University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Describing and mapping the sources of college impact on the identity development of African American college students attending a predominantly white institution

(USC Thesis Other)

Describing and mapping the sources of college impact on the identity development of African American college students attending a predominantly white institution

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

DESCRIBING AND MAPPING THE SOURCES OF COLLEGE IMPACT ON
THE IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN AMERICAN COLLEGE
STUDENTS ATTENDING A PREDOMINANTLY WHITE INSTITUTION

by

Merrill L. Irving Jr.

___________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2007

Copyright 2007 Merrill L. Irving Jr.
ii
DEDICATION
This Dissertation is dedicated to my Mother, Teresa K. Tennant. Mom it was
your sacrifice, wisdom, perseverance, commitment and love that has made this
possible. I am excited to share this accomplishment with you. However, I am even
more proud to assist you in your journey to attend COLLEGE.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii

List of Tables iv

List of Figures v

Abstract vi

Chapter 1. Conceptual and Empirical Foundations of the Study 1

Chapter 2. Methods 30

Chapter 3. Results 38

Chapter 4. Discussion 53

Bibliography 80

Appendices
Appendix A. College Years Experience Questionnaire 91
Appendix B. Example of Paired Comparison Questionnaire 93
Appendix C. Random Paired Theme Placement Chart 95
iv
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Frequency of Category, Year of Occurrence, Positive Value, 39
and Eventual Effect, by Gender

Table 2. Frequency of Category, Year of Occurrence, Positive Value, 40
and Eventual Effect, for Entire Group

Table 3. Categories and Dimensional Values 48
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Dendrogram Using Ward Method 50

Figure 2. Concept Map of African American Students’ Experiences 52
that Affect their Sense of Self
vi
ABSTRACT
In a two-phase, mixed methods study 100 African American undergraduates
completed a critical incident form, describing experiences they perceived to have
been most influential on their sense of self. Three raters assigned these incidents to
14 categories. Fifteen of the original participants then rated the degree of similarity
of each possible between – category comparison. Those similarity data then were
analyzed using Multi-Dimensional Scaling (constraining the results to two
dimensions) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. The later resulted in a four cluster
solution. The results of the two analyses were overlaid in a graphic representation of
how African American undergraduates conceptually organize their understanding of
the impact of college on their identity development.
The two dimensions were named “Learning through autonomy living
independently vs. Learning from interactions/acts of others and “Being empowered
by mentorship vs. overcoming acts of prejudice or discrimination.” The four clusters
were named Confronting Challenging Circumstances, Being affected through
interactions with others, Being affected success in the school environment, and
Being forced to define myself as an independent person. In conclusion, suggestions
for future research and implications for practitioners at Predominantly White
Institutions (“PWI”) are also provided.

1
CHAPTER 1
CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE STUDY
The freshman year of college provides most individuals with their first
experience of felt-autonomy. This typically is the transition period from the parental
home, as well as, parental consent and oversight. During this period and subsequent
college years, students typically increase in maturity as they assume greater control
for their own decision-making, and become responsible for their own actions. This
increasing autonomy and responsibility are among factors that foster the students’
psychosocial development.
During the last several decades student affairs practitioners and researchers
have made the psychosocial development of college students a primary focus of
attention. In his book, Identity: Youth and Crisis, Erickson set the stage for early
theories of psychosocial development through his eight-stage model of the human
life span (Erickson, 1968). Erickson described adolescence as an essential period for
identity formation. As adolescents are exposed to sexual maturation and body
growth, in addition to important life choices about higher education, adult careers,
and independent living, it is necessary for youth to integrate their past experiences
and environmental factors into an established sense of self.
In Education and Identity, Chickering built upon Erickson’s work and he
established a highly influential model for college student development (Chickering,
1969). Later, in a revised edition of Education and Identity, Chickering linked
college students’ experiences with their personal development (Chickering &
2
Reisser, 1993). This work was also extended by Phinney in her examinations of
ethnic identification (Phinney, 1989; 1990).
It is, however, reasonable to assume that the impact of college varies from
one student subgroup to another. This is because the subgroups may have different
experiences. Moreover, each student may interpret similar experiences in his or her
own unique way.
The college experiences of African American students attending PWIs and
the skills they gain there are different from those of both white students and African
American students who attend Historically Black Colleges or Universities
(“HBCU”). For example, African American students who attend PWIs tend to
develop more effective assertiveness skills, whereas African American students
attending HBCU tend to develop higher levels of leadership skills (Fleming, 1984).
Additionally, African American students who attend HBCUs tend to report a greater
sense of happiness because of circumstances that are attributed to the HBCU higher
education environment, such as an African American faculty, students, affiliations
and extra curricular activities (Mandrazo-Peterson & Rodriquez, 1978; Watson &
Kuh, 1996). These differences in types of school environments affect graduation
rates as well. Whereas 85 percent of African American students attend PWIs, recent
estimates indicate only about 40 percent of them persist to graduation after six years
(Allen, 1991; Kemp, 1990; Padilla, Trevino, Gonzalez, & Trevino, 1997). In fact,
HBCUs award 28 percent of bachelor degrees to African American students
(National Center for Education Statistics (“NCES”), 1998). Additionally, the NCES
3
reports that African American students who matriculate through bachelor degree
granting institutions comprise as few as 7.8 percent of all American college
graduates.
Research consistently has demonstrated that the better college students can
manipulate their academic environment, the higher their retention rates (Astin, 1982;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Strange 1993). Although HBCU’s may be better
suited to providing this opportunity to African American students, it is the PWI that
receives more financial support and often offer a wider array of services. However,
HBCU’s successfully employ transitional environmental factors that directly affect
the cultural climate and acclimation process for African American students entering
higher education. The rewards are higher retention and graduation rates that are
unequivocal when compared to PWIs. The answer may exist in the differences in
experiences for African American students when comparing HBCU’s and PWIs.
Mitchell and Dell also have argued that the groups and affiliations in which
the students associated both culturally and socially affected the retention rates of
African American students who attended PWIs (Mitchell & Dell; 1992). Although
the racial group is relevant to the comfort and transition of the student, it is not
independent to the true affects of the experiences that take place on the college
campus. Various researchers have examined the variety of factors that influence the
transition and outcomes of students in higher education, including college adjustment
and psychosocial development involving positive images of the student’s self
(Cabrera, Nora, Terenzini, Pascarella, & Hagedorn, 1999; Clarke & Tomlinson-
4
Clarke, 1994; Delvin, 1996; Paul & Kelleher, 1995) (Bandura, Peluso, Ortman, &
Millard, 2000; Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Harper, 2004; Pascarella, Smart,
Ethington, & Nettles, 1987; Taylor & Howard-Hamilton, 1995).
Understanding African American college experiences at PWIs and how these
experiences affect the given population is important to student life in terms of
diversity, leadership and accountability. Researchers investigating the satisfaction of
African American students at PWIs have been scant. For example, only three studies
were found that focused on African American students’ satisfaction with college
during the 19-year period 1982 to 2000 (Brown, 2000).
Although student satisfaction differs from student identity development, the
overall concern is that little research is performed about the experiences that affect
African American students attending PWIs. Most studies are performed researching
African American advancement and experiences at HBCU (Cabrera, Nora,
Terenzini, Pascarella, & Hagedorn, 1999; DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Flowers, 2002;
Kim, 2002). This offers an opportunity for research to be performed at PWIs that
investigate the experiences of African American students and identify leading
concepts of impact. However this also leads to complexities in preparing an
appropriate and significant literature review.
These factors all support the importance of providing greater attention to the
experiences of African American students who are attending PWIs. The information
could help researchers and student affairs practitioners at PWIs increase retention
and graduation rates through identifying relevant needs for African American student
5
psychosocial development. It is particularly important to have more information
about the factors these students perceive to have most affected their sense of self;
yet, such information is surprisingly absent from the literature.
Purpose of the Study. The purpose of this two-phase, mixed methods study
was to enhance understanding of experiences African American students believe
most affect their identity development while attending PWIs.
In Phase I of the study, a questionnaire was devised to collect information
from 100 African American college students at a selected Predominantly White
Institution (the “participants”). The questionnaire was entitled College Years
Experience Questionnaire (“CYEQ”); and it was developed based upon a version of
Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique (Flanagan, 1954). The CYEQ sought
information from the participants regarding their college experiences (e.g., specific
situations and/or circumstances which they felt most influenced their “identity
development” at the PWI. Three raters were then selected to create specific
categories from the participants reported experiences.
In Phase II of the study, a subset of 15 students who had participated in Phase
I were asked to rate the degree of similarity between each possible pair of categories
developed during Phase I. The similarity data from this rating task were analyzed
using both Multi-Dimensional Scaling and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis in order to
develop a concept map (FIG. 2). The Concept Map graphically illustrates the
relationships of the 15 participants’ perceived among those college experiences,
6
which have had the most impact on their identity development. (Tracey, Lichtenberg,
Goodyear, Claiborn, & Wampold, 2003).

LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review that follows examines three areas:
(1) identity and psychosocial development theories relevant to college
students;
(2) ethnic group identity development and acculturation; and
(3) African Americans and their move into higher education at
Predominantly White Institutions.
The material in the aforementioned areas provides the conceptual and
empirical foundation for this study.
Identity and Psychosocial Development Theories. The first segment of this
section on identity and psychosocial development theories include literature reviews
of Chickering’s conceptual and empirical foundations (Chickering, et al., 1969;
1993). The second segment focuses on identity development and psychological
functioning of minority ethnic groups, and uses the framework and research of
Phinney (1989; 1990). The third segment summarizes research by various other
researchers, and underlines issues of culture congruity on college campuses, and
social integration. Research concerning the African American student’s college
experiences is limited. The literature review draws from college student research
7
regarding African American psychosocial development from other successful
researchers in the field of social psychology.
Chickering’s Model of Student Identity Development. Chickering’s identity
development model is derived from Erickson’s conception of the identity formation
stage, and on Marcia’s work (Chickering, 1969; Marcia, 1966). Chickering
developed a conceptual framework using seven vectors to describe a sequential
process of college students’ experiences, associating student psychosocial
development to the transition into adulthood (Chickering & Reisser, 1993).
However, in response to criticism that the earlier model was based upon a limited
population of small liberal arts colleges and that the students were predominantly
traditional age college students, the model were revised (Chickering, 1969). The
revised model was relevant to the overall collegiate student development experience
and not limited to small liberal arts colleges.
Student development occurs sequentially along seven stages, or vectors in
college (Chickering, 1969; Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Evans, Forney, & Guido-
Dibrito, 1998). The seven vectors are:
(1) developing competence;
(2) managing emotions;
(3) moving through autonomy towards inter-dependence;
(4) developing mature interpersonal relationships;
(5) establishing identity;
(6) developing purpose; and
8
(7) developing integrity.
These seven vectors provide a framework for viewing the psychosocial
development of college students. As individuals gain new information it is
integrated into their self-conceptualization (Widick et al., 1978). It is important to
recognize that Chickering’s vectors are not age specific, but rather they are based on
college students’ life experiences. Furthermore, the listed ordering of vectors is not
to be interpreted as being sequentially inflexible. Instead, it should be used as a guide
to understand the developmental stage in which a college student may be located.
Using the lens of Chickering & Reisser’s model, it could be assumed that if
African American students do not perceive the PWI as a favorable environment to
explore their ethnic identity, then the experiences could hinder the students’ ethnic
identity process. Other factors that affect identity formation, including for example:
communities, ethnicity and race, family, friends, gender, life experiences, personal
beliefs, political beliefs, religion, socioeconomic status, spiritual beliefs, and sexual
orientation (Collier and Thomas, 1990; Erickson, 1968).
Other factors also play a role in identity development. Sometimes students
are influenced in the process of identity development by comparing themselves to
other students in the same class rank or group affiliation. Collier and Thomas (1990)
asserted that as a member of society and intermingling with other members who are
different from oneself, could lead to challenge, confirmation, or modification of
identity.
9
Chickering suggested that student identity and confidence is increased by the
development of competence. The competence development includes the student’s
ability to manage emotions and the ability to be engaged by others. Effective
management practices should be a part of the student achieving his or her own
autonomy. Although this transitional process can be difficult, it helps the student to
build a sense of self by relating to historical and cultural context for identity
development (Chickering & Reisser, 1993).
Through challenges the college campus present, students develop identity.
However, each ethnic group attending college is in some way unique. Therefore,
some groups respond uniquely to the presented challenges (Widick et al, 1978).
Ethnic Group Identity Development and Acculturation. Ethnic identity is
characterized by the individual’s positive or negative attitude or association of his or
her own ethnic group. It is manifest as ethnic pride, belonging and self-identified
efforts in group membership and participation (Phinney, 1990, 1992; Phinney &
Alipuria, 1990). Phinney developed a model of ethnic identity which is founded
upon Erickson’s concept of identity development, and on the later work of Marcia
(Phinney, 1989; Phinney & Alipuria, 1990).
Phinney’s research investigates the extent to which ethnic identity develops
in the presence of the dominant majority culture group context. Social identity
theory states that ethnic identity is manipulated by the social context, and therefore,
includes an individual’s ability to develop identity from his or her own ethnic group
as well as from the “counter-group”(White & Burke, 1987). Phinney’s ethnic
10
identity formation research is highly relevant to the foundation of this study
(Phinney, 1989; 1990).
The psychological importance of ethnic group identity has been established
through the study of ethnic groups of color in the United States. It is relevant to note
that the emphasis is with the non-dominant groups or in other terms minority groups
of the population to differentiate from the dominant or Caucasian majority. Due to
the various discrepancies with the meaning of “race,” the term many times is avoided
for psychological purposes; instead the expression of ethnicity is often used to
include race in this focus of ethnic group identity development (Jones, 1991;
Wilkinson & King, 1987; Yee, Fairchild, Weizmann, & Wyatt, 1993; Zuckerman,
1990).
During adolescence ethnic minority youth may invest substantial time in
learning about their ethnicity. This can assist in developing culture-relevant values
and a sense of legitimacy for their ethnic group (Brown, 2000; Tajfel & Turner,
1986). Alternatively, the actions could lead to established feelings of confusion,
uncertainty, or bitterness over past or present treatment of their group. The outcomes
are heavily dependent on the socialization efforts, experiences of family members,
and others in the ethnic community, as well as, on interactions with those in the
environmental settings at large.
It is also important to note, although many individuals are defined ethnically
by the perception of dominant groups, various researchers have found that ethnic
identity can change in reaction to psychosocial environmental and contextual factors
11
(Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 1999; Ferdman & Horenczyk, 2000). These
researchers found that psychosocial environmental and contextual factors over longer
periods of time could affect a variation of self-imposed images, behaviors, norms
and values.
Individuals may choose to label themselves in a particular ethnic group
category due to the meaning they ascribe to it, as well as, this sense of self. For
example, an individual may choose to label his or her self “African American” rather
than Black because the former simultaneously gives the individual cultural ties to
Africa and national ties to his or her country, America. The label “Black,” on the
other hand, implies no national origin and most often has negative connotations.
“Self-categories do not represent fixed, absolute properties . . . but relative, varying,
context-dependent properties” (Turner, Oakes, Haslam & McGarty, 1994; p. 456).
In other circumstances individuals may choose a different self-label due to
tangible benefits, such as available scholarship or resources. Pavel found that only
52 of 259 university students declaring themselves “American Indian” or “Alaska
native” actually could confirm their status as a member of the American Indian or
Alaska native ethnic group (Pavel, Sanchez, and Machamer, 1994). Pavel, et al.
concluded that individuals with features and skin color reflective of more than one
ethnic group can self-label to identify with more than one group.
Not all individuals can ethnically self-label with the same level of choice.
This is especially true of African Americans. “Somewhere between the notion that
12
whoever identifies as “African American,” is one; and the idea that whoever society
defines as “African American,” is one” (Reid, 1994; p. 5).
Another way that individuals are ethnically identified is by their “culture.”
Jones depicted Black culture in five dimensions: (1) time, (2) rhythm, (3)
improvisation, (4) oral expression, and (5) spirituality (Jones, 1988). White and
Parham illustrated how African Americans replicate African influence in their
emotional vitality, collective survival, oral traditions, time perception, and
interdependence, specifically relevant to the extended family (White and Parham,
1990).
American and Western European cultures are known as those of
individualism or “I” cultures; while cultures of Asia, Africa, and Latin America,
including indigenous people, are known more as collective “we” cultures (Greenfield
& Cocking, 1994; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1990). There are serious
implications to these cultural differences in education and in how the origin of ethnic
identity may affect assimilation and transition to a college campus.
Students raised in a more individualized, independent and autonomous
environment may blend in with the new college campus environment more easily
than students raised in a more collective, interdependent and family connected
environment. The latter group may experience difficulty transitioning to the campus
and learning new, autonomous behavior. This was confirmed with ethnic minority
children, finding evidence of greater interdependent, psychological behavior
13
patterns, in psychosocial development to examine the role of acculturation
Greenfield and Cooking, 1994).
Further, it is important to differentiate ethnic identity formation from the
construct of acculturation. Acculturation is a process wherein the individual
disassociates from his or her culture to assimilate into a new culture. This most often
is understood as a two-dimensional process (Berry, 1990, 1997; LaFromboise,
Coleman, & Gerton, 1993; Nguyen et al., 1999; Sayegh & Lasry, 1993). This
involves both preservation and adaptation; both are separate and can operate
independently (Liebkind, 2001). The challenge for ethnic minority students in this
instance is to maintain value of one’s own heritage on a campus of a Predominantly
White Institution.
Acculturation includes four strategies: (1) integration, (2) assimilation, (3)
separation, and (4) marginalization. Integration transpires when an individual
identifies closely with his or her own culture while also being able to simultaneously
be involved with other ethnic and dominant cultures. Assimilation occurs when an
individual forsakes any identifiable link to his or her own ethnicity in efforts to
identify more closely with the dominant culture. Separation occurs when the
individual refuses to interact with the dominant culture, and adamantly maintains the
traditional values and functions of his or her own ethnicity. Marginality is defined
by both the abandonment of the individual’s native culture and lack of involvement
with the dominant culture (Phinney et al., 1992).
14
In Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation (1997) J. Berry asserted that
identity confusion is a probable effect of stress related factors that exists in the
framework of acculturation. African American students may experience this
difficulty in the process of transition to the campus environment at a PWI, and the
affect could result in negative impacts upon self esteem, participation and retention
(1977).
Perceived good grades in school, increased levels of self efficacy, high self-
esteem, both mental and physical health, and psychological satisfaction have been
pending factors for flourishing acculturation (Liebkind, 2001; Berry, 1990, 1997).
Both Liebkind and Berry asserted that central factors mediating the adaptation in
outcomes for acculturating individuals is due to the type of strategies employed by
the individual during this process (Liebkind, 2001; Berry, 1990, 1997). Berry
discusses how various factors could influence the adaptation outcomes. These
factors are based on the coping strategies used during experiences of prejudice,
discrimination, social support and other contextual facts that affect the individual’s
perception of his or her age, gender, personality and cultural distance of ethnic
society through an acculturating process.
Phinney’s research also supports the foundation of Berry, where Phinney
states that children who are exposed to negative stereotypes about their ethnic group
could maintain inconsistent or negative feelings about their ethnicity. Other
researchers have examined the influential factors attributed to messages that a child
may receive from family and those in his or her community (Knight, Bernal, Garza,
15
Cota, & Ocampo, 1993). How a child perceives the relevance of his or her own
ethnicity could be heavily reliant upon the parental socialization practices regarding
their ethnicity (Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo, & Cota, 1990; Thornton, Chatters,
Taylor, & Allen, 1990).
Those adults in the ethnic community in who have an increase level of
respect and regard can also influence younger individuals. The messages from an
adult population in the ethnic group are perceived as important to the context of how
positive an individual perceives their ethnic group (Rosenthal & Hrynevich, 1985;
Liebkind & Jasinskaja, 2000). Additionally, a positive feeling about an individual’s
group operates as a base for personal strength and positive self-evaluation. This
personal strength and positive self-evaluation supports development in the
progression of ethnic identity (Phinney, 1989; Phinney & Kohatsu, 1997).
Essentially the research suggests relevant support that positive psychosocial
development in ones ethnic identity also brings positive psychological well-being.
The continuance of strong ethnic identity ties correlates with psychological well-
being among members of acculturating groups (Liebkind, 1996; Nesdale, Rooney, &
Smith, 1997; Phinney et al., 1997).
Phinney’s ethnic identity development research, as well as, other research in
racial identity attitudes, supports the assertion that ethnic identity can be understood
as a process (Phinney 1989, 1993; Cross, 1991; Helms 1990). This process is when
an individual moves from early stages involving one taking their ethnicity for
granted due to influential opinions of dominant groups, to a stage of exploration of
16
ones own relevance and meaning of ethnic group membership. The positive
outcomes could lead an individual to an achieved ethnic identity and support positive
feelings of ones affiliation with his or her own group.
Additionally, individuals are not always complacent after achieving relevance
in ethnic identity group membership. Many times individuals will continue to
analyze his or her ethnic group throughout life stages of development and in areas of
experience in psychosocial development (Parham, 1989).
For African American students at PWIs the balance of ethnic identity as an
important associating factor, combined with the struggle of inequitable recognition
through lack of social support in programs, faculty, or membership may cause
challenges in psychosocial development. The meaning and status of an ethnic group
on a college campus has strong implications for increased levels of self-esteem,
efficacy and socialization practices.
Furthermore, due to stereotypes placed on African Americans by dominant
society groups, the occurrences of prejudice or discrimination may be representative
in higher levels of reporting in experiences. The imbalances of social equity and
academic support could lead to feelings of cultural ethnic exploitation that is
reflective as a continuation on the college campus. Boykin and Toms (1985)
discussed the minority experiences as a part of the “triple quandary” which
challenges African Americans. The assertion is that in addition to the challenges
presented as an African American being Black and American, the other aspects of
challenges to the ethnicity is racism and oppression.
17
Depending on the transitional support into both autonomy and further
exploration into ethnic identity, the PWI is challenged with the duality of historical
and present reflections presented to African American students, while
simultaneously moving toward equitable accommodations without presenting
vulnerability to other represented groups. The success of this process exists in the
college campus environment, socialization and integration practices with respect for
culture congruity.
African Americans and The Move Into Higher Education at White
Institutions. African Americans compose about 39.2 million or 13.4 percent of the
U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). The U.S. Census Bureau projects that
by July 1, 2050, there will be 61.4 million African Americans (approximately 15
percent of the nation’s population). Furthermore, in 2004 81 percent of African
Americans (age 25 and older) are estimated to have attained at-least a high school
diploma in education. This proportion increased by eight percent from the years
1994 to 2004.
In 2004 the U.S. Census Bureau also reported that 18 percent of African
Americans (age 25 and older) have attained a bachelor degree or higher; an increase
of five percentage points from 1994. Another important statistic is a report which
states that 1.1 million African Americans (age 25 and older) had an advanced or
professional degree in the 2004 (e.g., a Master’s, Ph.D., M.D. or J.D.). This
proportion rose from 624,000 in the year 1994 to 1.1 million in the year 2004. More
18
applicably, in 2004 2.3 million African Americans were enrolled at an institution of
higher learning.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (“NCES”), African
Americans represent 11.9 percent of all students enrolled in a higher educational
institution in the United States (NCES, 2005). More importantly, over 18 percent of
African Americans have attained a degree from an undergraduate institution, yet
these numbers are disproportionate in comparison to Whites with over 27 percent,
and Asians with over 35 percent. Research in this area has supported analyzing the
challenges that exist on the college campus and previous to the college environment
in the K-12 system.
Through out the decade of the 1990s African Americans were more likely to
have attended public high schools with high concentrations of other minorities from
low socioeconomic status communities, and were less likely than Caucasian students
to enroll in advance placement mathematic and science courses (NCES, 2003).
Furthermore, African Americans were less likely to have taken advance placement
foreign language classes or advance placement exams than both Caucasian and
Hispanic students of the same educational status (NCES, 2003).
The inequitable opportunities that exist for African Americans while
attending high school merits concern for a lack of preparation for postsecondary
education. The preparation for success with transition and sustainable academic
rigor for higher educational institutions appears dismal for African Americans.
Orfield reported that African Americans receive education from inequitable and
19
inferior schools more often than Whites, and they also attend high schools located in
areas of high concentrated poverty (Orfield, 1997; O’Brien and Zudak, 1998).
Historically, Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka Kansas (1954), a
landmark decision to desegregate public schools and offer busing and transportation
to African Americans, was to overturn the ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)—
separate but equal. The Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
Supreme Court decision was to change the face of American schools, for it offered
equal educational opportunities for African Americans (1954). As African
Americans participated in the freedom to enroll at PWIs it appeared that these
increasing numbers would lead to equal or larger numbers in graduation rates than
HBCU (Arminio, Carter, Jones, Kruger, Lucas, Washington, Young & Scott, 2000).
Over 85 percent of African Americans who attend college are enrolled at a
PWI. Previous to the year 1954 most African Americans attended HBCUs.
However, as stated previously, over 85 percent of African American students attend
PWIs, while it is HBCU that graduate over 28 percent of African Americans
receiving a bachelor degree (NCES, 1998). This number is very concerning and
moves many researchers to question the imbalances between the two educational
entities.
Hunt, et al. asserted that African American students are not compatibly fitting
for the culture, economic, and academic setting of a PWI (Hunt, Schmidt, Hunt,
Boyd, & Magoon, 1994). The overall design of a PWI remains more fitting to
standards created by the dominant groups of society that emphasize the merit of only
20
high standardized test scores, and high grade point averages, as design models for
college social stratification and environmental setting (Delgado, 1998; Easley, 1993;
Sedlacek, 1999; Suen, 1983).
The Predominantly White Institute Model and Affect to African American
Students. The model of a PWI supports those students who are already prepared to
assimilate in mainstream factors of the dominant society. This assimilation involves
the process of maneuvering through the campus environment with support of social
capital and developed behavioral patterns that increase the probability of achieving
academic success. This success is supported by financial means to subsidize college
costs and parents of similar achievement in higher education. For those populations
that ethnically identify with non-dominant groups, families of lower socio-economic
status, and financial resources, it means they may experience a challenging position
on a PWI campus. Research demonstrates that African Americans may struggle with
dominant group factors in the United States, and they may also have complicated
measures in persisting to graduating at a PWI (Kimbrough, Molock and Walton,
1996).
Most often African American students are descendents of parents and
families who live in urban areas with little to no college education, and who labor in
lower paying jobs (Allen, 1992; Leslie & Brinkman, 1988). Other challenges that
African American students face at PWIs are campuses that are non-culturally
congruent students or faculty of other ethnic groups. These non-culturally congruent
students or faculties most often do not have experience in a diverse educational
21
setting educating a diverse student body, or limited financial resources, and
therefore, feelings of isolation or of being ostracized arise (Easley, 1993; Nagasawa
& Wong, 1999; Taylor, 1989).
The foundation to some of these challenges exists in the historical and
present preparation of PWIs for other ethnic minorities. As the enrollment of
African Americans increased at PWIs, most of these institutions did very little to
prepare, especially for those African American students who previously had attended
inequitable educational institutions (Saddlemire, 1996; Taylor, 1989). As the
enrollment of African Americans at PWIs increased, and the inequities of
accommodations became more apparent, African Americans reported feelings of
frustration, tension, and complications of transition to the campuses escalated
(Taylor, 1989).
Furthermore, African Americans still perceive PWIs as culturally
unsupportive, unbalanced, and ethnically challenging for diverse needs (Saddlemire,
1996). For example, there is a heavy imbalance not only in the amount of African
Americans compared to Caucasians at PWIs, but also the faculty composition has
little to no tenured African Americans (Allen, 1992). The presence of racism and
support to persevere through this challenge is difficult, as the experiences are not
supported with administration of color or faculties of color to assist in an empathetic
measure (Kobrak, 1992).
Additionally, classroom curriculum, pedagogy, student services and overall
campus appeal is tailored to the dominant group at PWIs (Taylor, 1989). Other
22
factors that support this assertion are the history books, English, and literature
courses that reflect a Eurocentric perspective and catering to the dominant group.
This type of classroom model affects the foundation of an African American
student’s self-esteem, motivation and psychosocial development when transitioning
to a PWI.
Understanding the needs for cultural congruity and the fundamentals of the
African American transitional process could be beneficial to PWIs. African
Americans are often misunderstood or labeled as self-segregating because they
create their own social environment with other African Americans on campus who
share same values and belief systems (Stewart, Russell, & Wright, 1997).
Researchers have often labeled this type of behavior as a coping mechanism to
construct relationships with parties of the same social values rather than self-
segregating process (Kimbrough, R. M., Molock, S.D., & Walton, K., 1996;
Thompson & Fretz, 1991).
Due to early alienation in the late 1960s and separation of White and Black
groups, African Americans established their own social structures that included
student unions, organizations, fraternities and sororities to assimilate and participate
at PWIs (Culbert, 1988; Kimbrough et al., 1996; Williams, 1994). This duality still
exist at many PWIs and is a hindrance to integrating functions, as those individuals
who participate in diverse functions may be labeled as not identifying with their own
ethnic group, Thus, and these individuals may experience challenges from both their
23
own ethnic group and from other dominant groups during their transitional process to
the college campus.
African American Student Involvement As A Support. For the last 26 years
researchers have examined the issue of how students negotiate the navigational
process of the college environment and have looked at this process as a predictor of
the student’s college-related behaviors (e.g., Allen, 1992; Allen, Epps, & Haniff,
1991; Kuh, 1996; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Whitt, Edison, Pascarella, Nora, &
Terenzini, 1999). Other investigators have explored the specifics of this transitional
process, and report that the more successful the students are at gaining a sense of
control for the transition to the college environment, that this success also correlates
to higher retention rates (Astin, 1982; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Strange, 1993).
This assertion has been further supported through researching the issue of
“out of class experiences,” and how they affect developmental outcomes (Terenzini,
Pascarella, and Bliming, 1996). They found that participation in various college
activities such as Greek organizations, inter-collegiate athletics, and other extra-
curricular activities, can have a positive impact on the college student’s
developmental experiences.
Additional research has concluded that an increased level of student
involvement on the college campus positively supports cognitive development and
moral development; and vocational aspirations as influential impacts to the college
student (Moore, Lovell, McGann, and Wyrick, 1998). Other research further
supports the correlation of student involvement at college, and how it positively
24
affects the African American college student’s experience (DeSousa & King, 1992;
DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Littleton, 2002; Mitchell & Dell, 1992; Outcalt & Skewes-
Cox, 2002; Sutton & Kimbrough, 2001; Taylor & Howard Hamilton, 1995; Watson
& Kuh, 1996).
Littleton asserts that nearly half of the African American participants stated
that student involvement on campus helped them to persist in college (Littleton,
2002). Both “out-of-class” and “in-class” student involvement helps to increase
student awareness, participation, and it can expedite the adjustment period, while
elevating a sense of belongingness. Student participation also enhances the fit
between the students’ personal values and environmental values taking place on the
college campus.
Other researchers have also made predictions regarding the effect of student
involvement and student development on the college campus previous to Littleton,
(2002). Astin (1984) concluded that student development is directly related to the
amount of involvement students have on campus. However there is no blanketed
format of student activities for African Americans that help with satisfaction or
retention. It is recommended that colleges and universities use interventions,
surveys, and focus groups to develop an awareness of the needs for all populations
they serve.
The services or extra-curricular activities should be sensitive to culture,
gender and religious affiliations. These personal aspects of the students’ life can be
used as foundations to preserve personal value and used as avenues of student
25
involvement. Student involvement is not only effective for African American
students, but rather all students, because the long-term effect is increased
participation through leadership activities that ultimately lead to implementation of
appropriate self regulatory behaviors.
Creating educational environments that support student involvement,
autonomy and balance between the students’ personal values and the values of the
educational institution is imperative for cultural fit and contextual influences that
may increase retention and positive experiences. How the student feels about his or
her college campus, environment, and culture is important to the developmental
experiences and matriculation. It is necessary that there is an essential fit between
the students’ own personal values and the values of the environment. Gloria and
Robinson Kurpius (1996) defined cultural congruity “as the match between the
students’ personal values and the values of the environment in which they function.”
Cultural congruity in a collegiate environment is an impeding factor to
retention. It has been documented that cultural congruity of a college or university
environment can affect a student’s attitude about continuing enrollment and
influence their perception of adjustment to the campus life (Cardinal, 1981; MacKay
& Kuh, 1994; Mallinckrodt, 1988). Other research further supports these assertions
through findings which state that greater cultural congruity plays an important role in
predicting whether or not an African American student will continue college
matriculation (Gloria, Robinson Kurpius, Hamilton, and Wilson, 1999).
26
Gender Differences In Experiences. Research has shown that African
American women experience different challenges than males when adjusting to
predominantly white campuses. The personal values and environmental cultural
needs of African American females are different from the needs of males at PWIs.
Having an imbalance in cultural structure at a PWI could lead to lower retention
rates for African American females. Gloria, et al. (2001) found that a number of
African American females often opted not to stay enrolled; or, they function with a
separatist nature due to being uncomfortable, or other incongruent environmental
situation. Other researchers have found that the longer the women operate in these
types of environments, it could lead to unwarranted challenges and result in undue
stress (Feagin, Vera, & Imani, 1996; Lang & Ford, 1992).
It is no secret that comfort and satisfaction with college experiences are
pivotal for African American retention at PWIs (Astin, 1993). Milem and Berger
(1997) asserted that social integration is much more influential with indication of
student persistence than academic integration. The differences in social integration
and retention vary between the African American male and female. The
development of the African American female in maturation is not always identical to
the African American male. Understanding these differences for purposes of
adjustment to college is important for retention and matriculation of African
American students.
The attrition of African American males and females at PWIs are warranted
for different reasons (Hood, 1992). African American women most often leave
27
PWIs voluntarily because of dissatisfaction with the college environment, while
African American men most often leave due to dismissal (Hood, 1992). There has
been additional research to explore the phenomenon of the differences between the
reasons for attrition of the African American female and the African American male
at PWIs.
This phenomenon was explored and assertion made that because African
American females perform stronger in high school, and have a higher correlation of
cultural congruity and student focus than males, nevertheless, the transition to a PWI
campus changes the dynamic of cultural congruity and support systems (Allen and
Haniff, 1991) This, in turn, affect the needs of the African American female. Allen
and Haniff further discuss how the elementary and secondary school setting is not a
heavily male-dominated environment as the college campus. Cultural specific
counseling, advice and guidance could assist the adjustment for the African
American female since the challenges are coupled with both sexism and racism at a
PWI (Taylor & Olswang, 1997).
There are also assumptions that the premise of why these African American
students are attending a PWI plays a role with support systems. For example, there
are PWIs with a vast majority of African American students attending due to athletic
recruitment. Furthermore, those athletes tend to remain mostly male and warrant
related support systems, coupled with cultural congruity in nature. Whereas, for the
African American female this may not always be a reflective case; and the mentality
of African American male athletes may be different due to different treatment by
28
those empowered to offer that sense of belonging and relevance to the college
campus.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
According to Gender Differences In African American Students’ Satisfaction
With College (2000), the answer to understanding the transitional experience for
African American students, and to increasing their retention, is to first comprehend
their needs in cultural congruity and then support the heterogeneous needs of the
population. Gathering research that depicts the experiences from African American
students at PWIs will further support elaboration and important links to the impeding
factors that effect African American students on these campuses. The gaps in the
literature are concerning, as African American students increase in enrollment at
PWIs.
If the student service personnel and faculty are not fully aware of the
transitional needs and identity development of the African American student
population, how can they effectively create educational environments that will
encourage the academic and psychosocial developmental needs of those students?
This study seeks to address these gaps by identifying the college impact on the
identity development of African American students attending PWIs, and to address
the following research questions.
(1) What experiences in college do African American students perceive
to be influential in developing their identity and sense of self?
29
(2) What is the perceived affect (positive or negative) of the
experience(s)?
(3) Into what conceptual categories do African American students group
these identity-defining college experiences?
(4) What graphic representation in the form of a concept map best
describes the relationship among potential events affecting identity
development of African American students?
30
CHAPTER 2
METHODS
This chapter reports the methods used in the study, and will report in turn, the
participants, raters, Measures and Procedures utilized.

PARTICIPANTS
Phase I. The participants for Phase I of this study were 100 African
American students [43 male and 57 female] at a West Virginia public university.
With respect to class level, 34 percent were seniors; 32 percent were juniors; 10
percent were sophomores; and 21 percent were freshmen. The participants ranged in
ages from 18 to 24 with the M=20.64(SD=0.49).
Phase II. Participants for this phase of this study included a subset of 15 [6
male and 9 female] of the 100 original Phase I undergraduate African American
students. These participants volunteered and were selected to continue with the
second phase of the study. Nine [69%] of the Phase II respondents were seniors, and
six were juniors. The mean age of the Phase II responders was 21.6 years.
Raters. Three University of Southern California (“USC”), Doctor of
Education candidates analyzed the responses to the Critical Incident Report forms,
creating categories from the reported incidents. The raters also participated in the
creation and piloting of the College Years Experience Questionnaire (“CYEQ”).
The raters included a 31-year old African American male, a 38-year old Caucasian
male, and a 35-year old Latino male.
31
MEASURES
Two measures were used in the study. During Phase I a variant of Flanagan’s
(1954) Critical Incident Technique was used. During Phase II a Paired Comparison
Questionnaire, developed for the study, was used.
Critical Incident Technique. The Critical Incident Technique involves
retrieval of information regarding a specific incident, situation, or problem from
individuals. The incident is described as critical when it has either an
“effective/positive,” or an “ineffective/negative” outcome (Flanagan, 1954). The
technique also gives the participants the opportunity to respond to open ended
questions reflecting on the events. The objective is to generate subjective behaviors,
events or experiences while minimizing the bias of unsupported or received opinion
(Usability Net, n.d.; Woolsey, 1986). In this study an adaptation of the Critical
Incident Technique, called the College Years Experience Questionnaire was utilized.
The CYEQ include five major areas of the Critical Incident Report Form
(Appendix A):
(1) The Inquired Incident is one that the participant experienced
personally.
(2) The Inquired Incident is significant in that it affected the participant’s
perception of current sense of self.
(3) Pertinent contextual information is gathered from the participant in a
brief response describing the incident or experience.
(4) The instrument allows for open-ended responses.
32
(5) The instrument allows the respondent to determine if the incident had
a positive or negative affect on the collegiate experience.
The CYEQ asked the student to describe “one incident or experience that had
particular influence on your sense of who you are.” As well, they were to respond
to: (1) a question regarding outcomes that determine the “degree to which you
experience this incident or experience, as positive;” and (2) another question
followed to find out the student’s perception of the “eventual effect this incident or
experience had on your sense of self.”
A 7-point, Likert-type scale was used for each, where 1= very negative and
7= very positive.
The CYEQ was collaboratively constructed by 11 USC, Doctor of Education,
candidates under the supervision of their dissertation advisor, a professor of
counseling psychology. It was piloted with a convenience sample including both
Los Angeles County higher education students and non-students of varying ages and
ethnicities over two trials. Refinements, additions, and deletions were made based
on feedback from the pilot tested participants.
Paired Comparisons Questionnaire (“PCQ”). In the first phase of the study
fourteen categories were developed by the raters. The categories were developed
from themes that emerged from the incidents reported on the CYEQ which
constituted the concept elements or categories that were used in developing a PCQ.
Each of the 14 categories was paired with each of the other categories, resulting in
91 items—(N(N-1)/2, where N is the number of categories or 14(14-1)/2). The
33
placement of the paired themes on the PCQ was determined by using a random
number table, Attached as Appendix C is the Random Paired Theme Placement
Chart which displays the random paired placement of the themes.
Demographic data such as college or university being attended, class
standing, gender, age, and ethnicity also were collected. This was done so the
participants could better understand what each category meant, descriptions of each
of the 14 categories were listed on the PCQ, and they were instructed to rate the
similarity between the paired themes. The initial PCQ used a five-point scale:
1=Not at all Alike; 5=Very much alike. To illustrate, a Paired Comparison
Questionnaire is included (Appendix B).

PROCEDURES
Phase I. The site for this study was a Predominantly White Institution in
West Virginia, one in which only 7 percent of its students reported a minority status.
The Center for Black Culture (“CBC”) hosted the researcher at four of its fall 2006
events to conduct the study. The CBC also allowed 100 of its undergraduate,
African American students to voluntarily participate in the study, and provided a
table on-site at each of these events for the researcher. These events were: a
Multicultural Day Open House, a PASSkey Day, a Horace and Geraldine Belmear
Reception, and the CBC’s Welcome Back BBQ.
The Multicultural Day Open House had an estimated attendance of 250
student participants. The Passkey Day had an estimated attendance of 200 students.
34
The Horace and Geraldine Belmear Reception had an estimated attendance of 100
participants. The CBC Welcome Back BBQ had an estimated attendance of 50
students.
All students who received a CYEQ were first given written and verbal
information about the study. Each student who volunteered in Phase I of the study
also was asked to indicate his or her preference to continue with the second part of
the study, or Phase II. Participants who agreed to continue in Phase II also provided
their name and contact information on a separate form. The identity of the students
who desired to participate in Phase II of the study was kept separate from collection
of the CYEQ so that there would not be a link between the questionnaire and their
identifiable information.
Each CYEQ response was read by the three raters who synthesized the
material through a method of data reduction wherein comparable assertions were
recognized as prototypes of identified concepts. The three raters initially operated
independently of each other by developing the sorted responses into conceptual
categories. Later, through discussion, the raters agreed upon 14 categories.
The raters then assigned each of the 100 incidents to a single category. The
process of assigning the themes was first performed individually, and collectively to
achieve a consensus. When there were discrepancies, the raters resolved them
through discussion and they left none (0%) of the incidents uncategorized.
Phase II. In this phase the Paired Comparison Questionnaire was distributed
to 15 of the African American undergraduate students who agreed to participate in
35
second part of the study. The PCQ was provided to the participants at the CBC, and
an agreed date and time to complete the PCQ was also provided. All 15 of the
Phase II PCQs were collected at the CBC after completion of the questionnaires.
The participants rated between-concept similarity through a paired-comparison
technique. Using multi-dimensional scaling and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, the
responses were scattered and plotted to create a Concept Map—a spatial
representation of the participants’ understanding, and given interpretation of their
collegiate experiences on their sense of self (Figure 2).

DATA ANALYSIS
The similarity ratings of participants were arranged into a similarity matrix
where each cell represented the degree of similarity between two categories. The
data served as the basis for the concept mapping Analysis.
The similarity ratings participants were subjected to both non-metric Multi-
Dimensional Scaling (“MDS”) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, with the overall
aim of depicting the structure the participants used in thinking of the impacts that
college has had on them. All Analysis employed SPSS.
Multi-Dimensional Scaling. With Multi-Dimensional Scaling, it has been
recommended not to interpret more dimensions than the number of elements (in
these case, “themes”) divided by 4 (Kruskal & Wish, 1978). In this case the 14
categories should have no more than three dimensions. Also, because its
representations are spatial, Multi-Dimensional Scaling is not generally useful with
36
greater than 3 or 4 dimensions. In this case the study employed only two
dimensions.
The common indicator of fit is stress
1
, which is the square root of the
normalized residual sum of squares. Values of 0 indicate perfect fit of the model to
the data, and larger values indicate less fit. Kruskal and Wish (1978) have
recommended that a one-dimension solution with a stress1 < .15 suggests this
solution is the best representation. Failing this, solutions with more dimensions
ordinarily should be examined.
Analysis in this study were based on the conclusion of Trochim (2002) “that
two-dimensional solutions have, almost without exception, been acceptable as long
as they have been coupled with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis” (p. 15); and “that a
stress value of less than .30 represents a stable nMSD solution” (p. 16). Bedi and
Alexander (2004) cite a review of 38 MVCM studies conducted by Trochim that
found the average stress value among the studies was 0.29, well beyond the desired
<.10 yet still below 30.
After this fit criterion, Kruskal and Wish (1978) has recommended
interpretability, ease of use, and stability as other criteria to use in selecting
dimensions. Interpretability refers to the solution that makes the most sense
conceptually. Ease of use refers to parsimony. Fewer dimensions are preferable
because they depict the structure more simply. Stability refers to the reliability of the
structure. Two dimensional solutions were analyzed using the criteria of fit,
interpretability, ease of use, and stability.
37
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. HCA also were used focusing on the
differences of “type,” in contrast to multi-dimensional scaling which focused on
differences of “amount;” and thus, allowed examination of how the conceptual
categories generated are qualitatively different. Several alternative clustering
methods are available, and for this study Hierarchical Clustering using Euclidean
Distance and Ward’s method of linkage were selected (Borgen & Barnett, 1987).
The selection of the number of clusters is rarely clear and selection
procedures range from informal to statistical. (Borgen & Barnett, 1987). Given the
focus on interpretability and ease of use, an informal approach was judged to be most
appropriate. The logic is similar to that of the Scree Test in factor analysis.
Hierarchical Clustering presents the data in the form of a Dendrogram, which is a
representation of the distance of each category from each other category. The fusion
coefficient (i.e., the value of the distance parameter listed in the clustering
Dendrogram for each number of clusters) is examined for an “elbow,” as in multi-
dimensional scaling, using the criteria of interpretability and ease of use to yield the
final cluster representation. Once clusters were identified, they were labeled to aid in
the interpretation of the Concept Map.
38
CHAPTER 3
RESULTS
This chapter reports the results of the study. The first section reports the
Qualitative Analysis of the Critical Incidents. The second section reports the
Concept Mapping.

PHASE I RESULTS
The 100 responses collected in Phase I through the College Years Experience
Questionnaire were grouped into 14 categories of experiences. Tables 1 and 2 list
the 14 categories, as well as other descriptive information, including the number of
incidents coded in each category, the ratings of positive value, and the effect on their
eventual sense of self.

39
Table 1. Frequency of Category, Year of Occurrence, Positive Value, and Eventual Effect, by Gender
Female Students (N =57) Male Students (N =43)
Category No. of
Incidents
Year of
Occurrence in
College
(Freshman=1
Senior=4)
Rating of Impact
Positivity
Rating of
Eventual
Positivity
No. of
Incidents
Year of
Occurrence in
College
(Freshman=1
Senior=4)
Rating of
Impact
Positivity
Rating of
Eventual
Positivity
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Experiencing A Financial Struggle 9 2.55 1.06 4.55 1.70 4.88 1.59 6 2.33 1.24 3.16 2.11 6.00 0.81
Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or
Discrimination
9 2.77 1.03 2.22 0.91 6.33 0.66 6 1.83 0.68 2.33 0.74 6.50 0.76
Encountering Unexpected Adversity 9 2.22 1.03 3.22 1.54 4.77 1.61 2 2.50 0.50 1.00 1.00 3.50 1.50
Coping With The New-Found Responsibility
Of Independent Living
5 3.00 0.63 3.60 1.35 5.60 1.01 6 3.33 1.10 2.00 0.57 4.44 1.32
Being Let Down By People I Depended On
To Help
1 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 3 2.00 0.81 2.66 1.24 2.00 0.81
Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related
Experiences
3 3.33 0.47 3.00 0.81 6.66 0.47 5 1.80 1.16 2.60 1.01 6.40 0.79
Coping With Environments In Which Familiar
Aspects Of My Own Race Or Culture Are
Nearly Absent
6 2.16 1.06 2.83 1.34 6.66 0.47 1 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 6.00 6.00
Learning From Interactions With People
Whose Backgrounds Or Characteristics Are
Different From My Own
3 2.33 0.47 5.33 1.24 5.33 1.24 2 2.50 1.50 5.50 0.50 7.00 7.00
Having An Experience That Helps To
Identify A Career Possibility
2 2.50 0.50 3.50 1.50 5.50 1.50 2 3.50 0.50 4.50 2.50 4.50 0.50
Experiencing Significant Academic Success 3 2.00 0.81 7.00 7.00 6.00 0.81 1 2.00 2.00 7.00 7.00 5.00 5.00
Having Positive Experiences Related To
Having Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity
1 2.00 2.00 4.00 4.00 7.00 7.00 2 3.00 3.00 6.50 0.50 7.00 7.00
Having A Successful Mentorship 2 1.50 0.50 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 2 2.00 1.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00
Participation In Leadership Extra Curricular
Activities
1 3.00 3.00 5.00 5.00 7.00 7.00 2 2.00 1.00 6.00 1.00 7.00 7.00
Experiencing Positive Support From
Important People In My Life
4 3.00 0.70 6.50 0.86 7.00 7.00 2 3.50 0.50 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00

40

Table 2. Frequency of Category, Year of Occurrence, Positive Value, and Eventual
Effect, for Entire Group

Category No. of
Incidents
Year of
Occurrence
Positive
Value
Eventual Effect
on Sense of Self
M SD M SD M SD
Experiencing A Financial Struggle 15 2.50 1.33 4.00 2.75 5.53 1.85
Being Confronted With Acts of
Prejudice Or Discrimination
15 2.40 0.88 2.25 1.98 6.40 0.51
Encountering Unexpected Adversity 11 2.27 1.01 2.86 1.88 4.36 1.50
Coping With The New-Found
Responsibility Of Independent
Living
11 2.33 1.01 2.75 1.96 6.18 0.87
Being Let Down By People I
Depended On To Help
4 1.75 .083 2.50 3.00 1.75 1.50
Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related
Experiences
8 2.38 0.86 2.75 1.04 6.50 0.76
Coping With Environments In
Which Familiar Aspects Of My
Own Race/Culture Are Absent
7 2.29 1.16 2.86 1.88 6.57 0.73
Learning From Interactions With
People Whose Backgrounds Or
Characteristics Are Different From
My Own
5 2.38 0.86 5.40 2.61 6.00 1.22
Having An Experience That Helps
To Identify A Career Possibility
4 3.00 1.41 4.00 2.16 5.00 1.63
Experiencing Significant Academic
Success
4 2.00 1.22 7.00 0.00 5.75 1.64
Having Positive Experiences
Related To Having Joined A
Sorority Or Fraternity
3 1.67 0.47 5.80 1.30 7.00 0.00
Having A Successful Mentorship 4 1.75 0.83 7.00 0.00 7.00 0.00
Participation In Leadership Extra
Curricular Activities
3 2.33 1.53 6.15 1.46 7.00 0.00
Experiencing Positive Support From
Important People In My Life
6 3.17 0.89 6.67 0.52 7.00 0.00
Note, year of occurrence, 1 = Freshman; 4 = Senior

41
Description of Categories. Each category title embodies the major theme for
that classification. Below are descriptions of the 14 categories.
(1) Experiencing A Financial Struggle. Fifteen of the 100 incidents fit
into this category, tying it with Prejudice for the category with the most incidents.
The students describe specific examples of financial hardships, coupled with the
need for additional labor duties to endure college costs. To Illustrate, one student
reported: . . . trying to work two part time jobs and staying in school has been
tough. Another reported, not being able to go home during the Christmas break
because we were low on money.
(2) Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination. The
raters into this category classified fifteen responses. Incidents in this category
reflected challenges to students due to their race, gender or ethnicity. For example,
one participant reported, . . . sometimes ‘my professor’ makes fun of Africans and I
really take offense. Another student reported she was fired from my job because I
was mixed.
(3) Encountering Unexpected Adversity. This category included eleven
responses, and reflected unexpected trials and tribulation. For example, one student
reported, my experience was when I got arrested. Another stated, losing my sister in
my junior year was really difficult.
(4) Coping With The New-Found Responsibility Of Independent Living.
Eleven responses were classified into this category. These experiences provided
examples of the transition to college and learning to function independent of parental

42
supervision. For example, one student reported, Being on my own; having to be
alone and be responsible without anyone telling what to do. Another reported, The
biggest thing I went through my Freshman year in college was moving into the dorm.
(5) Being Let Down By People I Depended On For Help. Four responses
were classified in this category. These experiences included examples of important
or highly relevant people in the participant’s life who let them down. One
participant stated, My Professor in English 1 was not supportive. Another
participant stated, he had trusted my roommate to take notes, and he did not go to
class.
(6) Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related Experiences. Eight responses were
classified in this category, which included examples of drugs or alcohol affecting the
identity development of the participant. One participant mentioned, trying other
drugs than weed. Another reported, Trying to drink as much as my roommate my
freshman year.
(7) Coping With Environment In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own
Race Or Culture Are Nearly Absent. Seven responses were classified in this
category. These experiences included examples of participants living in
environments in which the accommodations, services or everyday amenities
provided were the most limited in reference to African American cultural practice,
unique ethnic needs, or race. For example, one example stated: My freshman year I
went to get my hair done and there were no Black hair shops! Another example

43
stated: After church on my first Sunday in town, we noticed there were no soul food
restaurants.
(8) Learning From Interactions With People Whose Backgrounds Or
Characteristics Are Different From My Own. Five responses were classified in this
category. These experiences included interactions the participants had with
individuals of different races, gender or cultural backgrounds that affected them. One
Participant stated, I think living in the dorms with another person from a different
background has helped me learn to interact and to better relate to people that are
different from myself. Another stated, Living in Sunnyside and playing music with
other students from other places.
(9) Having An Experience That Helps To Identify A Career Possibility.
Four responses were classified in this category. These incidents identified
experiences that were affecting the Participant’s career choice. One Participant
stated his incident was, My sophomore year selling Mary Kay I was the top sales
person in this region. Another stated, “Having a scout come out and speak to me
about football, I realized that this might really be a career option for me.
(10) Experiencing Significant Academic Success. Four responses were
classified in this category. These incidents identified experiences that related to the
Participant’s academic success. One Participant stated: Getting accepted into law
school early admissions has impacted me the most. Another stated, Making the
President’s List.

44
(11) Having Positive Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or
Fraternity. Three responses were classified in this category. These incidents
identified experiences that related to activities affiliated with a Sorority or a
Fraternity. One stated, I think that watching the sororities and fraternities probates
were a significant incident to me, because there was so much unity there. Another
stated, Joining my fraternity the first semester has really shown me how committed I
am to success.
(12) Having A Successful Mentor. Four responses were classified in this
category. These incidents related to activity affiliated with mentorship. For example,
one Participant stated, Having class with my PassKey mentor. Another stated,
Participating in our Passkey course has helped me feel more secure here at campus.
(13) Participating In Leadership Extracurricular Activities. Three
responses were classified in this category. These incidents concerned participating in
leadership extra curricular activities. For example, one Participant stated, Running
for student government. Another stated, Serving on our entertainment committee for
the university really opened my eyes.
(14) Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In My Life.
Six responses were classified in this category. The incidents concerned receiving
positive support from individuals who were important to the students. For example,
one student stated, My academic advisor helped me outline which classes to take.
Another stated, When my parents brought me to campus for my first semester, they
told me how proud they were of me.

45
Year of Occurrence. The College Years Experience Questionnaire asked
participants to identify the point in their college experience at which the particular
incident occurred. Those responses were coded as follows: 1= Freshman, 2=
Sophomore, 3= Junior, and 4= Senior Class Standing.
The mean year of occurrence ranged from a low of 1.67 for the category,
Having Positive Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity, to
3.17, for the category, Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In My
Life. Four categories had a mean value of 2.00 or below—(1) Having Positive
Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity, (2) Having A
Successful Mentor, (3) Being Let Down By People I Depended On For Help, and (4)
Experiencing Significant Academic Success; and two categories had a mean value of
3.00 or above—(1) Having An Experience That Helped Identify A Career
Possibility, and (2) Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In My
Life. The remaining eight categories had mean values between 2.27 and 2.50—(1)
Experiencing A Financial Struggle, (2) Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or
Discrimination, (3) Encountering Unexpected Adversity, (4) Coping With The New-
Found Responsibility of Independent Living, (5) Having Drugs or Alcohol Related
Experiences, (6) Coping With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own
Race Or Culture Are Nearly Absent, (7) Learning From Interactions With People
Whose Backgrounds Or Characteristics Are Different From My Own, and (8)
Participating In Leadership Extra Curricular Activities.

46
The four categories with the lowest mean values were: (1) Having Positive
Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity, (2) Having A
Successful Mentor, (3) Being Let Down By People I Depended On For Help, and (4)
Experiencing Significant Academic Success—indicators that the identified
experiences took place during the first two years of college. The two categories with
the highest mean values concerned experiences that took place in the junior or senior
year of college—(1) Having An Experience That Helped To Identify A Career
Possibility (3.00), and (2) Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In
My Life (3.17). No respondent from either category reported that the incidents took
place during freshman year.
Positive Value Rating. The CYEQ asked respondents (the “participants”) to
assess “the degree to which you experienced this incident or experience as positive”
on a band, with a scale ranging from: 1=Very Negative to 7=Very Positive.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize six categories of incidents as experiences
perceived “as generally positive, with mean values ranging from 5.40 to 7.00.
Having A Successful Mentor was identified as the “most positive” category of
experiences. Eight categories were perceived as generally negative, with mean
values ranging from 2.25 to 4.00. The category, Being Confronted With Acts Of
Prejudice Or Discrimination, was the category perceived as the “most negative”
category by the participants in Phase I of the study.
Eventual Effect of Experience on Sense of Self. The CYEQ also asked
participants to evaluate the eventual impact of the incident. Six categories had a

47
negative initial positive value, but positive effect on the participants “sense of
self”—(1) Experiencing A Financial Struggle, (2) Being Confronted With Acts Of
Prejudice Or Discrimination, (3) Coping With The New-Found Responsibility Of
Independent Living, (4) Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related Experiences, (5) Coping
With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own Race Or Culture Are
Nearly Absent, and (6) Having An Experience That Helped Identify A Career
Possibility. The mean values ranged from 5.0 (Having An Experience That Helped
To Identify A Career Possibility) to 6.40 (Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice
Or Discrimination). This last category showed a very wide discrepancy between the
two ratings. In two of the categories (Being Let Down By People I Depended On For
Help and Experiencing Significant Academic Success), the eventual effect on the
sense of self experience received a lower mean rating of eventual impact than of
positive value. All of the ratings are summarized in Tables 1 & 2.

PHASE II RESULTS
During Phase II of the study the Multi-Dimensional Scaling (“MDS”) and
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (“HCA”) were conducted using the similarity data in
order to create a Concept Map. This map is a graphic representation of concepts of
the manner in which African American students think about events and situations
that have affected their identity development.
Multi-Dimensional Scaling. Similarity data were used for a non-metric MDS
analysis. The three-dimensional solution generated a stress value of .15, whereas the

48
two-dimensional solution generated a stress value of .26. Both satisfied the .30
threshold for solution stability. However, because three dimensions are difficult to
display graphically, the two-dimensional solution was used. Those results are
depicted in Table 3.
Table 3. Categories and Dimensional Values
Category Dimension 1(x) Dimension 2 (y)
Experiencing A Financial Struggle 1.2 -.37
Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice
Or Discrimination
-.61 1.8
Encountering Unexpected Adversity -.92 -.99
Coping With The New-Found
Responsibility Of Independent Living
-2.3 -.02
Being Let Down By People I Depended On
For Help
.85 -.32
Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related
Experiences
1.1 .42
Coping With Environments In Which
Familiar Aspects Of My Own Race Or
Culture Are Nearly Absent
.99 -1.1
Learning From Interactions With People
Whose Backgrounds Or Characteristics Are
Different From My Own
1.5 -22
Having An Experience That Helped Identify
A Career Possibility.
-.42 -.06
Experiencing Significant Academic Success -.49 1.0
Having Positive Experiences Related To
Having Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity
-1.3 -.21
Having A Successful Mentor -.48 -1.8
Participation In Leadership Extra Curricular
activities
.70 .64
Experiencing Positive Support From
Important People In My Life
.26 1.3

49
An important step to understanding and making sense of the dimensional
solution is to label the dimensions. The category, Coping With The New-Found
Responsibility Of Independent Living, is represented at one end of dimension 1. On
the other end of the dimension 1 lies Learning From Interactions With People Whose
Backgrounds or Characteristics Are Different From My Own. Dimension 1 was
labeled “Learning Through Autonomy” and “Living Independently,” versus
Learning From Interactions and Acts of Others.” Dimension 2 was anchored on
either extreme by two categories, Having A Successful Mentorship; and on the other
end by Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination. Dimension 2
therefore was labeled “Being Empowered by Mentors” versus “Overcoming Acts of
Prejudice or Discrimination.”
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. MDS and HCA embody a corresponding
composition which branches from the ability of them to display diverse structures in
data. FIG. 2 displays a Dendrogram composed of the Ward Linkage Method which
is used to evaluate the distance of each concept from the other listed concepts. The
similarity data were analyzed via HCA using the Ward Linkage Method. Figure 1
displays the results as a Dendrogram.

50

Figure 1. Dendrogram Using Ward Method

If a vertical line were drawn at point 13, the result would be four clusters.
Each is indicated by a set of brackets. These clusters were labeled according to the
thematic elements that seemed common to each, as follows:
Cluster 1 is comprised of four categories. Given the aspect that seems
common across these categories, this cluster was named “Confronting Challenging
Circumstances.”
(1) Experiencing A Financial Struggle
(2) Being Let Down By People I Depended On For Help
(3) Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related Experiences
(4) Coping With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own
Race Or Culture Are Nearly Absent

51
Cluster 2 is also comprised of four categories. Given the aspect that seems
common across these categories, this cluster was named “Being Affected Through
Interactions With Others.”
(1) Learning From Interactions With People Whose Backgrounds Or
Characteristics Are Different From My Own
(2) Having An Experience That Helps To Identify A Career Possibility
(3) Participation In Leadership Extra Curricular Activities
(4) Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In My Life
Cluster 3 is comprised of three categories. Given the aspect that seems
common across these categories, this cluster was named “Being Affected Successes
In The School Environment.”
(1) Having positive experiences related to having joined a Sorority or
Fraternity
(2) Having A Successful Mentorship
(3) Experiencing a Significant Academic Success
Cluster 4 is comprised of the following three categories. Given the aspect
that seems common across these categories, this cluster was named “Being Forced
To Define Myself As An Independent Person.”
(1) Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination
(2) Encountering Unexpected Adversity
(3) Coping With The New-Found Responsibility Of Independent Living

52
The MDS and the HCA results are overlaid on one another in Figure 2. This
is the graphic representation of the manner in which African American college
students think about the college experiences that have affected them, and is
represented in Figure 2. It represents an overlay of the clusters analytic results over
that of the Multi-Dimensional Scaling.

Figure 2. Concept Map of African American Students’ Experiences that Affect their
Sense of Self

53
CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION
This chapter will discuss the findings relative to research questions. It will
also highlight specific accounts of reported student experiences, and discuss
limitations of the study, proposed directions for future research, implications, and
recommendations for those practicing in the field of higher education.

FINDINGS FROM RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Phase I of the study generated 14 categories of student experiences. There
was a tie in two of the categories: Experiencing A Financial Struggle, and Being
Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination—both garnering an
unanticipated 15 percent. According to the literature review, African Americans are
much more likely to attend public high schools that are: (1) located in areas of high
concentrated poverty, and (2) have a higher concentration of other minorities.
Delineated below is a discussion regarding the 14 categories.
Experiencing A Financial Struggle. In actuality, “financial struggle” was not
always due to poverty. Many of the students reported experiencing difficulties
during the process of obtaining financial aid as well.
Many of the African American students who reported being raised by one
parent, they also reported they found it challenging to have to include both parents’
income on their financial aid application. Other students reported experiencing
challenges because they had to support themselves, independent of parental

54
assistance. Yet, other students reported they felt challenged when both parents’
financial information was required (and included) on the financial aid documents,
which in turn, eliminated them from the opportunity to qualify for Pell Grants or
other scholarships that were based on “financial need.” One such example, was a
student who reported:
I included my mom’s income on my financial aid
application even though she does not help me with
school. After including her income, I did not qualify
for the Pell Grant and I was placed into a higher
income bracket. Thus, the money awarded was not
enough to cover my expenses for freshman year.
Similarly, another student reported:
Before attending this university I lived on my own, and
I had no parental income. When completing my
financial aid application, even though I was an
independent student, I had to include income reported
on my fathers W2 form. Because my father’s income
was very high, the government felt I could pay for my
education. As a result, when I got my financial aid it
was really messed up; and I needed obtain a loan for
$19,000.00, and I had no co-signer. However, after I
prayed and put my trust in God, not only was my
tuition paid, but my relationship with my father was
also better.
The experiences included in this category most often were perceived as
negative, yet with a positive effect on the students’ sense of self. Overall, the
responses obtained in the Experiencing a Financial Struggle category had a neutral
mean value of 4.00 on the positive experience report, while on the other hand,
reported a mean value of 5.53 for the eventual effect on the participant’s sense of
self. These reported experiences are documented as being very challenging for the

55
participants, yet the incidences themselves appear to have strengthened the students’
knowledge and self worth because they continued through the dynamic.
Furthermore, the students gathered assertive skills that enabled them to persevere
through the financial challenges presented on the college campus.
Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination. As would be
expected, the reported experiences were perceived as negative, but with a positive
impact on the participants’ sense of self or identity formation. Prejudice had a mean
value of 2.25 on the positive experience report, whereas it received a mean rating of
6.40 for the eventual effect on the participants’ sense of self. In this category the
participants reported experiencing some form of discrimination or racists comments
from their professors, roommates, or even members of the community in which the
college is located. One reported example:
My political science professor is so conservative, and
actually makes jokes about other nations and people.
Sometimes he makes fun of African Americans and I
really take offense. I can not believe they have him as
a fulltime professor at the university. I realized that
some things we read about prejudice have not changed
at all, and I now do not give anyone the benefit of
doubt.
Another example reported:
I was looking for an apartment and the landlord spoke
to me on the phone; however, when we met, she said, 'I
did not sound Black on the phone.' I was offended and
eventually, she realized she made a mistake. It let me
know that people still judge or pre-judge!
This is consistent with the research from Hunt, Schmidt, Hunt Boyd, & Maggoon
(1994) discusses how African American students may experience challenges at a

56
PWI; a non-culturally congruent environment. Non-culturally congruent campuses
typically do not provide diverse educational settings; nor do they have experience
educating diverse student bodies. These types of campuses most often have limited
financial resources for diverse populations; and minorities report experiencing
feelings of isolation or of being ostracized (Easley, 1993; Nagasawa & Wong, 1999;
Taylor, 1989). Additionally, it is highly probably probable for students to experience
forms of racism. Persevering through these challenges remains difficult for African
American students.
Encountering Unexpected Adversity. This category was not foreshadowed by
research reviewed in Chapter 1. Yet it was the category with the third largest
number of incidents. The category was defined by experiences of tragic events or
unforeseen loss to the participants. This category and the fifth category, Being Let
Down By People I Depend On For Help, were the only two that did not demonstrate
a significant impact on the sense of self or identity formation of the participants.
The adverse experiences reported tended to describe a loss in the family or
other tragic event that affected the participants’ experience at PWIs. For example,
one participant reported:
Losing my sister in my junior year was really difficult.
I had to take a break for a semester and re-evaluate
life. I learned that I am strong enough to continue in
college and graduate this May. Now I do not take
anything for granted.
Another student reported:

57
I got into a car accident during my last semester as a
sophomore which prevented me from attending class
for about 3 weeks. Although my professors were
aware, I was still behind in my work, and I had to do a
lot to catch up. This caused me to graduate in the
summer instead of in the spring, which was
disappointing. I learned that sometimes things happen
beyond my control and I had to learn how to cope.
The adverse experiences were not just applicable to African American
students, but were relevant to any college student. The shared realities may have
supported the rank of the category in this study.
Coping With The New-Found Responsibility Of Independent Living. This
category closely maps with Chickering’s vector (3)—moving through autonomy
towards inter-dependence, of the seven vector theory conceptually discussed.
(Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Elements of this vector exist in responses by the
following participants; for example:
Being on my own; having to be alone; and to be
responsible without anyone telling me what to do.
Learning how to make my own decisions without
running to mom is what I learned.
Another reported example:
The biggest thing I went through my freshman year in
college was moving into a dorm. I thought I was ready
for the responsibility of moving out on my own, but I
guess I wasn’t because I got kicked out.
These experiences define the transition period of moving from the parent’s home to
independent living on the college campus. They also are important to the
psychosocial development of the college student during the identity formation
process. Furthermore, the study revealed, that the better prepared the students were

58
before coming to the college campus, the easier the transition was to their new
environment.
Being Let Down By People I Depend On For Help. This category was
comprised incidents in which participants were let down by individuals they trusted
to have followed through on an endeavor, or on whom they relied upon to support
them in a particular matter.
The low mean values for positive value of the experience (2.50) and for the
eventual effect on the participants’ sense of self (1.75) demonstrate that events of
this type did not provide a positive experience. Nor did it positively affect the
participants’ eventual sense of self. The only other category to demonstrate similar
statistics was the category, Encountering Unexpected Adversity.
Being Let Down By People I Depend On For Help. Elements of “being let
down” described in this category also appeared in the seven vector theory
(Chickering & Reisser’s, 1993). This category closely identifies with vector (4)—
developing mature interpersonal relationships. A reported example that supports this
assertion is as follows:
Trusting my roommate to take notes for me before our
final last semester. He didn’t go to class and I had to
work with someone else to learn the material. I
learned not to trust what everyone tells you and to do
things for myself. I will depend on myself in the
future.
Another reported example:
Letting my roommate borrow my car for the weekend
to go home. I thought, since it was only two hours

59
away and I was studying all weekend that it would be
okay. She wrecked my car, and I learned not to do this
again because she had no insurance. I don’t think I can
be as trusting in the future.
Having Drugs or Alcohol Related Experiences. This category was defined by
drug or alcohol related experiences; experiences which most often were influenced
by peer affiliations and/or interpersonal relationships, or by the participants’ learning
regulatory behaviors related to consumption of alcohol.
The participants’ experiences were not perceived as positive (M=2.75); yet,
they perceived their experiences as influential on their sense of self and identity
formation (M=6.50). Elements of this category can be found in Chickering’s vectors
(3) and (4) as stated in the literature review (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). A
reported example:
Trying to drink as much as my roommate my freshman
year. I got sick and could not go to class the next day.
I am not interested in drinking; I have not drank since.
I think this experience saved me from going down the
wrong path.
Another example:
My freshman year I went to visit my best friend at
college for the weekend. We were invited to a frat
party; we were really excited. When we got there we
noticed a lot of drinking and other things going on.
We wanted to fit in so we accepted drinks from some
guys (Huge Mistake)! We both woke up in a strange
apartment half dressed. We were both slipped the date
rape drug GHB. This changed both our lives and
outlook on people. I am now very cautious and alert
when I go out, and I NEVER take drinks from anyone.

60
Coping With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of One’s Own Race
and/or Culture Are Nearly Absent. The category was defined by incidents that
reported circumstances as being related to a lack of resources or essentials relevant to
African American students in those environments. Like the “drug or alcohol”
category, this was marked by a low rating of positivity, but a high rating of impact.
The participants did perceive their experiences as influential on their sense of
self and identity formation. Furthermore, elements of this category are supported in
the literature review.
The literature review supports the need for equitable
accommodations and practical representation of
cultural congruity on the college campus. The
examples reported demonstrate the lack of equity in
accommodations on the college campuses. One
reported example:
My freshman year I went to get my hair done and there
were no Black hair shops! I had to drive to Pittsburgh
just to get my hair done. I realized how much I take
for granted, and that I should have thought more before
coming to a rural area for school. Next time I will take
more into consideration before choosing to move
somewhere.
Another reported example:
After church on my first Sunday in Morgantown, we
noticed there were no soul food restaurants. It was
weird because we traditionally eat at a soul food
restaurant after church. Instead, we went to Shoney’s.
I guess for the first time we had to change the tradition
and eat somewhere else.
Learning From Interactions With People Whose Backgrounds Or
Characteristics Are Different From My Own. Incidents in this category concerned

61
the interactions with individuals of a different race, gender or cultural background.
The category was relevant to the differences of the African American culture and
other existing cultures on college campuses.
Students perceived incidents in this category as positive, and the participants
perceived the experiences as influential on their sense of self and identity formation.
The literature review also supports the founded outcomes. Ethnic minority children
were examined and were found to have a greater inter-dependent psychological
behavior pattern in psychosocial development (Greenfield & Cocking, 1994). They
found that interactions with students of diverse cultural differences could be a benefit
to the identity formation of the African American student. One reported example:
Living in Sunnyside and playing music with other
students from other places, I have learned how to make
friends through music. I learned how to communicate
and to partner with other cultures. I think this is
something positive for life, and I will always be able to
do this with others.
Another reported example:
A changing or positive experience was having the
opportunity to study overseas in different European
countries. This experience opened opportunities for
me to learn of other cultures and to travel. This
experience helped with my background for diversity
and cultural understanding.
Having An Experience That Helps To Identify A Career Possibility. Incidents
in this category affected participants’ career choice. This category was not domain
specific to African American college students and could be applied to any college
student.

62
This category was not anticipated through the research in the literature
review; however, it did correlate with vector (6) of Chickering & Reisser’s theory
vector (1993)—developing purpose. One example reported:
Interning at a law firm this past summer made me
realize I do not want to be a lawyer. I feel like they do
not have an enjoyable life. I noticed that the attorney I
interned for was always busy, and locked in the office
on weekends. I think I want to change my major, but I
am too close to graduation; I will not apply to law
school.
Another example reported:
My sophomore year, selling Mary Kay, I was the top
salesperson in this region. I was able to pay my rent
off for the whole year; I know now that I am good at
sales and business.
Experiencing Significant Academic Success. Incidents in this category
related to participants’ academic success. This category was not domain specific to
African American college students, and could be applied to any college student.
Students perceived incidents in this category as very positive (M=7), and that
they perceived the experiences as influential on their sense of self and identity
formation. The literature review supports these findings in both a general student
perspective, and specifically with the African American student population.
Research has demonstrated that the better a college student can navigate his
or her academic environment, the higher their retention rate (Austin, 1982;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Strange, 1993). Furthermore, this research supports
the fact that African American students report higher rates of academic success at
HBCUs, coupled with higher graduation rates, than at PWIs. One example reported:

63
I made the Dean’s List for the first time, my first
semester as a sophomore; I was really happy! This
motivated me to study more and to take my classes
more seriously. The thought of getting anything lower
than a 'B' is unacceptable now. I try hard to get good
grades now. I don’t always make the Dean’s list, but I
come real close.
Another example reported:
My sophomore year I made the Dean’s List for the first
time. From that point forward I knew what I was
capable of accomplishing. Now I will apply to
graduate school this year.
Having Positive Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or A
Fraternity. The category concerned incidents that relate to the participants’ being
affected by activities affiliated with a Sorority or a Fraternity. This category was not
domain specific to African American college students, and could be applied to any
college student.
Assimilating with African American mentors at college, combined with
cultural congruent contextual factors of a Sorority or a Fraternity environment,
assisted identity formation through the acculturation process. Students perceived
incidents in this category as positive, and they perceived the experiences as
influential on their sense of self and identity formation. One example reported:
Pledging my sorority freshman year has really helped
me to know who I am. It was difficult but I surprised
myself with my strength to still cross into my sorority
and keep my grades up. I now know some of my great
capabilities.
Another example reported:

64
Joining my fraternity the first semester has really
shown me how committed I am to success. Once I
crossed, I felt like a new and renewed person. I feel
like I am learning more about myself than I knew.
Having A Successful Mentorship. This category was founded by incidents
that related to the participants’ experience with a mentor(s). However, this category
was domain specific to African American students at this particular PWI, and many
of the participants commented about PassKey, a mentorship program that was
developed specifically for African American students attending this particular PWI.
The program’s objective was to increase retention of African American students, and
to aid in the transition process during their freshman year on the college campus.
The literature review supports the founded outcomes. This category had a relevant
effect on both the positive experiences, and affected the participants’ eventual sense
of self. One example reported was:
Participating in our Passkey course has helped me to
feel more secure here at campus. I feel closer to other
students that are also minorities here at the campus and
I feel support. The course has helped me to adjust to
the university. I will be able to grow with my
classmates and not feel like an outsider.
Another example reported:
My mentor for Passkey helped me out by letting me
know that I could do anything I wanted to do. Because
after my first semester of college made me feel that I
just couldn’t manage the next step for my life. So after
her motivating talk I was able to put myself up to
finishing my career and make something of myself.
Participation In Leadership Extracurricular Activities. This category related
to participants’ being affected by activities affiliated with leadership extracurricular

65
activities. This category was supported in the literature review as being highly
relevant to the academic success of African American college students.
The literature review discussed student involvement as a support for African
American college students. Research on this dynamic also concludes that
extracurricular and leadership activities have a positive impact on the college
student’s development (Terenzini, Pascarella, & Bliming, 1996). One example
reported:
Last year, working on the Get Out The Vote Campaign
helped me to realize that I do like politics. I also
realized that I stand for some issues and other issues I
do not. I am assured of my political views and how
our government is important.
Another example reported:
Serving on our entertainment committee for the
university really opened my eyes. We do not have any
culture performances for Blacks or the other
minorities. The surprising part was that it was not any
concern for the rest of the committee members.
Things like this make me more aware of what I stand
for!
Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In My Life. This
category was founded by incidents that related to participants receiving identity
development occurrences due to activities affiliated with positive support from
individuals who were important to the participants. This category was supported in
the literature review as being important to the identity development of African
American college students.

66
The literature review discussed positive support as an important element of
ethic identity formation and acculturation. Positive environmental support can assist
individuals to become closer to his or her ethnic identity through belongingness,
ethnic pride, and association (DeSousa & King; 1992; DeSousa & Kuh, 1996;
Littleton, 2002; Mitchell & Dell, 1992; Outcalt & Skewes-Cox, 2002; Sutton &
Kimbrough, 2001; Taylor & Howard Hamilton, 1995; Watson & Kuh, 1996).
This category had a relevant effect on both the positive experience and
impact of the participants’ sense of self. One example reported:
Meeting my roommates and having them as supporting
friends. They helped me to participate in events and
other organizations. I now feel like a part of the school
and this new place. I was worried coming here; now I
feel like I can be more myself here and more confident.
Another example reported:
When my parents brought me to campus for my first
semester they told me how proud they were of me.
They also said, what I am doing is really important to
the family. That experience let me know that I have
expectations that are important to my family and that I
need to step up while I am here at the university.

PERCEIVED EFFECT OF EXPERIENCES IN THE
NEAR AND LONG TERM FUTURE
Berry’s models for acculturation and Liebkin’s research in adaptation are
principal components of the transitional period for African American students at a
PWI (Berry, 1997; Liebkin, 2001). The factors are defined by the association and
adaptation to the new environment, culture and dominant group. Furthermore, how

67
the participants perceive the experiences in the transitional process as positive or
negative was a variable captured by the CYEQ in this study. The results of the
CYEQ can be found in Chapter 3, Tables 1 & 2, and the positive values ranged from
a low mean value of 2.25 to a high mean value of 7.00.
Six of the categories of experiences were positive with mean values above
5.00—Learning From Interactions With People Whose Backgrounds Or
Characteristics Are Different From My Own, Experiencing Significant Academic
Success, Having Positive Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or
Fraternity, Having A Successful Mentor, Participation In Leadership Extra
Curricular Activities, and Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In
My Life. Six categories were negative with mean values below 3.50—Being
Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination, Encountering Unexpected
Adversity, Coping With The New-Found Responsibility Of Independent Living,
Being Let Down By People I Depended On For Help, Having Drugs Or Alcohol
Related Experiences, and Coping With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of
My Own Race Or Culture Are Nearly Absent. Two of the fourteen categories were
neutral with mean values of 4.0—Experiencing A Financial Struggle and Having An
Experience That Helped to Identify A Career Possibility.
The six categories that were perceived as positive at the time they occurred
maintained a score in the positive or a higher score when the participants assessed
the eventual or long term effect on their sense of self. The two categories that were

68
perceived as neutral at the time they occurred both scored higher when the
participants assessed the eventual or long term effect on their sense of self.
Four of the six categories that were perceived as negative at the time they
occurred received significantly different positive scores when the participants
assessed the eventual or long term effect on their sense of self. One of the six
categories—Encountering Unexpected Adversities, was perceived as negative at the
time it occurred, and received a neutral score when the participants assessed the
eventual or long term effect on their sense of self. One of the six categories—Being
Let Down By People I Depended On For Help, was perceived as negative at the time
it occurred and also received a negative score when the participants assessed the
eventual or long term effect it had on their sense of self.
The variation in results with the incidents deemed negative as an experience
seemed to have consistent themes of explanation. In most of the negative incidents
reported, the African American students found a way to turn them into long term,
positive influences. Furthermore, the participants appeared to be motivated or
inspired not to let the negative experiences overcome them. The example that
follows further illustrates this assertion:
My experience as a sophomore in college in my
English 2 class was horrible. I never got the sense or
feeling that my English 2 teacher believed in me. She
always questioned the strength of my writing, but was
never helpful in supporting me to improve. I think this
experience helped me to believe in myself more, even
though my professor would not. I also changed majors
and pursued Journalism because I enjoyed reporting.

69
All of the incidents share one commonality—a perseverance and refusal by
the participants to let barriers on campus dictate their educational outcome. Many of
the participants were successful in overcoming their negative experiences, and most
appeared to have learned something from their experiences.
Conceptual Categories of Identity-Defining Experiences. For this study, the
number three research question defined for this study asked: What Conceptual
Categories Do African American Students Group The Identified Identity-Defining
Experiences From the CYEQ? The tools used to gather this information was Multi-
Dimensional Scaling and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. The tools were used to
obtain the information from the Paired Comparison Questionnaire implemented in
Phase II of the study.
Multi-Dimensional Scaling. Fourteen categories of experience were
positioned in a two-dimensional plane. Dimension 1 is “learning through autonomy
and living independently versus learning from interactions/acts of others.” This
dimension is defined by the transition to the college campus, and gathering
independent decision making skills. Dimension 2 is “being empowered by
mentorship versus overcoming acts of prejudice or discrimination”. Dimension 2 is
defined by challenges affiliated with gender, age, or income and these issues are not
tied solely to race. Additionally, dimension 2 is defined by acts of mentorship as
being supportive to the students in transition to the college campus.
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. The Hierarchical Cluster Analysis identifies
relevant regions or clusters of objects that clarify the fundamental data structure. For

70
this study the HCA conceptually organized the identity-defining experiences in the
life of the participants on the college campus.
Using Ward’s method displayed in Chapter 3, FIG. 1, the Dendrogram was
developed to analyze the cluster of objects that clarify the fundamental data
structure. Four clusters of categories were created and are presented with a
justification for each. The following further define the clusters and what they meant
in the study.
Being forced to define myself as an independent person” contains the three
categories of “prejudice,” “independence,” and “adversities”. Each of these
categories of experiences demonstrates incidents of how individuals can change their
attitude, values or behavior. Dealing with issues of discrimination, autonomy or
tragic adversities can affect an individual’s acclimation into a new campus
environment.
Furthermore, these experiences can influence how individuals closely
identify with his or her own ethnic identity, or how they disassociate from their
ethnic identity. The title “acculturation” as a “process” supports the underlying
meaning to all three categories in this section. Each of the three categories engages
in areas dealing with the adaptation and preservation of the individual in transiting to
the new environment.
“Being affected through interactions with others” comprises the categories:
Experiencing Significant Academic Success, Having Positive Experiences Related
To Having Joined A Sorority or Fraternity, and Having A Successful Mentor. These

71
categories cluster to form fundamental elements which support the ethnic identity
theory. As discussed in the literature review, researchers have examined student
unions, organizations, sororities and fraternities, and their affect on how African
Americans assimilate. The literature review elaborates on how the participants’
experiences at college campuses positively support cognitive and moral development
for African American students in the process of ethnic identity.
Additionally, further research supports the correlation between mentorship
and sororities and/or fraternities. Sororities and Fraternities can provide mentorship,
examples of leadership, and other needed elements to help the student transition to
the campus environment. If the experiences are positive and affiliated with the
individual’s ethnic identity it could influence a closer tie with the individual and his
or her own ethnic identity. The process could also increase positive attitude toward
the individual’s ethnic identity and support increased feelings of relevance towards
that individual’s ethnic group membership (Phinney, 1990, 1992; Phinney &
Alipard, 1990).
The outcomes of success in mentorship and positive sorority or fraternity
affiliation could be correlated to “academic success” (i.e., assisting the student in the
transitional process from the parents’ home to independently navigating the college
campus, and with increasing self-regulatory student behavior); thus, all great benefits
to the individual. When services and affiliations of this nature are provided by
individuals from the same ethnic background the progression of ethnic identity
begins to take place.

72
“Being affected through interaction with others” is defined by the experience
categories, Having An Experience That Helps To Identify A Career Possibility,
Experiencing Positive Support From Important People In My Life, Participation In
Leadership Extra Curricular Activities, and Learning From Interactions With People
Whose Backgrounds Or Characteristics Are Different From My Own. The third
cluster title is defined in cultural congruity research (Gloria and Robinson Kurpius,
1996). Cultural congruity is the match between the students’ personal values and the
values of the environment in which they function.
The college campus environment and values need match the students’ values.
If there is a connection between the two the student will feel positive support from
the environment, and may be influenced to participate in extra curricular activities.
When the match between the college environment and the students’ values take
place, student retention increases, leadership participation increase, and career
direction becomes more apparent. The student also learns to regulate his or her
desirable place in the workforce, and have a vision for ones’ self or desired self.
Therefore, with the categories included in this cluster, it is only appropriate that
cluster three remain titled “Elements of Culture Congruity and Student
Involvement.”
“Confirming Challenging Circumstances” is composed by the experience
categories of Having Drugs Or Alcohol Related Experiences, Being Let Down By
People I Depended On To Help, Experiencing A Financial Struggle, and Coping
With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own Race Or Culture Are

73
Absent. These categories form a map that list constructs of risk factors to a college
student. These risk factors could increase the likelihood of the student developing an
emotional or behavioral breakdown. These risk factors could also affect the student
retention rate on the college campus. Overcoming financial issues or low socio-
economic status can directly impede the student’s emotional state. Additionally,
drugs and alcohol were just as detrimental to both the student’s emotional state and
his or her functioning behavior.
The last question, What graphic representation in the form of a Concept Map
best describe the relationship among potential events affecting identity development
of African American Students? The superimposed clusters were found through
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis on the dimensional plane formed through Multi-
Dimensional Scaling, resulting in the Concept Map, which can be found in Chapter
3, Figure 2.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This section addresses three types of limitations of the study: participant
sampling, combining both male and female results, and the data result comparison
between a PWI and HBCU.
Participant Sampling. Participants were drawn from an institution and do not
represent the vast majority of African American students attending Predominantly
White Institutions nationally. The university was demographically 95% white in
student population; however, most of the African American students came from New

74
Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland and West Virginia. Students on other
campuses or who came from other regions might have very different experiences.
Combining both Male and Female Results. Another limitation to the study
was the combining of male and female respondent results. When the overall student
satisfaction with college was explored among African Americans, results indicate
that gender differences exist among male and female students (Brown, 2000). This is
not to imply that the same differences exist with identity formation; however, it is
important to delineate between males and females as there are different factors for
their successful college retention and matriculation.
Data result comparison between a PWI and HBCU. The last of the noted
limitations to the study is related to the first: experiences at a PWI likely differ from
those at an HBCU. The same study should be conducted at a HBCU to see if there
are actual differences in the data outcomes. Furthermore, the differences that exist
between the two entities will outlay more detailed information in regards to the
African American student identity formation and the development of their eventual
sense of self.

AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Two possible areas for future research surfaced from this study. They are:
(1) conducting the study simultaneously at a PWI in five different regions in the
United States —the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Northwest and Southwest; and
(2) conducting the study at both a PWI and a HBCU.

75
This study can be replicated in other locations.
To bring validity to the results of this descriptive study, it could serve as a
model to be tested in five regions of the United States. The categories from each
region could vary, or remain very similar. Furthermore, this will also test more than
one PWI and bring a variety of experiences from across the nation. How other
African American students at other PWI perceive their experiences, and the impact is
relevant to document. It is also important to note, that until tested elsewhere, the
results of this study describe the experiences of participants from only one
Predominantly White Institute, and are known to be applicable to only that particular
PWI.
The second area for future research includes examining the experiences from
African American students simultaneously at both a PWI and a HBCU. This method
would illuminate the differences between the two institutions in reference to their
unique environments and reported experiences. Would the same challenges exist at
both institutions? Is there a commonality with the identified experiences between
the two institutions?

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS AT
A PREDOMINANTLY WHITE INSTITUTION
The findings from the study demonstrate that there are a number of factors
related to areas of “diversity issues,” “financial aid,” and “student services”. These
areas were identified through the reported experiences of African American students

76
attending a PWI. Additionally, these areas were found in 56 percent of the reported
incidents. In this regard, it is noted that these experiences have great implications for
practitioners at a PWI.
Diversity Training and Implementation at the Campus. Three categories,
Being Confronted With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination, Coping With
Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own Race Or Culture Are Nearly
Absent, and Learning From Interactions With People Whose Background Or
Characteristics Are Different From My Own, were found in 27 of the Phase I
participant questionnaires, and listed as being important to the African American
college student’s identity development. Two of the categories, Being Confronted
With Acts Of Prejudice Or Discrimination and Coping With Environments In Which
Familiar Aspects Of My Own Race Or Culture Are Nearly Absent, were not
perceived as positive experiences. The Prejudice category had a positive mean value
of 2.25; Coping With Environments In Which Familiar Aspects Of My Own Race Or
Culture Are Nearly Absent had a positive mean value of 2.86; and one category,
Learning From Interactions With People Whose Backgrounds Or Characteristics Are
Different From My Own, was perceived as positive and had a positive mean value of
5.40.
The implication is that there is a need for diversity training among the
faculty. There were reported experiences of professors speaking negatively about
other cultures, which the participants understandably perceived as being negative.
Furthermore, participants reported: the campus did not have diversity in its

77
restaurants or in food selections; and the campus was also missing various other
additions which would assist in bringing cultural congruity.
The category Learning From Interactions With People Whose Backgrounds
Or Characteristics Are Different From My Own was perceived as positive
experiences,. and it also had a significant affect on the participants’ sense of self.
“Interactions” encompassed learning from other cultures or people with different
backgrounds. The positive outcome for this category also reinforces the need for
affirmative efforts in diversity training and implementation at PWIs.
The Financial Aid Process. The category Experiencing A Financial Struggle
was found in 15 of the Phase I participant questionnaires, and listed as being
important to African American college student identity development. This category
was perceived as neutral in the positive experience value, and had a positive mean
value of 4.00. However, this category had a 5.53 mean value on the eventual effect
on sense of self. The overall implication from this category was that these
experiences reflect a needed change in the financial aid process.
This issue was not just domain specific to PWIs, but in many instances the
participants indicated that it was the financial aid application itself that was a barrier.
Several of them expressed concern about the requirement to include background and
financial information regarding their parents, even though their parents were not
assisting them financially. This requirement, they felt, prevented them from
attaining appropriate financial assistance. As a result, not only did they receive
inadequate financial aid funding, but some of the participants had to work additional

78
jobs and pursue additional loans; thus, losing the benefit of sharing similar college
transitional college experiences as their peers.
The experiences from this category did, however, reinforce elevated levels of
persistence and integrity from the participants. Many of the participants stated they
now view the change in responsibility different, and that the eventual effect of this
experience was a positive one. They also gained stronger self regulatory behaviors
and financial control. However, if institutions of higher education are serious about
increasing retention of African American students, this area must be examined
further and given significant attention.
Student Services. The four categories of experience—Experiencing
Significant Academic Success, Having Positive Experiences Related To Having
Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity, Having A Successful Mentorship, and Participation
In Leadership Extra Curricular Activities, were found in 14 of the Phase I participant
questionnaires, and listed as being as important to African American college student
identity development. Four categories—Experiencing Significant Academic
Success, Having Positive Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or
Fraternity, Having A Successful Mentorship , and Participation In Leadership Extra
Curricular Activities, were perceived as positive experiences. Experiencing
Significant Academic Success had a positive mean value of 7.00. Having Positive
Experiences Related To Having Joined A Sorority Or Fraternity had a positive mean
value of 5.80. Having A Successful Mentorship had a positive mean value of 7.00.

79
Participation In Leadership Extra Curricular Activities had a positive mean value of
6.15.
The implication from all of these categories of experiences is that a
department of student services plays an integral role in the acclimation, transition
and retention of African American students attending Predominantly White
Institutions, and a “sense of belonging” is important to all students. Consequently,
formulating student service departments that provide balanced, equitable supportive
services and extra curricular activities was identified as being important to all of the
participants who reported experiences. Additionally, although Historically Black
Colleges or Universities have a higher African American student retention and
matriculation rate, Predominantly White Institutions can approach similar success
levels by examining the reported experiences of their minority student population,
and by making assertive efforts to implement cultural congruity through equitable
student services

80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, W. R. (1992), The Color of Success: African American College Student
Outcomes at Predominantly White and Historically Black Public Colleges and
Universities, Harvard Edu. Review, 62, pp. 26-44.

Allen, W.R.; Epps, E. G. & Haniff, N.Z. Eds., (1991), College In Black and White:
African American Students In Predominantly White and historically Black Public
Universities, Albany State Univ. of New York Press.

Arminio, J. L.; Carter, S.; Jones, S. E.; Kruger, K.; Lucas, N.; Washington, J.;
Young, N.; Scott, A. (2000), Leadership Experiences of Students of Color, NASPA
Journal, 37(3), pp. 496-510.

Astin, A. A. (1982), Minorities In American Higher Education, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco, CA.

Astin, A. W. (1984), Student Involvement: A Developmental Theory for Higher
Education, Journal of College Student Personnel, 25 pp. 297-308.

Astin, A. W. (1993), What Matters in College? Four Critical Years Revisited,
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Bandura, A.; Peluso, E. A.; Ortman, N.; Millard, M. (2000), Effects of Peer
Education Training on Peer Educators: Leadership, Self-Esteem, Health,
Knowledge and Health Behaviors, Journal of College Student Development, 41, pp.
471-478.

Bedi, R., & Alexander, D. (2004), Using Multi-Variate Concept-Mapping for
Assessing Client Understandings of Counseling and Psychotherapy, Third Conry
Conf. On Measurement, Evaluation and Research Methodology, Vancouver, BC,
Canada.

Bernal, S.; Knight, G.; Garza, C.; Ocampo, K. Cota, M. (1990), The Development of
Ethnic Identity in Mexican-American Children, Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 12; pp. 3-24.

Berry, J. (1990), Psychology of Acculturation, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation,
In J. Berman (Ed.), University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, Vol. 37, pp. 201-234.

Berry, J. (1997), Immigration, Acculturation and Adaption, Applied Psychology: An
Intn’l. Review, 46; pp. 5-68.

81
Boykin, A. W. & Toms, E (1985), Black Child Socialization: A Conceptual
Framework; Black Children: Social, Education and Parental Environments, In H.
McAdoo & J. McAdoo (Eds.), pp. 32-51, Newbury Park, CA

Brown, T. L. (2000), Gender Differences in African American Student’s Satisfaction
With College, Journal of College Students Development, 41(5); pp. 479-487.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas; 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Cabrera, A. F., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., Pascarella, E. T., & Hagedorn, L. S.
(1999), Campus Racial Climate and the Adjustment of Students to College: A
Comparison Between White Students and African American Students, Journal of
Higher Edu., 70(2); pp. 134-202.

Cardinal, J. L. (1981), The Influence of Some Social Network Characteristics on
Persisting and Non-Persisting Transfer Students from Nine Urban Community
Colleges to UCLA, Dissertation Abstracts Intn’l, 42; pp. 1543A-I 454A.

Chickering, A. W. (1969), Education and Identity, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Chickering, A. W., & Reisser, L. (1993), Education and Identity, (2nd Ed.), Jossey-
Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Clarke, D., & Tomlinson-Clarke, S. (1994), Predicting Social Adjustment and
Academic Achievement for College Women With and Without Pre-college
Leadership, Journal of College Student Development, 35’ pp. 120-124.

Collier, M., & Thomas, M. (1990), Cultural Identity: An Interpretive Perspective, In
Y. Y. Kim & Gudykunst, W.B. (Eds.) Intn’l. and Intercultural Communications
Annual, Vol. XII; Theories in intercultural communications; (pp. 99-120). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.

Cross, W. (1991), Shades of Black: Diversity in African American Identity, Temple
University Press, Philadelphia, PA.

Creswell, J. (2003), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods
Approaches, Sage Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA.

Culbert, A. (1988), Early Acceptance and Institutional Linkages in Model Program
of Recruitment, Retention, and Timely Graduation from Medical School, In C.A.
Ford & M. Lang (Eds.); Black Student Retention. Chicago: Charles C Thomas,
Publisher. (pp. 13-22).

82
D’Augelli, A., & Hershberger, S. (1993), African American Undergraduates on a
Predominantly White Campus: Academic Factors, Social Networks, and Campus
Climate, Journal of Negro Education, 62; pp. 67-81.

Delgado, L. V. (1998), Culture Shock: Preparing Students of Color for
Predominantly White University Campuses; Unpublished Manuscript, Colorado
State University at Fort Collins, CO.

Delvin, A.S. (1996), Survival Skills Training During Freshman Orientation: Its Role
in College Adjustment, Journal of College Student Development, 37; pp. 324-334.

DeSousa, J. D., & King, P. M. (1992), Are White Students Really More Involved in
Collegiate Experiences than Black Students? Journal of College Student
Development, 33; pp. 363-369.

DeSousa, D. J. & Kuh, G. (1996), Does Institutional Racial Composition Make a
Difference in What Black Students Gain from College? Journal of College
Development, 37(3); pp. 257-267.

Easley, N. (1993), Black Student Retention at Colorado State University,
Unpublished Manuscript, Colorado State University at Fort Collins, CO.

Erikson, E. (1968), Identity, Youth and Crisis, Norton Press, New York, NY.

Evans, N.J., Forney, D.S., & Guido-Dibrito, F. (1998), Student Development in
College: Theory, Research and Practice, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco,
CA.

Feagin, J. R., Vera, H., & Imani, N. (1996), The Agony of Education of Education:
Black Students at White Colleges and Universities. Routledge, NY.

Ferdman, B. M., & Horenczyk, G. (2000), Cultural Identity and Immigration:
Reconstructing the Group During Cultural Transition; In E. Olshtain & G.Horenczk
(Eds.); Language, Identity and Immigration, Jerusalem: Magnes, pp. 81-100.

Flanagan, J. C. (1954), The Critical Incident Technique, Psychological Bulletin,
5(4); pp. 327-358.

Fleming, J. (1983), Black Women in Black and White College Environments: The
Making of a Matriarch, Journal of Social Issues, 39; pp. 41-54.

Fleming, J. (1984), Blacks in College, Jossey Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA.

83
Flowers, L. (2002), The Impact of College Racial Composition on African American
Students’ Academic and Social Gains: Additional Evidence, Journal of College
Student Development, 43(3); pp. 403-410.

Gloria, A. M., & Robinson Kuripius, S.E. (1996), The Validation of the Cultural
Congruity Scale and the University Environment Scale with Chicano/A Students,
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 18; pp. 533-550.

Gloria, A. M. & Robinson Kurpius, S. D. (2001), Influences of Self-Beliefs, Social
Support and Comfort in the University Environment on the Academic Non-
persistence Decisions of American Indian Undergraduates, Cultural Diversity and
Ethnic Minority Psychology,7; pp. 88-102.

Gloria, A. M., Robinson Kurpius, S. E., Hamilton, K.D., & Wilson, M.S. (1999),
African American Students’ Persistence at Predominantly White University
Influences of Social Support, University Comfort and Self-Beliefs, Journal of College
Student Development, 40; pp. 257-268.

Greenfield, P., & Cocking, R. (1994), Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child
Development, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N J.

Griffin, O. T. (1991), Strategies for Black Student Retention: A Conceptual Review,
Western Journal of Black Studies, 15; pp. 235-241.

Harper, S.R. (2004), The Measure of a Man: Conceptualizations of Masculinity
Among High-Achieving African American Male College Students, Berkeley Journal
of Sociology, 48 (1); pp. 89-107.

Helms, J. (1990), Black and White Racial Identity: Theoretical, Research and
Practice, Greenwood, New York, NY.

Hood, D. W. (1992), Academic and Non-Cognitive Factors Affecting the Relation of
Black Men at a Predominantly White University, Journal of Negro Education, 61;
pp. 2-23.

Hunt, P. F., Schmidt, J. A., Hunt, S. M., Boyd, V. S., & Magoon, T. M. (1994); The
Value of the Undergraduate Experience to African American Students, Journal of
College Student Development, 35; pp. 282-288.

Jackson, K. and Trochim, W. (2002), Concept Mapping as an Alternative Approach
for the Analysis of Open-Ended Survey Responses, Organizational Research
Methods, Vol. 5, No. 4; pp. 307-336.

84
Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., & Liebkind, K. (1999), Exploration of the Ethnic Identity of
Russian Speaking Immigrant Adolescents in Finland, Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 30; pp. 527-539.

Jones, J. (1988), Racism in Black and White: A Bicultural Model of Reaction and
Evolution; In E. Katz & D. Taylor (Eds.); Eliminating Racism Profiles in
Controversy (pp. 137-157). New York: Plenum Press. (Corrected)

Jones. J. (1991), Psychological Models of Race: What Have They Been and What
Should They Be? In J. Goodchilds (Ed.); Psychological Perspectives on Human
Diversity in America, American Psychological Assn., Washington, DC; pp. 3-46.

Kemp, A. D. (1990), From Matriculation to Graduation: Focusing Beyond Minority
Retention, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 18; pp. 144-149.

Kim, M. M. (2002), Historically Black vs. White Institutions: Academic
Development Among Black Students, The Review of Higher Edu. 25(4); pp. 385-407.

Kimbrough, R. M., Moloch, S.D., & Walton, K. (1996), Perception of Social
Support, Acculturation, Depression and Suicidal Ideation Among African American
College Students at Predominantly Black and Predominantly White Universities,
Journal of Negro Education, 65; pp. 295-307.

Knight, G., Bernal, M., Garza, C., Cota, M., & Ocampo, K. (1993), Family
Socialization and the Ethnic Identity of Mexican-American Children, Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24; pp. 99-114.

Kobrak, P. (1992), Black Student Retention in Predominantly White Regional
Universities: The Politics of Faculty Involvement, Journal of Negro Education,
61(4); pp. 509-530.

Kruskal, J.B., & Wish M. (1978), Multi-Dimensional Scaling, Sage, Newbury Park,
CA.

Kuh, G. D. (1996), Assessing Campus Environments, In M. J. Barr & Associates
(Eds.); Nat’l Assn. Of Student Personnel Administration, Handbook of Student
Affairs Administration, Washington, DC; pp. 30-48.

LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H., & Gerton, J. (1993), Psychological Impact of
Biculturalism: Evidence and Theory, .Psychological Bulletin, 114; pp. 395-412.

Lang, M., & Ford, C.A. (1992), Strategies for Retaining Minority Students in Higher
Education, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

85
Leslie, L. L. & Brinkman, P. (1988), The Economic Value of Higher Education,
Macmillan Publishing Company, NY.

Liebkind, K. (1996), Acculturation and Stress: Vietnamese Refuges in Finland,
Finland Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 27(2); pp. 161-180.

Liebkind, K. (2001), Acculturation; In R. Brown & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell
Handbook of Social Psychology: Inter-Group Processes, Oxford, UK; pp. 386-406.

Liebkind, K., & Jasinskaja-Lahti, I. (2000), Acculturation and Psychological Well-
Being of Immigrant Adolescents in Finland: A Comparative Study of Adolescents
from Different Cultural Backgrounds, .Journal of Adolescent Research, 15 (4);
pp. 446-469.

Littleton, R. A. (2002), Campus Involvement Among African American Students at
Small Predominantly White Colleges, College Student Affairs Journal, 21(2); pp. 53-
67.

MacKay, K. A., & Kuh, G. D. (1994), A Comparison of Student Effort and
Educational Gains of Caucasian and African American Students at Predominantly
White Colleges and Universities, Journal of College Student Development, 35;
pp. 217-223.

Makabe, T. (1979), Ethnic Identity Scale and Social Mobility: The Case of Nisei in
Toronto, The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 16; pp. 136-145.

Mandrazo-Peterson, R., & Rodriguez, M. (1978), Minority Students’ Perceptions of
a University Environment, Journal of College Student Development, 29; pp. 60-64.

Mallinckrodt, B. E. (1988), Student Retention, Social Support and Dropout
Intention: Comparison of Black and White Students, Journal of College Student
Development, 29; pp. 60-64.

Marcia, J. (1966), Development and Validation of Ego-Identity Status, Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 3; pp. 551-559.

Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991), Culture and the Self-Implications for Cognition,
Emotion and Motivation, Psychological Review, 98; pp. 224-253. .

Merriam, Sharan, & Simpson, Edwin (2000), A Guide to Research for Educators and
Trainers of Adults, Krieger Publishing, Malabar, FL.

86
Milem, J. ft, & Berger, J. B. (1997), A Modified Model of College Student
Persistence: Exploring the Relationship Between Astin’s Theory of Involvement and
Tinto’s Theory of Student Departure, Journal of College Student Development, 38;
pp. 387-400.

Mitchell, S. L., & Dell, D. M. (1992), The Relationship Between Black Students’
Racial Identity, Attitude and Participation in Campus Organizations, Journal of
College Student Development, 33; pp. 39-43. (Corrected)

Moore, J., Lovell, C.D., McGann, T., & Wyrick, J. (1998), Why Involvement
Matters: A Review of Research on Student Involvement in the Collegiate Setting,
College Student Affairs Journal, 17(2); pp. 44-17.

Nagasawa, R. & Wong, P. (1999), A Theory of Minority Students’ Survival in
College, Sociological Inquiry, 69(1); 76-90.

National Center for Education Statistics, (1998), U.S. Dept. of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics; U.S. Govt. Printing
Office, Washington, DC.

National Center for Education Statistics, (2003; 2005), U.S. Dept. of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics; Status and Trends in the Education of
Blacks, Institute of Education, Washington, DC.

Nesdale, D., Rooney, R., & Smith, L. (1997), Migrant Ethnic Identity and
Psychological Distress, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28; pp. 569-588.

Nettles, M. T., Thoeny, A.R., & Gosman, E.J. (1986), Comparative and Predictive
Analysis of Black and White Students’ College Achievement and Experiences,
Journal of Higher Education, 57; pp. 289-318.

Nguyen, H., Messe, L., & Stollak, G. (1999), Toward a More Complex
Understanding of Acculturation and Adjustment: Cultural Involvements and
Psychosocial Functioning in Vietnamese Youth, Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 30; pp. 5-31.

O’Brien, E. M. & Zudak, C. (1998), Minority-Serving Institutions: An Overview,
New Directions for Higher Education, 102; pp. 5-15.

Orfield, G. (1997), Deepening Segregation in American Public Schools, Harvard
Graduate School of Education, Civil Rights Project, Cambridge, MA.

87
Outcalt, C. L., & Skewes-Cox, T. E. (2002), Involvement, Interaction and
Satisfaction, The Human Environment at Historically Black Colleges or Universities;
The Review of Higher Education, 25; pp. 331-347.

Padillia, R. V., Trevino, J., Gonzalez, K., & Trevino, J. (1997), Developing Local
Models of Minority Student Success in College, Journal of College Student
Development, 38; pp. 125-135.

Parham, T. (1989), Cycles of Pyschological Nigrescence,.Cycles of psychological
Nigrescence, The Counseling Psychologist, 17; pp. 187-226.

Pascarella, E.T., Smart, J., Ethington, C., & Nettles, M. (1987), The Influence of
College on Self-Concept: A Consideration of Race and Gender Differences,
American Edu. Rsch. Journal, 24; pp. 49-77.

Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P.T. (1991), How College Affects Students, Jossey-
Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA.

Paul, E. L., & Kelleher, M. (1995), Pre-College Concerns about Losing and Making
Friends in College: Implications for Friendship, Satisfaction and Self-Esteem
During the College Transition, Journal of College Student Development, 36;
pp. 513-521.

Pavel, D., Sanchez, T., & Machamer, A. (1994), Ethnic Fraud, Native Peoples and
Higher Education, Thought and Action,10; pp. 91-100. (Corrected)

Phinney, J. (1989), Stages of Ethnic Identity in Minority Group Adolescents, Journal
of Early Adolescence, 9; pp. 34-39.

Phinney, J. (1990), The Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure: A New Scale for Use
with Adolescents and Adults from Diverse Groups; manuscript submitted for
publication.

Phinney, J. (1992), The Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure: A New Scale for Use
with Diverse Groups, Journal of Adolescent Research, 7; pp. 156-176.

Phinney, J. (1993), A Three-Stage Model of Ethnic Identity Development, In M.
Bernal & G. Knight (Eds.); Ethnic Identity: Formation and Transmission Among
Hispanics and Other Minorities, State Univ. of New York Press; pp. 61-79, Albany,
NY.

Phinney, J., & Alipuria, L. (1990), Ethnic Identity in Older Adolescents From Four
Ethnig Groups, Journal of Adolescence Groups, 13.

88
Phinney, J., Cantu, C., & Kurtz, D. (1997), Ethnic and American Identity as
Predictors of Self-Esteem Among African American, Latino, and White Adolescents,
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26; pp. 165-185.

Phinney, J., & Kohatsu, E. (1997), Ethnic and Racial Identity Development and
Mental Health; In J. Schulenberg, J. Maggs, & K. Hurrelman (Eds.); Health Risks
and Developmental Transitions in Adolescence, Cambridge Univ. Press, NY,
pp. 420-443.

Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

Reid, P. (1994), Gender and Class Identifies: African Americans in Context Paper,
presented at the American Psychological Assn.’s Annual Convention, Los Angeles,
CA

Rosenthal, D., & Hrynevich, C. (1985), Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity: A
Comparative Study of Greek, Italian and Anglo-Australian Adolescents, Intn’l.
Journal of Psychology, 20; pp. 723-742.

Saddlemire, J. R. (1996), Qualitative Study of White Second Semester
Undergraduates’ Attitudes Toward African American Undergraduates at a
Predominantly White University, Journal of College Student Development, 37 (6);
pp. 684-691.

Sayegh, L., & Lasry, J.C. (1993), Immigrants’ Adaptation in Canada: Assimilation,
Acculturation and Orthogonal Identification, Canadian Psychology, 34(1); 98-109.

Schwitzer, A. M., Griffin, O.T., Ancis, J.R., & Thomas, C. R. (1999), Social
Adjustment Experiences of African American College Students, Journal of
Counseling and Development, 77; pp. 189-197.

Sedlacek, W. (1987), Black Students on White Campuses: 20 Years of Research,
Journal of College Student Personnel, 28; pp. 484-450.

Sedlacek, W. E. (1999), Black Students on White Campuses: Twenty Years of
Research, Journal of College Student Development, 40(5); pp. 538-550.

Stewart, G., Russell, R. B., & Wright, D. B. (1997), The Comprehensive Role of
Student Affairs in African American Student Retention, Journal of College
Admission, 154; pp. 6 -11.

89
Strange, C. C. (1993), Dynamics of Campus Environments, In S. R. Komives, D. B.
Woodard, Jr.& Associates (Eds.); Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession
(3rd Ed.); Jossey-Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA, pp. 244-268.

Suen, H. K. (1983), Alienation and Attrition of Black College Students on a
Predominantly White Campus, Journal of College Student Personnel, pp. 117-121.

Sutton, E. M., & Kimbrough, W. M. (2001), Trends in Black Student Involvement,
NASPA Journal, 39; pp. 30-40. (Correct)

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986), The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior,
In. S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.); Psychology of Inter-Group Relations, (2nd Ed.);
Nelson-Hall, Chicago, IL; pp. 7-24.

Taylor, C. A. (1989), Effective Ways To Recruit and Retain Minority Students, Praxis
Publications, Inc., Madison, WI.

Taylor, C. M., & Howard-Hamilton, M.F. (1995), Student Involvement and Racial
Identity Attitudes Among African-American Males, Journal of College Student
Development, 36; pp. 330-336.

Taylor, E. & Olswang, S.J. (1997), Crossing the Color Line: African American
Students at Predominantly White Universities, College Student Journal (31); pp. 11-
18.

Terenzini, P.T., Pascarella, E. T. & Bliming, G. S. (1996), Students Out of Class
Experiences and Their Influence on Learning and Cognitive Development: A
Literature Review, Journal of College Student Development, 37; pp. 149-162.

Thompson, C. E. & Fretz, B. R. (1991), Predicting the Adjustment of Black Students
at Predominantly White Institutions, Journal of Higher Edu., 62(4); pp. 437-450.

Thornton, M., Chatters, L., Taylor, R., & Allen, W. (1990), Socio-Demographic and
Environmental Correlates of Racial Socialization by Black Parents, Child
Development, 61; pp. 401-409.

Tracey, T., Lichtenberg, W. J., Goodyear, R., Claiborn, C., & Wampold, B. (2003),
Concept Mapping of Therapeutic Common Factors, Psychotherapy Research, 13(4);
pp. 401-413.

Triandis, H. (1990), Cross-Cultural Studies of Individualism and Collectivism, In J.
Berman (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium of Motivation, Vol. 37; Cross-Cultural
Perspectives, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE; pp. 41-133.

90
Turner, J., Oakes, P., Haslam, S, A., & McGarty, C. (1994), Self and Collective
Cognition and Social Context, Personality and Social Psychology, Bulletin 20;
pp. 454-463.

Ullah, P. (1985), Second Generation Irish Youth: Identity and Ethnicity, New
Community,12; pp. 310-320.

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC; (2004); URL: http://factfinder.census.gov.

Watson, L. W., & Kuh, G. D. (1996), The Influence of Dominant Race Environments
on Student Involvement: The Influence of Dominant Race Environments on Student
Involvement, Perceptions and Educational Gains: A Look at Historically Black and
Predominantly White Liberal Arts Institutions, Journal of College Student
Development, 37; pp. 415-4224.

White, C., & Burke, P. (1987), Ethnic Role Identity Among Black and White College
Students: An Interactionist Approach, Sociological Perspectives, 30; pp. 310-331.

White, L., & Parham, T. (1990), Psychology of Blacks: An African American
Perspective, Prentice-Hall Press, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Whitt, E. J., Edison, M. I., Pascarella, E. T., Nora, A., & Terenzini, P. T. (1999),
Women’s Perceptions of a “Chilly Climate” and Cognitive Outcomes in College:
Additional Evidence, Journal of College Student Development, 40; pp. 163-177.

Widick, C., Parker, C. A., & Knefelkamp, L. L. (1978), Arthur Chickering’s Vectors
Development, In U. Delworth, G. R. Hanson; (Eds. in Chief) & L. Knefelkamp, C.
Widick, & C.A. Parker (Guest Eds.), New Directions for Student Services, Vol. 4:
Applying New Development Findings. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Wilkinson, D., & King, G. (1987), Conceptual and Methodological Issues in the Use
of Race as a Variable: Policy Implications, The Milbank Quarterly, Vol. 65;
pp. 56-71.

Williams, E. (1994), The “Raisin-In-Milk” Syndrome: Ten Survival Tips for Black
Students at Predominantly White Colleges and Universities, Complex Associates,
Inc., Washington, DC.

Yee, A., Fairchild, H., Weizmann, E. & Wyatt, G. (1993), Addressing Psychology’s
Problems with Race, American Psychologist, 48; pp. 1132-1140.

Zuckerman, M. (1990), Some Dubious Premises in Research and Theory on Racial
Differences, American Psychologist, 45; 927 (Sep. 1996); pp. 1297-1303.

91
APPENDIX A
COLLEGE YEARS EXPERIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE
Developing a sense of who we are occurs across time and in many situations. But
college often is unique in the ways it can affect that sense of self. Moreover, there
often are particular incidents or experiences that stand out as having been
particularly influential.

Think back over your experience as a college student and identify one incident or
experience that had particular influence on your sense of who you are. This could
have been either positive or negative.

Please describe that incident or experience in a few sentences. Be sure to indicate:

(a) What that incident or experience was,
(b) If another person or persons were involved in this incident or
experience, describe them and their relationship to you, and
(c) What do you think was important about this experience or incident,
and why?
(d) What you believe the long-term effect to have been on your sense of
who you are?

At what point in your college experience did this incident or experience occur
(please check one)?

Freshman year
___
Junior year
___
Other (please specify)
_______________________
Sophomore year
___
Senior year
___

92
Please respond to the questions below by circling the number that best represents
your answer.

Very Negative

Very Positive
Degree to which you experienced this incident or
experience as positive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The eventual effect this incident or experience had on
your sense of yourself
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Demographic Information

Age: _________________________________
Gender: ______________________________
Ethnicity: _____________________________
! Asian/Pacific Islander ! Black/African American
! Hispanic/Latino ! Whit/European American
! Other ____________________________________________________

Standing in School: ! Freshman ! Sophomore ! Junior ! Senior
How long ago did this incident occur? ___________ years; or ________ months
(number of) (number of)

93
APPENDIX B
EXAMPLE OF PAIRED COMPARISON QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions: Each of the 15 items below pairs two possible sources of change in counseling or
therapy. Please indicate the degree to which you perceived each pair to be similar, using a 5-point
scale where 1 = very dissimilar and 5 = very similar.

1 Client is persuaded to change Client experiences tension reduction 1 2 3 4 5
2 Client is persuaded to change
Client is a partner in the therapeutic
interaction
1 2 3 4 5
3 Client is persuaded to change
Client's emotional and interpersonal
learning is enhanced
1 2 3 4 5
4 Client is persuaded to change
Client's insight and awareness are
fostered
1 2 3 4 5
5 Client is persuaded to change
Client receives feedback in order to
gain a more realistic perspective
1 2 3 4 5
6
Client experiences tension
reduction
Client is a partner in the therapeutic
interaction
1 2 3 4 5
7
Client experiences tension
reduction
Client's emotional and interpersonal
learning is enhanced
1 2 3 4 5
8
Client experiences tension
reduction
Client's insight and awareness are
fostered
1 2 3 4 5
9
Client experiences tension
reduction
Client receives feedback in order to
gain a more realistic perspective
1 2 3 4 5
10
Client is a partner in the
therapeutic interaction
Client's emotional and interpersonal
learning is enhanced
1 2 3 4 5
11
Client is a partner in the
therapeutic interaction
Client's insight and awareness are
fostered
1 2 3 4 5
12
Client is a partner in the
therapeutic interaction
Client receives feedback in order to
gain a more realistic perspective
1 2 3 4 5
13
Client's emotional and
interpersonal learning is
enhanced
Client's insight and awareness are
fostered
1 2 3 4 5
14
Client's emotional and
interpersonal learning is
enhanced
Client receives feedback in order to
gain a more realistic perspective
1 2 3 4 5
15
Client's insight and awareness
are fostered
Client receives feedback in order to
gain a more realistic perspective
1 2 3 4 5

94
This is an example of what a Paired Comparison Questionnaire would look
like using some of the common factors used by Tracey et al. (2003). In this case, it
involves six issues, each of which was paired with each of the others, for a total of 15
comparisons. The actual number of comparisons can be anticipated by the formula:
N(N-1)/2. Therefore, for example, a questionnaire in which 10 items are the focus
would have 45 items:

95
APPENDIX C
RANDOM PAIRED THEME PLACEMENT CHART

Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
Theme 4
Theme 5
Theme 6
Theme 7
Theme 8
Theme 9
Theme 10
Theme 11
Theme 12
Theme 1 0 4 10 21 29 6 23 49 54 60 7 17
Theme 2 0 27 11 3 55 16 19 51 9 37 65
Theme 3 0 22 30 12 63 43 26 46 13 32
Theme 4 0 39 15 45 35 25 66 42 40
Theme 5 0 58 50 56 18 33 57 44
Theme 6 0 59 24 48 8 52 53
Theme 7 0 41 64 61 2 14
Theme 8 0 36 62 20 5
Theme 9 0 1 28 31
Theme 10 0 38 34
Theme 11 0 47
Theme 12 0

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In a two-phase, mixed methods study 100 African American undergraduates completed a critical incident form, describing experiences they perceived to have been most influential on their sense of self. Three raters assigned these incidents to 14 categories. Fifteen of the original participants then rated the degree of similarity of each possible between -- category comparison. Those similarity data then were analyzed using Multi-Dimensional Scaling (constraining the results to two dimensions) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. The later resulted in a four cluster solution. The results of the two analyses were overlaid in a graphic representation of how African American undergraduates conceptually organize their understanding of the impact of college on their identity development.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Discovering the sources of impact of college on LGBTQ students' identity development and mapping those experiences

PDF

Concept mapping of the sources of perceived impact on community college students' identity development: a students' perspective

PDF

The sources of impact in college on gay male student identity: the current student perspective

PDF

Concept mapping and describing the sources of impact on Black gay college student identity development at 4-year institutions

PDF

More than one barrier to break: mapping the impact of college on identity in Latina undergraduates

PDF

From their perspective: discovering the sources of impact on older women undergraduates' identity development and mapping those experiences

PDF

The sources of impact on first-generation Latino college students' identity development: from the students' perspective

PDF

Student perspectives on identity development: describing the experiences sorority members perceive influenced their identity

PDF

What is the impact of same-race alumni mentoring on the career development of African American students attending predominantly White Universities?

PDF

Undergraduate single mothers' perception of the impacts of college on their cognitive and psychosocial development

PDF

First-generation Armenian American community college students' perception of events affecting their identity development

PDF

The influences of student organizational type on the leadership development of African American students at predominantly white institutions: a case study

PDF

Correspondence between level of racial identity of African-American therapists and of a vignette-depicted African-American client and assessed client problem severity

PDF

Attaining success: how African American college students persist, engage and graduate from a moderately selective institution: a case study

PDF

The impact of learning communities on the retention and academic integration of African American students at a highly selective four-year private institution

PDF

Student engagement experiences of African American males at a California community college

PDF

How religious engagement shapes the college experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White institution: a phenomenlogical approach

PDF

The impact of learning communities on the retention and social integration of African American students at a highly selective private four-year institution

PDF

The impact of remedial mathematics on the success of African American and Latino male community college students

PDF

The effects of culturally responsive standards based instruction on African American student achievement

Asset Metadata

Creator Irving, Merrill L., Jr. (author)

Core Title Describing and mapping the sources of college impact on the identity development of African American college students attending a predominantly white institution

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Publication Date 10/12/2007

Defense Date 07/25/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American students,mapping experiences,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Goodyear, Rodney K. (committee chair), Brown, Richard Sherdon (committee member), Junge, Linda (committee member)

Creator Email merrill_i@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m836

Unique identifier UC1478839

Identifier etd-Irving-20071012 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-556765 (legacy record id),usctheses-m836 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Irving-20071012.pdf

Dmrecord 556765

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Irving, Merrill L., Jr.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu