University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The college selection process of high-achieving Latino students

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The college selection process of high-achieving Latino students

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Content THE COLLEGE SELECTION PROCESS OF
HIGH-ACHIEVING LATINO STUDENTS

by
Juan Mendoza-Romero

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2009

Copyright 2009 Juan Mendoza-Romero

ii

DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to my daughter Inés X. Mendoza-Pérez. All of
those late night classes and weekends of staying home to complete assignments
was with the intention of providing you a lifestyle in which you would see the
importance of an education and the many opportunities that it offers.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Undertaking a doctoral degree and completing a dissertation is a
capstone in the educational journey of an individual. Along this journey I had
the support of my family as well as the privilege and good fortune to have met
many excellent educators who have been my personal role models. I would like
to take this opportunity to recognize some of these individuals.
First and foremost I would like to thank my parents Juan and Esperanza
Mendoza. Unfortunately my father did not live long enough to see the day that
one of his sons would graduate with a doctorate degree, but his inspirational
anecdotes about his informal education are constant reminders of the importance
of obtaining an education. Raised as a child in an area of Michoacán, México
where there were no schools my father would tell stories about his desire to
attend school to learn how to read and write. The lack of schools and the limited
educational opportunities for poor people as well as the need of males to earn
money regardless of age made formal education for him impossible. He once
told me on one of my trips home from UC Santa Barbara, where I was an
undergraduate, that when he was about seven years old he wanted to learn how
to write his name so he saved money for several months to buy an
“Abecedario”, a small book for kids to learn the alphabet. He also wanted to buy
a pencil and notebook but could not afford them. He then asked an aunt who

iv
knew how to read and write to spell his name on a torn piece of paper. He would
then sharpen a wooden ice cream stick and practice writing his name on cactus
leafs (nopales) until he no longer needed that piece of paper. Although he never
attended school he knew the importance of an education and encouraged his five
children to pursue an education so they would not end up working in the
agricultural fields like him.
In high school I was not a very good student but there was a teacher who
encouraged me to think about attending college and invited me to go on college
trips with his Migrant Education group. Mr. Trujillo was the only teacher who
believed that I could succeed in college.
At Hartnell College in Salinas, California I was fortunate to have met
EOP counselor Manuel Bersamin and Dr. Francisco F. Ivarra, director of the
Mini-Corps Program that trains future educators. They were the two individuals
who encouraged me to transfer to a university and became two of my best
friends. Without these two individuals I may have taken a different career path.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Estela Bensimon for
her guidance, support, and patience.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vii
Abstract viii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 16
Significance of the Study 17
Setting 17

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 19
College Choice Process 22
Predisposition Stage 23
Search Stage 26
Choice Stage 29
The Role of Significant People 31
Parents 32
Peers 40
School Culture and Personnel 43
Latino Participation in Higher Education 45
College Choice Research on Minorities 47
High-Achieving Latinos and the College Choice 48
Summary 50

Chapter 3: Methods 53
Research Design 54
Participants 55
Data Collection 59
Interviews 59
Instrumentation 60
Ethical Concerns 62
Analysis of the Data 63
Limitations 64

vi
Chapter 4: Findings 65
Descriptive Data 65
Seven Student Profiles 66
Introduction to the Remaining 16 Participants 79
Student Background Information 85
Deciding to go to College 88
Applying to College 92
College Distance from Home 98
Paying for College 100
School Activities Related to College Going 101
Parents 105
College Counselor 111
The College Bound Program 114
Financial Aid 115
Summary 118
Chapter 5: Conclusion 123
Important Findings 124
Recommendations 127
College Counselor Knowledge 127
Recommendations for Teachers 129
College Going Awareness 131
Recommendations for Academic Counselors 134
Scarce Resources 136
Peer Advisors 138
Summary 139

References 143
Appendices 155
Appendix A: CSU Eligibility Index - California Residents 155
Appendix B: Recruitment Script 156
Appendix C: PI Recruitment Script 157
Appendix D: Interview Protocol 159
Appendix E: Project College Bound Description 165
Appendix F: Map of Nearby Colleges and Universities 167

vii
List of Tables
Table 1: University of California A-G Course Requirements 14
Table 2: Student’s Ethnic Background 65
Table 3: Parents Educational Level 66
Table 4: Profile of High-Achieving Latino Students 92
Table 5: University Entrance Requirements 96
Table 6: Advanced Placement Exams and Test Results 102
Table 7: Supportive School Personnel 112

viii
Abstract
This study explores the factors that high-achieving Latino students take
into consideration when choosing a college or university to apply. The purpose
of this project was to increase knowledge of the students’ selection process and
the decisions they make to select universities they choose to apply. This new
knowledge will assist educators in developing school based programs that will
benefit high-achieving Latino students who would like to attend a college or
university. This study can also determine ways in which school personnel may
intervene more effectively and ensure that Latinos take advantage of the
educational opportunities available to them.

1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I have worked as a school counselor at a large predominately Latino
1

high school for over nine years. The students on my caseload of over 430 were
from low socioeconomic backgrounds and because so many were considered
low income the school received Title I money to offer various types of programs
to assist students at school. These low income students came from homes where
many parents did not have a high school education, much less a university
degree.
It was not uncommon for these students to be unaware of the steps
required to get into college because they did not have anyone in their family to
assist them with the university application process or be aware of the different
types of financial aid available. Students who begin the college going process
early are aware of the entrance requirements needed to apply to a university,
having a high GPA, taking college preparatory classes such as AP courses,
taking part in extra-curricular activities, and taking the SAT/ACT exams
(Henrickson, 2002). Unfortunately, many students learn about the requirements
of attending a university late in their high school years which may make it more
difficult for them to plan and to meet the entrance requirement to
_________________________
1
For the purpose of this paper, the terms Latino and Hispanic will be used interchangeably.

2
universities. These students would then have to begin their studies at a local
community college.
High-achieving Latino students are no exception. Although they may
have a high grade point average (GPA) and have met the requirements to enter
selective universities they may end up at a local community college or a local
university that enroll students who may have graduated from high school with a
low GPA and may have low SAT and ACT scores.
As a school counselor I worked with high-achieving students and
encouraged them to apply to universities. Many students did apply and were
accepted to selective universities but there were also many who chose to enroll
at their local college or university and still live at home. Many of these students
did not have a choice because they “could not afford it” or because a parent
would not allow them to move far from home.
Latinos are the largest ethnic/racial group in the United States but have
the lowest college graduation rates among all groups (Solorzano, Villalpando, &
Oseguera, 2005; Zalaquett, 2006), of whom Mexicans have the lowest high
school, bachelors, and advanced degrees (Chapa & De La Rosa, 2004). A
considerable amount of research has been done on the educational problems
faced by Latinos and the reasons why these students either drop-out or do not
continue their education beyond high school (Arbona & Novy, 1991; Gandara,
1994; Geiser & Caspary, 2005; Perna, 2000; Santiago & Brown, 2004). In

3
contrast, a lot less is known about high-achieving Latino high school students
(e.g., they do not go to selective institutions) (Wyner, Bridgeland, & Diiulio,
2007). There is also no national trend data on high-achieving students at
selective colleges and universities (Miller, Ozturk, & Chavez, 2005). In the
University of California (UC) system, underrepresented minority students who
are Latino, African American, and American Indian who are in the top one-third
of their class and meet all the entrance requirements to enroll at a UC campus,
enroll at lower rates than other students (Geiser & Caspary, 2005).
My study examined the college plans of high-achieving Latino seniors at
a predominantly Latino and urban high school located in the San Fernando
Valley in California. In particular, I was interested in learning what factors
influenced the college decision-making process of Latino high achievers.
Statement of the Problem
I became interested in this topic because as a high school counselor I
very often worked with many talented Latinos who earned a high Grade Point
Average (GPA) and had successfully passed Advanced Placement (AP) courses
but surprisingly did not apply to selective colleges, or who applied and were
accepted, but ended up not going. In informal conversations with these students
they gave many reasons as to why they did not apply to a university or a
selective university (e.g., lack of parental support, financial concerns, unaware
of deadlines, lack of information, etc.).

4
The following are three examples of highly qualified students who could
have attended selective colleges and universities but ended up attending a less
selective local institution:
Osvaldo was a student with a 3.67 GPA. He had successfully completed
several AP and honors courses. He was the middle child of five children and the
second to graduate from high school. His oldest brother graduated from high
school in Mexico. Osvaldo was the first to go to college. He was a finalist for
the POSSE program where groups of students from urban high schools are
identified and recruited. The Posse Foundation identifies, recruits, and trains
student leaders from public high schools to form multicultural teams called
“Posses.” These teams are then prepared, through an intensive eight-month Pre-
Collegiate Training Program, for enrollment at top-tier universities nationwide
to pursue their academics and to help promote cross-cultural communication on
campus. Students who are selected attend a top tier university on a full
scholarship. The students who are selected to participate in the program are then
divided into groups depending on the university they want to attend. These
students then enroll at the university they selected as a group. The group that he
chose was the one applying to the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Osvaldo
was not chosen to take part in the POSSE program but he was accepted to the
university.

5
When I asked if he had applied to any university in California he said no
because he was sure he was going be accepted by University of Wisconsin-
Madison. When asked if he had applied for financial aid he said no because he
was “positive” he was going to be accepted by the POSSE program which was
going to pay for his college tuition and expenses. He received the rejection letter
in March, after the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) deadline
of March 4. He then applied to Woodbury University and was accepted but
because he would have to take a $12,000 loan he decided to attend Glendale
Community College because the engineering program was courting him.
Marisol was the oldest daughter of four children and the first to graduate
from high school. She had a 3.72 GPA and was accepted to several universities,
among them the University of Southern California, UCLA, Mount St. Mary’s
College, UC Santa Barbara, California Lutheran University, and California
State University-Northridge (CSUN). She was courted by Mount St. Mary’s
College and was given an excellent financial award package. She would be
required to pay $1,238 for the year. At the other universities she would have to
take out loans estimating over $4,000. Her father did not want her to attend a
university far away because she had never been away from home and was afraid
that something might happen to her. He also did not want his family, including
Marisol, to be in debt with educational loans. The only university he would
allow her to attend was CSUN because it was close to home and although they

6
would have to pay more out of pocket money they were willing to make some
“sacrifices” in order to pay their share of the tuition. The other option that the
father gave Marisol was attending a community college but she refused because
she had “worked hard to get accepted into a university.” She was responsible for
half of her share of the tuition and her father promised to pay the other half. She
attended CSUN in the fall but she could have gone to one of the several
selective universities that accepted her.
Guadalupe was the youngest of six children and the first to graduate
from high school. She had a 3.96 GPA and was accepted to the University of
Chicago on a full scholarship. She was also accepted to UC Berkeley, UC San
Diego, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, the University of Massachusetts at Amherst,
and Colgate University. Guadalupe’s father did not allow her to go to Chicago
because it was “too far” and they did not have any relatives that lived in the
area. Several meetings were held with the father to explain to him not just the
importance of an education but also the great opportunities Guadalupe would
have while attending the university and after graduation. The concern he had for
his daughter prevented him from allowing her to achieve her goal at the
university of her choice. Her father said that she should attend CSUN because it
was closer to home and that he would even buy her a car for her commute.
Unfortunately Guadalupe did not apply to CSUN or any local universities and
ended up enrolling at a local community college.

7
These three students had the academic qualifications to attend some of
the top universities where they were admitted, but instead ended up attending
colleges that are in fact the only option for students with much lower levels of
academic achievement. Students face many challenges, some are faced at
school, some are faced at home, and still others are faced in their community.
These high-achieving students mentioned above were no exception to the types
of challenges facing many high school students. These students were aware the
of college requirements and not only met them but surpassed them, becoming
eligible for some of the most selective universities in the country.
These students were also aware of the difference between a university
and community college, and they were preparing themselves for a university
education. They had prepared themselves to enroll at a university and not a
community college. These three students are a sample of high-achieving
students with high aspirations who settled for an education at a less-selective
institution. Fortunately for these three students they did continue their education
after high school but they did not attend the university of their choice. In
foregoing the opportunity of attending a more prestigious institution, these
students’ chances for graduate school, high paying professions, and access to
social networks that can provide them with access to opportunities may be
diminished considerably (Fry, 2003; Wyner, Bridgeland, & Diiulio, 2007).
Students who attend a selective university have a better chance of graduating

8
with a Bachelor’s degree and earning a professional or doctoral degree
(Espenshade, Hale, & Chung, 2005).
Each of the students mentioned above had a reason for not attending a
highly selective university. Osvaldo did not complete the Free Application for
Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) believing that he was going to be selected to
participate in the POSSE program. It may be that he was overly confident or that
he did not have a good understanding of the college application process or he
did not receive good advice. Marisol, even though she was given an excellent
financial aid package, did not attend Mount St. Mary’s College because her
father would not allow to her live away from home and also did not want his
daughter to apply for student loans and incur a large debt. In Marisol’s case, the
problem seemed to be more related to her parent’s lack of college knowledge
about the importance of obtaining student loans to complete a university degree.
Obtaining a college degree is an investment that will bring future benefits such
as obtaining a well paying job or obtaining a graduate or professional degree,
but like every investment it requires a certain level of risk (Gladieux & Perna,
2005). Guadalupe wanted to attend the University of Chicago to study
archeology and worked hard during her four years of high school. She applied to
other highly selective universities as well and was accepted to all of them. Even
though the University of Chicago awarded her a full scholarship her father did
not allow her to go because it was too far from home. Her father wanted her to

9
attend the local California State University but because she did not apply to that
particular university she had to begin her post secondary studies at the local
community college. Like Marisol, Guadalupe’s ambitious aspirations were
impeded by her parents.
Osvaldo, Marisol, and Guadalupe did not attend highly selective
universities but there were others from their same high school who had the good
fortune of going to Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, Columbia, USC, Yale, UC
Berkeley, and others. In contrast to their peers, Osvaldo, Marisol, and Guadalupe
ended up in colleges and universities that are attended by commuting students,
are underfunded, and are overenrolled. According to Fry (2004), Latino students
tend to under-enroll in selective universities even when they have the
preparation and have met the requirements for enrollment at selective
universities. Latinos are heavily underrepresented among Bachelor’s, graduate,
and professional degree recipients and are also more severely underrepresented
among the nation’s top students at the undergraduate and graduate levels (Miller,
2005). Unlike their more privileged peers, these three young people may end up
in colleges where they face waiting lists to get into required courses, which may
in turn prevent them from graduating within four years.
According to Wyner, Bridgeland, & Diiulio (2007), when comparing
high-achieving lower income students with their higher-income peers, the lower
income high achievers are less likely to attend the most selective colleges (19

10
percent versus 29 percent), more likely to attend the least selective colleges (21
percent versus 14 percent), and less likely to graduate when they attend the least
selective colleges (56 percent versus 83 percent). Latino students also have
consistently lower parent education and income levels, placing them at a
competitive disadvantage in the admissions process (Contreras, 2005). Parents
with lower levels of education are less likely to be able to assist their children in
their academic pursuit, less able to expose them to various social settings, less
knowledgeable to counsel their children about what courses they should take,
and what college preparatory activities they should engage in (Vernez & Mizell,
2001).
Students from low SES backgrounds who attend four-year colleges and
universities work more, study less, are less involved and report lower GPAs than
their high SES peers (Toutkoushian & Smart, 2001; Walpole, 2003). By
spending more time at a job or fulfilling obligations at home these students may
spend less time on school assignments and have fewer opportunities to take
advantage of the many activities that colleges and universities have to assist
students to develop skills that are necessary when applying to graduate or
professional schools (internship, research assistants, etc.) (Phinney, Dennis, &
Gutierrez, 2005). These students who work may take longer than four years to
graduate with their bachelors degree because they enroll in fewer courses than
what is necessary for them to graduate in four years. This problem may also

11
force students who are enrolled at both the community college and university to
drop-out in order to help the family financially because they may see that the
length of time needed to graduate is too long.
High-achieving students who are prevented from attending selective
universities experience personal loss-educationally, socially, and economically
(Bowen & Bok, 1998; Miller, Ozturk, & Chavez, 2005). This phenomenon also
represents a societal loss because selective institutions are more likely to
produce future leaders thus making the pool of minority leaders even smaller
than it already is (Bowen & Bok, 1998). On a very practical level, not only do
these students risk not meeting their full potential, but the state will also not
benefit from the contributions of highly educated professionals, including tax
revenues as well as a loss of talent to society and a loss of important role models
(Carnevale, 1999; Goldrick-Rab & Shaw, 2005; Phinney, Dennis, & Gutierrez,
2005; Sanchez, Reyes, & Singh, 2006; Solorzano & Solorzano, 1995).
Surprisingly, the status of high-achieving Latinos has received limited
attention (Gandara, 2005). Typically, educational studies on Latinos tend to
focus on their under-representation in four-year colleges more from the
perspective of barriers such as their lack of preparation to be eligible for
admission. There is a substantial body of work on the problems that schools and
students face including the lack of financial resources (Carnevale, 1999; Cibik &
Chambers, 1991; Perna, 2000; Santiago & Brown, 2004; Weissman,

12
Bulakowski, & Jumisko, 1998), the limited number of scholarship and grant
programs (Carnevale, 1999), family socio-economic status (SES) (Carnevale,
1999; Geiser & Caspary, 2005; McNeil, 1999; Pong & Ju, 2000), lack of
academic preparation (Tornatsky, Pachon, & Torres, 2003), lack of support/role
models (Gandara, 1994; Rendon & Nora, 1988), and low aspirations (Arbona &
Novy, 1991). In view of these factors, it is particularly alarming to realize that
there may be students who are qualified to go to selective institutions but are not
doing so. Especially when institutions of higher education are increasingly
focusing their attention on recruiting academically talented students (Rinn &
Plucker, 2004). It is possible that Osvaldo, Marisol, and Guadalupe are
exceptions and that most students who qualify for selective institutions actually
do go. However, because there is such an urgency for more college educated
Latinos, the missed opportunities of Osvaldo, Marisol, and Guadalupe represent
a lamentable setback.
Very little attention has been given to high-achieving students and the
challenges and barriers they face when applying to and attending highly
selective institutions (Gandara, 2005; Wyner, Bridgeland, & Diiulio, 2007). The
focus of this study was to understand why students like Osvaldo, Marisol, and
Guadalupe end up at a local community or state college when they could have
gone to the University of Chicago, or the University of Wisconsin, or Mount St.
Mary’s College. A study like this will help determine ways in which school

13
personnel and others may intervene more effectively and ensure that Latinos
take advantage of the opportunities available to them.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the selection process and the
college choice of high-achieving students and their decision making process
about college attendance. The study was conducted with students who applied to
the Anova Merit Scholarship offered to graduating Latino seniors with at least a
3.0 GPA at a large comprehensive high school in the San Fernando Valley,
California. The participants were Latino high school seniors who met or
surpassed all the academic requirements to attend selective institutions.
Generally, these students will graduate with:
• a grade point average of at least a 3.0 or higher;
• have met the A-G University of California entrance requirements;
• completed or been enrolled in at least one year-long Advanced
Placement (AP) course;
• be enrolled in or had successfully completed Algebra 2 with a
grade of “C” or better;
• had also registered or had taken one or both of the college entrance
exams, the ACT or SAT I and II.
To enroll in either the University of California (UC) or the California
State University (CSU) systems, students must first meet the established

14
requirements. The A-G subject requirement on Table 1 consists of 15 yearlong
courses that must be completed in high school for acceptance to both the
University of California and the California State University systems:
Table 1
University of California A-G Course Requirements

Required "A-G" Courses

a l History/Social Science – 2 YEARS REQUIRED
Two years of history/social science, including one year of world history, cultures and geography;
and one year of U.S. history or one-half year of U.S. history and one-half year of civics or
American government.
b l English – 4 YEARS REQUIRED
Four years of college-preparatory English that include frequent and regular writing, and reading
of classic and modern literature. No more than one year of ESL-type courses can be used to meet
this requirement.
c l Mathematics – 3 YEARS REQUIRED, 4 YEARS RECOMMENDED
Three years of college-preparatory mathematics that include the topics covered in elementary
and advanced algebra and two- and three-dimensional geometry. Approved integrated math
courses may be used to fulfill part or all of this requirement, as may math courses taken in the
seventh and eighth grades that your high school accepts as equivalent to its own math courses.
d l Laboratory Science – 2 YEARS REQUIRED, 3 YEARS RECOMMENDED
Two years of laboratory science providing fundamental knowledge in at least two of these three
foundational subjects: biology, chemistry and physics. Advanced laboratory science classes that
have biology, chemistry or physics as prerequisites and offer substantial additional material may
be used to fulfill this requirement, as may the final two years of an approved three-year
integrated science program that provides rigorous coverage of at least two of the three
foundational subjects.
e l Language Other than English – 2 YEARS REQUIRED, 3 YEARS
RECOMMENDED
Two years of the same language other than English. Courses should emphasize speaking and
understanding, and include instruction in grammar, vocabulary, reading, composition and
culture. Courses in languages other than English taken in the seventh and eighth grades may be
used to fulfill part of this requirement if your high school accepts them as equivalent to its own
courses.

15
Table 1, Continued
f l Visual and Performing Arts (VPA) – 1 YEAR REQUIRED
A single yearlong approved arts course from a single VPA discipline: dance, drama/theater,
music or visual art.
g l College-Preparatory Electives – 1 YEAR REQUIRED
One year (two semesters), in addition to those required in "a-f" above, chosen from the
following areas: visual and performing arts (non-introductory level courses), history, social
science, English, advanced mathematics, laboratory science and language other than English (a
third year in the language used for the "e" requirement or two years of another language).
www.universityofcalifornia.edu/admissions/undergrad_adm/paths_to_adm/freshman/subject_reqs.html)

The students’ Grade Point Average (GPA) is also very important in
getting accepted to any university campus as are their SAT/ACT scores. The
minimum GPA required for the University of California is a 3.0. For the
California State University system entrance exams are only required if students
applying have a GPA lower than a 3.0. The following was taken from the CSU
Mentor website:
The grades you earn in high school are the most important factor in CSU
admission decisions. Your high school grade point average is calculated
using your grades in all your college prep a-g classes completed after the
9th grade.
Test scores are required unless you have a grade point average above 3.0
and are a resident of California. The CSU uses a calculation called an
eligibility index that combines your high school grade point average with
the score you earn on either the SAT or ACT tests. Even if you have a
GPA above 3.0, it is useful to take either an SAT or ACT as the score
may indicate if you do not need to take English and math placement tests
after you are admitted and before you enroll at the CSU. The eligibility
index for out-of-state students is higher and admission requirements for
international students are somewhat different.
(www.csumentor.edu/planning/high_school/grades_tests.asp)

16
Appendix A shows the eligibility index table for students who have a GPA
between a 2.0 and 2.99 with the required test scores on either the SAT or ACT.
Students with the highest GPA and SAT/ACT scores will usually be accepted by
more selective and prestigious universities compared to other students who may
have lower GPA and test scores. Conversely, students with such low grades will
usually enter non selective institutions such community colleges or CSUs.
Students have the choice of taking either the SAT or the ACT exams but they
are encouraged to take both because they may perform better on one exam than
the other. Students who choose to take the SAT exam must also submit results
from the Reasoning Test and two subject tests. Students who choose to take the
ACT assessment test must also submit the writing section.
Research Questions
Anecdotal information was known about high-achieving Latino students
who, even though they met and in many cases surpassed the requirements for
entrance to highly selective universities, ended up attending a non selective
university or community college. My intent was to explore this problem in order
to develop specific interventions to address it. In this study I seek to answer
three research questions. First, what are the college aspirations of high-achieving
Latinos? Second, what factors influence their decisions about going to college?
Third, to what types of post-secondary institutions do high-achieving Latinos
apply?

17
Significance of the Study
This study will be helpful for people who work with high school students
to understand how these students approach the process of college applications
and choice. At the conclusion of this study I will be able to identify the factors
that enable or constrain high-achieving Latino attendance to highly selective
institutions. I will also be in a position to offer recommendations for how to
address the constraints and be more intentional about solutions.
I interviewed high-achieving Latino seniors that met the requirements
mentioned above. I also examined school documents, policies, and college
counseling processes at the high school. As a counselor at the school I had
access to information and to individuals who provided important background
information.
Setting
The students for this study were seniors from a large comprehensive high
school in the San Fernando Valley with a student population of over 2,200. The
school is part of a Los Angeles School District and located in a predominantly
Hispanic city. The school educates students from the cities of Panorama City,
Sun Valley, Van Nuys, and North Hills. The community served by the school is
predominantly Hispanic (98%) and over 90% of the student population was
eligible for the federal lunch program which qualifies the school for Title I

18
services because of the families’ low income status. The school operates on a
traditional school calendar which begins in September and ends in June.
The school was new in that it opened its doors in October of 2006 to
relieve the overenrolled schools of nearby high schools in North Hills and Van
Nuys where the students would have attended if the school had not been opened.
The vast majority of students who first enrolled at the high school were students
who began their high school studies one of the overenrolled high schools. When
the school opened in 2006 no seniors were enrolled; the first graduating class
took place in June, 2008 with approximately 164 students. All of the graduating
seniors completed their first two years at a different high school. Other students
who were not classified as seniors also graduated because they met the
graduation requirement by taking extra classes during the academic year to
obtain the credits and other graduation requirements needed for graduation.
In the chapter that follows I will review theoretical and empirical
literature associated with the process of college choice. Additionally, since this
study focuses specifically on high-achieving Latinos/as, I also examine studies
of college participation among Latinos.

19
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
One of the most serious higher education policy dilemmas is how to
improve access to colleges and universities for underrepresented minority
students, especially Latino students (Oliva, 2004). Several studies show that
African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans are severely
underrepresented among top students in the United States at all levels of the
educational system (Miller, 2004; Miller, Ozturk, & Chavez, 2005). For Latino
students in particular, enrollment in college has increased but the proportion of
students graduating has not improved (Hurtado-Ortiz & Gauvain, 2007; Miller
& Garcia, 2004; Otero, Rivas, & Rivera, 2007). Latinos are also
underrepresented in highly selective universities (Lopez, 2005).
The “achievement gap” is a term that has been used to describe
racial/ethnic differences that exist in many academic areas, such as average SAT
scores (Bridgeman & Wendler, 2004; Gandara, 2005; Ward, 2006). While there
does exist an achievement gap between minority and white students there are
also many minority students who are high achievers who do well in challenging
college prep courses as well as on college entrance exams such as the SAT and
the ACT. These minority students, Latino students in particular, also have the
ability to succeed and graduate from a four-year institution with a Bachelor’s
degree. According to Carnevale (1999) the education gap between Hispanic and

20
non-Hispanic white youth can be closed by the year 2015 if there is an increase
of college participation among Hispanic youth by 10 percentage points every
year.
Taking a rigorous course load in high school has been shown to be one
of the best indicators of succeeding in college through completion of a bachelors
degree (Adelman, 1999; Bridgeman & Wendler, 2004; Cabrera, La Nasa, &
Burkum 2001; Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee, 2002; Toutkoushian, & Smart, 2001).
Other studies have found that students with the highest academic preparation
who enroll at a four-year institution tend to complete a four-year degree
(Adelman, 1999; Cabrera, La Nasa, & Burkum 2001; Pew Hispanic Center,
2004; Tornatzky, Pachon, & Torres, 2003). Students, regardless of race, who
attend a four-year university after high school graduation also have a better
chance of graduating with their bachelors degree than if they started at a two-
year college (Swail, Cabrera, & Lee, 2004). Students who initially plan and
successfully complete college prep courses have a better chance of being
admitted to a 4-year university compared to other students who decide later in
their high school years to attend a university. According to Cabrera & La Nasa
(2001) “students aspiring for at least a bachelors degree are 28% more likely to
apply than those with no post-secondary plans. Those aspiring for an advanced
degree are even more likely to submit a college application (34%)” (p. 140).

21
Enrolling at a local two-year college may be the only opportunity that
many Latino students have to continue their education. Unfortunately many of
these students will not finish or transfer to a four-year university (Gandara,
1995). In a study conducted by Cabrera, La Nasa, & Burkum (2001), in which
they used the High School Sophomore Cohort of 1980, they found that
regardless of race,
Those [students] who first enrolled in a 2-year institution are 18% more
likely to earn a college degree than those who enroll at a proprietary
school. Those who enroll in a 4-year institution are 46% more likely to
earn a college degree. For this group, enrollment at a 2-year institution
helps, but starting at a 4-year institution helps even more. Lowest SES
students who started in a 2-year institution increased their chances by
46%. Lowest SES students who first enroll in a 4-year institution saw
their chances to complete their 4-year degree increase by 69%” (p. 29).

Another study found that:
Of the 100 Latina/o students at the elementary level, 48 drop out of high
school and 52 continue on to graduate. Of those 52 who graduate from
high school, about 31, or 60%, continue on to some form of
postsecondary education. Of those 31, about 20, or 65%, move on to
community colleges and 11, or 35%, will go to a 4-year institution. Of
those 20 in community colleges, only 2 will transfer to a 4-year college.
Of the 11 students who went to a 4-year college and 2 who transferred,
10 will graduate from college with a baccalaureate degree. Finally, 4
students will continue on and graduate from graduate or professional
school and less than 1 will receive a doctorate. (Solorzano, Villalpando,
& Oseguera, 2005, p. 277)

High-achieving Latino students who choose to attend a community
college may not transfer to a four-year institution because of the lack of
academic guidance, clearly defined transfer procedures, and low expectations by
instructors and counselors (Fry, 2005; Solorzano, Villalpando, & Oseguera,

22
2005). These students may go from a high school with a weak college going
culture to a community college with a weak transfer culture. Students who
attend highly selective universities have a better chance of graduating with their
Bachelor’s degree than if they attend a less selective college or university (Fry,
2004; Fry, 2005). According to Carnevale and Rose (2003):
Approximately 1.2 million high school students who graduate each year
enroll in one of the 1,400 accredited four-year colleges. Few of them
who enroll in a four-year college (15 percent) will enroll in a top-tier
four-year college. Another 20 percent who enroll in four-year colleges
will enroll in a second-tier four-year college. The largest population
(about 40 percent) enrolls in third tier institutions, leaving 25 percent
going to fourth-tier colleges. So the top two tiers account for just more
than one-third of enrollees. (p. 9)

They also found that a little more than 22 percent of the students in the top tier
of college selectivity are Asian, African American, or Hispanic (11 percent
Asian, 6 percent African American, and 6 percent Hispanic), while only 3
percent are from families in the lowest SES quartile and only 10 percent are
from the bottom half of the SES distribution (p. 11).
College Choice Process
A student’s choice of college is a process ultimately culminating in a
decision to attend a specific postsecondary institution (Nora, 2004). Researchers
who study the college choice process (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001; Hossler &
Gallagher, 1987; Litten, 1982; Martin & Dixon, 1991; Paulsen, 1990) define it
as having three main stages: predisposition, search, and choice. Based on
Hossler and Gallagher’s (1987) college choice model, the predisposition stage

23
occurs when students are in Kindergarten through 8 grade, the search stage
occurs during grades 9 to 10, and the final stage, choice, happens in grades 11 to
12. These stages may not apply to all students. Each stage will depend on the
individual student’s personal and educational experiences. For example, for
some students the predisposition stage may start in high school and the last two
stages can take place in the months prior to applying to a university.
Predisposition Stage
In the predisposition stage, also referred to as the college aspiration
formation stage (Henrickson, 2002; Paulsen, 1990), students develop a desire
and predisposition to attend a university (Henrickson, 2002). The middle school
years, especially 8
th
grade, are the most important for this stage because
regardless of socio economic status levels students who want to attend college
have high aspirations and aspire to complete a college degree (Cabrera, La Nasa,
& Burkum, 2001; Swail, Cabrera, & Lee, 2004). According to Cabrera and La
Nasa (2001) middle school students in the 8
th
grade who aspire to earn a
bachelors degree prepare themselves in high school for college attendance by
taking college prep courses.
It is at this stage that characteristics such as socioeconomic status, race,
sex, ability, achievement, attitudes, peers, and educational attainment of parents
have a strong influence on the decision to look towards a university education
(Hossler & Gallagher, 1987; Litten, 1982; Paulsen, 1990). Researchers have

24
often identified a student’s socioeconomic status to be a strong indicator of
college attendance (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987; Martin & Dixon, 1991; Paulsen,
1990; Swail, Cabrera, & Lee, 2004). Students with high socio-economic status
are more likely to go to college than students from low socio-economic status
(Hossler & Gallagher, 1987; Swail, Cabrera, & Lee, 2004).
Socioeconomic status also has an impact on the type of institution to
which the student is likely to apply. More affluent students tend to apply to
private universities whereas less affluent students apply to public universities
(Chapman, 1981). The interpersonal influences of others, such as parents and
peers also have a large impact on students’ aspirations to attend college (Hossler
& Gallagher, 1987; Paulsen, 1990). Researchers have found that parents who
encourage their children to attend college have a direct effect on college
attendance; having peers who plan to pursue a college degree will reinforce
college choice decisions (Hossler and Gallagher, 1987; Ibanez, Kuperminc,
Jurkovic, & Perilla, 2004; Paulsen, 1990).
The student’s aptitude and performance in high school will give them an
idea of the types of colleges and universities they should apply. Students with a
higher GPA and more advanced courses will look into more selective
institutions than students with lower GPA’s and fewer advanced courses
completed. High school students who have high grades will also obtain high
scores on the PSAT/SAT/ACT exams (Chapman, 1981).

25
Clear educational aspirations along with strong high school preparation
for college seem to play a pivotal role in students attending a 4-year university
(Behnke, Piercy, & Diversi, 2004; Cabrera, La Nasa, & Burkum 2001). High
school performance is the overall picture of the academic ability of the student.
In considering student admissibility, colleges and universities look at the
students’ GPA, class rank, and the types of courses the students completed
(Honors, AP, etc.) during their high school years (Chapman, 1981).
High-achieving students can have both high aspirations and low
expectations. These students may see themselves as being successful in the
future but may believe that such goals are out of reach (Cabrera, La Nasa, &
Burkum, 2001). According to Chapman (1981), students with higher aspirations
and expectations tend to do better in school because they have set a degree goal
for themselves and therefore will work towards meeting that goal. The high-
achieving students work hard in school because they have a goal they believe
they can reach and may have some knowledge or have a support network that
will assist them in reaching that goal. These students will also perform better in
school because they know that to be accepted to a particular university they
must have high grades and also do well in advanced level classes.
Encouragement to not only consider a four-year degree but to actually
apply to a university is also very important for high school students (Fisher &
Padmawidjaja, 1999). Cabrera, La Nasa, & Burkum (2001) found that a

26
student’s likelihood to receive encouragement from parents, high school
personnel, and high school peers to secure a college degree was related to
his/her socio-economic background. Students at this stage that received more
encouragement were the students from higher SES while the students from
lower SES received less encouragement.
Search Stage
In the search stage of the college selection process students have decided
that they will attend a post-secondary institution. They begin by obtaining
information on the colleges and universities they might be interested in
attending (Henrickson, 2002; Hossler & Gallagher, 1987; Litten, 1982; Martin
& Dixon, 1991; Paulsen, 1990). Applicants initially choose colleges without
considering critical attributes (i.e. majors, tuition, location, etc.) of these
institutions (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987). A wide variety of colleges are chosen
to create an applicant’s choice list. The list may contain colleges and universities
that are out of state, special population colleges, well known colleges, and
colleges that have a popular sports team. Some students may not know the
locations of some colleges on their list.
After the colleges have been selected these students narrow the list of
colleges by beginning to examine certain attributes about the colleges they have
selected and will also obtain information that will assist them in their decision of
which colleges and universities to apply. Some of the attributes that the students

27
might consider before applying are the cost of attendance, size of the
institutions, location, majors, and institution type (public or private)
(Henrickson, 2002).
Once the list has been compiled, applicants begin to seek various
resources to assist them in their search for information such as college websites,
college visits, college catalogs, parents, and high school guidance counselors
(Matthay, 1989). Use of the internet has made the process of gathering college
information and applying much easier because institutions have made their
information and entrance application available online. Students no longer have
to search for a college catalogue that may not be available at the school’s college
center or library. Students now have access to the vast majority of colleges and
universities in the world. If students do not have a computer at home or do not
have internet access at home they can use one of their high school’s computers
that have internet access or can go to their local public library. The internet has
made access to information about higher education much easier and immediate
rather than calling the university to mail information to the student’s home.
It is at this stage that students apply to the universities that they would
like to attend. Students apply to as many colleges and universities as they want
and can afford. Low-income students who may not have the money to pay for
the application fee can obtain fee waivers for the University of California and

28
California State University systems. Private colleges and universities also have
fee waivers for students who may not be able to afford the application fee.
For many students who may not have mentors, college educated parents,
or anyone else who may help and advise them about the college application
process this stage may pose a problem for them because they may not have
sufficient information. Those recruiters may be the only individuals from an
institution who have met with them and have encouraged them to apply. It is not
uncommon for recruiters from local colleges and universities to be present at the
high schools in November when students are applying to colleges and
universities. Recruiters may try to sell their institution to the students with high
GPA’s. It is during this time that other vocational institutions also meet with
students to try to recruit them.
The college search stage is very important for students because they can
research the many different types of institutions that are available to them. Once
students finish looking into the many types of colleges and universities they will
be able to make a more informed decision on the type of institution they would
like to attend. College counselors, academic counselors, and teachers can play a
very important role in this stage by encouraging and helping students with their
research, personal essay, and college applications.

29
Choice Stage
The third stage is choice. It is at this stage where students receive their
rejection or admissions letter from the universities they applied. And just like
universities have the power to reject students who applied, students also have
the power to reject universities that accepted them. After students receive their
acceptance letters they then make their decision to attend one of the universities
based on the institutional and personal characteristics (Clark & Crawford, 1992;
Henrickson, 2002; Paulsen, 1990; Tinto, 1975). The college choice process
refers to the factors that influence an applicant’s decision about what colleges
and universities to apply to and what factors will be considered when deciding
which college or university to attend (Henrickson, 2002; Hossler & Gallagher,
1987; Litten, 1982).
Before a student applies to a university many factors are considered.
Nora (2004) cites various studies that have investigated the final stage of the
student choice process and produced a list of institutional attributes that students
consider important such as (a) specific academic programs, (b) affordable tuition
costs, (c) financial aid availability, (d) general academic reputation/general
quality, (e) location (distance from home), (f) size, and (g) social atmosphere.
These factors will not only help the student decide which campus he or she will
apply to but also will help in the decision of which university will be chosen for
matriculation. If the student is accepted to more than one university, the factors

30
mentioned above are taken into consideration much more closely to make their
final decision. The student will then return the “Intent to Register” letter to the
university of his or her choice.
Most of the college choice frameworks are built from the experiences
and perspectives of White students. Minority students may decide later in their
school years because they may not have had role models or information about
college attendance was not available. The later the information is given to
students and parents, the less time it will take for them to go through the three
stages mentioned above.
In a study of college choice conducted by Nora (2004), 893 first year
students from three southwestern universities were identified to participate at the
end of their spring semester. The results of the study found 12 psychosocial
factors that influenced the students’ college choice whether they chose to attend
the most selective or less selective institution. The 12 factors are as follows
(p.191):
1. Personal Acceptance: The need to feel welcomed and cared about
2 Precollege Leadership Experiences: Leadership position in
extracurricular activities while in high school
3. Academic Self-Esteem: Choose a college where student feels she/he will
succeed

31
4. Extra Familial Encouragement: Support and encouragement received
from people outside their family
5. Personal and Social Fit: Self awareness of the personal and social fit at a
specific institution
6. Institutional Support: Support that the student believes she/he will get
from an institution such as academic support and financial aid
7. Early Precollege Influences: Aspirations to attend college
8. Family Encouragement: Parent’s influence on college aspirations and
students ultimate choice of where to attend college
9. Approval by Others: The influence that others may exert on a student’s
choice of college
10. Relationship Motivator: The influence exerted by friends and relatives
who already had attended a specific institution
11. Future Objectives: The student’s desire to attend an institution to ensure
a good salary and acceptance into graduate and professional school after
earning an undergraduate degree
12. Institution Location: The student’s desire to attend a college because of
its close proximity to home.
The Role of Significant People
Some studies focus on individuals such as guidance counselors, parents,
and teachers who are most influential in assisting students with the college

32
application and selection process (Behnke, Piercy, & Diversi, 2004; Loewith,
1998; Sevier, 1992; Torres, 2004) and others focus on family’s ability to pay
(Plunkett & Bamaca-Gomez, 2003; Walpole, 2003). Access to people who have
the knowledge to assist students with the college application process are a form
of social capital. Social capital is acquired through one person’s relationship
with another through membership in social networks (Portes, 1998). Students
who have access to supportive individuals including their parents, college going
peers, and school personnel may be able to receive the necessary assistance
needed to complete the college and financial aid application process as well as
the college selection process
Parents
Regardless of the parents’ economic level, they would like their children
to continue their education beyond high school (Immerwahr & Foleno, 2000;
Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee, 2002). Even though college knowledge is low among
Latino parents they know the importance of a postsecondary education and
would like their children to attend a college or university (Tornatzky, Cutler, &
Lee, 2002; Zalaquett, 2006). Unfortunately, many of these parents may not
know how to assist their children to go to college. The lack of knowledge about
the requirements for acceptance into a college or university is more evident
among parents with lower incomes and educational backgrounds as well as
among first-generation immigrants (Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee, 2002).

33
Latino parents want their children to succeed educationally and
vocationally (Plunkett & Bamaca-Gomez, 2003; Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee,
2002; Tornatzky, Pachon, & Torres, 2003). These parents would like to see their
children succeed in school so they can obtain a job that will pay enough to lead a
good life. These parents are aware that education is important to prosper both
economically and socially (Contreras, 2005). The influence and encouragement
of parents have shown to be a positive effect in student’s academic achievement
(Behnke, Piercy, & Diversi, 2004; Herndon & Hirt, 2004; Kao & Tienda, 1998;
Keith & Lichtman, 1994) and aspirations to attend college (Behnke, Piercy, &
Diversi, 2004; Cabrera, La Nasa, & Burkum 2001; Hossler & Gallagher, 1987).
The support by parents is very important for the academic success and college
enrollment of their children. Parents are also the primary and most important
people who have the influence that will contribute to the student’s educational
achievement (Hawley, Chavez, & St. Romain, 2007).
Studies have shown that the influence of parents is one of the major
factors that contribute to Hispanic students obtaining a college degree (Cabrera
& La Nasa, 2001; Carnevale, 1999; Keith & Lichtman, 1994; Torres, 2004;
Trusty, Plata, & Salazar, 2003). Although parents and Latino students have high
educational aspirations (Behnke, Piercy, & Diversi, 2004), Latinos are still
underrepresented in 4-year colleges and universities (Auerbach, 2004).

34
Ceballo (2004) investigated the role of parents in the academic success
of 10 Latino students enrolled at Yale University. The students were first
generation U.S. born Latinos and the first in their family to receive a college
degree. Four common themes emerged from the students who were interviewed:
1. Parental Emphasis on the Importance of Education: All of the
students portrayed their parents as maintaining an almost
unconditional commitment to education although parents did not
know the specific educational goals or requirements (p. 177)
2. Parental Support of Children’s Autonomy: Parents direct
involvement in their children’s schooling was minimal. The lack of
parental assistance was due, in part, to language barriers and parents’
own limited schooling (p. 178)
3. Nonverbal Support for Educational Endeavors: The students’ parents
expressed their commitment and support for education with a
limitless array of nonverbal (unspoken) behavior. Some examples of
nonverbal behavior mentioned are a hug while the students is
studying, not allowing student to work in order to focus on school,
excused from chores, lowering the television volume, etc. (p. 181)

35
4. Faculty Role Models and Mentors: Adult mentors were also
mentioned who were important in their lives. Every student included
at least one teacher who was important in the student’s personal life
(p. 182).
According to Cabrera & La Nasa (2001), parental encouragement has
two dimensions, motivational and proactive. Motivational parents encourage and
maintain high educational expectations for their children. Proactive parents are
involved in school activities and also discuss college plans with their children.
Parents who were both motivational and proactive in their children’s education
were more likely to see their children attend a four-year university.
Auerbach (2007) conducted a study where she examined the beliefs,
goals, and practices of 16 working-class African American and Latino parents
whose children were in a college access program at a diverse metropolitan
university. She found that seven parents (three couples and one father) of the
Latino immigrants had the lowest educational attainment, least English fluency,
and least K-16 knowledge in the sample. They offered moral and emotional
support for college largely in the form of talking with their children, as in
stressing the value of education, study, and hard work. They also trusted their
children to do well academically and take the steps they needed on their own to
get to a university and the educational system to prepare their children for
college (p. 261).

36
It is especially important for parents to be actively involved in their
children’s education (Ibanez, Kuperminc, Jurkovic, & Perilla, 2004; Tornatzky,
Cutler, & Lee, 2002). Parent involvement in their children’s education increases
students’ achievement and show they are supportive of the student’s post
secondary plans (Jeynes, 2007). Educating parents about college requirements is
important early in the college decision-making process of their children (Bowen,
Kurzweil, & Tobin, 2006). Parent participation is also a critical factor in
promoting school quality (Rogers, 2002). Parents who are more involved in
school activities not only show their children the importance of education but
are also more available to meet with the counselor and teachers to ensure that
the children are taking the necessary classes that will prepare them for a
postsecondary institution (Qian & Blair, 1999). Parent support and
encouragement are the strongest predictors for students’ college aspirations
(Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; McDonough, 1999).
In a study conducted by Zalaquett (2006) parents of successful Latino
students were supportive of their children’s educational aspirations, although
they had no experience with higher education. This may be why the search
process for Latinos may not reflect the ideal search process that is associated
with college choice studies. These parents may also be unaware of the college
going process and must trust the guidance department at the school to provide
the information necessary to the students (Sanchez, Reyes, & Singh, 2006;

37
Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee, 2002; Zalaquett, 2006). Although these parents may
lack a college level education, there are many highly successful students from
families without a college-educated parent (Bridgeman & Wendler, 2004).
Hispanic parents and families value learning and wish to support their children
in school (Lockwood & Secada, 1999). According to Gandara (2005):
High-achieving Latino students are much more likely than high-
achieving White students to have parents with very low educational
levels – more than 25 percent of Latino high-achieving students have at
least one parent who did not graduate from high school compared with
less than 5 percent of their White peers. These-less educated parents are
not often in a position to provide specific support for and advice to their
children about successfully navigating through school (p. 3).

While parents can be a positive factor they can also be a negative factor
in their children’s post high school plans. They may lack the education or the
knowledge necessary to see the importance of allowing their children to attend a
university away from home or the importance of student loans if full tuition is
not covered with grants and scholarships (Nora, Barlow, & Crisp, 2006). Parents
do not want to discourage their children from attending a college or university
but the decisions that they make regarding their children’s future is based on
their own experiences. Parent may feel that their children are not ready to be on
their own and that by moving away from home they will not have the family
support that they may currently have.
Many first generation college-bound students and parents are reluctant to
accept student loans (Fallon, 1997). Latinos have been found to have the least

38
favorable attitudes towards educational student loans compared to Whites
(ECMC Group Foundation, 2003). Because of the lack of information and
knowledge about student loans many high-achieving low income students and
their parents may not want to apply for any student aid because they do not want
to incur additional debt (Carnevale, 1999). Unfortunately for many low-income
students the only way to obtain a university education is by obtaining
educational loans. Educational loans for most university students are a must.
Educating parents on the importance of loans in the education of their children
might ease their reluctance to obtain such monetary assistance. A student loan is
like any other loan that a person would have to apply for in order to purchase a
car, house, or any other large purchases.
In a study conducted by Valadez (1998), 10,080 secondary school
students who aspired to complete a college degree were sampled. According to
the results, males seem to be affected by their socioeconomic status more than
females when applying to college. Students who are from low SES families are
expected to help the family financially which may limit college attendance and
college choice (Cabrera, La Nasa, & Burkum 2001; Fallon, 1997; King, 1996).
Students from low SES are less likely to attend college and when they do, are
more likely to attend less selective institutions (Walpole, 2003). According to
Fry (2002) the strong commitment to work and to help their families does not
stop Latinos from enrolling in two year institutions, even part-time, but it may

39
help explain why so few enroll full-time. It is especially true for males,
according to Hamrick & Stage (2003), family income directly affects their
college disposition. Male students from low-income families had less
opportunity to enroll in a post secondary institution because of their financial
obligation to the family.
By significantly higher percentages than the rest of the population, the
parents of Hispanic high school seniors believe that a college education is an
essential prerequisite for a good job and a comfortable middle-class lifestyle
(Carnevale, 1999). Many low-income parents and students often report that they
do not receive adequate information about financial aid (Noeth & Wimberly,
2002) which prevents students from fulfilling their college aspirations
(McDonough & Calderone, 2006). The lack of knowledge about the financial
aid process for Latinos has caused them to receive the lowest average amount of
financial aid awarded-by type and source aid-of any ethnic group (Santiago &
Brown, 2004). College education is becoming more expensive and schools need
to assist parents and students in finding a way to pay for college (Tornatzky,
Cutler, & Lee, 2002).
Between 1993 and 2003 the average tuition and fees at public
universities rose almost 50 percent and over 22 percent at community colleges;
in 2003-2004 the average tuition and fees at both public universities and
community colleges increased almost 15 percent (Santiago & Brown, 2004).

40
The cost of a college or university education is rising faster than the college aid
available. The growing share of financial aid that students receive are student
loans, which make things worse for Latino students who may come from
families with little discretionary income and who are thus reluctant to increase
their debt (Carnevale, 1999). As mentioned above, parents want their children to
attend a university but it is not uncommon for parents to dissuade their children
from going away to college for economic reasons. The short term economic
needs of the family may supersede the desires of parents to support their
children’s long-term educational goals (Schwartz, 2001). The cost of college and
the financial aid awarded is also an important factor on the student’s decision to
attend college and also the choice of college (Nora, Barlow, & Crisp, 2006)
Peers
Studies have shown that socializing with peers who would like to pursue
a college education has a positive effect on students’ decision to attend college
(Hossler and Gallagher, 1987; Paulsen, 1990). These students are able to share
both encouragement and information to keep them on track to go to college
(Gandara, 2004). Students who socialize with peers who have high aspirations
help each other meet their short-term goals (successfully pass their classes) and
long-term goals (graduate from high school with a high GPA) (Stewart, 2007).
These high-achieving students take the same higher level classes offered at the
school, which give them many opportunities to share their goals and plans for

41
the future among themselves. These peers are a source of social capital where
they create social networks that support and reinforce their motivation to attend
an elite university (Gonzalez, Stoner, & Jovel, 2003). These students also share
information about college attendance and may also apply to the same
institutions. Having friends who are college bound is a great influence on other
students to also attend college (McDonough, 1997; Gonzalez, Stoner, & Jovel,
2003). Because peers may have the same desire to attend a university, they help
each other, push each other, and encourage each other to excel in school
(Griffin, Allen, Kimura-Walsh, & Yamamura, 2007).
In a study conducted by Sokatch (2006), he found that having most or all
of one’s friends planning to attend college is one of the best predictors for
college attendance. The major finding of the study was that it was especially
important for low income minority students. These students are encouraged and
want to follow in the footsteps of students who they believe are not only
successful in school but would also be successful in college. College bound
students encourage their peers to enroll in the same courses they may be
enrolled in (e.g. honors, advanced courses) for companionship and also to work
on assignments together. As a group they will later apply to colleges and
universities and will encourage and assist each other with the college going
process (SAT/ACT, college applications, FAFSA, etc.).

42
Friends who placed high importance on school also are a major factor for
Latino students who attend college compared with other students whose friends
did not place importance on school (Carnevale, 1999). Latino students have the
desire like any other group to attend a university but the lack of knowledge on
how to achieve that goal is very prevalent especially among low SES students.
By having peers who want to attend a university, information will be shared
among them on how and what to do in order to meet the university
requirements. Tierney & Venegas (2006) suggest that peers have the potential to
create fictive kin network where they become a social support that helps create a
culture of success.
In a study conducted by Kao (2000), students from a large high school in
Chicago were surveyed. The school had an enrollment of about 3,000 students
with a racial composition of 47% white, 43% black, 7% Hispanic, and 3%
Asian. Kao found that peers can influence the aspiration and the achievement of
students. For many students the only information they acquire is from their peers
because they may not want to ask counselors or other school personnel. The
sharing of information among peers may be more relevant because they may
have friends who are currently enrolled at a college or university and may want
to follow the same process because if it worked for that student it will also work
for them. They may also have friends who have family members who are
attending or have graduated from a university. The information given by peers

43
may seem more important because there was a positive outcome that they can
attest to. Information given by teachers and counselors, on the other hand, may
be different or even contradict what peers have shared.
School Culture and Personnel
The college counselor is the most important person on the school campus
to improve college enrollment (McDonough & Calderone, 2006). The college
counselor is the person who focuses on the college going process of all students
who want to attend a university. This is the person who is likely to be best
informed about the entrance requirements to the universities and also the school
expert on financial aid. The college counselor visits classrooms to give
presentations about attending college and the different types of financial aid
available to pay the tuition.
Students benefit from the social connections they establish with teachers,
counselors, and school officials (Saunders & Serna, 2004). The social
connections can be used for the benefit of the students to obtain information that
they would otherwise not be able to obtain. This type of social capital is a
relationship with institutional agents that are converted into resources and
opportunities (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). These relationships and social networks
can assist Latino students and parents in navigating through the college going
and application process.

44
School personnel who take an interest in the students will also share
information on what they need to do in order for them to get accepted to a
university. Teachers and counselors will not only get to know students
personally but also learn about their academic achievement. School personnel
will then have the opportunity to encourage students to apply to colleges and
universities. School personnel will also meet with parents and inform them
about the college application and financial aid process. Counselors should not be
the only school personnel who should encourage students to succeed, teachers
see the students more often and should be available to assist students whenever
necessary. Studies have shown that the success of Latinos in high school has
been influenced by teachers, administrators, staff, and parents (Lucas, Henze, &
Donato, 1990) as well as the presence of faculty role models, mentors, and peer
groups (Abi-Nader, 1990; Achor & Morales, 1990; Gandara, 1994). School
personnel and parents are the most important people in the lives of the students.
The impact that they have on students is important in their post secondary
aspirations.
In schools that are supportive and have dedicated teachers over time,
students are more likely to attend, persist, receive higher grades, and graduate
(Ancess, 2000). Research on effective schools has shown that what principals
and teachers do in schools matters independent of students’ social background
(Minthrop, 2002). Teachers and administrators who are involved in the

45
education of their students by providing them the necessary tools for success
will make a big impact in their postsecondary decisions (Noeth & Wimberly,
2002). According to Kalil (2002), during adolescence youth increasingly look
toward non-parental adults for support and guidance. Having a special personal
and academic relationship with a teacher also influenced the student to continue
their education beyond high school (Griggs, 1992). Students enrolled in schools
where they have a sense of belonging and feel comfortable in that environment
have a positive effect on their academic achievement and motivation (Ibanez,
Kuperminc, Jurkovic, & Perilla, 2004).
Although high school counselors are overloaded (Corwin, Venegas,
Oliveres, & Colyar, 2004; Hamrick & Stage, 2004; Tornatzky, Lee, Mejia, &
Tarant, 2003) with the number of students on their caseload as well as other
school duties they have to perform, counselors and teachers need to give
particular attention to parents, their desires and expectations for their children,
and the support that they provide for their children’s education (Trusty, Plata, &
Salazar, 2003).
Latino Participation in Higher Education
Latino students enter high school with educational and career aspirations
as high as the majority population (Ibanez, Kuperminc, Jurkovic, & Perilla,
2003). These students enter high school with the belief that they will not only
graduate from high school but that they will be able to obtain a job that will

46
provide them with financial stability. In a study conducted by Fine (2002) she
found that a large number of Latino students enrolled in colleges and
universities revealed that they value education and have high aspirations. Latino
students aspire to continue with their education either at a college/university or
vocational school. Native-born Latino high school graduates are enrolling in
college at a higher rate than their foreign born counterparts, and that is
especially true for the second generation, the U.S. born children of immigrants
(Fry, 2002; Llagas & Snyder, 2003).
In a study conducted by Tornatzky, Pachon, & Torres (2003), they found
that Latinos are significantly less likely than Anglos to graduate from a research-
intensive university (e.g., Research I or Research II), and significantly more
likely to graduate from a master’s university (e.g., only granting masters degrees
and not Ph.D.s). Since most research-intensive universities are more selective
than masters universities, the nation’s highly selective colleges educate only
three percent of the nation’s entering undergraduates, and even smaller
percentage of the nation’s Latino undergraduates (Fry, 2004). Carnevale & Rose
(2003) found that the graduation rates for Tier 1 institutions was 86%; for tier 2,
71%, tier 3, 61%, and tier 4, 54%.
Students who attend more selective colleges and universities demonstrate
increased learning compared to students who attended less selective and less
expensive institutions (Toutkoushian & Smart, 2001). Selective private colleges

47
and universities in America prepare a higher percentage of their graduates, in
comparison to public universities, for the top rated graduate and professional
schools (Haro, 2004). Students at these institutions also have the benefit of
registering for classes with renowned professors, take part in research projects,
have the opportunity to take part in internships, and may also be employed
through the work-study program at the professional school (education, medicine,
law, etc.) where the students may be interested in applying upon graduation
(Carnevale & Rose, 2003). The opportunity to make the transition directly from
high school to an elite university has important consequences for an individual’s
career, as measured, by educational attainment and earnings (Martin, Karabel, &
Jaquez, 2005). Highly selective institutions offer more opportunities that will
enhance the student’s future.
College Choice Research on Minorities
Research on minority college choice is limited, especially for Latino
students. Most of the research that has been conducted on college choice has
focused on the factors that influence majority students (Solmon & Wingard,
1991). In one study conducted by Sevier (1993), a survey was administered to
1,127 college bound African American high school juniors. The results
concluded that the four major factors African American students placed on
college choice was the reputation of the college, the availability of a specific
college major, the cost of attending, and the amount of financial aid offered. For

48
Hispanic students, both native and foreign born, the lack of financial support for
college was the biggest obstacle facing their desire to attend college (Kao &
Tienda, 1998).
Hurtado (1992) studied the college choice of high-achieving Hispanic
students. The study included 1,342 high-achieving Hispanic students who were
among the students with the highest scores on standardized test scores
administered during their junior year of high school. The students also ranked in
the top tenth percentile of their high school class. The students in the sample
were Central American, Cuban, Mexican American, Puerto Rican, and South
American. The results of the study showed that the majority of Latino students
preferred a college that was close to home.
High-Achieving Latinos and the College Choice
The high cost of a university education may be one of the primary
factors that prevent Latinos from a college education (Carnevale, 1999). Low
SES students tend to be less able than other students to pay for college which
may affect their motivation to apply for college (Martin, Karabel, & Jaquez,
2005). Low-income families in particular may be more dependent on their
children’s earnings to help support the family financially rather than attending a
university where they more than likely have to obtain student loans (Fallon,
1997). The burden that is placed on these students limit the types of institutions
they can attend. Attachment to family and community as well as their economic

49
need are also factors in Latinos’ exceptionally high rate of enrollment in two-
year colleges (Fry, 2002). If they are fortunate enough to live close to a
university they may be able to attend if they are able to commute.
Latinos are more likely to be enrolled part time and in two-year colleges
than any other group (Fry, 2002; Gandara, 2004) where there is an over-
representation of minority and low-income students at such institutions
(Chapman, 1981; Walpole, 2003). According to Fry (2004), “even the best
prepared Hispanics enroll in ‘open-door institutions’ at a greater rate than
whites” (p. 13). This is a cause for serious concern because more than half of
those students who initially enroll at two-year colleges never complete a post-
secondary degree, whereas almost 6 in 10 four-year college entrants complete at
least a bachelors degree (Kane & Rouse, 1999; Wellman, 2002). Latino students
are also two to three times more likely to drop out if they begin their college
studies at a two-year college than non-Latino students (National Center on
Educational Statistics, 2000; Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee, 2002).
The student’s SES level is the strongest indicator of whether students
will not only apply, but attend a college or university (Fry, 2002; Fry, 2004).
Students from a high SES are much more likely to attend college than students
from low SES (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987). Higher SES students have more
educational opportunities because they have more resources as well as the
financial status to take part in programs and services that are beneficial for

50
college bound students. These higher SES students may not have to work to help
the family financially and thus will have more time for study as well as take part
in extracurricular activities. These students also have the financial resources to
pay any fee for exams, college applications, and other program that give them an
advantage for acceptance into the university of their choice.
Summary
Educational expectations and attainment of Hispanics, and Mexican
Americans in particular, remain well below that of other groups (Trusty, Plata,
& Salazar, 2003). High-achieving Latino students who enroll in rigorous course
loads in high school (Bridgeman & Wendler, 2004) and prepare to attend a four-
year university (Pew Hispanic Center, 2004) are indicators for successfully
completing a Bachelor’s degree. These high-achieving students who attend
highly selective colleges and universities have a much better chance of
graduating with their Bachelor’s degree than if they attend less selective
institutions (Carnevale & Rose, 2003; Fry, 2005).
In order for these high-achieving students to apply and attend highly
selective universities they must be aware of the of the entrance requirements of
the selective universities they wish to attend. The University of California and
The California State University systems have different entrance requirements as
does each of the private universities. Meeting the entrance requirement to one
university does not mean that the requirement has been met for others. Students

51
must also be willing to attend a selective college or university that may be far
from home. The most highly selective universities in California are between
Berkeley and San Diego (UCB, Stanford, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, UCLA,
USC, Caltech, Claremont Colleges, UCI, and UCSD). Any student who does not
live close to such an institution might be able to commute if it is not too far from
home or would have live on campus.
Other obstacles that these students face are the lack of knowledge
regarding the admissions process (Walpole, McDonough, Bauer, Gibson, Kanyi,
& Toliver, 2005). Students must not only have a high GPA but must also meet
other requirements such as successfully completing the A-G course
requirements and taking the SAT I/II or ACT exams. Many students may not
have family members who are aware of the college going process (Zalaquett,
2006). These students may have to rely on school personnel and peers to receive
college going information that they may otherwise not be able to obtain.
Students from a low socio-economic background may also find it
difficult to attend a highly selective college or university if the tuition is too
high. The high cost of a university education (Carnevale, 1999) as well as the
desire to stay close to home (Hurtado 1992) are strong motivators for students to
enroll in their local community college where they can live at home and pay
very little in tuition. Unfortunately, many of these students will not transfer to a

52
university because of the lack of academic guidance and clearly defined transfer
procedures (Fry, 2005; Solorzano, Villalpando, & Oseguera, 2005).
Most high-achieving students with a high GPA would like to continue
their education beyond high school. Unfortunately for many of these high-
achieving students they may end up at a non selective college or university or a
community college. Even students who have been informed about the different
types of financial aid and have been encouraged to apply to selective universities
may end up applying to their local community college. There are many factors
that students take into account when selecting which post-secondary institution
to attend such as family, financial, and distance from home. By being informed
about the different types of colleges and universities as well the many ways to
pay for their education can students make a more informed decision on the right
college or university for them.
This study will address other factors that high-achieving Latino students
take into account when selecting the college or university they choose to attend.
Many students may have surpassed the entrance requirements for selective
colleges and universities and may also qualify for financial aid which would
make their decision to apply to the best universities easier. Many students may
choose a college or university based on the location or the characteristics of the
school while others may choose a university for very personal reasons regardless
of ranking or reputation of the institution.

53
CHAPTER III
METHODS
This study examined the college selection process of high-achieving
Latinos, and in particular, the factors that influence the college decision making
of high-achieving Latino students. The 23 students who were selected were
graduating seniors who applied for the Anova Merit Scholarship offered by
Anova Financial Solutions (AFS) to a large comprehensive high school in the
Los Angeles Unified School District. Anova Financial Solutions is a real estate
and mortgage consulting firm based in Long Beach, California that assists
investors in obtaining mortgage loans and acquiring properties in the U.S. and in
Colima, Mexico. The President and owner of the company is Mr. Julian Salcedo.
The company offered two scholarships to graduating Latino seniors. In
order to be eligible for the scholarship students must be Latino/Latina, have at
least a 3.0 GPA, and must show proof of enrollment at a college or university
for Fall 2008 before scholarship money was disbursed. Two informational
meetings were held at a Los Angeles Public Library where students were given
consent forms and where questions were answered regarding the study.
Individual interviews were then held at the library over a period of two weeks to
accommodate the students’ schedule. The last interview was held on July 16,
2008.

54
Research Design
All of the students who took part in the study were some of the brightest
students in their high school of attendance. I was able to look at their academic
transcripts as well as their AP and SAT/ACT test scores. It is was my intention
to obtain as much information about the students as possible in order to better
understand their decision to not only attend a post secondary institution but also
understand the reasons for selecting the colleges and universities they chose to
apply. My study and methods of data collection and analysis are guided by the
following research questions:
1) What are the college aspirations of high-achieving Latinos?
2) What factors influence their decisions about going to college?
3) To what types of post-secondary institutions do high-achieving
Latinos apply?
In order to obtain the desired information from the students the case
study approach was considered to be the most appropriate for this study. Case
studies, unlike other qualitative studies, are intensive descriptions and analysis
of an entity or bounded system (Merriam, 1998). Data was systematically
gathered about the students by studying the interviews, students’ academic
transcripts, and test scores. By analyzing such data I will have information that
will allow me to better understand the reasons for selecting their college or
university of attendance.

55
For the purpose of this study I conducted individual interviews using a
combination of informal conversational and standardized open-ended
interview. The reason for choosing the two approaches was because I only had
one opportunity to meet with individual students. I wanted to make sure that
each student was asked the same questions. Patton (2002) notes that a
standardized open-ended interview “consists of a set of questions carefully
worded and arranged with the intention of taking each respondent through the
same sequence and asking each respondent the same questions with essentially
the same words” (p. 342). An interview protocol was developed for this study
(see Appendix D). It is made up of five sections with questions designed to
elicit in depth responses. Using an interview protocol in standardized
interviews ensures “consistence across interviewers” (Patton, 2002, p. 346).
Using the standardized open-ended interviews allows for easier analysis of the
data and each participant is asked to respond to the same questions which
makes it easier to identify themes or patterns that emerge.
Participants
This study was designed to gain a better understanding of the selection
process and the factors that have an impact on post secondary decisions of high-
achieving Latino students. Only students who met criteria for this study were
chosen because they all had met or surpassed the requirements for entrance to

56
the University of California and were among the most academically prepared
students at their school. The students who were invited to take part in this study
met the following criteria:
1. Must have applied for the Anova Merit Scholarship
2. Must be Latino/Latina
2

3. Had a high school GPA of 3.0 and above
4. Must have been enrolled in or have successfully completed two
semesters (one year) of Algebra 2
5. Must have been enrolled in or have successfully completed at least
one year of the same AP class (Students did not have take exam or
obtain passing score to participate in study)
6. Met all the A-G entrance requirements to the University of California
by their graduation date.
To recruit participants Mr. Julian Salcedo, the president of Anova
Financial Services who offered the scholarship was contacted by telephone. A
meeting was scheduled on March 22, 2008 in his office to ask for assistance in
this research study. I explained the purpose of my research and asked for his
assistance in emailing students who applied for the scholarships to request that
they contact me either by email or by phone (See Appendix B). After the
president picked up the scholarship applications from the school he emailed the
________________________
2
Students’ parents or grandparents must have been born in a Latin American Country.

57
applicants the recruitment script with information about the study asking
students to contact me if they were interested in taking part in the study. Only
the students from the high school where I was employed were sent the
recruitment script. For the next several weeks students either emailed or called
me to say they were interested in taking part of the study.
Two meetings were scheduled at a Los Angeles Public Library near the
school that they attended. One meeting was scheduled on Saturday, May 24 at
10:00 am and another on Tuesday, May 27 at 5:00 pm. Students were given an
explanation of the study and were also invited to take part in it (see Appendix
C). Students were told that if they chose to take part they would need to sign the
consent forms, and if they were not 18 years old they would have to take the
parental forms home to have parents sign. Students were also told that the
interview was confidential and they could withdraw at any time and/or choose
not to answer any questions that would make them feel uncomfortable. Students
were also made aware that if they preferred to not be audio taped only hand
written notes would be taken. Students were also given a pre-addressed stamped
envelope (to P.I.’s home address) for students to take home with the consent
forms and were asked to mail the envelopes with the following documents
inside:
1. School Transcript
2. SAT I/II test results

58
3. ACT test results
4. AP test results
Once the envelope with the documents was received interviews were scheduled
at a Los Angeles Public Library around the students’ schedule.
A total of 37 students who applied for the scholarship attended one of the
two meetings. Students were asked to mail the required documents within five
days after the information meeting they attended in order to schedule individual
meetings that were convenient for them and that would not conflict with their
employment schedule. Only 29 students who wanted to take part in the study
sent the required documents. After reviewing the students’ documents it was
determined that 23 students met the criteria for this study; fifteen were females
and eight were males. All 23 students were interviewed, only 10 were audio
taped. The other 13 chose not to be audio taped citing reasons such as
embarrassment of someone hearing their taped voice to not liking how they
sound on tape.
Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants for this study.
The sample selected was based on time, money, location, and site (Merriam,
1998). The scholarship was offered to students who met criteria for this study
and that I wanted to interview. By taking advantage of the scholarship program I
was ensured that many graduating Latino students with at least a 3.0 GPA would
apply to the scholarship which would be beneficial in recruiting students for this

59
study. I also had the support of the company’s president to send the recruitment
script (see Appendix B) to all student applicants.
Data Collection
Data was obtained when students mailed required documents in order to
identify which students met criteria for the study. Once the students were
identified interviews were scheduled at a Los Angeles public library after school
and on Saturdays over a period of two weeks in June. First I will outline the
interview process and then discuss the interview protocol.
Interviews
The purpose of the open-ended interviews was to “gaze into the soul of
another” (Silverman, 2003, p. 343). Students were given the opportunity to share
personal experiences and also talk about their decisions to continue their
education in a post secondary institution. The questions were formulated to
obtain an overall picture of the students’ educational experiences as well as the
choice process for selecting their college or university of choice.
All of the students were interviewed one time and lasted between sixty
and ninety minutes. Data was collected by audio-taped interviews and written
notes taken from students who did not wish to be audio-taped. The interviews
were then transcribed and coded. Transcriptions were made immediately after
the interviews to ensure recollection of responses.

60
The students who were audio-taped made it more convenient to obtain
all of the information that students had to share without requiring the need to
abbreviate or miss information that might otherwise be important for the study.
By using audiotapes one can replay them to gain a better understanding of what
was shared which can improve transcriptions (Silverman, 2003). After each
interview I transcribed the interviews verbatim which made my analysis much
easier. By audio-taping the interview it also gave me the opportunity to observe
the students’ facial expressions and hand gestures that would otherwise be
missed while focusing on taking notes. In addition to the audio recording I also
took notes during the interviews.
Detailed notes were taken for students who chose not to be audio-taped.
As much of the information that students shared was written verbatim. It was my
intention to obtain as much information without interrupting them in the middle
of a sentence or thought. I also repeated information they shared often to ensure
that what they actually said and meant was recorded. For these students who did
not want to be audio-taped their information was immediately typed into the
computer for better recall of the information.
Instrumentation
The interview protocol was designed for the purpose of this study. The
rationale for using the interview protocol was to ask students questions and to
have them clarify answers that may not be clear and to give them the

61
opportunity to explain in their own words the steps they took to select and to
apply to the universities of their choice. There was no need to contact students
after the interview had been conducted to obtain more information or to clarify
the students’ answers. Appendix 3 provides the interview protocol that was used
for this study. Students were asked questions about their background, their
decision to attend college, and their knowledge of the college going process. To
develop the interview protocol existing literature was reviewed on the factors
that influence the college decision-making process of high-achieving Latino
students and their college choice.
The interview protocol is divided into five sections; the first section was
to gather demographic data about their family such as where parents were born,
number of siblings, parents’ educational level, language spoken at home, etc.
Data from this section was used to create a profile of the students’ family
background. The second section asked for educational history of students,
parents, and siblings. It also asked questions about their peers and
extracurricular activities they have participated in high school. The third section
asked for information about the college application process. In this section
students answered questions such as where they wanted to apply, who
encouraged them to apply, financial aid, and when they first thought about
attending college. Information gathered in this section was to find out what
students did before they started the application process. In the fourth section

62
students shared information about factors that affected their college choice such
as financial aid, peers, family, and distance from home. In this section students
shared information about the decision making process when selecting the
institution they wished to attend. The fifth and final section asked questions
about their feelings and concerns about going to college. They answered
questions about housing, work, and their personal emotions about college
attendance.
Ethical Concerns
Ethical concerns must be taken into consideration by a researcher. In
order to ensure that the rights and privacy of the individuals in this project were
protected several precautions were taken. The consent form was handed out and
was read aloud to the group during the recruitment meetings. The consent form
outlined the purpose of the study: what the information would be used for, the
types of information that would be asked during the interview, that their answers
would be held confidential, and the possible risks and/or benefits of taking part
in the study (Patton, 2002). Students were also made aware that they did not
have to answer any questions that made them uncomfortable and that they could
withdraw from taking part in the study at any time.
Permission was granted by students, parents, and the USC Investigation
Review Board before I met with any students. All of the students were assigned

63
a pseudonym to maintain the privacy of the participants and the institution. In
the next section I detail how the data obtained was analyzed.
Analysis of the Data
Data analysis was accomplished in several steps. First, academic
transcripts were analyzed to ensure that the students met the criteria for the
study. All of the transcripts of the students who were interviewed met criteria
needed for the study. After each interview was recorded, it was immediately
transcribed and submitted documents were analyzed more closely. The
transcriptions were read at least five times to look for themes in the students’
answers regarding the student’s college going decisions. After all of the
transcriptions were completed and students’ answers were coded, different
themes emerged regarding the students’ college selection process. After the
readings I coded the data into five themes: family, college counselor and
teachers, college exploration, financial aid, and distance of university of choice
from home.
Academic transcripts were reviewed and a checklist was developed with
the students’ pseudonym to be better able to view data. All of the students were
listed from highest to lowest GPA with their AP and SAT/ACT results included.
The list made it convenient to find students while reading the transcriptions and
assigning passages to the students who shared important information.

64
Coding of the data is “assigning some sort of short hand designation to
various aspects of your data so that you can easily retrieve specific pieces of the
data” (Merriam, 1998, p. 164). Transcripts were coded by organizing important
passages and quotations into the five themes. Once I began to look for themes I
underlined and highlighted important information that students shared. I also
wrote notes that would help me locate important information that might be used
when I began writing results (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). The beginning of the
analysis allowed me to retrieve information in order to create an overall picture
of the similarities of each student.
Limitations
The limitations of this study are that only 23 students with a GPA of 3.0
and higher were selected. The sample included only students who volunteered to
take part in this study. All were students at one high school who applied to a
scholarship that was offered at their school of attendance. It is possible that other
students who met the research requirement for this study and who did not wish
to take part in the study might have differed in some way. The information
obtained from these students may not necessarily reflect the experiences of all
students, even other high-achieving students. The students’ responses, however,
will give a glimpse into the post-secondary aspirations and goals of high-
achieving Latino students. Another limitation is that the college counselor was
the wife of the P.I.

65
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
The purpose for this research was to investigate the college selection
process of high-achieving Latino students. The students selected for this study
were the brightest Latino students with the highest GPA and other credentials
that made them candidates for acceptance to highly selective universities. This
chapter discusses the college choice of high-achieving Latino students.
Descriptive Data
The results of this study were based on the information and interviews of
23 high-achieving Latino seniors. Of the 23 students, 15 were female and 8 were
male. Table 2 lists the students’ ethnic background (some had parents who were
born in different countries):
Table 2
Student’s Ethnic Background
Mexican Guatemalan Peruvian El
Salvadorian
Mexican-El
Salvadorian
Nicaraguan-
El
Salvadorian
Total
14
(61%)
2
(9%)
1
(4%)
3
(13%)
2
(8%)
1
(4%)
23
(100%)

Fifteen of the 23 students were born in the U.S. (65%), 6 were born in
Mexico (26%), and 2 were born in Guatemala (9%). The educational levels of
their parents varied from elementary to some college. The educational level of

66
the parents are shown in Table 3. The table shows 21 parents because two sets of
twins took part in this study:
Table 3
Parents Educational Level
Some Primary
School
Some Middle
School
Some High
School
High School
Graduates
Some College
3
(14%)
4
(19)
6
(29%)
6
(29%)
2
(9%)

The majority of parents received their education from their country of
origin. One parent attended high school in the U.S. but did not graduate and two
parents graduated from a U.S. high school. No parents either graduated from or
attended a college in the U.S.
Seven Student Profiles
The following is a profile of seven students
3
who had plans of attending
a post secondary institution in the fall of 2008. These seven students were
selected to show the diversity of the students’ background and reasons they each
chose to attend their college or university of choice.
Jasmin was the older of two sisters who was the first in her family to
graduate from high school and go to college. She first thought about attending a
university when she was in middle school. She received support from parents,
teachers, and close friends who were enrolled in the same AP and Honors
________________________
3
Specific details have been left out and names of the students have been changed to maintain
confidentiality.

67
courses as well as the school’s college counselor. She lived with both of her

parents who were born in Mexico and did not have a high school education. Her
mother was a homemaker and her father worked laminating windows. She was
not aware of any extended family member who had attended a college or
university. Because of her low socioeconomic status, Jasmin had to work in
order to be able to afford paying for some personal items such as a cell phone
and to also pay for her senior activities which she said were expensive.
Jasmin was employed at a fast food restaurant near the high school
campus where she would walk to work immediately after school and worked
over 15 hours per week. In a short period of time after being employed Jasmin
was offered the position of assistant manager of the restaurant which she turned
down because she would have to work over 30 hours a week and would have to
stay late in the evening to close. Because she worked over 15 hours a week, she
was not able to devote as much time as required to maintain high grades. She
was doing much of her homework in the morning before school began and
during her classes. Not only did she work but was also enrolled in college
classes offered at her school. She successfully completed four college classes.
Her closest friends who were also in her AP, Honors, and college classes, who
were applying to universities started noticing that she was not completing her
homework. Her friends then began pressuring her to quit her job and to raise her
grades. Jasmin was only a few points behind the senior who had the highest

68
GPA of the senior class. Her friends encouraged her to do better in school so she
could be the school’s valedictorian and by “threatening” her if she did not go to
the school’s college center to meet with the college counselor and apply to
universities, “They said I had to [apply to colleges] no matter what or suffer the
consequences. They literally said that. The people who threatened me were my
friends, of course.” These friends helped each other and went to the high
school’s college center together to complete college applications, and to gather
scholarship information.
Because of the pressure from her friends to improve her grades she left
her job and during the last two months before graduation, Jasmin focused on
school. Jasmin graduated with a 3.990 GPA and had met all of the A-G
requirements for the University of California. She applied to UCLA, UC Irvine,
and San Diego State University. She was accepted to UCI and SDSU; however,
because she did not submit a document that was required by UCLA did not
accept her. According to her, “UCLA sent me an email asking for information
about me. I saw it after the day it was due, so I didn’t respond because it was too
late. Another friend told me he received the same email and didn’t respond
because it was late. I think maybe that’s the reason.” Jasmin’s first choice was
SDSU because it was far from home but close enough to visit often. If she had
chosen to attend UCLA or UCI she would have been pressured by her parents to
go home during the weekends because of the close proximity to her home. She

69
wanted to attend a campus where she could have the freedom to take part in
school activities and enjoy college life without the constraints of being at home
(i.e. curfew, house chores, etc.). Jasmin also chose to attend SDSU because they
offer what she wants to major in, Astronomy. This student who had a high GPA
and had successfully completed four college courses chose to attend SDSU
because they offered what she wanted to study and when she went to visit the
campus with her parents she felt that she could be successful at that university.
During the visit she met another female student and her parents and became fast
friends.
Karen is a twin with a 3.85 GPA and had successfully completed three
college courses. She lived with her single mother and her twin sister who was
also a high-achieving student. She had an older brother who was in the military
and was attending a community college. Karen first thought of attending a
university when she was in elementary school because she knew a woman in her
neighborhood who went on to attend a university after high school. It was at that
point that she wanted to do well in school so she could also go straight to a
university from high school. She then began to obtain information about the
different colleges and universities during her junior year of high school. Karen
knew exactly where she wanted to go to college, Hawaii. She wanted to be out
of California but live in a place with nice weather. She applied to the University
of Hawaii at Manoa, Hawaii Pacific University, and California State University,

70
Northridge as a back-up. She was accepted to all three and chose to attend the
University of Hawaii at Manoa.
While taking part in Project College Bound (PCB) she considered
applying to Stanford University because she wanted to study psychology and
was told that the psychology department at Stanford was one of the best in the
country. Although she did not like northern California because it is “too cold,”
she believed an undergraduate degree from Stanford would help her when
applying to a Ph.D. program in psychology. Then at one of the PCB meetings a
question was asked about the importance of program ranking within a
university. Students were told that the program rankings “didn’t matter” and so
she stopped the application process to Stanford and focused on the two
campuses in Hawaii. According to Karen, “One of the parents asked if the
rankings matter and the lady said that it didn’t matter as long as you feel
comfortable cause it could be the highest ranking but it doesn’t mean you’re
going to like it.” It was a relief for Karen to know that the program ranking was
not important. Although she had not been to Hawaii, she believed that she and
her twin sister (who was also accepted) would be successful at that institution.
This student chose to attend a university away from home knowing that she
would not be eligible to receive the Cal Grant but received a university
scholarship that covered both the out of state tuition fee and housing.

71
Yolanda was an undocumented student who had lived in the U.S. most of
her life. She lived with her mother, stepfather and a younger sister who was in
elementary school. She had a 3.661 GPA and had successfully completed three
college courses. She said that it was in fifth grade when she seriously thought
about going to a university because a teacher had influenced her. She had been
told by teachers and other adults that going to a university would be possible and
that other undocumented students had successfully earned their college degree.
Yolanda worked especially hard in high school and had maintained a high GPA
as well as completed the A-G requirements to the University of California.
Yolanda applied to UCLA, UCSB, UCSD, UCR, CSUN, and Woodbury
University. Her first choice was UCSB because she wanted to study Marine
Biology. However, because she was not going to receive any financial aid if she
attended a UC or CSU, she decided to focus on getting accepted to Woodbury
University and apply for as many scholarships as possible along with aid offered
by the university.
Woodbury University is a four year university that is accredited by the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) located in Burbank,
California. The university was founded in 1884 as Woodbury Business College
by educator and entrepreneur F.C. Woodbury. The primary focus of the college
was the field of business. In 1931, the division of professional arts was
established to focus on those fields of design that are closely allied to business.

72
Woodbury then became a college of business administration and design. In
1969, Woodbury introduced a graduate program leading to the Master of
Business Administration (MBA). In 1974, Woodbury College became
Woodbury University. In 1982, Computer Information Systems was added as a
major, followed in 1984 by Architecture. The first 153 years the college was
located in Los Angeles until 1985 when the university acquired 22.4 acres in
Burbank. In 1994 the University formally organized its undergraduate and
graduate programs into three schools: the School of Architecture and Design, the
School of Arts and Sciences, and the School of Business and Management.
The college counselor at her high school worked closely with her and
Woodbury University. She was not only accepted but also given enough aid to
cover most of her tuition. Unfortunately for Yolanda her parents had been
deported back to Mexico and wanted to take her with them. The high school
college counselor met with the parents many times to try to convince them that
Yolanda should stay and attend the university. The parents, especially the
stepfather who had raised her since she was an infant, were very reluctant to let
her stay. After several months of meetings between the student, college
counselor, and parents it was decided that Yolanda would stay and continue her
education at Woodbury University. Yolanda explained:
Well, because they filed for their residency and they were denied that, so
they could have kept fighting for that but the lawyer told them it was a
lost cause so they’re just going back now. At the moment they’re not
really happy because they need to go back to their home country so I

73
would be staying here almost by myself, so they’re not too happy about
that but I guess they now understand that in the long run its going to
benefit me.

Although Yolanda had a high GPA, Woodbury was the only university that she
was able to enroll that was close to the home of her stepfather’s sister and her
family who lived in the city of Pacoima, CA. Yolanda would be living with
them while attending Woodbury University. Yolanda planned to look for a job
to help pay for the tuition that was not covered with the aid that she was
awarded.
Nancy was the second oldest of four sisters and the first to attend a
university. Her older sister attended a career college but did not graduate. Her
parents did not have a high school education and although they wanted her to
continue her education they preferred that she would attend one of the local
community colleges rather than attend her university of choice, UC Riverside.
Nancy’s parents were supportive of her educational plans but worried because
she would be away from home. Nancy first thought about attending a university
when she was in fourth grade because a teacher encouraged them all to go to
college. Knowing that she wanted to attend a university, she worked hard in
school, asked to be placed in honors courses, and later took AP courses and two
college courses that would help her get into a university. She began gathering
information about colleges and universities during her junior year of high
school. Her goal was to later transfer to UCLA or USC after two years at UC

74
Riverside. Nancy did not apply directly to either UCLA or USC because she did
not believe she had the GPA needed for acceptance at those universities. With
her GPA of 3.196 she applied to UCR, CSUN, UCSB, CSULA, CSULB and
was accepted by all. She chose to attend UCR because the college counselor
took her to visit the campus and she felt very comfortable. The university was
also close enough to home where her parents can go visit but far enough for her
to be independent. Nancy believed that her GPA suffered because during her
junior and senior year she worked at Six Flags Magic Mountain and would work
up to 21 hours per week (not including up to an hour and a half of commuting).
She said she worked because, like Jasmin mentioned above, wanted to save
money for college and to pay for her personal items such as cell phone and
clothes and also wanted to make sure she would be able to pay for her senior
activities, especially her senior prom.
Ernesto was an undocumented student from Central America who was
the second youngest of five siblings and would be the first in his family to
graduate from high school. He had only been in the U.S. for three years but had
worked hard in school to earn high grades and to make sure he graduated with
other students his age. When students enroll in school from another country they
are given an English test to determine the English proficiency to then place them
in the proper English level. Depending on the student’s proficiency and the level
they are placed in, they can take an additional two years to graduate because

75
they would have to successfully pass an additional two years of English in order
to graduate. Ernesto’s determination to graduate with his class paid off by taking
courses during summer and taking two English classes each semester, something
that only advanced students can do because one English class is more advanced
than the other. With a GPA of 3.120 and having successfully passed all of his
classes he graduated with students his age. Being from a family with no high
school education he believed that a high school diploma would be the only thing
necessary to be successful in the U.S. Not only did he work hard in school but
also worked in a restaurant where he “bussed tables and mixed flour for
muffins.” Ernesto worked 38 hours per week for minimum wage while
maintaining high grades. Ernesto said he did not apply to any universities
because he did not believe he had mastered the English language to a fluency
level to be successful in a university. He said he was going to enroll at a local
community college first and transfer when he is more proficient in the English
language. He also said he was going to take classes through a vocational school
that is part of LAUSD to become an airplane mechanic. His future educational
plans were to work at an airport maintaining airplanes in the afternoon and
attend a university in the morning.
Oscar had three younger siblings and lived with his parents. His first real
thought about attending a university was in 11
th
grade when the college
counselor called him into the college center to ask him about his future plans.

76
Oscar had attended a different high school before transferring to his current high
school. Oscar was a high-achieving student who unfortunately for him had a
counselor at his previous high school who discouraged him from taking honors
courses that would be beneficial for him when applying to a university. He said
the counselor did not give him the opportunity to take AP classes because he
was “not capable of passing [AP] courses or completing [college]
requirements.” After two years at that high school he transferred to his current
high school and asked to be placed in Advanced Placement courses. His
counselor was reluctant because of his low grades but then told him that he
would have to convince the AP teachers to allow him in their class and then his
parents would have to meet with the counselor to sign a contract where he
agreed to pass all of his AP classes with at least a “B” if he wanted to continue
taking advanced courses. The college counselor then helped him enroll in
Honors and AP courses. He was also encouraged to enroll in community college
courses.
By the time Oscar graduated he had raised his GPA to a 3.102, had
successfully passed all five AP courses offered at the school, and successfully
completed 12 community college courses. Oscar enrolled at CSUN as a
sophomore because of the number of college courses he completed. He chose to
attend CSUN because he wanted to be close to home and help his parents with
his younger siblings, one of which had been expelled from school because of her

77
bad behavior in school. He was encouraging them to do well in school so they
could also attend a university. Oscar applied and was accepted to CSUN,
CSULA, and CSU Channel Islands but chose to attend CSUN to study
biochemistry. He did not apply to any private universities or UC campuses
because he said he did not have time to complete the applications because of the
course load that he was taking and also the responsibilities of being the Senior
Class President.
Cathy was the second oldest of seven siblings who were very proud of
their Mayan heritage. Cathy was born in Guatemala and spoke one of the Mayan
dialects at home with her siblings and parents. Cathy had a 3.787 GPA and had
successfully completed five college courses. Cathy was also a peer advisor in
the college center where she assisted other students complete their college and
financial aid applications. She had a father who was very supportive and
although he worked full time as a used car broker, his presence at the high
school was very frequent because he met with counselors and teachers often to
check on his daughter’s progress. Cathy’s father had encouraged her to do well
in school and to continue her education at a university. Her parents would tell
her that she had to attend a university because the “community college wasn’t
enough.”
Cathy began to gather information about the different colleges and
universities during her sophomore year in high school. Being close to her father,

78
who she called her “college buddy” because he was present at all college
meetings and college fairs, helped her in obtaining the validation and support
needed to succeed in high school and later in college. Her close relationship with
her father was important for her because she was able to share college and
scholarship information with him and he would later schedule an appointment
with the school’s college counselor to obtain more in depth information. Her
parents were so supportive that they told her that they were willing to “sell
everything” in order to pay for her university education.
Cathy applied to UCLA, UCSB, and UCD. Her first choice was UCLA
because one of her teachers at the high school was a UCLA graduate. While
waiting for her acceptance letter from UCLA, the representative from Mount St.
Mary’s College contacted her and invited her to apply. The representative met
with Cathy on several occasions and also met with the parents to inform them
about the university and what it had to offer. Cathy and her father visited both
the two and four year campuses (Doheny and Chalon) of Mount St. Mary’s
College and felt very comfortable on both campuses. The college representative
made herself available to them and helped them with the university and financial
aid applications. Because of Cathy’s GPA, five college courses completed, and
peer advisor experience, she received enough aid to cover most of her tuition at
Mount St. Mary’s College which was renewable for four years if she maintained
a 3.0 GPA. Cathy chose to attend Mount St. Mary’s College because she was

79
made to feel comfortable when she visited the campuses and because the college
representative also made her feel like she was “wanted” at the university. After
Cathy decided to attend Mount St. Mary’s College she received an e-mail from
UCLA asking her to send more needed information and documents in order to
be accepted. She ignored the e-mail because she had chosen to attend Mount St.
Mary’s College.
Introduction to the Remaining 16 Participants

The following is a short description of the remaining 16 students who
were interviewed for this study.
Georgette was the oldest of six siblings and the first in her family to
attend a university. Her mother was a homemaker and her father worked in the
used car industry. Georgette had a family member who lived in Mexico and who
graduated from a university in Mexico who supported and encouraged her to
attend a university. She first thought about attending college when she was in 5
th

grade. She chose to attend CSUN because she wanted to stay close to home.
Briana was the twin sister of Karen, who was mentioned earlier, and also
chose to attend the University of Hawaii, Manoa with her sister. Although she
had never visited the university or had been to Hawaii she believes that she and
her sister were going to be successful at that university.
Robert was the youngest of three siblings. He lived with his parents and
two older sisters who graduated from CSUN. Both of his parents graduated from

80
high school in their country in South America. He first thought about attending a
university when he was in 8
th
grade to be a writer. He applied to two UC and
CSU campuses and was accepted by all. The campus he chose to attend was UC
Santa Cruz because of the reputation of their writing program.
Beto lived with his parents, twin brother, and two younger siblings. His
mother was a homemaker and his father worked in building maintenance. Beto
did not enroll in any college courses or took part in any college program because
he played two sports, football and baseball. Both of his parents were very
supportive of him going to college especially his father. His father attended a
high school in the San Fernando Valley but did not graduate. His father was
very supportive and had encouraged his children to go to college. Beto chose to
attend California Lutheran University.
Eduardo is Beto’s twin brother and he also chose to attend California
Lutheran University with his brother.
Damian was an undocumented student who lived with his parents and
two younger siblings. He first thought about attending college in 10
th
grade after
meeting the college counselor at his current high school. Damian chose to attend
CSUN because it was close to home and because his father who worked in
construction would be able to help him financially. Damian also planned to
work in order to pay his tuition since he was not able to receive financial aid. He
applied to various scholarships with hopes to receive some financial assistance

81
to pay for tuition. He was accepted to CSUN’s engineering program and hoped
that with a degree in engineering he would be able to find a job after graduation.
Damian believed that he would be in a much better position to help his family
stay permanently in California after he graduating with his degree.
Cindy was an undocumented student who lived with her parents and two
younger sisters. Her mother was a housewife and father worked in construction.
She first thought about attending a university in middle school after a relative
from Mexico encouraged her to do well in school so she could “live a
comfortable life.” In her last year of middle school and throughout her high
school years she worked hard to earn high grades to ensure her acceptance to a
university. Unfortunately because of her legal status she did not apply to a
university but would attend a community college with plans of transferring to a
university after two years.
Mario lived with a single mother and two younger siblings. He chose to
attend the University of Arizona because he had a close cousin who was a
student there. His mother was very supportive of him going to Arizona even if
she remained in California with her younger children. He first thought about
attending a university in 7
th
grade and from that point he tried to earn as many
A’s as possible.
Marilyn was the middle child who lived with her parents and younger
sister. She first thought about attending a university in the 11
th
grade after she

82
met the college counselor at her current high school. When she was attending
her previous high she said she “didn’t know where the college center was.”
Although it was late in her high school years that she thought about going to
college she did not have to work extra hard in her classes because she had high
grades and had successfully passed AP and Honors courses at her previous
school. She just needed someone to encourage her. Fortunately for her she met
the college counselor who informed her and her parents about attending a
university. She applied to various universities and was accepted to Woodbury
University and her first choice, Colorado State University (CSU). Marilyn
decided not to attend CSU because it was too far and she would miss her family.
She decided to enroll at Woodbury University and with the help of the college
counselor was offered a generous financial package.
Bruno was an undocumented student who lived with his mother,
stepfather and four younger siblings. He first thought about attending a
university when he was in 4
th
grade because his teacher would encourage the
students to go to college. The teacher told Bruno that he was “intelligent and
should go to college.” Unfortunately his legal status was an obstacle to applying
to a university. He chose to enroll at a local community college with plans to
later transfer to UCLA.
Candi lived with her parents and two younger siblings. Her parents
encouraged her to attend a university. Her parents were both high school

83
graduates from Mexico and knew the importance of an education. Candi had
been told by her parents that she must go to college. Candi said that her parents
“Didn’t give me an option. I had to go to college because my [younger] brother
and sister look up to me.” She chose to attend CSUN because she did not want
to go far from home and because she is familiar with the campus.
Angela lived with her parents and two sisters, one who was finishing her
last year at CSUN. Her parents were both janitors but had encouraged their
daughter to pursue a university education. Angela first thought about seriously
attending a university when she was in 8
th
grade. She and her friends would talk
about going to college and help each other after graduating and working in their
chosen careers. Angela would talk about being a teacher to teach her friends’
children, a friend who wanted to be a doctor said she would provide health care
for them. Angela chose to attend CSUN because she was familiar with the
campus and because of the excellent reputation the school of education has in
graduating teachers.
Nicole lived with her parents and an older sister who was attending a
community college. Both of her parents were high school graduates. Her mother
graduated from high school in Mexico and her father attended school in El
Salvador but graduated from a high school in Los Angeles. Her first thoughts of
attending a university were in the 9
th
grade because she wanted to be the first in
her family to go “straight to a university.” Her parents were supportive and

84
encouraged her to do well in school. Nicole later changed her mind about
attending a university and wanted to do “something that didn’t require college,
like dancing.” The reason she chose not apply to a university was because she
was “undecided” on what she wanted to major in. Nicole then decided to study
cosmetology and attend a community college to open her own business.
Jill was a twin who chose to attend CSU San Bernardino to study
nursing. Jill had three older brothers, a younger sister, and a twin sister who
remained at home to attend a vocational school. One of Jill’s older brothers was
attending Boston College and had been supportive of her attending a university.
Her father did not support her decision to go away from home and wanted for
her to attend CSUN or a local community college. Jill said that her father did not
want her to go away because she is a girl and he “doesn’t want anything bad to
happen to me.” She first thought of attending a university when she was in
middle school because her brother was applying to UCLA and took her to see
the campus.
Amy was the oldest of three siblings who lived with her parents. Her
mother graduated from a high school in Los Angeles and her father did not
finish elementary school. Her parents were supportive and encouraged her to
attend a university. Amy’s mother wanted to attend a university but because she
was the oldest she had to work after she graduated from high school. She
encouraged and supported her younger brothers and sisters who graduated from

85
UCLA and CSUN. Amy’s aunts and uncles had been very supportive and had
helped her complete college and financial aid applications. Amy chose to attend
CSUN because she had visited the campus many times when her aunts and
uncles were enrolled and felt comfortable on the campus.
Liz was an undocumented student who lived with her parents. She had
two older sisters, one who attended a community college and two younger
brothers. She first thought about attending college in the beginning of her senior
year when her sister who attended college told her that she would support her.
Her parents were supportive of her going to college but her legal status has
prevented her from applying to a university. She chose to attend a community
college and then transfer to CSUN at a later date.
Student Background Information
The findings for this study are divided into five sections from the results
of the students’ responses to the interview protocol (Appendix D). Section one
provides the result of the students’ background information. Section two
addresses their decision to go to college. Section three discusses their decision to
apply to college. Section four covers the ways in which they plan to pay for
college. Section five is the result of the types of college related activities that
students took part in during high school.
High-achieving Latino students are not a homogenous group. These
students’ parents came from different countries with different educational

86
backgrounds with the goal of finding a job to help provide for their family. All
of the parents who were working held blue collar jobs and most did not have a
high school education. In 11 homes the father was the only one working, the
mothers did not work because they were ‘homemakers’. Seventeen of the
students lived with both biological parents, three lived with their biological
mother and stepfather, and three lived with a single mother. In this case 74%
lived with both biological parents and 87% lived in a two parent household.
All of the students in the study first spoke a language other than English.
Twenty two students spoke Spanish and one spoke Indigenous Maya as their
first language. Spanish was still spoken at home with parents and only two
students spoke mostly English to their parents. When speaking with siblings and
friends the language that was mostly used was English. All of the students had
the skills to communicate in both English and Spanish. Twelve had continued to
improve their Spanish language by taking Spanish classes in high school while
eleven others chose to take French. The students had the ability to communicate
clearly with their parents and other members of their family in both English and
Spanish.
Six parents had a high school education, two of whom graduated from a
high school in the Los Angeles area and three graduated from high school in
their home country. Two other parents had attended some college in their home
country but no parent had graduated from a college or university. Both of the

87
parents who attended some college left school to work in the U.S. because
college was too expensive for them. Mario shared that:
My mom went to college but she had to come to the U.S. So she had to
drop out cause there wasn’t a lot of money…She did tell me she went for
a year or two but she had to come out because of the money.

Thirteen of the students stated that they had a close family member who was
attending or had attended a college or university while the other ten did not. Of
the students who reported a family member with a post secondary education, six
students said they had a close family member who was attending or had attended
a community college; two students had a close family member who was
currently attending a university, and five students had a close family member
who had graduated from a university. Two of the students with a family member
who graduated from a university reported that their family received their degrees
in Mexico. The 13 students mentioned above had a family member who knew
what was required to attend a college or university and were seen as a resource
person and role model.
Nine of the students worked after school to avoid asking their parents for
money to pay for their senior activities. The number of hours the students
worked varied from 10 to 38 hours per week. Most of the students worked
between 15-25 hours per week. When asked why they worked Jasmin said, “To
not ask parents for money. Senior year is expensive.” Because of her family’s
low income status she had to work in order to afford to take part in the senior

88
activities such as Prom, Grad Night, senior pictures as well as purchasing
clothes for such activities. Jasmin later had to quit her job at a fast food
restaurant because she was working over 15 hours per week and her grades
began dropping. Peer pressure from her friends to quit her job and raise her
grades helped in her decision.
Georgette worked “…to pay for my phone and not ask parents for
money.” She wanted to be able to purchase and pay for personal items needed.
Mario had future plans and wanted to save money for his future goals:
First I started working to get my car but then I started thinking more in
lines of saving up for college. I wasn’t worrying about college much
because of the scholarships, but I’m saving [money] in case there isn’t a
lot of scholarships.

Eduardo knew he was going to go to college and that money was going to be an
issue. When he started working he had one goal in mind, “To save up money for
college.”
Deciding to go to College
All of the students first thought about going to a university at different
grade levels. Five of the top six students first thought about attending a
university in elementary or middle school. Six students first thought about
attending a university in elementary school, eight students in middle school, and
nine in high school. Students who first think about attending a university in
elementary or middle school may have more time to prepare and to do better in

89
school compared to students who may wait until high school to begin the college
going process.
Students in this study were motivated to continue their education in
various ways. Nine students said that they were told that a university education
would provide for a better life. These students would be able to obtain a job that
paid much more than minimum wage and would also be able to live a lifestyle
that could be better than what their parents were able to afford. Six students
were made aware of the opportunities available to them after graduating with a
college degree. The college degree would allow them to achieve their
professional goals such (physicians, teachers, engineer). Other ways in which
students were encouraged were by being informed about financial aid and the
motivation and encouragement received by counselors and teachers.
Eleven students also reported that they received assistance from a peer
counselor when they were applying to college and financial aid. Peer counselors
were trained by the college counselor before the beginning of the school year
and continued their training throughout the school year so they could assist their
peers with the college application process. Peer advisors were placed in the
school’s college center for one semester where they all helped students complete
the online college and financial aid applications after school. These students also
received five high school credits that counted towards their graduation.

90
In order for students to be peer counselors they had to successfully
complete a college class during the summer of their junior year. The class was a
Personal Development class offered through LA Valley College that was taught
by the school’s college counselor. Students who enrolled in this class learned
about the college going process such as learning how to write a personal
statement, the different levels of higher education (community college, CSUs,
UCs, Private Universities, and vocational schools), financial aid, and learning to
write a resume. These students completed practice CSU, UC, and FAFSA
applications from the previous years so they could become familiar with them.
The college counselor would then update them as needed during the application
months, from November when the college applications are due to March when
the FAFSA application is due. The class was not limited to the peer counselors
but open to everyone interested in taking the class. Students who successfully
complete the class earn three college credits and five high school credits. The
Personal Development class is also an equivalent class to the Life Skills class
that is required for high school graduation.
While some students received support from their peers, other did not.
Ernesto was discouraged by his peers because he was undocumented and most
of his friends were undocumented as well. When he was asked how his friends
discouraged him he responded by saying that his friends would say to him, “In
your dreams you’ll go to college” and “you don’t have the grades to go to

91
college.” They would also laugh and make fun of him. Although this student
met the entrance requirements to the University of California he chose to begin
college at a community college to improve his language skills. He did not apply
to any university because he did not believe that he was proficient enough in
English to be successful at a university. Ernesto chose to attend a community
college in the morning, vocational school in the evening and work between
classes and on weekends. His future plans were to transfer to a university and
even if he had to pay tuition he would be able to afford it by working as an
aviation mechanic.
Ernesto was not the only student who was discouraged from attending a
university. Yolanda was discouraged by her stepfather. Her family was going to
return to Mexico because they had been deported and her stepfather did not want
her to stay in the U.S. by herself. According to Yolanda, “My stepfather would
tell me tell me I that can’t do it, it’s hard, and I can’t take all that pressure.” Jill
was another student who was going to attend a university away from home but
was discouraged by her father. Jill said that her father did not want her to attend
a university far from home because he did not want anything “bad” to happen to
her, “My dad has negative thoughts about it [going away] because I am a girl.
He doesn’t want anything bad to happen to me.” According to Liz, friends and
relatives would often tell her, “That its hard getting into college because of [my]
immigration status.” Although these four students were discouraged from

92
attending a university, Yolanda chose to attend Woodbury University and Jill
chose CSU San Bernardino. Because of their immigration status, both Ernesto
and Liz chose to attend a community college with plans to transfer to a
university in the future.
Applying to College
All of the students met the eligibility requirements for entrance to the
University of California. All the students reported they would attend a college or
university in the fall of 2008. Students applied to different types of institutions
both in California and out of state. Students applied to the University of
California, the California State University, community colleges, and private
universities. No student applied to a for-profit or proprietary vocational school.
Table 4 is a student’s profile which shows the students qualifications to enter a
university and the selectivity for each of the institutions that all 23 students
applied:
Table 4
Profile of High-Achieving Latino Students
College Selectivity of Institutions
Student AP Courses Courses _____________________
Name GPA Completed Completed 1 2 3 4

Jasmin 3.990 5 4 1 1 1
Georgette 3.885 4 3 1
Karen 3.805 4 3 1 2

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Table 4, Continued
______________________________________________________________
Cathy 3.787 2 5 2 1 1
Briana 3.696 3 3 2 1
Yolanda 3.661 4 3 3 1 2
Robert 3.654 4 3 2 2 2

Beto 3.547 2 0 1 1

Damian 3.522 6 3 1

Cindy 3.50 3 2 2 2 1
Ed 3.404 2 0 1
Mario 3.401 3 3 3 2 1 2
Marilyn 3.386 3 3 2 1 1
Bruno 3.333 4 1 Community College
Candi 3.333 4 0 2 1
Angela 3.274 1 0 3
Nancy 3.196 1 2 2 1 1 2
Nicole 3.135 1 0 Community College

Ernesto 3.120 3 0 Community College

Oscar 3.102 5 12 3

Liz 3.095 2 3 Community College

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Table 4, Continued
______________________________________________________________
Jill 3.039 1 3 3 1 1 3

Amy 3.002 3 1 2 1 2
Note: College selectivity is based on the 2009 edition of the Ultimate College Guide of U.S.
News & World Report (6
th
Edition). 1 is Most Selective, 2 is More Selective, 3 is Selective, and
4 is Less Selective.

Three students applied only to a community college, while the rest
applied to at least two universities. Thirteen students applied to at least one
campus of the University of California. Two of the students who only applied to
a community college did so because of their immigration status. Attending a
community college would be less expensive and they both had plans of
transferring to a university in the future. Nicole, who was the only student that
was not undocumented but would attend a community college said:
I didn’t apply to any because I was undecided…because I wanted to do
something that didn’t require college like dancing…I like Hip-Hop but
I’m open to other dances…I’m planning to go to Pierce and study
cosmetology and later open my own business.

Although the student was undecided and wanted to study something that did not
require a college education, she enrolled at a community college to gain the
skills necessary to run a business. The student was aware that the community
colleges have open enrollment and although she did not apply early she can
enroll at a later date before the beginning of the fall semester.

95
Although all of the students in this study met the eligibility requirements,
several students did not apply to any of the University of California campuses
for various reasons. Georgette, who had a 3.885 GPA, did not apply to any UC
campuses, “Because I ran out of time. I left things at the last minute.” When
asked why she said, “I don’t know. With all the school work I had and my
computer wasn’t working which made it difficult for me to do things.”
Karen said she did not apply to a UC campus because she did not want to
write the statement of purpose. She considered it a “waste of time” because she
knew that she did not want to attend a university in California and many
universities required some sort of essay. This same student’s first choice was the
University of Hawaii which did not require a statement of purpose or any other
type of essay. She said:
I just applied to CSUN and to Hawaii. I chose those because I didn’t
have to write a personal statement, they’re just, apply online and I didn’t
have to do a lot for it. They’re still pretty good schools. Oh, and money
sorry and the location Hawaii, yeah. CSUN is just a backup.

The complexity of the application process may also be a reason why
students may not apply or choose to not complete the application process to
highly selective universities. To be admitted to a CSU campus students must
complete the A-G course requirements and obtain a qualifying score on the SAT
or ACT exams (see Appendix A). Students who wish to attend the more
selective campuses of the University of California have more requirements to
fulfill and must also compete with many more students who would like to attend

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a highly selective university. Table 5 shows the entrance requirements for
selected universities that students applied.
Table 5
University Entrance Requirements
UCLA UCB UCI UCR CSUN SDSU U. of Hawaii
at Manoa
________________________________________________________________
School VI VI VI VI VI VI VI
Records

Class Rank NC NC C NC NC NC I
Standardized VI I VI VI VI VI VI
Tests

Personal VI VI VI C NC NC NC
Statement

Extra Curricular I I VI NC NC NC C
Activities

Volunteer Work I I VI NC NC NC NC
Work
Experience I I VI NC NC NC NC
Note: College selectivity is based on the 2009 edition of the Ultimate College Guide of U.S.
News & World Report (6
th
Edition). VI is Very Important, I is Important, C is Considered, NC is
Not Considered.

The requirements for admission vary for each campus on Table 5. The more
selective universities have more requirements for admission than less selective
universities. All of the universities in this sample are in accord that academic
school records and standardized test scores are very important to attend these
institutions. UC-Berkeley was the only UC that did not place as much

97
importance to the standardized tests as the others. UC-Irvine and the University
of Hawaii-Manoa were the only two institutions that placed importance to the
class ranks of students.
The personal statement is considered very important to three universities,
UCLA, UCB, and UCI and is only considered at UCR. The personal statement is
the student’s opportunity to write about themselves to share personal
experiences that cannot be captured on the application. It is also an opportunity
for the selection committee to get to know the student more personally which
can be the deciding factor of acceptance to the university. Writing the personal
statement can be very challenging and stressful for students especially if they
wait too long to write it or do not believe they have the writing skills to write
one.
Only three universities take into consideration extra-curricular activities,
volunteer work, and work experience when deciding which students to accept
into their institution. This shows that students must not only do well
academically but also take part in activities after school. These three universities
select students who not only do well in school but were also active in their
community.
The three universities in this sample that are the least selective are UCR,
CSUN, and SDSU. The requirements that these universities considered the most
important for admissions were school records and standardized tests. These

98
universities did not consider what the other universities considered to be
important or very important such as the personal statement. The University of
California at Riverside only considered the personal statement while CSUN,
SDSU, and the University of Hawaii-Manoa did not.
College Distance from Home
There were many reasons students applied to particular universities. The
distance of the university they chose to attend from their home was an important
factor in their college choice. The students staying close to home mentioned that
family was the main reason they wanted to stay close. By staying close to home
they would not only continue receiving family support but they could also be a
source of support for their parents and siblings. Fifteen students attended a
college or university close to home and with a distance of no more than five
miles. Five students attended a university in California with a distance of more
than ten miles from home and only three students attended a university out of
California. The map on appendix G shows the universities students attended and
the distance from their school of attendance.
Jasmin who had the highest GPA of the group chose to attend SDSU
because it was the furthest away from home that she applied to and she would
have more freedom to experience college life:
SDSU because it is the furthest away…because I feel that being a certain
distance away…people don’t know me so I can do things I would not do
if I was at home.

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This student wanted to experience college life without worrying about such
things like getting home at a certain time or asking her parents for permission to
take part in activities which may take place on or off campus. Of the five
undocumented students interviewed for this study, four chose to attend a
community college; one attended Woodbury University because most of her
tuition was covered with university grants and scholarships.
Cathy, who was applying to UCLA stopped the application process
because she was courted by a Mount St. Mary’s College recruiter. The recruiter
met with the student often at school and also at her home where she met the
student’s parents. The recruiter was helpful in answering the student and parents
questions. When the student visited that campus and felt comfortable she
decided to attend Mount St. Mary’s College than to continue with the UCLA
application process. When she was asked to share when she started to gather
information about universities she said:
I started in my tenth grade especially UCLA since, you know, everybody
wants to go to UCLA. So that’s why I was like ‘is this a good school for
me?’ So I went in and got the research [on UCLA] and then Mount St.
Mary’s came along my senior year, actually the representative came to
me rather than me going to the college, so I felt better, I felt wanted and
it feels good to feel like that. The other schools just sent me information
in the mail.

And when she was asked how she felt when she was on those campuses she
said:

All the schools I visited were great. They have all the things that I
wanted but Mount St. Mary’s made me feel like I was wanted, I felt like

100
I was home. I’m leaving my real family but I can find a lot of family
right there cause, especially [college recruiter], the representative, she’s
the one that gave us the tour, she’s so kind everyone around there was
wonderful so I felt more comfortable. The other tours were great too the
people you could interact with them you can feel like you can sit with
them and they’ll be like okay.

This student felt a personal connection with the college recruiter and was made
to feel welcome and comfortable when she visited the campus. The college
recruiter also made the parents believe that their daughter was going to be safe
on campus.
Oscar said that he did not apply to any UC campuses because:
First because I…to be honest, I did not have time to complete the
application…Because I was taking many AP courses and because of my
responsibility as senior class president. I think my problem was
managing my time.

This student chose to attend CSUN because:

I want to be close to home. When I was applying my family was going
through some problems with my sister and I wanted to be close to help.

This student successfully completed 13 college courses had applied to three
CSUs and was applying to USC and Pepperdine when he decided to stay close
to home to help his parents with his younger sibling.
Paying for College
All of the students reported that they were made aware of the different
types of financial aid available to them. All of the students, except the
undocumented, completed the FAFSA to receive the Cal Grant. The college
counselor was the person mentioned most as having helped them complete the

101
application. The majority of the students reported that although their biggest
concern was paying tuition they do not believe it would be an obstacle to obtain
an undergraduate degree. All of the students applied for scholarships and were
in the process of searching for more to help pay their college tuition. As new
information on scholarships arrived to the college center, public announcements
were made to invite students to the college center to pick up an application. The
undocumented students were especially interested in applying to scholarships
because they needed money to continue their education. Students picked up
scholarship applications from the college center and also went on-line and
searched various scholarship websites.
School Activities Related to College Going
Students were asked about their college going activities while in high
school. All of the students successfully completed AP courses and Algebra 2 as
well as met the entrance requirements to the University of California. All of the
students registered for at least one AP exam. Table 6 lists the AP exams students
took during their 11
th
and 12
th
grade years:

102
Table 6
Advanced Placement Exams and Test Results
Number of Test Scores
Exam students who ___________________________
took exam 1 2 3 4 5

AP Eng Lang/Comp 12 7 5
US History 8 8

English Lit/Comp 21 14 7

Govt & Pol US 11 11
Biology 2 2
Spanish Lang 6 1 4 1
Calculus A/B 6 3 2 1
Spanish Lit 1 1
French Lang 1 1
________________________________________________________________

A score of 3 of higher on any exam is a passing score. Only six students in this
sample passed the AP exams.
Fourteen of the 23 students attended a college fair to learn more about
different college campuses and to obtain information about universities they
might want to attend. College fairs are scheduled on high school campuses
where college, university, and proprietary school recruiters are invited to attend
to give students information about their institution. Students who attended the
college fairs on their school campus or at other institutions were able to ask

103
the recruiters questions, obtain the college application and pick up other
literature that can help them in making a more informed decision when applying
to a college or university. Students interested in a particular institution could
also obtain a business card from the recruiter to have as a direct contact who can
direct the potential student to the right person or department at the institution.
The students who attended the college fairs said it was helpful to them
because they learned about college majors, the variety of colleges that students
can choose from, financial aid offered at each college, and the location of each
campus. Marilyn and Bruno were made aware of colleges and universities
located throughout California and the different majors that were offered:
Marilyn: It was very informative because I got to know about other
schools not just the ones around here. And about the programs, it was
very informative.

Bruno: …the location, what kind of degrees they offered, their majors
and minors, its like, early on I started noticing that each school has
something different to offer. Like this one is more into engineering, this
one is more into science and health and that kinda stuff.

Candi and Cathy learned about the application process and requirements to
different universities. Cathy also mentioned that the information given by the
college representative had also been given by counselors which adds more
credibility to school counselors when they inform students about the college
going process,
Candi: I learned about different schools. I got a lot of information about
different colleges which made it easier to apply to the colleges I applied
to.

104
Cathy: I learned about the different types of colleges that are in the
United States and also the application process, early admission, financial
aid and much of the information that counselors talk about and there was
someone there to convince us that their school is best for us.

All of the students who attended the college fairs said that attending the fair was
helpful to them and that they would encourage their friends to attend.
Only one parent of the 23 students attended the college fair. Most of the
students said that it was difficult for parents to attend the college fair because it
was during school hours, which are the hours that parents work. Others said that
since the college fairs were held on the school campus they believed that parents
were not allowed to attend. Only Cathy’s father chose to attend the college fair
that was held at a community college where he picked up college information
for his younger children, “My dad took me there, and we got to see the different
schools and we got information for my younger siblings because they got a
future too.”
The majority of the students were in the same AP classes together and
dually enrolled in the same community college classes. All of the college
courses that students enrolled in were held at the high school campus. It was
convenient for the students since they did not have to drive to the college
campus. These students had the opportunity to be together in their AP classes
and in the same college classes due to their participation in the Project College
Bound program. The students got to know each other very well and had plans of
keeping in touch after graduation. These high-achieving students had the

105
opportunity to help each other not just in their classes but were also able to share
information among themselves about colleges and financial aid. The students
also encouraged each other to not only do well in school but apply to a
postsecondary institution.
Parents
All of the students in this study mentioned that their parents played an
important role in their decision to attend a college or university. When students
have both parents who work at least one of the parents was more active in their
children’s education by making an extra effort to attend meetings at school and
encouraging their child at home. For students who took part in the Project
College Bound program, it was mandatory for a parent to attend the meetings
also. By attending the meetings parents were made aware of the entrance
requirements to the universities as well as the different types of financial
assistance available.
Most of the parents attended school in their home country but none of
them had a college degree. Even with the lack of college knowledge parents
were supportive of their children’s education and encouraged them to do well in
school and to continue their education beyond high school. In only two cases,
the fathers were not supportive of their daughter’s decision to attend a
university. Yolanda was going to remain in California while the rest of the
family returned to Mexico because they were deported. The other student, Jill,

106

was going to attend California State University, San Bernardino even though her
father was not supportive and preferred for her to attend the local university or
community college.
Parents used different strategies to encourage their children, from
helping them with their school projects to telling them that community college
was not enough. Other parents gave their children examples of the different
lifestyles of people with and without a university education. Beto’s parents met
with his teachers and counselor often to ensure that he was doing well in school
and also helped him with school projects, “They always came to school to any
orientations we had with teachers. Any projects we had they helped us anyway
they could and that’s how they encouraged us.” Cathy’s parents wanted her to
attend a university and not attend a community college, “My parents said that
community college wasn’t enough. And they saw the struggles that I go through
just with my studies and they thought it was a bad choice to go [to a community
college].”
Karen’s parents did not want her to work in the same type of jobs they
work in and earn minimum wage, “They said it was going to be a better
future…they don’t want me to be working like they do, minimum wage and
stuff.” Cindy’s parents spoke to her about the importance of a college education
and how that education can lead to a better life for her, “My parents by always

107
giving me the talk, they always talked to me about it and how it would lead me
to a better life, better future.” Candi’s parents used threats to encourage her to go
to college. She was given an ultimatum of either going to college or leaving
home when she graduated from high school, “They [parents] didn’t give me an
option, I had to go to college or leave when I turn 18. I was also told that my
siblings look up to me. So I had to [go to college].”
Amy’s mother did not have the opportunity to go to college after she
graduated from high school. Because she was the oldest she began working after
graduating from high school but encouraged her younger siblings to attend a
university. Her younger siblings later graduated from CSUN and UCLA. Amy,
who is now graduating has the support and encouragement from her mother as
well as her aunts and uncles who are college graduates, “My family said its
important and first priority and since they did it [graduate from a university] I
have to do it too.” Eduardo mentioned his father as the person who encouraged
him the most. His father who was not a high school graduate but did attend a
high school in the Los Angeles area did not have the opportunity to go to
college.
Mostly my parents, my dad, he wanted the opportunity to go to college
but he had no one to support him, to push him so he is pushing my
brother and I to take that step he didn’t take to go to college…They
[parents] motivated us to go.

108
Mario mentioned that his mom, who was widowed and single had encouraged
him, not by words but by her actions of working hard and supporting her three
children:
My mom didn’t encourage me as in like telling me [to go to college], she
encouraged me because I saw her working, you know, she has two kids,
she’s a single mom and I see what’s going on, that encourages me. She
doesn’t have to tell me, you know, to go to college. It was just like all in
my head just seeing the way she is.

His mother’s occupation made him aware of the challenges a person without a
college education may face. This student believed that his mother encouraged
him by showing him his future without a college degree.
Encouragement and support from siblings was also very important for
students to apply to a university. Angela mentioned her sister who is a senior at
CSUN who has encouraged her:
Mostly the oldest one [who is attending CSUN], my parents, my dad
who always told us to never be like him he wants us to be higher than
them, so yeah my family… my dad has always been there for me, my
mom. They’ve always told me stories about their lives and how it would
be if I study hard and everything. My sister is always there for me, my
games [volleyball], my education.

Liz who had a sister who attended a community college but did not graduate
encouraged her younger sister to attend college and told her that she would help
her.
My sister, the second oldest one. She encourages me a lot to
go…because…she didn’t, she wasn’t able to so she tells me that if I have
a chance she will support me and help me…my sister has helped me a lot
with the applications and stuff.

109

Regardless of the parents and students’ legal status, these high-achieving
students have thought about attending a university and they all had people in
their lives who encouraged them. Parents, counselors, and teachers were the
people who were mentioned most often and they all received assistance from
them whether it was completing applications, receiving college and financial aid
information, or encouragement. All of the students mentioned that their parents
were proud that they would continue their education at a college or university.
Two students mentioned family members who had tried to discourage
them from attending a university. Yolanda mentioned that her parents were
deported back to Mexico and would be leaving in July. Although her mom was
happy that she planned to stay to attend a university, her step-father was not as
excited. Her stepfather had tried to persuade her to go back with them and had
discouraged her from attending a university:
Well at the moment they’re not really happy because they need to go
back to their home country so I would be staying here almost by myself,
so they’re not too happy about that but I guess they now understand that
in the long run its going to benefit me… Well at times they still struggle
with it [attending a university] but since they figured out who I’m gonna
stay with and some of those things they’re almost OK with it…for right
now I will be staying with my uncle my dad’s brother and his family, my
grandma also lives with them, so with them. But after that I would
probably have to move in with my brothers godparents because my uncle
the one the one that I will be staying with is going to lose his house so
he’s also struggling at the same time…the most supportive I guess is my
mom and the least is my dad…the people that would discourage me, I
guess it’s sad to say but my own family because, you know, being an
immigrant you don’t have the many opportunities that other people have
such as money, getting financial aid, and other things, so, they’re kinda

110

ignorant on the whole thing of going to college so they don’t think that
it’s possible but they’re kinda getting educated on it now, so, they’re not
so discouraging anymore.

Jill also mentioned that her father was not supportive of the idea of her going to
a university. When asked the reason why he was not supportive she said:
My dad has negative thoughts about it…Because I’m a girl and he
doesn’t want anything bad to happen to me.

Most of the students said they were not discouraged by anyone. The
students who did report some type of discouragement were from family, two of
which are mentioned above, teachers and one college counselor at a previous
high school. Cathy mentioned that some family members were discouraging her
from attending a university. When asked if anyone had discouraged her from
attending a university she said, “I think my uncles because they think that, um,
cause as soon as they see their kids earn a few dollars, they’re like ‘why doesn’t
she work?’” When asked in what ways did these people discourage her she said:
In a way that they always talk behind my family they always told my
parents that ‘how could she become better than us?’ ‘How can she do
better than me the one that’s trying to finish high school?’ but then my
parents tell them ‘because she has the motivation and support, if you
support her she’ll do good, maybe you need to support your family too.’

These parents supported their daughter’s decision to attend a university and
were able to defend her decision to other family members. Although family
members attempted to discourage these two students, they continued with their

111
plans to attend a university. In this sample three female students were
discouraged from attending a university, Yolanda, Cathy, and Jill.
College Counselor
The person who was mentioned the most often who worked at the school
was the college counselor. The college counselor for these students in the study
took the time to help them complete the college and financial aid applications.
The college counselor was also a resource in recommending an institution for
students with particular needs and interests. Two of the recommendations made
by the counselor were for two students to apply to Woodbury University. The
two students who chose to attend Woodbury University worked closely with the
counselor and the institution to ensure that not only were the students accepted
but also received financial aid. One of the students was undocumented and not
only was she accepted but was given a very generous scholarship which met
most of her financial need.
The other student who chose to attend Woodbury University had applied
and was also accepted to the University of Colorado. The student changed her
mind late in January because the university was far from home. After speaking
with the college counselor the student was recommended to apply to Woodbury
University because it was close to home and applications were still being
accepted. Another student who was reluctant to move away from home was
taken to UC Riverside by the college counselor to visit the campus and to meet

112
with students on campus. After visiting the campus she submitted her letter of
intent to register. Table 7 shows the frequency of school personnel mentioned by
students as the people who were most supportive:
Table 7
Supportive School Personnel
School Personnel Mentioned Frequency
School Counselor 17
Academic Counselor 10
English Teacher 5
History/Government Teacher 4
Math Teacher 2
Physical Education Teacher 1
Middle School Teacher 1
Elementary School Teacher 3

The college counselor was mentioned most often as the person who
motivated and encouraged students. Teachers from three school levels were also
mentioned, elementary, middle, and high school as people who encouraged
students to go to college. Robert said that the college counselor inspired him and
gave him moral support,
She [college counselor] inspired me, she encouraged and…gave that
extra push I really needed to take it to another level…[she gave] me the
facts, pretty much, by telling me how to do it. It was kinda

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straightforward and she was here for moral support as well, so it kinda
really told me I could do it.

Yolanda mentioned the college counselor as well as other teachers who
supported and encouraged her to go to college:
Well, I had a couple of teachers throughout my middle school and high
school but that I can remember probably my leadership teacher, the
college counselor, and history teacher. Well they advised me on what
classes I should take, when I should take them, and what other things I
should do to prepare for college.

High-achieving students are not immune from teachers and counselors
who may not be as encouraging or helpful towards higher education. Nancy,
who enrolled at UC Riverside, mentioned that her government teacher would tell
the class that they would not be successful in college, “My government teacher.
She said it would be a waste of time and that we had low grades and wouldn’t
make it.” The teacher made a blanket statement and did not say it to anyone in
particular. This teacher made such statements when some students would not
submit homework on time or if they misbehaved in class. Another student,
Briana, mentioned that a college counselor at a previous high school did not help
students when they went to the college center unless they were seniors, even if
they were among the top students at the school. The student said:
We had a counselor, bad counselor (whispers), at [my previous] high
school. When we needed help he would say ‘No, not yet I have to take
care of the seniors.’ I was like ‘ooh, what a punk.’

This counselor would focus on helping only seniors without taking into
consideration the needs of the other students who may have wanted to start their

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college search early. Oscar was another student who mentioned his school
counselor at his previous high school who was not supportive of taking
advanced course to prepare for college. Although Oscar wanted to take Honors
and AP courses, the counselor would not allow him to enroll in such courses:
The person I have in mind is my freshman and sophomore counselor at
[my previous] high school. She would constantly discourage me by
saying I was not capable of passing certain courses or completing certain
requirements.

This same student not only successfully passed all AP courses offered at the
high school but also successfully completed all college courses offered at the
high school campus as well as other honors college courses at Los Angeles
Valley College. He successfully completed 12 college courses and will enroll at
the CSUN with enough credits to be a sophomore.
The College Bound Program
Eighteen students took part of the Project College Bound program that
was available at their school. It was mandatory for students who took part in the
program to take part in Camp College. Camp College is a program where
students meet every day for a week during the summer of their junior year at a
middle school. During the week students write a statement of purpose, learn
about financial aid, write a resume, learn about the different types of colleges
and universities, learn about the importance and the different types (subsidized
and unsubsidized) of student loans, and also go on college fieldtrips to UC Santa

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Barbara, UC Riverside, CSU Channel Islands, and Pitzer College. Appendix D
is a description of the Project College Bound.
Students who took part in the Project College Bound program had to
make a commitment to take at least one of their parents to all of the meetings
that were held once a month at a high school. By having parents present at the
meetings they were made aware of the college going process to enter college
and were encouraged to ask any questions they might have regarding the college
process. All of the 18 students who took part in the Project College Bound
program chose to attend a post-secondary institution. Fifteen will attend a
university and three will attend a community college with plans to transfer in the
future.
Financial Aid
All of the students were aware of the different types of financial aid
available to them including FAFSA, grants, loans (subsidized and unsubsidized),
scholarships, and work study. Students also mentioned that they searched for
scholarships on websites such as Fastweb.com, MALDEF.org, and
scholarships.com to obtain scholarship information. All of the students were also
aware that they may have to work in order to pay part of the tuition that may not
be covered by financial aid. Nineteen of the students stated that they did not
want student loans because they did not want to be in debt after graduating from

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the university but knew that getting student loans may be unavoidable to obtain
their college degree.
Yolanda, the undocumented student who attended Woodbury University
was aware of the type of aid she would receive and was also aware that in order
to obtain a student loan she needed to have someone co-sign for it and would
have to work in order to pay it off:
I knew about the FAFSA, but you know, I couldn’t fill it out so I didn’t
do that and other things. My college counselor, she would get
information about certain scholarships and if she knew that they applied
to me she made sure to make me a copy and give them to me and tell me
when to fill them out and then I would hand it to her and she would turn
it in for me. Also with the websites, scholarships.com, that one helped a
lot also. I have gotten two scholarships from the university but I applied
to other scholarships, mainly private because, you know my residency
and my status but I haven’t heard much from any of them and I’m still
hoping to hear from some. I’m still applying to other scholarships and
hoping I get more help with that but if not I’m guessing I’ll be taking out
a student loan and have someone co-sign it and I’m gonna work to pay
for it. I know that the campus also offers work there and then you get
paid, so it can help with your college expenses and I plan to do that also.

All of the other students who attended a university were also aware and had
completed the FAFSA application and had also applied to different
scholarships. None of the students had accepted loans because they were trying
to see if they could get more aid that did not include loans. Robert said he did
not want to get student loans because he believed it was a “rip-off”:
I’m just wondering if I could pay for everything. If not I’m just gonna
have to get loans, and get ripped off when I get my career going.

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Robert did not believe it was right for him to pay back loans for his education
but also knew that student loans were necessary for him to reach his educational
goals. Nancy said that her parents wanted loans to be the last option in financing
her education:
They want that (student loans) to be the last choice…[because] they
don’t like debt.

All of the students mentioned the college counselor as the person that
helped them complete their financial aid application. The most challenging part
of the application for the students was the financial section. Most of the students
took their parent’s financial information to the college counselor where she
helped or completed the financial section for them. Briana said that she took all
of the documents needed to complete the application to the college counselor
who did the work for her while the student saw how it was done.
I tried and I was like stuck on this thing and then she said come with me,
I mean she said just bring it over here and stuff and she did it all. It’s
cool.

Eduardo and Candi also met with the college counselor who sat with them to
ensure that the application was completed correctly:
Eduardo: my college counselor helped me…She sat down with me and
made sure I did everything right.

Candi: [college counselor] helped me. She filled it all out, I gave her the
information, I was there when she was filling it out.

Only four of the students said that the cost of college could be an
obstacle to obtain their bachelors degree, the other 19 students reported that cost

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would not be an obstacle but it was a concern. Karen, who was asked if the cost
would be an obstacle she said, “No ‘cause you could go to a community college
where it won’t be as much and still get a degree, so no.” Briana also stated that
the cost of college would not be an obstacle, “No…no I’ll start working and pay
for my classes. And if I can’t do the university I will go to [community] college
and then transfer back.” Bruno who was aware of the types of financial aid
available said, “Probably not but it is a possibility, cause you know it is a lot of
money nowadays for school.”
All of the students were aware of the cost of college but they also knew
ways of obtaining the money for them to continue their education. The students
mentioned scholarships, grants, jobs, and also student loans although they
wanted to avoid them. All of the students knew the challenges ahead of them
and although they may have wanted to avoid certain financial aid available to
them, such as student loans, they know that it is an option to achieve their
educational and professional goals.
Summary
The findings that emerged from this study reveal that high-achieving
Latino students, regardless of their legal status, have the desire to continue their
education beyond high school. Students first thought about attending a
university at different times from early elementary school to late in their high
school years. These students reported that parents, teacher, and college

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counselor were the individuals who encouraged them the most.
Fourteen students in this study first thought of going to college in their
elementary or middle school years. For the other nine students it was in high
school when they first thought about attending college. All of the students,
except one, in this study aspired to attend a university and obtain a bachelors
degree. Five students will begin their studies at a community college but have
plans to transfer in the future. Of the seven undocumented students, one attended
CSUN and another attended Woodbury University. The other four
undocumented students enrolled at a community college with the intention to
transfer to a four year university at a future date. Only one student who was not
undocumented began her studies at a community college because she wanted to
do something that did not require a four year degree.
Students in this study did what was recommended by teachers, college
counselor, and the leaders of the Project College Bound. None of the students
took part in any program to raise their SAT/ACT scores or paid any organization
to assist them with the application process. Unlike students whose family have
the financial resources to pay for such services, which can cost up to several
thousand dollars, these low income students relied on professionals at their
school to encourage and guide them through the college choice and application
process. Some students applied to UCLA or UCSB because they knew someone
who graduated from each institution and was a positive influence.

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The teacher who graduated from UCLA was a history teacher that was
very popular and the college counselor who graduated from UCSB had a great
influence on the students post secondary plans. Unlike students who may have
family members or other role models who may have graduated from highly
selective universities, these students applied to institutions that were mentioned
often in class or were mentioned among peers. Only one student started the
application process to Stanford University but later stopped because she wanted
to go to the University of Hawaii at Manoa because it has “nicer weather.” Had
she known someone who was attending or had graduated from Stanford her
decision might have been different.
These students received emotional support from their parents who also
encouraged them to not only do well in school but to strive for a post secondary
education that would allow them to obtain a job and career to live a more
comfortable lifestyle. The majority of students also reported that their parents
were the biggest influence in their decision to attend a college or university.
None of the parents in this study had a college education but they all knew that
a university education was important to achieve financial and career goals.
Teachers and high school college counselor were also very influential in
the students’ decision to apply to a university. Students reported that they were
influenced by educators at different times in their school years. Some students
reported teachers in elementary school who spoke to them about college and

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also took them on college field trips. Some high school teachers helped students
with their statement of purpose and also wrote letters of recommendation needed
for scholarships. Other students reported that the college counselor’s advice and
encouragement were influential in their decision to apply to a university. The
college counselor made herself available to the students and assisted them with
both the university and financial aid applications.
Taking part in the Project College Bound program gave students the
opportunity to visit college campuses and learn more about the different types of
financial aid that they could receive to pay for their education. By taking part in
the program they continued to receive assistance and encouragement throughout
the college and financial aid application process. The program made it
mandatory for students and their parents to attended scheduled meetings where
they were updated on the application process. They were also given the
opportunity to ask questions that they had regarding universities and financial
aid.
Students enrolled in both private and public universities, including four
that chose to begin their post secondary education at a community college and
three who chose to attend universities outside of California. Most of the students
enrolled at a campus of the California State University system but there were

122
also students who enrolled in both the University of California and a private
university. The majority of students chose to attend a campus that was close to
home.

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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
All of the high-achieving students in this study regardless of their legal
status in this country applied directly to a university or a community college
with plans of continuing their education. They did what was required of them to
complete the college admissions process as well as what was required to receive
financial aid including applying for scholarships. Although many of the students
have concerns about paying for college the majority believed that they would be
able to raise the money to pay for the tuition to obtain their undergraduate
degree.
According to Gandara (2005) Latino students’ appearance to “shoot low”
may be related to low socioeconomic backgrounds, which may cause them to
apply to relatively less expensive schools, as well as their lack of familiarity
with the benefits of attending selective colleges and universities. Although
tuition may still be an obstacle for some students, there are some universities
that are offering tuition-free education for low income students who qualify by
eliminating student loans. Most if not all of the students in this study would
qualify because of their low income status and their academic credentials. Some
of the universities that have eliminated loans for low income students who are
accepted are Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, Yale, Caltech, Rice University,
Pomona College, Amherst College, and Williams College (L.A. Times,

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February 21, 2008). The top ten students with a GPA over 3.5 had a very good
chance of being accepted to any of the universities listed because they met the
entrance requirements and were among the most academically prepared students
at their school.
Important Findings
The high school where the students in this study attended had a student
population of over 2,200 students. There was one college counselor and six
academic counselors. The college counselor was the person responsible for
disseminating all college and financial aid information to students. Not only did
the college counselor work with seniors, but all other students from different
grade levels who requested college information as well. As part of her duties she
made class presentations regarding college attendance and financial aid as well
as attended district meetings for college counselors in order to be kept up to date
with any changes in college requirements. She then shared that information with
the academic counselors to make them aware and to share with students on their
caseload.
The college counselor and academic counselors were required to
supervise students on campus as part of job duties. Each counselor had an area
that they were responsible for supervision in the morning, between classes,
during lunch, and after school. The administration made it very clear that all
counselors must be at their supervision locations on time. This made it very

125
difficult to meet with students when they had the opportunity during the school
day to meet with counselors. The only time students could meet with any
counselor was very early in the morning before supervision (supervision began
at 7:30 am), if they asked their teacher for permission to see counselor which
would cause them to miss part of the class, when supervision ended after school
(3:30 pm) or by scheduling an appointment in advance. Supervision made it
very difficult for students to meet with counselors during school hours.
The college counselor was reported to be the person who was most
influential in applying to a college or university. She made time to meet with
students and parents who requested college and financial information. The
college counselor also met with students individually and in group to assist them
in completing the university and financial aid applications. Frequent college
workshops and informational meetings in the school’s college center kept
students up to date with deadlines for students to complete the college
application process by reminding students to complete and submit required
documents to colleges and universities they chose to apply.
Students also mentioned several teachers from their previous schools
who were influential in their decision to attend a college or university. Some
students mentioned elementary and middle school teachers and few mentioned
teachers at their high school who also encouraged them to apply to college. The
teachers who encouraged the students were ones that taught senior level classes

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which made it convenient because they met with those students every day and
would remind students to go to the college center to obtain college and financial
aid information.
Students also mentioned that their parents were very influential in their
decision to go to college. Parents supported their children’s college plans by
encouraging them to apply in order for them to obtain well paying jobs. Parents
were not able to discuss college with their children attendance because most had
an elementary education and were not aware of the requirements to attend a
university. These parents were dependent on the counselors and teachers to give
their children the information needed for college attendance.
The majority of students chose to attend a college or university that was
close to home. By staying close to home they would not only save money by not
paying rent but would live with their family to continue receiving the support
needed to be a successful student. Students who chose to attend a university far
from home did so for various reasons from wanting to be more independent
(Jasmin) to being courted by a university and being given a generous financial
aid package (Cathy). The students also chose their institution of choice it offered
the major that the students wanted to study. The students’ personal needs and the
major offered by the university were taken into consideration when choosing the
college or university to enroll.

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Recommendations
For many students school counselors and teachers may be the only
people that can assist them with in achieving their goal of attending a college or
university. Many students may not have parents or family members who may be
aware of the requirements needed for acceptance to a university. By working as
a team, school counselors, teachers, and parents can have a major impact in the
lives of students.
College Counselor Knowledge
College counselors are a very important resource to students who want to
attend a university. The college counselor is the school’s expert on college going
and financial aid. Frequent workshops and conferences offered by colleges and
universities are crucial for college counselors to attend in order to better assist
students, parents, and other school faculty who may also want to assist students
with the application process. Teachers were encouraged by the college counselor
to schedule class meetings in the college center and also schedule the college
counselor for presentations on topics such as, how to pay for college, the A-G
requirements, how to write a personal statement, etc.
The college counselor works with community colleges to offer courses
on campus. She encouraged high-achieving students to enroll in the college
courses offered as well as honors and AP courses offered at the school. Students
who successfully passed college courses earned college credit and also up to ten

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high school credits per college class that can count towards their graduation. It is
not uncommon for high school students to be classified as sophomores or juniors
at the university they will attend because of the large number of college courses
taken during their high school years.
Dissemination of college information is crucial to be given to students as
early as possible. The earlier the information is given the sooner that students
can go through the three stages of college choice: predisposition, search, and
choice. Students who have more time to research universities, entrance
requirements, and majors may make better decisions on the choice of institution
they will attend. If students wait until their senior year to go through the three
stages they may not have the time necessary to meet all the entrance
requirements or look to see if the college or university has the programs and
services that are needed to successful graduate.
College counselors who assist students begin the search stage in ninth
grade may have plenty of time to look into the many different types of colleges
and universities. Presentations in ninth grade classes may be the most
convenient to get students thinking about their postsecondary plans. Students
will have the time necessary to research the institution, the location, financial
aid, and talk to parents about their post secondary plans. The college counselor
can also work collaboratively with ninth and tenth grade teachers to develop a
plan to ensure that students research the different types of colleges and

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universities (community colleges, UC’s, CSU’s, private). English teachers can
work together with the college counselor to ensure that every student has an
essay for submission to universities by the time students finish their junior year
in order for students not to worry about the essay that may be required for
acceptance. Every year teachers can assist students on improving their statement
of purpose until it is considered to be good enough to use as part of the
university application.
Recommendations for Teachers
Teachers need to develop a curriculum appropriate for each grade level
in which students start learning about the college going process and the
requirements needed to go to college. Teachers in ninth grade can begin asking
career questions of students and asking them if a university degree would be
needed for the careers they would like to pursue (e.g. doctor, nurse, police,
teacher). By providing students with such information they will look beyond the
high school diploma and begin thinking about the college diploma because an
undergraduate degree may be needed to reach their professional goal. College
fieldtrips at an early age to different college campuses are important so they can
be exposed to the physical site rather than just listening to people talk about it.
Frequent campus visits to different colleges and universities will allow students
to compare the different campus in terms of physical size and student

130
enrollment. After such visits student can narrow their choice of universities
depending on both the personal and institutional characteristic of the university.
Educators have a wealth of information that can be shared with students
and parents regarding college and university. Teachers can share their university
experiences with students and allow them to ask questions about their college
experiences. These students who ask questions about teachers college
experience can obtain information that they might otherwise not be able obtain
at home. Educators who lived on campus while undergraduates can share with
them the expectations to be a successful university student living on his or her
own such time management to do homework, attend classes, work, laundry, as
well as the importance of maintaining a budget in order to not overspend. Other
educators who lived at home can share their experiences such as still having a
curfew, staying at school late into the night, and house chores that would be
expected to be done even during midterm and finals. By sharing their
experiences with parents they can be more aware of what to expect of their
children in college and learn how they can more helpful especially if the
students will live at home.
During the students’ senior year the counselors and teachers need to
work together to ensure that students apply to the universities on their list and
also financial aid (FAFSA). Since all of the students need to take a senior
English class, English teachers can ensure that students have written their

131
statement of purpose and have obtained the college applications or show proof
that students applied on-line. If students have any questions regarding the
college or financial aid applications the teacher can assist or can refer students to
the college counselor. This way all seniors will be kept on track to attend
college.
College Going Awareness
Parents as well as students need to be informed early in elementary
school about the college going process and financial aid. Elementary schools
should have yearly meetings and workshops for parents to be made aware of the
different types of postsecondary institutions and the different types of financial
aid that is available for parents and students. Workshops should explain the
differences between the U.S. and Latin American educational systems to parents
with special emphasis on the importance of their involvement in their children’s
education. Parents need to be told at these workshops that their involvement
need to continue through high school and should not end in elementary school.
Education must be seen as a collaborative process among parents,
teachers, counselors, and students and should not be left solely to the schools
responsibility. This type of information should continue through middle school
and especially high school so that parents and students can begin to put into
practice what they have been learning since elementary school. By the time their
children enroll in high school they will be aware of both the college going

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process and types of financial aid available. This awareness can be beneficial
when they meet with teachers and counselors regarding their expectations of
their children’s post secondary plans. Schools need to also work together with
local colleges and universities to offer classes and workshops after school on a
regular basis for parents and students to attend. It is not enough to have
workshops in November when students are applying to universities or during the
months when the FAFSA has to be completed. College going awareness should
be a process that starts when students begin school at the elementary level.
Meetings should explain the tuition for all levels of higher education
(Community College, CSU, UC, Private, vocational institutes) and the benefits
of obtaining a degree to parents and students. Explain the different types of
financial aid such as grants and scholarships (private and institutional) as well as
subsidized (U.S. government pays interest on loans when students are enrolled
fulltime) and unsubsidized student loans (interest on loans is paid by student or
parent). It is of utmost importance that students and parents know the benefits of
obtaining student loans. Parents and students need to know that loans are a very
important part of obtaining a college education and should be seen as an
investment with future returns. Although students have to repay their loans, the
wages they will receive after they graduate with an undergraduate degree will be
more than if they did not have a degree.

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It is important to invite all parents to the college fairs that take place on
the school campus. Parents who attend college fairs can obtain information
about the different colleges and universities that their child might be interested
in attending. Parents who attend can meet the college recruiters and ask them
questions about the campus.
Middle schools should pay closer attention to students in their second
year because by then high-achieving students will be more obvious because of
their first year grades. These high-achieving students should be enrolled in
special programs such as honors classes that will provide more information
about college attendance and financial aid. Other students who may have low
grades should also be informed about colleges and universities on a regular basis
because it may take them a few more years to serious think about attending a
university. Students may wait until their junior and even senior year to seriously
think about attending a college or university.
Develop a college going culture at the middle school and continue with
that college going culture at the high schools where the middle school students
feed into. Middle schools and high schools need to communicate with each other
and work closely to ensure that when students go from one level to another there
is a continuity of support and encouragement to attend a university. Students
who may not be high-achieving in middle school might begin to improve in high

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school and have a high GPA to enter a selective university. The college going
culture should be school wide, not just for high-achieving students.
The continuity of college going information and encouragement from
the middle school to high school might have secondary effects. For example,
students who might have a postsecondary goal will work hard to achieve it
which can reduce school dropouts and other school issues such as low
attendance and teen pregnancy. Schools need to offer and encourage high
achievers to take part in a college going program such as Upward Bound or a
district program such as Project College Bound. Schedule frequent college going
activities such as college trips, speakers, and college fairs so that students are
constantly informed and made aware of the importance of attending a university.
High schools need to identify incoming 9
th
graders who are high-
achievers and also other students who have the potential of successfully
completing high school classes with a high grade. These high-achieving students
can be identified by looking at their middle school grades and state exam results.
After these students are identified they can be enrolled in honors courses with
the intention to inform these students about the college going process with
frequent presentations by the college counselor.
Recommendations for Academic Counselors
Academic counselors need to ensure that all students have started the
college search process by the beginning of their junior year. Some students may

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have started in middle school or have already chosen the universities they will
apply, but counselors need to make sure that every student has a list of at least
ten universities by the time they start their senior year. The college counselor
should then be given the list obtained by the academic counselors to invite
recruiters from the universities on the list to speak with students and also
schedule college tours to those universities.
Academic counselors also need to find time to meet with students who
are juniors and seniors. The counselors’ time constraints with all of the duties
would make it very difficult to meet with every student individually. In the fall,
counselors can meet with seniors in groups of five to discuss their college plans
and to inform them of the resources available at the school such as the college
counselor and the college center. The names of the students who have plans to
attend a college or university should be given to the college counselor so she can
meet with them either as a group or individually to inform them about the
college going process.
In the spring when students return from winter break counselors should
meet with students in 11
th
grade also in groups of five to discuss their post
secondary plans. These students must also be made aware of the resources
available at the school to assist them with their post secondary plans. Counselors
can request that students investigate ten postsecondary institutions that they

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would like to attend and submit it to them by the end of the semester to later
share with the college counselor.
Counselors can also meet with the college counselor to develop
standardized presentation for classrooms. Counselors can then go to different
classrooms during the school year to present college going information to
students of all grade levels. It is very important for counselors to present in
English classes to make sure that every student in the school receives the
information since every student must be enrolled in an English class every
semester.
Scarce Resources
Students were very fortunate to be at a school where there were caring
counselors who did the best they could to meet the educational needs of the
students. Unfortunately, counselors were not able to dedicate much time to
students because of their mandatory duties. Counselors were used as campus
supervisors because the school did not have enough supervisors. Only two
campus supervisors were employed and could not hire more because of “budget
constraints.”
Fieldtrips to colleges were very few because the school did not have the
funds to pay for buses. The only way students could visit colleges was if the
college provided the bus or if a counselor wrote a letter to the Los Angeles

137
Mayor’s office requesting a bus for fieldtrips. Transportation made college visits
very challenging and for that reason very few college visits were scheduled.
The college counselor trained peer counselors to assist students with
college and financial aid applications. The limited assistance they could provide
still required the college counselor to be present to assist students and meet with
parents who had questions regarding the application process. The college center
should have an assistant who is present all the time that can provide students and
parents with information when the college counselor is not on campus.
Hiring more attendance clerks to deal with students’ attendance can
allow counselors to have more time to assist students with academic issues.
Attendance clerks can be responsible for monitoring student attendance, a job
that is very time consuming, but will have the counselors support when working
with students and parents who may need extra support and guidance to improve
school attendance. Having attendance clerks deal with attendance issues will
allow counselors to meet with students and parents in the morning before school
begins.
Enough campus supervisors can be hired to supervise key areas such as
the cafeteria and the eating area in the center of the school where most students
socialize. Campus supervisors can walk to other areas close to their area of
supervision to ensure that students are safe and are not doing anything improper.
Hiring campus supervisors can allow counselors to meet with students during

138
lunch and after school to deal with more academic and personal issues that
students may have.
Peer Advisors
Peer advisors or peer counselors were also very important to the students
in this study because they received assistance from their own classmates. These
peers become a social support when helping other students with their college
and financial applications (Tierney & Venegas, 2006). These peer counselors
were also high-achieving students who were trained by the college counselor so
they could be able to assist other students with the college and financial aid
applications. These peer counselors were sought after even when they were not
working in the college center (Tierney & Venegas, 2006). It is also much more
convenient for them to ask their peers for assistance because they can be reached
at any time during and after school unlike the college counselor who may be out
of the office or be at meetings during and after school. Peer counselors were
very important to the college center because if the college counselor was not
present a peer counselor was there to assist students.
The importance of peer counselors in the college center allowed the
college counselor to assist students and parents with more complex questions
that they may have. Peer counselors can also assist the college counselor in
developing a college going culture by encouraging their circle of friends and
classmates to visit the college center to obtain college information. They can

139
also make flyers with information about college going and financial aid that they
can distribute in their classes.
Beginning in October, peer counselors can make large posters and
banners inviting students to attend college workshops and to remind students of
important deadlines such as due dates for college applications and SAT/ACT
registration. Implementing a peer counseling program in the college center can
be beneficial for the college center because there will always be someone to
answer college and financial aid questions. Peer counselors will learn about the
college going process which they can share with their social network and family,
and the college counselor will have assistants who will allow her to assist
parents and students with more complex issues such as helping students who are
undocumented continue their education.
Summary
Parents and students need to be given more information about financial
aid and the many different sources that will assist students to pay for their
college education. That was the major concern of the students who were
interviewed for this study which is in line with what the research says about the
role that financial aid plays in the college decision process for low-income, four-
year university qualified students and their parents (De La Rosa, 2006).
Although students and parents may be reluctant to obtain educational loans,

140
most students who obtain loans to complete their undergraduate degree are able
to repay their loans with little difficulty as long as they graduate (ECMC Group
Foundation, 2003).
Several students mentioned that their parents wanted them to achieve at a
higher level than them. The students’ parents were supportive of their
educational goals and aspirations even though they had no experience with
higher education (Zalaquett, 2006). According to Ward (2006) research findings
showed that parents’ education remained a significant predictor of access to a
college or university and obtaining a 4-year degree. Parent education may be
significant in that parents know the college going process for their children to
enroll at a university as well as first-hand knowledge of financial aid options.
Parents may not have an undergraduate degree but they can be educated about
the college going process and financial aid that will be beneficial to their
children’s postsecondary goals. Most of the parents in this study were supportive
of their children’s postsecondary plans whether they understood the college
going process or not. Parents need to take the initiative in seeking information
from their child’s teachers, counselors, and college representatives by personally
asking for advice, attending conferences, and open houses as well as well as
doing their own information gathering using the Internet (Tornatzky, Cutler, &
Lee, 2002).

141
Parents, teachers, and college counselors were the individuals who
students reported as being the people who encouraged them to go to a university.
These students’ responses are in accordance with researchers who report that
parents are the most frequently cited sources of support and played a significant
role in motivating students in their education (Auerbach, 2004; Sanchez, Reyes,
& Singh, 2006). Students also reported that peers and siblings had also
encouraged them to apply.
Based on the information shared by these students, the role of the college
counselor was very important in the lives of college going students at their high
school. The college counselor was a very important resource for college going
students who helped them obtain university and financial aid information, as
well as becoming a partner with parents to answer any concerns that they may
have. The students felt comfortable seeking the help of the college counselor for
assistance and advice that they would otherwise not be able to obtain at home.
All of the students in this study mentioned that their college counselor was very
important to obtaining and applying to college and financial aid. According to
Roderick, Nagaoka, & Moeller (2008), Latino students are more likely to apply
to a four year university if they had strong support from teachers and counselors
in completing tasks such as college applications and financial aid.
Siblings who have graduated or are attending college can also be a
source of support because they will have the knowledge and personal experience

142
to guide them through the college going and application process. These older
siblings may serve as role models of academic success and as information
brokers in relation to the schooling experiences and achievements of younger
siblings (Hurtado-Ortiz & Gauvain, 2007).
The search process for Latino students may not be the same as the
traditional search process in the literature because they may be the first in their
family to want to go to a university and may not have anyone to guide them
through the process. These students must trust and seek the assistance of their
counselor, teachers, and especially the college counselor in order to obtain the
information necessary in order to apply to postsecondary institutions and
financial aid. These students may work hard in school with the intention to go to
a university. However, it may not be until their 11
th
or 12
th
grade that a
counselor at their school or the college recruiter talks to students above a certain
GPA and encourages high-achieving students to apply to college. It is at this
point that for many students they may go through the college search process. It
would be more advantageous for these students to start earlier while they still
have time to obtain information from colleges and universities that may interest
them. From my personal experience it is not uncommon for students to apply to
many universities to ensure that one will accept them, and when they are
accepted by one or more, they can then choose the one they believe they will be
successful in.

143
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Appendix A

CSU Eligibility Index-California Residents

Eligibility Index – California Residents

Eligibility Index Table for Residents of California or
Graduates of California High Schools

GPA
ACT
Score
SAT
Score

GPA
ACT
Score
SAT
Score

GPA
ACT
Score
SAT
Score
3.0 and above qualifies for any score
2.99 10 510 2.66 17 780 2.33 23 1040
2.98 10 520 2.65 17 780 2.32 23 1050
2.97 10 530 2.64 17 790 2.31 24 1060
2.96 11 540 2.63 17 800 2.30 24 1060
2.95 11 540 2.62 17 810 2.29 24 1070
2.94 11 550 2.61 18 820 2.28 24 1080
2.93 11 560 2.60 18 820 2.27 24 1090
2.92 11 570 2.59 18 830 2.26 25 110
2.91 12 580 2.58 18 840 2.25 25 110
2.90 12 580 2.57 18 850 2.24 25 1110
2.89 12 590 2.56 18 860 2.23 25 1120
2.88 12 600 2.55 19 860 2.22 25 1130
2.87 12 610 2.54 19 870 2.21 26 1140
2.86 13 620 2.53 19 880 2.20 26 1140
2.85 13 620 2.52 19 890 2.19 26 1150
2.84 13 630 2.51 20 900 2.18 26 1160
2.83 13 640 2.50 20 900 2.17 26 1170
2.82 13 650 2.49 20 910 2.16 27 1180
2.81 14 660 2.48 20 920 2.15 27 1180
2.80 14 660 2.47 20 930 2.14 27 1190
2.79 14 670 2.46 21 940 2.13 27 1200
2.78 14 680 2.45 21 940 2.12 27 1210
2.77 14 690 2.44 21 950 2.11 28 1220
2.76 15 700 2.43 21 960 2.10 28 1220
2.75 15 700 2.42 21 970 2.09 28 1230
2.74 15 710 2.41 22 980 2.08 28 1240
2.73 15 720 2.40 22 980 2.07 28 1250
2.72 15 730 2.39 22 990 2.06 29 1260
2.71 16 740 2.38 22 1000 2.05 29 1260
2.70 16 740 2.37 22 1010 2.04 29 1270
2.69 16 750 2.36 23 1020 2.03 29 1280
2.68 16 760 2.35 23 1020 2.02 30 1290
2.67 16 770 2.34 23 1030 2.01 30 1300
2.00 30 1300
Below 2.0 does not qualify for regular admission
For admissions purposes, the CSU uses only the SAT scores for mathematics and critical reading.
(http://www.csumentor.edu/planning/high_school/cal_residents.asp)

156
Appendix B

Recruitment Script

Hello Students,

Thank you for applying to the Anova Merit Scholarship. My name is ________,
President of ______________. The reason I am contacting you is to invite you
to contact Mr. Mendoza-Romero who would like to invite you to take part in a
research study he is conducting for his doctoral dissertation.

At the meeting Mr. Mendoza will explain to you the reason for the meeting and
will be able to answer any questions that you may have about the study. But
basically he is working on his dissertation at USC and would like to interview
high-achieving Latino students like yourself, that have met the A-G
requirements to the University of California. Your participation is voluntary.
Your scholarship application will not be affected whether or not you participate.
I will not know whether or not you participated in the research study.

Students who would like to take part in the study will be invited to take part in a
one hour audio-taped interview that will take place after school, on Saturday, or
any other day that is convenient for you. If you do not want the interview to be
recorded only notes will be taken. The interview will take place in the
_______________ Branch of the Los Angeles Public Library. No other person
besides Mr. Mendoza-Romero will have access to your responses. Your
responses will be kept confidential.

You may email Mr. Mendoza at _______________ you may contact him at
(818) _____________.

Thank you for your cooperation.

___________, President

157
Appendix C

PI Recruitment Script

Hello Students,

Thank you for coming to this information meeting. My name is Juan Mendoza-
Romero a school counselor at___________. The reason you were invited to
attend this meeting is to invite you to participate in a research study I am
conducting for my dissertation. I am currently a doctoral student at the
University of Southern California where I am working on a doctorate degree in
education. Any services you receive from Enova will not be affected whether or
not you participate.

The purpose of this study is to explore the college selection process of high-
achieving Latino students. Very little attention has been given to high-achieving
Latino students and the challenges and barriers they face when applying to and
attending highly selective institutions. The focus of this study is to understand
why students may end up at a local community or state college when they could
have gone to a more prestigious college or university. This study may help
determine ways in which school personnel and others may intervene more
effectively and ensure that Latinos take advantage of the opportunities available
to them.

I would like to congratulate all of you because all of you have met the A-G
entrance requirements to the University of California. Because you met the
requirement, I would like to invite you to take part in my research study. Your
participation in this study is voluntary.

Students who would like to take part in the study will be required take part in a
one hour audio-taped interview that will take place here in the public library
after school. If you do not want the interview to be recorded only notes will be
taken. If you would like more information about the study you can contact me,
Juan Mendoza-Romero at ______________ or at the following phone number
(818) ___________.

Does anyone have any questions?

Again, thank you for your cooperation. If you would like to take part in this
study please take the permission forms that are on the table. One set is for
students who are 18 years or older and the others are for students who are 17 and
under. If you are under 18 years old please also take the parent consent form.

158
Please take appropriate forms home, read them, and mail them back to me in the
self addressed stamped envelope as soon as possible. Please, also include a copy
of your official academic transcript, AP exam, SAT I/II, and ACT test results in
the return envelope. I would really appreciate it if I can get them back within a
week so I can start scheduling interviews.

Thank You.

159

Appendix D

Interview Protocol

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. I am most grateful for your
willingness to assist me. The purpose of my study is to find out more about the
college selection process of high-achieving Latino students, which is the reason
I invited you to meet with me. I will be asking you several questions about your
decisions regarding college. Our conversation will last no more than one hour.
If we start to run short on time, I may need to interrupt you in order to get your
responses to all the questions I’d like to ask.

I would like to audio tape our conversation so that I can replay it later to better
understand how you went about making college choices. My advisor at the
University of Southern California and I will be the only ones to have access to
the tapes. I will use the information you share with me to write about how
students experience the college application process and also to make
recommendations on how counselors, teachers, and other school personnel can
assist students. I will type up a transcript of our conversation and in my
dissertation it is possible that I will include quotes from our interview; however,
your name will not be included. I will refer to you with a made-up name and
will not provide any information that would make you recognizable. The tapes
will be destroyed one year after they are transcribed. To proceed with the
conversation, I will need your signature on the consent form to meet our human
subject requirements. I also want to tell you that you have the option of
stopping the interview at any moment. You can also ask me to stop taping if it
makes you feel uncomfortable. Do you have any questions?

[Student signs the consent form]

I would like to start out by asking you some personal background information.
Thank you again for your agreeing to participate.

160
Section 1: Background Information

A1. Name. ______________________________________

A2. What city were you born in? If outside of the US, what
country?

A3. Did you attend school outside of the U.S.? If yes, what
country?

A4. What grades did you attend school in other country?

From:_______ To:_______

A5. Who are you currently living with while in high school?

A6. What is your parent’s marital status:

A7. In which country was your Mother born?

A8. In which country was your Father born?

A9. In which country was your Maternal Grandmother born?

A10. In which country was your Maternal Grandfather born?

A11. In which country was your Fraternal Grandfather born?

A12. In which country was your Fraternal Grandmother born?

A13. What language did you first speak at home?

A14. What language is currently spoken at home with parents?

A15. What language is mostly spoken at home with siblings?

A16. What language is mostly spoken with friends?

A17. What is your parent’s highest educational level?

Mother:

Father:

161
A18. In which country were your parents educated?

Mother:
Father:

A19. What is your mother’s occupation?

A20. What is your father’s occupation?

A21. How many brothers and sisters do you have?

# of sisters: ______
# of brothers: _______

A22. Do you have any family members who are currently
attending or have graduated from college/university? If yes,
what is their relation to you and which college/university are
they attending or graduated from?

Relation College/University Attending/
Graduated
1. _____________________________________ A or G
2. _____________________________________ A or G
3. _____________________________________ A or G
4. _____________________________________ A or G
5. _____________________________________ A or G

A23. Are you working while in high school? If yes, where do you
work?

A24. How many hours do you work per week?

A25. What is the primary reason you are working while in high
school?

Section 2: Deciding to go to College

B1. Tell me when you first thought about going to a university?

B2. Can you think of people in your life who encouraged you to
apply to a university? Who were they?

B3. In what ways did these people encourage you?

162
B4. What made you believe that going to a university would be
possible?

B5. How do your parents feel about you going to a university?

B6. Were there people who discouraged you from thinking about
going to a university? If yes, tell me about the people who
discouraged you?

B7. In what ways did these people discourage you?

Section 3: Applying to College

C1. What factors did you consider before deciding to apply to your chosen
universities?

C2. Please tell me the universities you applied to?

C3. Which one is your first choice? Why?

C4. Was student diversity taken into consideration when deciding to
apply to those universities? What kind of diversity are you
looking for?

C5. Please tell me about the size of campus that you would like to
attend?

C6. When did you first start gathering information about
these universities? How did you get it?

C7. Have you visited any of your chosen universities? When?

C8. How did you feel when you were on those campuses? Which
campus did you feel most comfortable in?

C9. Describe your experience completing the university application.
What did you find most challenging and how did you deal with
it?

C10. When applying to universities, did you take into consideration
the location (distance) of the campus from your home?

163
C11. In what ways did high school counselors help you with the
application process?

C12. In what ways did your teachers help you with the application
process?

C13. What is your biggest concern about attending a university?

Section 4: Paying for College

D1. How are you planning to pay for college?

D2. How have you been informed about financial aid?

D3. Will you be applying for financial Aid?

D4. Have you completed the FAFSA application? Did you receive
help from anyone?

D5. Do you have any concerns about the cost of college?
Probe: Could it be an obstacle? How?

Section 5: School Activities Related to College Going

E1. Have you attended college day on a high school campus or at
Pierce College? If not, Why?

E2. Did you tell your parents about college day? Did they attend?

E3. What was college day like? What did you learn?

E4. If a friend asked you whether going to college day
was helpful, what would you tell that friend?

164
E5. What college going activities have you participated in
high school? Did you participate in any of the following:

• After school college workshops
• Field trips to colleges
• Meet with recruiters on campus
• College Fair at a campus
• College Fair in Pasadena or STAPLES Center

What did you learn at each event?

E6. Have you participated in any college summer programs? If
yes, which ones?

E7.Were you part of Upward Bound or any other college prep
program? If yes, which program(s)?

E8. Did you take part in a UC summer bridge or any other
college/university summer program?

E9. What did you find of value in these programs?

E10. Have you participated in dual enrollment at a college
while in high school?

E11. Which colleges or universities did you complete courses from?
Which courses did you successfully complete?

E12. Did you meet with any college recruiter in high school during
the application process to receive advice or assistance?

E13. In what ways did the college recruiter help you?

E14. What would you recommend that teachers and counselors do
to help students like you in choosing colleges?

E15. Can you think of other important things to share with me
about your decisions regarding college?

165
Appendix E
PROJECT COLLEGE BOUND DESCRIPTION

PROGRAM INTENT and SELECTION
The intent is to select students who will be prepared to matriculate directly to
four-year college from high school. The two subgroups targeted in Project
College Bound are:
1) Underrepresented minorities including African American, Native
American and Latino students
2) Socioeconomically disadvantaged students – based on participation in
the federal lunch program or AFDC
Students come from all District 1 High Schools.
The first screening occurs after the fall grades of the sophomore year are posted.
Additional students added later would be those new to the school who meet the
qualifications.

CRITERIA
• 3.0 GPA in four-year college required classes.
• Students and parents sign a contract committing to attending all Project
College bound programs, taking a rigorous schedule each year, and
completing the college testing on time.
• By spring 10
th
grade, students must be in foreign language and in
Geometry.
• If students significantly dilute their program during 11
th
or 12
th
grade,
they are withdrawn from the program.
• If students get D’s, F’s or too many C’s, they are withdrawn from the
program.
COMPONENTS
Programming, which supplements that provided by the College Counselors, is
directed at both parents and students and presented in the evenings at a district
wide level. There is one meeting in the spring of 10
th
grade, two in the 11
th

grade, four in the 12
th
grade and a big celebration in June culminating the two
and a half year program for each graduating class.

There are two additional individuals who provide services to these students in
addition to their College Counselors. One is a part time former College
Counselor and the other is a volunteer who has a certificate in college
counseling. They meet with the students at their schools periodically to assist
them and troubleshoot any issues they might have.

166
20 week grades are monitored for the Project College Bound Students at all of
the high schools. Concerns about any of the students are shared with the
personnel at the specific school. Students and parents are called at home after
the spring grades are finalized if summer school is recommended for continued
academic progress toward college.

Camp College is a one week summer program for rising seniors to provide
them a start with their college applications, personal statements, resumes,
interview practice, financial aid forms, and college visits. A volunteer staff
works with the students to give them personal attention in completing their
paperwork.

RESULTS

With 272 students in the first cohort of this program graduating in 2002, the
number of African American students admitted to the University of California
from District 1 increased 150%. The number of Latino students admitted to the
University of California increased 32%.
The results of the 2003 senior class showed that they planned to attend 4-year
colleges at twice the rate of the entire class of District 1 seniors. In 2006, 100%
of the African American students and 88% of the Hispanic/Latino students
matriculated directly to 4-year college. The most recent class of 2007 has
77% attending 4-year colleges.

167
Appendix F
Map of Nearby Colleges and Universities

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mendoza-Romero, Juan (author)

Core Title The college selection process of high-achieving Latino students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 10/14/2009

Defense Date 12/12/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college counselor,college going culture,high-achiving Latinos,Higher education,low income students,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Bensimon, Estela Mara (committee chair), King, Derenda (committee member), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member)

Creator Email jmend43@lausd.net,jmendozar1@aim.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2655

Unique identifier UC1474659

Identifier etd-MendozaRomero-2636 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-268425 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2655 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MendozaRomero-2636.pdf

Dmrecord 268425

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Mendoza-Romero, Juan

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu