Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
Needs assessment of parents of typical children ages 4 to 5 years old
(USC Thesis Other)
Needs assessment of parents of typical children ages 4 to 5 years old
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF PARENTS OF TYPICAL CHILDREN
AGES 4 to 5 YEARS OLD
by
Deon LaMount Brady
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2010
Copyright 2010 Deon LaMount Brady
ii
Dedication
To my beautiful wife, Tonii for all of your support throughout my life and during this process.
Also, to my three children, Adia, Mia, and Deon Jr. for putting up with me over the last three
years.
iii
Acknowledgments
I would like to takes this opportunity to acknowledge the following individuals for supporting
me throughout this process: Dr. Ginger Clark, for allowing me the opportunity to participate in
this study; my committee members Dr. Mary Andres and Dr. Kim Hirabayashi, for providing
additional insights and the much needed feedback necessary for me to be successful. Finally, I
would like to acknowledge my thematic dissertation group members; Dayna Belvin, Charles
Cho, and Michael Keller for their input and support.
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
List of Tables vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Review of the Literature 1
Purpose of the study 6
Literature Review 12
Theoretical Programs 15
Programs for Behavior Disordered Children 31
Programs for Parents At-Risk of Abusing 38
Chapter 2: Methods 51
Research Questions 51
Participants 51
Measures 53
Procedures 54
Chapter 3: Results 57
Participant sample characteristics 57
Needs Assessment Results 59
Chapter 4: Discussion 81
Strengths and Limitations 89
Future Implications 91
Recommendations for future research 93
Conclusion 94
References 95
Appendix A: Research Information Sheet (English) 101
Appendix B: Parent Education Needs Survey (English) 104
v
List of Tables
Table 1: LAUSD Enrollment by Ethnicity 2007-2008 53
Table 2: Income and Ethnic Distribution of Parent Participants 58
Table 3: Most Important Needs of Parents (Rank Order) 73
Table 4: Item 11-Complete Topic Rankings 74
vi
Abstract
Parent education programs have been very successful in meeting the pre-established
goals and expectations of their program without the input of parent participants prior to program
implementation. Although programs continue to improve, it is important that programs begin to
consider the specific needs of their target population. One parent population that has been
overlooked in terms needs and concerns, are parents with typical, or normal children. The current
study sought to determine the needs of parents with typical or normal children ages 4 to 5 years,
in relation to a parent education program. Twenty-four participants that reside in an inner city
community, completed an open-ended survey that consisted of questions centered around pre-
determined themes; intelligence, behavior, social skills, communication, emotions, family
relations, moral development, and discipline.
The results of the study concluded that parent participants want a program that provides
them with supporting their children’s academic progress, how to improve parent-child
communication, and how to encourage appropriate social interaction. Furthermore, parents also
express the desire to effectively network with other parents in their community through open
discussion about topics such as discipline and how to reduce unwanted behavior. Future
implications derived from this study suggest that future and existing parent education programs
begin to assess the specific needs of parents before program implementation and incorporate
culturally relevant topics into the program content.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
First-time parents from all backgrounds describe parenting as a “humbling
experience” for which they are not sufficiently prepared for (Dembo, Sweitzer, &
Lauritzen, 1985), no matter the socioeconomic and cultural background. In fact,
parenthood is one of the most stressful and demanding life roles for which adults receive
the least support (Scholnick, 1991). In addition to raising their children, parents are faced
with the additional stress of an extended work week, economic uncertainty, and family
instability. Although parents have been successful with parenting without receiving
formal assistance, it is critical that parental support be available for them to access to
address the concerns and challenges they experience when raising their children
(Wellington, White, & Liossis, 2006).
Over 50,000 parent education programs reach millions of parents on a daily basis
(Carter 1996). These programs focus on encouraging parenting characteristics that help in
improving the competence and motivation of the parent and the child (Schaefer, 1991). It
is imperative that these programs are of high quality with proven results. When parent
education programs are effective in meeting the needs of parents, the outcomes for both
the parent and their children improve, and parents feel greater competence in rearing their
children (Reppucci et al., 1997).
Even though evidence suggests that the goals and outcomes of the programs
reviewed in this study are accomplished, it is unclear as to whether the specific needs of
2
the parents are also being met. This is because minimal research has been conducted to
determine what the needs and preferences are of parents who participate in parenting
programs (Jacobson & Englebrecht, 2000). One approach that could be used to determine
if parent needs are addressed is to conduct an open ended needs assessment to establish
what parents want or need in a parent education program. This study looked to determine
the needs of parents with typical children between the ages of four and five. A typical
child is defined as a child that is not identified as gifted or needing formal special
education services. In addition, the study sought to determine if the needs of parents vary
according to cultural differences, and whether the goals of existing parenting programs
are addressing the needs of parents found in this study.
Background to the Problem
Parents of young children, ages four to five years old, experience many challenges
and obstacles while raising their children including academic concerns, appropriate
discipline strategies, child-rearing techniques, and parental confidence (Jacobson &
Englebrecht, 2000). In fact, there is a growing perception that parents are not getting the
help they need to deal with these challenges (Coleman, 1991). Research suggests that
parents feel unprepared to help their children adjust to new challenges because they
believe they cannot rely on their own experiences as a credible basis for giving their
children advice (Apter, 2006). As children grow, the needs of parents and their children
change, and the challenges become more complex, especially without the support of
professionals (Debord, Heath, McDermott, & Wolfe, 2000). Assisting parents through
3
this process can be facilitated by encouraging them to participate in parent education
and support programs (Jacobson & Englebrecht, 2000).
One of the first steps in building a parenting program is to assess the needs of the
parents, including obtaining specific information and assistance about child-rearing
(Jacobson & Englebrecht, 2000). One approach that has been effective in obtaining this
information is the use of surveys and focus groups. Surveys and focus groups have been
conducted in both middle and a low-income area to determine what worries parents the
most in relation to raising their children. The data suggest that the concerns of parents in
low socioeconomic communities differ from those of parents from more economically
stable communities. For example, young minority mothers and mothers living in poverty
are more concerned with issues related to children’s health and safety, while mothers who
attend college desire information regarding learning and developmental milestones such
as crawling, walking, and the ability to talk (Sparling & Lowman, 1983).
While the need for parental support transcends all cultural and socioeconomic
boundaries, the specific concerns vary. In predominantly African-American and Latino
communities, family obligations such as work and daily survival are the parents’ main
priority. In a telephone survey of over 1,300 African-American and Latino parents, both
groups revealed their greatest challenges to be the threat of job loss in the community and
the protection of children from negative influences such as peer pressure, drug use, and
violent crimes (Roehlkepartain, Mannes, Lewis, & Olstrom 2004). A study conducted by
Farkas, Johnson, and Duffett (2000) report that middle class parents are more concerned
about physical dangers and children’s television exposure, whereas low-income parents
4
were more concerned about money, health insurance, and peer relations. In affluent
communities primarily made up of Caucasian families, the challenges parents deal with
are how to effectively raise their children and how to deal with psychosocial problems
(Mulroy, Goldman, & Wales, 1998).
Statement of the Problem
Parent education programs seek to provide parents with a variety of resources,
including child development, the parent-child relationship, and other parenting issues
(Debord, Heath, McDermott, & Wolfe, 2000). While these programs serve an important
purpose, several concerns remain as to their efficacy in meeting parents’ needs. First,
while many of the existing programs that will be discussed are meeting their program
goals established in relation to their area of focus, it is unclear whether the programs are
meeting the needs of parents. According to Riley (2003), parents need to be involved in
the design and content of parenting programs if they are to be successful. In practice,
however, parent input is rarely used to inform fundamental components of program
curricula. The goals and expectations of these programs are pre-determined and are often
based on theoretical principals (Seefeldt et.al, 1998). Programs like Head Start and
Healthy Families, though successful in many aspects, have a researched-based curriculum
that is established without the input of the parent.
A second concern that exists with parenting programs is the limited number of
programs designed for parents of typical children. This parent population is often
overlooked and dismissed as not needing assistance with raising their children; therefore
5
an emphasis is not put on meeting their needs because of the focus put on special
populations of parents. Yet, parents of typical, or normal children, make up the largest
group of parents who need assistance in rearing their children. More information needs to
be gathered about the kinds of support parents of typical children need so that appropriate
programs can be developed in response.
Third, parent education programs also have the challenge of meeting the needs of
parents from diverse cultural backgrounds. It is important that researchers and programs
are aware of the specific needs and concerns of various socioeconomic groups.
Participants in parenting programs have traditionally been white mothers from upper and
middle socioeconomic levels (Croake & Glover, 1977). As such, a significant amount of
the research on parenting conducted in the 1980’s primarily involved these parents and
concluded that parents must have the appropriate amount of socioeconomic resources in
place to be effective parents (Demo & Cox, 2000). Research also states that as a result of
these limited resources, parents are hindered from providing their children the support
and empathy they need to get through various situations while growing up (Demo & Cox,
2000). Studies conducted on ethnic minority families suggest that the effect of a child’s
performance is mediated by consistent discipline and parental support (Dumka, Roosa, &
Jackson, 1997), however, discipline strategies used such as spanking and verbal
reprimands are not the best way to resolve issues within the household.
Being that parenting practices and rearing styles can differ among various
socioeconomic groups, it is essential that programs be culturally and linguistically
modified for various ethnic groups. Although there are programs available for diverse
6
populations, which will be discussed in the literature review, they are based on pre-
existing concepts used by current parent programs. Culturally specific programs must
have a clear understanding of a group’s distinct values and beliefs as well as the
differences that make them unique (Cheung, Gorman, & Balter, 1997). To ensure that the
needs of various ethnic groups are met, they must have the opportunity to provide input.
The next section will discuss the purpose of this study, and how it will contribute to
current research, policy, and practice.
Purpose of Study
Due to the limited amount of research conducted on the needs of parents with
normal functioning children, this study will determine what parents of young, typical
children, ages 4 to5 want or need in a parent education program, and whether existing
programs contain curriculum that address those needs. In addition, this study aims to
understand the needs of parents at different socioeconomic levels. The primary purpose
for using a needs assessment is to measure (a) parent’s interest in information topics; (b)
problems related to parenthood; (c) values regarding child rearing; and (d) awareness, use
of, or needs for various sources of support (Gowen et al., 1993). The literature reviewed
in this study will focus on parenting programs that are theoretically and empirically
based. Research indicates that parenting programs are designed to target four specific
groups of participants (Gorman & Balter, 1997), including theoretical programs that
focus on helping parents by addressing general parenting concerns such as discipline and
effective rearing practices. Behavioral specific programs such as the Triple P Positive
Parenting Program and Adlerian based programs like Systematic Training for Effective
7
Parenting ( STEP) and Active Parenting are programs that fall under this category.
These programs are intended for typical or normal parents that need general knowledge
and strategies in relation raising their children.
There are also programs available for specific parent populations, including single
parents and parents who are at-risk of abusing their children, such as the Nurturing Parent
Program. . In addition, there are child specific programs available that look to meet the
needs of children with specific concerns, such as behavior disorders learning disabilities.
Programs like the Incredible Years program have proven to be effective in helping to
reduce unwanted behavior among young children. Finally, there are programs designed to
address specific concerns among parents, including maturation and peer relationships. It
is important to understand whether these programs are effective in meeting parents’ needs
in reference to raising their children.
Importance of Study
This study has the potential to impact and improve parent education programs.
Parent education programs look to provide parents with the social support necessary to be
successful by focusing on specific areas of concern. The primary goal of parent education
programs is to strengthen the family structure by providing relevant, effective education
and support (National Parent Education Network, 2006). One indicator that supports the
notion that parents need support with raising their children is the lack of an informal
support system. Parents have traditionally relied on family members, friends, and
churches to get assistance with raising their children. However, with social, economic,
and demographic changes, the informal assistance is not readily available as it has been
8
in the past (Weiss, 1990). In addition to the informal support, parents also look to
experts, professionals, and the publishing sector for assistance (Koepke & Williams,
1989).
The publishing industry reports a rising interest in parent education. The
popularity of books, magazines, and parenting programs, for instance show that there is a
demand for such parenting resources. As an example of parental demand, the magazine
Parents ranks 32 among the top 100 magazines sold (Magazine Publishers of America,
2008). This publication, along with the other available resources specifically target first-
time parents and parents of young children by addressing topics like parental discipline
strategies and child rearing techniques. Finally, a search on Amazon.com using the
keywords “books on parenting” yield over 9,000 sources available to parents (September,
2008). There are also over 7,300 books on parenting advice in print for parents to access
(Amazon, 2008). Among all of the resources used by parents, one that has helped parents
over a long period of time are parent education programs.
Parent education programs look to meet the needs of parents by providing them
an alternative to parenting practices that are harmful and nonproductive. Effective parent
education programs promote a positive relationship between parents and their children,
which lead to positive outcomes (Debord, Heath, McDermott, & Wolfe, 2000). There are
several characteristics associated with the effectiveness of parent education programs.
These characteristics include having a curriculum that centers on improving the family
structure. Within the family structure, an emphasis is put on positive communication and
increased parent child interaction. Another important characteristic is the structure of the
9
program. These include individual and group settings, which vary according to the areas
of need. Employing a qualified staff experienced with working with families as well as
establishing clear program goals are also important characteristics that contribute to the
effectiveness of parent education programs. (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2008).
Programs that encompass these characteristics are likely to have success in meeting their
pre-established goals, but it is unclear if programs are also meeting the needs of parents
who participate.
As mentioned earlier, there are over 50,000 parent education programs available
for parents to access (Carter, 1996). In the programs reviewed for this study, parent
education programs meet their program goals and the results are positive. However, it is
not known if parents have actually benefited from the program itself. The research
conducted in this study will attempt to fill the gap between the predetermined outcomes
of programs and parental needs by examining the needs of parents with typical children.
Narrowing the focus of the population to parents of typical children, ages 4 to 5 years old,
will fill a void by addressing the needs of a population that has not been researched
thoroughly.
Parents choose parenting programs based on their needs and the content of the
program (Heath, 1998). Allowing parents to have input in developing the curriculum is
an innovative way that matches parent needs, interests, and learning preferences with the
program (Strom, 1985). In addition, looking at the needs of parents according to ethnicity
and socioeconomic status is important. Many parents select programs that are consistent
with their beliefs and values (Heath, 2007); therefore it is vital for programs to take this
10
into consideration. Giving parents a voice will help to build the confidence that parents
have in parent education programs. The programs reviewed in this study have shown to
be effective in meeting the goals of their program and population. However, it is not
evident if the specific needs of the parents who participated in the program were met.
Although parents were required to complete a client satisfaction survey, it was not done
until the completion of the program, however, this study will allow parents to have input
in the developing a blueprint for a parent education program that addresses their specific
needs.
The findings in this study were able to shed light on ways to improve the design
of future parent education programs. In other words, the information and results gathered
from this study could be used to develop future parent education programs that center on
the themes established in this study. In addition, as a result of these findings, policy
makers who influence parent education programs can use this research to develop future
parenting programs that focus on addressing the needs of parents from diverse cultural
background who have typical children. This information will help program leaders to
better understand the needs of these parents and create outreach and marketing strategies
so parents will be more willing to participate, which is a concern in many neighborhoods.
Although it is important for parent education programs to support parents by using
researched based practices, it is also critical to have the input of parents in relation to
their specific needs.
The next section in this chapter will review existing literature on research based
parent education programs currently in place that have had success working with parents.
11
To place a historical context on the evolution of parent education programs, a brief
background of early parenting programs, including the initial purpose and establishment
of curriculum and format will be presented to depict the evolution of parenting programs.
The current theoretical and behavioral programs will also be discussed to show how they
are designed to assist parents. In addition, the program goals and expected outcomes of
the programs will be highlighted, along with the results and overall effectiveness in
meeting the needs of the participants.
12
Literature Review
The purpose for reviewing various types of parenting programs is to understand
the extent to which specific needs of parents of non typical children are being met in
relation to the goals established by the program. The goals of the parenting programs
reviewed in this study focus on helping parents and their children by teaching them
appropriate discipline techniques, positive communication, and increased parent-
interaction. These programs are based on various theories and principles, and are aimed
at specific populations and focus on specific parenting issues. Participants in the studies
reviewed were either placed in a randomized control group or whole group setting, and
were from various cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, with some parents having
little knowledge about the purpose of parent education programs. The results and
outcomes of the studies reviewed will shed light on the importance of conducting needs
based assessment to gather information in relation to what parents want in a parent
education program before the program is implemented. The purpose and role of parent
education programs have evolved into a vital component in helping parents from all
cultures and backgrounds. Although the resources and program formats have changed
significantly, it is important to understand the early history and backgrounds of parenting
programs and their initial function within early society.
History of Parent Education
Research studies conducted on parenting programs indicate that parent education
groups have been supporting parents as early as 1815 (Croake & Glover, 1977). These
13
early parent education programs otherwise known as “maternal associations” were
comprised of mothers who met regularly to talk about various child rearing concerns.
However, the information available to mothers was very limited as many of these
programs were focused primarily on the religious and moral development of children
(Sunley, 1955). Early parent magazine publications were also a popular resource for
parents to utilize. The first parent magazines were published in the mid 1800’s, however
it is unknown the amount of publications that were sold during that time. At the turn of
the century, parents began to seek out help from formal services. Although there was an
interest in parent education programs in the early 1930’s, by the end of the decade their
popularity and interest began to fade as a result of the economic and financial
uncertainty of the Great Depression (Croake & Glover, 1977).
Parent education programs of the last two centuries assumed a variety of program
formats (Cheng, Gorman, & Balter, 1997). Early parent programs that were established in
the 1940’s and 1950’s focused on helping first-time parents meet the needs of their infant
and young children. The majority of the participants in these programs were primarily
middle class mothers of European descent that resided in surrounding university
communities (Croake & Glover, 1977). These programs aided parents through various
methods of communication such as mass media and individual counseling (Brim, 1965).
The most utilized and most successful method was the group-based parenting, or
classroom format, which provided parents with a genuine “support system” of peers and
professionals who were aware of the various challenges being experienced (Brim, 1965).
14
The settings for these early parenting programs were most often informal and
unorganized (Croake & Glover, 1977). Yet as the success of these programs grew, a
corresponding increase in the number of parents seeking out these support systems
similarly grew. This increased interest led educators and practitioners responsible for
facilitating these programs to believe it was necessary to develop a more organized
approach to helping parents. The content used in these programs focused on a variety of
topics to help parents better understand their children and their own parenting style
(Croake & Glover, 1977). These topics included: discipline, child rearing, interpersonal
communication, parent-child relationships, practical advice, and theoretical approaches
(Croake & Glover, 1977).
Parents have always sought the advice and support of relatives, friends, and
professionals when they encounter problems with their children. In fact, parents who
have received consistent support from friends, family, and parent training programs
exhibit personal happiness, increased self esteem, and a happier marriage (Jacobsen &
Engelbrect, 2000). However, in today’s society, the traditional sources of support,
including the extended family are not readily available for parents to access due to the
significant change in family structure (Powell, 1999). With the evolution of technology,
and a wide array of advertisement and other media outlets, parents now have access to a
wealth of resources that they can use as support with raising their children and improving
their parenting practice, regardless of the specific need. There are a large variety of
parenting books available for parents, both in bookstores and on the Internet, with a large
majority of the books focusing on first-time parents, infant care, and child rearing
15
strategies for young children. While these resources have been helpful to parents, there
continues to be an ongoing demand for parents to receive education and support,
specifically from parent education programs. The next section will discuss the various
types of parent education programs and their effectiveness in meeting the needs of
parents who participate.
Theoretical Programs
There is a dearth of research documenting parenting programs specifically
designed for parents of typical children. Instead, the literature provides information about
different populations of children, including but not limited to children with behavior or
conduct disorders and children at-risk of being abused (Dembo et al., 1985). Of those that
are available, parenting programs based on theoretical principles have long been the most
popular type that parents seek out for assistance (Dembo, et al 1985). These programs are
based on research and psychological principles developed by theorists and are described
in more detail below. Although the research available cannot offer detailed information
about parenting needs of typical children, it is possible to make inferences from the
available literature as to the strategies and resources that are appropriate for parents of
typical children.
Parents of young children with behavior problems experience numerous
challenges when it comes to raising their children, including an unstable family structure
and parental stress (Bor, Sanders, & Markie-Dadds, 2001) that oftentimes prevent then
from seeking out support to meet their specific needs. Behaviorally-based parent
16
education programs are designed using a variety of programs and formats (Dembo,
Sweitzer et al., 1985) that teach concepts that include the use of social and non social
reinforcers, observations, and basic behavioral concepts, such as weakening undesirable
behavior and strengthening a more desired response (Dembo, Sweitzer, & Lauritzen,
1985). One of the more popular behaviorally based parent programs-- the Triple P-
Positive Parenting Program-- has been shown to be effective in working with parents of
children with behavior problems.
Triple P- Positive Parenting Program- Triple P is a behavioral family intervention
program designed to teach parents how to respond to their children based on the
severity of the child’s behavior, and work to minimize opportunities for disruptive
behavior (Roberts, Mazzucchelli, Studman, & Sanders, 2006). Based on the social
learning principle, Triple P emphasizes positive interaction between parents and their
children (Patterson, 1982). The goal of the Triple P is to minimize disruptive behavior as
well as emotional and developmental problems among young children by teaching and
enhancing the knowledge of parents so that they are able to address issues that may occur
within the home (Sanders, 1999).
The Triple P curriculum also teaches parents 17 core child management strategies
including promoting child competence and development. Parents are also taught how
apply newly acquired parenting skills to a wide range of target behaviors. Parents are
taught how to “self regulate” or exhibit positive self control by using strategies
encompassed in the program. After participation, parents are better equipped with the
17
necessary tools needed to raise their children. (Sanders, 2004). Triple P is a multi-
tiered intervention that is divided into five levels.
• Level 1- Universal Triple P- designed for all parents and provides them
with an overview of general parenting strategies and child development
information using print and electronic media sources.
• Level 2, Selected Triple P- a two-session program designed to give advice
to parents that have specific concerns about their child, such as toilet
training and minor behavior problems. This is accomplished through
telephone or face to face meetings with a licensed practitioner.
• Level 3, Primary Care Triple P- a four-session program that helps parents
to reduce discrete behavior problems within their children such as
tantrums and fighting with relatives and siblings. This is also done through
telephone and face to face meetings.
• Level 4, Standard Triple P- an eight-to-ten session intensive training
program that teaches parents of children with severe behavior problems
positive training skills both an individual and group format.
• Level 5, Enhanced Triple P, is the most intensive level designed for
families that have other challenges such as concurrent behavior problems
and family dysfunction, including stress and depression (Bor, Sanders, &
Markie Dadds, 2000).
18
Bor, Sanders, and Markie-Dadds (2000) conducted a study using the
components of the Triple P Program with parents of pre-school aged children diagnosed
with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and who lived in a low-income area in the
United States. Eighty-seven families, primarily Caucasian, participated in the study, with
63 completing the intervention and post assessment measure. The purpose of the study
was to determine if the implementation of an adjunctive intervention and standard parent
training program had an effect on the child’s behavior and a change in the parenting style
of the parent who participated compared to a wait-list control group. The goal of the
study was to compare the effectiveness of an adjunctive intervention, enhanced
behavioral family intervention (EBFI), and a standard parent training program (SBFI),
Triple P Program.
The assessment measures incorporated into the standard Triple P program and a
client satisfaction survey were utilized to gauge the program’s effectiveness. Parents were
randomly assigned to either an Enhanced Behavioral Family Intervention (EBFI) group, a
Standard Behavioral Intervention Group (SBFI), or a wait-list control group. The
adjunctive intervention offered to parents in the EBFI group included Partner Support
Training (PST) as well as Coping Skills Training (CST), which addressed family
adversity factors that affect parenting such as depression and stress (Bor, Sanders, &
Markie-Dadds (2000). The standard training parent program that was used was the
Standard Triple P Program. The EBFI consisted of three elements: the implementation of
the Standard Triple P program along with the two adjunctive interventions.
19
The results of the study concluded at post intervention that children whose
parents participated in both the EBFI and SBFI conditions displayed a significant
reduction in disruptive behavior compared to the wait-list group. Parents in the SBFI also
had higher levels of competence in their parenting skills compared to the wait-list group
(Bor, Sanders, and Markie-Dadds (2002). It is clear within this study that parents within
the two conditions had a positive response to the information they received. In addition,
parents in the EBFI group benefited from the Partner Support Training and Coping Skills
Training because parents had a reduced stress level and felt better about their parenting
efficacy. During the pre post-intervention, parents were not given an opportunity to
express their specific needs when raising their children. The only feedback parents were
allowed to give was the client satisfaction survey, which evaluated the quality of service
at the end of the program.
A similar study conducted by Roberts, Mazzucchelli, Studman, and Sanders
(2006) used an adaptation of the Triple P program for children with developmental
disabilities or behavioral problems known as Stepping Stones Triple P (SSTP). SSTP is a
10-session program that focuses on incorporating 27 strategies for encouraging child
development and managing misbehavior (Roberts, et al., 2006). The targeted population
for the study was parents of preschool children in Western Australia previously identified
with having developmental disabilities or behavioral problems. Forty-seven parents and
their children were separated into two groups; an intervention group and a wait-list
control group and participated in the program consisting of ten, 120-minute sessions and
routing home visits by research assistants. There was no demographic information
20
provided regarding the ethnicity and socioeconomic status of the participants. The
program used a pre- and post- intervention assessment, including a client satisfaction
survey that was completed at the end of the program. Families that participated in the
intervention group were provided with the SSTP workbook and also required to watch a
video of positive parenting skills. Parents also had the opportunity to choose self selected
goals and strategies that they were required to practice at home. For parents that needed
additional support, the Enhanced Triple P module was offered. Wait-list families
continued to receive previous early intervention services, except for behavioral support.
These families were later offered the SSTP after the post-intervention assessment.
Using a pre- and post- intervention assessment and a client satisfaction survey
completed at the conclusion of the program, researchers found that parents who were part
of the intervention group reported a reduction in their child’s behavior problems as well
as a change in parenting behaviors among parents, specifically changes in the greater use
of praise and encouraging positive behavior within their children (Sanders, Mazzucchelli,
& Studman, 2003). Parents in the control group also showed an increase in positive social
attention from pre to post intervention. These results were also evident at a six-month
follow up with participating families. One strength of the study was that parents were
given the opportunity to complete a client satisfaction questionnaire; however it was
scored on a Likert scale instead of allowing parents to give open ended feedback. Those
who completed the client satisfaction questionnaire rated the program as highly satisfying
in relation to providing them with new parenting strategies. A limitation to the study that
could be improved upon was that it consisted of a small sample size (n=47). Even though
21
this particular program was successful in meeting the goals and outcomes of the
program, there was not an opportunity for parents to provide input in improving the
implementation of the program.
In another study, Leung, Sanders, Leung et.al (2003) evaluated the effectiveness
of the Triple P Program with a sample of Chinese parents in Hong Kong and was the first
controlled study of this kind attempted in a non-western cultural context. Ninety-one
parents whose children had been identified as having early indications of conduct
problems participated in this study. The population targeted Chinese parents who either
volunteered to participate or were referred to the program due to the severity of their
child’s behavior problems. Participants were placed in a randomized intervention group
or a wait list control group, utilizing the same measures outlined in the previous studies,
only translated in Chinese.
The researchers predicted that parents would have a greater reduction in
disruptive child behavior as well as a reduction in parental negativity, dysfunctional
parenting, and parental distress, compared to the wait list group. Data obtained through
the use of questionnaires during the pre and post intervention phase and analyzed using
chi-square test and independent t-test measures suggested that Triple P was effective in
helping parents to reduce the conduct problems among identified children. The results
showed an improved family relationship between parents and their children, as well as a
reduction in child behavior problems in the intervention group, therefore supporting the
predictions hypothesized by the researchers. Triple P also helped parents to improve their
parenting style and increase their sense of parental competence. The control group did not
22
show a significant improvement during post intervention but were offered the program
at a later point in time.
The strengths of the study include using the Triple P Program in a totally
different cultural context and finding that it could be effective. Additional comparison
studies with other cultural groups could be conducted to further analyze the program’s
effectiveness. Using random assignment and a wait list control group were also important
in strengthening the validity of the study because those procedures reduced alternative
explanations for the results that implied if parents do not receive formal assistance, they
will continue to have difficulty with addressing the needs of their children. Given the fact
that there haven’t been previous studies using the Triple P outside of the western cultural
context, it would be beneficial to implement the Triple P Program with other cultures to
help determine if parents of different cultures have the same concerns when it comes to
raising their children.
1-2-3 Magic- Another behavioral based parenting program that has been effective in
supporting parents with raising their young children is the 1-2-3 Magic Program (Phelan,
1990). The 1-2-3 Magic program was developed by Phelan (1990), and aims to teach
parents effective discipline and how to reduce parent-child conflict (Bradley, et al.,
2003). Examples of these strategies include establishing clear rewards and using
effective discipline practices such as timeout, using a video based format (Phelan, 1990).
A study conducted by Bradley, et al. (2003) looked to evaluate the effectiveness
of the 1-2-3 Magic Program on parents with preschool children ages 3-4 years of age,
diagnosed with behavior problems. The participants in this study included 222 parents
23
who resided in a metropolitan area of Toronto. Parents were randomly assigned to a
control and waitlist group made up of six to eight participants. The instruments used in
the study were completed both before and three months after completion of the program.
Participants took part in a two-hour group meetings held once a week for three weeks, as
well as a four week “booster” session. Parents were also required to watch the 1-2-3
Magic training video designed to help parents with using the appropriate strategy to use
when dealing with difficult behaviors.
The results of the study showed that parents who participated in the intervention
group reported changes to their parenting behaviors. The behavior of their children
likewise showed changes, with parents reporting their children more compliant and less
difficult to deal with at home. The wait list group parents showed no such improvement
in their own parenting style from pre to post assessment. A one year follow up
questionnaire was completed as part of the study with twenty-five families from the
experimental group. Though the results revealed that parents maintained the use of
positive parenting strategies and effective discipline they still not were not given an
opportunity to express whether the program met their individual needs.
In summary, it is evident that both the Triple P Program and 1-2-3 Magic have
shown positive results in helping parents with raising their children. Although these
studies suggest that behavioral based programs are successful in assisting parents to
reduce behavior problems, there is still a concern that parental input is not included in
either the programs or the study themselves. The interventions used in both programs
were successful in helping to address parental concerns about reducing unwanted
24
behavior among their children. Parents using the Triple P Program had positive
outcomes, which support the claim that the Triple P Program can be effective using
diverse sample populations with the same parental concern. Parents in each of the Triple
P studies reported a significant reduction in their child’s unwanted behavior as well as
positive interaction, which are two key components of the Triple P Program. The study
conducted by Lueng, Sanders, Leung et.al (2006) shows that Triple P is also effective in
assisting parents regardless of cultural values and ethnic backgrounds. Parents that
participated in the 1-2-3Magic Program also experienced a reduction in their child’s
unwanted behavior and perceived their children to be more compliant and not as difficult
to deal with (Bradley, et al., 2003), even though the program length was limited to only
three weekly sessions. The goals outlined in both the Triple P and 1-2-3 Magic parenting
programs were being met, even without the use of a needs assessment before or after the
program implementation. Although the Triple P Program conducts a client satisfaction
survey at the end of the program, it is done using a closed ended Likert scale format
which only assesses the goals of the program, and does not allow parents to openly
express what they would like included in the program. In contrast, the 1-2-3 Magic
program did not conduct any type of satisfaction survey; therefore it is not clear whether
the program met the needs of the parents who participated. It is safe to say that both
programs could be used more effectively by giving parents an opportunity to express
additional concerns that they have in relation to raising their children.
25
Adlerian-Based Programs
One of the more recognized models of parent education programs is based on the
theory and practice of Alfred Alder. The basis of Adler’s theory of individual psychology
is that people are motivated by goals and future accomplishments (Popkin, 1983). The
goal of the Adlerian training model is to improve parent-child interaction by teaching
parenting strategies that use encouragement rather than discouragement, and create a
positive relationship based upon active listening and honest communication (Popkin,
1983). The combination of these two strategies creates reflective dialogue between the
parent and the child as well as a sense of trust and openness. Adlerian-based parent
programs promote a more “democratic” parenting style where parents encourage
cooperation and create a learning environment for their children (Popkin, 1987). There is
also the notion a democratic form of parenting, with “freedom within limits”, and where
every individual within a family has a voice, and is an important part of the whole
(Popkin, 1987). Parents establish goals for both themselves and their children such as
guidance, satisfaction, and respect for self and others. Examples of the types of discipline
strategies used in democratic parenting include logical and natural consequences, as well
as routine family meetings (Popkin, 1987).
Active Parenting. In 1983, Popkin developed a parent training program based on the
principles of the Adlerian parent model entitled “Active Parenting” (1983). This program
was the first to use a video based parent training format, and also uses a variety of
delivery methods such as group discussion, role-play, and lecture, in addition to the video
based method (Popkin, 1983). Initially, the program aimed to meet the needs of parents
26
of children ages 2-12. However, in 1990, Popkin developed a parent program
specifically for parents of teenagers entitled “Active Parenting for Teens” (1990).
Research has shown that both programs have been successful in helping parents rethink
their parenting style and interaction with their children (Alvy, 1994).
To evaluate the effectiveness of both programs on parents, Mullis (1995)
conducted a study using both Active Parenting Today (Popkin 1993), which focuses on
young children, and Active Parenting for Teens (Popkin, 1989). The purpose of the study
was to assess the behavior of young children and teenagers, as it is perceived by their
parents. African-American parents whose children attended school in one of six junior
high schools in an inner city area served as the target population for the study. Parents
were made aware of the study through letters as well as an informational meeting held at
the local middle schools. In all, 395 parents participated in the study, the majority of
whom had young children (n=287). The measurements used for data collection were a 22
–item questionnaire titled “About My Child” (AMC; Poplin & Mullis, 1995), for the
parents of young children, and a 29–item questionnaire titled “About My Teen” (AMC;
Poplin & Mullis, 1995), for the parents of teenagers. A pre-post assessment was also used
to determine the attitudes of parents before and after the participation. These instruments
were chosen because they specifically targeted the behaviors discussed in the Active
Parenting Programs.
The results of the study concluded that a significant change was evident in the
perceptions of parents regarding their children’s behavior. Parents who attended these
training programs described a dramatically improved relationship with their children,
27
particularly in the area of communication and positive interaction (Mullis, 1999).
Parents in both groups felt that using the strategies taught by the program led to more
open and honest communication with their children. Parents in both groups who
implemented the discipline strategies emphasized in the program described a positive
change among their children, especially within the Active Teen parenting group because
open communication was a barrier that many parents had a hard time breaking down.
Limitations to the study included the lack of behavioral observations, which would have
helped to determine if the changes were as a result of the parent’s training, as well as the
lack of a control group, with random assignment to compare to the parents that
participated in the program.
In a similar study, Fashimpar (2000) measured the effectiveness of the Active
Parenting Program on parents to improve parental attitude and parent-child interactions.
Participants, the majority of whom were Caucasian, were recruited to participate through
social service agencies, as well as self-help groups. The final sample group was made up
of 64 participants: 37 in the treatment group and the remaining 27 in the comparison
group. The methodology used in the study was a qualitative approach using a group-
based format and the video-based Active Parenting lessons as well as three instruments
that were completed before and after the training. The instruments used in the study to
measure the variables are different from those used in the study conducted by Mullis in
that this study focused on three specific variables: parenting attitudes, the parent-child
relationship, and family functioning.
28
The results of the study showed some positive outcomes for those receiving
treatment. Parents in this group reported changing attitudes towards physical punishment,
which reflects a shift towards the democratic parenting style emphasized by Adler. In
contrast, the comparison group showed no change in their attitudes toward empathy,
punishment, or family roles. The results of the study further showed a significant
reduction in parent-child problems such as negative discipline and ineffective
communication among parents within the treatment group, but not so among those in the
control group (Fashimpar, 2000). Although there was a positive effect on improving
family functioning in terms of establishing responsibilities and positive communication,
the results were statistically insignificant.
Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP). Another Adlerian based parenting
program that has proven to be effective in helping parents to raise their children is the
Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP). Developed by Dinkmeyer and
McKay (1976), the STEP program is designed for parents who have typical challenges
and not for parents who have children with psychological problem. The components of
the program are similar to others that use an Adlerian based approach, including
democratic parenting and positive communication.
Fennell and Fishel (1998) conducted a study whose purpose was to analyze the
effects of the STEP program on abusive or potentially abusive parents to improve
parental perceptions and to decrease the potential for child abuse. Eighteen parents were
selected to participate, and were divided into two groups; one treatment and one control
group. The control group parents were offered the opportunity to be part of the STEP
29
group at the end of the nine-week session. The methodology used in the study was a
qualitative approach that used pre and post questionnaires, as well as discussion groups.
Researchers found that parents in the treatment group had a more positive
perception of their children and were less likely to abuse their children after participating
in the nine week program. The control group participants showed no significant
improvement in the areas of focus. These results show that the STEP program can be
effective in meeting the needs of abusive or potentially abusive parents, in addition to
those of typical parents. The limitations to the study were the use of self report measures
which affected the validity of the results as well as the use of a small sample group. One
way the program could have been more powerful was to allow parents to provide
feedback during the post assessment regarding the effectiveness of the program in
meeting their specific needs.
Adlerian Parent Study Group. The previous studies provide evidence that many of the
parent education programs using the Adlerian model focus on meeting the needs of white
parents in non-urban communities, as identified by the target population. However, a
1984 study conducted by Gordon-Rosen and Rosen examined the effects of the Adlerian
Parent Study Group (APSG) on the parents of black inner city youth. This program used
the components of Children: The Challenge, a book by Drucker and Soltz, as well as
handouts and charts from the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP).
The study addresses the effects of the Adlerian parent program using the
variables of child behavior and school attendance. The population targeted in the study
30
was black, inner city parents with children who attended one of six junior high schools
in a southeastern urban school district. Forty-two parents participated in the training. The
method used in the study was a mixed methods approach using an Adlerian Parent
Behavior Scale as well as in-school attendance. The two variables that were used to
support the research were home behavior and school attendance. Parents were divided
into an experimental group, (n=19) (parents with training), and a control group (n=21)
(parents with no formal training). Pre- and post- assessments were conducted and a
follow up assessment was conducted four months later. Parents received the training for a
total of nine weeks, which consisted of group discussions, role playing, and materials
from the STEP kit.
Study results showed that the children of parents in the experimental group did
not improve their home behavior or school attendance as compared to children of non-
trained parents. However, there was no improvement in school attendance for children of
the participants in both groups. This finding could be attributed to the lack of input by the
parents, which would affect their commitment to putting the strategies learned in the
program into practice at home. The studies reviewed using the Active Parenting program
have shown positive results regardless of sample group and sample size. In addition, the
goals of the studies reviewed were quite different. The study conducted by Fashimpar
(2000) focused on changing the attitudes of parents towards physical punishment using
an experimental and control group design, while the goal of the study conducted by
Mullis (2002) was to assess the effects of the Active Parenting program on parents after
31
completing the program. Instead, it would have been more beneficial to get the input of
parents to better address their specific needs.
The two studies using STEP also proved to be effective using two different
sample groups. The use of an experimental and control group design in both studies allow
the results to be clearly evident in determining program effectiveness. For example, in the
study conducted by Fennel and Fisher (1998), the parents in the experimental group
showed a significant decrease in being abusive in comparison to the control group, which
showed no improvement. This design was critical in this study because the STEP
program had never been used with this type of sample group. In addition, both studies
used the Adlerian Parent Assessment of Child Behavior Scale before and after the
program. However, the study conducted by Fisher and Fennel (1998) also used the Child
Abuse Potential Inventory because participants were abusive or potentially abusive
parents. One limitation that both STEP program studies had in common was the small
sample sizes. Initially, both studies had a significant amount of participants; however a
majority of them did not complete the nine-week program. In order for parents to benefit
from the programs components, full participation is required
Behavior Disordered Parenting Programs
There are many treatment options available to parents that have children
diagnosed with conduct and behavior disorders, however parenting programs that are
designed for this population is considered the most commonly used intervention. These
programs are vital because parents with these children experience a high level of stress,
and a feeling of incompetence and frustration (Levac, McKay, Merka, Reddon-D’Arcy,
32
2004). Examples of some of the more common behavior disorders include
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder. Children diagnosed with
ODD have an ongoing pattern of defiant and hostile behavior towards adults (American
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1999). Children with conduct disorder,
which is a more severe form of ODD, have an extremely difficult time following rule and
behaving in a socially acceptable way. The following section reviews the literature on
existing programs for parents of behavior disordered children that have proven to be
effective.
Incredible Years Parenting Program. One program that has been widely used to meet
these needs is the Incredible Years Parenting Program (Webster-Stratton, 2007). The
Incredible Years Program, based on the principles of cognitive behavioral theory, was
developed by Carol Webster-Stratton over 25 years ago, and is a group-based prevention
and intervention program designed to strengthen parenting competencies. The goals of
the Incredible Years Parenting Program includes teaching parents how to (1) interact with
their children who are identified as having conduct disorder or a high level of aggression
(Kim, Cain, and Webster-Stratton, (2007), (2) praise and reward them effectively, as well
as (3) set limits and manage misbehavior (Webster-Stratton, 2007).
Levac et al. (2008) looked to explore parents’ perceptions and the effectiveness
of the Incredible Years Parent Training Program after their participation. The target
population for this study was 37 parents, the majority of which were Caucasian and the
rest Asian and African-Canadians. The children of these parents met the criteria of having
conduct and/or attention disorder, in addition to experiencing some aggressive behavior
33
(Levac et al. 2008). Incredible Years is a 12-week program that incorporates the use of
videotaped parent-child interaction and experiential learning (Kim, Cain, & Webster-
Stratton, (2007). Parents also participate in group discussions and set weekly goals to be
accomplished. For the purpose of this study, a qualitative methodology was used. Parents
completed a semi-structured interview that consisted of open-ended questions to gather
their perspectives of how effective the parenting group was for their families.
The results concluded that parents experienced a significant decrease in the
amount of personal stress and an increased confidence after incorporating a new
parenting style. They also felt the group program format was supportive and provided the
opportunity for them to self reflect on their own parenting styles and how they were
derived. Researchers also identified seven core benefits of the program as identified by
the parents. In their interview responses, parents stated the following:
1. Parents truly valued the group;
2. They developed an awareness of their own parenting practices;
3. They gained confidence and influence as a parent;
4. Parents observed new behaviors in their children;
5. They experienced improved relationships; and
6. Parents felt sad about the group ending
Although the results of the study were generally positive, one way that the study
could have been improved was by asking parents questions in relation to specific needs.
The use of a semi structured interview to collect information about the program could
34
have been used more effectively by including questions that asked parents what they
needed in terms of a parent education program. The questions asked were effective in
determining what parents thought about the program. However, they were not given the
opportunity to discuss what their specific needs were in relation to improving the
behavior of their child.
To determine if the components of the Incredible Years program are effective
across cultural boundaries, a pilot study was conducted by Kim, Cain, and Webster-
Stratton (2007) with Korean-American parents. Children of these parents were identified
with having significant behavior problems. This specific sample group was selected
because previous studies have been conducted with Caucasian, African- American, and
Hispanic/Latino American, with positive results. The purpose of the study was to
determine the effectiveness of the Incredible Years parenting program using a sample
group of Korean American mothers in an effort to improve positive and appropriate
discipline, as well as reduce harsh discipline.
Interviews, discussion groups, and pre-post questionnaires were used to gather
evidence from 29 Korean American mothers with children 3-8 years old. Participants
were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n=20) and control group (n=9) (Kim,
Cain, & Webster-Stratton, 2007). The instruments used in the study were translated into
Korean: the Parent Practices Interview; the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican
Americans; the Eyeberg Child Inventory; Social Competence Scale; and a Parent
Satisfaction Questionnaire (Kim, Cain, & Webster-Stratton, 2007). Assessment scales
were used to measure discipline styles, family structure, and behaviors problems in the
35
home. At the end of the program, parents completed the satisfaction survey, which was
also used in the previous study. The intervention lasted for twelve weeks, and parents
were required to complete the post assessment at the end of the program. A one year
follow up assessment was completed by the parents to determine the long term effects of
the program on the participants.
The results of the study concluded that the intervention group that received the
Incredible Years Program showed an increase in parents using appropriate positive
discipline techniques such as positive praise and communication compared to the parents
in the control group. However, there were no significant differences among the
intervention and control groups in relation to appropriate discipline, such as timeouts and
harsh discipline such as yelling (Kim, Cain, & Webster-Stratton, 2007). When comparing
pre-post results, it is evident that parents in the intervention group reduced their harsh
discipline behaviors and focused on using positive discipline strategies and their children
also had fewer problem behaviors. Control group mothers also reported no significant
change in their discipline perceptions and there was decrease in the child behavior
problems. At the one year follow up, intervention group parents continued to have
success using positive discipline compared to the control group parents. The strength of
this study is that it was the first used on a Korean American population using the
Incredible Years Program. The study allowed researchers to get an idea of how Korean-
American parents respond to a primarily American-based parenting program. A definite
limitation to the study was the small sample size (n=29). A commonality among all of the
36
scales and questionnaires was the use of a Likert-type format to assess parent
satisfaction, which limited the opportunity for parents to openly discuss their needs.
Spitzer, Webster Stratton, and Hollinsworth (1991) tested the effects of the
Incredible Years Program on a larger sample size. The target population for the study was
77 families with children that have conduct problems such as conduct disorder and
oppositional defiant disorder. The study sought to determine the questions, needs, and
concerns of parents during the program, as well as what they felt was missing from the
training. The method used in the study was a qualitative based approach using the
comparative method developed by Glaser and Strauss (1978) to analyze and the data. The
comparative method allows investigators to separate the data into concepts and themes
that enable them to develop a working hypotheses (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The
researchers used a qualitative method using the components of the Incredible Years
Program to analyze the process of parents’ learning and parenting styles in relation to
coping with stress associated with their children’s behavior during the program
implementation. The results of the study indicate that parents gradually gained a
significant amount of knowledge, control, and competence to cope effectively with their
children. Parents were also pleased with the outcome of the training because they had the
opportunity to provide input in relation to their specific needs and goals.
Parent-Child Interaction Therapy- There is evidence within the literature that many
parents of behavior-disordered children are more apt to have negative interactions with
their children (Timmer, 2005). One of the more commonly used interventions to reduce
the negative behaviors of both parents and children is Parent-Child Interaction Therapy
37
(PCIT). This program uses the foundation of social learning principles which
emphasizes positive interaction between parents and children. The PCIT intervention
provides support to both children and their parents in the form of dyads, and is
implemented in two phases. The first phase of the program seeks to improve the
interaction between the parent and their child, known as Child-Directed Interaction
(CDI). The second phase of the program focuses on helping to strengthen child
compliance, known as Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI). There are two goals associated
with the success of Parent Child Interaction Therapy. The first goal is to create a positive
and rewarding relationship between parents and their children. This is accomplished by
modifying how parents interact with their children. The second goal of the program is to
emphasize to parents the importance of recognizing their children’s positive behavior and
using clear, direct commands. (Timmer et al., 2005).
A study conducted by Timmer, et.al (2005) looked to determine the effectiveness
of the PCIT program in reducing the maltreated behaviors of children while in treatment
with their abusive or non abusive parents. The first goal of the study was to measure the
effectiveness of the program in relation to it being rewarding and engaging enough to
retain participants. The second goal of the study was to determine whether child behavior
problems and parent stress reduced from pre to post treatment.
The methodology used in the study was a qualitative approach that used pre-post
assessments to measure the potential of a parent being abusive to their child, including
stress level and how the child behaves. In addition to these measurement scales, data was
collected from therapist and social work reports regarding previous maltreatment history.
38
The results of the study point to finding that parents of abused children did a slight, but
not significant reduction in child behavior problems from pre to post assessment. To
determine whether the PCIT therapy was effective, the results of the study concluded that
parents of abused children did see a reduction in child behavior problems from pre to post
assessments, but not a significant one. This suggests that families in high risk populations
need additional methods to help in reducing problem behaviors. In addition, there was a
concern in relation to retaining participants throughout the entire treatment program. In
relation to determining whether child behavior and parenting stress reduced from pre to
post treatment, the results showed a reduction in both areas for participants with and
without a history of abusive behavior.
The strengths of the study included a positive shift in parents’ behaviors and
attitudes towards their children. This is a result of the methods used within the PCIT
model, which emphasizes positive interaction and communication among parents and
their children. One of the limitations to the study included that this study was primarily
an effectiveness study that used previous studies as a basis for the development of the
current study. Another limitation to the study was the lack of follow up data to monitor
the effectiveness of the treatment over a period of time. Although parents were satisfied
with the outcomes of this study, allowing parents an opportunity to express specific needs
before program participation could have ensured that both the goals of the programs and
the needs of the parents were met simultaneously.
39
Parents at-risk of abusing
There have been many parent education programs designed specifically for parents
who abuse and neglect their children. According to Helfer (1999) child maltreatment any
interaction or lack of interaction between a child and adult that results in non-accidental
harm. It is important to evaluate existing programs to ensure that the goals and
expectations of the families involved are being met. A meta-analysis of 40 parent
programs for parents with young children who are at risk for abuse was conducted by
Geeraert, Noortgate, Grietens, and Onghena (2004). The common goal for all of the
studies in the meta-analysis evaluated was to prevent potential abuse of children by
providing parents with alternative strategies that could be used more effectively. The
results of the this analysis concluded that the programs reviewed had a positive effect on
parents who participated in relation to parent child interaction, family functioning, and
neglectful behavior (Geeraert et al., 2004). The next section will review existing parent
education programs that were designed for parents at-risk of abusing their children.
Nurturing Parent Program- One model that takes a family centered approach to meet
the needs of parents is the Nurturing Parenting Program. The Nurturing Parent Program
emphasizes a democratic approach to parenting in which positive change must first occur
in the parent before it occurs in the parent- child relationship(Bavolek,1984).The basic
components of the Nurturing Parent Program helps parents to improve their parenting
style related to the following areas: (a) Inappropriate parental expectations of the child;
(b) Inability of the parent to be aware of the child’s needs; (c) Strong parental belief in
the value of punishment; (d) Role reversal (Bavolek, 1984).
40
The program used a curriculum that looks to address the needs of high risk
families by focusing on self nurturing and positive parenting. Self-nurturing skills are not
emphasized in low income families because of other overwhelming factors that they are
faced with which results in parents being unable to provide for their own needs (Webster-
Stratton, 1997). The family centered approach emphasizes the use of group discussion as
well as questionnaires that focused on specific topics. The topics covered in relation to
self nurturing include improving communication, conflict resolution skills, stress,
personal power, and avoiding substance abuse (Devall, 1999). Topics discussed regarding
parenting skills include family rules, punishment, choices, and consequences.
Devall (1999) conducted a study in New Mexico to evaluate the effectiveness of a
family-centered parent education program for culturally diverse, high-risk parents. High
risk families in the study were parents who fell under the following categories: teen,
unmarried, single, divorced, abusive, substance affected, and incarcerated (Devall, 1999).
The population targeted for the study was parents who lived in rural New Mexico and
were of various ethnic backgrounds including Hispanic/Latino and Native American. The
sample group consisted of 323 parents in which 84% lived at or below the national
poverty level. As mentioned earlier, many of the parenting programs that focused on
addressing the needs of high risk parents have mainly centered on European, middle class
mothers. However the focus of this study was to apply the same principles to parents who
live in low income areas, having little, social support, limited resources, and a high
amount of stress.
41
The methodology used was a combination of a pre/post-test assessment and
group discussion. The Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory, designed to determine a
parent’s risk of abusing. The Nurturing Quiz assesses a parent’s knowledge of effective
discipline techniques. The Family Social History Questionnaire gathered demographic
data on the parents such as age, gender, educational level, etc. The results of the study in
relation to the four basic components mentioned earlier conclude that parents showed an
improvement in each of the areas. Parents in the study showed a significant increase in
the degree of empathy shown for their children’s needs. They also demonstrated a
decrease in showing inappropriate expectations for their children in regards to behavior,
as well as a decrease in the stress level. The strength of the study included the use a group
format, which is has show to be effective for high risk audiences (Devall, 1999). After
the Nurturing Parent Program, parents expressed an improved understanding of how to
interact, discipline, and, rear their children in a positive way. In addition, parents were
pleased with the use of a community based group education format because of the
support and discussion this format offers to parents who normally would not seek out
assistance. Providing parents with education and training in their own communities is
more likely to increase program participation and retention. These improvements further
improve the effectiveness of the Nurturing Parent program in meeting the needs and
goals outlined in the curriculum. The next section will discuss whether or not the needs of
parent participants were met after the completion of the program.
42
Did the programs meet the needs of their participants?
It is apparent that the parent education programs discussed in this review met the
goals and outcomes in their specific area of focus. However, it is not clear that the
individual needs of the parents who participated in these programs were being satisfied.
In the behavioral studies reviewed, there is a consistent pattern of the Triple P program
being effective in helping parents improve the interaction with their child. The
behaviorally based studies that used the Triple P Program as well as the Incredible Years
Program conducted client satisfaction surveys to aid in analyzing the effectiveness of
their programs. However, these studies would have been more effective by incorporating
the specific needs of parent into the curriculum using a needs based assessment before the
program. Although parents completed a Client Satisfaction Questionnaire, the assessment
was limited to a Likert scale format, which does not provide the opportunity for parental
feedback.
The Adlerian-based programs were also successful in meeting their own goals,
which included better communication and interaction between the parent and the child.
As mentioned earlier, the Adlerian Based parenting model emphasizes the use of
democratic parenting as a means to improve communication and interaction among
parents and their children. However, it is also evident that there was no parental input in
the design or feedback of the program, which could strengthen the impact of the
programs with parents. The programs for potentially abusive parents also showed positive
outcomes without the use of a control group, and parents felt the programs met their
needs. One commonality among all of the studies regardless of the area of concern was
43
the use of the group-based parenting format. As mentioned earlier, the group-based
format has been successful with helping parents because of the support they receive from
professionals as well as other participants.
The studies using the Incredible Years Program have been effective in helping
parents cope with the needs and concerns of their conduct disordered children. The
components of the Incredible Years program emphasize the use of a video-taped training
model that encourages discussion and positive interaction. Although the goals of the
Incredible Years Program have been accomplished within the training, parents do not
have the opportunity to provide input in relation to their specific concerns about rearing
their children. However, in the study conducted by Spitzer, Webster-Stratton, and
Hollinsworth (1991), the emphasis was put on what the needs and concerns of the parents
were by using a structured interview format, which assisted in developing the curriculum
for future parent training groups.
It is clear that the programs available for parents who are abusing or at risk of
abusing are very successful. The goals of these programs are to assist parents in
decreasing their potential of using physical abuse or maltreatment as well as increasing
the positive interaction with their children. The studies reviewed have proven that these
goals are being met, even if the components of the program is not intended for
maltreating parents such as the STEP program. Although these programs are effective,
they do not give parents the opportunity to have input by completing a needs based
assessment either at the beginning of the program or during the post assessment phase.
44
Previous Needs Assessments for Typical Parents
There is a limited amount of research conducted that focuses on the needs of
parents who have typical children. This is important because the specific needs of parents
cannot be addressed unless the needs are known (Strom, 1981). Strom conducted a study
on a sample group of 2,893 parents, teachers, and children and required participants to
complete an open-ended questionnaire to measure parental success. The goals of the
study were to determine the needs of parents in regards to raising their children, and
create a collection of published surveys. The results of the study concluded that parents
wanted a parent education program that provided information to help their children
manage conflicts relating to peers. It also confirms a need for a curriculum that is relevant
to personal experiences and designed to allow input from participants.
There is a wealth of research collected on the needs of parents from low income
families, parents from different ethnic groups, and parents rearing children in stressful
circumstances (Cudaback, Marshall & Knox, 1994). However, the needs of parents who
are raising children in affluent conditions have not been thoroughly addressed (Goldman,
J.; Mulroy, M. & Wales, C., 1998). There is evidence that children as well as parents that
live in affluent communities are also at-risk for psychosocial and educational problems
such as stress, abuse, neglect, and depression. (Gubernick & Linden, 1995).
A study conducted by Mulroy, Goldman, and Wales (1998) sought to determine
the needs of parents before participating in a parent education program. The participants
were 85 affluent mothers with children, ages infant to 5 years who reside in a well-known
45
affluent community in suburban New York. Three versions of the needs assessment
developed focused on eight areas: Caring for Self as a Parent and Spouse, Understanding
Child Development, Nurturing, Family Relationships, Motivating Your Child’s Learning,
Guidance and Discipline, Advocating for Utilizing Community Resources, Handling
Emergencies, and Establishing Routines. (Goldman, J.; Mulroy, M. & Wales, C., 1998).
Parents completed questionnaires that used a 4-point Likert scale format during the first
class of the program. The results of the study concluded that 85% of parents wanted
information in seven of the eight focus topics, specifically in the areas of guidance and
discipline and motivating child learning. Mothers of infant children showed an interest in
all topics. These results also confirm that at least some of the needs of parents in affluent
areas are consistent with the needs of parents in low socioeconomic communities. Even
though this study conducted a needs assessment to determine the needs of parents, it was
done using a Likert Scale questionnaire instead of an open-ended question format.
Ethnic and Socioeconomic Differences
Parent intervention programs are typically designed without a clear understanding
of the cultural backgrounds of the people to be served (Slaughter, 1983). Research has
shown that African-American parents in comparison to White parents tend to use a more
authoritative approach to raising their children (Demo & Cox, 2000). Latino parents and
families teach their children to value cooperation, family unity, and solidarity within their
own culture (Demo, Cox, 2000). Among Asian-Americans, there are similarities in the
needs and expectations of Japanese and Chinese parents. Chinese-American parents teach
46
their children to comply with the familial authority resulting in children who sacrifice
their personal desires and interests (Ishii-Kuntz, 2000). They are also taught the
importance of showing loyalty and respect to elders as well adhering to hierarchical
relationships.
In the inner city where a large percentage of the population is Latino and African-
American, it is essential that parent education programs are culturally sensitive to the
specific needs and concerns of Hispanic/Latino parents as well. Powell, Zambrano, and
Silva-Palacios (1990) conducted a study to determine the preferences and content of a
parent education program for 121 low income Mexican and Mexican American mothers
in Los Angeles, California. The goal of the program was to identify and compare the
preferences of a parent education program for Mexican immigrant parents and Mexican
American parents of young children. The method used in the study was a qualitative
approach using an interview format conducted either in person or via the telephone. The
researchers focused the study on five preference areas: delivery mode (group meeting
format versus home visiting format), group composition, information sources,
interpersonal relations, and prior group experience (Powell, Zambrano, Palacios, 1990).
The results of the study concluded that the preferences of both groups were similar in
specific areas including delivery mode and use of experts with special training. Parents
wanted to obtain information about child-rearing. In addition, the parents preferred a
group-based format instead of the interview format. The data collected from the
participants only provided suggestive, but not conclusive directions for designing and
delivering a parent education program (Powell, Zambrano, & Palacios, 1990).
47
A study conducted by Kelly, Power, & Winbush(1992) analyzed the parenting
practices of lower and middle class African-American mothers using a Parenting
Dimensions Inventory. The results of the study revealed three factors that determine the
disciplinary practices of the parent: social consequences, physical punishment, and
restrictiveness (Kelly, Power, & Winbush, 1992). There are clear cultural differences in
relation to the needs of typical parents. The needs of African-American parents differ
vastly from those of White American and Asian American parents due to numerous
social and cultural factors. However, as the population changes it is important for
researchers to determine whether the needs of parents are similar among cultural and
ethnic backgrounds, and design programs that specifically address the needs unique to
their culture.
Bluestone and Tamis-LeMonda looked at the child-rearing practices of African-
American mothers, based on the theoretical framework of parenting determinants
developed by Belsky (1984). This framework asserts that parenting is determined by
factors such as the psychological functioning of the parent, and the characteristics of the
child (Bluestone &Tamis-LeMonda, 1999). The purpose of the study is to examine the
correlation of psychological and contextual factors on the parenting styles of African-
Americans, including general parenting and disciplinary strategies. The researchers
looked to challenge the assumptions that all African-American families used a “power
assertive” approach in disciplining their child, as found in many studies of African-
Americans families living in low income areas. Participants in the study were 114
African-American parents who lived in New York. The measures used in the study were
48
an initial telephone interview that gathered demographic data, the Parental Acceptance
and Rejection Questionnaire, as well as the Parenting Dimensions Inventory, which is a
self report measure that assesses multiple dimensions of parenting practices ( Bluestone,
Tamis-LeMonda, 1999). The results of the study concluded that working and middle
class African –American mothers use a child oriented approach in relation to disciplining
their children. The results also determined that maternal depression and a negative
childrearing history had an impact on parenting style.
The results of the studies reviewed confirm that although there are some differences
in terms of the parenting style, parents from different cultural backgrounds have some of
the same preferences regarding a parent education program, including information about
child rearing as well as strategies that promote positive based parenting. In addition, it is
clear that the needs of parents also differ with regards to socioeconomic status and family
values. Although the goals of the studies reviewed looked at the preferences according to
cultural background, there was not an opportunity for parents to dialogue and express
their needs using an open ended format.
Conclusion
The parent education programs reviewed have had success in meeting the needs
of parents with children that have a specific behavior or emotional disorders. Parents that
are at risk of child maltreatment have also seen positive outcomes after participating in a
parent education program. As a result of their participation in these programs, parents
feel better prepared to positively interact with their children, which include implementing
positive communication and effective discipline strategies. Although the studies
49
conducted by Strom, et al. (1985) included a “parenting needs” component, little is
known about the needs of parents of typical children.
Young, typical children ages four to five years of age, encounter challenges such
as academic and peer pressure, as well as physical and emotional development. Parents of
these children need the support of professional experts to help them deal with situations
that arise. Just as the parents of children with a medical diagnosis learn effective
strategies and techniques, these strategies should also be provided to parents of typical
children. Therefore the purpose of this study is to determine the needs of parents of
typical children ages four to five years of age. The research questions that will be
addressed are:
1. What are the needs of parents with typical children ages four and five
years of age?
2. Do the needs of parents differ according to demographic
characteristics (socioeconomic status, income, education, and
ethnicity)?
3. Are existing program goals aligned with the needs of the parents
surveyed in the sample population?
Data will be gathered using an open ended survey that centers around eight pre
determined themes that will be further discussed in the next chapter. In addition, parents
will be given the opportunity to further discuss what they need in order to help their
children through the obstacles and challenges they will face as they grow older through
open-ended questions that are not based on any particular parenting theme.
Existing parent programs have established pre-determined goals that are based on
theories and practices that are research-based and proven to be successful. There is
evidence that existing programs are designed to meet the goals and expectations of their
50
program, but in many cases, not the need of the parent. Within these programs, parents
learn how to increase the amount of positive interaction with their children as well as
reduce the amount of inconsistent parenting practices (Leung et al., 2003). These
programs include theoretical programs that focus on behavioral concerns such as the
Triple P Parenting Program as well as Adlerian based programs such as Active Parenting.
There are also programs that help parents of behavior disordered children and parents that
are at risk of child maltreatment. The programs reviewed for this study have been
effective in meeting the goals of their program without conducting a needs assessment.
Involving parents in the process of determining the content of parent education programs
is essential. There is no clear indication that the needs are being met because parents have
not had the opportunity to discuss what their specific needs are. Although some programs
in this study conducted Likert-type client satisfaction surveys at the end of the program,
the purpose of the surveys are to determine if the goals of the program were evident, not
to ask parents what they would like in a program if they had the opportunity to have
input.
51
CHAPTER II
METHODOLOGY
There are many parent education programs available for parents to access when
they need support in rearing their children. These programs focus on improving parenting
practice and providing the knowledge needed to be effective parents. Currently, the
designs and models of the programs in place center on theoretical and empirically based
principles or focus on meeting the needs of special populations, including parents who
have children with behavior and developmental disorders, as well as parents who are at
risk of abusing their children. These programs have also proven to be effective in meeting
the needs of parents. However, there are not many parenting programs available to
address the needs of parents who have typical children, or children that have not been
identified as gifted or receiving special education services.
The purpose of this study was to identify the needs of parents with typical
children, ages 4 to 5 to determine what they would want in a parent education program.
This study also looked at the goals of existing programs and their effectiveness in
meeting the needs expressed by the parents who participated in this study. The
methodology used was a qualitative based analysis that administered an initial Research
Information Sheet as well as an open-ended needs assessment survey.
52
Research Questions
1. What are the needs of parents with typical children ages four and five years of
age?
2. Do the needs of parents differ according to demographic characteristics
(socioeconomic status, income, education, and ethnicity)?
3. Are existing program goals aligned with the needs of the parents surveyed in the
sample population?
Ethical Considerations
Participant information was kept anonymous and confidential during all aspects
of the study. Documentation was stored in a secure location, and only the principal and
co-investigators had access to the completed surveys. All participants participated on a
voluntary basis and had the option of withdrawing at any time. Participants also had the
chance to refuse to answer any questions without penalty. If participants wanted copies of
the instruments for their records, they were available upon request.
Participants
The target population was parents that have children attending school in the Los
Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD). Parents of African-American and Latino
descent and reside within the south area of Los Angeles, specifically in low
socioeconomic areas that are surrounded by gangs and spontaneous violence. To be
eligible for participation, participants must have typical children ages 4 or 5 that have not
53
been identified as gifted or needing special education services. This district was
selected due its large and diverse sample population (Table 1).
Table 1: Los Angeles Unified School District Student Enrollment by Ethnicity, 2008-09
Ethnicity Enrollment Percentage
American Indian 2,118 0.3%
Asian 25,525 3.7%
Pacific Islander 2,537 0.4%
Filipino 15,788 2.3%
Hispanic/Latino 506,232 73%
African-American 75,777 10.9%
White 61,270 8.8%
Multiple/No Response 4,397 0.6%
To determine if a parent met the criteria to participate in the study, a Research
Information Survey was completed. To ensure validity and reliability, a large sample
group of approximately 600 was desired. Participation in the study was voluntary and
participants could withdraw from the study at any time.
Recruitment
Parents were recruited to participate using various resources, including flyers,
distributing surveys at school sites, and visiting parent meetings. While working with a
LAUSD ombudsperson, the co-investigators attended eight Local District parent
meetings to present the study to parents who attend the meeting. A recruitment script
was read in both English and Spanish for parents who need the accommodation. In
54
addition, flyers as well as word of mouth will also be used to encourage participation.
Parent representatives that attend the also took parent surveys back to their school site
and disseminated them to parents at their school based advisory council and parent
meetings.
Measurements
The measurements used in the study contained two sections and took
approximately 30 minutes to complete. The first instrument was a Research Information
Sheet (Appendix A) to provide background information and to obtain consent and
determine if the parent met the desired criteria for participation. Eligible parents then
completed open-ended needs assessment survey (Appendix B) centered on the eight pre-
determined themes that were previously discussed. The original survey was created by
Master’s level students at the University of Southern California and used in an online
study. The survey used for the present study uses questions derived from the original
study in addition to other questions created by doctoral students at the University of
Southern California. The sampling strategy used in the study will be purposeful sampling
strategy, and will use a combination of criterion and homogeneous sampling methods.
The data collected from the survey will be used to analyze the common themes and
preferences among the parent participants.
Research Information Sheet and Survey.
The initial Research Information Sheet consisted of ten questions to gather demographic
information including gender, age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic background,
55
educational level, and income. In addition, information was collected regarding
previous participation in parenting programs as well as information regarding their
child’s educational background. The second section of the survey was a set of eleven
open-ended questions that focus on the eight themes previously mentioned.
Procedure and Data Collection
Each distributed survey included a pre-stamped envelope so participants could
send them back free of charge. The return envelopes were pre-addressed and did not
require any identifying information from the participants. Survey responses and
demographic information were kept anonymous in a central, secure location. Data
collected from the participants was then broken down into categories that aided in
identifying the key findings from the survey results including needs according to cultural
and ethnic background. Participant responses for each theme were then analyzed and
coded using proper coding procedures to ensure confidentiality. The results of the study
are discussed in the “results” section of this study.
Data Analysis
Using the principles of grounded theory, which emphasizes using various sources
of data to develop theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), information from the surveys was
collected and analyzed using the demographic and ethnicity as the independent variables.
Responses from participants were grouped according to the eight themes: intelligence,
behavior, social skills, communication, emotional development, family relations, moral
development, and discipline. In addition, data was further analyzed using the
56
triangulation method, which synthesizes data from multiple sources. Within this study,
this was accomplished through collaboration among the co-investigators, who looked at
data across age levels. The results of the information collected allowed the co-
investigators to draw conclusions as to the needs of parents of typical four and five year
old children, which will be discussed in the results section.
57
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
The purpose of this study is to determine the needs of parents with typical
children, ages 4 to 5 by conducting an open-ended “Needs Assessment” survey. The
results of this survey are disaggregated by specific themes and will address the following
research questions:
1. What are the parent education needs of parents with typical children ages four and
five years of age?
2. Do the parent needs of parents differ according to demographic characteristics
(e.g., ethnicity, income, education level)?
3. Are existing program goals aligned with the needs of the parents surveyed in this
study?
Participant Characteristics
Co-researchers analyzed the data sets of parents with typical children ages 6-10,
11-13, and 14-17, however, this study examines the needs of parents of typical children,
ages four or five years of age. Twenty-four parents met the eligibility criteria having a
child that is not currently identified as gifted or receiving special education in the Los
Angeles Unified School District. Twenty-one of the participants were female (79.2%)
and three were male (20.8%). This percentage is consistent with the studies citied in the
literature review, wherein the majority of the people who participate in surveys are
women (Strom, 1985). The three male participants, it is important to note, were all
58
African-American which is in contrast to previous research that has found that only a
small percentage of Black/African-American men participate in these types of surveys
(Gutman, Lloyd, 2000).
The income status of the participants varied: 34% of the participants earned
annual incomes between $0-$19,999 and 8% earned between $20,000- $29,000 yearly.
Slightly more than half of the participants (58%) earned incomes in excess of $30,000,
with 3 parents earning $100,000 or more annually (Table 2). In relation to ethnicity, 53 %
(n=13) of the participants were Black/African-American and 47% (n=11) of the
participants were of Hispanic/Latino origin. The average age of the participants was 30.4
years, with the youngest and oldest participants being 21 and 45 years old, respectively.
At least 84% of the participants were either married or in a committed relationship
(n=17). All participants with the exception of four attended some high school or earned a
high school diploma. Thirty-three percent of the participants earned an Associates
Degree or higher, all of whom with the exception of one, were Black/African-American.
Table 2: Income and Ethnic Distribution of Parent Participants
Income Range n Ethnicity*
0-$19,999 8 6H/2AA
$20,000-$29,999 2 1H/1AA
$30,000-$39,999 4 1H/2AA
$40,000-$49,999 1 1AA
$50,000-$59,999 6 2H/4AA
$100,000+ 3 3AA
*H=Hispanic/Latino; AA=Black/African American
59
The sources from which participants of both ethnic groups sought support
included family and friends. The least popular source of support was from professionals
and parenting classes, even though 25% (n=6) of the participants previously participated
in a parenting class and found them to be informative and helpful with raising their
children. To determine what topics parents find the most important, each survey question
was analyzed using actual parent responses as the data source. Parent responses are
grouped into common themes and subthemes that are significant among participants. The
following section will summarize the survey results according to the eight themes
previously discussed in Chapter 2.
Research Question 1: What are the needs of parents of typical children ages four and
five?
Surveys were distributed to parents with children that attend school in the Los
Angeles Unified School District. Surveys were provided for parents at school site parent
meetings, local district parent workshops, and parent liaison meetings. A brief overview
of the study, including its purpose and how it contributes to the development of future
parent education programs was provided by co-researchers. Collected surveys were
separated by age group and disseminated to co-researchers. Surveys written in Spanish
were translated into English by a professional translator. Each survey question was
analyzed and grouped according to significant themes and sub themes that are prevalent
within survey responses expressed by parent participants. This study used the
components of grounded theory, a research method developed by Glaser and Strauss
(1967). Grounded theory is a qualitative methodology that generates theory from the data
60
using a variety of methods. Data is then collected from participants’ responses, and
uses the information to generalize common themes.
Needs Assessment Results
Question 1- Academic Progress: When thinking about your oldest child, what would you
like to learn in a parenting class about their academic progress (e.g., learning, problem
solving)?
Of the 24 parents with children in this age group, eighteen responded to this
question. Overall, both African-American and Hispanic/Latino parents felt that learning
how to help their child (ren) become successful academically was a very important skill
they hoped to acquire from a parenting class. Two common themes emerged among all
parents: (a) the desire to learn how to help their children become better learners in the
classroom, and (b) helping their children to acquire problem solving and critical thinking
skills. Parents noted the importance of teaching and reinforcing appropriate work habits
and classroom behavior during this early age so they may be successful in the classroom
and subsequent grade-level transitions. As such, incorporating instructional skills into a
parent education program provides parents with the opportunity to reinforce the skills
being modeled in the classroom. In relation to learning how to help their children’s
problem solving and critical thinking skills, one parent expressed that she wanted to
know how to help her child make the right decision and choices, both academically and
socially.
-“I want my child to be able to learn better” (Response-Survey 5)
-“I want learn how to help my child be a good reader” (Response-Survey 14)
-“I want my child to learn problem solving skills” (Response-Survey 3)
61
Question 2- Risk Behaviors: When thinking about your oldest child, what would you
like to learn in a parenting class about preventing or dealing with behaviors that may
cause them harm physically or emotionally?
Two themes were common among all respondents, including: (a) learning how to
teach their children to differentiate between appropriate behavior (e.g. following
directions) and inappropriate behavior (e.g. acting out, tantrums) and (b) teaching their
children about respecting and interacting appropriately with peers. Learning how to
teach children appropriate social interaction skills including non aggressive behavior and
positive communication skills were two recurring topics of concern expressed by parents.
Both ethnic groups were interested in learning how to teach their children to deal with
conflicts among their peers in a positive manner without getting into physical
altercations. Two parents expressed an interest in learning how to teach their children to
better handle their emotions in addition to building their self esteem and self confidence
among their peers. One Black/African-American parent specifically expressed concern
about her child “getting involved in, and initiating physical confrontations”. She felt this
kind of behavior could lead to a pattern of inappropriate behavior that may affect her
child’s academic progress. For that reason, learning about conflict resolution strategies in
a parenting class is desired among parents so that they could be reinforced at home. A
small number of parents expressed interest in topics such as helping their children to
choose the right type of friends at school and how to teach them to deal with
uncomfortable situations that may put them in harm’s way. The needs expressed by
parents in this question are related to the needs articulated in the following survey
question that focuses on peer relationships. Some of the specific responses from parents
included:
62
-“How to handle conflicting situations between my child and a classmate”
(Response-Survey 21)
-“Teach them how to calm down and control their emotions when they are mad”
(Response-Survey 13)
-“Teach them how to avoid getting involved in and initiating physical
confrontation” (Response- Survey 22)
-“I want to learn how to keep my children out of situations that may harm them”
(Response- Survey 15)
Question 3- Social Interactions and Peer Relationships: When thinking about your
oldest child, what would you like to learn in a parenting class about their social
interactions and peer relationships?
Two themes that were prevalent among parents was the need to (a) learn how to
appropriate social techniques and (b) teaching their children how in positively interact
with peers. Improving social interactions and peer relationships are topics that many
parenting programs look to address with older, adolescent children. However, this topic
is an important issue for parents of young children as well. Four parents specifically
expressed that teaching their children how to establish positive peer relationships was an
important topic to learn about in a parent education program. Three parents also felt that
teaching their children how to choose their friends wisely should be covered in depth,
with specific attention placed on how to avoid situations with friends that may likely get
them into trouble. Survey responses suggest that Hispanic/Latino parents are more
concerned about teaching their children to interact with, and not be intimidated by peers.
As expressed in survey question two, parents want to learn how to encourage their
children to socialize with other children both in school and at home. Parents feel that
63
learning “appropriate social techniques” to use with their children will better prepare
them socially and increase their self confidence.
-“How to encourage my child to be more social and friendly” (Response-Survey
12)
-“How to teach her to make good choices” (Response-Survey 18)
Parents also felt it was important to learn how to encourage their children to choose
friends appropriately and avoid associating with the wrong crowd. Learning how to
incorporate “family time” into their child’s routine to improve social interactions is also a
topic that they would like addressed. In addition, identifying certain warning signs when
their children are associating with the wrong crowd was further noted by parents as
important. Previous research has shown that parents of adolescent children have
commonly had concerns about peer relationships (Steinberg, 2001), however studies
conducted with parents of young children has found that they are very concerned about
the types of friends they children may choose (Snyder, Horsch, Childs, 1997).
Communication is an area of parenting that many parents of young children have
difficulty with as expressed in the next section.
-“Learn social interactive games for families to play with children” (Response-
Survey 9)
-“How to know when something is wrong with my child” (Response-Survey 21)
-“I want to learn how to better communicate with my child (Response-Survey 2)
64
Question 4- Parent-Child Communication: When thinking about your oldest child,
what would you like to learn in a parenting class about communicating with your child?
Improving parent-child communication was a topic area that many parents felt
was important to learn about. Two prevalent themes that was common among parents
was (a) learning how to increase their children’s self-confidence with positive
communication and (b) learning multiple ways to communicate at their children’s level of
understanding. One salient theme that was common among many parents was the need to
learn communication strategies that will increase their child’s self-confidence and
motivation by learning how to communicate without being overly harsh. One parent
expressed the importance of learning strategies from professionals as opposed to the
traditional practices of yelling and negative communication. In addition, learning
multiple communication tools, including how to communicate with children at their level
of understanding was also a common theme expressed by parents. Specifically, parents
want to learn how to “keep the lines of communication” open as their children grow
older. One subtheme was the need for learning how to have “daily conversations” with
their children about school, peers, and personal issues. Some parents also expressed the
opinion that establishing positive communication with their children is a critical
component to their children’s early success in school.
-“I want to learn how to control my emotions instead of screaming” Response-
Survey 13)
-“I want to learn multiple tools that support positive communication skills”
(Response-Survey 9)
-“I want to learn how to communicate with my child in a positive way”
(Response-Survey 16)
65
“I want to increase my child’s self confidence and get her to open up”
(Response Survey 15)
-“I want to learn how to keep the lines of communication open as my child grows
older.” (Response- Survey 18)
-“I want to learn how to communicate with my child at their level” (Response-
Survey 24)
Question 5- Emotional Development: When thinking about your oldest child, what
would you like to learn in a parenting class about their feelings and emotional
development?
Two themes that emerged from the information provided by parents was the need
to learn how to (a) accommodate their child’s emotional transition to the next grade level
and (b) learning how to teach their children to be empathetic of other’s feelings. Given
the fact that this is the first school experience for their child, they are concerned that the
transition to the next grade level may be difficult particularly when it comes to
establishing friendships and the potential for rejection by their peers. Parents also want to
learn how to deal with their child’s feelings and how to identify when something may be
wrong emotionally with their child. Learning how to teach children to be empathetic to
others’ feelings when at school is a topic that parents also felt was important. Some
parents expressed that teaching their children how to establish positive social interaction
skills at a young age, including compassion and empathy towards others, is critical to
their children’s peer relationships. These findings are significant because in reviewing the
goals of behaviorally-based parenting programs discussed in the literature review, one of
the goals of these programs is to teach parents how to be sensitive to the children’s
feelings (Dor & Lee, 1999). Three parents also expressed interest in learning how to
66
address behavioral concerns before they become problematic and how to reinforce
good behavior. Some of the example responses from parents included:
-“Showing my child how to be more compassionate of others’ feelings”
(Response-Survey 5)
-“I want to learn about how to deal with their feelings and emotional
development” (Response-Survey 9)
Question 6- Family Relations: When thinking about your oldest child, what would you
like to learn in a parenting class about their response to difficult or challenging family
interactions between people in your family?
A common theme that came from parents that did respond was the need to teach
their children the importance of respecting family members. Teaching their children how
to respect family members at a young age is an important part of their social development
because it instills in children the sense of family which will follow them as they get older.
They were also concerned about how to resolve problems among family members by
learning how to respect each other’s role in the family structure. It was difficult to
develop a clear theme due to the limited number of responses. One assumption that can
be made is that parents are more comfortable with keeping family issues within their
family, which is supported by two parent responses that expressed not needing support in
this area. In addition, participants may have not had a full understanding of the question,
which was articulated in one parent response. Some of the responses from parents
include:
-“Teaching respect for each person in the family” (Response-Survey 23)
-‘Learn to value each person’s abilities in the family”- (Response-Survey 14)
67
-“I don’t have any concerns in my family” (Response-Survey 22)
-“I don’t understand what you mean.” (Response- Survey 3)
Question 7- Moral Development: When thinking about your oldest child, what would
you like to learn in a parenting class about helping you to effectively teach your child
about your value system?
This question generated only four responses from all parent participants.
However, those that did respond expressed the need to learn how to help their children (a)
understand the importance of values in a child-friendly language and (b) stay grounded in
the values that have already been taught. Although a value system has been established in
their children, parents are not sure that their children fully understand what values are. A
subtheme that falls under this theme is teaching parents how to reinforce values by
rewarding their children when they display good decision-making. Keeping their children
grounded in a pre-established value system, for example knowing the difference between
right and wrong was also a topic that parents felt was important to learn about in a parent
education program.
-“I want to learn how to keep her grounded in what she already knows and
reinforce values” (Response-Survey 18)
-I want to learn how to communicate values to my child in a way she
understands” (Response- Survey 7)
-“I want to reward him when he makes a good decision” (Response-Survey 24)
68
Question 8- Discipline: When thinking about your oldest child, what would you like to
learn in a parenting class about increasing your child’s positive behavior and decreasing
negative behaviors?
Learning effective discipline techniques was also an important need according to
participants, a specific theme that was evident among parents was (a) the desire to learn
how to reduce their children’s unwanted behavior by using positive discipline techniques
instead of harsh discipline (b) learning how to remain consistent with enforcing
discipline. A subtheme involved learning how to remain consistent with enforcing rules
and disciplining their children as well as learning how to maintain and reinforce positive
behavior. One parent briefly discussed the need to learn how to deal with her child when
they are out in public. Another parent expressed the concern that her child has a hard time
in school and at home, and feels she is not getting the necessary support from the school.
Coincidentally, both of these parents were single, Hispanic/Latino females that had a
limited education.
-“I need help with stopping my child’s bad behavior” (Response- Survey 13)
-“I want to get support from the school controlling my son’s behavior” (Response-
Survey 20)
-“Learn how to discipline my son when we are out in public and he acts up”
(Response- Survey 8))
-“I don’t want to use spanking as a form of discipline unless really necessary”
(Response-Survey 22)
A final theme apparent in response to this question concerned the need to learn
effective communication skills that could be used instead of punishment such as spanking
and punishment. Although alternative methods such as timeout or being grounded seem
69
effective for young children at this age, parents expressed the need to learn additional
strategies that can be implemented at home and in public. Black/African-American
parents in this study wanted to learn how to have positive conversations and interactions
with their children about behavior, and help them to understand that there are
consequences to their actions. Hispanic/Latino parents not only wanted to learn how to
communicate with their children, but wanted to learn how to teach their children to
accept responsibility when they do something wrong. One parent expressed how she feels
bad when she has to discipline her child, but does not know of any alternatives because
she is not educated in this area. Another parent discussed that her parents never hit her as
a child, and didn’t feel it is needed when disciplining her own child.
-“Learn how to discipline my kids without spanking or yelling at them” (Response-
Survey 24)
-“I want to clearly teach him that the child must be disciplined to learn good things”
(Response- Survey 7)
-“My parents never hit me so my husband and I wouldn’t hit her” (Response-Survey
1)
Question 9- Cultural Concerns: As a parent, what are your concerns or worries about
your culture in relation to raising your child (ethnicity, age, financial status, family
status- e.g., single, married, legally committed, divorced, adopted, non-traditional)?
Contrasting points of view could be found in the responses to this question. Two
themes that were common were related to (a) retaining cultural values and traditions and
(b) immigration status. Two Hispanic/Latino parents expressed concerned that as their
children grow older, they will begin to distance themselves from their cultural traditions
and customs, and begin adopt those common within the mainstream American culture. A
70
concern among one parent that was interesting was related to her citizenship. She was
concerned that her undocumented immigration status would affect whether her children
would have the opportunity to obtain a college education. This particular response shows
the need for parent programs to educate parents about the resources and opportunities
available that they can use to help them.
-“I am afraid my child will forget about her heritage” (Response-Survey 3)
-“I am worried my child won’t get into college because we are not citizens”
(Response-Survey 14)
Black/African-American parents earning more than $30,000 expressed concern about job
stability and financial security. As noted by one male participant, being able to care and
provide for his family is a concern that he worries about daily. Due to the instability that
of the economy, parents were concerned that their current lifestyle may be compromised,
and they want to be prepared for adjusting should the situation worsen.
-“I am concerned about my financial stability and being able to keep a job”
(Response-Survey 1)
-“I am worried about keeping a job and staying financially independent”-
Response- Survey 2)
Question 10- Additional Concerns: Other than what you have already discussed, what
else do you think would be important for you to learn during a parenting class?
The purpose of this question was to give parents an opportunity to discuss
additional topics that they feel are important to learn about in a parent program designed
specifically to meet their needs. Parents who responded to this question reiterated the
need for effective ways of communicating with their children and motivating them to be
71
successful. Additionally, parents also expressed the need to learn how to talk with their
children’s teacher about their academic progress in school.
Learning effective communication skills continues to be a prevalent theme, as one
parent indicated that it was important to learn how to communicate with their children’s
teacher and establish a positive relationship that is in the best interest of the student.
Learning how to motivate children is also topic that parents feel is important, with an
emphasis placed on keeping their children interested in school as they get older. This
concern was expressed by a parent who was interested in learning how to help her child
handle peer pressure and avoid associating with the wrong crowd as she gets older, which
was mentioned by a parent in question three. One response from a parent that was not
previously mentioned was the need to establish positive relationships with other parents
of children that attend their school and live in the neighborhood.
-“What is the best way to communicate with my child’s teacher?”(Response-
Survey 4)
-“To motivate him so that he will stay on the right path.” (Response-Survey 14)
-“Establish relationships with other parents to talk about problems” (Response-
Survey 18)
Question 11- Rank Order: Of all the issues discussed, please rank the three most
important topics that should be in a parenting class, in your opinion (1-most important,
2-second most important, 3-third most important)?
The purpose of was to get an overall ranking of the three most important topics
that parents feel is important to include within a parenting program. Topics were listed
and parents were asked to rank them as:
72
1. Most important
2. Second most important
3. Third most important
All parent participants with the exception of two responded to this question, therefore
only 22 responses are used for analysis. The results indicated that sixteen parents ranked
learning about their children’s academic progress as the most important topic to learn
about. The second most important topic among all parents was increasing parent and
child communication, followed by getting support in the area of discipline as the third
most important topic (Table 3).
Table 3. Most important needs of parent participants
Topic & Theme Sub Themes
Academic Progress 1) Establishing relationship with school and
teacher
2) Improving critical thinking skills
Parent-Child Communication 1) Establishing trust and honest
communication
2) Learning how communicate at children’s
level
Effective Discipline Techniques 1) Reducing the use of harsh discipline
2) Learning most effective alternative
methods of discipline
Nine Black/African-American parents ranked academic progress as most
important, whereas seven Hispanic/Latino parents similarly ranked this topic. This
finding was also consistent among the education and income variables used in the study.
Unfortunately many of the parent education programs reviewed for this study do not offer
assistance to parents in the area of academic support. Increasing parent child
communication was the second most important need among the parents surveyed. This
73
need also ranked second among income levels, with the exception of four parents that
earn 30,000-39,000 annually. For this group, improving their children’s social interaction
ranked second. Of the four parents that did not rank this topic as the second most
important, three ranked emotional development and one ranked teaching values as the
second most important topic. It is also important to note that three parents ranked parent
child communication as the “most important” topic to them. Parents of both
Hispanic/Latino and Black/African-American backgrounds felt that this topic was one of
the three most important, which is supported by fifteen parents ranking it as such. It
seems that parents of young children have a difficult time communicating effectively
with their children at a level that they can understand because it has been a theme that has
been mentioned throughout previous responses to questions.
The third most important topic ranked among 10 of the 19 parents was learning
about alternative discipline strategies. Six of the ten parents were Black/African-
American, with all five male participants ranking this topic as third most important.
Thirteen parents ranked discipline as one of the three most important topics of interest.
As mentioned in Question 8, some parents have an interest in learning how to effectively
discipline their children without using negative or harsh techniques. Another topic that
six parents ranked third most important was learning how to teach values to their
children, with an equal number being Black/African-American and Hispanic/Latino.
However this topic yielded the fewest responses on the needs assessment portion of the
survey (Table 4).
74
Table 4: Item 11- Complete Topic Rankings
Income Parent Ed Ethnicity Survey# 1 2 3
$100,000 BD B/AA 2 Acad. Behavior Discipline
$100,000 HS B/AA 3 Emot. Comm. Discipline
$100,000 MD B/AA 17 Acad. Comm. Discipline
$50,000-$59,000 HS H/L 4 Comm. Values Discipline
$50,000-$59,000 MD B/AA 9 Acad. Discipline Social
$50,000-$59,000 AA B/AA 10 Acad. Comm. Values
$50,000-$59,000 SC B/AA 11 Comm. Acad. Discipline
$50,000-$59,000 NHS H/L 20 Discipline Acad. Values
$50,000-$59,000 AA H/L 22 Acad. Discipline Behavior
$40,000-$49,000 AA B/AA 8 Acad. Comm. Discipline
$30,000-$39,000 SC B/AA 1 Acad. Behavior Discipline
$30,000-$39,000 SC B/AA 7 Comm. Emot. Discipline
$30,000-$39,000 NHS H/L 19 Acad. Comm. Values
$30,000-$39,000 AA B/AA 24 Behavior Comm. Discipline
$20,000-$29,000 SHS H/L 5 Acad. Comm. Discipline
$20,000-$29,000 SC B/AA 6 Acad. Behavior Comm.
0-$19,000 SHS B/AA 12 Acad. Comm. Values
0-$19,000 NHS H/L 13 Acad. Social Discipline
0-$19,000 HS H/L 14 Acad. Comm. Discipline
0-$19,000 SC B/AA 15 Acad. Comm. Discipline
0-$19,000 NHS H/L 18 Acad. Social Discipline
0-$19,000 AA H/L 23 Acad. Comm. Discipline
Note. Parent Ethnicity Codes: B/AA=Black/African-American; H/L= Hispanic/Latino. Parent Education
Codes: BD= Bachelor’s Degree; HS=High School Diploma; MD= Master’s Degree; NHS= No High
School; AA= Associates Degree; SC=Some College.
75
Research Question 2: Are there differences in what parents need in parent education
programs based on different demographic characteristics?
In synthesizing the responses of parent participants, there were very little
differences in terms of skills and tools they hope to acquire in a parent education program
related to parent-child communication, emotional development, and risk behaviors.
However, differences among demographic and ethnic groups do exist in the areas of (a)
peer relationships/social interactions; (b) cultural concerns; and (c) discipline. Although
both ethnic groups expressed a need related to teaching children appropriate social
interactions, there were differences as to specific topics that should be covered.
Hispanic/Latino parents were interested in learning how to teach their children to interact
appropriately and not be intimidated by peers both at school and at home. Parents stated
the importance of learning how to teach their children respect for others and ways to get
along with their peers, regardless of ethnic background. Some of these parents also
expressed the concern that their children will have a difficult time getting along with their
peers because of the problems in their neighborhood. One parent stated that her child
plays with only relatives because she feels it is the only way to keep their child safe when
playing at home. Two parents expressed concern with learning how to co-exist with other
ethnicities, particularly African-Americans in their neighborhood. This is an issue that is
prevalent, and parents want to learn how to teach their children a positive alternative that
could be used without confrontation.
Black/African American parents were interested in learning how to keep their
children from associating with the wrong crowd at school and identify the warning signs
76
such as a change in behavior or attitude. One parent also expressed the importance of
learning how to incorporate family time within the daily routine. There were two major
differences among participants related to cultural concerns. Hispanic/Latino parents,
including those making over $20,000, were concerned that their children will not retain
their values and traditions, and they would like to learn how to keep a balance between
the customs of their culture of origin and the American customs that they are exposed to
everyday. This group is also concerned about their citizenship status and how it may
affect their children getting into college, which is a concern that is not addressed in the
parent education programs reviewed for this study. Black/African American parents
expressed concerns related to financial and job stability due to the drastic changes that
occur in the economy on a daily basis, this group is concerned that they will have to
adjust their lifestyle, and want to be prepared.
It is clear that supporting the academic progress of their children is a pressing
need of all parents; there are also similarities among demographic groups in relation to
specific program topics. Parents earning less than $30,000 are interested in teaching their
children how to develop effective study and work habits for greater success in school
such as problem solving and critical thinking skills that can be applied in all subject
areas. Parents feel that if children are able to acquire these skills at a young age, they will
better prepared to meet the expectations in the higher grades. However, two parents had
opposing perspectives about what is most important to them. These parents, both of
whom were Hispanic/Latino, without a high school diploma, felt the school is solely
responsible for the academic success of their children, and as such, are more concerned
77
with learning effective discipline strategies and how to improve parent-child
communication, which are two of the most important needs among all parent participants.
Parents earning more than $30,000, including the three participants that earn $100,000
are also interested in teaching their children effective work habits and keeping their
children from becoming complacent about school, even at a young age. They also
expressed the need to learn techniques to help their children develop good study habits
that can help their academic progress. Parents expressed that as their children get older,
they will begin to lose interest in school, and would therefore like to learn various
strategies to keep their children focused as they transition to the next grade level and into
middle and high school.
As noted earlier, learning effective discipline strategies is one of the three most
important concerns among all participants, however, the most notable differences in this
area was also among ethnic groups. Hispanic/Latino parents want to learn how to stay
consistent with discipline and enforcing rules that have been established. They also
wanted to teach their children how to think critically about the consequences to actions
before making decisions. Some Black/African American parents expressed the need to
learn about alternative and non-punitive discipline techniques that can be used instead of
ineffective strategies such as spanking and verbal abuse. They also wanted to learn how
to positively communicate and interact with their children after administering discipline.
Coincidentally, two Black/African American parents that earned more than $50,000 and
are college graduates, felt that they did not need help with discipline because they have
taught their children how to behave from a young age.
78
Research Question 3: Do existing parent education programs address the needs of the
parents articulated in this study?
As mentioned previously, the top three needs among parent participants was
related to academic progress, parent-child communication, and discipline strategies. In
looking at the goals of the existing programs reviewed in this study, it is evident that
programs are addressing the needs of parent participants in the areas of parent child
communication and discipline. However, there is no evidence of these programs
providing parents support related to their children’s academic progress. This finding is
significant because it shows that there is a gap in what existing programs are teaching and
what parents need assistance with, therefore programs must begin to integrate the needs
of parents into their program content.
Improving communication between the parent and child as well as learning how
to teach problem solving skills are two of the main topics where parents in this study are
interested in getting support. Programs like Parent Effectiveness Training (PET) focus on
teaching parents effective communication skills such as active listening that helps to
improve family functioning (Noller & Taylor, 1989). In addition, behavioral-based
programs such as the Triple P- Positive Parenting Program, attempt to eliminate
maladaptive communication by teaching parents how to effectively communicate with
their children and reducing children’s unwanted behavior by teaching parents discipline
strategies that have successful outcomes.
Learning effective discipline strategies and reducing unwanted behavior are also
topics that parent participants feel should be incorporated into a parent education
79
program. Existing programs, such as those for behavior disordered children and
parents who are at risk of abusing their children, are designed to help parents positively
interact with their children and set limits to manage misbehavior by praising and
rewarding their children (Devall, 2004). The goals of programs such as the Incredible
Years and Nurturing Parenting Program, are to teach parents how to avoid using harmful
discipline by implementing alternative approaches such as rewards and punishment and
establishing family rules (Bavolek, 2005). Programs designed to help parents reduce and
change unwanted behavior such as the 1-2-3 Magic Program and Parent Child Interaction
Therapy (PCIT) target parents of young children that have a history of having behavior
problems. Some parent participants expressed the need to learn how handle their child
when they are displaying inappropriate behavior on a consistent basis. Parents also
expressed interest in learning how to teach their children the difference between right and
wrong, and the notion that there are consequences to inappropriate behavior and poor
decision making. This need align with the goals of Adlerian based programs, which are
designed to help parents in setting behavioral goals, establishing logical consequences,
and implementing encouragement techniques (Mullis, 1999). Programs like Systematic
Training for Effective Parenting (STEP), and the Active Parenting Program, teach parents
how to actively and honestly communicate with their children using a democratic, or
family-centered approach.
The goals of these programs are clearly similar to the needs of parent participants
related to learning alternative discipline strategies that are non-punitive as well as
learning how to reduce the unwanted behavior of their children both at home and in the
80
classroom. In order for future programs to be equally successful, it is critical for
programs to involve parents in the planning and selection of discussion topics and include
a curriculum that is adaptable to the specific cultural needs and issues of the targeted
parent population, as expressed by Hispanic/Latino parents.
Conclusion
The participant responses yielded from this needs assessment survey show that
within a needs-based parent education program, parents of typical four to five year old
children have a interest in learning how to (a) support their child’s academic progress, (b)
effectively communicate with their children, and (c) learn positive based discipline
techniques that will help their children to be successful both in the classroom and among
their peers. Although there are other needs expressed by parents throughout this needs
assessment, it is clear that these topics are the most prevalent among all demographic
groups in this study. However there are differences in need, relative to income and
education variables in the areas of peer and social interactions, cultural concerns, and
discipline. It is important to note that a topic both ethnic groups did not view as a need
was obtaining support to improve family relationships, emotional development, and
moral values, which is reflected by the limited number of responses to these questions.
81
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
Effective parent education programs provide parents with the information and
skills needed for effective parenting and establishing goals that incorporate the needs and
personal experiences of parents (Apter, 2006). For programs to be successful there must
be a connection between parent characteristics and program resources for positive
outcomes (Powell, 1993). The present study sought to identify the needs of parents with
typical children ages 4 to 5 by conducting an open-ended needs assessment survey. This
sample group of parents was selected because previous research studies have focused on
specific parent populations, and have overlooked this particular group in terms of what
their specific needs are in relation to selecting and participating in a parent education
program. Data was gathered by conducting an open-ended “needs assessment” survey
using the components of grounded theory. The use of this method facilitates the
measurement of; (a) parents’ interest in information topics and (b) problems related to
parenthood (Gowen, et al, 1993). The results of the study provides useful information that
can assist with creating future parent education programs designed around topics that
parents feel are important.
Research Question 1: What are the needs of parents with typical children, ages 4 to 5?
Parents of typical children ages 4 to 5 articulated the need for a parent education
program that teaches strategies that are research-based and have been proven to be
effective in dealing with issues and concerns related to their children. Three themes
emerged from the open-ended survey:
82
1. Learning how to support their child’s academic progress;
2. Improving parent- child communication and interaction;
3. Learning effective discipline techniques to reduce unwanted behavior
Providing parents with the necessary tools to support their children’s academic progress
is especially important for this particular age group. Given the fact that children at this
age learn best in a setting that has structure and is clear and predictable (Wood, 2007),
establishing specific routines around academics and responsibility is a critical part of
child development. It is important that parents are taught effective practices that bridge
the connection between the home and school. In addition, parents want to learn how to
support their child’s cognitive development by learning how to improve critical thinking
and problem solving skills. Since the inception of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act,
which focuses on providing quality instruction and effective teaching methods, the
academic expectations have changed significantly for young children in preschool and
kindergarten (Acock, Morrison, & McClelland, 2006). These new expectations may
affect some parents’ ability to assist their children, especially those with a limited
education. In order for parents to effectively help their children, they must possess critical
thinking and problem solving skills. Parent education programs must begin to provide
parents with acquiring these skills.
Although academic support was the most important concern in this study, existing
parent education programs highlighted in the literature review section do not focus on
supporting parents in this area. This finding shows that there is a gap in this area that
needs to be addressed within future parent education programs. A study conducted by
83
Hill, Castellino et .al (2004) on the relationship between parental academic
involvement and student achievement found that children whose parents are actively
involved in monitoring their child’s academic progress are more likely to be successful in
school and have a limited number of behavior problems such as aggression, inattention,
and social problems as they progress through secondary school. In addition, a parent’s
attitude and beliefs about schooling and learning have a causal influence on their child’s
development of achievement and behaviors. Therefore it is critical for existing and future
parent education programs to incorporate an academic support component into the
curriculum that includes strategies that parents can implement to promote their child’s
academic progress.
Improving communication and increasing positive interaction between parents
and their children are topics that programs like Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)
currently address, and it is also a need of many parents that participated in the current
study. Parent participants expressed a specific interest in learning how to have positive
dialogue with their children about issues that occur both at school and at home. Research
based on improving parent-child communication has shown that parents who engage in
reciprocal exchange with their young children are more likely to enhance their child’s
social and cognitive development as they get older, resulting in increased motivation and
limited behavior problems (Thomas, 1996). This includes teaching parents active
listening skills and how to help their children to recognize their feelings and emotions
through constant dialogue. With practice and reinforcement from parent education
programs, parents will have the ability to increase their children’s self-esteem, which
84
relates to success in school. Parenting programs designed for young children like the
1-2-3 Magic Program look to provide parents with clear, simple strategies that have
proven to be effective in reducing negative communication with their children such as
yelling, criticism, or hostile comments (Phelan, 1990). In addition, teaching parents how
to provide their children with an environment that is verbally stimulating will give
children the ability to develop their own interpersonal skills, which are critical for
academic success. Programs that also teach parents to interact with their children by
engaging in non disciplinary activities that are creative and spontaneous, will give parents
the ability to implement non-traditional methods of interaction, which will result
increased self confidence in both the parent and the child (Crosby & Perkins, 2004).
Research has shown that with practice and reinforcement, parents who learn how to
positively interact with their children will help to develop their child’s self esteem, which
relates to success in school. In addition to wanting to improve communication with their
own children, parents also want an opportunity to network and dialogue with other
parents in their neighborhood. Gage and Christensen (1993) note that parents who have a
consistent socialization experience (e.g. interacting with other parents) report greater
happiness, increased self-esteem, and self-confidence in their parenting skills (Gage,
Christensen, 1993). Parenting programs can serve as a conduit that brings parents
together to share personal experiences.
Many parents use discipline as a method of teaching values and appropriate
behaviors that is expected of their children as they grow older (Cherlin, 1996). Teaching
parents effective discipline strategies and how to reduce unwanted behavior are part of
85
many behaviorally based as well as programs for parents at risk of abusing their
children. Existing parent programs such as Systematic Training for Effective Parenting
(STEP) and Triple P-Positive Parenting Program provide parents with effective discipline
strategies that look to (a) encourage a positive relationship between the parent and the
child; (b) use positive reinforcement strategies that increase desired behaviors; and (c)
removing the use of punishment to reduce undesired behaviors. The goals of these
programs are similar to the needs of parents in this study in that parents are interested in
learning alternative methods of discipline that encourages trust and honesty among the
parent and the child. Although parents did not report using physical or harmful discipline,
it is evident through parent responses that they want to learn an effective approach that
will benefit the parent-child relationship. One concern that must be taken into
consideration is the cultural background and the socioeconomic status of the parent
population they are targeting. Research conducted in low socioeconomic, minority
communities has noted that discipline and child-rearing is strongly influenced by ethnic
background and parental stress, related to financial stability and unemployment (Fontes,
2002). Programs must be aware of these stressors and include a curriculum that teaches
parents how to cope with their situation and use alternative methods of discipline. In
order for these methods to be effective, parents must be taught how to implement
discipline that is positive and consistent, which results in an improved relationship
between the parent and the child.
86
Research Question 2: Are there differences in the needs of parents according to
demographic characteristics?
Parents want to help their children adjust to new challenges, but feel unprepared
because they cannot rely on their own experiences of growing up as a credible basis for
parenting their children. Traditionally, parents have looked to friends and family
members for advice and support with raising their children (Heath, 2007), but due to
dramatic changes in family structure, including the nonexistence of the extended family,
and unstable socioeconomic conditions, parents are not able rely on family as an adequate
form of support (Powell, 1990). Parent education programs have the capacity to provide
parents with the skills and confidence that will help them to become better parents. In
assessing the effectiveness of parent education programs in low income neighborhoods,
there is evidence that suggest that there are positive long term effects on parents who
participate such as increased parent-child interaction and self confidence. Because there
are significant differences in family structure and environment, parenting programs must
be able to match the needs of diverse parents (Brock, Oertwin, & Coufal, 1993).
Overall, parent participants at all income and education levels in this study
expressed an interest in learning how to help their child’s academic progress, but there
were some noteworthy differences among these variables in other topic areas. Parents
earning more than $30,000 dollars annually and have at least a high school diploma, were
interested in learning how use incentives to encourage their children to do well. They also
expressed the need to learn about peer relationships and appropriate social interaction,
specifically learning how to identify “warning signs” that children may display when
something is bothering them. Parents with advanced degrees and earning an above
87
average income are interested in learning how to reinforce the academic skills being
taught in school with their children at home and feel they do not need assistance from a
parenting program when it comes to discipline. The three parents that earned less than
$20,000 annually without a high school diploma feel that it is the responsibility of the
school and teachers to provide academic instruction due to their own limited education.
This finding is significant because it shows that parents with limited education who
reside in low income areas are not confident in their academic ability, but still are
interested in learning how to support their children. In looking at this finding through the
lens of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943), it seems that these parents need assistance
with providing their children with esteem and self actualization qualities that are
necessary for success. Research states that parents with a higher education are more
likely to put an emphasis on academics that those with a limited education who are not as
involved in their children’s education (Georgiou, 1999).
In relation to the variable of ethnicity, there were many similarities according to
the needs of Hispanic/Latino and African-American parents, including wanting to keep
their children motivated and interested in school and having good peer relationships. In
fact, both groups ranked academic progress, parent child communication, and discipline
as the three most important topics of interest. In addition, African-American parents
want to learn how to prevent their children from getting complacent and relaxed with the
school curriculum and with their behavior, even in the primary grades. These parents also
understand the importance of having a positive relationship with their children, and
wanted to learn how to consistently support their children as they progress in school.
88
Some other concerns among this group are related to financial stability and job
security, and the uncertainty of their economic situation, which is related to parental
stress.
Some of the specific concerns of Hispanic/Latino parents are related to
maintaining cultural values and traditions, and the effect immigration status has on their
children’s academic future. Parents want to ensure that their children remain aware of
their cultural values and traditions passed down from their family as well as have an
equal opportunity when it comes to academic success. Some Hispanic/Latino parents
expressed the concern as to whether citizenship status is linked to college eligibility. With
the ever changing laws and statutes related to immigration status, parenting programs
should begin to consider how to educate parents and provide them with information
related to immigration rights. Research on parenting programs for immigrant populations
note that there is limited number of these programs available (Xiong, Detzner, Keuster, et
al. 2006). However, there are programs that are culturally adaptive, which are programs
that are developed for mainstream populations, and are tailored to a specific cultural
group.
Research Question 3: Are the goals of existing parenting programs aligned with the
needs of parents?
A general goal of parent education programs for parents of young children is to
provide parents with the knowledge and support needed to raise their children (Noller,
Taylor, 1989). Existing programs focus on providing parents with support in a variety of
areas based on theoretical principles or researched based strategies that target specific
89
parent populations. While the goals of these programs differ in terms of format,
curriculum, and population, many of these programs have established similar pre-
determined goals including helping parents develop self awareness and effective
discipline strategies and improve the parent child relationship (Dembo, Switzer, &
Lauritzen, 1985; Beckert, Strom, & Strom, 2007). It is evident that existing programs
have been successful in the areas noted by parent participants, including reducing
unwanted behavior, learning effective discipline strategies, and establishing a positive
parent-child relationship using honest communication. This study shows that although
existing programs are addressing similar needs, there are also additional topics that
parents want included in a parent education program. With the exception of supporting
academic progress, the specific topics and outcomes of the programs reviewed are closely
aligned with the needs of the parents. Programs such as Parent Child Interaction Therapy
(PCIT) look to improve the interaction and communication between the parent and the
child, which was an expressed need of the participants. For existing programs to continue
to meet the needs of parents, it is important that they begin to get the input of parents
before the start of a program and provide a curriculum that is culturally relevant and
specific to the needs of parents, and conducting a needs based assessment is an efficient
tool that could be used to collect this information.
Strengths and Limitations to the Study
There were three notable strengths to this study, including the selected sample
population. In reviewing the sample characteristics of existing programs, there are a
limited number of studies that have focused on using parents of typical children, a
90
population that is not often used in research studies. In addition, typical children
represent a majority of children who attend public school in large, urban areas. Another
strength of this study is the use of an open-ended needs assessment to gather information
as an alternative to the closed-ended Likert scale format. The use of an open-ended
format provides parents with the opportunity to openly express their thoughts without
being limited by pre-selected responses. Finally, using parents as a primary data source
provides genuine, useful information that can be used to improve the implementation of
existing programs and contribute to the development of future parent education programs.
One limitation to this study was related to the lack of diversity in the sample
population, which consisted of only Black/African-American and Hispanic/Latino
parents, and is not an accurate representation of the diverse population of Los Angeles
Unified School District (See Table 1). Another limitation was the overall response rate in
relation to the number of distributed surveys. As mentioned in the previous chapter, 1,160
surveys were distributed at various local district and school sites to parents with children
in kindergarten through 12
th
grade. A total of 110 surveys were returned to co-researchers
and disseminated according to age group, which is a very low response rate (9.5%). In
addition, the parents at the parent meeting are likely not to be representative of the typical
parents within the local district.
Another limitation to the study as expressed by some parents was the length of the
survey questions and the time it takes to answer the questions. This is evident by the
limited word responses and lack of detailed responses from parents who completed the
survey. Among the barriers that may have contributed to this limitation is the structure of
91
certain questions and the ability of Spanish-speaking parents to coherently write out
their responses on their own Although parents had the opportunity to complete the
surveys at local meetings and return them immediately to co-researchers, many parents
decided to take them home and the majority of them were not returned. Future
consideration will be to distribute surveys at other school events including back-to-school
night and open house to increase the number of respondents. Limitations related to the
survey include the clarity and format of the survey questions. This is evident in the lack
of responses to the questions related to moral development and family relationships. In
addition, there was not a question related to immigration status, which could have been
used to as well as the lack of a question related to immigration status and how it may
affect beliefs about the importance of education.
Future Implications
Future parent education programs should be structured around the diverse cultural
and ecological context of the families who are participating (Cheng, Gorman, Balter,
1997). This is important because previous research has suggested that minority parents
may not do well in a parenting program whose program content was originally designed
for Caucasian samples (Wood & Baker, 1999). Program designers must be aware of the
family, community, and cultural traditions that are prevalent within each neighborhood,
and be prepared to deal with these issues. Programs designed with a limited
understanding of the cultural background of its participants are not likely to meet their
diverse needs, which may lead to a lack of participation. (Powell, Zambrano, Silva-
Palacios, 1990)
92
The format of the program should be a combination of whole and small group
instruction, in addition to individual interaction with program facilitators and parents.
Group-based programs that give parents an opportunity to participate in open discussion
are more likely to be successful with meeting the specific needs of parents (Powell,
1989). Studies conducted on parent preferences related to program format suggests that
adults learn best through sharing experiences and providing solutions as a collective
group. Allowing parents to have input in the topics of discussion and the delivery mode is
essential to affecting behavioral change in the parent, which is one of the goals of
behaviorally based parenting programs (Powell, Zambrano, Silva-Palacios, 1990). The
utilization of small group instruction will be implemented to address the specific cultural
needs of the parent participants.
One area that existing as well as future programs must focus on is related to the
recruitment and retention of parents. Research has shown that the recruitment and
retention practices of parenting programs, especially in minority communities, have been
ineffective with parents of various ethnic backgrounds (Harachi, et al., 1997). As a
result, there is a decline in the use and availability of parenting programs in these
communities (Harachi, Catalano, Hawkins, 1997). The lack of participation in parent
education programs can be attributed to the knowledge of services, cultural
appropriateness and the willingness to use the services. Therefore, it is necessary for
programs that take place in these communities to collaborate and discuss effective
approaches that will encourage parents to fully participate such as child care,
93
transportation, and other resources. Another important component of an ideal parent
education program is the program content.
The content of parent education programs should consist of a researched based
curriculum that covers a wide range of topics that parents find beneficial to raising their
children. The content should be a combination of effective practices as well as
supplemental materials that are culturally specific. For example, the Nurturing Parent
Program (Bavolek, 2005), has developed a supplemental curriculum that is culturally
specific to Hispanic/Latino, African-American, and Asian participants. Providing parents
with culturally sensitive and culturally relevant topics shows the awareness of differences
between ethnic groups (Gorman , Balter, 1997). Program topics should also allow parents
opportunities to share their personal experiences through open dialogue with fellow
participants and program facilitators. To determine these topics, parents should complete
a needs based assessment that will be used to help develop specific programming for the
specific group of parents. In addition, the program content should incorporate a variety of
learning strategies that will accommodate the learning styles of parents, and provide
interactive activities to keep parents actively involved in the learning process.
Recommendations for Future Research
According to Powell (1989), there are four dimensions that make up a high
quality parenting program. These include: 1) a collaborative effort between the parent
and program facilitator; 2) an equal focus in meeting the needs of both the parent and the
child; 3) programs that are responsive to the needs of the population being served; 4) a
format that allows time for open ended discussion. Existing parent education programs
94
have been successful in meeting the needs of parents who participate, but it is
important that they begin to integrate topics related to the needs expressed by parents in
the areas of academic support and parental networking. For future parent education
programs, conducting a needs based assessment with parents prior to program
implementation will ensure that specific needs of participants are met, thus increasing the
participation and retention of parents.
One recommendation for future research is to provide parents with a needs
assessment that is clear and gives participants to express their specific needs. Data should
be gathered by researchers and used to enhance or develop a parent education program
that addresses the needs of parents that participate. In recent years, parenting programs
have expanded the content of parenting programs to include strengthening the social
networks of parents by providing them with social support from community
organizations. After completing the program, parents will have the opportunity to assess
if the program content met their specific needs, and what could be done to improve
program implementation. Programs that are successful in aligning program outcomes
with the needs of parents will result in increased parent participation and a greater
confidence in parent education programs.
Conclusion
Parent education programs are progressively moving towards effectively meeting
the needs of parents of young children by offering strategies that have proven to be
successful (Powell, 1990). Programs should be centered on researched based principles
and theories, but also allow parents to have input into program content. The results of this
95
study show that parents of young, typical children have needs that are similar to the
goals of existing programs designed for specific parent populations; however, there are
also areas that these programs are not addressing, specifically supporting academic
progress, and citizenship concerns. By involving parents, programs can align their goals
with the needs of the participants. Rather than assume that families need a particular type
of parent education or support, programs can assess the education and support parents
need before the start of a given program.
Studies show that parenting programs that allow parents to be involved in the
selection of topics are more effective in positively improving the parenting skills of
participants (Moran and Ghate, 2005). The success of future parent education programs
depend on their structure and program content, which must be socially and culturally
relevant to its participants. This study contributes to future research because it provides
information regarding the needs of parents who have typical, or normal children, which is
a parent population that many parents identify with, but one that parenting programs have
overlooked in terms of needs.
96
References
Acock, MClelland, & Morrisson, (2006). The impact of kindergarten learning related skills on
academic trajectories at the end of elementary schools. Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, Volume 21.
Bempechat, J. (1992). The Role of Parent Involvement in Children’s Academic Achievement.
The School Community Journal. Vol. 2. pps. 31-41
Bluestone, C., Tamis-Lemonda, C. (1999). Correlates of Parenting Styles in Predominantly
Working and Middle Class African-American Mothers. Journal of Marriage and the
Family, 61, 881-893.
Burgess, R., & Conger, R. (1978). Family Interaction in Abusive, Neglectful, and Normal
Families. Child Development, 49, 1163-1173.
Burns, C.E., Bond, L.A. (2004). The relationship between mothers’ belief about knowledge and
their experiences in parent education. Journal of Primary Prevention, 25, 417-438.
Castellino, D., Dodge, K., Bates, J., Hill, N., Lansford, J., Nowlin, P., & Pettit, G. (2004). Paren
Academic Involvement as related to School Behavior, Achievement, and Aspirations:
Demographic variations across adolescence. Child Development. Vol. 75. pps 1491-1509
Child Welfare Information Gateway (2008). Parent Education. U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services: Washington D.C.
Croake, J.W. & Glover, K.E. (1976). A history and evaluation of parent education. Family
Coordinator, 26, 151-158
Cowen, P.S. (2001). Effectiveness of parent education intervention for at-risk families. Journal
of Social Pediatric Nursing, 6, 73-82.
Debord, K., Heath, H., McDermott, D., & Wolfe, R. (2000). Sharing the Wisdom on Parenting:
Turning information overload into a curriculum that works. America’s Family Support
Magazine.
Demo D. & Cox, J. (2000). Families With Young Children: A Review of Research in the 1990’s.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 876-895.
Dembo, M., Sweitzer, M., Lauritzen, P. (1985) An Evaluation of Group Parent Education:
Behavioral, PET, and Adlerian Programs. Review of Educational Research 55(2), 155-
200.
Devall, E. (2004). Positive Parenting for High-Risk Families. JFCS, 98, 1-6.
Dinkmeyer, D. & McKay, G. (1976). Systematic training for effective parenting: Parent’s
handbook. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
97
Dore, M, & Lee, J. (1999). The Role of Parent Training with Abusive and Neglectful Parents.
Family Relations, 48, 313-325.
Fennel, D. & Fishel, A. (1998). Parent Education: An Evaluation of STEP on Abusive Parents’
Perceptions and Abuse Potential. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing,
11, 107-119.
Fine, M.J. (1980). The parent education movement: An introduction. Handbook on Parent
Education. New York: Academic Press.
Fontes, L. (2002. Child discipline and physical abuse in immigrant Latino families: Reducing
violence and misunderstandings. Journal of Counseling and Development. Vol. 80 pps.
31-40
Geeraert, L., Van den Noortgate, W., Grietens, H., & Onghena, P. (2004). The Effects of Early
Prevention Programs for Families with Young Children At Risk for Physical Child Abuse
and Neglect: A Meta-Analysis. Child Maltreatment, 9, 277-291.
Google (n.d.). Search term: Parenting. Retrieved November 16, 2008 from www.google.com
Gordon-Rosen, M. & Rosen, A. (1984). Adlerian Parent Study Groups and Inner City Children.
Individual Psychology, 40, 309-316
Gorman, J. & Balter, L. (1997). Culturally Sensitive Parent Education: A Critical Review of
Quantitative Research. Review of Educational Research, 67. pp 339-369. American
Educational Research Association.
Gutman, L. & McLoyd, V. (2000). Parents’ Management of their Children’s Education within
the home, at school, and in the community: An examination of African American
families living in poverty. The Urban Review, Vol. 32.
Harachi, T., Richard, C., & Hawkins, J. (1997). Effective Recruitment for Parenting Programs
within ethnic minority communities. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal Vol.14
Heath, H. (1998). Choosing Parenting Curricula based on the Interests, Needs, and Preferences
of the Parents who will use it. Parenthood in America.
Hills, M. & Knowles, D. (1987). Providing for personal meaning in Parent Education. Family
Relations Vol. 36 . No.2 pps.158-162.
Ishii-Kuntz, M. 2000). Diversity within Asian American Families. Handbook of Family
Diversity. Vol. 32.
Jacobson, A. & Englebrecht, J. (2000). Parenting Education Needs and Preferences of Parents of
Young Children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 28, 139-147.
Kelly, J. & Barnard, K. (1999). Parent education within a relationship-focused model. Topics in
Early Childhood Special Education, 19, 151-157.
98
Kim, E., Cain, K., & Webster-Stratton, C. (2007). The Preliminary Effect of a Parenting
Program for Korean American Mothers: A randomized controlled experimental study.
University of Washington.
Koepke, J. & Williams, C. (1989). Child Rearing Information: Resources Parents Use, Family
Relations, 38, 462-465.
Lee, J. & Bowen, N. (2006). Parent Involvement, Cultural Capital, and the achievement gap
among elementary school children. American Educational Research Journal. Vol 43 pps.
193-218
Leung, C., Sanders, M. R., Leung, S., Mak, R., & Lau, J. (2003). An outcome evaluation of the
implementation of the Triple-P Positive Parenting Program in Hong Kong Family
Process, 42(4), 531-544.
Levac, A., McCay, E., Merka, P., & D’Arcy, M. (2008). Exploring Parent Participation in a
Parent Training Program for Children’s Aggression: Understanding and Illuminating
Mechanisms of Change. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 21, 78-88
Magazine Publishers of America (2008). Parent Magazines in Circulation. http://magazine.org.
Mulroy, M., Goldman, J., & Wales, C. (1998). Affluent Parents of Young Children: Neglected
Parent Education Audience. Journal of Extension, 36, 1-9.
Noller, P. & Taylor, R. (1989). Parent Education and Family Relations. Family Relations, 38,
196-200.
Phelan, T. (1990). 1-2-3 Magic: Training your children to do what you want. Glen Ellyn, IL:
Child Management Inc.
Pinderhughes, E., Bates, J., Dodge, K., Pettit, G., & Zelli, A. Discipline Responses: Influences
of Parents’ Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, Beliefs about parenting, stress, and
cognitive-emotional processes Journal of Family Psychology, Vol. 14 pps. 380-400
Pinkser, M., & Geoffroy, K. (1981). A Comparison of Parent Effectiveness Training and
Behavior Modification Parent Training. Family Relations, 30, 61-68.
Plunkett, S., Alvy, K., & Rosen, L. (2004). Effectiveness of Self-Instruction on Promoting
Positive Parenting. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 96, 34-39.
Popkin, M. (1987). Active Parenting: Teaching, Cooperating, Courage, and Responsibility.
Harper and Row. San Francisco.
Powell, D.R. (1990). The responsiveness of early childhood initiatives to families: Strategies and
limitations. Marriage and Family Review
Powell, D.R. (1993). Evaluating Parent Education Programs: Problems and Prospects
99
Reid, M.J., Webster-Stratton, C. & Beauchaine, T.P. (2001). Parent training in Head Start: a
comparison of program response among African-American, Asian American, Caucasian,
and Hispanic/Latino mothers. Prevention Science, 2, 209-227.
Powell, D., Zambrana, R., & Silva-Palacios, V. (1990). Designing Culturally Responsive Parent
Programs: A Comparison of Low-Income Mexican and Mexican-American Mothers’
Preferences. Family Relations, 39, 298-304.
Reid, M. J., Webster-Stratton, C., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2001). Parent training in Head Start: A
comparison of program response among African-American, Asian American, Caucasian,
and Hispanic/Latino mothers. Prevention Science, 2(4), 209-227.
Roberts, C., Mazzucchelli, T., Studman, L., & Sanders, M. (2006). Behavioral Family
Intervention for Children with Developmental Disabilities and Behavioral Problems.
Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 180-193.
Rowland, S. & Wampler, K. (1983). Black and White Mother’s Preferences for Parenting
Programs. Family Relations, 32, 323-330
Seefeldt, C., Denton, K., Galper, A., Yousanosanzi, T., (1998). Former Head Start Parents”
Characteristics, Perceptions of School Climate, and Involvement in Their Children’s
Education. The Elementary School Journal. 98. pp. 339-349. University of Chicago.
Schaefer (1991). Goals for Parent and Future-Parent Education: Research on Parental Beliefs
and Behavior. The Elementary School Journal, 91, 239-247.
Sparling, J., Lowman, B. (1983). Information needs of parents with young children: A synthesis
of 15 child development information research studies from the Administration for
Children, Youth, and Families. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service).
Spitzer, A., Webster-Stratton, C., & Hollinsworth, T. (1991). Coping with Conduct-Problem
Children: Parents Gaining Knowledge and Control. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,
20, 413-427.
Spoth, R., Redmond, C.. (1995). Parent motivation to enroll in parenting skills programs: A
model of family context and health belief predictors. Journal of Family Psychology.
Strom, R.D. (1985). Developing a curriculum for parent education. Family Relations. 161-167.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for
Developing Grounded Theory (2
nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Thomas, R. (1996). Reflective Dialogue Parent Education Design: Focus on Parent
Development. Family Relations, 45, 189-200.
Wandersman, L.P. (1987). A brief history of family support programs. America’s Family
Support Programs. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
100
Wood, W. & Baker, J. (1999). Preferences for parent education programs among low
socioeconomic status, culturally diverse parents. Psychology in the Schools, 36(3), 239-
247.
Webster-Stratton, C. (1998). Preventing conduct problems in Head Start Children: Strengthening
parenting competencies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 715-730.
101
Appendix A: Research Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
RESEARCH INFORMATION SHEET
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by co-investigators
Dayna Belvin, Ed.D. candidate, Charles Cho, Ed.D. candidate, Deon Brady, Ed.D.
candidate, Michael Keller, Ed.D. candidate, and principal investigator Dr. Ginger Clark,
Ph.D. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a parent
of a child or adolescent. Your participation is voluntary. You must be aged 18 or older to
participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the information sheet. You may
also decide to discuss it with your family or friends.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study is designed to investigate the needs of parents of children and
adolescents about what information they need to feel more confident in parenting. The
information gained may be used to develop parent education programs to better meet
parent needs.
PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will do the following things:
1. Answer a survey about your needs as a parent of a child or adolescent
2. Return the survey when completed.
Completion and return of the survey will constitute consent to participate in this
research project.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation. You may experience some
discomfort at completing the questionnaire or you may be inconvenienced from taking
time out of your day to complete the questionnaire.
102
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You will not directly benefit from your participation. This study has potential to
help professionals develop parent education programs that are specifically designed to
meet the identified needs of parents.
PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid for your participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Information that is obtained in connection with this study is confidential. Only
members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this study.
Hard copies of the data (paper documents) will be stored for ten years after the study has
been completed and then destroyed.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also
refuse to answer any questions you don't want to answer and still remain in the study. The
investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances occur, which in the
opinion of the researcher warrant doing so.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact Dr. Ginger Clark (ginger.clark@usc.edu).
103
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this
research study. If you have any questions about your rights as a study subject or you
would like to speak to someone independent of the research team to obtain answers to
questions about the research, or in the event the research staff can not be reached, please
contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement,
Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.
104
Appendix B: Parent Education Needs Survey
Dear Parent: Thank you for your participation.
1. Are you? Male _____ Female _____ 2. What is your age? _____ years
old
3. What is your ethnicity? (check all that apply) 4. What is your marital/relationship status?
_____ White/Caucasian _____ Married/Legally committed
_____ Asian _____ Divorced
_____ Hispanic/Latino/Latino _____ Separated
_____ Black/African-American _____ Cohabitating
_____ Pacific Islander _____ Committed Relationship
_____ American Indian or Alaska Native _____ Widowed
_____ Other: _________________________ _____ Single
5. What is the highest degree or level of school
that you have completed?
6. What is your annual household income?
_____ $0-$19,999
_____ $20,000-$29,999
_____ $30,000-$39,999
_____ $40,000-$49,999
_____ $50,000-$59,999
_____ $60,000-$69,999
_____ $70,000-$99,999
_____ $100,000+
_____ No high school
_____ Some high school
_____ High school diploma/GED
_____ Some college
_____ Associate degree/Technical or trade school
_____ Bachelor’s degree
_____ Master’s degree
_____ Doctorate or Professional Degree
105
7. How many children do you have? 8. Parent, where do you seek parenting
information and support (check all that
apply)?
_____ Parenting classes
_____ Medical professionals
_____ School professionals
_____ Magazines
_____ Books
_____ On the internet
_____ Friends
_____ Family
_____ Do not seek information
_____ Other (please specify):
_______________________________
_____ 1
_____ 2
_____ 3
_____ 4
_____ 5
_____ 6+
9. Have you ever participated in a parenting program?
Yes _____ No _____
10. If yes, did it meet your needs and why?
Parent: Think of your OLDEST CHILD ONLY when answering the following
questions:
11. What is the gender of your oldest child
that you will be discussing
Male _____ Female ____
12. Is your oldest child receiving special
education services or has your oldest child been
identified by their school as gifted?
Yes _____ No _____
106
13. What is the age of your oldest Child?
________ years old.
Instructions for the following short answer questions:
The following 11 short answer questions will ask you to think about your needs as a
parent. Please take your time to thoughtfully respond to each question in an open and
honest way. Include any ideas or examples that you think will be important in answering
each question completely.
1. What would you like to learn in a parenting class in relation to your oldest child’s
academic progress (e.g., learning, problem-solving)?
2. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about preventing or dealing with
child behaviors that may cause harm physically or emotionally to your oldest child?
107
3. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about your oldest child’s social
interactions and peer-relationships?
4. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about communicating or interacting
with your oldest child?
5. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about your oldest child’s feelings
and emotional development?
108
6. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about how interactions between
people in your family affect your oldest child?
7. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about helping you effectively teach
your oldest child about your value system (e.g., moral code, right and wrong, etc.)?
8. What would you like to learn during a parenting class about methods to increase your
109
oldest child’s positive behavior and decrease negative child behaviors?
9. As a parent, what are your concerns or worries about your culture in relation to raising
your oldest child (e.g., ethnicity, age, financial status, family status-e.g., single, married,
legally committed, divorced, adopted, non-traditional)?
10. Other than what you have already discussed, what else do you think would be important
for you to learn during a parenting class?
11. Of all the issues discussed, please rank the three most important topics that should be in a
parenting class, in your opinion (1- most important, 2- second most important, 3- third
most important):
_____ Academic Progress
_____ Behaviors that may cause them harm emotionally or physically
_____ Social interactions and peer-relationships
_____ Parent-child communication
_____ Child/Adolescent emotional development
_____ Challenging family interactions
_____ Teaching your child your values
_____ Discipline: increasing child’s positive behavior and decreasing negative behaviors
_____ Your culture and raising your child
_____ Other: _________________________________________
**Please return completed survey to your child’s school in the attached envelope.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Parent education programs have been very successful in meeting the pre-established goals and expectations of their program without the input of parent participants prior to program implementation. Although programs continue to improve, it is important that programs begin to consider the specific needs of their target population. One parent population that has been overlooked in terms needs and concerns, are parents with typical, or normal children. The current study sought to determine the needs of parents with typical or normal children ages 4 to 5 years, in relation to a parent education program. Twenty-four participants that reside in an inner city community, completed an open-ended survey that consisted of questions centered around pre-determined themes
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
Parent education needs assessment: parents of typical 14 to 17-year-olds
PDF
A qualitative assessment of parenting needs: themes presented by parents of typical children 6-10 years old
PDF
Assessing parental needs in parent education programs: parents of toddlers between the ages of 1-3
PDF
Assessing the parenting education needs of adults rearing adolescents
PDF
The information needs of parents raising children between the ages of three and five
PDF
A qualitative look at what parents of infants aged birth -- 1 year old want and need in a parent training program.
PDF
A qualitative assessment of parenting needs: are there unique needs of lesbian and gay parents?
PDF
A dialogic reading intervention for parents of children with Down syndrome
PDF
Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices related to children's reading engagement
PDF
Literacy practices of 1.5 generation Korean American parents with three to five year old children
PDF
The parent voice: an exploratory study to understand Latino parent involvement in schools
PDF
Parental involvement and student motivation: A quantitative study of the relationship between student goal orientation and student perceptions of parental involvement among 5th grade students
PDF
The impact of family violence on children: an exploratory study
PDF
Remote learning and parent engagement during a crisis
PDF
Investigating how general education middle school teachers support the social inclusion of students with special needs
PDF
Restoring your new identity as a bereaved parent after experiencing a stillbirth
PDF
The relationship of parental involvement to student academic achievement in Latino middle school students
PDF
Examining parent involvement activities in two mmigrant-impacted schools: a comparative case study
PDF
School to Work Program as a contributor to adult literacy skill development
PDF
The relationship between parenting styles, career decision self-efficacy, and career maturity of Asian American college students
Asset Metadata
Creator
Brady, Deon LaMount
(author)
Core Title
Needs assessment of parents of typical children ages 4 to 5 years old
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Degree Conferral Date
2010-05
Publication Date
02/03/2010
Defense Date
01/20/2010
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
needs assessment,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent education needs
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Clark, Ginger (
committee chair
), Andres, Mary (
committee member
), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (
committee member
)
Creator Email
deonbrad@usc.edu,dlbrady@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2832
Unique identifier
UC1455277
Identifier
etd-Brady-3477 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-293347 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2832 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Brady-3477.pdf
Dmrecord
293347
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Brady, Deon LaMount
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
needs assessment
parent education needs