University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The impact of parental involvement on student achievement

(USC Thesis Other)

The impact of parental involvement on student achievement

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content
THE IMPACT OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

by

Krishna Y. Smith

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2011

Copyright 2011 Krishna Y. Smith

ii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to:

My Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, thank you for covering me with your hand of protection.
Thank you for stirring up the gifts in me and using me for your glory! Thank you for continually
molding and shaping me into the leader you desire for me to be.

Calvin, you encouraged me and supported me throughout this journey. Through all the bumps in
the road, you held my hand and helped me to stand strong. I love you dearly!

Mom, one of your favorite songs was “Wind Beneath my Wings,” and you have been just that for
me. I value your wisdom and dedication to education. Thank you for being my inspiration and for
imparting me with your passion for education. I pray I can carry on your torch of wisdom and
continue fighting the war on illiteracy on your behalf. Thank you for being my angel! I love you!

Dad, you have kept me grounded, and taught me how to endure and remain focused with
everything I do. Thank you for your gentle and loving hand that guided me and raised me over
my life. Thank you for being a wonderful husband to my mom, and a committed and loving
father to me! I love you!

Mom and Dad, words can’t express the level of appreciation I have for both of you. Your
involvement in my life has shaped me to become the woman I am today.

I love you and I hope I make you proud!

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation would not have been complete without the guidance of my committee members,
my friends, and my family.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. Rudy Castruita. His
outstanding guidance, patience and consistent encouragement have been evident throughout this
entire dissertation process.
I must also acknowledge the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr.
John Roach who graciously gave their time and expertise to support me. I thank them for their
contributions and their dedication.
I am thankful for the support of my fellow classmates, who are now life-long friends. I’m grateful
for the time we spent studying, supporting, and encouraging each other throughout this process.
To all of my friends both near and far, I appreciate your constant encouragement, prayers and
support throughout this season.
My church family, thank you for constantly praying for me and encouraging me.
Finally to my wonderful family, I am truly appreciative for each and every one of you. To all my
Aunts, Uncles, Cousins and In-laws, thank you for all your words of encouragement and support.
Thank you for understanding when I couldn’t make all the family functions and outings because I
was studying. From day one you guys have been my biggest supporters.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vii
List of Figures ix
Abstract x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Background 1
Theoretical Framework 6
Statement of the Problem 7
Purpose of the Study 8
Research Questions 9
The Importance of the Study 10
Limitations 10
Definition of Terms 11
Overview of the Study 12

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Introduction 14
Barriers to Parental Involvement 17
Communication 26
Parenting Skills 27
Volunteering 27
School Decision Making and Advocacy 28
Collaborating with Community 29
Distributed Leadership & Partnership 32
Chapter Two Summary 35

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology
Introduction 37
Purpose of the Study 37
Research Questions 38
Research Designs 39
Unit of Analysis 40
Sample and Population 40
Population Sampling 42
Instrumentation 43
Administrators 44
Teacher 45
Parent 45

v

Interview Survey Instrument 45
Data Collection 46
Data Collection Protocol 46
Interview Protocol 47
Document Analysis 48
Data Analysis 48
Ethical Consideration 49
Chapter Three Summary 49

Chapter Four: Analysis of Data
Introduction 50
Organization of Data Analysis 50
Descriptive Characteristics of Respondents 52
Research Question 1: Organizational Barriers 54
Language & Cultural Barriers 68
Research Question 2: Effective Strategies 71
Professional Development 73
Training Parents 77
Research Question 3: Best Practices 86
Administrator & Teacher Beliefs 95
Administrator Perspective 95
Teacher Perspective 98
Parent Perspective 100
Major Outcomes of this Study 101

Chapter Five: Findings, Conclusions and Implications
Introduction 104
Restatement of the Study 104
Findings 105
Research Question 1: Organizational Barriers 105
Recommendations: Organizational Barriers 108
Research Question 2: Effective Strategies 110
Recommendations: Effective Strategies 112
Research Question 3: Supporting a Partnership 113
Recommendations: Supporting a Partnership 114
Overall Implications 115
Overall Recommendations 115
Future Research 120

Bibliography 121
Appendices
Appendix A: Participation Letter 126
Appendix B: Final Attempt Email to Participants 127
Appendix C: Information/Fact Sheet 128
Appendix D: District-Level Administrator Survey 130
Appendix E: Principal Survey 132
Appendix F: Teacher Survey 134

vi

Appendix G: Parent Survey 136
Appendix H: Parent Survey (Spanish) 138
Appendix I: Administrator Interview Questions 140
Appendix J: Principal Interview Questions 141
Appendix K: Teacher Interview Questions 142
Appendix L: Parent Interview Questions 143
Appendix M: Parent Interview Questions (Spanish) 144

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 List of Interviewed Participants 53

Table 4.2 Communications & Awareness Response 55

Table 4.3 Parent Response to Survey Question 56

Table 4.4 Administrators Response to Survey Question 59

Table 4.5 Teacher Response to Survey Question 60

Table 4.6 Available Resources 63

Table 4.7 Training Provided for Parents & Teachers 72

Table 4.8 District Professional Development
Survey Response 74

Table 4.9 Teacher Professional Development
Survey Response 75

Table 4.10 Training Provided for Parents by District 78

Table 4.11 Classroom Teacher Responses 79

Table 4.12 District Level Administrator Statistical
Views on Training Parents 82

Table 4.13 Teachers Statistical Views on Training Parents 82

Table 4.14 Low SES Parents Statistical Views
on Training Parents 83

Table 4.15 High SES Parents Statistical Views
on Training Parents 83

Table 4.16 Stakeholders Response –
Administrator & Teacher 89

Table 4.17 Stakeholders Response –
Low & High SES Parents 90

Table 4.18 Parents Survey - Feeling Welcomed 93

Table 4.19 Parents Survey - Feeling Unwelcomed 94

viii

Table 4.20 Correlation between Parental Involvement
& Student Achievement (Administrator Perspective) 96

Table 4.21 Correlation between Parental Involvement
& Student Achievement (Teacher Perspective) 99

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 CBUSD Student Ethnicity 42

Figure 3.2 CBUSD by Other Characteristics 42

Figure 3.3 Creswell’s Model for Qualitative
Data Analysis 48

Figure 4.1 District Professional Development
Survey Response 74

Figure 4.2 Teacher Response to Professional
Development Survey Question 75

Figure 4.3 Correlation between Parental Involvement &
Student Achievement (Administrator Response) 96

Figure 4.4 Correlation between Parental Involvement &
Student Achievement (Teacher Response) 98

Figure 5.1 Stakeholders Collaborations Diagram 117

x

ABSTRACT

This study examines aspects of parental involvement that lead to student academic
achievement. This study will provide schools and districts with objective data that will allow
stakeholders to identify specific and effective strategies to increase parental involvement. The
researcher explores the social capital theory, cultural capital theory, social reproduction theory
and Joyce Epstein’s model of the six domains of parental involvement. Using a quantitative
approach, the researcher investigates the correlation between parental involvement and student
achievement, as well as the impact of parental involvement on student achievement. Findings
indicate that identifying organizational barriers, identifying possible effective strategies to
overcome the organizational barriers, and establishing an effective and collaborative partnership
between school and home has a great impact on parental involvement, and may lead to an
increase in student achievement. Implications for all stakeholders and recommendations for future
research are offered.

1

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Background

Prior to the beginning of the 20
th
century, formalized schooling was a collaboration
between families and schools. In the late 1800s, the family dynamic was clearly defined by the
father’s role of being the financial supporter of the family, while the mother’s was to manage and
control the home. Within the context of the societal norm of the time, children were collectively
reared by a cooperative of mothers who provided a nurturing environment for children in the
community. Accordingly, it was in 1897 that a group of mothers from across the nation founded
the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) to support a healthy growing relationship between parents
and teachers. This movement was very active in political affairs, and worked toward passing laws
in support of children’s rights (e.g. child labor laws, food and drug acts, and housing legislation).

Currently in the 21
st
century, there has been another major shift in the structure of
families. These days, it is not uncommon to find the breadwinner of a single parent home working
numerous jobs to support a basic lifestyle for their children. By comparison, two-parent homes
usually find both father and mother working full-time in order to financially support the family.

With the shift in financial responsibilities, many families are unable to support their
children when it comes to parental involvement in schools, in the traditional sense. Research has
indicated disconnects between parents’ engagement, as well as support, in school activities, and
because of this shift, schools have been forced to take much of the responsibility in educating
students, both academically and socially. Consequently, the school system has switched roles
with the parents and is now granted the integral responsibility of being the primary caregiver of a
child, instead of being mere supporter.

2

With a high correlation between academic success and parental involvement, alternative
methods must be established that will assist parents in supporting their children with the current
family structures in place. Schools are now challenged to find creative methods to inform and
involve parents on strategies and techniques to support their children in addition to building a
successful partnership between school and the home (Burns, 1993).

Closing the achievement gap in education has continued to be a major topic of discussion
over the last decade. The achievement gap refers to the large disparity in academic achievement
between specific demographics of students, for example, the performance gap between African-
American and Latino students, as compared to their White and Asian peers. Student progress
reports, standardized test scores, dropout rates, and college completion requirements indicate the
numerous factors causing disparities in the achievement gap.

Socioeconomic factors can also be attributed to the disparity in student achievement.
Based on data from the U.S. Department of Education, there is a strong correlation between
students performing low on state-wide standardized assessments and students who fall into the
low socioeconomic status (SES) category. On the opposite socioeconomic spectrum, the U.S.
Department of Education also confirms a strong correlation between students of middle to high
SES performing in the middle to high percentage of the state standardized assessments.

There are a number of key factors that contribute to successfully bridging the gap
between White and Asian students and their African-American and Latino peers. The 2009
California Accountability Progress Report (APR) indicates minority students have an
achievement gap of approximately 150 points below their White counterparts (California
Accountability Progress Report, 2009). With the White and Asian population taking a large
academic lead, the Latino students are trailing behind and the English Language Learners (who

3

are identified as non-fluent English speakers) scored higher than African American students,
overall.

In 2001, the federal government created a system that was designed to narrow and
eliminate the gap between all children. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act is a system that is
designed to identify and acknowledge the gaps between students and strategically eliminate them.
Title I is the cornerstone of the NCLB Act. Many of the major requirements of NCLB Act, such
as teacher requirements and accountability, sanctions for schools, professional developments and
parental involvement are outlined in Title I. Nearly ten years later, there is still a significant
discrepancy in test scores, which indicates there is still a flaw in the educational system.

Federal policies described in NCLB and Title I. require individual states, districts and
schools to directly address the gaps in the educational system. Through this government
initiative, substantial financial support is provided to schools and districts with socioeconomically
disadvantaged students. Another requirement for the schools and districts to receive the Title 1
funds is that at least one percent of said funds are spent on parental involvement. Parents, as the
students’ primary caregivers, have an enormous impact on their children’s education in a variety
of ways. Districts and schools must learn how to best utilize each parent as a resource and
identify which models of parental involvement are most closely associated with student
achievement. In essence, Title 1 requires parental involvement in school governance, planning
and decision-making, as well as a governing committee, at school sites and district levels.

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was designed, in theory, to produce educational
reform based on principles that suggested setting academic standards and measurable goals that
are attainable for all students enabling them to perform at a proficient level of education by 2014.
Proficiency is determined based on the percentage of individual students, and subgroups of
students, scoring at or above 800 on the English Language Arts and Math statewide tests. The

4

NCLB Act was created to keep schools and their districts accountable to the students they serve,
and the communities in which they reside, by improving the quality of the educational programs
provided. Its purpose was also to take into account the alarming disparity between minority
students and their peers.

Researchers have not indicated specific causes of the achievement gap; however, some of
the myriad causes could include factors such as culture, socioeconomic status and environment.
As it is suggested that the culture and environment in which many children are raised play a role
in the academic gap, experts argue that there is an inequality that minorities face putting them at a
disadvantage during the start of their educational careers. Regardless of what factors have the
greatest impact on the gap, the facts continue to point to a clear distinction between minority
students and the other subgroups of students at a school site.

All students becoming proficient or advanced is a probable goal, however, based on the
current data, which indicates the achievement level of students in California, there is a huge
disparity between the Caucasian and Asian communities and the African-American and Latino
communities. According to the California Department of Education, 39% of the African
American population is performing at a proficient level. That is a difference of 34% in
comparison to the Asian population who has 74.6% of their population performing at the
proficient and advanced levels, and 69.9% of the White population performing at
proficient/advanced levels (California Department of Education, 2009).

In an effort to address the nationwide academic achievement gap, the federal government
instituted the following guidelines that school districts must adhere to in order to produce the best
positive results in affecting the gap. Every school within each district must prepare an annual
report card, to be made available to parents and community members, detailing the student
academic achievement for all subgroups. The report must show a comparison of students at all

5

the achievement levels within the school district as compared to students in other districts
nationwide. The report card must also indicate that a teacher is “highly qualified” based on the
national definition. The federal government instituted these policies to ensure equitable
opportunities for all students, and to assure schools’ accountability to the students and parents
they serve.

In addition to making schools accountable to their students, the NCLB Act also includes
a component specifically designed to incorporate parental involvement. NCLB provides
partnership opportunities for parents to ensure that they are aware of their legal rights, and are
abreast of each school’s obligations to their community of students (NCLB Act of 2001). The law
has specific requirements on parental involvement that include:

1. State agencies must support the collection and dissemination of information on effective
parental involvement methods to local educational agencies and schools.

2. Title I schools have specific measures that a school must follow; in order to receive the
Title I funds a school must involve parents in the overall planning at the district and
school levels, coordinate parent workshops, provide parental trainings, and coordinate
annual meetings for federal education programs (e.g. Head Start, and Reading First).

3. The school district must distribute an annual report card specifying how the school and
district are performing as a whole. The district must also allow parents the choice to
change schools if the school is not performing at an adequate level.

4. School districts and schools must involve parents in the annual evaluation of the school
and the design of parental involvement programs for parents

5. Schools must have a strategy for two-way communication between the school and the
parent keeping them informed of their students’ learning progress and other school
activities. In addition, districts must ensure that there are opportunities for the parents to

6

contact the school and discuss any concerns with the administration of the school site, as
well.

One strategy that has been correlated with student achievement is the increase of parental
involvement by means of classroom support, homework help, and active involvement in
PTA/PTO. Understanding the positive correlation between parental involvement and student
achievement, research has shown that low SES parents find it difficult to be actively involved
based on the current structure of parent programs and support opportunities at school sites (Hill &
Taylor, 2004). Traditionally, schools have involved parents in the PTA/PTO, fundraisers, and
include them as classroom volunteers and chaperones on fieldtrips. However, most of the parent
support opportunities are during the school day and doesn’t allow working parents to participate.
Therefore, there is a misunderstanding of the support provided by low SES parents and their
children. This is largely due to the barriers parents of a low socioeconomic status face when
asked to volunteer in a traditional parental involvement model. Further research indicates that
there are more effective strategies for parental involvement based on the SES and ethnicities of
the parents (Hill & Taylor, 2004).

Theoretical Framework

Whereas parental involvement is not a mandate in public education, it should be seen as a
viable resource based on data revealing the significant impact on student achievement. Parental
involvement in schools has been a focus of discussion since the mid 1800s with the establishment
of the Parent Teacher Association that was designed to build a healthy supportive relationship
between the parents and teachers in an effort to increase student achievement. It has been
suggested that through parental involvement a student may see the importance of education

7

through the lens of their parents, therefore directly impacting the student’s academic
achievement.

This study will be based on the Social and Economic Capital framework and the
Reproduction Theoretical framework. The Social Capital theoretical framework is a concept
which “focuses on the degree and quality of middle-class forms of social support inherent in a
young person’s interpersonal network” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The Social Capital theoretical
framework also emphasizes and supports the need for adults to participate in a more active role in
the lives of children. Data from the studies supports a significant difference when there is a
genuinely supportive relationship between an adult and a student, and a system is in place that is
designed to support that relationship.

Statement of the Problem

The Current models of parental involvement, inclusive of PTA organizations and
classroom volunteer opportunities, may not correlate with what experts suggest have benefitted
parents based on Social and Cultural Capital. Social Capital socioeconomic barriers include non-
flexible work schedules, lack of overall resources (including transportation to school sites), stress
as a result of residing in high risk communities, as well as past negative experiences with the
school itself (Burns, 1993, p. 12). Research further indicates the parental involvement
opportunities that may be more effective for specific subgroups, for example: building
partnerships between schools, families and the communities in which they reside, in essence,
making the school a community center; creating opportunities for school-parent contacts outside
of the school; providing transportation to and childcare for PTA/PTO meetings, in addition to
scheduling meetings and workshops/classes with the working parents’ schedule in mind (Lee &
Bowen, 2006) (Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007).

8

Parents and schools should be accountable to one another in an effort to increase parental
involvement in schools because there appears to be a lack of training for parents on the
requirements and needs of students. Parental training should include effective decisions making
skills and knowledge on assisting their child with school related activities, as well as augmenting
their learning process at home. Documented cases reflect how parents’ self-perceptions of their
own academic competence affect their involvement in assisting their children. Confidence in the
parents’ intellectual abilities is the most salient predictors of their school involvement.

The disconnect between the school and home is largely due to the type of relationship
established between the school personnel and the parents. Schools have not created an enriching
environment for parents to actively participate directly in academic activities. Nor is there a
parent resource center where parents can feel welcomed or attend workshops designed
specifically to meet their needs. Effective partnerships have not been established between school
personnel and homes. Professional development opportunities that are designed to train teachers
and school personnel on effectively involving parents while identifying ways to help facilitate a
healthy home/school relationship are areas that research suggests be considered.

Purpose of the Study

This study will examine the aspects of “parental involvement” that lead to academic
achievement in students such as:

1. The type of parental involvement participation currently in schools/districts that
have an impact on student achievement.

2. How the socioeconomic status (SES) of the parents is factored in when suggesting
parental involvement and support.

9

3. An overview of successful parent involvement policies and procedures for
schools/districts.

4. Evidence that will further guide the researcher in recommending parent
involvement policies and procedures that are beneficial based on the SES of the
parents.

5. Ways to develop parents’ accountability to the school, by educating parents on the
needs of the students/school, supporting that educating parents to make effective
decisions, as well as strategies, augment the learning at home which leads to academic
achievement.

6. An in depth account of the best practices between school personnel and the
parents. Establishing relationships with school personnel, and creating an environment
where parents are welcomed and encouraged to actively participate in a variety of
ways, can not only reduce problem behaviors with students but will increase academic
achievement.

Research Questions

1. Are there organization barriers that attribute to low parental involvement, which, in
turn, contributes to diminished student achievement?

2. What are possible effective strategies to improve student achievement and overcome the
persistent barriers that hinder parental involvement?

3. What best practices will support a partnership between the school personnel and parents
that may lead to an increase in student achievement?

10

The Importance of the Study

The importance of this study is to provide schools/districts with objective data that will
allow them to identify effective strategies to clearly identify the parent roles, and specific
strategies to involve them in the schools.

This study will be particularly useful to the four major stakeholders in education: the
parents, students, teachers and administrators. Being the primary educator, this study will
highlight ways in which parents can better support their child and the school, considering all the
barriers, and build a healthy and productive relationship with the school and their child’s teacher.
After reading this study, teachers will gain best practices that encourage partnership and includes
healthy two-way communication practices with parents, in addition to effective support strategies.
Administrators at the school and district levels will identify persistent barriers of parental
involvement at their school/district site, and create a new model of parental involvement
opportunities to overcome those barriers. Students will benefit overall from the collaborative
efforts of both the schools and the home.

Upon completion of this study, the district, school site administrators, and teachers will
be able to clearly identify specific strategies that will impact parental involvement and increase
student achievement creating an enriched and welcoming environment for parents.

Limitations

This study may be limited as a result of being conducted at only one school in the district.

11

Definitions of Terms

For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined below:

 Academic Achievement: Student performance at or above the states measure of
proficiency.

 Academic Performance Index (API): Measurement of the academic performance and
growth of schools and districts. Each state has determined their level of proficiency. In
California, a score of 800 denotes proficiency.

 Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): A series of annual academic performance goals,
mandated by federal law, establishing the percentage of students scoring proficiency on
the state assessment for each school and the state, as a whole.

 Cultural Capital: Forms of knowledge; skill; education; any advantages a person has
which give them a higher status in society, including high expectations.

 Culturally Responsive Teaching: A pedagogy that empowers students intellectually,
socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge,
skills, and attitudes.

 Decision Making: A process wherein an awareness of a problem, influenced by
information, values and beliefs, is reduced to competing alternatives. From these
alternatives, a choice is made.

 Economic Capital: Command over economic resources (cash, assets).

 Parent: Natural parent, legal guardian, or other person/caregiver including grandparent,
step-parent, or person legally responsible for the child’s welfare.

 Parent Involvement: Commitment from the parents to actively participate in, both, the
school and their children’s education.

12

 Shared Decision Making: A process that includes the input of parents, teachers,
administrators, community members, and possibly students in the decisions that affect
how a school or school district operates.

 Social Capital: Resources based on group membership, relationships, networks of
influence and support.

 Sociocultural Theory: The relationship between the social structures, the values of a
society, how they change with time, and why.

 Socioeconomic Status (SES): An individual’s or group’s position within a hierarchical
social structure. SES status depends on a combination of variables, including occupation,
education, income, wealth, and place of residence. Sociologists often use socioeconomic
status as a means of predicting behavior.

 Social Reproduction: The process of transferring aspects of society from generation to
generation.

Overview of the Study

This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one provided an overview of the
academic achievement gap and the federal policies that are currently in place to close the gap.
One of the federal policies discussed was the opportunity for parents to become involved in the
academic process, thereby impacting the student’s achievement in a positive way and narrowing
the achievement gap. Chapter one also included the statement of the problem, the purpose and
significance of the study, research questions, definitions of the terms, and a general overview.
Chapter two contains a review of the literature, identifying the positive correlation between
parental involvement and student achievement through the collaboration and partnership of
school personnel (teachers, administrators and other personnel) and the home (parents and

13

community members). Chapter three presents the methodology, population, the data collection
and analysis procedures for this study. Chapter four presents the data of the study. Finally,
Chapter five summarizes the findings and their implications for parents, teachers and
administrators, as well as recommendations for further research.

14

CHAPTER TWO:

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The No Child Left Behind Act, in conjunction with the Title I initiative, is the
government mandate requiring parents to be included in the governing body of the schools. This
measure caused schools to develop programs in order to implement parental involvement strategy
that would comply with Title I requirements, as well as being effective in improving student
achievement. The overall goal of Title I is to improve the teaching and learning of children in
high-poverty schools so that they can meet challenging academic content and performance
standards (Patrikakou, 2005). In 1965, federal policy did not require parental involvement in
regards to Title I. However, between 1971 and 1988, states were required to consult with parents
to assure involvement in the program planning and implementation of parent advisory councils in
the schools (D’Agostino, J. et al, 2001) Districts were encouraged to develop advisory councils,
resource centers, parent liaison staff, and resources to support the parents and provide them with
the necessities required to increase home learning. By 1994 new provisions were added to Title I
for parental involvement. Schools that received more than $500,000 per year in Title I funds had
to reserve 1% for parent involvement activities. This was in addition to each school having to
develop a parent-school compact that described the school’s responsibility to provide a high-
quality curriculum and instruction, as well as provide on-going school-home communication that

15

is necessary for achieving high standards. The school-parent compact also outlined the parent’s
responsibility, which was to primarily support their child’s learning at home.

Parents are the child’s first and primary teacher. The National Standards for
Parent/Family Involvement programs suggests that parents are a child’s life support system
(1998). A parent’s involvement in their child’s school should be beyond the PTA or volunteering
in the classroom; their involvement begins in their own home (Berger, 1987). The National
Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education (NCPIE), in conjunction with the California
School Boards Association (CSBA), describes parent involvement to include: being a part of the
decision-making at the school site, collaborating with teachers and coordinating activities that
support the curriculum that can be done at home, and partnering with teachers in the educational
process to enhance the development and academic achievements of their children (National
Coalition for Parent Involvement In Education, 2010) (California School Boards Association,
2010).

Parental involvement is the focus of countless programs and policies, largely due to the
amount of time children spend with their families in the early and impressionable time in their
lives. Children spend more time with their families during the first ten years of life than in any
other social context (Patrikakou et al., 2005). Therefore, family involvement sets the tone and
condition upon which a child engages in education, thus affecting and impacting their academic
success. A second reason parental involvement has been mandated by policies such as NCLB Act
and Title I is due to the desire of both the school and parents to educate as well as build the social

16

capital of children effectively. In addition, schools have a strong ability to influence, encourage
and empower parents to participate in their child’s educational experience, thereby promoting a
positive school and community climate for learning (Brofenbrenner, 1975).

Patrikakou, et al. suggest three groupings that evidence how parental involvement
impacts student achievement and success (2005):

1. Interventions with a family support component positively affect children’s outcomes.

2. Parental involvement is a mechanism through which the long-term effect of intervention
is achieved.

3. Indicators of parent involvement are associated with significantly higher levels of school
performance and success.

There is a natural variation in parental attitude and behaviors associated with student
achievements, which include school performance, achievement test scores and educational
attainment. Overall, high parental involvement, regardless of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, a
child’s sex, and a child’s motivational level, have been found to produce a positive correlation
with a student’s academic achievement (Patrikakou, 2005).

A study conducted by Hill and Taylor noted that parents from higher socioeconomic
backgrounds were increasingly likely to be more directly involved in their child’s schooling than
parents of lower socioeconomic status. They noted that a higher education level of parents is
positively associated with a greater tendency for them to be a strong advocate for their child.
However, parents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds faced barriers that impeded being

17

involved ranging from feelings of inadequacy due to their level of education, to basic scheduling
needs and lack of resources (Hill & Taylor, 2004).

Barriers to Parental Involvement

Research suggests that based on studies conducted nationwide there is a strong correlation
between specific components of parent involvement and student academic achievement; however,
even with this knowledge, there are few schools and districts that have a strong established
parental involvement program in place (Epstein, 1992). Rebecca Burns concluded that there are
four major barriers to parental involvement, especially pertaining to parents with a low
socioeconomic status. The major barriers include: Constraints on Parent’s Availability,
Disparities between Home and School Cultures, Feelings of Inadequacies, and Parent and
Teacher Attitudes (Burns, 1993).

The change in family structure has had a direct reflection on the time of parental
involvement and availability parents have in schools. The number of single parent families that
have more than one job, in addition to the number of traditional type of families, has increased.
Therefore, many families have several time constraints that limit their ability to participate in
activities during regular school hours, including volunteer opportunities, as well as teacher
conferences. These types of socioeconomic changes directly impact the type of parental
involvement a parent may have at the school site.

18

Another barrier that has an impact on parental involvement is the disparity between the
cultures of the parents and teachers (Burns, 1993). Cultural Capital denotes the accumulation of
knowledge, experience, and skills one has had through the course of their life that enables him a
better chance to succeed versus someone from a less experienced background. Cultural Capital is
further defined as the advantage gained by middle class, educated, European-American parents
from knowing, preferring and experiencing a lifestyle congruent with the culture that is dominant
in most American schools. Bourdieu (1977) suggests that the concept of cultural capital is based
on the idea that schools and other social structures have a strong influence over an individual
through the mechanism of the cultural capital. Studies conducted by Mannan and Blackwell
(1992) determined that when the school environment wasn’t sensitive to the home language and
culture, two-way communication was often very difficult, and many parents were discouraged
from initiating any type of dialogue with the teacher. Hill and Taylor also suggest that it was not
recognized that parental involvement seems to function differently and serve different purposes in
different cultural groups (Hill & Taylor, 2004). Lareau, another theorist, suggests that students
who lack cultural capital have limited parental involvement and are likely to have lower academic
achievement than their peers.

One of the disadvantages that may occur when parents whose culture or lifestyle differs
from that of the dominant culture include parents who have less of a desire to visit the school,
resulting in less opportunity for the parent to gain the social, informational and material rewards
gained by those parents who do actively participate. Also, the differences in cultural capital may

19

reduce the ability of parents to obtain information and parental skills (social capital) which can
better equip their child in regards to school related activities, regardless if the parents are active or
not active in the school (Hill & Taylor, 2004).

Pierre Bourdieu, a French sociologist, suggests that cultural capital exists in three states:
institutionalized, objectified and embodied. In the objectified state, cultural capital can be
increased by transforming economic capital into goods and objects. For example, a textbook is an
“objectified” form of cultural capital since it requires prior training to understand the text.
Institutional capital is in the form of attained degrees (high school, college), and credentials
(trades, jobs) which signify a level of cultural competence recognized by others in society. As
determined by the researcher Michael Apple, embodied capital is recognized by a person’s
disposition or aptitude that reflects the personal knowledge base and skills of an
individual (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977). Based on these findings, the importance of parental
involvement and the possession of cultural capital resources are significant. In order for a parent
to participate and advocate for their child in the school, they must possess cultural capital
resources that are recognized and acknowledged.

Everyone, regardless of background, brings a set of norms and values to the school; this is
known as the social capital. Social Capital is a concept which “focuses on the degree and quality
of middle-class forms of social support inherent in a young person’s interpersonal
network” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Stanton-Salazar emphasized the need for educators to play an
active role in the lives of students, thereby increasing their social capital and teaching them how

20

to “encode the system”. This study highlighted the communication breakdown that is prevalent in
the school system, which has denied students the ability reach a level of success in regards to
their educational goals (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The limitations of the social capital resources are
barriers that both the students and parents face. Many students and parents that have a low
socioeconomic status may see attending school as a negative experience; however, when we
equip our students with the skills needed to decode the system, they achieve at a higher
rate (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). When considering Social Capital from the parents’ perspective, a
school’s responsibility is to provide training and to ensure that parents become socially engaged
in learning to decode the school system, which will provide more opportunities for their child.

This is not to imply that these parents don’t possess decoding skills in the overall sense,
but they may lack the skills and training within the mainstream institution (Stanton-Salazar,
1997). Bourdieu (1986) suggests that the degree to which a person possesses social capital
depends on the size of their network of connections. A school is a prime source for students to
gain social capital because it is a primary place for their social interactions. The stronger the
relationships between the school personnel and the students, the more students are exposed to
social capital resources, as well as to decoding the educational system. James Coleman (1988)
suggests that social capital has three forms: (1) level of trust as evidenced by obligations and
expectations, (2) information channels, and (3) norms and sanctions that promote the common
good over self-interest. Laureau (2001) suggests that Coleman’s work supports the idea that it is
the family’s responsibility to adopt certain norms to advance their child’s chances in life, whereas

21

Bourdieu’s work emphasizes structural constraints and unequal access to institutional resources
based on class, gender, and race. However, both theoretical frameworks are based on identifying
an alternative explanation as to why there is an inequality in academic achievement among high
SES students and low SES students (Dika and Singh, 2002).

Parents play a major role in student achievement; however, based on the Cultural and
Social Capital framework, teachers and administrators are very instrumental to the students’
academic achievements as well. While building a partnership with parents, teachers gain a better
understanding of the child’s culture, their needs and their academic capabilities, thereby
addressing the social capital needs. A study conducted by Stanton-Salazar showed a significant
difference in closing the communication gap that exists between the school and home, thereby
breaking down the barriers that are in place, and equipping the students with the skills needed to
decode the system and achieve at a higher rate (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).

According to Beyond the Bake Sale, it is suggested that successful methods to build
cultural and social capital include providing parents with information and knowledge as the key
to bridging the gap between home and school (Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007).
Informing families about how the educational system and local government work is one of the
first ways to bridge the gap. Another method is to make the school a community resource center
in and of itself where parents receive information about programs and community resources at the
school site. The authors also suggest showcasing local businesses at the school and providing
information about the services they offer while highlighting how they can benefit the school and

22

community, and ultimately impact their children in a positive way. Finally, the authors suggest
that there is a greater chance for academic achievement when parents are empowered with
knowledge to promote effective change in the school and their child, providing many ways
parents can meet and discuss all issues with teachers and administrators concerning their child’s
academic progress (Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007).

Combining the findings of all the researchers, there is an important connection between
parental involvement and empowering the parents with Social and Cultural Capital resources.
Considering the findings of Bourdieu, conceptualization of social capital is rooted in the social
reproduction theory and symbolic power (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu argues that the educational
system contributes to the reproduction of the structure of class relations by unevenly drawing on
the social and cultural resources of members within the society. Bourdieu (1986), and Roscigno
and Darnell (1999), having studied race, cultural capital and achievement, also suggested that
within the theory of cultural capital, schools are not necessarily viewed as neutral institutions, but
as institutions in which the preferences, attitudes and behaviors of the dominant class are most
highly valued.

Laureau suggests that for many low-income and working-class families, educating
parents on the workings of the school and the educational system is, at times, difficult. Low-
income/working families are faced with barriers such as parental employment or unemployment,
linguistic barriers, and extenuating circumstances that make the parents reluctant to participate
fully or become involved even when the opportunities exist (Lareau, 1989). Laureau also suggests

23

that schools and societies do not teach students, or parents, ways in which a parent can gain social
and cultural capital resources, neither through classes or other measures. Therefore, low-income
and working-class parents may not be empowered or equipped with these resources, and may feel
inadequate with participating and contributing to the creation and implementation of school
policies and the school governing body.

Despite these barriers, Lareau (1989) posits that low-income and working-class parents
are still involved with their child’s education, and find ways to support and help their child
achieve success at school. The difference is in the actual type of involvement between the low-
income, working-class parents and the higher income families. Bourdieu’s social reproduction
theory suggests that the school’s governing system will be a reflection of the dominant culture,
thereby impeding the student and parent’s involvement in the school. Therefore, the schools have
the responsibility to educate the parents and level the playing field, while parents can support the
students and the school equally.

In the context of parental involvement, schools and districts determine the types of social
and cultural capital that are necessary to facilitate positive parental involvement on behalf of their
child’s educational experience. Joyce Epstein designed a model that is comprised of six major
types of parental involvement that supports academic achievement. Of the six components, four
have been adopted to support the NCLB Title I parental involvement requirement at the national
level. Epstein (1992) categorized parent involvement into six types:

24

Type 1 – Parenting: Helping all families to establish supportive environments for their
children.

Type 2 – Communicating: Establishing two-way exchanges about school programs and
children’s progress.

Type 3 – Volunteering: Recruiting and organizing parent help at school, home, or other
locations.

Type 4 – Learning at Home: Providing information and ideas to families about how to
help students with homework and other curriculum related materials.

Type 5 – Decision Making: Having parents from all backgrounds serve as representatives
and leaders on school committees.

Type 6 – Collaborating with the Community: Identifying and integrating resources and
services from the community to strengthen school programs.

Epstein argues that when schools frequently engage parents they have more successful outcomes
because the students benefit from the consistent message generated by their home and the school
about the importance of education.

Another major component that supports the correlation between parental involvement and
student achievement is increasing the social capital (Bennett, 2001). Increasing the parents' skills
and knowledge base will better equip them to assist their children at home. By providing the
opportunity for parents to collaborate with one another, it makes room for them to share insight
with one another on school policies, practices, community resources, as well as approaches to

25

parenting practices. According to Constantino (2003), creating a school culture that is welcoming
and engages the family is the key component to parental involvement, which, research shows has
a positive effect on student academic achievements. Constantino suggests that schools and
families should engage and build a positive partnership by making schools the center of the
community and not only involving the teachers, administrators and parents, but also including
businesses and community members to support the school (Constantino, 2003)

The NCPIE describes parental involvement as exchanging information, sharing in
decision making, volunteering at the school, and collaborating with teachers in the educational
process (National Coalition for Parent Involvement In Education, 2010). Improving interactions
between school and parents is essential to developing and nurturing parent involvement Epstein
(1991), Constantino (2003), and Callison (2004) suggest that communication and collaboration
are the key factors for improving interactions between the parents and the school. Epstein
developed a concept known as “the spheres of influence” which places the student at the center of
a partnership encompassing the school, family and community. If the school/students are the
center of the community, it will allow all stakeholders the opportunity to positively influence
students in the school. When students see that parents, teachers and the community members
working together in a collaborative effort on their behalf, it will give the child a sense of being
cared for from many vantage points. The students, as a result, see the value that the parents,
school and community place on education.

26

In 1998, the National Parent Teachers Association (NPTA) identified six domains that
represent key areas for the success of parental involvement in education. (The six domains were
adopted from Joyce Epstein’s model of parental involvement: Communication, Parenting, Student
Learning, Volunteering, School Decision Making and Collaborating with the
Community.) Callison (2004) suggests the following ways to implement and support the domain
areas the NPTA identified as key areas that will involve parents and have a positive impact on
student achievement.

Communication

1. Providing various ways for parents to correspond with the school will strengthen
the family-school partnership and build the mutual responsibility for the children.
One option is for the school to put together a compact. A compact is a document that
clarifies what parents and schools can do to help children meet the high
expectations/standards of the school. The purpose of the compact is to outline the
shared responsibility in a cohesive plan of action. As a school develops their
compact, the best resources to use are the teachers, school staff, parents, community
members and students who share a common concern about the school and student
achievement.

2. Early identification of the factors that contribute to parental support at the school
site such as family structures, parent work schedules, dominant language spoken, etc.

27

This information will be a helpful resource when determining the type of
recommendations for participation that parents will likely engage in, and the best
opportunities that will increase their participation.

Parenting Skills Promoted and Supported

1. Assess families’ needs and interests to determine the types of programs to offer
parents. Provide a parent-family liaison to coordinate family activities and workshops
for parents. Create a calendar of several programs and activities that meet the needs
of the parents. Develop multiple outreach mechanisms to inform families, businesses
and the community about family involvement policies and programs. Schedule
opportunities for parents to utilize their areas of expertise in the school.

2. Encourage parents to visit their children’s classrooms. Establish year round family
literacy events and programs at the school. These types of events help parents gain
self-confidence in assisting their children at home.

3. Create an inviting and welcoming Parent Resource Center for parents and
community members to utilize. Provide workshops and classes that meet the needs of
the parents. Develop newsletters and resources that provide tips and techniques
parents can use to provide assistance at home.

28

Volunteering

1. Have a clear procedure for parents to become volunteers.

2. Increase parental involvement by making parents feel welcomed and making sure
they know that their support and assistance is needed and greatly appreciated.

3. Provide opportunities for parents to work with students in small group settings, or
with classroom presentations.

4. Allow parents to present at staff meetings and share relevant information.

5. Treat the parent volunteers as paid staff, consider them human capital and value
their presence on the campus.

School Decision Making and Advocacy

Callison (2004) defines shared decision making as a process that includes the input of
parents, teachers, administrators and community members in making decisions about how a
school operates. The organization and the management of the school becomes a shared
responsibility when they follow these steps:

1. Clearly define the problem as a school site that needs to be solved. List the
preconceived ideas about values and beliefs that are shared among all stakeholders. Next,
decide on the framework, listing the possible sources to retrieve information about
potential solutions to the problem. Decide the value of using the solution suggested.

29

Lastly, list alternative methods that can be used to reach the goal, and finally make the
decision.

Collaborating with Community

1. Utilize knowledge that the parents in the community have to provide opportunities for
them to obtain useful information and grant access to community programs/services that
will benefit their children.

2. Establish a web-based Parent University course that provides an opportunity for on-line
classes provided by local college and universities.

3. Create a safe-school plan in which all stakeholders contribute.

Joyce Epstein and the National PTA Committee contributed to the creation of the six
domains suggesting that making parent groups constructive and inclusive provides opportunities
for parents to be involved in the educational process for their children, as well as sets an example
to their children by prioritizing educational opportunities. There is a strong correlation between
parental involvement and student academic achievements regardless of culture, race,
socioeconomic status, and all other perceived barriers. Building a strong school and family
partnership is an essential component to involving the parents in meaningful programs beyond
PTA meetings and bake sales (Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007).

Moving beyond bake sales, parent conferences and PTA meetings as the traditional
methods of parent involvement takes innovation and restructuring. The cumulative experience of

30

parental involvement is more than parents volunteering at the school and should be redefined to
include recognizing that parents are a child’s first teacher, and that a school’s role is to help
families create home environments that support learning (Burns, 1993). In an effort to increase
student achievement through parental involvement, schools have to develop more effective ways
to communicate and reach out to parents who are unable, unwilling or even reluctant due to
cultural and social capital barriers. Schools must recognize the valuable contribution and resource
that parents are to a school. As Burns suggests, parent involvement is about parents helping their
child at home and the school assisting and supporting the parents’ efforts.

In a similar manner, “Comer School Development Program” suggests that providing
parents with opportunities to develop their planning and decision making skills by partnering and
collaborating with schools will meet the students’ social and academic needs, which are
priority (Comer, 2010). Creating a partnership between the school and families refers to a mutual
effort toward a shared goal, and results in a shared responsibility of families and educators in
supporting students’ academic achievements (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).

There are a number of practices that are considered the best in supporting a partnership
between the school personnel and the parents, which move beyond mere “activities,” and regard
the cultural and social capital of the parents. James Comer, a leading child psychologist, based his
theory on the premise that a child’s experiences at home and in school deeply affect their
psychosocial development, which in turn shapes their academic achievement. Therefore, he
created the “Comer Process” which applied principals addressing the barriers that affect the social

31

and cultural needs of parents and students, and their relationship to the school. Through the
School Development Program designed by Comer, parent involvement is suggested to be the
cornerstone of the program and is designed to be an enriching, supporting, nurturing, and
productive environment where children feel valued and secure. Comer suggests this type of
environment facilitates academic learning; therefore, it is very crucial to the overall success of a
comprehensive parent involvement program. The process, Comer suggests, is designed to build
the support network of adults in order to provide an overall structure for students. The
framework of the “Comer Process” is built around three main components: The School Planning
and Management Team, The Student and Staff Support Team, and The Parent Team. All three
teams consist of administrators, teachers, support staff and parents (Comer, 2010).

The School Planning and Management Team develops a comprehensive school plan that
sets academic, social and community relations goals, and coordinates all school activities
including staff development programs. This team monitors the progress of the plan and identifies
areas the school plan needs to adjust, as well as provides opportunities to support the
plan (Comer, 2010).

The Student and Staff Support Team focuses on building the social capital between
students and the staff of the school. This team connects all of the school’s student services,
addresses individual student needs, develops programs to better support the school as a whole,
and accesses resources outside the school (Comer, 2010).

32

The Parent Team involves parents in the school by developing activities through which the
parents can support the school’s social and academic programs. The parent team also involves
parents at three different levels of participation. At the first level, the parents support the school
by attending parent-teacher conferences, reinforcing learning at home, and participating in social
activities. At the second level, parents serve in the school as volunteers and paid aides, and
support learning activities. With the third level, parents serve on a school planning and
management team (Comer, 2010).

There are three guiding principles throughout the “Comer Process” that stakeholders
adhere to: the Collaboration, Consensus Decision-Making, and No Fault principles. The No Fault
principle states that the team focuses on the problem and considers strategies that can be used to
fix the problem and prevent them in the future. The second principle is the Consensus Decision-
Making, which focuses the discussion around what is best for the children. In this stage of the
process, all stakeholders must believe their views were taken into consideration. The final
principle is the Collaboration phase where everyone works together towards the same goals and
all staff, administrators, and parents feel supported while being provided with the necessary
support to reach a level of success for all stakeholders (Comer, 2010).

Distributed Leadership & Partnership

Lee G. Bolman and Terrence E. Deal, authors of Leading with Soul and Spirit, suggest
that “Effective leadership in challenging times boils down to qualities such as focus, passion and

33

integrity.” In an effort to build a distributed partnership between the school and home, all the
stakeholders will have a clear and defined role to make this type of shared/distributed leadership
partnership effective. “A leader is needed to foster purpose, passion, and imagination” (Bolman &
Deal, 1994). Northouse defines leadership as “….a process whereby an individual influences a
group of individuals to achieve a common goal.” Northouse contends that leadership as a process
means that leadership is not a linear, one-way event, but rather interactive. He suggests that when
leadership is defined in this way, it becomes available to everyone. Leadership is no longer
restricted to the person who is formally designated as the leader in the organization (Northouse,
2007).

Using Northouse’s definition of leadership as the basis and model, the school site
administration’s goal is to set the direction and tone of the school or organization, establish the
vision, and determine a plan to carry out the vision. In addition, a leader needs to have a team
that is willing to align themselves with the vision, and work to execute the vision collaboratively.
Finally, a leader is to inspire the people he or she is heading and guide them in overcoming the
hurdles they may face while trying to execute the vision (Northouse, 2007).

With this paradigm shift, the administrative role is pertinent to the success of a positive
school-home relationship (Bergmann et al., 2008). Bergmann suggests the following as a basic
list of tasks that an administrator should undertake to foster effective parent involvement
practices. As the leader, the administrator will:
1. Establish the climate and the model for the establishment of the home-school
relationship.

2. Create a task force that will focus on designing the initiatives for parent involvement.

3. Oversee a written policy for parent involvement.

34

4. Devise effective routines for ongoing communication between home and school.

5. Provide training for teachers and parents centering on the impact and importance of
parental involvement.

6. Provide current research and strategies to teachers.

7. Evaluate the policy and practices.

8. Establish a parent resource center.

Administrators are responsible for setting the overall tone and acceptance of parental
involvement as a supporting resource and not as an annoyance or an extra task that is reluctantly
being implemented (Bergmann et al, 2008). The key points that Bergmann emphasized centered
on the idea that the administrator’s perspective and process of implementation of the program will
have a positive overall effect where parents feel either welcomed, and valued, or the opposite
effect.

As defined by Berger (1987), the teacher’s role includes facilitator, resource developer,
effective communicator, program developer, as well as friend. Teachers share a large
responsibility of implementing an effective parental involvement program. Bergmann suggests
that teachers also have a critical role in supporting school-home interactions. Their roles include
the following:

1. Communicating with parents and caregivers about the academic, social, and behavioral
needs and progress of students.

2. Attending professional developments and trainings that support and build the social and
cultural capital knowledge to better support the students’ and the parent’s needs.

3. Help families work with academic and behavioral goals at home to support school
success.

35

4. Collaborate with administrators, parents and colleagues regarding policies, expectations
and evaluation of collaborative efforts.

Based on the No Child Left Behind Act, and the need for accountability, parental
involvement in the school governance has become a mandate and schools are required to
implement ways to involve parents in the school with the defined goal of impacting students and
increasing their academic achievement. In order to do this effectively, parents have to feel
welcomed and know that their involvement in their child’s education is crucial to the child’s
ability to attain academic success.

To create a model of distributive leadership that is efficient and effective with the
overall goal of increasing student achievement, at least three important organizational
preconditions must be applied: First, the development of a culture within the school that
embodies collaboration, trust, professional learning and reciprocal accountability; second, a need
for strong consensus regarding the important problems facing the organization; and third, a need
for rich expertise with approaches to improving teaching and learning among all those working in
the school (Copland, 2003).

Summary

This literature review illuminated the correlation between parental involvement and
student achievement by increasing the social and cultural capital among all parents. Considering
the impact parental involvement has on children, one could understand the goal of many
educational policies and practices as a reason to enhance involvement by parents. Parental

36

involvement does contribute substantially to a student’s academic success. Parent expectations for
children’s educational attainment and participation in school activities have consistently had
influence on the child’s outcome (Patrikakou et al, 2005). Also indicated was the positive
correlation between student achievement and parental involvement. Despite findings that support
schools training students, teachers and parents about social and cultural capital, evidence also
exists by means of social reproduction, reflecting how some educational institutions are not
evenly distributing their social and cultural capital, and parents who do not possess it are not
recognized, nor are they active participants in the schools.

Through the research conducted there were many ways proven in which schools can
educate parents in developing the social and cultural capital resources needed, and the skills they
should possess. Epstein suggested several techniques that, if utilized, could facilitate positive
approaches to implementing and building positive relationships between the parents and the
school, thereby increasing student academic achievement.

37

CHAPTER THREE:

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This study is identifying the impact that parental involvement has on student
achievement. This chapter outlines the problem and purpose overview, research questions and
design, instrumentation, interview questions, data collection, and data analysis.

Purpose of the Study

Based on the findings presented in chapter two, research has shown a strong correlation
between student achievement and the type of parental involvement and support provided. Parents
and schools should be accountable to each other in the effort to increase their involvement in
schools, thereby increasing overall student achievement. There is a lack of training and educating
of parents on the requirements and needs of students in order to make effective decisions, and
equip them with knowledge on assisting their child with school related activities, as well as
augmenting their learning at home. Research shows that parents’ self-perceptions of their
academic competence affect their involvement. Their confidence in their own intellectual abilities
is the most salient predictors of their school involvement.

The disconnect between the school and home is largely due to the type of relationship
established between the school personnel and the parents. Many schools have not created an
enriching environment for parents to actively participate directly in academic activities, nor is

38

there space for parents to work with the school that include parent resources and workshops,
making the parents feel welcomed and included in the schools. Epstein suggests establishing
partnerships between school personnel and the home is essential in building an effective
partnership. Professional development opportunities designed to train teachers and school
personnel on effectively involving parents and identifying ways to help facilitate a healthy home
and school relationship are areas that research suggests should be considered. Another goal of this
dissertation is to identify more effective strategies for parental involvement based on the
socioeconomic status, cultural capital and social capital and ethnicities of the parents (Hill &
Taylor, 2004).

The purpose of this study is to examine which type of parent and community involvement
practices correlate with student achievement. The secondary purpose is to examine the types of
parental support that are outside of the traditional realm of parental involvement.

Research Questions

1. Are there organizational barriers that attribute to low parental involvement yet
contribute to diminished student achievement?

2. What are possible effective strategies to improve student achievement and overcome the
persistent barriers of parental involvement?

3. What best practices support a partnership between the school personnel and parents?

39

Research Designs

To address the research questions, a survey created by Epstein, et.al (2002) was adapted.
This survey rates the types of parent and community involvement practices currently used by
districts to engage parent, community and school partnerships. Qualitative Research primarily
expands the understanding of how educational interventions actually work. McEwan & McEwan
(2003) describe qualitative research in three forms: the naturalistic inquiry, life history
methodologies, and case studies. The naturalistic inquiry is a type of qualitative research
approach where the researcher is a firsthand witness to what is happening in a specific setting and
studying the human action in a setting that has not been manipulated or staged. The life history
method is a biographical approach that focuses on telling the history of the individual. Case
studies are often used to focus on particular aspects of organizational or human behavior.

McEwan & McEwan (2003) suggest that qualitative research provides an explanation to
an actual problem. The qualitative research provides observations, anecdotes, conversations and
descriptions of how researchers, teachers and administrators deal with day-to-day issues. The
qualitative researchers are constantly considering a variety of possible interpretations and
explanations about what they observed. The quality in qualitative research comes from the depth
and extent of its observations.

40

Unit of Analysis

The Unit of Analysis will identify ways in which parental involvement strategies have been
most effective. The teachers, administrator and parents from the school that is being researched
will be surveyed and interviewed. The parent participants being surveyed will be sampled from
parents that are in the Low SES groups and High SES groups, Parent Teachers Associations, as
well as Parent Volunteers at the school site. The administrator and teachers being sampled work
at the school site.

Based on the data found on the website zipskinny.com, the school community in which
the research will be conducted is a very affluent community. Over 54% of the community
members have an annual household income ranging between $35,000-$149,999. In addition,
96% of the population has an undergraduate degree or higher, as well as 53% with a master’s
degree. Based on the data, the community definitely has a high value placed on their
student’s achievement.

Sample and Population

Specific criteria were established to identify a school with a high percentage of
socioecononomically disadvantaged students that were performing well academically based on
the state expectations, but were still performing below students in other subgroups. In order to
gain an in depth understanding of the impact parental involvement has on student achievement,
the population for this study was selected through purposeful sampling.

41

The following establishes the selection criteria for identifying a school in this study:

1. API scores of 650 or higher on the CST.

2. School with a high population of socioeconomically disadvantaged
students.

3. School with a traditional parenting program.

4. Student enrollment of 500 or more.

5. Diverse school student body population.

Cherry Blossom Elementary School has a population of 639 students, whereby 50% of
the students were characterized as Hispanic or Latino, 40% White (not Hispanic) and 10% other
ethnicities (Figure 1). Of the 639 students, 45% of the total school population is characterized as
being socioeconomically disadvantaged (Figure 2) (District, 2009). According to Cherry
Blossom’s School Accountability Report Card, the teaching population at Cherry Blossom
Elementary is fully credentialed and meets the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act. For
the 2008/09 school year, the STAR Test results for English/Language Arts by subgroup indicated
only 44% of the economically disadvantaged students who scored at the proficient or advanced
level, as well as 45% of the Hispanic or Latino group who scored at proficient or advanced,
whereas 84% of the White (not Hispanic) population scored at proficient or advanced.

42

Figure 3.1: CBUSD Student Ethnicity

Figure 3.2: CBUSD by Other Characteristics

Population Sampling

Utilizing the information gathered from the 2009-2010 API report from the California
Department of Education, identifying the subgroup of students that are considered having low
socioeconomic status, Spring Unified School District has 1,773 students that fit in this category
(CDE, 2010). Of the 1,773 low socioeconomic students district-wide, 287 students attend Cherry
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%

Other

White

Hispanic/Latino

Total
Students

Percent
of
Students

0

20

40

60

80

100

%
of
students

uncategorized

%
of
students

categorized

43

Blossom Elementary School. The parents and teachers were randomly selected from Cherry
Blossom.

In regards to the parent sampling, the researcher chose to sample low SES status parents,
as well as parents with a high SES. To determine the targeted population, the researcher first
identified California’s definition of socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status was defined as
an individual’s or group’s position within a hierarchical social structure. Socioeconomic status
depends on a combination of variables, including occupation, education, income, wealth, and
place of residence. Based on the findings, students with low socioeconomic status were identified
as those who were receiving free and/or reduced lunch (which is based on a family’s household
income).

Instrumentation

This study will utilize Qualitative Data and Artifact Analysis. The use of these
methodologies will include the use of survey questions, interviews, and analyzing achievement
data within the study.

The artifacts the researcher will analyze are Cherry Blossom Elementary School’s CST
scores, School Accountability Report Card, and the API and AYP reports to identify if there is a
correlation between parent involvement and student achievement.

The surveys the researcher designed will identify the effectiveness of parental
involvement and its impact on student achievement. The survey instruments designed are an

44

adaptation of the “six typology of parental involvement” survey instrument designed by Joyce
Epstein. The survey instrument by Joyce Epstein has also been adopted by the national Parent
Teacher Association to help educators develop school and family partnerships with the goal of
increasing academic achievement in students.

Each subsection contains five to six questions that are rated on a five-point Likert-scale
response. The Likert Scale options are (1) Not Occurring: strategy does not happen in our school;
(2) Rarely: clearly not emphasized in this school’s parental involvement plan; (3) Occasionally:
Not a prevalent component of this school’s parental involvement plan; (4) Frequently: A
prevalent component of this school’s parental involvement plan; (5) Extensively: A highly
prevalent component of this school’s parental involvement plan.

Administrators

Administrators will be surveyed and interviewed to determine the type of partnership that
has been established between the school personnel and the parents. The survey and interview
addressed the process by which they have educated parents on meeting the requirements and
needs of students, as well as making effective decisions for their students. The administrative
survey will focus on the vision the administrator has of parental involvement in their school by
identifying the types of parental involvement support they believe is provided from parents to
effectively support student achievement.

45

Teacher

Teachers will be surveyed and interviewed to identify their level of involvement with
making effective decisions and equipping parents with strategies to assist their child in school
related activities, as well as augmenting their learning at home. The teacher survey was designed
to measure how the teacher and the school reaches out to, supports, and involves parents in a
meaningful way.

Parent

Parents will be surveyed to determine the type of involvement they provided for their
children, as well as the role the school played in providing parents with the necessary resources
that will impact their students’ achievement. This survey was designed to measure how the school
reaches out to and involves parents with the students’ academic goals. All parents at Cherry
Blossom Elementary School were invited to participate in the survey.

Interview Survey Instrument

Three sets of interview questions were designed for parents, teachers and administrators.
Each interview will consist of eight to ten questions. For consistency and reliability purposes, an
interview protocol was designed. Each respondent will be asked the exact same question, using
the same wording, yet the only differentiation will be in follow up questions that will be used to
solely to clarify interviewees responses.

46

Patton suggests that the benefits of a standardized interview approach are: (1) The exact
instrument used is available for inspection by those who will use the results of the study; (2) The
interviewer is highly focused so that the interviewee’s time is used efficiently; and (3) Making the
responses easy to find/compare facilitates the analysis (Patton, 2002).

Data Collection

Quantitative data identifying students’ success on CST and other state and district
assessments was collected through the California Department of Education website as well as
through the Testing Coordinator at Spring Unified School District office. Data from the survey
was collected by way of a mailed survey. Data collected from the interview questions was
completed during a 40-minute interview with ten parents and a combination of ten teachers and
administrators that participated in the interview.

Data Collection Protocol

Survey Protocol. A participation letter (Appendix A), and an Information/Fact Sheet
(Appendix C), as well as a research survey , were sent to 60 total participants, which included
administrators (Appendix D & E), teachers (Appendix F), parents (Appendix G & H). Each
survey and returned envelope were coded with a number helping the researcher to identify which
parents, teachers and administrators had responded to the request agreeing to participate in the
research. After three weeks, a reminder letter was sent to the parents, as well as a reminder

47

postcard to the teachers and administrator who had not yet responded. After five weeks, a final
flyer was sent to the teachers and a final email reminder (Appendix B) asking for their
participation. The multiple notification procedure was utilized to ensure adequate participation
for this research.

Interview Protocol

Three categories of individuals were interviewed: administrators (Appendix I), principals
(Appendix J), teachers (Appendix K), and parents (Appendix L & M). The protocol remained
consistent for each category of individuals. The researcher scheduled the interviews and obtained
permission to tape-record the participants. This allowed the researcher to focus on the
interviewee’s body language, listen more adeptly, and engage in probing and follow-up
questions.

The Administrators were chosen based on the administrative positions at Cherry Blossom
Elementary School. The four teachers chosen to participate in the interview were selected
randomly based on the teachers that were willing to participate. The eight parents chosen to
participate in the interview were chosen randomly from the parent participant at Cherry Blossom
Elementary School. Prior to choosing the parents to be interviewed, the researcher put the
participants into two groups: parents with low socioeconomic status and parents identified as
having high socioeconomic status, as defined earlier in this chapter. Once the SES of the parents
was identified, they were numbered and coded, and then randomly selected for interviewing.

48

Document Analysis

Document analysis was conducted to gather information on the district and school’s
background and profile. This information provided a historical perspective and highlights the
district and school’s focus and mission. The documents analyzed, School Accountability Report
Card (SARC), API and AYP reports are all public records and provided pertinent information
such as student demographics, student achievement, school and class sizes, and special programs,
etc.

Data Analysis

The data found in this study through interviews, surveys, observations and document
analysis were analyzed using Creswell’s six-step model (2003).(See Figure 3.3)

Figure 3.3: Creswell’s Model for Qualitative Data Analysis

Organizing

• Step 1: Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
• Step 2: Read through all the data.
Coding

• Step 3: Begin detail analyis with a coding process.
• Step 4: Use coding process to develop a description of the participants and/or
setting. Use coding to develop themes or categories. Themes are analyzed for
each interview and across interviews.

Interpreting

• Step 5: Decide how the description and themes will be represented in the study
narrative.
• Step 6: Interpret or make meaning of the data.

49

At the conclusion, the interviews were fully transcribed, the surveys were tallied and the
observational notes were typed and organized. All collected data was coded, reviewed, classified
and examined to find common threads and themes.

Ethical Consideration

To ensure that the data collection for this study was obtained in an ethical manner, the
researcher followed the guidelines of USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). All persons that
participated in the study volunteered to be a part of the study. Confidentiality was a key factor,
and all participants were assured of the confidentiality of their statements. Pseudonyms were used
to enhance anonymity. All participants were provided a description of the research procedure, its
purpose, risks and anticipated benefits. All participants were also offered the opportunity to ask
questions or to withdraw from the research at any time.

Summary

This chapter shared the research methods that were designed to identify the impact
parental involvement has on student achievement. The purpose of the research questions was
discussed, as well as the purpose and participation of the parents, teachers and
administrators. The survey and interview protocols were shared, as well as the data collection of
the instruments. Chapter four will discuss results of the analyses of the qualitative research,
while chapter five will outline the recommendations for future research.

50

CHAPTER FOUR:

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction

This chapter presents the data from a mixed-method study to identify the role of parental
involvement, as well as the impact and correlation of their impact, on student achievement. This
chapter will also present the strategies and techniques used to execute the district and schools’
policies and practices to involve parents. The specific data collected in this study consisted of
survey responses and interviews from three groups of stakeholders: parents, teachers and district
level administrators. The quantitative data was compiled from the responses from surveys with
parents, teachers, and district-level administrators, and the qualitative data was compiled from
sixteen one-on-one interviews: eight parent interviews, four teachers, and four district-level
administrators.

Organization of Data Analysis

The data examined from this research, as well as a detailed analysis of the data, will be
presented in this chapter. The chapter has been divided into four sections with each section
representing the research question and the comprehensive analysis of the responses. Statistical
analysis of the surveys and interview questions are also represented as they pertain to the specific
research question. This investigative study was conducted to answer the following research
questions:

51

1. Are there organizational barriers that attribute to low parental involvement, yet
contribute to diminished student achievement?

2. What are possible effective strategies to improve student achievement and overcome the
persistent barriers of parental involvement?

3. What are the best practices that support a partnership between the school personnel and
parents?

Participants were asked to answer these questions using a Likert-scale. Participants had the
choice of referring to the following answers as it relates to their school experience: (1) Not
Occurring: strategy does not happen in our district; (2) Rarely: not emphasized in the district’s
parental involvement plan; (3) Occasionally: not a prevalent component of the district’s parental
involvement plan; (4) Frequently: a prevalent component of this district’s parental involvement
plan; (5) Extensively: a highly prevalent component of this district’s parental involvement plan.

The quantitative data has been organized into charts using the SPSS system. This
research study organized and described the characteristics of a collection of data using descriptive
statistics. The components of the chart highlight the Mean, Standard Deviation, and Range.

The Mean score is the most common type of average that is computed. It is the sum of all
the values in the group, divided by the number of values in that group. The Standard Deviation
represents the average distance from the mean; it represents the average amount of variability in a
set of scores. The Range score is the most general measure of variability. The range indicates how
far apart scores are from one another.

52

Descriptive Characteristics of Respondents

Volunteer flyers were sent to Cherry Blossom Elementary soliciting volunteer participants
for the study. Participants were grouped into four categories: Low SES parents of Cherry
Blossom Elementary, High SES parents of Cherry Blossom Elementary, Teachers of Cherry
Blossom Elementary, and District-Level Administrators of Cherry Blossom Unified School
District.

The first category of participants identified in this study is the parents. All parents
identified in this study have children attending Cherry Blossom Elementary School, and were
later categorized as either having a high socioeconomic status or low socioeconomic status based
on the state’s criteria determined by families with a child receiving free or reduced lunch. Parents
identified as being low socioeconomic status were responsible for 20 of the 29 participating
surveys (see Appendix G & H). Therefore, the parent’s high socioeconomic status was
responsible for 9 of the 29 participants. 35 parent volunteers participated in the informational or
attended the meeting where the principal investigator explained the study and gave the option to
participate in the survey, as well as the interview. Out of the 35 parents attending the two
informational meetings, 29 chose to participate. Of the 35 total surveys sent 29 surveys were
returned reflecting an overall response rate of 83%.

The second category of participants in this study is the teachers and certificated staff
members of the school, including the coordinators. 33 teachers, including other certificated staff

53

members, coordinators and teacher interns, were given a copy of the survey (see Appendix F), of
which 31 surveys were returned, reflecting a 93% overall response and participation rate.

The final category of voluntary participants was categorized as District-Level
Administrators. These participants are administrators that have a primary role in the
implementation of parental involvement within the district. Five district-level administrators
were identified and fit the criteria established, and were sent the survey (see Appendix D).
Of the 80 total numbers of volunteers who participated in the survey, 17 volunteered to
also participate in a one-on-one interview. To maintain confidentiality, all interview participants
were recorded by pseudonym. Table 4.1 lists the participants interviewed for this research.
Table 4.1: List of Interviewed Participants

Name Title
Cherry Blossom Unified School District
(CBUSD)
District
Cherry Blossom Elementary School
Cherry Blossom Community
Cherry Blossom Unified School District
Mr. Oak Administrator in District Office
Ms. Fern Administrator in District Office
Ms. Palm Administrator in District Office
Ms. Rose Cherry Blossom Elem. Administrator
Cherry Blossom Teacher
Ms. Daisy Classroom Teacher, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Ms. Elm Classroom Teacher, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Ms. Cedar Classroom Teacher, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Mr. Holly Classroom Teacher, Cherry Blossom Elem.
LOW SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Parent

Ms. Larch Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Mr. Fir Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Ms. Maple Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Mr. Olive Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
HIGH SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Parent

Ms. Lilac Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Ms. Tulip Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Ms. Pine Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.
Mr. Spruce Parent, Cherry Blossom Elem.

54

Research Question 1: Organizational Barriers

This section addresses the organizational barriers that attribute to the lack of parental
involvement, which relates to student achievement. Based on the survey and interview questions,
there were three primary barriers: communication and awareness, available resources, and
language and/or cultural barriers.

The first barrier addressed focuses on communication and awareness. Epstein (1991)
categorized parental involvement into six types. One of the six types focuses on Communication.
Epstein (1991) established it as a two-way exchange that can include information regarding
school programs and children’s progress. Some of the practices that would reflect effective
communication between home and school would include the following: parent conferences with
follow-ups as needed; effective newsletters including information about school events, student
activities, and a place for questions posed by parents to be answered. In regards to
communication between the district and the home, the following practices could be observed:
clear information on school policies, program reforms assessments, and transitions. Finally,
parents are given the opportunity to participate in an annual survey, which would assess the needs
of the parents, and also determine if the types of programs being offered are beneficial
and provide opportunities to increase parents’ involvement in the academic achievements of their
children.

Epstein (1991) suggests that finding a variety of ways to correspond to parents, and
having them also correspond with the school, will ultimately strengthen the partnership between

55

the school and the home. In addition to increasing the communication between the parent and the
school, becoming aware of the factors that affect parents is essential as well. An example of those
factors includes learning family structures, parent work schedules, and the dominant or
comfortable language spoken in the home. Increasing the various ways to communicate and
becoming aware of factors that affect parents participation may lead to an increase in parental
involvement.

Table 4.2 reflects the overall average response to the questions regarding communication
and awareness from the Survey Instrument given to the stakeholders that participated in this
study.
Table 4.2: Communications & Awareness Response

Communication & Awareness
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance

Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
District –
Level
Administrators
5 1.00 3.33 4.33 3.8000 .16997 .38006 .144
Teacher
31 2.67 2.33 5.00 3.5806 .13473 .75015 .563
Low SES
Parents
20 .160 3.40 5.00 4.3500 .10942 .48936 .239
High SES
Parents
9 .80 4.20 5.00 4.7333 .08819 .26458 .070
Valid N
65

56

The initial look at the data indicates that the High Socioeconomic Status parents strongly
believe they are knowledgeable of all of the school policies, and are aware of the volunteer
opportunities and ways in which they can get involved. In many of the surveys responding to the
question that were focused on identifying the communication and awareness barriers, the Low
Socioeconomic Status parents were in alignment with each other, however, the following
question rendered results that were very different.

As a parent in this school/district, I am aware that the school
provides a variety of ways in which I can get involved and
volunteer at the school.

Table 4.3: Parent Response to Survey Question

Low SES Parent Response
Statistic Value
Min Value 2
Max Value 5
Mean 4.30
Variance 1.17
Standard Deviation 1.08
Total Responses 20

57

Table 4.3: Parent Response to Survey Question continued

High SES Parent Response
Statistic Value
Min Value 5
Max Value 5
Mean 5.00
Variance 0.00
Standard Deviation 0.00
Total Responses 9
Based on the findings in Table 4.3, the data shows that 100% of the High SES parents
responded to the question with “Always/Yes”. The high socioeconomic status parents strongly
believe that they are well aware of ways in which they can become involved and volunteer at the
school. However, only 60% of the Low SES parents responded “Always/Yes”, and the remainder
of the participants responded “Most of the Time” or “Somewhat/No”.

The follow up interviews provided some insight into the thoughts of the 60% of the Low
Socioeconomic Status parents who do get involved and/or are aware of the volunteer
opportunities at the school. Ms. Fir responded, “I think the school does give a lot of opportunities,
but the parents don’t want to come. The school does give phone messages, fliers, but it is really
up to the individual parents to come to the meetings to find out about their kids.” Ms. Maple also
responded, “In my opinion…they send us emails and information in Spanish, and that way we
understand a lot and then know what is going on and what is expected of us.” Ms. Fir went on to

58

share that “it’s all a question of parents getting more involved for the academic success of their
own children. So, it’s a question of themselves, and so, I think we do need more information in
Spanish for us to get involved.”

Both low socioeconomic status parents shared their thoughts on the causes of the barrier
in communication and awareness, and how it is centered on motivation of the parent to get
involved. Both responded that correspondence is distributed to them in their language; however,
the parents have to possess the desire to become involved. Both interviews indicated that written
language was not part of the barrier, but the oral language may be more of the barrier. One
interviewer responded that it would be helpful to have a Spanish speaking liaison available to the
parents at all times for information purposes, or to answer questions in the parents’ most
comfortable language.

The survey responses for all three stakeholders were analyzed to answer the following
questions and ascertain noticeable trends, if any. The administrator and teachers survey
questioned if they are aware of the clear and defined policies that encourage communication
between parents and schools. Based on the findings, there is a clear discrepancy between the
administrators’ responses regarding having a clear and defined policy for teachers that encourages
communication with parents, as well as the teachers’ perspective on the clarity of the policies
being defined. 50% of the administrators responded that they strongly believe the policies are
clearly defined for the teachers, 33% agree that the policies were defined well, and the remaining
respondents suggested that there was a basic understanding of the policies expressed to the

59

teachers. However, only 10% of the teaching staff agreed that they had a strong knowledge of the
policies, 22% believed that they had an understanding of the policies, while 41% had a basic
understanding of the policies, and the remainder had a very limited understanding of such
policies.

Our District has clear and defined policies for teachers that
encourage communication with the parents discussing the
curriculum, student achievement, and ways a parent can be involved.

Table 4.4: Administrators Response to Survey Question

Administrator Response
Statistic Value
Min Value 3
Max Value 5
Mean 4.20
Variance 0.70
Standard Deviation 0.84
Total Responses 5

60

As a classroom teacher at my school and within my district
I have a clear understanding of the defined policies for teachers that
encourage communication with the parents discussing the curriculum
student achievement and ways a parent can be involved.
Table 4.5: Teacher Response to Survey Question

Teacher Response
Statistic Value
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 3.06
Variance 1.20
Standard Deviation 1.09
Total Responses 31

The interviews truly highlighted the teacher’s lack of clarity of the policies and
procedures, and the disconnect between the administrators’ understanding the district’s mission or
vision statement, with regards to parental involvement from the teachers lack of clarity of the
policies and practices. Of the four teachers interviewed, two were somewhat familiar with the
policies, whereas the other two had a no familiarity of the policies. However, they were all
familiar with Cherry Blossom Elementary policies and the school’s vision and mission
statement. Cocking her head to the side with a look of confusion, Ms. Elm, a teacher who was
somewhat familiar, shared: “Well…I think they (the district) want to make sure that the parents

61

are actively involved and engaged in their children’s school activities.” Ms. Cedar, another
teacher, shared: “Our district mandate is that we meet with parents at the beginning of the year for
back to school night to welcome parents.” The interviews for all teachers showed a range of
knowledge in their understanding of the district’s policies, vision and mission in regards to
parental involvement.

The District Administrators were posed the same question which inquired about the
district’s practices and policies. Mr. Oak, a district administrator shared that “from its conception
the vision included parents in the process. Our district vision statement refers to how we are
going to partner with parents and families to promote student success.” The disconnect in the
findings was not because of the information gathered through the surveys, which stated that they
were not as knowledgeable, but stemmed from the fact that there is no clarity of communication
from the district in regards to the policies, practices, and vision statement from the District Level
Administrators. The interesting fact is that the teachers were accurate with the understanding of
the district mandates, but because they were not sure if they were correct, therein lays the
problem.

In regards to the other questions that were categorized as Communication and Awareness
barriers, other barriers included scheduling opportunities of activities for both traditional and non-
traditional times and days. Scheduling considerations provide families with the opportunities to
participate whether it’s a parent workshop, parent conference, family literacy or math night, or a
district/school specific event. The final area in which stakeholders were surveyed on their

62

knowledge of what is available to them was in regards to whether the administrators and teachers
provide information to the parents about ways in which they may assist their child at home, which
directly correlates with increasing their child’s academic achievement. According to the results, a
high percentage of parents agreed that there are ways in which the district and school provides
them with information and resources to assist their children with academic skills. The teachers
and administrators also indicated that they provide information to families on how to help
improve their students’ academic skills.

In terms of the analysis of the organization, the barriers identified in this research are: the
availability of resources, such as a Parent and/or Community resource center, or a resource
directory that provides services, programs, and agencies that are available within the community
for parents. Table 4.6 displays the data reflecting the availability of resources provided by the
district and school for the use of parents and families.

63

Table 4.6: Available Resources

Available Resources
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance

Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
District
–Level
Admini
strators
5 2.10 1.50 3.60 2.7800 .34699 .77589 .602
Teacher 31 3.00 1.00 4.00 2.0484 .15956 .88840 .789
Low
SES
Parents
20 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.5500 .29447 1.31689 1.734
High
SES
Parents
9 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.0556 .53648 1.60943 2.590
Valid N 65

The data from the survey specifically asks about the school or district providing either a
district-wide or school-wide parent resource center so parents can access resources for themselves
and their children. The Low Socioeconomic Status and High Socioeconomic Status parents had a
mean score ranging between 3.0 and 3.5, this indicates they were aware of the resources provided
for them, specifically the Parent Resource Center that provides resources for the children,
whereas the District Level Administrators and Teachers reported a very low occurrence of
providing a parent resource center. The noteworthy occurrence is the lens through which each
stakeholder determines what is defined as a Parent Resource Center.

64

The interview questions reveal the lens through which the stakeholders determine having
a resource center and indicate resources available for all parents. Ms. Palm, a district
administrator, reported:

“I think there are multiple levels of resource support. There are a number of networks that
exist within the community and within the city that we partner with, or that we can
partner with and share information. For example, we have a very strong educational
foundation that is really parent driven. We canvas to the business community, but it’s
really parents’ support that helps identify areas of need and areas of focus for putting
additional resources into our school system. So there are those types of groups. We also
have city libraries, we have a parent or community group called YES that brings business,
parents and educators together just to share information about available resources. So, we
try to build networks where we can connect with our parents and with our community.”

Ms. Elm, a teacher at Cherry Blossom Elementary, shared a specific parent resource
center that is community based:

“The other thing, speaking of resources, is that we have the learning center. That’s a
library here in the city of Cherry Blossom, and there’s a homework zone. It is part of the
library services. It’s very close to our school. So that’s another resource that we use.”

65

Ms. Cedar, another teacher at Cherry Blossom Elementary, shared a similar comment
regarding the Community Center Resource, again sharing the valuable resources available within
the community of Cherry Blossom near Cherry Blossom Elementary:

“I know that in the community we have a center where parents can go and get help for
their children and probably for themselves. I’m not sure how much resources are there,
but there are some resources in the community that I am also touching on. I will make
sure they know how to go to the library, [and] how to check out books at the Information
center.”

On the other hand, the high socioeconomic status parents interviewed were asked, “What
resources has your school/district provided to encourage parent involvement?” Ms. Pine, a parent
at Cherry Blossom Elementary, stated:

“One thing was a parent homework night where they brought the parents in and showed
them, ‘this is the homework that your child will have; this is how you can help them, this
is what we expect of your child.’ So it is kind of an introductory in first grade to show
what they expect you to do at home. So, that I enjoyed. They also had the GATE
meetings about the program and what your role could be to help the child. They have
back-to-school nights; I love those because you get to see what the teacher will be asking
and if you need to help or things to look out for to make sure your child is ready for it.”

Ms. Spruce reflected on the time period she worked closely with the Parent Volunteer
Coordinator at Cherry Blossom Elementary prior to the position being cut due to the budget

66

climate at the time the position was filled. She shared that there was a volunteer room on campus
which was the heart of where many of the parents went to either assist with specific teacher
projects or attend workshops focused on ways to work with their child at home. She went on to
mention that the volunteer room is still in existence but not functioning at the full capacity.

The various degrees of responses allowed the researcher to identify how the interpretation
of resources provided included many items like the use of technology, the community based
organizations, the “Parent Homework Night”, or the quarterly Math and Reading Nights. None
included a specific Parent Resource Center managed and run by the district or school, but several
resources within the community of Cherry Blossom were identified as resources to assist parent
involvement directly related to student achievement.

On the other hand, Ms. Palm, an administrator, shared that there are a number of parent
trainings and resources available, however the challenge isn’t the amount of resources but the
availability of the parents to utilize the resources. With the current family structure, many
families are faced with the struggle of either having both parents working and/or maintaining a
very active lifestyle. Ms. Palm remarks, “When you have both parents working or you have a
very active family, it’s very hard sometimes to commit time outside of the day to be involved in
the classroom, or even in parent training or information nights. I think the pressure of work puts
a different spin on parent involvement.”

Mr. Oak also shared several opportunities the district has to involve parents on not just
the local school governance, but being actively involved in the local community governing body.

67

He noted that if there were parents interested in that area of work, he would encourage them to
come to school board meetings, or watch them on the local cable station, and then become
informed and active on their own school site councils. He also shared how there is a very
supportive education foundation in Cherry Blossom, and he highly encourages parents to become
involved in that foundation.

Throughout Mr. Oak’s interview he constantly referred to communication as the most
important factor in building a healthy partnership. With that said, another resource that was not
thoroughly explored but was brought up in numerous interviews is the use of technology as a
prominent resource. Within many interviews the administrators expressed that communication
was very important to parental involvement. The district has granted all parents with an electronic
resource that provides instant updates, instant connection to teachers and staff members, meeting
dates, resource information and articles that are available in the district. “The School Loop”
resource serves as one point of instant contact for parents to the school. Ms. Fern noted that
through student ConnectED, phone messages are sent and parents can log in to instantly see all of
the students’ teachers, assignments and attendance records. It can be checked via telephone in an
office or at home. A parent can instantly reach out to teachers through this resource. Also, Ms.
Rose noted that through the school website, and weekly voice mails, parents are connected to the
school and students at all times.

Unfortunately, as Ms. Cedar points out, some parents don’t have access to a computer or
an email account, some are either unknowledgeable or fearful of using a computer, and some

68

don’t have access to “The School Loop,” and, therefore, are not benefiting for this valuable
resource. She believes that without access it will be difficult to become and remain
knowledgeable of what’s going on in the district. She believes that it’s important to give parents
the knowledge that will provide them with the know-how, whether it’s access to a computer or
knowledge on how to open an e-mail account.

Language & Cultural Barriers

The final area being addressed in regards to the organizational barriers are the language
and cultural differences. This was a consistent comment many of the interviewees shared as a
challenge and barrier that attributed to the lack of parental involvement.

Moles (1993) suggests that language and culture are major barriers that have kept
Mexican-American parents from actively participating in the schools or activities in their child’s
classroom. A main component of students’ academic success according to research is parent
support and involvement. Understanding that there are positive benefits for students with parental
involvement, it is essential for Cherry Blossom Unified School District to identify the specific
language and/or cultural barriers. When speaking with Ms. Palm, a district-level administrator,
she shared that in her 30 years of experience in the field of education she noticed that language
and culture were barriers often observed. She stated, “For language minority kids, sometimes
parents don’t feel connected, whether it’s a language or even a cultural issue.” She further stated
that she doesn’t believe that it has been a problem for Cherry Blossom USD due to the number of

69

ways they implement programs to make sure they are meeting the linguistic and cultural needs of
their second language families. Ms. Cedar, a classroom teacher, shared the same sentiments, also
explaining that many of the parents feel intimidated because they are not fluent English speakers
and are unable to have small conversations because of their limited use of the English language.
Finally, Ms. Maple, who is more comfortable speaking in Spanish than English, shared that there
is a discomfort in attending meetings or volunteering for “English speaking activities” (like PTA)
due to the language barrier. She said, “There should be more people who speak Spanish because
the people that speak Spanish sometimes are shy to speak English.” She continued, “Those of us
who speak Spanish would get more involved and would not be shy. If someone is shy, they may
not want to find out, or feel comfortable to find out how to get involved.” Moles (1993) stated,
“For many disadvantaged parents, a serious handicap in supporting their children’s education is
their limited education and their lack of fluency in English.”

The other barrier that co-exists with language is the culture. According to Barrett (1984),
culture can be defined as “the body of learned beliefs, traditions and guides for behavior that is
shared among members.” Throughout the interviews culture was identified as another
barrier. Ms. Daisy, one of the parents, expressed that there appeared to be a cultural barrier that
attributed to the struggle of parents becoming involved. She asserted that many parents don’t feel
at home or welcomed when at the school sites. Ms. Tulip, another parent at the school site,
suggested that it’s not the fact that parents don’t want to participate, but culturally the relationship
between parent and teacher is one of reverence for the teacher. Ms. Tulip stated, “Culturally, they

70

see the teacher as so exalted and they (the parents) don’t really see how they can help.”
Carrasquillo & London (1993) suggest that many Mexican-American parents do not intervene in
the teacher’s “professional duties.” This cultural attitude reflects in the type of involvement
parents are engaged in at Cherry Blossom Elementary School. The district-level administrators, in
addition to the PTA, are trying to bridge the cultural divide and ensure parents believe their
contributions are essential to their child’s academic achievement. Ms. Tulip, a high
socioeconomic status parent, shared:

“I think to try to bridge that cultural divide in the short term, maybe have a parent liaison
explaining to [the parent] that they have a lot to offer. I think many don’t have even a
high school education, but the liaison could explain how doing a little bit here and there
would make them more comfortable coming in and helping the teacher and the school.”

In an effort to break down those barriers, Ms. Fern, a district-level administrator, asserts,
“I think as much outreach as our sites can do breaks down those barriers; some parents do not
really understand that it is a partnership and their involvement is critical.”

Bourdieu’s social reproduction theory suggests that the school’s governing system will be
a reflection of the dominant culture thereby impeding the students and parents’ involvement in
the school. Ms. Spruce shared, “I think the biggest challenge isn’t necessarily that we have a
Spanish speaking and a non-Spanish speaking population, I just think that a lot of the magnet
parents just kind of came in and took over. And I think if you’re someone who doesn’t speak
English, you don’t feel comfortable trying to speak English. And in that shuffle you do lose a

71

voice, because you really aren’t voicing one because of discomfort.” Therefore, the
administrators and teachers have a responsibility to educate the parents and level the playing field
in order for all parents to feel comfortable in expressing their thoughts, thus, being equally
involved and support their child’s academic success, as well as the school over all.

Research Question 2: Effective Strategies

In the previous section we focused attention on the organizational barriers that were
possibly attributed to the lack of parental involvement, which relates to student achievement. In
this section Research Question 2, which asks, “What possible effective strategies overcome the
barriers and directly impact student academic achievement?” addresses the academic connection
to parental involvement.

Through both of the surveys and interviews, the responses to possible effective strategies
that may overcome the barriers to make a direct impact on student achievement were focused on
three main areas. The first area detailed providing training for parents, the second explained
effective strategy involving parents in setting academic goals, while the third strategy covered
educating the parents with specific strategies to assist them with skills to help their children.

When considering the Social Capital theory (Stanton-Salazar, 1997) from a parent’s
perspective, a school’s responsibility is to provide training and help the parents decode the school
system, which will ultimately provide the child with more opportunities to succeed. Many parents
already come with a set of norms and values, but what may be lacking are the skills and training

72

within the mainstream school system. The stronger the relationships between the school, the
parents and the students, the more exposed they are to the social capital resources and to decoding
the educational system.

Table 4.7, reflects the beliefs of the stakeholders in regards to the training provided for
parents.

Table 4.7: Training Provided for Parents & Teachers

Training Provided for Parents & Teachers
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance

Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
District –
Level
Administrators
5 2.33 1.67 4.00 3.0000 .38006 .84984 .722
Teacher 31 2.25 1.25 3.50 2.5484 .11024 .61380 .917
Valid N 36

One of the Low Socioeconomic Status parent interviewees especially highlighted the
need for requesting assistance to help her child at home. She noted that it is extremely
challenging for her to help her son with homework because she struggles with how to help him
understand what to do. She stated, “The school has some help for many things, but the district
took out some programs, so that’s terrible for the parents. So we need more help and more
programs for my son and me because he has a low education level. So I need help and support for
this.”

73

The survey questions specifically related to trainings being provided for teachers and
parents were broken up into two categories. The first category addresses the type of trainings
provided for teachers, and the second category focuses on the type of training provided for the
parents.

Professional Development

The first category of questions specifically relates to the type of professional
development provided by the district-level administrators for teachers. The directive was as
follows: “Identify if teachers were given or had received trainings on ways to encourage
partnership between school and home.” While building a partnership with parents, teachers will
gain a better understanding of their students’ culture, needs and their academic capabilities, which
will ultimately address the social capital needs of the families.

74

Our District provides productive professional developments that
train teacher’s staff and administrators on the value of parents and
ways to encourage partnerships between school and home.

Figure 4.1: District Professional Development Survey Response

Table 4.8: District Professional Development Survey Response

District-Level Professional Development
Statistic Value
Min Value 2
Max Value 3
Mean 2.80
Variance 0.20
Standard Deviation 0.45
Total Responses 5

75

The teachers were asked the same question.

Figure 4.2:Teacher Responses to Professional Development Survey Question

Table 4.9: Teacher Professional Development Survey Response

Teacher Professional Development
Statistic Value
Min Value 1
Max Value 4
Mean 1.94
Variance 0.80
Standard Deviation 0.89
Total Responses 31
As a classroom teacher at my school and within my district I am provided
with productive professional developments that train me on the value of
parents and ways to encourage partnerships between school and home.

76

The mean score (Table 4.9) of 1.94 indicates the average responses were in the low
range. Twenty-four of the thirty one teachers surveyed rated their response as “Not Occurring” or
“Rarely” which indicates, there isn’t much being offered in terms of professional development
and training for the teachers, who tend to have the most contact and impact on parents being
involved. The second piece of information that this data indicates is the disconnect between the
assistance that the district-level administrators believe is being provided, in terms of training
provided to teachers, and the interpretation of what is actually being provided to them. There
were four out of 6 of the administrators that believed this type of professional development is
“Occasionally” being offered. Based on the data, there appears to be a strong need to train
teachers on the value of parents and ways to encourage their participation and involvement in the
school.

Two separate interviews with high socioeconomic status parents highlighted a strong
need for training the teachers on the value of the parents’ involvement and ways for them to be
involved. The parents indicated that many of the teachers are receptive to encouraging
involvement and participation, but there is still a high percentage that is not receptive. Ms. Spruce
and Ms. Tulip have been a part of the school community for a number of years and both
suggested through their interviews that based on the history of the school, for various reasons,
there were fewer parents attempting to visit the school and participate, volunteer, or even show up
for parent workshops and trainings. One parent believed that the teachers had a bit of trouble
shifting into the mode to cooperate with parents who wanted to participate and/or assist in the

77

classroom. One parent stated, “In the past, there were fewer parents attempting to volunteer, and
so a lot of the teachers got used to never having parents around. So, when the parents started
showing up, some teachers embraced it but some were confused, put off or uncomfortable by it;
other teachers didn’t know how parents could help, so they sort of turned parents away.”

As noted in the literature review, the theorist Lareau suggested that disadvantages may
occur when parents whose culture or lifestyle differs from that of the dominant culture, which
include parents who have less of a desire to visit the school. This results in less opportunity for
the parents to gain the social, informational and material rewards gained by parents who do
actively participate. The idea of training teachers on valuing parents and the learning strategies to
encourage parental involvement is crucial for equipping and empowering parents with the social
capital needed to impact their child’s academic achievement.

Training Parents

The second category focuses on the type of training provided for the parents by either the
district-level administrators or by the teachers. The researcher asked both the district-level
administrators as well as the classroom teachers if training is provided for parents on developing
home routines or creating conditions and environments that support their child’s learning.

78

Table 4.10 reflects the response of the district-level administrators; it also informs the
researcher that there have been very few opportunities for training parents on developing home
routines, and environments that would support their child’s learning.

Table 4.10: Training Provided for Parents by District

Training Provided for Parents by District
# Answer Response %
1 Not Occurring 0 0%
2 Rarely 1 20%
3 Occasionally 3 60%
4 Frequently 1 20%
5 Extensively 0 0%
Total 5 100%

Training Provided for Parents by District
Statistic Value
Min Value 2
Max Value 4
Mean 3.00
Variance 0.50
Standard Deviation 0.71
Total Responses 5

79

Table 4.11 reflects the classroom teacher’s responses.

Table
4.11:
Classroom Teacher Responses

Training Provided for Parents by Teachers
# Answer Response %
1 Not Occurring 6 19%
2 Rarely 9 29%
3 Occasionally 12 39%
4 Frequently 3 10%
5 Extensively 1 3%
Total 31 100%

Training Provided for Parents by Teachers
Statistic Value
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 2.48
Variance 1.06
Standard Deviation 1.03
Total Responses 31

The survey responses reflect that not much direct training was occurring; however, based
on the interview responses, one group of classroom teachers took on the responsibility of
providing this type of direct training to parents on their specific grade level, and, based on the

80

positive responses, have made this training available for any interested parent. The classroom
teacher, along with the grade level team, chose to train parents on their own time because they
saw a need for a specific group of children who needed additional support. The teacher discussed
the following results to those specific parents:

“I am doing a special project right now that involves parent education. I am
working with many parents with children in my grade level to teach them how to work
with their children at home, and to help them be successful in school. I am doing that on
my own, but am working together with my colleagues in my grade level and my
principal.”

Another teacher continues on to discuss specific trainings that the grade-level facilitates
with the parents, and follows up with individual training techniques used in the classroom.

“In our grade level there’s a parent reading night where we invite all the parents to come
in. One session is in Spanish, one is in English. We go through how children learn to
read, how we teach them, and how parents can help them at home. We encourage them to
read and write at home. We also actively have parents in the classroom and teach them
how to work with their children.”

The teacher continued on to share how it is encouraged for parents to come into the
classroom and observe the teaching styles and techniques. This will then train the parents in
working at home with their child. The teacher also indicated that the parents observing at the

81

school are valuable training for the parents on how to work with their child at home. During the
recess, lunch or during after school hours, the teacher then debriefs the parent(s) to discuss the
skills they observed, and answers any questions the parents may have. She noted, “I’m teaching
them [the parents] at that point in time.”

Training parents to build upon their social and cultural capital is the beginning stage to
increase parental involvement in the home. Epstein (1991) categorized parent involvement into
six types; type four is “learning at home”. Epstein suggests that providing information and ideas
to families about how to help students with homework and other curriculum related materials are
essential for student achievement. When asked by the researcher about the belief of their role as a
parent in the goal of increasing their child’s academic success, each parent interviewed shared
similar ideas and terms, such as: be involved, to support, to help and participate, to ensure
success, to be hands-on, to be a facilitator, and to encourage. Both the high socioeconomic status
parents and low socioeconomic status parents used verbs that illustrate how they believe their role
is action related. The challenge is to train them with the “how to”, which will enable them to be
effective and ensure success.

Another strategy to assist parents with being involved is in training them to set academic
goals, monitor success, and develop specific academic skills to use at home with their child in
order to become an active part of their child’s academic success.

82

Table 4.12: District Level Administrator Statistical Views on Training Parents

District Level Administrators
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
Setting
Academic
Goals
4 2.00 3.00 5.00 4.2500 .47871 .95743 .917
Specific
Skills
Training
5 3.00 2.00 5.00 3.6000 .50990 1.14018 1.300
Valid N 4

Table 4.13: Classroom Teachers Statistical Views on Training Parents

Teachers
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
Setting
Academic
Goals
31 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.2581 .20722 1.15377 1.331
Specific
Skills
Training
31 4.00 1.00 5.00 2.4839 .18475 1.02862 1.058
Valid N 31

83

Table 4.14: Low SES Parent Statistical Views on Training Parents

Low Socioeconomic Status Parents
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
Setting
Academic
Goals
20 2.00 3.00 5.00 4.2750 .15591 .69727 .486
Specific
Skills
Training
20 3.00 2.00 5.00 4.1500 .27410 1.22582 1.503
Valid N 20

Table 4.15: High SES Parent Statistical Views on Training Parents

High Socioeconomic Status Parents
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
Setting
Academic
Goals
9 1.00 4.00 5.00 4.7222 .14699 .44096 .194
Specific
Skills
Training
9 2.00 3.00 5.00 4.5556 .24216 .72648 .528
Valid N 9

84

The data in tables 4.12 – 4.15 shows another consistent pattern, when comparing the Mean
Statistical score, between the teachers, parents and district in regards to training for parents being
provided. The gap between the teachers, parents and district indicate an inconsistency that has
been clearly observed in this section on training parents. The research found that there is a
disconnect between what teachers believe they are providing and what the parents say they are
receiving. As noted in an earlier section, the parents believe they are not receiving the maximum
of what they could receive if teachers had more opportunity or more training themselves to assist
parents in these specific areas.

One teacher observed many academic gaps in her students test scores. After looking more
specifically at the gap, the teacher observed that one group of children weren’t successful on a
particular group of skills, so the teacher organized a specific program to train the parents on those
specific skills that needed to be addressed. After the school day hours, and on her own time, this
teacher has organized a weekly Friday workshop for parents that addresses specific skills and
techniques best utilized to assist their children at home. She explains:

“We [the grade level] do a reading night where we share with [the parents] different
strategies we use in the classroom that they can continue to use at home. What I noticed
is that a lot of parents who have children who are needy in the reading area, as well as
math, they were not showing up. And they are the ones who really need this information.
So, I took the approach of calling those parents and bringing them in [to the Friday
workshops]. During conference time, I met with them and I invited them to this

85

workshop. And I find it quite successful. The parents that are committed, they really
show up and they want to help their children. So that’s how I started it. Some parents
came in, some didn’t show up, but some additional ones came. So, so far I’m helping
about 12 families to learn the additional skills to help their children at home. So, I find
that really valuable and I’m really looking forward to seeing some results with our
students.”

The teacher goes on to share how the parents are thankful for the opportunity to come to
the school on a Friday evening and gain the skills that their child’s teacher feels are necessary for
them to have to be able to help their child at home. The teacher also felt that part of the
receptiveness of the parents coming is the comfort level that the parents have because they share a
commonality of language, and through that commonality they are able to get to know one
another’s backgrounds, discovering other commonalities.

Another teacher, who also supports the parents of the students, spends one night a month
providing workshops addressing specific techniques parents can use at home to support the
learning taking place at school. In the teachers statements she details all of the workshops she has
participated in during the previous months and shares her desire to see the workshops happening
school-wide and district-wide:

“Well it’s easy to say we should do more, but it’s hard to find the time to do it. In
addition to the reading night, starting in January we are going to have a family writing
night, figuring that, by January, everybody in first grade can write at least a sentence or

86

two. So, we’ll have a family writing night, which will also be bilingual to encourage
parents to write at home with their kids. And they’ll also be writing that when they come
to school. In the past we had family science nights and family math nights. And, you
know, if I had more to say about it, I think those should be school-wide or even district-
wide events.”

A few parents interviewed commented on the workshops they have attended at Cherry
Blossom and shared how helpful they have been. One parent shared that one teacher, in
particular, had a “Parent Homework Night” where parents were brought in and shown the type of
homework to expect each night. The parents were given specific strategies to help with
homework time, and were provided with examples of the expectation level for the type of work
teachers should receive back. She went on to say it was akin to an introductory to that grade level
and sharing with them what is expected to be done at home.

Finally, one administrator stated, “As a district we do a lot of parent involvement in terms
of parent training. Things like cyber-bullying, bullying in general, drug awareness and others. We
have a fairly comprehensive district level parent education component. But each site tailors their
parent education to meet their local community needs.”

Research Question 3: Best Practices to Support a School/Parent Partnership

87

The final research question, “What best practices support a partnership between school
personnel and parents?” focuses on supporting the partnership between school and home,
ensuring that all stakeholders, administrators, teachers and parents share in the development
process of a partnership. The National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education, in
conjunction with the California School Board Association, describes parental involvement to
include collaborating and partnering with teachers in the educational process, exchanging
information, and volunteering at the school. Therefore, an effective partnership should also be a
collaborative effort between administration and the parents as well. Christenson & Sheridan
(2001) suggest that in order to create a partnership between the schools and family, all
stakeholders must have a shared goal, which will result in a shared responsibility between
families and school with student academic achievements as the focal point.

The administration’s goal is to set the direction and the tone of the school, as well as
establish the vision. One district-level administrator stated:

“From its conception the vision included parents in the process to create [a
mission & vision statement] first of all. As [the parents] did that, there’s a section for our
district vision statement that refers to how we are going to partner with parents and
families to promote student success. From the beginning it is inherent in our district that
this is a partnership, and that we, the educators, can’t do it without the families.”

The administration team involved the parents to ensure the district mission and vision
statement embodied the ideas and thoughts of the parents as well. Another district-level

88

administrator shared a similar thought: “I think parent involvement is a very big piece of our
district’s mission and vision because they see the parent as an integral part of the partnership in
educating students. So, if we are going to promote success in academic achievement, as well as
social and emotional growth, a parent needs to be a big part of that, and that is reflected in our
district’s vision.”

The administrators set the vision, and, based on the teacher interviews, the vision has
been clearly defined. One teacher stated, “Our district mandate is that we meet with parents at the
beginning of the year for back to school night to welcome parents.” Although there was a clear
knowledge of the district’s mission and vision statement the teacher had a clearer understanding
that engaging parents was essential to building the partnership between school and home. The
teacher stated, “I think [the district] wants to make sure that the parents are actively involved and
engaged in their children’s school activities. So there are a lot of things going on to promote
that.”

One best practice that supports the partnership between the school personnel and home is
having a clear mission and vision statement that clearly defines the vision statement and policies
of the district and the school. Providing opportunities for all families to participate is another best
practice that supports a partnership. Epstein (2002) suggests that a school-community partnership
can take on a variety of forms. She also suggests that the partnership can range from being
student-centered, family-centered, school-centered or community-centered. Student-centered
activities include tutoring programs, awards, incentives or anything that provides a direct service

89

to students. A family-centered partnership includes activities where families are the primary
focus. Activities include parenting workshops, family fun and learning nights, family counseling
or any activities that focus on meeting the needs of parents and families.

Tables 4.16 and Table 4.17 reflect the responses of all stakeholders.

Our
District
schedules
district-wide
activities
and
volunteer

opportunities
at
traditional
and
nontraditional
times
and
days
so

that
all
families
have
the
opportunity
to
attend
and
participate.

Table 4.16: Stakeholders Response – Administrator & Teacher

District-Level Administrator
Statistic Value
Min Value 3

Max Value 4

Mean 3.60

Variance 0.30

Standard Deviation 0.55

Total Responses 5

90

Table 4.16: Stakeholders Response Administrator & Teacher cont’d

Teacher
Statistic Value
Min Value 2
Max Value 5
Mean 4.00
Variance 0.80
Standard Deviation 0.89
Total Responses 31

Table 4.17: Stakeholders Response Low & High SES Parents Response

Low Socioeconomic Status Parents
Statistic Value
Min Value 1

Max
Value
5

Mean 4.40

Variance 1.09

Standard Deviation 1.05

Total Responses 20

91

Table 4.17: Statistical Response Low & High SES Parents Response cont’d

High Socioeconomic Status Parents
Statistic Value
Min Value 5
Max Value 5
Mean 5.00
Variance 0.00
Standard Deviation 0.00
Total Responses 9
Based on the data, high socioeconomic status and low socioeconomic status parents both
believed that activities and conferences are held at traditional and non-traditional hours to
accommodate all families. One teacher shares that she often schedules parent conferences or
family learning activities around the parents’ schedule. She outlined when they occur,
“sometimes in the morning, sometimes in the evening. I typically keep a pretty open door policy
with the parents.” An administrator shared that one focus of the district is to fully engage in the
parent outreach, as well as train teachers and district-level administrators to extend opportunities
to afterschool, evenings and on other days and occasions, as well. Allowing parents to see that
parental involvement can take place in many forms, and not just during the school day, is a
measureable approach to gaining parental involvement.

92

Making a parent feel welcomed and comfortable is another key component to building a
partnership between the school and parents. One administrator stated that the most important
thing an administrator can do is roll out “the welcome mat” for the parents every morning. The
school-site administrator at Cherry Blossom Elementary shared that staying visible in the
morning or at events, in addition to letting parents know that she is available to them when they
need her, is a critical component to welcoming parents. This administrator went on to mention,
“The key to getting them involved is that they know that they are recognized and valued, that it’s
not a mystery to them.” The administrator also shared how staying committed to being visible to
the parents is a simple task and has made a difference in the position in which the administrator
serves. Further in the conversation, the administrator also noted that ensuring there are clear lines
of communication was also the key to making parents feel welcomed.

“We have a lot of ways to communicate through a website, through weekly voice
mail, and say in those words, you know, you are welcomed to attend. We use very
welcoming words so they have every opportunity to hear that. And then, like I said,
we’ve set up a whole system to bring people in and match their interest and talents with
what we have going on in the school so they can be involved. “

Another administrator shared the same sentiment stating that sometimes parents don’t
perceive schools as being welcoming because the parents aren’t being sought out to be involved.

93

Table 4.18: Parents Survey- Feeling Welcomed

Parents Feeling Welcomed
N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.
Deviation
Variance
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std.
Error
Statistic Statistic
High
Socioeconomic
Status Parents

9

3.00

2.00

5.00

4.6667

.33333

1.00000

1.000
Low
Socioeconomic
Status Parents

20

2.00

3.00

5.00

4.7000

.12773

.57124

.326
Valid N 29

Table 4.18, highlights the results of the survey given to the parents indicating whether or
not they feel welcomed when they visit the classroom without pre-scheduling an appointment.
Based on the results both sets of parents felt very welcomed to visit the school or classroom
unannounced. The parents were also asked to be specific and identify reasons for feeling
unwelcomed. 59% of the parents surveyed indicated their speaking very little English as the
reason for the discomfort. The chart below outlines the reasons parents felt unwelcomed at the
school-site.

94

Table 4.19: Parents Survey -Feeling Unwelcomed

Parents Feeling Unwelcomed
# Answer Response %
1 Does not apply to me 6 35%
2 I speak very little English 10 59%
3 I’m not sure what to ask the teacher to
get assistance
0 0%
4 The teacher is of a different race 0 0%
5 I am embarrassed about my child’s
academic problems
0 0%
6 I am embarrassed about my child’s
behavior problems
0 0%
7 I am not able to get time off to meet
with my child’s teacher
0 0%
8 I do not feel welcome in the classroom 0 0%
9 * Other (please specify) 1 6%
Total 17 100%
*Other – I don’t have any problems

A teacher stated that the administrator at the school site is very welcoming and provides
extra effort to welcome parents in their home language. The teacher stated,

“We have one administrator, and she’s been very involved. When we have those
meetings, we have them in English and Spanish and she stays for all the English. Then

95

she stays and welcomes the parents in her Spanish, which is not fluent, but she makes an
effort. She stays to say hello to everyone, then she leaves.”

The research has indicated that a clear vision is imperative in getting parents involved.
From the district-level to the administrators and the classroom educators, all of the participants
play a key role in boosting parental support. It is evident from these findings that the language
barrier can serve as a major impediment to the collaboration with parents and must be addressed.

Administrator & Teacher Beliefs

Finally, to build a partnership between school and home there first has to be a belief that
there is a correlation between the two. To measure the beliefs of the participants, Likert-scale
questions were used in the survey to analyze the data from the interviews inquiring whether or not
the participant believed there is a correlation between parental involvement and student
achievement.

Administrator Perspective

Based on the survey, Figure 4.3 reflects a high ratio of participants that believe that there
is a strong correlation between parent involvement and student achievement. The administrators
surveyed were asked the following question:

96

I believe parent and community involvement is related to
student achievement.

Figure 4.3: Correlation between Parental Involvement & Student Achievement
(Administrator Response)

Table 4.20: Correlation between Parental Involvement & Student Achievement
(Administrator Perspective)

Administrator Perspective -
Correlation between Parental Involvement &
Student Achievement
Statistic Value
Min Value 4
Max Value 5
Mean 4.80
Variance 0.20
Standard Deviation 0.45
Total Responses 5

The responses gathered during the interviews indicated all district level administrators
believed that there was a strong correlation between parental involvement and student

97

achievement. Mr. Oak, a district-level administrator strongly believes that there is a correlation
between parental involvement and student achievement. He also shared that the more informed
the parent is in understanding how the educational system works, the setting of goals, and in
having clear expectations, the better the student will be. Ms. Fern, another district administrator,
stated that she absolutely believes there is a correlation between school and home. She goes on to
share her personal belief: “Having two kids of my own and being a teacher for twenty years
before I went into administration, the more involved the parents were in the child’s experience at
school, the more positive that becomes. Because it truly is a cooperative effort and not seen as
them and us. It’s a partnership and it’s important that the student realizes that a partnership exists
because they’re more apt to behave, participate and be involved in what’s going on and get their
work done if they know that open communication is there with that parent.” Ms. Rose, the school
site administrator, went in depth and shared the correlation between an involved parent and the
achievement of a child:

“Purely pragmatics, the number of hours a teacher has with a student vs. the number they
have outside the classroom. Just attending to a child, take them out on trips, explain
things, and model all the things that demonstrate an educated person, that too. That cuts
across cultural boundaries too. A lot of it is about just giving the time to the child. There
are studies that show that. Children who are most successful at school, typically it has
been due to their experience at school. What didn’t happen at school, it happened living
in a home that gives vast experiences for children.”

98

Teacher Perspective

A similar instrument was used to survey the teaching staff at Cherry Blossom
Elementary. The results were similar to the Administrator survey.

As a classroom teacher at my school and within my district
I believe parental involvement is related to student achievement.

Figure 4.4: Correlation between Parental Involvement & Student Achievement
(Teacher Response)

99

Table 4.21: Correlation between Parental Involvement & Student Achievement
(Teacher’s Response)

Teacher Perspective -
Correlation between Parental Involvement &
Student Achievement
Statistic Value
Min Value 3
Max Value 5
Mean 4.81
Variance 0.29
Standard Deviation 0.54
Total Responses 31
Of the total 31 teachers surveyed, two teachers felt that parental involvement was not a
prevalent component to student achievement, whereas two other teachers believed that parental
involvement was a prevalent component to student achievement. However, the majority of the
surveys reflected that 27 of the teachers felt that parental involvement was a highly relevant
component to student achievement.

The interview responses provided additional support as to the high relevancy and belies
that parental involvement correlates to student achievement. Ms. Cedar suggested that when
parents are involved they provide that extra pull for the student that reminds the child that the
parent is there for them and believes in their success, which translates to the child seeing the
importance of education. Ms. Elm shared her own personal journey as it relates to parental
involvement. She reflected on seeing her own mother at the school she attended as a child, and

100

being visible. She shared that she encourages parents to be more visible, as well as participating
in the educational journey with their child. Ms. Holly truly believes there is a correlation and
suggested that parental involvement is not just about volunteering in the classroom or school, but
truly begins at home. She stated:

“The more the parent is involved, the higher achieving the child is. For me there is no
question about that. If they understand the curriculum, or even if they don’t understand it,
but just putting the importance on education. Getting them there on time, ready to learn,
prepared. I think that all comes from home and starts before the school day begins, as
well as [when] the school experience begins. Just being able to sit and talk with children
before they even go to school, before five years old, and have them sit and listen and
respond and look in the direction of the speaker. Culturally, sometimes, that’s not
appropriate. But just being aware of their surroundings, I think that’s all heavily involved
with parent involvement.”

Parent Perspective

During the interviews the parents shared very similar sentiments regarding their beliefs
about the correlation of their involvement and their child’s academic success. Ms. Olive shared
that if she doesn’t get involved her child won’t learn. Ms. Maple felt that her being involved
100% of the time is what her child needs to be successful. Ms. Fir felt that getting involved keeps
a parent in the know with what’s going on in the school and know how their child is doing. Ms.
Larch said that her son finds it important for her to be there: “He sees me in the school, he’s very

101

happy, and that’s very important for him that I come and help him.” Ms. Pine’s reflection
supports the others thoughts on involvement, she says, “It’s important that your child knows that
you take education seriously then they know they should take it seriously. If you don’t care if
they do their homework, then it’s a lot easier for them not to care.” Finally, the comment Ms.
Tulip shares truly sums up the beliefs of all the parents. As with the others, Ms. Tulip was asked,
“Do you think there is a connection between parent involvement and student achievement?
Why?”

“Absolutely. Because the parent’s attitude toward school and education, and the
importance of it in the child’s life, is crucial to the level of importance the child places on
it. If the parents don’t think it’s important for the child to do all the things that are
necessary, like eating well, going to bed on time, waking up on time, arriving to school
on time, doing their homework, being prepared to learn, doing projects, studying,
practicing, then the children won’t. And if the children don’t place a high priority on it,
they won’t be successful. So, I believe that is instilled by the parents then eventually
comes from within as the child gets older.”

Major Outcomes of this Study

To answer the overarching question, what attributes to parental involvement that
presumably would impact student achievement, the findings provide information that detail the
barriers and strategies to overcome those barriers. The data in this chapter illustrated the

102

relationship between parental involvement and student achievement. The data focused on
isolating and becoming aware of the organizational barriers that attribute to the lack of parental
involvement. The data also focused on the possible effective strategies that overcome those
barriers. Finally, the data guided the researcher to focus on the support needed to build a
partnership between the school and parents.

The major findings of the study are summarized as follows:

1. All stakeholders were very consistent in their responses about their beliefs that there is a
correlation between parental involvement and student achievement. All stakeholders
indicated that they believed there was a strong correlation between parents’ involvement
and student achievement. They further stated that there is an overall belief that a stronger
partnership needs to be established between the school and the parents.

2. The interviews reflected a disconnect between the district-level administrators and the
teachers’ understanding of district policies and procedures regarding parental
involvement. There was a lack of clarity in the understanding of the policies, in addition
to a lack of clarity of the district’s mission or vision statement regarding parental
involvement.

3. The research also showed that developing either a district-wide or school-wide parent
resource center providing resource information for parents, as well as their children, is
essential. The resource center would be the hub of where parents attend workshops, assist
with specific teacher projects, have access to technology resources, and all other

103

strategies relating to parental involvement. In addition to establishing a resource center,
providing a Spanish-speaking liaison will be advantageous so that all parents will be able
to communicate with each other and school personnel while at the school.

4. Training teachers on the value of parents and ways to encourage the parent’s participation
and involvement in the classroom, as well as their direct involvement with their child at
home is critical.

5. Training parents on their value at the school and ways their involvement is beneficial to
the school, and to their child’s academic achievement, is also critical. The data shows that
parents need specific training on setting academic goals, monitoring success and specific
academic skills to assist with their child at home.

104

CHAPTER FIVE:

FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Introduction

This chapter will begin with a review of the study and is followed by a summary of the
findings. The next section addresses the implications of the study. The chapter will conclude with
recommendations and suggestions for future research. This study examined aspects of parental
involvement that may lead to academic achievement in students. The study also examined parent
involvement participation or programs currently at Cherry Blossom Elementary and within
Cherry Blossom Unified School District that have had an impact on student achievement. The
organizational barriers were identified and effective strategies to overcome those barriers were
explored. Finally, the study examined best practices occurring between the school personnel and
the parents.

Restatement of the Study

This research study involved mixed methods of qualitative and quantitative
inquiry regarding the current models of parental involvement. This included PTA organizations
and classroom volunteer opportunities, which may not correlate with what research suggests have
benefitted parents based on Social and Cultural Capital. Data was gathered using multiple sources
including survey responses and interviews with volunteers of district-level administrators,
teachers, and low and high socioeconomic status parents.

105

The targeted search for this study identified schools that had an API score of 650 or
higher on the CST, a high population of socioeconomically disadvantaged students, a school with
a traditional parental program, a student enrollment of 500 or more, and a diverse school body
population.

Parents, Teachers and Administrators were sent the Parental Involvement Survey. After
three weeks, a reminder letter was sent to the parents, teachers and administrators. Three sets of
interview questions were separately designed for parents, teachers and administrators to ascertain
each varied stakeholder’s perspective of parental involvement. (Participants volunteered to be
interviewed) Interviews were one-on-one and scheduled at the participant’s convenience. The
researcher obtained permission to audio record the interviews to allow researcher an opportunity
to focus on body language and listen more adeptly.

Findings

A detailed discussion of the findings of this study is presented in response to the three
research questions that guided this study.

Research Question 1: Organizational Barriers

The research question addressed the barriers that attribute to the lack of parental
involvement, which relates to student achievement. There were three primary organizational
barriers identified in the research: communication, availability of resources, and the language and

106

cultural barriers. Based on the findings regarding communication and awareness, there was a
mean score of 4.54 from the low and high socioeconomic status parents indicating that the parents
believed they were made aware of the school and district’s policy regarding parental involvement.
The parents also indicated that they were made aware of parent volunteer opportunities at the
school site, and also information on their child’s learning goals and progress made, as well as
being provided with information to assist their child’s academic growth. These findings support
Joyce Epstein’s model (1992) as well as the National PTA (1998) National Standards for
Parent/Family Involvement. Standard I. of the National PTA standards suggests that
communication between home and school occurs regularly, and is two-way and meaningful. The
National Standards indicate when positive relationships are developed and there is effective
communication, students make greater progress. Applying the survey data findings from the
interviewed parents to Epstein’s model and the National PTA’s Standard, the findings correlate
with that of Epstein’s model. The data indicates that it is necessary to continue to keep the parents
informed and also to continue communicating the policies on volunteer opportunities at the
school site, as well as providing information on the child’s learning goals and the progress being
made.

According to Decker and Decker (Decker & Decker, 2003), the goal is to build shared
ownership for education thereby outlining a partnership continuum of activities providing greater
levels of collaboration, shared responsibility, and participation in decision making. The
continuum partnership suggests that a parent’s role in developing openness and two-way

107

communication can be done if the parent participates in the following: discusses concerns and
successes with the teacher, reviews information that is sent home from school, advises the teacher
of the student’s likes and dislikes, and informs the teacher of a change in routine. In an effort to
also address the language and culture barrier, the continuum of parent and community
involvement partnership also suggests creating a welcoming school environment for
parents (Decker & Decker, 2003). This may include a Spanish-speaking liaison for the Spanish-
speaking parent in addition to the school organizing a message board that indicates school events,
activities, resources and opportunities for parents.

The other major finding regarding organizational barriers was the lack of a parent
resource center. When the parents, teachers and district-level administrators were asked if there
was a resource center in the school or district where parents would be able to access resources for
themselves, the findings indicated that few of those interviewed and surveyed were familiar with
a school or community resource center. According to the research having a school-based or
district-wide resource center is an effective way for schools to support families as well as
proactively reach out to them. A parent resource center can provide a variety of services available
to both the students and their families. The resource center would not be as limited as an
information center, but would also provide support with homework, workshops specializing in
child discipline, self-esteem, stress management, etc.

Epstein (2001) suggests involving the community is essential because the community
offers a variety of resources that are valuable to the school, as well as to the families. Creating a

108

Parent Resource Center that includes the community members builds a strong partnership
between the parent, school and community. The community provides resources that can directly
affect the school like, health information and resources for families in need, or collaborate with
medical or social service agencies, and provide adult learning opportunities or family support
services. These resources will give families the Social Capital needed to fully support their
child’s education. As noted earlier, the goal is to build shared ownership of education, which is
inclusive of providing resources and creating equity for all students.

Recommendations: Organizational Barriers

This researcher’s overall recommendation to increase communication between school
personnel and parents include the following key strategies. The first strategy is to create a
newsletter for parents within the school-site as well as a newsletter district-wide specifically for
parents. The newsletter will make parents more knowledgeable about events and activities
happening directly at the school-site as well as district-wide. The next recommended key strategy
suggests the district-level administrators establish a framework model indicating effective teacher
to parent communication. Also, providing parents with computer training and accessing
ConnectEd and The School Loop will provide more opportunities for parents to interact with
teachers as well as administrators. Finally, implementing regular informal gatherings with the
principal and teachers (i.e.: coffee with the principal and teachers) will provide informal
opportunities for parents to meet and greet the teachers and administrators.

109

The researcher would suggest working with the district communications manager to
develop communication strategies for parents possibly identifying several methods (i.e.:
establishing a text-messaging system, and utilizing the ConnectEd system) that can be cost-
effective and most beneficial for parents. The researcher would also suggest organizing a focus
group to evaluate the effectiveness of ConnectEd and The School Loop, and discussing other
possible communication methods.

In regards to an overall recommendation addressing available resources, the researcher
suggests establishing a parent friendly environment that supports parental participation.
Specifically for Cherry Blossom Elementary, the following recommendations are being
suggested: 1. Reorganize and revitalize the parent/volunteer center at the school-site. Train parent
volunteers on how to effectively organize and work with parents of enrolled students. Some of the
responsibilities of the parent volunteer would be to assist in creating activities and regularly
scheduled workshops on campus for parents, students and families. The parent volunteers would
assist in providing both internal and external resources for the parent center. With consideration
of the current budget climate, if a full time parent personnel position is not financially feasible,
then identifying volunteers that are trained as the experienced parent volunteers, that can commit
to working in the parent center for specific hours would be most recommended. In regards to
monitoring and assessing the effectiveness of the parent center the district or the school-site
should implement a data tool that quarterly monitor parent participation and overall satisfaction
of the workshops provided and use of the parent center.

110

Research Question 2: Effective Strategies

What possible effective strategies overcome the organizational barriers and directly
impact student achievement? Based on the survey findings, training both the parents as well as
the teachers with specific strategies to effectively support one another is essential to directly
impacting student achievement. When considering the Social Capital theory (Stanton-Salazar),
educating the family is essential. Many times parents come with a set of norms and values that
don’t always line up with the norms and values of the school system. Providing training that
exposes the parents to the resources needed to level the capital between both low and high
socioeconomic status parents will attempt to bridge the educational gap and provide parents with
an opportunity to decode the educational system. There was a slight gap in mean scores
comparing the low socioeconomic status parents to the high socioeconomic parents in regards to
participating parent workshops and/or training. The LSES parents had a mean score of 4.0,
whereas the HSES parents had a mean score of 4.6. Though the surveys didn’t clarify why there
was a gap, the interviews identified language as the potential barrier. As noted in chapter four,
language is a barrier; for some parents who don’t feel they understand enough English to make
attending a meeting beneficial, they just choose not to come.

Moles (1993) stated in an article, “For many Hispanic parents as well as those from other
countries, the school represents an alien and impersonal environment directed by Anglos who are
insensitive to the minority’s language and culture. Consequently, they often feel uncomfortable
and fearful in the school, especially when they cannot communicate effectively in English or have

111

suffered from discrimination in their own school experience” (Collins & Obregon, 1980). At
Cherry Blossom Elementary, the current volunteer room does not have personnel to manage the
center, or a Spanish-speaking liaison available whenever parents come in, and the number of non-
English speaking volunteers diminishes substantially. In addition to the previous observation, the
inability to financially staff a parent representative in the volunteer room to organize workshops
or trainings is part of the reason for workshops/trainings not occurring in the school, according to
one parent. Establishing a parent liaison or coordinator in the school or district whose primary
responsibility would be to develop and maintain programs without adding the task to individual
teachers is key.

The training opportunities on how to involve and incorporate parents and provide
meaningful workshops should not be limited to just the parents, but also the teachers. These
trainings will better equip the parents with tools to increase their capacity to help their children
achieve academic success. With there being an increase in second language students and parents
in the schools, there is a big need for teachers to be knowledgeable about parental involvement
and a parent’s role in facilitating a home-school connection (Simich-Dudgeon, 1993). Ferrara and
Ferrara, two leading researchers on the Teacher Preparation Programs, concluded through their
research that many teacher education programs don’t spend adequate time on courses that train
teachers in embracing the parents and welcoming them into the classroom while encouraging
participation in all levels of their child’s education. Through the research from this study, the
teachers mean score was 2.50, which indicates that most teachers believed they were rarely

112

offered trainings. Based on these findings the teachers did not believe they were being provided
with adequate training on how to incorporate parents into the classroom and imparting the skills
and strategies needed to increase student achievement. The interviews indicated that teachers
were rarely offered workshops and/or provided with resourceful information to help families
understand how children learn. The findings from the survey and interviews correlate with the
research shared by Ferrara and Ferrara (2005).

Recommendation: Effective Strategies

The overall recommendation is to provide trainings for both the teachers and parents on
parent involvement. The recommendation is to organize workshops that provide basic
information regarding student success and how parents can support student development.
Also training both the parent center volunteers as well as teacher volunteers to lead workshops on
parent engagement and student support, is highly recommended. In alignment with the previous
recommendation on establishing a parent center, creating a Parent Education series of workshops
designed to support parents and families that surround student academic achievement and ways to
support the classroom and the teacher is also recommended. In addition to parents being trained,
organizing a series of professional developments for teachers training them on effectively
engaging and incorporating parents in the classroom is recommended.

113

Finally, for teacher and parent stakeholders, organizing a follow-up system to check for
effectiveness of the workshops, as well as developing a system that provides follow through on
implementation of suggested practices at workshops is highly recommended.

Research Question 3: Supporting a Partnership

The National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education, in conjunction with the
California School Board Association, describes parental involvement to include collaborating and
partnering with teachers in the educational process, exchanging information, and volunteering at
the school. Therefore, an effective partnership should also be collaboration between
administration and the parents as well. This research question focused on building a partnership
between school and parents with the knowledge that what happens in the school has a direct
affect in the home and vice versa. Beginning with all stakeholders obtaining a common goal in
placing student achievement, as the focal point will result in shared responsibility between
families and schools. Epstein (2001) suggests that children need to be able to transfer what they
learned at school and apply it at home, and feel successful about the transition. Parents need to
also feel confident and successful, as well, by realizing that there are ways in which they can
successfully reinforce the skills with their children in the home. Rich (1993) suggests five ways to
mobilize a plan and build a bridge between school and parents. The first is to train teachers to
work with families as partners. The second is to provide ways for families to help one another;
this is seen as a parent-to-parent approach for involvement in children’s learning. This strategy

114

really emphasizes and facilitates a sense of community and building friendships between families.
As mentioned earlier, building the social capital is a great way to level the playing field between
low and high socioeconomic parents. The third strategy is to establish a family education corps.
This would include hiring a parent liaison or parent coordinator to work with parents and families
in education. The fourth is to provide support to schools from all who care about children. Rich
suggests beginning parental support training during the in-hospital care when a child is born.
Providing parents with practical tips and information on how they can help their child
developmentally from birth on is invaluable. The fifth strategy is to involve the wider community
incorporating programs or resources that are actively a part of the community, i.e.: projects,
foundations, businesses, religious-based organizations etc. All community members that have a
stake in the development of the children in the community should have an opportunity to be
involved in that child’s development.

Recommendations: Supporting a Partnership

The following recommendations are being suggested to clearly define the policies and
practices of the school and the district. District-level administrators create a memorandum that
clearly outlines the policies, practices and expectations of the schools in regards to expected
parental involvement at each school site. The memorandum should explicitly outline the policies
and procedures and be regularly reviewed, (via newsletter, announcements, bulletins, public
addresses, etc.) by all stakeholders. With the district-level administrators establishing the

115

protocols, the schools as well as the parents observe the districts response and belief as it relates
to the correlation of parental involvement and student achievement.

The researcher also suggests convening quarterly meetings with parent leader
representatives, teacher liaisons, and school-site administrators to discuss specific concerns and
provide feedback on the current initiatives as it relates to parental involvement. These meetings
will allow all participants to become active participants in assisting the district with shaping a
parental involvement program that meets the needs of all parents at the school-site and/or within
the district.

Overall Implications

Finally, the findings from this study exemplify that all stakeholders believe that parental
involvement is critical to the academic success of the children. In order for the findings from this
study to impact the stakeholders, the following recommendations are being made for Cherry
Blossom Unified School District, and, in particular, Cherry Blossom Elementary School. The
recommendations are being made to address issues and insights in this study as they, (the school
and district), continue to build a partnership between school and home.

Overall Recommendations

Throughout this entire study there is one common theme, and that is student academic
achievement. In chapter four, the current model of parental involvement reflects a top down

116

model that has the district mandating the policy and its interpretation and implementation at the
school site level. Based on the research, the current model should be transformed into one where
students are the central focus and the stakeholders are corresponding and supporting each other in
ways that will ultimately support those students in increasing their academic achievement. The
common cliché, two heads are better than one, emphasizes the purpose of partnership. Epstein
(2002) suggests, “When parents, teachers, students, and others view one another as partners in
education, a caring community forms around students and begins its work.” Based on the
research, and specifically this study, the current model of parental involvement should provide an
opportunity for all stakeholders to correspond with each other (Figure 8). In the center of the
figure all stakeholders are in communication with each other, working together to support student
achievement. In addition to all of the stakeholders working together, the figure shows that there is
a strong relationship between district level administrators to both teachers and parents. There is
also a strong relationship between the teachers, the students, and administrators. The figure
reflects the collaboration of all stakeholders and the individual relationships between the
stakeholders as well.

117

Figure 5.1: Stakeholders Collaborations Diagram

Joyce Epstein (2002) identified six types of parental involvement that have proven to be
successful for school, family and community partnerships. Applying Epstein’s six types of
involvement, this researcher asserts that it is imperative for Cherry Blossom to readdress the
following components: parenting, communicating, volunteering and collaborating.

To address the organizational barriers presented in this study, an overall recommendation
would be to increase the social capital by providing more opportunities for parent trainings and
workshops that reflect the specific needs of Cherry Blossom Elementary. Through the interviews,
two teacher participants discussed the workshops they provide to their students’ parents within
the related grade level. These workshops are focusing parents on specific skills needed to assist
their child at home. The workshops were also specifically designed to guide the parents in the
form of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, and lead the group in skill development
based on the parents’ understanding of the skill.

Students
Parents
District-Level
Administrators
Teachers

118

In spite of the current budget climate, providing regular workshops similar to that of a
“Parent College” would be recommended. It should also be suggested to build upon the current
model of parent trainings that Ms. Daisy and Ms. Cedar (teachers at Cherry Blossom Elementary)
have implemented with their students’ parents within their grade level. Providing multiple
opportunities to train parents while offering assistance and support is essential to preparing the
child for academic success, including learning strategies, parenting tips and child development.

Planned Professional Developments are an essential investment for both staff and parents
in building the capacity to work with one another and with the community to support student
achievement. Throughout the teacher interviews and surveys, the teachers expressed their
understanding that parental involvement does lead to student academic success. Providing
teachers with the know how to train parents may result in more teachers willingly providing
workshops and/or literacy and math nights that are designed to train parents in assisting their
child at home.

Within the research, it was noted that community partnerships are also an essential
component to improving student’s success. It is also recommended to coordinate resources and
services from the community that can specifically address parental needs.

Epstein (1991) suggested that finding multiple ways to correspond to parents would
ultimately strengthen the partnership between the school and the home. Fundamentally,
communication is the key to success. The researcher would suggest preparing documents and
activities that would accommodate the various language and cultural needs. Currently Cherry

119

Blossom Elementary is addressing the communication barrier somewhat, but the school has not
been able to fund a full-time parent liaison, which has resulted in a lack of available
resources. The researcher also suggests that providing a parent liaison would increase the ability
to build the communication with the school thereby increasing the comfort level of the parents.

Reestablishing the Parent Resource Center to benefit each parent with a central point for
communication purposes will allow parents to access computers and connect with the schools
ConnectEd and the School Loop information resource. Having a resource center will also provide
an opportunity for interaction with other parents and build one-on-one relationships, which are
recommended to assist with increasing communication and decrease the language and cultural
barriers tied to communication.

The National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education (NCPIE, 2001) suggests that
in order to sustain a partnership, educators need a clear policy that supports the needs of the
parents, specifically at the local level. The Goals 2000: Educate America Act and the reauthorized
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) have made parental involvement a national
priority. The federal initiatives created a national vision of school-to-home partnerships, but the
local leadership, i.e.: school board, district-level administrators and leaders, defines the specific
vision for school-to-home partnership.

Therefore, the researcher recommends that Cherry Blossom USD adopt a formal parent
involvement policy that clearly outlines the policies and practices of the district in regards to
parental involvement. The district-level administrators should implement a focus group

120

incorporating an equal representation of all stakeholders to strategize effective implementation of
the national policies. The discussion points should be centered on implementation and how best
to use limited funds and resources, highlighting how to evaluate the effectiveness of the
implementation.

Future Research

Based on the results of this study and the review of the related literature, the following
recommendations for further study are presented concerning bridging a partnership between
school and home:

1. Conduct a study to explore specific community partners who would be essential
to Cherry Blossom Elementary.

2. Replicate this study in an alternate school in the Cherry Blossom Unified
School District and add an independent variable that may reveal additional
information and/or correlations with school, home, and community partnerships.

3. Conduct follow-up studies with all stakeholders who participated in this current
study to measure possible changes in the perceptions and practices as a result of
exposure to this study.

4. Conduct follow-up studies with all stakeholders to determine their needs as they
relate to school-to-home partnerships.

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of Research in Multicultural Education. Review of
Educational Research , 71 (2), 171 – 217.

Berger, E. H. (1987). Parents as Partners in Education (2nd ed.). Columbus, Ohio:
Merrill Publishing Company.

Bergmann, S., Brough, J., & Shepard, D. (2008). Teach my Kid I Dare You! The
Educator’s Essential Guide to Parent Involvement. EyeOnEducaiton.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1994). Leading with Soul: An Uncommon Journey of
Spirit. New York: Jossey-Bass.

Bolman, L., & Deal, T. E. (1994). Looking for Leadership: Another Search Party’s
Report. Educational Administration Quarterly , 30 (1), 77-96.

Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1977). Reproduction in Education, Society & Culture.
(R. Nice, Trans.) London: Sage Publications.

Bourdieu, P. (1986). The Forms of Capital. In J. Richardson, Handbook of theory and
research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1975). Is Early Intervention Effective? In M. G. Struening,
Handbook of Evaluation Research (Vol. 2, pp. 519-603). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Burns, R. C. (1993). Parents and Schools: From Visitors to Partners. Washington DC:
National Education Association.

California Department of Education. (2009). California Accountability Progress Report.

California School Boards Association. (2010). From California School Boards
Association website: www.csba.org.

122

Callison, W. L. Raising Test Scores Using Parent Involvement. Lanham, Maryland:
ScareCrow Education.

Christenson, S., & Sheridan, S. (2001). Schools and Families: Creating essential connections
for learning. NY: Guilford.
Coleman, J. (1988). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. The American Journal of
Sociology, (94), 95-120. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.

Collins, L., & Obregon, M. (1980). Parent Involvement in education: A planning Guide.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language
Affairs. Washington , DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Comer, J. (2010). Comer School Development Program. From School Development
Program: www.schooldevelopmentprogram.org.

Constantino, S. M. (2003). Engaging All Families. Lanham, Maryland: ScareCrow Education.

Copland, M. A. (2003). Leadership of Inquiry: Building and Sustaining Capacity for
School Improvement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 25 (4), 375-395.

Creswell, J. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Datnow, A., Park, V., & Wohlstetter, P. (2007). Achieving with Data. University of
Southern California , Center on Educational Governance, Rossier School of Education.
Los Angeles: New Schools Venture Fund.

Decker, L. E., & Decker, V. (2003). Home, School and Community Partnerships.
Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

Department of Education, C. (2010). California Department of Education, API and AYP
Summary. From www.cde.ca.gov.

123

Department of Education, U. (2009). From English Language Acquisition State Grants
website: www.ed.gov/programs/sfgp/nrgcomp.html.

Dika, S. L., & Singh, K. (2002). Applications of Social Capital in Educational Literature:
A Critical Synthesis. Review of Educational Research , 72 (1), 31- 60.

Epstein, J. L., & Dauber, S. (1991). School Programs and Teacher Practices of Parent
Involvement in Inner-City Elementary and Middle Schools. The Elementary School
Journal , 91 (3), 289-305.

Epstein, J. (2001). School, Family and Community Partnerships : Preparing educators
and improving schools. Boulder, CA: Westview Press.

Epstein, J. (2002). School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action 2
nd

Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Inc..

Estes, R. E. (2002). Turning Research Into Results. Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.

Ferrara, M. M., & Ferrara, P. J. (2005). Parents as Partners: Raising Awareness as a
Teacher Preparation Program. The Clearing House , 79 (2), 77- 82.

Glasgow, N. A., & Whitney, P. J. (2009). What Successful Schools do to Involve
Families: 55 Partnership Strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Henderson, A. T., Mapp, K. L., Johnson, V. R., & Davies, D. (2007). Beyond the Bake
Sale The Essential Guide to Family-School Partnerships. New York: The New Press.

Hill, N. E., & Taylor, L. C. (2004). Parental School Involvement and Children’s
Academic Achievement: Pragmatics and Issues. Association for Psychological
Science. American Psychological Association,13(4), 161 – 164.

Hilliard, A. G. (1983). Psychological Factors Associated with Language in the Education
of the African American Child. Journal of Negro Education , 24 -34.

124

Involvement, N. C. (2010 April). National Coalition for Parent Involvement.
Retrieved 201 April from NCPIE website: www.ncpie.org.

Lareau, A. (1989). Home advantage: Social Cass and Parental Intervention in
Elementary Education. New York, New York: Falmer Press.

Lee, J.-S., & Bowen, N. K. (2006). Parent Involvement, Cultural capital, and the
Achievement Gap Among Elementary School Children. American Educational Research
Journal, 43 (2), 193 – 218.

McEwan, E., & McEwan, P. J. (2003). Making Sense of Research: What’s good, What’s
not, and how to tell the difference. Thousand Oaks,, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

Moles, O. C. (193). Collaboration between Schools and Disadvantage Parents: Obstacles
and Openings. In N. F. Chavkin, Families and Schools in a Pluralistic Society, 21-49.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

National Coalition for Parent Involvement In Education. (2010 April). National
Coalition for Parent Involvement In Education. From NCPIE website: www.ncpie.org.

Northouse, P. (2007). Leadership Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc.

Paige, R. (2002). An Overview of America’s Education Agenda. The Phi Delta Kappan,
83 (9), 708-713.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage
Publications, Inc.

Patrikakou, E. (2005). School-Family Partnerships for Children’s Success. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.

125

Reynolds, A. J., & Clements, M. (2005). Parental Involvement and Children’s School
Success. In E. N. Patrikakou, School-Family Partnerships for Children’s Success, 109-
127. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Rich, R. (1993). Building the Bridge to Reach Minority Parents: Education Infrastructure
Supporting
Success for All Children. Families and Schools in a Pluralistic Society, 235 – 244. Albany,
NY. State University of New York Press.

Roscigno, V. J., & Ainsworth-Darnell, J. W. (1999). Race, Cultural Capital, and
Educational Resources: Persistent Inequalities and Achievement Returns. Sociology of
Education, 72 (3), 158 – 178.

Salkind, N. J. (2008). Statistics for People Who Think They Hate Statistics. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Sanders, M. G. (2006). Building School-Community Partnerships: Collaboration for
Student Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

Simich-Dudgeon, C. (1986). Issues of parent involvement and literacy: Executive
summary of the symposium. Washington D.C.: Trinity College.

Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (1997). A Social Capital Framework for Understanding the
Socialization of Racial Minority Children and Youths. Harvard Educational Review , 67
(1), 1 – 40.

Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (2001). Manufacturing Hope and Despair. New York, New York:
Teachers College Press.

State Superintendent, o. P. (2006). No Child Left Behind: Highly Qualified Teacher:
California Revised State Plan. California State Board of Education. Sacramento:
California State Board of Education.

Webb, L., & Norton, M. S. (2009). Human Resources Administration Personnel Issues
and Needs in Education (Vol. 5
th
Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.

126

APPENDIX A: Participation Letter

October 19, 2010

Dear ______________________________________________,

You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study conducted by Krishna Smith, doctoral
student from the Rossier school of Education’s Ed.D. Program at the University of Southern California.

This study is focused on identifying the impact of parental involvement on student achievement. The
second purpose it to examine how the SES of the parents is being considered when suggesting parental
involvement and support. In addition to examining ways to develop partnership that produce parent
accountability as well as examine best practices between the school personnel and the parents of that
school. The findings in this study may have direct implications for current and future school policies and
opportunities for parent and community involvement as mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act of
2001.

If you agree to participate in this research study, you will be asked to complete a 10 – 15 minute survey. If
you agree, you will also be asked to participate in a face-to-face or phone interview. The interview would
be 30 – 45 minutes in length and will be scheduled to accommodate your preference of time or location.
The interview may be audio or video taped.

Your participation is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Any data
collected will be destroyed per your request. All information obtained in connection with this study will be
confidential and the data will be reported in combination with other data so your responses cannot be linked
back to you. Pseudonyms (false names) will be used when quoting specific participants. There are no
anticipated risks to participants.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding participation in this study, please contact me, Krishna
Smith or Dr. Rudy Castruita at the University of Southern California. Thank you very much for your time
and assistance.

Sincerely,

Krishna Y. Smith, Principal Investigator
USC Ed.D Student
Krishnys@usc.edu
Dr. Rudy Castruita, Faculty Supervisor
Professor, USC Rossier School of Education
rcastrui@usc.edu

Date of Preparation: 10/16/2010
UPIRB# : UP-10-00323

127

APPENDIX B: Final Attempt Email to Participants

From: Krishna Smith

Sent: Monday November 01, 2010 7:30am

Subject: USC Doctoral Candidate’s survey for dissertation – final attempt

Good Morning,

My name is Krishna Smith, and I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California. I’m emailing you to invite you to participate in a research study. Participation
is voluntary.

I understand the time constraints you may be facing, the survey will take 10 to 15 minutes
to complete. If you would rather have a paper copy, please reply to this email and you will
be sent a survey with a stamped, pre-addressed envelope.

I appreciate your time and thank you in advance!

Krishna Y. Smith

USC Ed.D candidate

Date of Preparation 10/16/2010

UPIRB#: UP-10-00323

128

APPENDIX C: Information/Fact Sheet

Version 09-24-10 Page 1 of 2

University of Southern California

Rossier School of Education

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL

RESEARCH

The Impact of Parental Involvement on Student Achievement

Information Sheet

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This project aims to examine (1) a parent involvement program that has an impact on student
achievement. (2) This study will also examine how the SES (Socioeconomic Status) of the
parents is being considered when suggesting parental involvement and support. (3) This study
will examine ways to develop partnership that produce parent accountability. (4) This study will
examine best practices between the school personnel and the parents of that school.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

This research involves the completion of an anonymous survey. You may also be asked to
participate in a none-on-one interview.

If you choose to participate in this research project, you will be asked to complete the survey
either online or on paper.

You may also be invited to participate in a one-on –one 8-10 questions interview that will last
approximately 30 - 45 minutes. The interview will be audio and video recorded. If you do not
want to be recorded, you can continue your participation; handwritten notes will be taken instead.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

You will not be compensated for participation in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and
will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.

Your name or other identifiable information will not be used when the results of the survey or
interview are published. Instead a numeric code will be used to identify participants.

For the purposes of this study, the interviews will be recorded.

All survey and interview results will be placed on flash drives and recording devices, and stored
in a locked security box. The members of the research team and the University of Southern

129

California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP
reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

The records and results will be kept for 3 years in the secured locked box, after which time paper
copies of the data will be shredded on a crisscross shredder, electronic data destroyed and the
recorded interviews will be permanently deleted.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have any additional questions or concerns, please contact Krishna
Smith Krishnys@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION

University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

Date of Preparation: 10/16/2010 UPIRB#: UP-10-00323

130

APPENDIX D: District-Level Administrator’s Survey

The following instrument is designed to measure how you and your district are reaching out to involve
parents, and students. Please circle the rating that most closely matches your district’s current practice.

Our District : Not
Occurring
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Extensively
1. Offers workshops and/or provides
resourceful information to help
families understand how children
learn.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Provides training for parents on
developing home routines,
conditions and environments that
support their child’s learning
1 2 3 4 5
3. Has clear and defined policies for
teachers that encourage
communication with the parents
discussing the curriculum, student
achievement and ways a parent can
be involved.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Provides productive professional
developments that train teachers,
staff and administrators on the
value of parents and ways to
encourage partnerships between
school and home.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Provides regular training
opportunities for volunteers so they
are properly trained and know how
to be best utilized on the campus.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Provides a district-wide Parent
Resource Center so parents can
access resources for themselves
and their children.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Schedules district-wide activities
and volunteer opportunities at
traditional and non-traditional
times and days so that all families
have the opportunity to attend and
participate.
1 2 3 4 5
8. Assists families in guiding students
to set academic goals, and to
monitor and discuss schoolwork at
home.
1 2 3 4 5
9. Provides information to families on
how to assist students with skills
they need to improve.
1 2 3 4 5
District-Level Administrators Survey continued on next page

131

I would be interested in participating in a 30 – 45 minute interview about my role in executing my District’s parent
involvement programs.

_____________Yes _____________No

You may contact me at the following number to schedule a follow-up interview

_________________________________

Thank you very much for completing this survey!

Krishna Smith., Ed.D. Candidate
Rudy Castruita, Ed.D., Faculty Advisor
University of Southern California

Our District : Not
Occurring
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Extensively
10. Includes parent leaders from all
diverse groups (e.g.: racial, ethnic,
socioeconomic) in the district.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Provides a community resource
directory for parents, providing
services, programs and agencies
within the community.
1 2 3 4 5
12. I believe parent and community
involvement is related to student
achievement.
1 2 3 4 5

132

APPENDIX E: Principal Survey

The following instrument is designed to measure how you and your school are reaching out to involve
parents, community members and students. Please circle the rating that most closely matches your school’s
current practice.

My School : Not
Occurring
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Extensivel
y
1. Offers workshops and/or
provides resourceful information
to help families understand how
children learn.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Provides training to parents on
developing home routines,
conditions and environments that
support their child’s learning.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Have clear and defined policies
for teachers that encourage
communication with the parents
discussing the curriculum,
student achievement and ways a
parent can be involved.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Provide productive professional
developments that train teachers,
and staff on the value of parents
and ways to encourage
partnerships between school and
home.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Provides regular training
opportunities for volunteers, so
they are properly trained and
know how to be best utilized on
the campus.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Provides a Parent Resource
Center so parent and community
members can access resources
for themselves and their
children.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Schedules school activities and
volunteer opportunities at
traditional and non-traditional
school times and days so that all
families have the opportunity to
attend and participate.
1 2 3 4 5
8. Assists families in guiding
students to set academic goals,
and monitor and discuss
schoolwork at home.
1 2 3 4 5
Principal Survey continued on the next page

133

I would be interested in participating in a 30 – 45 minute interview about my role in executing my School’s
parent involvement programs.

_____________Yes _____________No

You may contact me at the following number to schedule a follow-up interview

_________________________________

Thank you very much for completing this survey!

Krishna Smith., Ed.D. Candidate
Rudy Castruita, Ed.D., Faculty Advisor
University of Southern California

My School : Not
Occurring
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Extensively
9. Provides information to families
on how to assist students with
skills they need to improve.
1 2 3 4 5
10. Includes parent leaders from all
diverse groups (e.g. racial,
ethnic, socioeconomic) in the
school.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Provides a community resource
directory for parents, providing
services, programs and agencies
within the community.
1 2 3 4 5

134

APPENDIX F: Teacher Survey

The following instrument is designed to measure how you and your school/district are reaching out to
involve parents, community members and students. Please circle the rating that most closely matches your
school’s/ district’s current practice.

As a classroom teacher at my school and within
my district I :
Not
Occurring
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Extensively
1. Am offered workshops and/or
provided with resourceful information
to help families understand how
children learn.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Train parents on developing home
routines, conditions and environments
that support their child’s learning.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Have a clear understanding of the
defined policies for teachers that
encourage communication with the
parents discussing the curriculum,
student achievement and ways a
parent can be involved.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Am provided with productive
professional developments that train
me on the value of parents and ways
to encourage partnerships between
school and home.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Believe parents are being properly
trained as volunteers to best be
utilized on the campus.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Encourage the use of our Parent
Resource Center that provides
classroom resources and items parents
can access.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Schedule conferences and volunteer
opportunities at traditional and non-
traditional school times and days so
all families have the opportunity to
attend and participate.
1 2 3 4 5
8. Assist families in guiding students to
set academic goals, and monitor and
discuss schoolwork at home.
1 2 3 4 5
9. Provide information to families on
how to assist students with skills they
need to improve.
1 2 3 4 5
Teacher Survey continued on next page

135

I would be interested in participating in a 30 – 45 minute interview about my role in executing my School/District’s
parent involvement programs.

_____________Yes _____________No

You may contact me at the following number to schedule a follow-up interview

_________________________________

Thank you very much for completing this survey!

Krishna Smith., Ed.D. Candidate
Rudy Castruita,Ed.D., Faculty Advisor
University of Southern California
As a classroom teacher at my school and within
my district I :
Not
Occurring
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Extensively
10. Help identify parent leaders from all
diverse groups (e.g. racial, ethnic,
socioeconomic) in the school.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Believe parent involvement is related
to student achievement.
1 2 3 4 5

136

APPENDIX G: Parent Survey

The following instrument is designed to measure how you perceive your school/district reaches out to
involve parents in building and facilitating a strong and positive partnership between the school/district
personnel and the parents.
Please circle the rating that most closely matches your school’s/district’s current practice.

As a parent in this School/District I : Never
(No)
Sometimes
(Somewhat
No)
Unsure Most of the
Time
(Somewhat
Yes)
Always
(Yes)
1. Am aware my school has a policy that
describes how the school is going to
involve parents in the education of my
child(ren)
1 2 3 4 5
2. Am aware that the teachers and the school
principal offer parent volunteer
opportunities for me to get involved in my
child’s education.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Receive regular information about my
child’s learning goals and progress made
and information I can use to assist my
child’s academic growth.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Am aware that the school provides a
variety of ways in which I can get
involved and volunteer at the school.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Am aware the school schedules activities
and conferences at traditional and non-
traditional school hours that are
convenient so all families will have the
opportunity to attend and participate.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Am aware the school provides a Parent
Resource Center so I can access resources
for myself and my children.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Am aware that my school assists families
in guiding students to set academic goals,
and to monitor and discuss schoolwork at
home
1 2 3 4 5
8. Am aware that my school provides
information to families on how to assist
students with skill they need to improve
1 2 3 4 5
Parent Survey continued on the next page

137

I would be interested in participating in a 30 – 45 minute interview about my thoughts on the School/District’s
parent programs.

_____________Yes _____________No

You may contact me at the following number to schedule a follow-up interview

_________________________________

Thank you very much for completing this survey!
Krishna Smith., Ed.D. Candidate
Rudy Castruita, Ed.D., Faculty Advisor
University of Southern California
As a parent in this School/District I : Never
(No)
Sometimes
(Somewhat
No)
Unsure Most of the
Time
(Somewhat
Yes)
Always
(Yes)
9. Am aware the school/district
provides opportunities for parents of
all diverse groups (e.g. racial, ethnic
and socioeconomic) leadership roles
at the school.
1 2 3 4 5
10. Am aware the school/district
provides a community resource
directory for parents, providing
services, programs and agencies
within the community.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Feel welcome when I visit the
classroom without pre-scheduling an
appointment.
1 2 3 4 5
12. If I feel uncomfortable or unable to speak
with my child’s teacher, it is because:
(Circle all that apply)
Does not apply to me.
I speak very little English.
I’m not sure what to ask the teacher to get assistance.
The teacher is of a different race.
I am embarrassed about my child’s academic problems.
I am embarrassed about my child’s behavior problems.
I am not able to get time off to meet with my child’s teacher.
I do not feel welcome in the classroom.
Other (please specify)

138

APPENDIX H: Parent Survey (Spanish)

El siguiente instrumento está diseñado para medir cómo perciben su escuela / distrito de llegar a involucrar
a los padres, y miembros de la comunidad en la construcción y facilitar una asociación fuerte y positiva
entre la escuela y el personal del distrito y los padres.
Por favor circule el número que más se acerque a la práctica actual de su escuela / distrito.

Como padre en esta escuela/districto I: Nunca
(ninguÌ n)
A veces
(Algo
ninguÌ n)
Inseguro Casi todo el
tiempo
(Un poco
sí)
Siempre
(Sí)
1. Soy consciente de mi escuela tiene una
política que describe cómo la escuela va a
involucrar a los padres en la educación de
mi hijo (s)
1 2 3 4 5
2. Soy consciente de que los maestros y el
director de la escuela ofrecen
oportunidades de padres voluntarios para
mi para participar en la educacion de mi
hijo.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Recibir información periódica sobre las
metas de aprendizaje de mi hijo y los
progresos realizados y la información que
puede utilizar para ayudar al crecimiento
académico de mi hijo.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Soy consciente de que la escuela ofrece
una variedad de maneras en que puedo
participar y ser voluntario en la escuela.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Soy consciente de los horarios de las
actividades escolares y conferencias en
las horas de clase tradicionales y no
tradicionales que son convenientes para
todas las familias tendrán la oportunidad
de asistir y participar
1 2 3 4 5
6. Soy consciente de que la escuela ofrece
un Centro de Recursos para Padres para
que pueda acceder a los recursos para mi
y para mis hijos.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Soy consciente de que mi escuela ayuda a
las familias en la orientación de los
estudiantes a fijar metas académicas, y
vigilar y discutir el trabajo escolar en
casa.
1 2 3 4 5
Continúa en página siguiente

139

12. Si me siento incómodo o no puede hablar
con la maestra de mi hijo, es porque:
(Marque todo lo que corresponda)
No se aplica a mí.
Yo hablo muy poco de Inglés.
No estoy seguro de qué preguntar al maestro para recibir
asistencia.
El maestro es de una raza diferente.
Estoy avergonzado de problemas académicos de mi hijo.
Estoy avergonzado por problemas de conducta de mi hijo.
No soy capaz de conseguir tiempo libre para reunirse con el
maestro de mi hijo.
No me siento a gusto en el aula.
Otros (especificar)

Estaría interesado en participar en un 30 - entrevista de 45 minutos acerca de mis pensamientos sobre la
Escuela/Distrito programas s padres.
_____________Sí ___________N
Usted puede ponerse en contacto conmigo en el siguiente número para hacer una entrevista de
seguimiento
________________________________________________

Muchas gracias por completar esta encuesta!
Krishna Smith., Ed.D. Candidate
Rudy Castruita, Ed.D., Faculty Advisor

Como padre en esta escuela/districto I:
Nunca
(ninguÌ n)
A veces
(Algo
ninguÌ n)
Inseguro
Casi todo el
tiempo
(Un poco
sí)
Siempre
(Sí)
8. Soy consciente de que mi escuela
proporciona información a las familias
sobre cómo ayudar a los estudiantes con
habilidades que necesitan para mejorar
académicamente.
1 2 3 4 5
9. Soy consciente de la escuela / distrito
provee oportunidades para que los padres
de todos los diversos grupose (por
ejemplo, raciales, étnicos y
socioeconómicos) roles de liderazgo en la
escuela
1 2 3 4 5
10. Soy consciente de la escuela / distrito
provee un directorio de recursos de la
comunidad para los padres, la prestación
de servicios, programas y organismos de
la comunidad..
1 2 3 4 5
11. Se sientan bienvenidos cuando visitan el
salón de clases sin pre-programar una
cita.
1 2 3 4 5

140

APPENDIX I: Administrator Interview Questions

1. In what ways does your District’s mission/ vision statement and objectives include parent
involvement?

2. What are your District’s policies and practices in regard to parent and community
involvement?

3. What role do you play in executing the district’s parent and community involvement
policies and practices?

4. What organizational and structural barriers do you believe attribute to low parental
involvement?

5. Are there any organizational and structural practices that could increase parental
involvement?

6. What strategies have you used to encourage parent involvement?

7. What resources does your District have to encourage parent involvement? What part have
you played to ensure these resources are being utilized?

8. Do you believe there is a correlation between parent involvement as it relates to student
achievement? Why do you believe this?

9. What goals have you established or believe should be established for improving your
District’s parent involvement policies? Describe one of the major goals or strategies in
improving the parent partnership with your district over the next few years?

10. Please share any comments that my questions did not allow you to make.

141

APPENDIX J: Principal Interview Questions

1. In what ways does your school’s mission/ vision statement and objectives include parent
involvement?
a. 1b. In what ways does your district’s mission/vision statement and objectives
include parent involvement?

2. What are your school’s policies and practices in regard to parent and community
involvement?
a. 2b. What are your district’s policies and practices in regard to parent
involvement?

3. What role do you play in executing the district’s parent and community involvement
policies and practices?

4. What strategies have you used to encourage parent and community involvement?

5. What organizational and structural barriers do you believe attribute to low parental
involvement?

6. Are there any organizational and structural practices that could increase parental
involvement?

7. What resources does your school have to encourage parent and community involvement?
What part have you played to ensure these resources are being utilized?
a. 7b. What resources does your district have to encourage parent involvement?

8. Do you believe there is a correlation between parent and community involvement as it
relates to student achievement? Why do you believe this way?

9. What goals have you established or believe should be established for improving your
District’s parent involvement policies? Describe one of the major goals or strategies in
improving the parent partnership with your district over the next few years?

10. Please share any comments that my questions did not allow you to make.

142

APPENDIX K: Teacher Interview Questions

1. In what ways does your School’s mission/ vision statement and objectives include
parent involvement?

2. What is your School/District’s policies and practices in regard to parent and
community involvement?

3. What role do you play in executing the school’s parent involvement policies and
practices?

4. What strategies have you used to encourage parent involvement?

5. What organizational and structural barriers do you believe attribute to low
parental involvement?

6. Are there any organizational and structural practices that could increase parental
involvement?

7. What resources does your school/district have to encourage parent involvement?
What part have you played to ensure these resources are being utilized?

8. Do you believe there is a correlation between parent involvement as it relates to
student achievement? Why do you believe this way?

9. What goals have you established or believe should be established for improving
your District’s parent involvement policies? Describe one of the major goals or
strategies in improving the parent partnership with your district over the next few
years?

10. In your opinion, how involved have the administrators been in building the
partnership between parent involvement and the school.

11. Please share any comments that my questions did not allow you to make.

143

APPENDIX L: Parent Interview Questions

1. What do you believe your role is in increasing your child’s academic success?

2. What are some of the struggles you face with increasing your child’s academic success?

3. Do you believe there is a connection between parent involvement and student
achievement? Why do you believe this?

4. What resources has your school/district provided to encourage parent involvement?
How have you utilized those resources?

5. In your opinion how effective is your PTA/PTO in increasing your involvement in the
school?

6. What factors would have influenced you as a parent volunteering or participating in
school activities?

7. What other ways would you suggest the school/district do to increase parental
involvement in the school?

8. What has been the most useful parent involvement activities that you attended and/or
participated in?

9. In your opinion, how involved have the administrators and teachers been in building the
partnership between parents and school personnel.

10. Please share any comments that my questions did not allow you to make.

144

APPENDIX M: Parent Interview Questions (Spanish)

1. ¿Qué usted cree que su papel es cada vez mayor en el éxito académico de su hijo?

2. ¿Cuáles son algunas de las luchas que se enfrenta cada vez con mayor éxito académico de su
hijo?

3. ¿Cree usted que hay una conexión entre la participación de los padres y rendimiento de los
estudiantes? ¿Por qué crees esto?

4. ¿Qué recursos tiene su escuela / distrito se dan para fomentar la participación de padres?
¿Cómo se ha utilizado esos recursos?

5. En su opinión qué tan efectivo es su PTA / PTO en el aumento de su participación en la
escuela?

6. ¿Qué factores han influido en usted como padre voluntario o participar en las actividades
escolares?

7. ¿Qué otras formas sugeriría usted a la escuela / distrito hacer para aumentar la participación
de los padres en la escuela?

8. ¿Cuál ha sido la actividad más útil la participación de los padres que asistieron y / o
participado en?

9. En su opinión, ¿cómo han involucrado los administradores y maestros de estado en la
construcción de la colaboración entre padres y personal escolar.

10. Por favor comparta cualquier comentario que mis preguntas no le permiten hacer.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study examines aspects of parental involvement that lead to student academic achievement. This study will provide schools and districts with objective data that will allow stakeholders to identify specific and effective strategies to increase parental involvement. The researcher explores the social capital theory, cultural capital theory, social reproduction theory and Joyce Epstein’s model of the six domains of parental involvement. Using a qualitative approach, the researcher investigates the correlation between parental involvement and student achievement, as well as the impact of parental involvement on student achievement. Findings indicate that identifying organizational barriers, identifying possible effective strategies to overcome the organizational barriers, and establishing an effective and collaborative partnership between school and home has a great impact on parental involvement, and may lead to an increase in student achievement. Implications for all stakeholders and recommendations for future research are offered.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The path of involvement: educational practices of working class African American parents of college students

PDF

The relationship of parental involvement to student academic achievement in Latino middle school students

PDF

Superintendents' viewpoint of the role stakeholders can play in improving student achievement

PDF

Impact of required parental involvement on African American male students and families: a qualitative study of the USC-NAI program

PDF

Resource allocation to improve student achievement

PDF

Parental involvement and student motivation: A quantitative study of the relationship between student goal orientation and student perceptions of parental involvement among 5th grade students

PDF

Making the connection: The California urban superintendent and parent and community involvement

PDF

Effective practices employed by superintendents' leadership teams that impact student achievement

PDF

The impact of leadership on student achievement in high poverty schools

PDF

Leadership strategies employed by K-12 urban superintendents to improve the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

The effects of a series of after school family writing workshops on students' writing achievement and attitudes

PDF

Relationship of teacher's parenting style to instructional strategies and student achievement

PDF

Sustaining student achievement: Six Sigma strategies and successful urban school district superintendents

PDF

Increase parental involvement to decrease the achievement gaps for ELL and low SES students in urban California public schools: an evaluation study

PDF

The teacher evaluation: key components that positively impact teacher effectiveness and student achievement

PDF

Effective strategies superintendents utilize in building political coalitions to increase student achievement

PDF

Examining parent involvement activities in two mmigrant-impacted schools: a comparative case study

PDF

A quantitative analysis on student goal orientation and student perceptions of parental involvement among 6th grade middle school students

PDF

Leadership strategies employed by K-12 urban superintendents to improve the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

Superintendents and Latino student achievement: promising practices that superintendents use to influence the instruction and increase the achievement of Latino students in urban school districts

Asset Metadata

Creator Smith, Krishna Y. (author)

Core Title The impact of parental involvement on student achievement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/10/2011

Defense Date 03/09/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag correlation,OAI-PMH Harvest,parental involvement,student achievement

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy M. (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Roach, John (committee member)

Creator Email Krishnys@usc.edu,kys4gd@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3936

Unique identifier UC1467000

Identifier etd-Smith-4576 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-477426 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3936 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Smith-4576.pdf

Dmrecord 477426

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Smith, Krishna Y.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu