quite aware
of the importance of expectations and concur that it is important that they share in the
commitment to high standards across teachers and grade levels. Question 26 inquired
about teachers preparing their lessons with high expectations designed to challenge and
stimulate all students. An overwhelming 78% of the responses (25 replied) said strongly
agreed teachers prepare lessons with high expectations while 22% (7 responses) agreed.

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Table 4.7
Summary of Data on Teachers and Administrative Surveys Regarding High
Expectations
Administrative Question Phrased in Parenthesis

Survey Item Response % of
Response
# of Responses
(Out of 32 Staff
Members
Surveyed)
16. Teachers at this school have comparable
expectations regarding student academic
performance.
Strongly
Agree
62% 20
Agree 38% 12

26. When developing my lessons (teachers
develop), I (they) consciously prepare lessons
with high expectations designed to challenge
and stimulate all students.
Strongly
Agree
78% 25
Agree 22% 7

With an almost unanimous rendition during teacher and administrative interviews
of the underlying theme of the Mulligan Elementary School, the values of high
expectations may be the school’s greatest asset and quality when narrowing the
achievement gap.
The school has adopted a goal-setting philosophy, which enables the students to
once again, take part in their own learning. These goals are set with the targets being
quite lofty, expecting students to meet the goals that are put in front of them. As
mentioned previously in this chapter, classrooms often use charts and graphs to illustrate
not just the work done well, but also to serve as a visual reminder for the students of
their goals and what they are expected to learn and accomplish. During interviews,
teachers gave just a few examples of setting goals and using it to build motivation and
student excitement:

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Each trimester, each grade level sets goals as far as what’s called “Math Wizards”
for that grade level and it’s all based on math facts.

I think that’s (Accelerated Reader Program) been a big part of motivation for our
readers because it’s school wide and we make a big deal out of it in every single
classroom. There is some kind of board, some kind of reward system in place.
And then we also do it school wide so in the library there’s a huge AR board
where the kids can see classes competing against each other.

Mulligan also experimented this year with raising the expectations for their
Kindergarten students, as represented by the following statement of the principal:
This year we did take a little different approach with Kindergarten. That was
something new for us. We just kind of upped the bar, placing a Level 5 reading
passage in front of them (parents) and saying here’s where we are expecting your
child to be at the end of the year. It was like a big “ah-hah” moment.

The vice-principal added:

But then we said this is what we are doing, this is what we need you (parents) to
do. You are not in this journey alone, we’re here, but this is the expectation, and
we know that our children can get there.

To assist in this shared responsibility of meeting these high standards, Mulligan
has Student Pacing Guides for each Kindergartner listing essential standards and the
target date of when each standard should be mastered. This easy-to-read pacing guide is
designed for parents so they can clearly see and understand what is expected of their
student, and what requirements are necessary for promotion to First Grade. This tool is
also effective for teachers as they have created a visual reminder of where their students
are and what goals have yet to be completed.
A second-rate education is not an option for the students at Mulligan, and because
it does not exist, the students are not aware of any other way to treat these goals or the
rigor of their learning.

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Question Three Reflections
Chapter Two noted few examples of research citing vocabulary as a difference
maker for improving student performance and closing the achievement gap. This
researcher, while attempting not to have any preconceived notions before the data
collection, never would have guessed that vocabulary would be a theme that emerged as a
successful characteristic of the school.
However, the importance of vocabulary could not be ignored, and was clearly a
point of acknowledgment during teacher interviews and a focus in every classroom
during observations. The focus on vocabulary would be viewed under the Structural
Frame, as it entails people making good decisions and designing systems and strategies
that are effective and that meet objectives.
While many may insist that high expectations are a school practice, not an
instructional strategy, Mulligan has demonstrated to this researcher that they have taken
this theme and embraced it beyond a philosophy. The staff at Mulligan use high
expectations as an instructional piece by setting goals, charting progress, and accounting
for everything the school does. High expectations transcend to actions. For the staff, it is
the central tool for measuring success. One teacher perhaps summed it up best when she
said, “High expectations and making student connections is probably the key to student
learning.”
The Symbolic Frame is seen in the high expectations at Mulligan. The staff have
used the philosophy that not only help people find purpose and meaning, but help define
individuals and how they do and accomplish their work.

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CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter Five will present a review of the Mulligan Elementary case study,
including the purpose of the study and the research questions. The findings from the
study explained in Chapter 4 will also be summarized as well as the researcher’s
conclusions based on the findings. Finally, Chapter 5 will conclude with implications
and recommendations for future research in the area of closing the achievement gap.
Purpose of the Study
One of education’s greatest challenges of today is the ever-growing achievement
gap that exists between our white and affluent students and students of color, poverty and
English language learners. This gap continues to widen with the continued increase in
Hispanic and English learners, where the populations of these subgroups in California is
the largest in the nation. The state also continues to face daunting obstacles in the face of
a current fiscal crisis and some of the most rigorous state standards in the country. These
issues, and many more, create a time when schools are under an accountability
microscope with arguably unrealistic No Child Left Behind goals of all students being
proficient in English-Language Arts and Mathematics in our near future.
The purpose of this study was to identify characteristics of an elementary school
that has shown evidence of closing the achievement gap. These characteristics were
classified as successful factors of the school in the form of programs, practices, and
instructional strategies that have made a significant difference for the achievement for its

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significant subgroups. Three research questions were used to organize the data collection
and the findings of the study. These research questions were:
1. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
2. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and
contribute to the closing of the achievement gap?
3. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of
the achievement gap?
To answer the above research questions, a case study was conducted at Mulligan
Elementary, a school that met the criteria of a school closing the achievement gap as
determined by a thematic doctoral dissertation group at the University of Southern
California. Research included qualitative data collected using four instrumentations –
observations, interviews, surveys, and document/records review. An initial hypothesis
was not developed prior to the study, as the researcher instead chose to investigate what
characteristics and factors of the staff and school to better determine causes for narrowing
the achievement gap at Mulligan. To avoid forming conjectures or creating presumed
notions regarding themes at Mulligan, an inductive design was used for this research
(Patton, 2003).
Summary of Findings
Upon completion of the data collections and analysis, and the conferring with the
co-investigator, six themes materialized as causal factors for the narrowing of the
achievement gap by Mulligan Elementary. These six themes were 1) Strong School

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Culture, 2) Teacher Collaboration and Support, 3) Use of Assessments, 4) Strong
Leadership, 5) a Focus on Vocabulary, and 6) High Expectations. Mulligan Elementary
exemplified each of these themes in the following ways.
Strong School Culture
Teachers make a tremendous effort of providing an excellent environment
conducive for learning and interaction for students and parents.
The behavior of students is extraordinary, allowing for time and effort to be
placed on raising student achievement.
Classrooms are designed so that cooperative grouping and learning is a common
practice.
Am emphasis is put on providing a caring and engaging atmosphere beyond the
regular school day.
Teacher Collaboration and Support
Teachers have built a school culture that relies on teacher collaboration to
improve instruction and the sharing of best practices.
Teachers work collectively to ensure students are expected to learn the same
standards and have similar goals provided with equal rigor.
Use of Assessments
Teachers embrace the use of assessments as guides to their instruction.
The data analysis of assessment results has provided a mechanism for the sharing
of the strengths and weaknesses of students.

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Assessments serve as the centerpiece of the school’s Response to Intervention
Model.
Strong Leadership
The site administrators empower others to be integral parts of the construction of
instructional policy and school culture.
The site administrators model examples of high expectations and continuous
interaction with students and parents.
District Office Administrators set the tone of professionalism by demonstrating
mutual respect and collegiality for staff members at sites.
The school has an Academic Coach that has served as an influential instructional
leader and support system for teachers to contribute to increased student
performance.
Focus on Vocabulary
Teachers are intentional about teaching vocabulary across content areas to ensure
a common language, build prior knowledge, make connections, and enhance
comprehension.
The teachers model Academic Language to more quickly develop the proficiency
levels of the school’s English Language Learners needed for academic success.
High Expectations
The staff has created a norm of high expectations for learning, behavior, social
interaction, and instruction, allowing Mulligan students to have similar
opportunities as students with more resources and advantages.

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The school uses its high expectations to create instructional practices including
goal setting and progress monitoring.
The findings of this researcher as a result of the Mulligan Elementary case study
disclose a number of issues previously summarized in Chapter Two (Review of the
Literature). However, the findings also present new acknowledgements and connections.
For instance, the literature did review the need for high expectations for all students,
regardless of race, ethnicity, language, social class, etc. However, until a practitioner
observes first hand a school culture that insists on high expectations, it is difficult to
understand the impact this practice has on student achievement. The study also reveals
the power a school leader has when opening a school for the first time. Mulligan is a
school in its sixth year of operation that includes its original principal and many of the
staff from the opening year. The culture a principal can create for a new school is
immeasurable and should not be taken lightly by district leaders and stakeholders. It
appears it is much easier to uphold a mantra, vision, mission, practice, and/or attitude if it
is implemented as the foundation of the organization.
Finally, the findings of this study appear to parallel the Professional Learning
Community model. The Mulligan staff works collaboratively and professionally to
assure high levels of learning for all students. They make clear distinctions between
simply teaching, and their focus, which is learning.
The greatest gift Mulligan has imparted to this researcher is that anything is
possible. Educators should examine everything their schools do and all it provides for

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students, while never wavering from the fundamental purpose of what schools should
offer – a focus on learning for every student.
Conclusions
“We talk fidelity to the core”. – Mulligan Principal during the Administrative Interview.

While the study aimed at examining programs, practices and instructional
strategies, the analysis did not reveal as much about any specific curriculum design or
effective course that has suddenly made a significant impact in test scores and student
achievement. For Mulligan, it is more about the proactive approach to creating an
atmosphere that allows for high levels of learning first, before addressing the curricular
blueprint for meeting California’s challenging grade level standards and accountability
system. What this means for educators is two-fold. First, the “one-size fits all” approach
is as expected – not accurate. There is not one correct method that works for all schools,
or more importantly, all students. More clearly stated, practitioners must accept that it
will take a myriad of efforts and practices to meet the needs of each of their students, and
once discovered, may even change over time. Second, there is much more to closing the
achievement gap than a standards-based curriculum, common assessments, and
collaboration. Mulligan demonstrated it is an evolutionary process, which includes
certain steps first being in place before learning can occur. Mulligan has made concerted
efforts to ensure a shared culture of believing in every student exists so that the
opportunity of narrowing the achievement gap is possible.
As the collection of data continued during the visits at Mulligan Elementary,
specifically during the observations of classrooms, the six themes identified in Chapter

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Four emerged as possible points for primary factors contributing to the closing of the
achievement gap. As the themes appeared to be simply “jumping off” points to
determine a framework for this dissertation, upon further review of the observation notes,
the results of the surveys and document reviews, and the responses of interviews, the
temporary themes became increasingly clear that these suspicions were an exact
representation of the school. In fact, not only were these themes proven through the data
collection, analysis and review, the themes very much seem to overlap with one or more
other themes, thus validating them as influential aspects of closing the achievement gap
for Mulligan.
This school, in its six years of operation, has assembled a special group of people
that has created a special climate for students to learn. Perhaps a valuable underlying
lesson of this research is the power of building a strong foundation from the beginning.
From the origination of Mulligan, the principal and the staff were committed to creating a
family atmosphere for the community. The principal illustrates what opening a new
school meant for her in the statement, “Having the opportunity to choose your staff, to
balance your staff, and then we made a genuine focus to do some serious team building
the first two years.”
The principal would then go on to say how their early commitment to building a
strong team would have long lasting effects:
Doing that team building so that the nice part about it is once we did that and
invested the time and energy to those first two years, then the rest of it kind of
takes care of itself. Number one, the teachers know that you are there and that
you will support them, but they support each other. They also hold each other to a
whole different standard too because of that, I mean with the collaboration so they
are pushing each other, they won’t allow the negativity and stuff to come into it. I

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mean I have had new teachers come on staff that haven’t been the right fit and the
right personality for this campus, but because of the collaboration within that
grade level, that person chose to go someplace else.

When teachers were asked to say what one word comes to their mind when they
think of Mulligan, words such as “opening”, “loving”, and “welcoming” were uttered.
They also mentioned that these feelings are “contagious”. One teacher simply stated, “I
couldn’t imagine going anywhere else”.
The students of Mulligan Elementary share the same hopes and dreams as most
other children across the schools in our country. The difference for Mulligan students,
and so many others, is they face challenges many others will never encounter. Whether it
is a lack of resources, inconsistencies with their family, dangerous neighborhoods,
harmful pressures and counterproductive expectations from society, or simply no food in
their stomachs, students similar to that from Mulligan often are not afforded the
opportunity to realize their dreams, or worse yet, afraid to reach them. The teachers at
Mulligan are special for one simple reason – they act in such a manner that the students
understand that their dreams are also the same dreams of the teachers. This kind of care
is rare, and is what makes the difference for Mulligan students and their possibilities for a
future not ever thought possible by so many.
For many of the students at Mulligan, school is the only place that feeds them,
hugs them, holds their hands, and treats their illnesses. For some students, school is the
only place that gives them the encouragement and love they so desperately need when
sometimes it seems no one else does. For the staff at Mulligan Elementary, the staff
understands these facts, and uses them as a gauge to guide their instruction, behavior, and

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actions each and every day. To utter that the teachers at Mulligan have a specific calling
for their students, is an understatement. The vice –principal perhaps put it best:
I think that’s one of the things that’s, to me, very vibrant here at [school’s name]
is that everybody is here because they want to be here. And that in itself is huge
and I’m talking down to our custodian who is sweeping out our gutters when we
pull up and she is so happy when she sees us. She is so happy to be here.

Implications
Every school faces their own unique challenges. What appears to be more
important than the obstacles however, is the attitude and work of the school staff. What
we do know is that what works at one school may not work at another. Schools and
teachers have to be open to trying a number of different strategies before finding what is
effective at their site. When schools are committed to change and experimenting, they
will learn more about themselves and in turn, develop a system for providing a quality
education for their students. While the research shows a number of strong practices that
have helped schools increase achievement, and many were seen at Mulligan, it is clear
that depending on the school, some practices are more crucial for overall success of the
school, the students, and the teachers.
What is also clear is there are some schools that have many challenges but find a
way to be successful despite the obstacles. These schools serve as an inspiration for
educators and create hope that success is possible for everyone. This case study does
prove that schools can be successful with any type of student population. While it is
impossible to determine if the findings from Mulligan Elementary will be unconditionally
effective and transferrable at other schools, what is certain is that it takes a special group
of people working cohesively and patiently for a collective vision. These people must

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also understand that it will take tireless work, which may not produce positive results for
a few years. What is also apparent is that the study of Mulligan can help schools
determine what may work for their school. The examination of Mulligan will yield
greater productivity for those already working in the field, as they will be able to apply
the observations from Mulligan to their own school to better establish an action plan of
their own for creating success.
Recommendations
As the issue of the achievement gap continues to be a major concern for
educators, particularly in light of the economic crisis, which is sure to produce more low-
income families, and the fact that the number of minority and English language learners
continues to rise in California, future studies are needed to continue to help schools raise
student performance. The following are recommendations for future studies:
Recommendation One: Conduct Qualitative Studies on Perspectives of Parents and
Students
While all signs from the data collection at Mulligan pointed to a committed and
caring school staff, no investigation occurred receiving input or opinions from the
community, including parents and students. The culture of a school would earn more
credibility if members that are not employees of the school support its effectiveness.
Recommendation Two: Conduct Quantitative Research to Support Qualitative Findings
While the purpose of qualitative research is to grow a deeper understanding of a
case study, a causal relationship may be more greatly determined if supported by

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quantitative research. Perhaps the tracking of individual test scores and performance
levels would demonstrate which practices are effective for certain students and why.
Recommendation Three: Examine the Relationship Between Student Behavior and
Achievement
Mulligan Elementary appeared to have little issues with student discipline. The
extraordinary behavior of the students appeared to have a strong influence on engagement
and on-task behavior. A yearlong study of a school, tracking discipline problems,
incidences, and attendance, including truancy, and the performance of those students,
could demonstrate a significant correlation between behavior and achievement.
Recommendation Four: Conduct a Longitudinal Study of Students Overcoming the
Achievement Gap
A longitudinal study of students from a school determined to be closing the
achievement gap, would show the long lasting impact of effective practice and efforts of
schools. If students from these schools were tracked into their high school and college
experience, and up until their adulthood and working careers, the outcomes of their lives
could be a considerable motivator for those wanting to make a difference.
Recommendation Five: Conduct a Comparison of Similar Schools: With and Without
Academic Coaches
The Academic Coach assumed many roles at Mulligan Elementary, certainly
serving as a contributing factor in the success of closing the achievement gap. A study of
like schools and the difference in their success depending on the presence of an

110

Academic Coach and the quality of that person would provide much information to
schools who may be contemplating the implementation of a coach on their site.
Recommendation Six: Conduct a Meta-Analysis
The case study of Mulligan and the identification of reasons why they have been
closing the achievement gap was part of a thematic doctoral dissertation study involving
research from eight other practitioners. A meta-analysis of all nine case studies could be
combined to provide more information and ideas for schools facing a widening gap, as
the culmination of all the studies would provide more generalizable findings.

111

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American Educational Research Journal, 45(2), 495-522.

116

APPENDIX A
DOCUMENT COLLECTION

Document Questions the document answers Question
addressed
School background and profile
SARC

Single School Plan
• Class Size
• Number of Suspensions/Expulsions
• California Healthy Kid Survey Results
• Population breakdown (ethnicity, SES, EL’s)
• Supplemental Programs
• Vision and Mission Statements
• Teacher Groups (leadership, advisory, SSC, etc.)
1, 2, 3
List of teachers and
Support Staff
• Experience
• Credentials
• Grade Levels
• Years at current site
1
Professional
Development Plan
• Collaboration Plan, Schedule 1, 2, 3
Daily and Instructional
Schedule
• Number of instructional Minutes 3

English Leaner’s Master,
Technology and Safe
Schools Plan

• Plan for ELL and safe campus

3
Achievement Results
CST and Local
Assessments Data for
over a 2 year period.

Local Benchmarks

SARC

Website: CDE
• CST data
• API, AYP, disaggregated data by demographics,
subgroups, etc.

2, 3
Parent/Community Involvement
SARC

School/Parent handbook

Parent surveys from
school or district

School Website

Single School Plan
• Parent community/outreach education
• Community Partnerships
• Parent Survey results
• Volunteer Hours
• Parent Club
• Parent/Community Communications (newsletters,
websites)

1, 2, 3
Fiscal Information
Single School Plan

CPM Report
• Categorical Documents & Resources / Compliance
Findings
3

117

Other Information
WASC Action Plan/Self-
Study/Visiting Team
Report
• Referral process for Special Ed.
• Distinguished School Information
• RtI Strategies
• Teacher Evaluation
• WASC

118

APPENDIX B
TEACHER INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is your position and role in the school and how many years have you
been a faculty member of the school itself and in education overall?

2. What programs do you have in your department/grade level that promotes
student achievement? (R1)

3. How does the program work?

a. Does it target a specific population? (R3)
b. Does it require any additional funding? – source?
c. How do you measure its success?
d. Has it been successful in reducing the achievement gap? (R3)

4. Do you have any specific instructional practices that your department/grade
level uses to promote student achievement? (R2)
a. What kind of professional development have you received in those
practices?
b. How do you measure the effectiveness of the instructional practices?
c. Has it been successful in reducing the Achievement Gap? (R2)

5. Does your department/grade level have specific strategies that target the
closing of the achievement gap for all students and what are they? (R3)

6. How do you promote enrollment in your most rigorous courses?

7. How does the school’s leadership team support your efforts in these programs
and practices?
a. Who is on your leadership team and what role do they play?

8. What does collaboration look like at your school?

9. What specific aspects of your schools culture support student achievement?
(R1 & 2)

10. How much parent participation do you receive?

119

APPENDIX C
ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is your position and role in the school and how many years have you
been a faculty member of the school itself and in education overall?

2. What programs does your school have that promotes student achievement?
(R1)

3. How does the program work?
a. Does it target a specific population? (R3)
b. Does it require any additional funding? – source?
c. How do you measure its success?
d. Has it been successful in reducing the achievement gap? (R3)

4. Does your school have any specific instructional practices that promote
student achievement? (R2)
a. What kind of professional development do you offer your staff?
b. How do you measure the effectiveness of the instructional practices?
(R2)

5. Does your school have specific strategies that target the closing of the
achievement gap for all students and what are they? (R3)

6. How do you promote enrollment in your most rigorous courses?

7. How do you support your teachers’ efforts in these programs and practices?

8. What does collaboration look like at your school site?

9. How do you feel the teachers support these school wide practices and
implementation?

10. What specific aspects of your schools culture support student achievement?
(R1 & 2)

11. How much parent participation do you receive?

120

APPENDIX D
TEACHER SURVEY

Research Question 1: What school wide programs promote student achievement?
1. My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for
teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content
standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

2. My school has a school-wide program or programs to increase parental involvement
through means such as family literacy services.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

3. My school has a school-wide program or programs providing training to teachers in
effective instructional methods and strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

4. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide effective, timely
assistance for students who experience difficulty in attaining the proficient or
advanced level of the academic content standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

5. My school has a school-wide program or programs to assist teachers in the use of
academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve, the achievement of
individual students and the overall instructional program.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

6. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide teachers training in
effective classroom management and discipline strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

Research Question 2: What school wide practices promote student achievement?
7. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on
a regular basis.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

121

8. Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional
development goals and objectives for the school.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

9. I regularly discuss my teaching with my administrator(s).
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

10. The evaluation feedback I receive from my administrator(s) assists me to improve my
teaching effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

11. I am aware of specific areas of interest that my administrator(s) looks at when visiting
my classroom.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

12. Assessment of student learning is accomplished to improving, rather than just
monitor, student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

13. The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic
standards for student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

15. Decisions about school improvement are always based upon our school improvement
plan.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

122

16. Teachers at this school have comparable expectations regarding student academic
performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
17. Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information
helping me increase my teaching effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
18. Teachers at this school are encouraged to use the same or similar instructional
strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

19. There is an intentional effort to improving home-school relations and parent
participation.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

20. Academic content you expect your students to learn is dictated by district adopted
curriculum.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

21. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by you (or you and
your colleagues).
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

22. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by your students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

Research Question 3: What instructional strategies were implemented to target the
closing of the achievement gap?
23. When developing my lessons, I consciously select content that meets the district’s
student competencies and performance standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

123

24. When developing my lessons, I consciously select instructional materials based upon
my knowledge of my students’ developmental needs and learning styles.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

25. When developing my lessons, I consciously select teaching methods and strategies
that accommodate individual student needs and interests.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

26. When developing my lessons, I consciously prepare lessons with high expectations
designed to challenge and stimulate all students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

27. When developing my lessons, I consciously build upon my students’ existing
knowledge and experiences.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

28. When developing my lessons, I consciously consider how to create active learning
experiences for my students to facilitate engagement.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

29. When developing my lessons, I consciously consider how to create cooperative
learning experiences for my students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

30. When developing my lessons, I consciously create lessons that require integration of
content from more than one content area.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

31. When teaching, I monitor students’ understanding of the content and make
adjustments accordingly.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

124

32. When teaching, I move among the students, engaging individually and collectively
with them during the learning experience.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

33. When teaching, I consciously employ teaching strategies and instructional materials
that stimulate higher-order thinking skills.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

34. When teaching, I create social interaction among students by requiring students to
work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

35. When teaching, I vary the size and composition of learning groups.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

36. When a student is having difficulty with an activity or assignment, I am usually able
to adjust it to his/her level.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

37. At your school, peer tutoring is often used to assist struggling students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

125

APPENDIX E
ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY

Research Question 1: What school wide programs promote student achievement?
1. My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for
teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content
standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

2. My school has a school-wide program or programs to increase parental involvement
through means such as family literacy services.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

3. My school has a school-wide program or programs providing training to teachers in
effective instructional methods and strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

4. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide effective, timely
assistance for students who experience difficulty in attaining the proficient or advanced
level of the academic content standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

5. My school has a school-wide program or programs to assist teachers in the use of
academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve, the achievement of
individual students and the overall instructional program.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

6. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide teachers training in
effective classroom management and discipline strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

126

Research Question 2: What school wide practices promote student achievement?
7. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on
a regular basis.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

8. Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional
development goals and objectives for the school.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

9. I have regular discussions with my teachers regarding their teaching.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

10. The evaluation feedback I give to teachers assists them to improve their teaching
effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

11. The teachers are aware of specific areas of interest I look at when visiting their
classrooms.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

12. Assessment of student learning is directed to improving, rather than just monitoring,
student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

13. The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic
standards for student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

127

15. Decisions about school improvement are always based upon our school improvement
plan.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

16. Teachers at this school have comparable expectations regarding student academic
performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

17. Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information
helping teachers increase their teaching effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

18. Teachers at this school are encouraged to use the same or similar instructional
strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

19. There is an intentional effort to improving home-school relations and parent
participation.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

20. Academic content students are expected to learn is dictated by district’s adopted
curriculum.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

21. Academic content students are expected to learn do teachers select.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

22 Academic content students are expected to learn is selected by the students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

128

Research Question 3: What instructional strategies were implemented to target the
closing of the achievement gap?
23. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select content that meets the
district’s student competencies and performance standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

24. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select instructional materials based
upon their knowledge of their students’ developmental needs and learning styles.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

25. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select teaching methods and
strategies that accommodate individual student needs and interests.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
26. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously prepare lessons with high
expectations designed to challenge and stimulate all students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

27. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously consider how to build upon their
students’ existing knowledge and experiences.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

28. When teachers design lessons, they consciously consider how to create active
learning experiences for their student to facilitate engagement.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

29. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously consider how to create cooperative
learning experiences for their students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

30. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously design lessons that require
integration of content from more than one content area.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

129

31. When teaching, teachers monitor students’ understanding of the content and make
adjustments accordingly.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

32. When teaching, teachers move among the students, engaging individually and
collectively with them during the learning experience.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

33. When teaching, teachers consciously implement a teaching strategy and instructional
materials that stimulates higher-order thinking skills.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

34. When teaching, teachers create social interaction among students by requiring
students to work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

35. When teaching, teachers vary the size and composition of learning groups.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

36. When a student is having difficulty with an activity or assignment, the teachers are
usually able to adjust it to his/her level.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

37. At my school, peer tutoring is often used to assist struggling students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

130

APPENDIX F
OBSERVATION TOOL

Trigger Words: Welcoming Environment
Engagement Rigor
Focus Standards
Programs Practices
Strategies Stakeholders

Four Frames: Human Resources - Employee morale, resources, and creativity
Political - Power, Conflict, Competition, Organizational Policies
Symbolic – Culture, meaningful, ritual, ceremony, stories
Structural – Goals and information are clear, cause and effect understood

What is Happening? What do I think is Happening?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Never before have public schools encountered such a level of accountability in the face of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. California schools attempt to meet these daunting challenges and goals with perhaps the country's most diverse student population during what may be the largest economic crisis the state has ever had. These factors all but magnify the increasing achievement gap that persists between White or Asian and affluent students and students of color, poverty and second language learners. While the achievement gap may arguably be the nation’s biggest educational problem, California has certainly taken notice as Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jack O'Connell, has declared closing the achievement gap his top priority.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Torres, Matt (author)

Core Title A case study of an outperforming elementary school closing the achievement gap

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/04/2009

Defense Date 02/13/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,closing the achievement gap,interventions,OAI-PMH Harvest,outperforming schools,successful strategies

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Olsen, Carlye (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email matorres@fruitvale.k12.ca.us,mtorres2@bak.rr.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2170

Unique identifier UC1441577

Identifier etd-Torres-2730 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-225263 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2170 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Torres-2730.pdf

Dmrecord 225263

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Torres, Matt

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu