University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

"Thinking in the middle" what instructional approaches are employed by urban middle school teachers to effect changes in African American students' learning outcomes and performances?

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"Thinking in the middle" what instructional approaches are employed by urban middle school teachers to effect changes in African American students' learning outcomes and performances?

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Content “THINKING IN THE MIDDLE”
WHAT INSTRUCTIONAL
APPROACHES ARE EMPLOYED BY URBAN MIDDLE
SCHOOL TEACHERS TO EFFECT CHANGES IN
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS’ LEARNING
OUTCOMES AND PERFORMANCE?
by
Precious B. Flemings
___________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2007
Copyright 2007 Precious B. Flemings
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to several people whom I have held in my heart
all of my life: First, my biological mother, the late Mrs. Annie E. McClure, who gave
me life and laid the foundation for me to become the woman that I am today. I know
that she is proud of her oldest child. Second, my first born--Tamekekia S. Nichols--
who was promoted to heaven before this project was completed. I believed that she is
smiling and saying, “Mom, you did it!” Third, my adopted mother, the late Mrs.
Dorothy Wallace, who encouraged me every day of her life. Fourth, my mother, Mrs.
Naomi Sidney Orr, who has been an inspiration and one of my biggest fans since the
beginning of this project. Finally, my heavenly Father, for sustaining me and guiding
me throughout this process. I know that I could not have done this on my own. Thank
you Lord.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I want to acknowledge and thank the greatest chair anyone
could ever have, Dr. Etta R. Hollins. If it had not been for her taking me on as a
doctorial candidate, late in the program, this dissertation would not have come to
fruition. I will forever be grateful for your guidance and expertise. Thank you. Next,
I want to thank my committee members, Dr. Margo Pensavalle and Dr. Melora Sundt
for having the confidence in me that I could and would complete this project in a
timely manner, after obtaining Dr. Hollins as my chair. Thank you ladies, you both
are the greatest.
Thanks to my husband, Mr. Jerry Phillips, who has endured years of me not
sharing time with him because I was busy working on my dissertation, but would still
cook for us when I didn’t have the time. “I love you honey.” Thanks to my daughters,
Takeyshia and Taneyshia, and my youngest sister Vaughn. You all never stopped
believing that one day I would finish this project and start my new career. I love you
guys very much. Thanks to my granddaughters and grandsons, too many to name,
who kept me focused on having some “free-time” so I could spend it with them.
Thanks to my son Phillip, daughter-in-law, Candi, my niece Kayla, and
especially my grandson, Darius who always wanted to know what chapter I was
working on. To my partners--Lorece, Nita, and Carolyn--who always knew when I
needed a (Girl’s Night). This made all the difference, because it kept me grounded in
the meaning and value of true friendship. Thanks partners. Thanks to my APADS
organization (Association of Pan African Doctoral Scholars, Inc.), especially my
iv
critical friend, Dr. Ellen Griffin for mentoring and monitoring me. To all my friends
and loved ones who prayed for me, called me on the phone to encourage me, sent me
cards to say I am thinking about you, whatever you did. I appreciate it from the
bottom of my heart, because it kept me on the course and focused.
Thanks to my Bishop, Dr. William LaRue Dillard, and my Second Baptist
Church family of Monrovia, California for bringing my name before the Lord when I
needed prayers of encouragement and uplifting. My “Silent-in-house-Cheerleaders,”
the Women Guild Ministry et al., you all know who you are and how much I love you.
I did get tired and weary at times, but it was because of your love, prayers, words of
encouragement, and support that I was able to endure to the end. Thanks to all of you.
Acknowledgement and thanks to the principal and staff at Success Learning
Center. Thanks Ms. Wills for granting me permission to enter your school and talk to
your teachers for 6 weeks, and thanks to the teachers who participated in my study. If
it had not been for your contributions, my research would have been null and void.
Finally, thanks to my family in Arkansas, my father, Reverend Jessie
McClure, Sr., my three brothers, Jessie Jr., Reverend Jerry, and Reverend Randy. My
two sisters, Derinda Hall and Edna Knight--we did it guys. The reason I say “We” is
because this dissertation represents all seven of us, “the McClure Clan.” Who would
have ever thought that a little country girl like me would one day have a Doctorate of
Education Degree bestowed upon her? It was all because of our faith in God, our
teachings from our father, and our belief that we can do all things through Christ who
strengthen us. Amen!
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. vii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE:
Introduction, Background, and Underlying Framework of the Study........ 1
Background of the Problem and Its Underlying Framework ..................... 1
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................... 4
Purpose and Significance of the Study....................................................... 5
Research Questions .................................................................................... 7
Assumptions ............................................................................................... 7
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................. 8
Delimitations of the Study.......................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms .................................................................................... 9
Summary..................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER TWO:
Introduction to the Review of Literature .................................................... 13
Documentation for the Review of Literature.............................................. 14
Review of the Literature............................................................................. 14
Teachers for a New Generation of Young Learners................................... 15
Instructional Approaches that Affect Students’ Learning Outcomes......... 19
The Concept of Effective Teaching............................................................ 23
Effective Teachers for Students in Urban Schools..................................... 25
Teaching in Middle Schools....................................................................... 27
In the Middle: What Works for Middle School Teachers? ....................... 32
Instructional Approaches to Teach Middle School Students ..................... 36
In the Middle: Planning to Teach in Urban Middle School ...................... 39
Conclusions ................................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER THREE:
Research Methodology............................................................................... 51
Introduction ................................................................................................ 51
Overarching Questions Guiding the Study................................................. 52
Overview of the Research Method and Design.......................................... 53
The Qualitative Research Method .............................................................. 54
The Case Study Research Design............................................................... 57
Sampling and Population for Study............................................................ 59
vi
Instrumentation and Data Collection Recording the Data.......................... 61
Recording the Data ..................................................................................... 66
Data Analysis.............................................................................................. 66
Reporting the Data...................................................................................... 70
Internal Validity and Credibility ................................................................ 70
Conclusions ................................................................................................ 72
CHAPTER FOUR:
Analysis of Findings from the Case Study Data ........................................ 74
The School and the Teachers...................................................................... 74
Time is of the Essence................................................................................ 77
Findings from Analysis of Data ................................................................. 79
Summary of Findings ................................................................................. 91
CHAPTER FIVE:
Discussion, Implications, and Recommendations for Further Research.... 94
Discussions................................................................................................. 94
How Findings Might Inform Practices in Low Performing Schools
to Improve Learning Outcomes of Underserved Students ............. 102
How Findings Might Inform Districts’ Policies Relating to Teaching
and Students’ Learning................................................................... 105
How Findings Might Be Useful for Educators in Planning Teachers’
Pre-service Education Programs..................................................... 109
Implications for Teachers........................................................................... 110
Recommendations for Further Research .................................................... 112
REFERENCES....................................................................................................... 114
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Solicitation Letter to Teachers............................................ 126
Appendix B: Pre-interview Protocol Questions....................................... 127
Appendix C: Interview Protocol and Case Study Guidelines .................. 128
Appendix D: Research Questions and Interview Questions for
Teachers.............................................................................. 129
Appendix E: Observation Protocol .......................................................... 132
Appendix F: Thank You Note to Principal and Teachers ....................... 133
Appendix G: Raw Data Tables 8 and 9.................................................... 134
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Review of Literature Research.............................................................. 12
Table 2: Annual Measurable Objectives for Success Learning Center (K-12)
School, 2002-2005................................................................................... 75
Table 3: Credentialed Teachers at Success Learning Center (K-12) School,
2005-2006................................................................................................ 76
Table 4: Teachers by Type of Assignment at Success Learning Center (K-12),
2004 ......................................................................................................... 78
Table 5: Teachers by Ethnicity at Success Learning Center (K-12) School,
2004-2005................................................................................................ 78
Table 6: Credential Plus Years Experience of Teachers Who Participated in
The Study at Success Learning Center (K-12) School, 2005-2006......... 90
Table 7: Dominant Instructional Approaches Used by Six Urban Middle
School Teachers....................................................................................... 92
Table 8: Instructional Approaches Identified from Interviews with Teachers....... 134
Table 9: Instructional Approaches Identified from Raw Data Analysis ................ 136
viii
ABSTRACT
A qualitative case study research design was used to identify instructional
approaches used by urban middle school teachers to effect changes in African
American students’ learning outcomes and performance. The impetus for this study
derived from a lack of research on instructional approaches used by urban middle
school teachers to teach African American students that may have a positive effect on
their learning outcomes and performance in core academic subjects such as
English/Language Arts, History, Math, and Science classes.
Several instructional approaches were identified by conducting interviews and
observations of six effective, high-performing urban middle school teachers selected
from a K-12 learning center in the Los Angeles Unified School District.
Research indicates that learning outcomes and academic performance of some
African American students lag far below their White counterparts in the same core
subjects due to academic achievement (Rothstein, 2001). The aim of this study was to
identify specific instructional approaches that were used by the six teachers to effect
changes in their African American students’ learning outcomes and performance in
academic core subjects. The teachers who participated in the study had a high
percentage of African American students in their core classes.
Findings revealed that certain instructional approaches used by the teachers did
effect changes in some students’ learning outcomes and performance in core subjects
such as Math and Science. The instructional approaches identified were active
engagement activities, collaborative small learning groups, direct-instruction, guided
ix
practice instruction, high-expectations, coupled with activities to build self-confidence
and self-esteem, and technology-based instruction.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Background of the Problem and Its Underlying Framework
Research indicates that average academic achievement of poor children,
especially African Americans and Hispanics, lags far behind that of White children
(Rothstein, 2001). To narrow this gap, most policy discussions focus on how schools
can improve to provide underserved children with an education comparable to that
received by their counterparts. Policies most frequently advocated include smaller
class sizes for underserved children, particularly in the early grades; better-qualified
and better-trained teachers, especially in inner-city schools; after-school or summer
tutoring programs, and scripted instructional programs (Rothstein, 2001).
Policies like these will undoubtedly help to improve the academic achievement
of underserved children, but they are expensive and unlikely to be fully implemented
to have a long-term effect on low performing students of color to reduce the gap in
academic achievement and performance (Zeichner, 2000).
It is recognized that a child’s academic achievement is not only enhanced by
the quality of school the child attends, but also the quality of teaching a child receives
from his or her teacher (McKinley, 2003). Research confirms that increases in African
American students’ achievement can come from changes in student-teacher
interactions, such as planning lessons to actively engage students in learning and using
instructional strategies to enhance African American students’ academic performance
(Berstein, 1990).
2
Research also indicates that instructional practices and students’ performance
are interrelated, especially when teachers present information with clearly defined
objectives, are experts in their subjects, use effective teaching strategies, understand
the needs of learners, then learning is facilitated (Marazano et al., 2001).
Some urban middle school teachers are faced with multiple challenges in the
education of middle school students such as unsupportive parents, drugs and alcohol
abuse, a cultural attitude of fast and easy, and intense peer pressure (Mendler, 2000).
Because of these challenges, some teachers are rethinking their instructional practices
of “doing-business-as-usual” and looking for new ways to motivate middle school
students in their academic achievements.
Goldhaber (2001) states that 2 to 3 million children will be entering schools
across America for the first time during the next decade, in addition, many seasoned
teachers will also be retiring in the next decade when these children enter middle
school. The concern is who will teach the new generation of learners since a number
of highly skilled, effective teachers will be leaving the teaching profession.
Ladson-Billings (2001) states:
Many of the best veteran teachers are approaching retirement age, what they
know and are able to do is likely to be lost to schools and communities they
now serve, which means that our dependence on the ideas and expertise of a
new generation of teachers has become even greater. These new teachers must
be willing to travel new highways and byways of teaching to ensure that all
children will experience academic, cultural, and social success. (p. 33)
Research indicates that former variables used to describe effective teachers,
such as ability, education, and experience show strong relations in students’
3
achievement (Greenwald et al., 1996). What is unclear from the reviews of literature,
are the instructional approaches used by urban middle school teachers that affect their
students’ learning outcomes and performance (Bellanca, 1998).
In addressing the problem of effective teaching practices, staff development
programs tend to focus on implementing strategies to help teachers maintain behavior
in the classroom, and use instructional practices that will increase students’ scores on
standardized tests (Bowers, 2000). This, however, does not get to the heart of the
matter, which is the identification of instructional practices that will help the unique
situations of inner-city, underserved students, such as awakening them to a deeper
understanding and awareness of the world and its environment (2000). For this
reason, the selection of highly skilled, effective teachers to work in urban schools is
important for all stakeholders in the business of educating children (Goldhaber &
Brewer, 1996).
As indicated by research, a student’s performance is influenced by a teacher’s
qualification and experience, but schools where students most need highly skilled,
effective teachers are the ones that have the greatest difficulty retaining effective
teachers (Ascher, 1991). According to Hammond-Darling (1998), urban school
districts hire more new, inexperienced teachers than suburban school districts. Ascher
(1991) notes the reason for this inequality in hiring inexperienced teachers is that most
urban schools have limited funds for teachers’ salaries, educational materials, and for
upkeep and general maintenance of educational facilities. Ascher (1991) also notes
4
that inexperienced teachers are often the ones who get the most challenging students,
which makes teaching more difficult.
Nevertheless, urban schools need highly skilled, effective teachers to work in
urban middle schools; teachers who can help underserved urban middle school
students become critical thinkers and planners, and develop the technological skills
needed to succeed in a highly skilled, technical society; and finally, teachers who can
help underserved urban middle school students become contributors in a global society
(Ames & West, 1999).
Statement of the Problem
Research on teachers’ practices to close achievement gaps has become a
compelling area of study, especially with the aging teaching force, mandated class size
reductions, and the growing number of immigrants attending schools in the U. S.
Teacher effectiveness from the 1960s through the early 1980s led to school reforms to
better meet society’s needs and to implement instructional practices that correlated to
students’ achievement on standardized tests. Unfortunately, those practices have not
contributed to consistent improvements in performance for students of color,
particularly African American students (Mckinley, 2003). More importantly, changes
in instructional practices are also critical in addressing the educational crisis facing
other minority students. Due to the large number of Hispanic students attending
public schools in the United States, changes in instructional practices to improve
students’ achievement and academic performance has increased dramatically in recent
decades (Padron et al., 2002).
5
According to research, America will need an unprecedented number of newly
qualified teachers who can teach the complex skills the workforce is demanding and
society needs for the 21
st
century (Education World, 2000). Goldhaber and Anthony
(2004) states that a teacher’s years of experience, knowledge of subject-matter, has a
direct effect on students’ learning and performance. However, research does not
indicate which, if any, teaching approach is best in relations to students’ achievement,
nor does it indicate which instructional approach teachers’ use to achieve high
outcomes from urban middle school students (Bellanca, 1998).
The problem lies with the small amount of empirical research related to
instructional approaches used by urban middle school teachers in their thinking and
planning to teach urban middle school students. Due to the limited knowledge, more
research needs to be conducted to gain insight and understanding of instructional
approaches used by urban middle school teachers that effect changes in learning
outcomes and performance of urban middle school students.
Purpose and Significance of the Study
The purpose and significance of this qualitative study is to add to the limited
amount of research on instructional approaches used by high-performing, highly-
skilled, effective teachers to effect changes in minority students’ learning outcomes
and performance in core academic subjects, such as English/Language Arts, History,
Math, and Science.
According to Hammond-Darling (1999), ethnic minority students are more
likely to have unqualified teachers in their classrooms than their European American
6
peers. However, review of literature suggests that teacher certification, teacher
training, and years of experience are factors that influence instructional practices used
by teachers which also have an influence on underserved minority students’
achievement and performance. At present, no concrete evidence exists in empirical
studies to indicate which instructional approach or practice is best is sparse, or how
teachers’ thinking and planning for instruction affect African American students’
performance at the middle school level.
The purpose of this study is to identify instructional approaches that are used
by urban middle school teachers that might effect changes in middle school students’
academic performance, specifically, African American students, and to determine how
these instructional approaches might improve the learning outcomes and performance
of other underserved students’ of color.
The significance of the study is to enlighten urban middle school teachers of
instructional approaches that might produce positive effects in African American
students’ learning outcomes and performance that may enable them to succeed in core
academic subjects. In addition to identifying specific instructional approaches, the
study aims to present information on the thought processes employed by highly-
skilled, effective middle school teachers. The knowledge gained from this study has
the potential for improving the preparation of new teachers in teaching urban middle
school students particularly, African American, and other underserved students.
Finally, the study may call attention to unique aspects of instructional
approaches, situations, and events in teaching underserved, urban minority students
7
that might otherwise be missed without the investigation of certain instructional
approaches used by urban middle school teachers in urban classrooms
Research Questions
1. What instructional approaches do urban middle school teachers’
employ to effect changes in African American students’ learning outcomes?
2. What approaches do urban middle school teachers’ use to assess the
learning outcomes of African American students?
3. What instructional approaches are most likely to have a positive effect
on African American students’ academic performance in core subjects, such as
English/Language Arts, History, Math, and Science?
Assumptions
The proposed study rests on several assumptions which are delineated from the
reviews of literature. First, it is assumed that specific approaches used in the
classroom will have a positive effect on African American students’ learning
outcomes and performance. According to Dill, Good, Sigel and Evertson (1990),
teachers who are passive in their instructional approaches may, over time, reduce the
efforts of low-achieving students, thus, contributing to underachievement. However,
by employing approaches of praise, high-expectations, and challenges, teachers may
influence students’ motivation and efforts to better performance (Dill et al., 1990).
Second, it is assumed that effective, highly-skilled, experienced teachers will
use certain approaches in their everyday instruction of minority students, which may
produce greater performance among African American students in academic core
8
subjects. It is further assumed that by interviewing and observing urban middle school
teachers in their natural settings, a new perspective, a hidden meaning, or unique
understanding of which, if any instructional approach, is most suitable to teach
minority students may be revealed.
Limitations of the Study
This study has several limitations. First, the study was limited to one urban
middle school, centrally located in Los Angeles and included as part of the Los
Angeles Unified School District. The study was further limited to six teachers who
were identified as effective, high-performing, highly-skilled, experienced teachers
who got high outcomes from their students as indicated on progress reports, and
standardized test scores.
The study was further limited by the investigator’s ability to generalize the
findings to other teachers and settings. Other limitations were that the selection of
teachers for the study which may not represent the population of teachers throughout
the entire Los Angeles Unified School District, or a specific category of effective,
highly-skilled, experienced teachers at other urban middle schools.
Uncontrolled variables further limited the study, such as unforeseen illness,
commitment to the study, and time in-and-out the classroom for teachers to complete
the interviews with the investigator which ran for a period of 6 weeks. Interviews and
observations were scheduled during teachers’ planning period, or by appointments
scheduled by the teachers. No control groups were utilized in this study.
9
The study was furthered limited to interviewing and observation strategies
which were not intended to be an evaluation of teachers’ methodologies, only to
gather information from the teachers about their instructional approaches to teach
urban middle school students and how these approaches might affect their students’
learning outcomes and performance in academic core subjects.
Delimitation of the Study
Delimitations of the study included a single-case study of 6 urban middle
school teachers, working in their natural setting, engaged in a phenomenon of their
instructional approaches in teaching underserved urban minority middle school
students. Other delimitations include: only African American middle school teachers
who taught subjects in English/Language Arts, History, Math, and Science were
solicited to participate in the study, had taught in an urban middle school for 2 or more
years, and held a professional clear credential to teach the subjects required for the
study.
Definition of Terms
1. Culturally diverse classroom. Classrooms that have different groups of
students from various cultures.
2. Effective teaching. An approach to instruction used by skilled teachers
to get high outcomes and performance from students.
3. High- outcomes. Achievements as indicated on students’ progress
reports or standardized test scores.
10
4. Highly-skilled teacher. The ability to use one’s knowledge effectively
and readily in execution of performance. An expert of doing something competently.
5. Instructional approach. The actions, practices, or techniques used in
teaching to engage students in learning.
6. Middle school. For the purpose of this research, a middle school is
defined as any school serving pre-adolescents and adolescents in Grades 6
th
through 8
t
grade.
7. Minority group. The smaller in number of two groups constituting the
whole part of the population and differing from others in some form of characteristics
and size.
8. Strategy. A carefully designed method that is used to accomplish a
goal.
9. Thought process. The development of a plan which originates in the
mind and is carried out in steps to complete a task or procedure.
10. Urban school. For the purpose of this research, an urban school is
defined as a school that is located in the inner-city with a large number of ethnic and
minority students (Eric Clearinghouse Digest on Urban Education, 2003).
Summary
The background of the problem and its underlying frameworks, Statement of
the Problem, Purpose and Significance of the Study, Research Questions,
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations, and Definitions of Terms are intended to
guide this qualitative research study. The assumptions of the study were derived from
11
the Review of Literature, and the Limited Research on instructional approaches used
by urban middle school teachers. It is assumed that if middle school teachers employ
certain instructional approaches to teach urban minority middle school students, these
will have positive effects on minority middle school students’ learning outcomes and
performance. Moreover, it is assumed that African American students respond better
and increase performance in academic core subjects if teachers employ certain
instructional approaches.
The study will be guided by theoretical frameworks of Ames and West (1999);
Billings-Ladson (2001), teaching and cultural competence, and Hammond and
Bransford (2005), preparing teachers for a changing world, what teachers should learn
Table 1 presents an overview of the reviews of literature and conclusions
drawn from the research.
12
Table 1. Review of Literature Research
Practices and strategies to
help middle school students,
challenges of urban middle
schools, teaching in urban
middle schools, knowledge
in learning to teach, what
teachers need to know, and
reinventing middle schools
Ames &West (1999); Ascher
(1991); Bower (2004); Carter
(1990); Dickinson (2001);
Dill et al. (1990)
Effective teaching practices
do impact students’
learning outcomes and
performance.
More research is needed to
identify what approaches, if
any, will have positive
effects on urban middle
school students learning
outcomes and performance.
Culturally responsive
teaching, good teaching
strategies for new teachers,
urban teachers teaching
strategies, rethinking schools
for middle school students,
teaching strategies that
produce high outcomes.
Billings-Ladson, (1995/
2001); Foster (1989/ 1997);
Gay (2000/2002); Hollins
(1996); Urban Education
(1999); Rethinking Schools
(2003); Rios (1996); Zahorik
(1986)
Culturally responsive
teaching is an approach that
celebrates and validates all
ethnic groups.
Teachers use different
teaching practices to teach
middle school students.
No approach has been
identified as best in
teaching urban middle
school students.
Teachers’ thinking and
thought processes;
approaches to effective
teaching; teachers in urban
middle schools; what urban
middle school teachers need
to know; challenges facing
urban middle schools, and
thinking through assessment.
Clark & Peterson, (1986);
Dill et al. (1990); Juvonen,
Kaganoff, Augustine, &
Constant (2004); Lasley,
Matczynski, Rowley (2002);
Rios (1996); Sale (1979);
Seidel (1998); Sizer (1992);
Thompson (2004); Weiner
(1999)
Teachers’ thinking and
planning for instruction that
impact urban middle school
students.
What instructional
strategies do urban middle
school teachers’ possess
that makes them effective
in getting high outcomes
from their middle school
students.
13
CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION TO THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Much debate has been propagated on the subject of teaching and students’
achievements. Debates include discussions on which instructional approach and
strategies should be used to obtain high outcomes and performance from students.
However, educational research has failed to reach a consensus over which, if any,
identifiable characteristic associated with instructional approaches that are effective
and best for increasing students’ achievement and performance (Goldhaber &
Anthony, 2004). Research also indicates that teachers’ instructional practices and
students’ learning outcomes are interrelated (Dreher, 1997). In addition, research
states that teachers’ knowledge also contribute to higher achievement from students,
such as drawing on students’ previous experiences and perceptions, and by focusing
on meaningful and engaging classroom learning activities (Fullan, 1997).
Kekes (1997) noted that “the responsibility of teachers is to bring students to
an appreciation and understanding of the truth as it bears on some aspect of life”
(p. 35). This statement serves as a cornerstone to which approach or practice teachers
will use to guide students to this level of learning. The questions then are: (a) What
instructional approaches can urban middle school teachers use to get high outcomes
and performance from students; and (b) What approaches to thinking and planning do
teachers engage in when preparing to teach urban minority middle school students?
14
The purpose of this literature review is to examine past and current research on
instructional approaches used by effective teachers, and teachers’ thought process in
thinking and planning to teach minority students in urban middle schools.
Documentation for the Literature Review
Several databases were used to gather information on the subjects of effective
teachers, teachers’ thought process, effective teaching practices, and approaches used
by urban middle school teachers. Databases used to find books and journal articles
related to the topics were ERIC, JSTOR, FirstSearch, ProQuest, Homer, and Middle
School Association database. Key words used to find books and journal articles
related to the topics were effective teacher, instructional practices and students’
achievement, culturally responsive teaching, and teachers’ thinking and planning in
urban middle schools.
Review of the Literature
One component of contemporary discussions on educational reform is the
belief that a knowledge base now exists as a foundation for both teacher preparation
and teacher effectiveness based in large part on studies that link teachers’ behavior
with measures of students’ achievement, and utilizing systematic observation of
teachers’ instructional approaches in classrooms (Dill et al., 1990). Rosenshine and
Stevens’ (1986) research on instructional strategies led to a renaissance of interest in
effective teaching practices for raising students’ achievement.
However, Griffin’s (1986) research suggested that the variables examined
produced concerns that led to a narrower vision of effective teaching strategies used
15
by teachers during classroom instruction. Some instructional approaches do produce
higher outcomes and performance from students as reported by Dill et al. (1990).
According to Dill et al. (1990), students who were expected to do better and
were challenged by their teachers to higher achievements even though there was no
real basis for their expectations, did better; and the teachers who did not challenge
their students, or did not hold high expectations for their students, or expected them to
perform as high achievers, did not improve in their performances.
Ames and West (1991) argued that by setting high expectations and standards,
providing an academically rigorous curriculum, establishing environments that are
developmentally appropriate and conducive to learning, and challenging students to
use critical thinking skills will affect students’ performance regardless of race,
ethnicity, class, gender, or ability.
Teachers for a New Generation of Young Learners
According to Goldhaber (2001), there will be 2 to 3 million K-12 teaching
positions available over the next decade. More importantly, the U. S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics predicts that by 2012, we will need an increase of about 18% more teachers
than there are in classrooms today (U. S. Department of Education National Center for
Labor Statistics, 2005). The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that there are
more than 3 million teachers in elementary, middle, and high school classrooms
teaching about 46 million children how to read, write, calculate, conduct experiments,
observe the universe, and grow up to be good citizens. The Bureau also reports that
the pool of teachers decreases with each passing year because many will change jobs
16
within their chosen profession or leave the profession altogether (U. S. Department of
Education National Center for Education Statistics, 2005).
Although the number of individuals being prepared to teach has increased over
the last 20 years, up from 2.5 million in 1980 to 3.5 million in 2002, the United States
still needs to recruit and prepare 200,000 teachers annually to serve America’s schools
(U. S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics, 2003).
While our nation annually produces many more new teachers than its schools hire,
only about 60% of the newly prepared teachers actually accept teaching jobs after they
graduate. At the same time, the nation loses about 30% (up to 50% in inner cities) of
all new teachers in their first 5 years of teaching (U. S. Department of Education
National Center for Education, 2003).
This is a concern to all stakeholders in the business of education. The concern
is who will be available and qualified to teach the millions of children who will enter
schools across America, and who will continue to teach the ones who are already in
school given the fact that a number of highly-skilled, effective teachers will retire in
the next year (U. S. Department of Education, 2000)? The National Commission on
Teaching and America’s Future estimates that 3 million teachers will be hired between
2000 and 2010 to teach this new generation of young learners (U. S. Department of
Education, 2000). The preponderance of these will be the new teachers needed to
serve approximately 14 million underserved children in urban and rural poverty.
Approximately 500,000 traditionally prepared teachers under age 26 are
produced annually. However, fewer than 15% seek employment in the 120 major
17
urban districts serving approximately 7 million middle school children in poverty
(U. S. Department of Education, 2005). Research from the Urban Teachers Selection
Interview indicated that out of the 75,000 college graduates only 15% are willing to
apply for work in urban school districts and only 1 in 10 (or 7,500) of those under age
26 will stay long enough (3 years or longer) to become successful, effective, highly-
skilled teachers in urban schools (Haberman & Rickards, 1990).
What will happen to the future of young learners if school districts cannot
maintain the number of effective teachers needed to educate future attorneys, doctors,
lawyers, presidents, senators, and teachers? Shortages are not occurring everywhere
and some of the recruitment problems could be solved if there were better
management of supply, demand, and distribution of teachers. There is no question
that an inability to fill teaching positions is already causing significant problems,
especially in inner-cities school districts (Berry, 2002). The challenge is for school
districts to obtain effective, high-performing, highly-skilled teachers to educate
children, especially African American children in urban schools where the need is
greatest.
The U. S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics
(1992) reported that most high achieving students are not enrolling in colleges of
education programs. On average, those enrolled have lower verbal and math scores
than their peers in other fields of study. The department also reports that teachers with
higher test scores on certification examinations, literacy examinations, and states’
licensure examinations leave the teaching profession at a much higher rate than those
18
with low scores (U. S. Department of Education National Center for Education
Statistics, 1992).
The task of recruiting and training new applicants to take a job teaching, to
prepare students for the 21
st
century and beyond is daunting, since many applicants
will enter the profession, but only a few will stay in the profession (Goldhaber &
Anthony, 2004). Murnane’s (1981) “Who Will Teach?,” the question is relevant given
that researchers have raised concerns about the overall quality of today’s teaching
workforce as measured by standardized test scores (mainly SAT and ACT) and that
students choosing to major in education tend to be drawn from the lower end of the
ability distribution (Goldhaber, 2001).
However, Hammond-Darling (1999) reported that half of the teachers will
come from a pool of people newly prepared for the profession and not from the lower
end of the distribution scale. Thirty percent of the traditionally trained teachers, 10%
to 15% prepared in 5-year teachers’ preparation programs, and 60% prepared in
truncated alternative programs will leave the profession by their 3rd year. The ones
who enter the profession are mostly non-Hispanic Caucasian females, which make the
proportion of minority teachers far less than the proportion of minority students in
urban public schools. More than 25% of those hired each year are not fully prepared
and licensed for their jobs, and those teachers are assigned primarily to the most
educationally vulnerable children (1999). More importantly, if new teachers have
certification, they are frequently not certified in areas of greatest need, such as math,
science, and special education (Hammond-Darling, 1999).
19
The reoccurring questions are: Who will teach and what type of instructional
knowledge, skills, and training should new teachers acquire to teach a new generation
of young learners? The key to answering these questions lies with what is already
known about effective teachers and instructional approaches that influence students’
achievement, and what specific instructional approaches affect students’ outcomes and
performance (Bell & Morsink, 1986).
Bowers (2000) states that school districts need to become proactive in selecting
effective teachers to fill the many positions that will become available in the next
decade. Unlike other educational investments that can be easily altered from year to
year, such as class size and how many classes to offer, the tenure system for teachers
implies that the employment of an individual teacher is near permanent.
Instructional Approaches that Affect Students’ Learning Outcomes
Research dating back to 1966 (the Coleman Report) showed that students’
performance was weakly related to school quality. The report concluded that students’
socioeconomic background was far more influential and that effective teaching was
found to account for a larger portion of the variation in students’ test scores than all
other school characteristics, excluding the composition of the student body.
Much of the research since the Coleman Report has confirmed findings that
effective, high-performing teachers do contribute to students’ performance (Hope for
Urban Education, 1999). But what differentiates an effective teacher from an
ineffective teacher? What teacher attributes and pedagogic knowledge do educators
and researchers use to identify one as an effective teacher?
20
Unlike the Coleman Report which was based on variables used as a set of
quantifiable characteristics that measured a teacher’s effectiveness to a student’s
performance which included years of experience, level of education, and performance
on vocabulary tests. Researchers today are using new technology that link and track
teachers’ effectiveness to students’ performance data that covers a number of
variables, and include a number of years to determine a teacher’s effectiveness on
students’ achievement that not only measures a teacher’s attributes, such as years of
experience and level of education, but also harder to measure intangible characteristics
such as a teacher’s enthusiasm and skill in conveying knowledge (Goldhaber, 2001).
Greenwald and colleagues (1996) revealed that school resources are
systematically related to student achievement and these relations are large enough to
be educationally important. Variables that attempt to describe effective teachers
(teacher’s ability, teacher’s education, and teacher’s experience) show very strong
relations with students’ achievement (Greenwald et al., 1996). Research on teachers’
knowledge of subject matter is somewhat mixed, but does suggests that teachers’
knowledge of their subjects, as measured by degrees, courses, and certification in the
area is also associated with students’ performance (Goldhaber, 2001).
Teachers’ instructional approaches are more hotly debated since there is little
research that directly identifies specific instructional approaches used by effective,
high-performing teachers and the effect these have on students’ achievement
(Goldhaber & Anthony, 2004).
21
Dan Langendorfer, a 16-year veteran teacher states, “Teaching is the greatest
job on earth. The key to maintaining the motivation to teach is finding ways to help
students to succeed. As teachers, we feel successful if the kids are successful, so
anything I do to make this happen makes me a good teacher and a happier person”
(Rogers & Renard, 1999, p. 34).
What works for Dan may not work for all teachers since each teacher brings
into the classroom a belief and a perception of what good teaching is; and every
teacher develops his/her own instructional procedure through experience, trial and
error, and ideas from teacher preparation programs (Batcheldor, 2001).
According to Reynolds (1995), some preparation programs have had little
influence on preparing teachers in instructional approaches needed to be effective
classroom teachers, such as the inability to teach beginning teachers how to
incorporate interactive teaching practices into managerial routines and discipline
procedures. However, some teacher preparation programs have contributed to
teachers’ effectiveness in instructional practices and competence through the use of
content-specific knowledge in the areas of math and science which has increased
students’ test scores by 14% (Reynolds, 1995).
Even though a knowledge base specific to middle-level teachers’ education has
not been developed to a degree where definite conclusions can be drawn about certain
instructional approaches that might have a positive effect on middle school students’
learning outcomes and performance, it would be advisable to include in teachers’
preparations programs course work and field experiences that are clearly articulated to
22
eliminate the real or implied dichotomy between theory and practice for middle school
teachers (Carter, 1990).
This may be accomplished by incorporating instructional practices that have
been successfully used in urban middle schools, such as cooperative grouping and
directed instruction. Also by soliciting teachers who have been identified as
possessing effective teaching approaches, have positive attitudes toward teaching early
adolescents, and by soliciting veteran teachers to help student teachers’ develop
positive attitudes about teaching in middle schools (Harnett, 1991).
Programs that provide candidates with an understanding of effective teaching
practices, especially with reference to teaching middle school students and provide the
opportunity to examine special elements of the middle school organization are needed
to help teachers become experts in the profession (Harnett, 1991). In addition, a
rigorous curriculum, such as specialized guidance programs, transitional curriculum,
block scheduling, interdisciplinary teaching, exploratory courses, and a core of studies
designed to prepare young people for future learning, will contribute to teachers’
effectiveness and students’ performance (Harnett, 1991).
Ames (1994) noted that another way teachers can attend to the wide variability
among students’ achievement is to identify ways in which each student learns most
effectively, and plan instruction accordingly. Ames and Miller (1994) stated that
teachers can do this by adapting curriculum and instruction to meet the needs of
students and encouraging them to take responsibility for their own learning. To
effectively promote this kind of self-directed learning, teachers need to change their
23
traditional roles and look at themselves not as information-givers, but as
diagnosticians, coaches, resource persons, facilitators, and evaluators.
According to Lumsden (1999), students’ achievement is connected with the
curriculum. Students want to know if what they are being asked to learn and evaluate
makes sense, has a purpose, and is useful or beneficial to them. Lumsden (1999)
further argues that students, to a large extent, perceive curriculum as being
unimportant and lacking in value and relevance. This situation creates problems for
students, teachers, and ultimately society, because students will not be motivated to
learn and teachers will be labeled as ineffective for not encouraging students to
achieve (Lumsden, 1999).
Reviews of literature indicate that effective, quality teachers do make a
difference in students’ learning and achievement (Ames & West, 1999). But assessing
the effectiveness of teachers requires that teachers do on-going evaluation of students’
work over a period of time, linked with evidence of lesson plans, activities, teachers’
feedback to students, teachers’ feedback to themselves, and analyses of students’
progress (Hammond-Darling, 1998). The linkage between students’ work that
demonstrates students’ learning and the analyses that show how learning grows out of
specific instructional approaches, actions, and decisions is critical to judging teachers’
effectiveness on students’ performance (Hammond-Darling, 1998).
The Concept of Effective Teaching
What is teaching and what competencies does a teacher need to teach
effectively? Sale (1979) presented four major concepts of teaching. Teaching is
24
“talking or telling,” which emphasizes teaching as primarily a process of imparting
knowledge through verbal communication. A simplistic concept of teaching is
“teaching is talking,” and “learning is listening,” indicates that teachers’ talk
dominates classrooms from kindergarten through graduate school and too much talk
does not result in effective teaching, or effective listening is learning on the students’
part. Another concept of teaching is “imparting knowledge or dishing out
information.” This concept places emphasis upon teaching as a process of
transmitting information or facts to the learner, therefore valuing the imparting of
knowledge vs. the development of it (1979).
Sale (1979) also argues that this concept fails to give proper attention to
variables related to the learning process, such as developing principles, matching
methodology to the learners, subjects taught, and the readiness and interests of
learners. Another concept of teaching is “creativity.” This concept involves teachers’
abilities to invent or improvise new roles or alternative practices of action in helping
learners change their behavior. It also involves providing learners with opportunities
to explore and experiment with new ideas, concepts, materials, and resources.
Finally, teaching is “changing behaviors of learners.” This concept involves
diagnosing learners’ needs, determining what learning experiences would be
appropriate for them, and helping them to assess their progress toward reaching goals
and objectives, or behavioral changes (Sale, 1979).
Naiser (2004) argues that teaching is more than imparting knowledge. It
involves changing the behaviors of learners by arousing interest and motivation to dig
25
deeper and enjoy learning. Teaching that involves the application of principles
essential to changing the cognitive (intellectual), affective (emotional), or the
psychomotor (physical) behavior of the learner is effective teaching (Lasley et al.,
2002). However, the concept of effective teaching varies with each teacher and each
teacher possesses a different view and pedagogic knowledge of what effective
teaching is and how it should be delivered in the classroom (Rubinstein, 1994).
While concepts of teaching vary from teacher-to-teacher, so do teachers’
instructional approaches and strategies. Zaborik (1986) noted some teaching skills
that all teachers ought to possess. He stated that all teachers ought to be able to give
lucid explanations; they ought to be able to structure knowledge in a way that
promotes understanding; and they ought to be able to manage groups of learners. But
beyond these few obvious skills, identifying universal teaching skills is difficult
because effective teaching skills emerge from one’s own perception of good teaching
(Zaborik, 1986).
Effective Teachers for Students in Urban Schools
Anyone interested in improving students’ performance and achievement
concentrates on the importance of effective teaching. Yet policy recommendations
related to teacher effectiveness do not incorporate evidences about the quality of good
teaching (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2004). Effective teaching has some influence on
students’ performance as indicated in a study conducted by Cazden (1986) who found
that the average National Teachers’ Examination scores of all teachers in a school
district had a positive correlation with the average performance of students’ scores on
26
standardized tests. What was unclear from the study was whether the teachers’ scores
reflected knowledge of subject matter or pedagogical training since the National
Teachers’ Examination tests both (Goldhaber, 2001).
Evertson, Hawley, and Zlotnik (1985) research found that 11 out of 13 studies
examined judged regularly certified teachers to be more effective than those who held
provisional or emergency certificates. Four of the studies were based on students’
achievement and were more than 25-years-old which meant they predated the “valued
added” methodology of assessing educational procedures that are now standard
practices (Goldhaber, 2001, p. 9).
Others studies suggested that measures of teachers’ academic skills, such as
SAT or ACT scores, tests of verbal ability, or the colleges attended, may predict
teachers’ effectiveness more accurately than a teacher’s level of education and
certification status, but the evidence and relationship are relatively weak (Goldhaber,
2001). Greenwald et al. (1996), in a meta-analysis, found that teachers’ academic
skills were shown to have a positive relationship to students’ achievement in 50% of
the studies analyzed, which was a higher proportion than the teachers’ level of
education or experience.
Ehrenberg and Brewer (1994) found that students’ scored higher on
standardized exams if their teachers attended selective undergraduate institutions.
Even some students’ standardized test scores have been used by some urban school
districts to distinguish between effective teachers and non-effective teachers because
high performing schools get more money than low performing schools (NCLB Act,
27
2001). But standardize test scores should not be the only factor in determining high-
performing or effective teachers, because they do not provide the input needed to
determine teachers’ effectiveness. There is little empirical evidence that these
characteristics, as defined in general terms, are directly related to students’
achievement (Rivkin, 2003).
Some people define effective teaching by a criterion of students’ scores on
standardized tests. Teachers with the highest achieving students become the model for
effective teaching. If that definition is accepted, then what happens to teachers whose
students score low on standardize tests? According to Gough (1998), teachers can
become effective teachers by becoming experts and knowledgeable in their
approaches, and by personal convictions to resist curriculum standardization and do
what they can to make learning exciting and adventurous to all students.
Teaching in Middle Schools
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, research on middle-level schools led
many states to recognize the need for specialized training of teachers specifically for
middle-level education (Harnett, 1991). In 1978, 15 states had special requirements
for teaching middle grades, and 13 others were proposing legislation to require
specialized preparation for teaching these grades (Gillan, 1978). However, only 14
states require specific credentials for teaching middle grade students (Goddard, 1990).
At present, nearly all states have legislation that requires middle schools to be staffed
with teachers who have expertise in teaching early adolescents and who have the
education and training necessary for the assignment (Carnegie Corporation, 1989).
28
Specialists in human development, including educators, agree that early
adolescence is more than a transition from childhood to adolescence; it may well be as
critical a period as the first 2 years of life (Harnett, 1991). Early adolescents, ranging
in ages from 10 to 14, have special personal, social, and educational needs that can be
met more appropriately in a middle school environment (Grades 6-8) than in the
elementary (K-8), or in the junior high (Grades 7-9) arrangement (Harnett, 1991). It is
generally agreed that neither the child-centered atmosphere of the elementary school
nor the subject-centered atmosphere of the high school or junior high school
appropriately meets early adolescents’ social or learning needs (Harnett, 1991).
Retaining good teachers to teach in urban middle schools is one of the biggest
challenges facing educational reform policies today (Haberman, 1999). Research
indicates that students’ learning is affected by teachers’ qualifications and experience,
but the very schools where students need excellent and effective teachers are the ones
that have the greatest difficult hiring and retaining effective teachers (Ascher, 1991).
According to Ascher (1991), these schools mostly serve poor and minority
children, and are often urban schools where funds are limited for teachers’ salaries,
educational materials, general upkeep of maintenance, and providing resources for the
overall educational environment. Urban schools also tend to have a higher percentage
of teacher absenteeism, higher teacher turnover, and a higher percentage of substitute
teachers as compared to other schools (1991).
Some urban school districts suffer from a far greater shortage of certified
teachers than do suburban or rural districts (Council of Great City Schools, 1987). In
29
fact, the single greatest source of educational inequality is in the disproportionate
exposure of poor and minority students—those students who fill inner-city-schools to
less trained and inexperienced teachers, and continues to function with uncertified
teachers with little or no expertise in the subjects they teach (Hammond-Darling,
1998).
Besides salary differences between urban school teachers and suburban school
teachers, teachers in urban schools work under greater stress and bureaucratic
constraints than do suburban or rural teachers; they tend to teach more students a day
and do so while lacking the basic materials such as books, enough desks, sufficient
blackboards, and other necessities to effectively teach students (Council of Great City
Schools, 1987).
Billings-Ladson (2001) argues that having good intentions is not enough in
teaching. She states, “Most people who go into teaching do so because they really
want to teach; they enjoy working with students; and they want to do it despite the
lack of financial rewards and occupational prestige” (p. 8). There is a wide gulf
between wanting to be a good teacher and actually becoming one; this gulf is
particularly large for teachers who opt to teach in schools serving poor students and
students of color (2001).
Hale (2001) argued that teachers know how to teach and are able to teach
effectively the children whose education is of importance to them. She notes, “They
[teachers] are willing to teach their own children effectively, as well as children who
are in the club” (p. xvi). Thompson (2004) notes that teachers who were once
30
effective in their instructional approaches and practices and have the best intentions of
providing service to children can become ineffective teachers over time.
Thompson (2004) noted in her research on teacher’s characteristics what
parents and students equate with outstanding teaching, specifically, African American
parents and students, and what they expect and want teachers to be able to do.
1. Parents expect and want teachers to make the curriculum
comprehensible.
2. Students expect and want teachers to make the curriculum interesting.
3. Parents expect and want teachers to give extra help during class,
instead of telling struggling students to come before school, after school, or during
lunch for help.
4. Parents expect and want teachers to be patient in explaining the subject
matter.
5. Parents expect and want a challenging curriculum.
6. Students expect and want beneficial homework that is collected,
graded, and related to class-work and tests.
7. Parents want teachers to encourage students to ask questions, instead of
penalizing them for doing so. (p. 42)
Thompson (2004) also noted some teaching practices that improved her
efficacy with middle school and high school students, which later surfaced in her
research with African American students, such as small wins, explaining the payoffs,
31
using multiple means of assessment, allowing students to collaborate, connecting
curriculum to students’ personal lives, and having high expectations.
Teaching in urban schools is a challenge for most any teacher who stays in
urban schools, with low performance and disruptive behaviors often the most
challenging to overcome (Weiner, 1999). But to serve the needs of children in urban
schools effectively, educators must set goals, make continuous assessments, and
provide orientation sessions so teachers and social service providers can establish their
perspective roles (teacher, counselor, social worker, etc.) to help meet the needs of
students (Bowers, 2000).
Ames and West (1999) noted that many urban school students do not receive a
rigorous curriculum that challenges them to use critical thinking skills. They noted
that teachers should engage students in an inquiry-based curriculum that encourages
them to explain, find evidence and examples, generalize, make analogies and
predications, infer and reflect on acquired knowledge, and apply the knowledge to
new situations (Ames & West, 1999).
To enhance middle school teaching, teachers must go beyond the notion that
students’ will learn and make their pedagogy more authentic for a new generation of
learners (Newmann, Wehlage, & Secada, 1995). To teach for the sake of imparting
knowledge is not effective teaching because students do not retain information unless
they can see the reason for learning the information and make connection to real
events (Rubinstein, 1994). Students need knowledge and information to accomplish
32
tasks, but overwhelming students with knowledge and information for the sake of
presenting information is not effective pedagogy (Rubinstein, 1994).
For knowledge to have an authentic value beyond school, teachers must show
that the knowledge has a connection to the world beyond the classroom. Authentic
classroom instruction should include construction of knowledge, disciplined inquiry,
and personal values that can be applied beyond classroom situations and experiences
(Newmann et al., 1995).
Weiner (1999) noted that teachers should teach critical thinking skills to help
students develop knowledge that can be applied to complex situations so these skills
can be applied across disciplines to bridge the gap between a teacher’s instructional
approach and students’ performance.
In the Middle: What Works for Middle School Teachers?
During the middle school years, young learners go through a number of
changes. These changes consist of emotional, mental, physical, and intellectual
changes which help to shape who they are and how they will function and perform as
adults in society. The schools children attend and the teachers who teach them will
play a critical role in shaping the future of these young people (Juvonen, Kaganoff,
Augstine, & Constant, 2004). Therefore, the state of urban middle schools and the
people employed in these schools should be of great concern to all stakeholders in the
business of educating young adolescents.
The reputation of some urban middle schools and their teachers leave in doubt
whether these schools can service the nearly 9 million students in public schools today
33
(National Middle School Association, 1995). Irvine (1998) stated that critics
described middle schools as the “Bermuda Triangle of public education.” Schmidt
(2000) described middle school math and science classes as “intellectual wastelands.”
Moreover, some middle schools have been blamed for increases in behavior problems
among young adolescents, and as the cause of teens’ alienation, disengagement from
school, and low achievement (Juvonen et al., 2004).
Discussions and scholarly writings about the needs of young learners, which
began in the late 1970s, heightened during the 1980s (Dickinson, 2001). George and
Alexander (2003), in their landmark book, wrote about the new philosophy of how
middle schools should work, which presented a paradigm shift on the concept of
middle schools:
The concept of a bridging school is not enough, however, because
children of middle school age have their unique characteristics and
needs which cannot be subordinated to the impact of elementary
school nor to the demands of the high school. An effective middle
school must not only build upon the program of earlier childhood
and anticipate the program of secondary education to follow, but it
must be directly concerned with the here-and-now problems and
interests of its students. Furthermore, the middle school should not
be envisioned as a passive link in the chain of education below the
college and university, but rather as a dynamic force in improving
education. (p. 2)
As new paradigms in reforming middle schools were developing, middle
school researchers, educators, and advocates voiced their concerns about society’s
lack of attention to middle schools’ students. Lipsitz (1980) argued the age group was
underserved in education reforms due to the disturbing statistics on middle school
students’ drug use, their vulnerability, and precarious sexual behaviors. This research
34
caught the attention of policymakers and the public, and challenged middle school
teachers and educators to develop practices to teach to the whole child. In doing so,
efforts were made to make schools, especially those that served “at-risk” youths into
full service community centers that could facilitate the development of young teens
and underserved youths (Dryfoos, 1990).
Eccles and Midgley (1989) stated the transition to junior high or middle school
was marked by general declines in student motivation, attitude about school,
perceptions of ability, and academic achievement. They proposed that these findings
supported the idea that it was the nature of the transition that caused the problems.
They also contended that there was a poor fit between the developmental needs of
young teens (for example, the need to have stable and close relationships) the
environment change related to transition from elementary school, to junior high or
middle school, with (new teachers and less-personal relationships with them).
Eccles and colleagues (1996) observed that young teens undergo changes in
school environment just as they are going through major social, psychological,
physical and cognitive changes (Eccles & Harold, 1996). They argued that these
changes decreased the fit between the student and the school environment, stating that
young teens want to become more autonomous, but their teachers become more, rather
than less controlling; and the grading practices become stricter and more competitive
as young teens become increasingly self-conscious. Eccles and colleagues further
argued that the poor match between developmental needs and the changes in schools’
environments decreased motivation, self-esteem, and academic performances, noting
35
that the environments of middle schools that fit students is more personal, less
restrictive, and more cooperative for students and staff members (Eccles et al.,1996).
Eccles and Midgely (1989) found that middle school students report fewer
opportunities for decision making and lower levels of cognitive involvement than they
had in elementary school despite increased cognitive prowess and a more complex
social environment. Mendler (2000) noted ways for teachers to effectively involve
middle school students to increase participation and motivation were to have students
write classroom rules for their teachers and each other. Mendler also proclaimed that
students could develop instructional rules for teachers to use that might help them to
be successful in class. He argued these rules would guide teachers’ instructional
approaches for better efficacy, curriculum development, and lesson deliver that might
enhance students’ performance (2000).
The challenges that students face each day require ingenious responses from
teachers and other school personnel. Due to fractured families, both parents working,
the potential for encountering violence on campuses, alcohol and drug abuse, and
many other factors that complicate the lives of today’s middles school students, it is
imperative for educators to reform middle schools; to organize and operate middle
schools in the most effective ways possible; to create developmentally responsive
schools that can service the needs of children in this age group (National Middle
School Association, 1995).
Not only do middle schools need effective, high-performing teachers, but new
approaches, new strategies, new curricula, and new alliances to address the
36
educational and social needs of adolescents to encourage the success of all middle
school students (Rubinstein, 1994).
Instructional Approaches to Teach Middle School Students
An observer of an urban classroom can find examples of almost every form of
pedagogy, ranging from direct instruction, cooperative-grouping, peer tutoring,
individualized instruction, computer-base-assisted learning, behavior modification,
student contracts, media-assisted instruction, scientific inquiry, lecture/discussion,
tutoring by specialists or volunteers, and even the use of problem-solving units
common in progressive education (Haberman, 2002).
The distinctive developmental and learning characteristics of adolescents
provide the foundation for selecting teaching strategies, just as they do for designing
curriculum (National Middle School Association, 1995). Teaching strategies and
approaches should enhance and accommodate the diverse skills, abilities, and
knowledge of adolescents, cultivate multiple intelligences, and capitalize on students’
preferred learning approach (1995).
More importantly, research in cognitive development has expanded the
knowledge of how young adolescents learn and what they are capable of doing.
Modern developmental psychology—particularly in the areas of cognitive
development, constructivist teaching, and information processing theory—has also
expanded the understanding and knowledge of the enormous potential and cognitive
growth that occurs during this stage of human development (Siedel & Walters, 1997).
37
In addition to the ability to reason abstractly, Keating (1990) noted that early
adolescence is marked by:
1. Increased automaticity in basic skills and expanded intellectual
capacity.
2. Greater breadth of content knowledge in a variety of domains.
3. Increased ability to maintain different representations of knowledge
simultaneously, which permits new combinations of that knowledge.
4. Broader range and more spontaneous use of strategies and procedures
for applying and gaining knowledge (p. 37).
Keating (1990) further argues that these characteristics are essential to
students’ performance and achievements.
Brown’s (2004) qualitative study of 13 urban school teachers, ranging from 1
st
through 12
th
grades, selected from 7 cities across the United States, revealed several
management instructional strategies that reflected a culturally responsive teaching
practice. They were: (a) development of personal relationships with students, (b)
creation of caring communities, (c) establishment of business-like learning
environments, (d) use of culturally and ethnically congruent communication processes,
(e) demonstration of assertiveness, and (f) utilization of clearly stated and enforced
expectations (p. 266). These instructional approaches produced positive outcomes in
some students’ performance in areas of general academics.
Foster (1989) reported, in her study of a group of selected African American
teachers, their instructional approach was a “sermonic style” that followed the teacher
38
as a preacher model—that lessened the social distance and created an identification
with indigenous African American cultural norms. Irvine (1998) noted that African
American teachers’ unique approach is correlated with Black students’ achievement
gains, because they [the teachers] can relate to the students and the students can relate
to them.
Hoffman (2001) and Irvine (1998) argued that African American teachers
show care and concern for their students by establishing relationships with students
through their instructional approaches. Irvine also noted that African American
teachers’ instructional approaches help students to connect with the teacher, to feel
like their culture is respected and taken into account. Irvine (1998) further noted that
some African American teachers employ an instructional approach that is filled with
rhythmic language and rapid intonation with many instances of (a) repetition, (b) call
and response, (c) high emotional involvement, (d) creative analogies, (d) figurative
language, (g) gestures and body movements, (h) symbolism, aphorisms, (i) lively and
often spontaneous discussions.
Kochman (1981) noted that some African American teachers’ instructional
approaches resonate with “animated” and “intrapersonal” delivery, which varied
greatly from White teachers’ instructional approaches, and some African American
teachers are more informal when connecting with their students. They often tease and
joke with their students by using certain dialect or slang to communicate. They show
concern for their students directly by expressing interest in their personal lives (Irvine,
1998).
39
Thompson (2004) argues that African American teachers are able to connect
with their students because of their knowledge and understanding of their students’
backgrounds. She further argues that preparation classes should promote cultural
awareness, tolerance, and multiculturalism studies in teacher’s education programs so
the knowledge can be transferred into classrooms.
In the Middle: Planning to Teach in Urban Middle Schools
Conceptual refinement, coupled with increasing sophistication of classroom
pedagogical and methodological arsenal available to educators and teachers have
enhanced the breadth and depth of academic discussions on thinking and planning to
teach in culturally diverse classroom during the last decade.
Two of the most popular ongoing discussions in education, for the last decade,
are the plight of minority students in urban school, and the role of the teacher in
thinking and planning for diverse classrooms (Rios, 1996). Due to the increased
diversity in this nation’s population, pressures are exerted on educators to serve all
students equitably and efficiently. The pressures are further complicated by negative
school outcomes exhibited by ethnically or linguistically diverse students who
typically come from low income households (Rios, 1996). Furthermore, due to
socioeconomic and political factors, this diverse population represents the bulk of
students who attend urban schools and this will triple during the next decade (Kozol,
1991).
Clark’s and Peterson’s (1986) paradigm represented one of the few
comprehensive models to explain teachers’ thought processes as a major area of
40
educational inquiry. Rios (1996) argued that the model used by Clark and Peterson
(1986) should be reformulated to include crucial elements related to the contexts of
classrooms environment and instructional procedures. Rios (1996) furthered argued
that a teacher’s thoughts and actions are heavily influenced by the physical setting; by
the social world of the classroom; and by the classroom discourse patterns. Moreover,
variables in the school’s environment and the participants’ (i.e., students’ and
teachers’) histories also shape teachers’ thought processes (p. 25).
Carter (1990) pointed out that most of the research on teachers’ knowledge to
date has been concerned with the cognitive processes of teachers rather than with the
substance of teachers’ knowledge, thinking, and planning for diverse classrooms. In
addition, research on theories and beliefs attempts to explore teachers’ positional or
practical knowledge. Whereas practical knowledge is defined as “the knowledge
teachers have of classroom situations and the practical dilemmas they face in carrying
out purposeful action in these settings” (Carter, 1990, p. 299). This knowledge is
expressed in ways teachers think about their students and plan for instruction in
culturally diverse classrooms. Positional knowledge, on the other hand is the position
teachers take in servicing students (i. e., caring and giving; assertive and supportive;
and protective) (Carter, 1990).
According to Cazden (1986) the underlying thought processes of teachers need
to be uncovered in order to fully plan and prepare for culturally diverse classrooms.
The failure of teachers to fully think and process situations in the social, cultural, and
political context will have serious implications on students’ performance. Teachers
41
should engage in processes of thinking and planning to teach diverse classrooms to
ensure more opportunities and advancement for students in culturally diverse
classrooms (Cazden, 1986). However, the opportunities and advancements will shrink
if teachers’ are not culturally competent in their subjects, and are not capable of
thinking and planning curriculum that will include all cultures.
With the growing population of students from all backgrounds, teachers’
thinking and planning for instruction is important, especially in urban middle schools
(Rios, 1996). Rios contends that teachers who change their approaches in thinking
about and planning for culturally diverse classroom will be the ones who will bridge
the gap between instructional approaches and students’ outcomes and performance.
They will guide the research on further studies and policies that will embrace teachers’
thinking and instructional approaches which will embrace all cultures in academic
planning and preparations.
Who are the teachers capable of transcending the labels and categories to
support excellence for students? Martin Haberman (1991) calls them “star teachers.”
Gloria Ladson-Billings (2004) calls them “dream-keepers.” They are the teachers who
will teach in a way that is responsive to the needs of students in culturally diverse
urban classrooms.
According to Bowers (2000), teachers must develop instructional approaches
that produce success in urban classrooms. Bowers states that in order to develop
instructional approaches that are effective, three things must happen: An
understanding must be gained of the particular problems and challenges associated
42
with urban populations; effective teachers must be recruited for the urban school
environment; and teachers must learn how to better service and motivate culturally
diverse urban students (p. 235).
What was once a minor concern to educators has now become a major issue to
teachers, parents, and ultimately, to students themselves, because in most classrooms
throughout America, teachers are no longer teaching to a single minority or ethnic
group, they are teaching to a new generation of learners, and of all races.
Although teacher education programs throughout the nation purport to offer
preparation for meeting the needs of racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically
diverse students, scholars have documented the fact that these efforts are uneven and
the results unproven (Billings-Ladson, 2001).
Researchers and educators sensitive to the concerns and needs of students
sought to develop a culturally diverse knowledge base to teach to this growing
population, which became known as culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2002). Gay
(2000) defines culturally responsive teaching as using cultural knowledge, prior
experiences, and performance outcomes of diverse students to make learning more
appropriate and effective for them; it teaches to and through the strengths of diverse
students. Gay (2000) also described culturally responsive teaching as having
characteristics that:
1. Acknowledge the legitimacy of cultural heritages of different
ethnic groups, both as legacies that affect students’ dispositions, attitudes, and
approaches to learning as worthy content to be taught in the formal curriculum.
43
2. Build bridges of meaningfulness between home and school
experiences as well as between academic abstractions and lived socio-cultural
realities.
3. Use a wide variety of instructional strategies that are connected to
different learning styles.
4. Teach students to know and praise their own and each others’
cultural heritages.
5. Incorporate multicultural information, resources, and materials in
all the subjects and skill routinely taught in schools. (p. 29)
Using these characteristics to improve culturally responsive teaching would
involve a change in teachers’ thinking and considerations to the classroom
environment. For example, literature in the classroom would reflect multiple ethnic
perspectives and literary genres. Math instruction would incorporate everyday-life
concepts, such as economics, employment, and the consumer habits of various ethnic
groups. In order to effectively teach to various groups and learning preferences,
teachers need to incorporate activities that would reflect a variety of sensory
opportunities--visual, auditory, and tactile approaches to include all students (Gay,
2000).
Billings-Ladson (1995) noted that culturally responsive teachers develop
intellectual, social, emotional, and political learning by “using cultural referents to
impart knowledge, skill, and attitudes” (p. 382), and Gay (2000) states that culturally
responsive teachers, in a sense, teach to the whole child.
Hollins (1996) stated that education designed specifically for students of color
incorporates “culturally mediated cognition, culturally appropriate social situations for
learning, and culturally valued knowledge in curriculum content” (p. 13). Based on
the theory of cultural mediation, classroom instruction can be divided into three
44
categories that include culturally mediated instruction, cultural accommodation, and
cultural immersion (1996).
In culturally mediated instruction, the teacher and students share the same
culture which is also the medium for the curriculum and instruction. In cultural
accommodation, the teacher and students may not share the same culture; however,
selected aspects of the students’ culture are deliberately employed to facilitate school
learning. In cultural immersion, the teacher and students may be from different
cultures, and the culture serving as the medium for school learning is different from
that of the students. Also in cultural immersion, the relationship between culture and
school learning is not addressed (Hollins, 1996). Culturally responsive teachers
realize not only the importance of academic achievement, but also the importance of
maintaining the cultural identity and heritage of students (Gay, 2000).
The final aspect of culturally responsive teaching is the actual delivery of
instruction to ethnically diverse students, which has to be “multiculturalized.” This
concept deals with the thinking process about the operational acts of teaching and
matching instructional approaches to the learning strategies of diverse students
(Gordon, 1993). As Spindler (1987) noted, multiculturalized instruction can be
established by continuity between the modus operandi of ethnic groups and school
cultures in teaching and learning environments.
Teaching in culturally diverse urban classrooms requires a more thorough
knowledge of specific cultures from different ethnic groups, how they affect learning
behaviors, and how classroom interactions and instruction can be changed to embrace
45
these differences. Because culture strongly influences attitudes, values, and behaviors
that students and teachers bring into the classroom and to the instructional process, it
is a major determinant of how problems of under-achievement in students are solved
(Gay, 2002).
Teachers who are capable of helping students to become culturally competent
and higher achievers are themselves culturally competent and have high expectations
that their students will achieve (Gay, 2000). They do not spend their time trying to be
“hip” “cool” and “down” with their students because they know enough about their
students’ culture and individual life circumstances that they are able to communicate
and develop a social bond with students. They understand the need to study their
students because they believe there is something there worth learning. They know that
students who have the academic and cultural wherewithal to succeed in school without
losing their identities, and are better prepared to be of service to others; to their
communities; and to preserving a democratic society, which is a commitment to the
good of public education and for a new generation of learners (Billings-Ladson, 2001).
Unfortunately, too many schools foster a narrowly self-centered notion of
success and “making it.” Too many schools, especially in poor areas, provide a dismal
education experience based on test scores, tracking, and a sanitized curriculum that
lacks the credibility or sense of purpose needed to engage students, or connect
students with their communities (Rethinking Schools, 2003). Too many schools,
especially urban schools, fail to confront the racial, social class, gender, language, and
homophobic biases woven into the fabric of this nation, and fail to equip students with
46
a balanced curriculum (Rethinking Schools, 2003). Finally, schools must help their
teachers obtain a greater repertoire of instructional approaches to teach children
complex skills and strategies, to set high goals and values, and think critically in order
to be labeled an effective teacher, capable of producing aggressive learners in the 21
st
century (Rethinking Schools, 2003).
Conclusions
After reviewing the literature on teaching, the concept of effective teaching,
students’ achievement and performance, instructional approaches, and teachers’
thinking and planning, it is concluded that these issues have profound implications for
the future of education and the future of the academic performance and learning
outcomes of all students.
Literature related to teachers’ effectiveness revealed that teachers’ academic
preparation and licensure support the beliefs that an effective teacher has a great deal
of influence over students’ achievement and performance, though not specifically in
the middle grades (Goldhaber & Anthony, 2004). For example, teachers who were
certified and had a B. A. or M. A. degree in mathematics were associated with
students’ higher test scores in mathematics than teachers who did not hold these
degrees. Also, teachers with bachelors’ degrees in science were associated with
students’ higher test scores in science. Degrees in English and History did not affect
students’ test scores in these areas, which led to the conclusion that the students’ high
achievements were related to the teachers’ subject-specific training rather than
teachers’ abilities (Goldhaber & Brewer, 1996).
47
The conclusion on students’ achievement and performance, as they relate to
particular instructional approaches in the middle grades is somewhat mixed because
little research, to date, has been conducted on specific instructional approaches as
related to the middle grades. It is unclear whether the existing research intends to
explore specific middle grades teaching models, or test the effectiveness of broader
approaches that apply to this level. However, it can be concluded that some African
American teachers have greater success when using a variety of instructional
approaches (Foster, 1997; Irvine, 1998; Thompson, 2004).
Also concluded from the review of literature is that some urban school
teachers’ beliefs and practices are reflected in their instructional approach that can
make them effective or ineffective teachers (Hoffman, 2001).
There is sufficient evidence to conclude that teachers who hold high
expectations for their students, challenges them to think critically, and are experts in
their subject-matter, have higher outcomes and performance from their students. The
review of the literature did not suggest any specific instructional approach, as
mentioned earlier; however, more research is needed in the areas of specific content
and subject matter as it relates to teachers’ effectiveness and students’ achievement in
urban middle schools.
Conclusions on teachers’ thinking and planning to teach in diverse classrooms
is somewhat mixed because more research is also needed to understand the thought
processes of teachers as they prepare to teach in culturally diverse classrooms. It was
concluded that teachers who were knowledgeable about their culture were more
48
effective with students of other cultures (Irvine, 1998). Moreover, teachers’ need to
engage in reflective thinking to make a connection between what is actually happening
in preparation of instruction to gain insights on their effectiveness in the classroom
(Hammond-Darling, 1998).
From the review of the literature on culturally responsive teaching (Billings-
Ladson, 1995/2001; Foster, 1989/1997; Gay, 2000/2002; Hollins, 1996), it is
concluded that cultural responsive teaching is an effective concept for teachers to
incorporate in their thinking and planning to teach minority students. Conclusions
also suggested that culturally responsive teaching guides students in understanding
that no single version of “truth” is total and permanent, and it does not prescribe to
mainstream ways of knowing and teaching.
Culturally responsive teaching helps teachers and students to validate their
culture, inform, and take pride in all cultures, which is psychologically and
intellectually liberating (Gay, 2000). More importantly, teachers noted instances of
improved achievement from students in many areas, including increased concentration
on academic learning tasks, which led to the conclusion that culturally responsive
teaching helps students and teachers in their classroom performance due to the
students’ and teachers’ cultural awareness.
Finally, culturally responsive teaching helps students to achieve clear and
insightful thinking skills; to become more caring and concerned; to develop humane
interpersonal skills; to better understand inter-connections between individual, local,
national, global, ethnic, and human identities; and, an acceptance of knowledge as
49
something to be continuously shared, critiqued, revised, and renewed (Foster, 1997;
Hollins, 1996; Billings-Ladson, 1995). In order to accomplish culturally responsive
teaching, it is concluded that teachers need to give authentic instruction of knowledge
about different ethnic groups and become experts on cultural topics.
In summary, more studies need to be performed in all areas, especially in areas
of teachers’ instructional approaches, and teachers’ thinking and planning as it relates
to students’ learning outcomes and performance in core academic classes of various
ethnic groups. Moreover, teachers need a new kind of approach—one that enables
them to go beyond “covering the curriculum” to enable learning for students in
different ways (Hammond-Darling, 2005). Teachers need to practice reflective
thinking to identify what is working and what needs to be improved if they are to help
all students achieve their greatest potential and meet the expectations that are required
in today’s complex society (Hammond-Darling, 2005).
Developing specific instructional approaches to accommodate the multicultural
classrooms is a challenge for educators and teachers who plan to teach this new
generation, and enhanced the learning outcomes of underserved urban middle school
students. Cultural awareness is, perhaps, one of the most important pedagogic
concepts for teachers to possess when dealing with individual students. Because of
this, it is important for teachers to develop instructional approaches that will fit the
culture of students and use these approaches effectively. If teachers are expected to
help underserved, urban middle school students become successful, competent, well-
rounded adults, then more research is needed on the kinds of instructional approaches
50
and practices that will work most effectively in urban middle schools’ environments in
order to teach urban middle school students.
51
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOLODOLGY
Introduction
Discussions on effective teaching in relations to students’ learning outcomes
and performance, coupled with the need for more than 3 million effective, highly-
skilled, high-performing new teachers in the next decade to teach a new generation of
young learners in culturally diverse classrooms have given rise to this study.
Although a number of studies have been devoted to investigating effective
teaching strategies in relation to students’ achievement and performance (Goldhaber &
Anthony, 2004; Haberman, 2005; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain 2005), there are few
empirical studies on specific instructional approaches used by urban middle school
teachers, and the effect these instructional approaches have on urban middle school
students’ learning outcomes and performance. In response to this deficit, the purpose
of this qualitative research was to conduct a single case study on urban middle school
teachers to identify instructional approaches used to teach urban middle school
students; to identify instructional approaches used by effective, highly-skilled urban
middle school teachers to produce high outcomes among their students; and identify
instructional approaches that are most likely to have a positive effect on African
American students’ learning outcomes and performance in their academic core
subjects which will be used to validate or refute the assumptions presented in the onset
of this study.
52
Overarching Questions Guiding the Study
1. What instructional approaches do urban middle school teachers’
employ to effect changes in African American students’ learning outcomes?
2. What approaches do urban middle school teachers’ use to assess the
learning outcomes of African American students?
3. What instructional approaches are most likely to have a positive effect
on African American students’ academic performance in core subjects, such as
English/Language Arts, History, Math, and Science?
Based on the assumptions of this study, a qualitative methodology approach,
and a case study research design were used to validate or refute the assumptions put
forth in this study. These methods provided the means to conduct an in-depth
examination of instructional approaches urban middle school teachers’ employ to
teach middle school students in everyday instruction and to identify approaches used
to assess and enhance urban middle school students’ learning outcomes and
performance in academic core subjects.
From the reviews of literature, there are few qualitative studies that have
addressed the topic of urban middle school teachers’ instructional approaches, how
these effect urban middle school students’ learning outcomes and performance, and
teachers’ thinking and planning to teach in culturally diverse classrooms. In
conjunction, there are few studies that propagate approaches employed by effective
middle school teachers to assess their students’ learning outcomes and performance in
core subjects. Therefore, this study will add to what is already known and present new
53
perspectives in the areas of instructional approaches used in thinking and planning to
teach in urban middle schools and examine specific approaches that are most likely to
impact urban minority middle school students.
Overview of the Research Method and Study Design
Based on comprehensive reviews of literature, discussions, and questions that
arose from the reviews, a qualitative research method and a single-case study design
was chosen as the appropriate methodology for the study.
The qualitative study allowed for naturalistic settings where the researcher can
not attempt to manipulate the research environment, which should be a natural
occurrence of events, situations, relationships, or interactions that have no
predetermined course established by the research, or for the researcher (Patton, 1990).
Qualitative research uses natural settings as the source of data. The researcher
attempts to observe, describe and interpret settings as they occurred, maintaining what
Patton (1990) calls an “empathic neutrality” (p. 36). This research method provided
the means to conduct an in-depth examination of urban middle school teachers’
instructional processes and their instructional approaches used to teach in urban
middle schools’ environments.
The qualitative study was aimed at discovering the meaning events have for
individuals who experience them and the interpretations of these meaning by the
researcher (Patton, 1990).
The case study design allowed the researcher to examine and retain the holistic
and meaningful characteristics of teachers in real-life-situations, and in their natural
54
settings (Yin, 1984). The case study design was appropriate because it allowed for
direct and systematic observations of individuals (teachers) to gain insight and to
make assumptions and speculations about the phenomenon (instructional approaches
used by effective, highly-skilled, high-performing urban middle school teachers in
classroom instruction) (Yin, 1984).
The Qualitative Research Method
Qualitative research is a strategy that provides data from the empirical world
about a phenomenon that consists of detailed descriptions of situations, events, people,
interactions, and observed behaviors (Patton, 1990). Qualitative research also
provided the investigator with meaningful in-depth description of instructional
approaches employed by effective, highly-skilled, high-performing urban middle
school teachers’ in their practices in teaching urban middle school students.
Qualitative research methods emphasize a phenomenological view in which
reality is described by the perception of individuals (Glatthorn, 1998). Studies
deriving from a qualitative method focus on the meaning and the understanding that
takes place in natural occurring situations (McMillan, 1996). Qualitative research
seeks to capture what people have to say in their own words. It describes the
experiences of people in an in-depth analysis (Patton, 1990).
The data collected was open-ended in order to find out what the teachers’
experiences, knowledge, and interactions with their students meant to them in their
own terms, and in their natural settings (Patton, 1990). In qualitative studies, the
investigator is not only interested in physical events and the behaviors taking place,
55
but also in how the participants in a study make sense of the events and how these
understandings influence their behaviors (Maxwell, 1992; Menzel, 1978).
The researcher identified five reasons for choosing a qualitative research
method. First, the researcher wanted to gain an understanding of a certain
phenomenon, particularly, effective, highly-skilled, high-performing urban middle
school teachers’ instructional approaches to teach African American students. By
using a qualitative research method, the researcher was able to capture what the
participants (middle school teachers) had to say in their own words (Patton, 1990).
Qualitative research predominantly uses inductive data analysis. Qualitative research
reports are descriptive, incorporating expressive language, and the “presence of voice
in the text” (Eisner, 1991, p. 36).
Second, the researcher wanted to understand the context in which participants
think and act, and the influences this context had on their actions such as preparing to
teach in culturally diverse classrooms (Maxwell, 1996). In this qualitative study, the
researcher sought to gain an illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar
situations.
Third, the researcher wanted to gain new perspectives on this particular
phenomenon (teachers’ instructional approaches used in thinking and planning for
instruction of urban minority middle school students) which little is known. Also,
approaches to assessing students’ learning outcomes and performance that take place
in the classroom and how these approaches influence students’ outcomes and
achievement in academic core subjects.
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Merriam (1988) states, “The interest [in a qualitative study] is in the process
rather than outcomes” (p. xii). Britan (1978) and Patton (1990) argued that it does not
mean that qualitative research is unconcerned with outcomes, but emphasized that a
major strength of qualitative research is getting at the processes that led to the
outcomes, processes that experimental and survey research are often poor at
identifying.
Fourth, the researcher wanted to conduct a study that would generate results
and conclusions that were understandable and experimentally credible, both to the
investigator and to the people being studied (Maxwell, 1996). The ability for
qualitative data to fully describe a phenomenon is an important aspect in qualitative
studies not only from the researcher’s perspective, but from the reader’s perspective as
well. Lincoln and Guba (1985) stated, “If you want people to understand better than
they otherwise might, provide them information in the form in which they usually
experience it” (p. 120).
Qualitative research that is rich with detail and insights into participants’
experiences of the world, “may be epistemologically in harmony with the reader’s
experience” (Stake, 1995, p. 5).
Finally, the qualitative method allowed for engagement in collaboration with
the research participants (teachers). The investigator focused on particular contexts
and examined the meaning these contexts had for the participants, which made it
particularly suitable for collaboration with the participants and the investigator
(Patton, 1990).
57
In qualitative research, a small number of individuals or situations can be
studied and individuality will still be preserved of each participant in the analyses,
rather than collecting data from large samples and aggregating the data across
individuals or situations (Maxwell, 1992). Qualitative research allowed the process to
be recursive so data collection and the analysis of data can occur simultaneously and
adjustments to either process can be made at any point during the study (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994). This was the rationale for choosing a qualitative research method
instead of using another research method.
The Case Study Research Design
A single case study research design was chosen as the appropriate design to
conduct the study because it allowed the investigator to make observations of
individuals (teachers) in their natural settings to bring out details from the viewpoint
of the participants by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 1984).
Yin (1989) states, “A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context in which multiple sources of
evidence are used” (p. 23). However, the case study is not a methodological strategy,
but represents a strategic choice, made by the researcher, which allowed the researcher
to determine what to investigate about a specific phenomenon or issue (Stake, 2000;
Yin, 2003).
Yin (2003) also noted that case studies are designed to identify and describe
specific instances about a phenomenon with an emphasis on contextual conditions.
58
The case study strategy is relevant when the boundaries between the phenomenon and
the contextual conditions are not evident (Yin, 2003).
Stake (1995) noted that the first criterion guiding the selection of a case
“should be to maximize what we can learn” (p. 4). After an analysis of the literature, a
case for in-depth study was chosen based on the limited amount of research on
teachers’ instructional approaches used in thinking and planning for instruction to
teach culturally diverse urban middle schools, and which instructional approaches are
employed by effective, highly-skilled, high-performing urban middle school teachers
to assess urban middle school students’ learning outcomes and performance. The
criteria for selecting this case study was based on the following: (a) some teachers
have expressed a desire to participate in the study; (b) teachers’ instructional
approaches represent a common occurrence, although an understudied phenomenon,
based on the reviews of the literature; (c) the uniqueness and specific contexts of the
case study may stimulate a pursuit of other unexplored areas for further investigation
of instructional approaches used by urban middle school teachers.
Case study research designs are also valuable where broad, complex questions
have to be addressed in complex circumstances (Keen & Packard, 1995). However,
case studies using qualitative methods are most valuable when the question posed
requires an investigation of a real-life intervention in detail, where the focus is on how
and why the intervention succeeds or fails, where the general context could influence
the outcome, and where the researcher asking the questions has no control over the
events (Keen & Packard, 1995).
59
For these reasons, a descriptive, explanatory single case study design was used
to identify certain instructional approaches that were used by urban middle school
teachers’ in their planning for instruction of urban middle school students, and
examine approaches used by effective, highly-skilled, high-performing urban middle
school teachers in assessing the learning outcomes and performance of African
American students. The qualitative design was used to describe the results in a way
that conclusions may be drawn about instructional approaches of urban elementary
school teachers, and high school teachers as well.
Sampling and Population for Study
Seeking to gain a balanced perspective among participants is a crucial part in
any case study. However, the most important issue related to sampling is the
opportunity to learn (Stake, 1995). The opportunity to learn came from a nonrandom
sampling strategy called purposeful sampling, which seeks information-rich cases that
can be studied in depth (Patton, 1990). A purposeful sampling strategy was used in
the selection of participants for this study. The reasons the investigator chose a
purposeful sampling strategy are twofold. First, the investigator wanted to select a
population with a specific set of characteristics (individuals who were identified as
effective, highly-skilled teachers from the pre-screening interview). Second, the
investigator wanted a small homogeneous sample to better capture the depth of these
individuals to confirm or disconfirm assumptions made about the study.
Purposeful sampling is used when particular events, persons, settings, or
situations are deliberately selected in order to provide important information that
60
cannot be gotten as well from other choices (Patton, 1990). The investigator chose the
purposeful sampling strategy to learn something and to understand something about
the selected case without making assumptions about similar cases (Patton, 1990).
The investigator interviewed and observed teachers who were identified as
effective and highly-skilled in their profession to identify approaches they employed
to effect changes in their urban middle school students’ learning outcomes and
performance, and to identify which approaches would most likely have a positive
effect on African American students’ academic performance in core subjects.
Participants were solicited by placing letters in the mailboxes of teachers
whom the principal considered to be effective, high-performing teachers and pre-
interviewed to meet the criteria set forth by the investigator to validate him/her as an
effective, high-performing, highly-skilled urban middle school teacher. The criteria
used to identify the teachers were: teachers who had worked at their school for at least
2 years; teachers who got significantly high outcomes from their students as reported
on individual report cards and standardized test scores; teachers who had a minimum
of five African American students in their core classes; teachers who had participated
in two staff development opportunities within the last year; and teachers who were
fully credentialed in their respective subject areas. This was important because it
allowed for a high quality description of individuals, and for identifying shared
patterns of commonalities that might exist between the participants (Patton, 1990).
The purposeful sampling strategy was adhered to by one restriction which was
ethnicity. Although other teachers were reported as having high outcomes among
61
their students, only African American teachers were used in this study because the
investigator wanted to learn what instructional approaches were used by African
American teachers to teach African American students. No other restriction would
limit participants from participating in this study such as gender, religion, degrees
held, or any other professional characteristics. The rationale for selecting the school
was due to the unique ethnic population that made up the student body, the desired
interest expressed by the teachers to participate in this study, the accessibility of the
location, and the ease of gaining permission to conduct the study.
The school selected was located in the inner-city of Los Angeles and was a
part of the Los Angeles Unified School District, which is the second largest school
district in the nation. The school services a large diverse population of students from
low socioeconomic backgrounds, and had a large number of minority teachers’ whom
had two or more years of experience teaching in urban middle schools. Once the
sampling population was selected, the study covered a period of 6 weeks.
Instrumentation and Data Collection
Instruments used in qualitative research are simply devices for obtaining
information relevant to a research project, and no one single research method or
instrument is best for every study. Moreover, research instruments do not come in a
one-size-fit-all enterprise (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003). No single research
instrument is inherently superior to any other instrument, and all can be used well or
poorly (2003).
62
However, in any qualitative research, the investigator acts as a “human
instrument” and is the primary instrument of the investigation (Wilkinson &
Birmingham, 2003). More importantly, the integrity and sensitivity of the individual
overseeing the study must be readily apparent (Kvale, 1996). Instrumentation is an
important key to all research studies, and it is used to gather data and information from
participants in a study (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003).
Marshall and Rossman (1994) state, “The role of the researcher in a qualitative
study is to gain entry; to motivate participants; to support their participation in the
study; to manage the research environment, and to maintain high ethical standards”
(p. 34). These were the aims of the investigator in this study. Entry to the site was
gained, and permission to interview and observe the teachers was granted from the
principal of the school solicited to participate in the study.
Data were collected by a general principal known as triangulation.
Triangulation is collecting information from a diverse range of individuals and settings
by using a variety of methods, such as interviewing, observation, field-notes, tape-
recording, and video-recording (Denzin, 1970). Triangulation of data reduces the
risks that the conclusions will reflect only the systematic biases or limitations of a
specific method, and allowed the investigator better assessment of validity and
conclusion of explanations that were developed (Maxwell, 1996). Moreover,
triangulation reduces the risk of chance association and increases the credibility of
analytical abilities of the investigator (Patton, 1990). Moreover, triangulation is
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important when addressing validity, presenting examination of competing
explanations, and discrepancies of data (Locke et al., 1993).
According to Yin (2003), there are three principles to consider in gathering
data for qualitative case study research: (a) using multiple sources of evidence,
(b) creating a case study database to assist with organizing and documenting collected
data, and (c) maintaining a “chain of evidence” that is consistent with the case study
protocol.
Two key principles guiding the use of case study research are to obtain the
descriptions and interpretations of others familiar with the phenomenon, and to seek
answers to key questions under investigation (Stake, 1995). An important technique
used for obtaining this type of data is by interviewing, where the investigator
interviews participants in the study (Wilkinson, & Birmingham, 2003).
Denscombe (1998) states, “Interviews involve a set of assumptions and
understanding about the situation which are not normally associated with the casual
conversation” (p. 109). Seidman (1998) suggests the primary aims in gathering
interview data in qualitative research are: “in-depth interviewing is not to get answers
to questions, nor to test hypotheses, not to evaluate, as the term is normally used, at
the root of the in-depth interviewing is an interest in understanding the experiences of
other people and the meaning they make of those experiences” (p. 3). It was from this
perspective that the investigator utilized interviews and observations as instruments to
gather data to help interpret events and actions in relation to the research phenomenon.
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The investigator used a semi-structured interview format with open-ended
questions that allowed for individual variations. The semistructured, open-ended
interview approach was appropriate because the format was adaptable and could be
varied according to the discretion of the investigator (Hammer & Wildavsky, 1993).
A structured interview approach would not have been appropriate because it would not
provide the depth of analysis needed for the phenomenon under study (Hammer &
Wildavsky, 1993).
Structured interviews are intended to give “yes-no” and short answers to
respondents questions (Yin, 2003). In addition, structured interviews do not offer the
opportunity for follow-up questions (Yin, 2003). The semi-structured interview
technique allows the investigator to find out what is in and on someone’s mind, not to
put things in someone’s mind, and to access the perspective of the person being
interviewed (Patton, 1990). The semistructured interview allowed the investigator to
seek out teachers’ perceptions of what constitutes effective teaching and how teachers’
instructional approaches to thinking and planning might effect changes in students’
learning outcomes and performance.
The classic form of data collection in naturalistic or field research is
observation of participants in the context of a natural scene. Observational data is
used for the purpose of description—of settings, of activities, of people, and for
meaning of what is observed from the perspective of the investigator. Observation can
lead to deeper understandings than with interviews alone because it provides
knowledge of the context which events occur, and may enable the researcher to see
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things that participants themselves are not aware of, or are unwilling to discuss
(Patton, 1990).
Wilkinson and Birmingham (2003) state, “Observation as a research method is
research characterized by a prolonged period of intense social interaction between the
researcher and the subjects, in the milieu of the latter, during which time data, in the
form of field notes, are unobtrusively and systematically collected” (p. 116).
Wilkinson and Birmingham (2003) also report, “That asking about or reporting
the activities people carry out in different social settings and situations will give a
flavor of what is involved. But in order to understand fully what these activities mean
to the participants, how they themselves perceive them, and what their perspective is
on them, it is necessary to see those people in action, to experience what it is they do,
even to do it yourself, is observation” (p. 116).
Several observation strategies can be used in collecting data from participants,
and the presence of an observer is likely to introduce a distortion of the natural setting,
which the investigator was aware and worked to minimize. During the study, the
investigator maintained a passive presence, being as unobtrusive as possible, only
interacting with participants when further clarification of responses was needed.
Further data collection included documents of students’ work related to their
performance, and progress reports of students’ performance. These items were
considered important because they provided information with specific details to
corroborate information from the interviews and observations, and provided validity to
the study (Yin, 2003).
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Finally, the case study protocol was used as an instrument strategy. The study
protocol was a set of procedures, guidelines, and questions that the investigator
followed when conducting the interviews and observations of the teachers to collect
data for the study. The protocol increased the reliability of the case study data and
was intended to guide the investigator in carrying out the process of interviewing the
six participants for a minimum of one hour, and observing the teachers during their
regular classroom instructional time which lasted approximately 52 minutes.
Recording the Data
The investigator relied on the use of field notes to record some of the data,
which were running descriptions of the settings, the people, the activities, and the
discussions in the study. Field notes included drawing of maps, charts, pictures on the
walls at the selected site, and any other devices that aided in recording data. In
addition to using field notes as a source for recording data, the investigator used audio
taping as a means to accurately capture the responses of the teachers and discussions
of events and situations related to the teachers’ actions in their naturalistic
environments.
Data Analysis
Bogdan and Biklen (1982) define qualitative data analysis as “working with
data, organizing it, breaking it up into manageable units, synthesizing it, searching for
patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and deciding what
you will tell others” (p. 145). Qualitative research tends to use an inductive analysis
of data strategy, meaning that critical themes emerge out of the data (Patton, 1990).
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Qualitative analysis requires creativity because it challenges the researcher to place the
raw data into logical, meaningful categories; and then examine them in a holistic
fashion; and to find a way to communicate the interpretation to others (Bogdan &
Biklen, 1982).
Yin (1994) suggests that every investigation should have a general analytic
strategy to guide the decisions regarding what will be analyzed, and for what reasons.
Yin (2003) presents three general strategies for analysis of case study research data.
The first and most preferred analytic strategy is the theoretical proposition that led to
the study. The second analytic strategy is to define and test rival explanations which
may appear in the study. The third analytic strategy is to develop a descriptive
framework for organizing the case study data. A descriptive framework strategy was
used in the data analysis for this case study, which consisted of examining,
categorizing, tabulating, and recombining the evidence to address the initial
assumptions of the study (Yin, 2003).
Analysis began with the identification of themes emerging from the raw data, a
process sometimes referred to as “open coding” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The
investigator used open coding to identify, and tentatively name the conceptual
categories which the themes emerged and were grouped. The goal of open coding was
to create descriptive, multi-dimensional categories that would form dominant themes
for analysis. Words, phrases, actions, or events that appeared to be similar were
grouped into the same category. These categories were then modified or replaced in a
dominant category during subsequent stages of analysis.
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The raw data were broken down in manageable sections. The investigator then
devised an “audit trail,” a strategy for identifying the sections of data according to
their speaker and the context. The identifiers developed may or may not be used in the
report, but they will be referred to in a manner that will provide a sense of context to
the reader (Brown, 1996).
Analysis of data continued with re-examination of the categories identified to
determine how they were linked by using a process referred to as “axial coding”
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The categories that were identified in open coding were
compared and rearranged in new ways. The purpose of coding is not to describe, but,
more importantly, to acquire new understanding of the phenomenon under study
(Hoepfl, 1997). Therefore, causal events contributing to the phenomenon; descriptive
details of the phenomenon itself; and the ramifications of the phenomenon under study
could be identified and explored.
The criteria for analysis of the case study was met by following a descriptive
strategy procedure for pattern-matching, coding, tabulating frequencies, and ordering
of information from the collected data. Hatch (2002) describes procedures suited for
analyzing a descriptive qualitative case study phenomenon in an educational setting.
The procedures consisted of nine steps that aided the investigator in the analysis of the
data. The steps are as followed, and were utilized by the investigator to analyze the
data collected in this study.
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1. Read the data and identify frames of analysis.
2. Create categories of domains representing meaningful elements of the
data found within each frame.
3. Identify important domains, assign a code to them, and set aside other
domain categories.
4. Re-examine the data, refining salient domains, and record where
meaningful relationships are found in the data.
5. Determine which domains are supported by the data and search the data
for examples that are incongruent with or possibly run counter to the relationships in
the domains.
6. Look within the domains to identify complexities, richness, and depth
so that elemental terms, semantic relationships, and cover term (the category into
which all the elemental terms fit) can be viewed holistically to enhance the
opportunity for discovering new links, new relationships, and new domain categories.
7. Search for themes across domains.
8. Develop a master outline expressing relationships within and among
the domains.
9. Select excerpts of data that support the themes of the master outline
(p. 171).
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Reporting the Data
Reporting case study research means bringing the results and the findings to
closure. The analysis of qualitative data cannot be separated from the reporting of the
data, and there are no standard formats for reporting qualitative research data
(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). Regardless of the form of the report, similar steps
underlie the case study composition, which are: identifying the audience for the report,
developing the compositional structure, and following certain procedures (such as
having the report reviewed by informed persons who have been the subjects of the
case study) (Yin, 2003).
Finally, the investigator translated the report into readable format that will be
read and judged by others (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The identification of the
audience will help the investigator in defining the level of emphasis that will be placed
on the findings, and the conclusions of this study.
The intentions of the investigator were to report the findings with credibility
and trustworthiness by providing sufficient detailed information about the study that
would give informed insights about urban middle school teachers’ instructional
approaches and the effect these have on African American students’ learning
outcomes and performance.
Internal Validity and Credibility
An issue in qualitative case study reporting concerns the anonymity of the case
and its participants. Yin (2003) argues that disclosing the identities of participants and
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information about the case setting is preferable to anonymity because it produces two
helpful outcomes to the reader.
First, revealing information about the case study site and the individual
participants is helpful because the reader is able to synthesize the present study with
what was previously known about the study. Second, the reader is better able to
evaluate the study by confirming references and citations, leading to a more critical
review of the study’s outcomes and conclusions.
Seidman (1998) argues that participants participating in qualitative studies who
give in-depth interviews should remain anonymous as part of standard practice in
educational research. Despite the differing opinions among scholars concerning the
question of anonymity in case study research, there is general agreement among
qualitative researchers that, when the case involves a controversial subject, or it
represents an ideal example, anonymity should be considered for either the case, its
participants, or both (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996; Yin, 2003). For this study, identity of
participants will not be revealed.
An important approach to ensuring confidentiality of the participants in this
study, from gathering the data to reporting the results, was to assign codes to the
participants. This helped to ensure the utmost confidentiality of participants and
established conditions in which the participants would feel safe to discuss and respond
to questions regarding the phenomenon under study. The investigator complied with
all requirements established by the University of Southern California Rossier School
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of Education, the University Park Institutional Review Board, and the investigator’s
advisor.
Conclusions
The methodology, sample population, and rationale underlying the
construction of this qualitative case study research; and the analysis of data have been
explained in this section. The rationale for the use of a single case study and its design
relied on methodological approaches described by Patton (1990/2002), Stake (1995),
and Yin (2003). Examination and synthesis of data followed the descriptive research
analysis model described by Hatch (2002). The methods used to analyze instructional
approaches used by urban middle school teachers’ in thinking and planning for
instruction in urban middle schools included one-on-one interviews with teachers,
observations of teachers in their classroom settings, and analysis of related documents
of students’ work, and other items related to students’ academic performance and
achievement.
Since there are no statistical tests for significance in qualitative studies, the
investigator bears the burden of discovering and interpreting the importance of what
was observed, and of establishing a plausible connection between what was observed
and the conclusions drawn from the study.
Triangulation of data, maintaining confidentiality of the participants and
information for the study, assuring security of the data resulted in the trustworthiness
of the investigator’s discussions, implications, and recommendations. The
achievement of triangulation of data by using multiple methods, and the use of
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multiple sources all contributed to the alleviation of possible concerns over internal
validity.
The findings from this study will be reported in a descriptive theoretical
framework construct that underlay the study which is aimed at providing teachers with
a road map to certain instructional approaches used by urban middle school teachers to
teach urban middle school students that would otherwise be confusing if presented in
any other form; and to present insights to other instructional approaches that might
have a positive effect on urban middle school students’ learning outcomes and
performances in academic core subjects that might benefit urban middle school
teachers and urban high school teachers in the use of certain instructional approaches
and practices to effect changes in urban minority students’ learning outcomes and
performance.
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CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS FROM THE CASE STUDY
The School and the Teachers
Chapter four describes Success Learning Center, its teachers, and the analysis
of raw data collected from one-on-one interviews with, and observations of the
teachers. Success Learning Center is a large, multi-track, urban school centrally
located in the heart of Los Angeles. The school’s enrollment ranges from 3,328 to
3,503 due to its year-round track calendar. Success Learning Center receives Title I
funding, federal grant money given to low-performing, high-poverty schools (table 2).
Even though Success Learning Center receives Title I monies from the federal
government, it has demonstrated yearly progress in its API scores (Academic
Performance Index) for 3 consecutive years as indicated in table 2, and has met its
annual measurable objectives (AMOs) in reading/language arts and mathematics for
the last 4 years which gives the school flexibility in the way it spends the Title I
monies.
The school first opened its doors to welcome students into this three story
European style brick building in 1925 and graduated its first group of students in
January 1927. Since then, Success Learning Center has made its mark in a community
that has become very diverse over the years with the changing cultures and various
ethnic groups. Success Learning Center has made a mark in the community by
receiving awards for providing quality education to students from the committed
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Table 2. Annual Measurable Objectives for Success Learning Center (K-12) School, 2002-
2005
Subgroup performance and participation
Annual measurable objectives (AMOs)
Student % Proficient and above % participation
Subgroups
English/
Language arts
(24.4% target)
Mathematics
(26.5% target)
English language arts
(85% target)
Mathematics
(95% target)
African
American (not
of Hispanic
origin)
18.8 14.7 98 97
American
Indian/Alaska
Native
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Asian N/A N/A N/A N/A
Filipino N/A N/A N/A N/A
Hispanic or
Latino
19.5 15.2 99 99
Pacific Islander N/A N/A N/A N/A
White (not of
Hispanic
Origin)
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Socio-
economically
disadvantaged
19.0 14.6 99 98
English Learner 14.4 11.8 100 99
Students with
disabilities
5.0 4.4 97 95
Source. California Department of Education Division Policy (Evaluation 2/3/06)
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Table 3. Credentialed Teachers at Success Learning Center (K-12) School, 2005-2006
Number of credentials
Percent of credential and
non-credentialed teachers
at school
Full credential 110 65.5%
University intern 31 18.5%
District intern 9 5.4%
Preintern 6 3.6%
Emergency 12 7.1%
Total 168 100.0%
Note. California Dept. of Education Demographics (2005)
staff of excellent teachers. The awards include the “Excellence Award of
Performance, 2001,” the “Academic Decathlon Award, 1996”; and the “Distinguish
School Award, 1996.” It received another accreditation certification in 2006, and has
been listed as a top performing school for the past 3 years, 2002-2005, with API scores
up by 10% in 2005. Proficiency levels are measured by using the California Standards
Test for elementary and middle schools, and the CHSEE (California High School Exit
Exam) for high schools. Target percentages, known as “annual measurable
objectives,” for the middle school doubled in 2004-2005 school year to 24.4% in
English/Language Arts, up from 19.5%, and 26.5% in mathematics, up from 15.2%
the previous years, showing considerable increases in the African American students’
subgroup also indicated in table 2.
The investigator observed outstanding pieces of artwork hanging on the walls
in the front office. One plaque, in particular, caught the attention of the investigator
which read, “ . . . . Success is not an option; it is a requirement, an expression of the
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attitude, character, and moral of this school.” The quote seemed to sum up the
personality, mind-set, and values of the people who worked there. Everyone talked
about success for the students, including parents, teachers, and anyone connected with
the school. This was an interesting environment and the investigator wanted to find
out just what made this school so successful. Tables 3 and 4 indicate the number of
credentialed teachers and teachers by type of assignment at Success Learning Center.
Time is of the Essence
It is no secret that teachers have very little time to share with anyone outside
their classrooms other than their students. However, the six teachers who participated
in this study were willing to share in (one-on-one interviews) their thoughts,
experience, expertise, and knowledge regarding the research questions put forth in
chapter 3 about instructional approaches and the effects these have on African
American students’ learning outcomes and performance.
Teachers who participated in the study were members of the middle school
academy track B, and were identified as effective, highly-skilled, high-performing
teachers from the pre-screening interview process. They taught Academy classes, and
their students participated in off-campus accelerated programs sponsored by a local
university in the community that the school partnered with. The six teachers’ years of
experience together totaled over a hundred plus as shown in table 6. The number of
fully credentialed, including university interns, district interns, pre-interns, and
emergency credentials teachers are shown in table 3, by type of assignment in 4.
Number and percentage of teachers by ethnicity for the school and district in table 5.
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Table 4. Teachers by Type of Assignment at Success Learning Center (K-12), 2004-2005
Number of teachers Full-time equivalents
Self-contained classroom 9 9.0
Subject area
1
126 108.7
Vocational education 11 5.7
Special education 23 15.9
Other 17 9.2
Total 186 148.5
1
Also includes Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate teachers.
2
Could include resource, Independent Study or Alternative/Opportunity program
teachers, among others.
Source: California Department of Education Demographics Office (2005)
Table 5. Teachers by Ethnicity at Success Learning Center (K-12) School, 2004-2005
_____________________________________________________________________
• 1.3 American Indian
• 6 Asian
• 0.7 Pacific Islander
• 0.7 Filipino
• 19.3 Hispanic
• 31.3 African American
• 40.7 White
• 0.7 American Indian
• 8.4 Asian
• 0.3 Pacific Islander
• 2.1 Filipino
• 27.9 Hispanic
• 12.8 African American
• 47.8 White
• 0 Multiple/No Response
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Table 5 (continued).
Teachers
Number of
teachers
Average percent of
school teachers
Average percent of
district teachers
American Indian 2 1.3% 0.7%
Asian 9 6.0% 8.4%
Pacific Islander 1 0.7% 0.3%
Filipino 1 0.7% 0.3%
Hispanic 29 19.3% 27.9%
African American 47 31.3% 12.8%
White 61 4.07% 47.8%
Multiple/No response 0 0.0% 0.0%
Total 150 100.0% 100.0%
Track B teachers had just returned from being off-track for several weeks and
had only been in session two weeks when the investigator started the interviewing
process, but they still expressed a desire to share their time, talent, and knowledge of
what they considered to be their calling, “teaching urban middle school students”
which they all agreed were their main purpose in life.
Findings from Analysis of Data
The findings presented in this section were derived from analyses of data from
individual interviews and observations of six urban middle school teachers who
participated in this qualitative study. The interview questions posed to the teachers
were designed to provide answers to the research questions that were presented in
chapter 3. The observation protocol was designed to capture detailed descriptions of
behaviors, events, situations, and interactions between the teachers and the students to
clarify and add to the information that would help to validate the findings.
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The analyses of data were crucial in shedding light on the assumptions made
about the study which led to the conclusions, suggestions, implications of the study,
and recommendations for further research.
From analysis of the data, several instructional approaches were identified as
dominant approaches employed by these urban middle school teachers to effect
changes in their students’ learning outcomes and performance, specifically African
American students identified in table 7. Other institutional approaches and strategies
were identified and listed in tables 8 and 9 (Appendix G). The instructional
approaches identified were directed-instruction, guided-practice, small group work,
and active engagement instruction. These instructional approaches were practiced by
all 6 teachers in various ways, and to teach various subjects.
Several teachers’ used directed-instruction mainly to teach concepts, lesson
objectives, and standards they wanted their students to learn for district and state
requirements. The teachers’ who used this method of instruction presented lessons
that were directly tied to a subject matter, used language that was familiar to students,
and used examples to help students’ retain the new information they were learning.
Objectives were clearly stated and the goals the teachers wanted the students
to achieve were realistically obtainable. Teachers’ also used various analogies to
connect concepts when a new subject or topic was introduced. When using direct
instruction, the teachers’ used illustrations and examples to help students’ understand
and see how to do the assignments.
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Teachers’ used direct instruction to balance their curriculum to teach basic and
higher order skills based on individual needs of their students, and to improve their
cognitive abilities. It was observed that direct instruction lessons were meaningful and
responsive to students’ everyday lives and experiences, especially minority students.
Teachers also incorporated historical and contemporary cultural content into their
directed-instruction lessons to create meaning to the students.
Although direct instruction was found to be a dominant instructional approach
employed by several of the teachers, findings revealed that it was believed to be the
most ineffective instructional approach in effecting changes in African American
students’ learning outcomes and performance by two of the teachers. They agreed that
direct instruction did not present opportunities for students to interact with each other,
nor did it allow students the opportunity to be creative with their work, or present
opportunities for independent discovery while learning new material.
Furthermore, they believed that direct instruction had limitations in teaching
concepts to some individual students’ who needed concepts explain and re-taught over
and over before they understood or “got-it”, and some needed “one-on-one”
instruction before a concept was learned, which was hard to do with direct instruction
in a class of thirty plus students. Another reason they believe some African American
students’ may not perform well with direct instruction was that some have a sort of
visual or auditory processing deficiency which makes it difficult for them to process
information as fast as their peers. As a result, some of them can not keep up with
teachers’ lectures when taking notes because they are poor spellers, which makes it
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difficult for them to write fast and record statements made by teachers before another
statement is given, or the information is removed from the overhead and all is lost.
They believed that African American students’ performed better if they work
with a partner or in small groups in order to help each other. They reasoned that if one
does not get it, then the other one probably will get it and they can compare notes and
share information, which makes failure less frightening and success more attainable.
Several teachers’ used guided practice to effect changes in their students’
learning outcomes and performances. This approach was employed by teachers to
check students’ understanding, to monitor students’ progress when learning new
concepts and material, and to re-teach concepts and objectives if necessary. Guided
practice helped to reinforce students’ learning by giving students’ time to practice
what they had learned from direct instruction. Guided practice allowed teachers to
interact with students’ to help them monitor their own learning to increase
performance. Guided practice also kept the students on task and actively engaged in
learning as the teachers are interacting with students to monitor, recheck, and redirect
students’ progress and performance.
Guided practice did affect students’ performance because it allowed students to
build on previous knowledge and to use other strategies to increase their under-
standing of new concepts. This was demonstrated and visible evident in class as the
students practiced for their history test.
One teacher used active engagement activities to produce changes in students’
learning outcomes and performance. This approach was used in many ways, such as
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student-directed activities, computer technology and rubric based projects. However,
the main reason the teacher used this approach was to get all students, especially
African American students, involved and actively engaged in the “whole-class”
learning experience. This approach included role playing, storytelling, listening to
music, and small group activities to affect students’ learning outcomes and increase
performance.
It was found that active engagement instruction challenged students to apply
their knowledge in new situations to create contexts that have meaning, and to engage
students in collaboration. Active engagement activities helped students develop
higher order thinking skills by allowing them organize, synthesize, interpret, explain,
and evaluate information and ideas. One teacher, for example, used student-directed
activities in a History class where students’ worked in small groups to create a
computer-based “African Mask” project. The students had to design, explain, find
evidence and examples for their mask, write a short essay describing the mask, reflect
on the acquired knowledge, and present their information to other groups, and then
have the groups apply the information in new situations.
It was observed that each group was actively engaged and worked hard to
complete the assignment. The assignment activated students’ prior knowledge by
providing cultural relevance, not only for African students, but other students as well.
During student-directed activities, students’ worked together to maximize
their time, and to stimulate their own learning as well as that of others in the group.
More importantly, it seemed that African American students’ preferred working on
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activities that allowed them to converse with a partner or to work in small groups
because they were allowed to incorporate other learning modalities and use other
strategies to complete the assignment. They were allowed to use cartoon characters,
animation, symbols, sounds, and other educational items in designing their mask.
African American students were motivated to use other learning tools and
devices, and to look for information from other sources to finish the project. This
approach was highly effective because it allowed the students to have fun and enjoy
their learning experience, while at the same time increasing their classroom
participation and performance.
Student directed activities helped to prepare students, especially minority
students, for meaningful social roles in school, and in the community, by emphasizing
and connecting students’ real world experiences with their social and academic
responsibility. This approach worked well with African American students because
they were given opportunities to be creative, to utilize their kinesthetic and tactile
skills, and to use their visual input rather than relying solely upon their auditory input,
which helped to increase their overall classroom performance.
Moreover, student-directed activities provided opportunities for students to
communicate with each other which helped to developed communication skills,
decreased students’ anxiety of failing, built self-confidence and boosted students’ self-
esteem by giving them a chance to make individual contributions to achievement of
the group’s goals; improved individual and group relations by learning how to engage
in dialogue to clarify, to assist, and to challenge each others’ ideas; and helped
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students to develop skills to work through real-life problems, such as seeking support
from others, utilizing context to find meaning and answers, and comparing verbal cues
to nonverbal cues.
One teacher used high expectations, self-confidence, and self-esteem building
activities to effect changes in students’ learning outcomes and performance in math,
because some students, especially African American and Hispanics, do not like math
and have little confidence in their ability to learn math. However, with the teacher’s
high expectations and building students’ confidence and self-esteem, the students were
able to improve in their abilities to do math. The teacher stated,
Some of these students were performing below grade level when they
entered my class, but now they are working at or above grade level and
they are feeling good about themselves and what they have learned in
math. My success lies in having high expectations for my students,
building their confidence and boosting their self-esteem of not being
afraid to learn math; and pushing them to achieve because most of them
are capable of learning and doing the work, but they are lazy. If you
don’t expect them to succeed, then they won’t succeed. For some
African American students to succeed, you have to push them, and
encourage them with all of your heart, and most of them will rise to the
level of your expectations.
It appeared that high expectation, incorporating activities that helped to build students’
self-confidence and self-esteem worked to increase some African American students’
learning outcomes and performance in math.
Each teacher used instructional approaches to design lessons that were
culturally relevant that helped to celebrate and validate all cultures in their classes.
This method of instruction motivated students to learn the materials, to expand their
knowledge about differences in others, and to perceive themselves in a multicultural
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perspective. Knowledge of students’ cultural background was used in instruction to
encourage students to seek further information about their own culture and helped to
eliminate bias about other cultures and social status.
Students’ cultural background was also used to influence their understanding
and knowledge of the subject matter. The teachers’ allowed their students’ to
collaborate and dialogue with each other about unique differences between cultures
which led to a deeper understanding of some of their ancestors and their biographical
heritage. Teachers’ used culturally relevant materials to develop lessons and teaching
situations that were important to their students’ everyday lives, such as family and
community issues to facilitate literacy and to increase content learning that helped
their students’ learning and performance.
The teachers’ used culture to actively engage all students in the learning
process, especially minority students who were not interested in content academics. It
was found that some minority students, especially the Hispanic students, became
interested in the lesson when it connected to their real life experiences and everyday
living. The Hispanics students’ felt more comfortable learning about issues that were
parallel to their experiences and environment because it helped them to transfer school
taught knowledge to real life situations that could prepare them for meaningful social
roles in their community and society by emphasizing and connecting their learning
experience to their social and academic responsibility to family and the community.
Each teacher agreed that almost any instructional approach would work if there
were routines in place and structure for the students to follow. Several teachers’
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believed that active engagement activities and small group activities were the most
effective instructional approaches to use with minority students, especially African
American students, because this approach make them feel more comfortable and
confident with their work. They believed that small groups make failure less
frightening to African American students because they are not failing alone. If they
fail, they see it as the whole group and not as an individual failure. Failure is not
taken personally, but is shared and all taking responsibility for failing.
The teachers’ agreed that there were no magic formulas or strategies to use
when it comes to teaching, but each one believed that teaching was his/her “calling,”
because they loved doing it. One teacher stated, “Since we don’t have a magic
formula or a magic approach when it comes to teaching, one should develop
instructional approaches that he/she is comfortable with and be consistent with those
approaches so that students will know what is expected from them in order to develop
the skills needed to accomplish these expectations, and to succeed.”
Each teacher preferred authentic assessment approaches over traditional
assessment approaches to assess their students’ learning outcomes and performance.
The teachers used assessments approaches such as open-ended essay questions, oral
testing, computer and rubric based projects, power-point presentations, and creative
writings to test students’ based knowledge of subject matter and performance, rather
than the traditional approaches of true/false and multiple choice items.
The teachers’ agreed that authentic assessment helps students to build self-
confidence and self-esteem by allowing students the opportunity to express what they
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know in a variety of ways, whereas traditional tests are closed to these options.
Teachers’ believed that authentic assessment give them the opportunity to test students
without biases because it allow students to show exactly what they know, and have
learned.
Several teachers believed that traditional tests were biased against minorities,
and that they only used traditional tests when it is absolutely necessary to do so. They
further believed that traditional tests do not give a true representation of what students’
know because some students’ don’t have what is called “testwiseness” when it comes
to selecting appropriate answers that are associated with traditional tests. They also
believed that some traditional methods of assessing students do not take into account
students’ prior knowledge and experiences, language proficiency, or cultural
background for minority and underserved students.
Two teachers preferred performance assessment approaches to test their
African American students’ outcomes and performance because it gave students the
opportunity to demonstrate knowledge by engaging in rich contextualized tasks; it
gave students the option to create or design tasks or questions that were meaningful
and interesting to them, and it allowed teachers the opportunity to make adjustments to
contextualized tasks based on students’ experiences and skills, and to test students’
individually to insure that the students were fully examined.
However, performance assessments do have some downfalls. One teacher
believed that performance assessment did not provide the means to effectively
compare students’ performance nor does it effectively prepare students for the real
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world, which can be unfair to students with low awareness of their own abilities and
quality of performance. This teacher believed that standardized assessment was a
better indicator of students’ performance since it is a requirement from local and state
level to insure that all students are fully equipped to face the real world when they
leave high school.
Findings revealed that the types of instructional approaches and strategies that
were most likely to have an effect on African American students’ academic
achievement in core subjects such as English/Language Arts, History, Math, and
Science were active engagement activities, small group activities, collaborative
learning, and high expectations, coupled with activities to build students’ self-
confidence and self-esteem.
Findings further revealed that these approaches affected African American
students’ overall performance and learning outcomes because students were given
opportunities to work with a partner or in small groups to complete assignments or
tasks. They were able to use technology to create projects that were interesting to
them; they had opportunities to be creative; and they could rely on others for help
when needed. They seemed less frighten of failing because they were able to
collaborate and dialogue with each other to find answers to difficult questions and
puzzling situations.
These instructional approaches were instrumental in keeping African American
students on task and actively engaged in their whole learning experience. Several
teachers used these instructional approaches on a daily basis and would switch when
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necessary to bring students back into the lesson, or to recapture students’ attention and
refocus and redirect them back to the learning process.
Finally, data revealed that certain instructional approaches, identified from the
study and shown in table 7, did effect positive changes in some African American
students’ learning outcomes and performance. For example, directed instruction
helped students to learn new subject-matter and context material. It helped students to
develop higher order learning strategies by allowing them to use concrete examples to
learn new material. Guided practice presented students the opportunity to reinforce
learning by giving them time to practice the new material and gave them opportunities
to check and monitor their own learning.
Table 6. Credentials Plus Years Experience of Teachers Who Participated in the Study at
Success Learning Center (K-12) School, 2005-2006
# of teachers
Number of years
credentialed
Number
of years teaching
Average years of
experience
16 20 25 22.5
20 20 20 20.0
22 30 38 27.5
25 25 30 27.5
50 8 8 8.0
75 7 7 7.0
Active engagement activities increased students’ learning outcomes and
performance by allowing learning situations where students could work with a partner
or in small groups to enhance their learning and performance, and to make success
more attainable. Technology enriched instructional approaches also helped to engage
students’ in active learning and increased performance. Teachers use technology to
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facilitate learning instead of delivering knowledge, which makes learning boring and
sometimes meaningless to students. Active engagement activities helped to increase
students’ performance across subjects’ areas because it was used in a variety of ways
to effect changes in minority students, specially, African American students’
Summary of Findings
Certain instructional practices can effect changes in students’ learning and
performance. However, changes in instructional practices need to be accompanied by
changes in policies that reflect the diversity in classroom settings and environments.
Effective instructional approaches are key components in students’ learning
outcomes and performances, but no single approach will solve the educational
challenges facing minority students because each student is unique.
Educators and policymakers need to study research-based practices and
implement these practices according to the needs of the students they served.
Educators should recognize the importance of family and community influence when
thinking about instructional approaches. They should also consider other critical out-
of-school factors that effect changes in students’ learning outcomes and performance,
especially those of minority students, such as culture, historical background, lifestyle,
and socioeconomic status and integrate instructional approaches that would help to
address these factors in facilitate learning, literacy, and achievement in academic
subjects.
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Table 7. Dominant Instructional Approaches Used by Six Urban Middle School Teachers
Identified
instructional
approaches
Employed by urban middle
school teachers to effect changes
in African American students’
learning outcomes and
performances
Effect on students’ learning
outcomes and performance
Direct
instruction
Clearly stated objectives
Content centered on subject
matter
Goals realistically obtainable
by students
Language familiar to students
Use analogies to connect
concepts and introduce new
material
Use examples to help
students’ retain new
information
Lessons are meaningful and
responsive to students’ needs
Easy to understand the
objectives
Help students to understand
the subject
Help students achieve goals of
lesson
Students are shown how to
complete assignments by
providing examples and
illustrations
Improve cognitive abilities
Improve higher order skills
Guided practice Check students’
understanding of concepts
learned
Monitor students’ progress
Reinforce learning from
directed instruction
Allow time for students to
practice new concepts
Students can monitor own
progress
Students can interact with
teacher and other students to
reinforce learning and check
progress
Increase students’
performance by building on
previous knowledge
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Table 7 (continued).
Identified
instructional
approaches
Employed by urban middle
school teachers to effect changes
in African American students’
learning outcomes and
performances
Effect on students’ learning
outcomes and performance
Activity
engagement
activities
Involve all students in
learning
Challenge students to apply
own knowledge to new
situations
Challenge students to create
contexts that have meaning
and interest
Engage students in
collaboration and dialoguing
with each other
Encourage students to
develop higher order thinking
skills by explaining,
evaluating, interpreting, and
synthesizing new information
Allows the use of technology
and rubric based projects to
increase students’
performance
Students are allowed role-
play, do story-telling,
listening to music
Students are given
opportunities to work with a
partner or in small groups to
complete assignments or
projects
Failure less frightening
Success more attainable
Increase motivation by
allowing creativity, and
different learning modalities
to be used
Students are given
opportunities to work with a
partner or in small groups to
complete assignments
Motivation is enhanced and
performance increased

Authentic
assessment
Technology based projects
Rubric based projects
Open-ended essay questions
Oral and written tests
Performance based
assessments
Projects related to real-world
events and life experiences
Group-centered activities with
group collaboration
Simulations of real-world
connections to relate life
experiences
Allow students opportunities
to demonstrate with they
really know and have learned
Students are allowed to use a
variety skills to demonstrate
knowledge
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Discussions
Significant progress has been made in the journey to provide middle school
students with developmentally appropriate education (Jackson & Davis, 2000).
However, the journey is only halfway up the mountain with the most important and
perhaps the most difficult part of the climb remaining (p. 5). To date, little research
has been conducted on students’ achievement and performance as it relates to
particular instructional practices of teachers in the middle grades (Allington &
Johnson, 2000). There is also little evidence that indicates which, if any, instructional
approach is best to use when teaching middle school students, or how certain
instructional approaches effect changes in urban middle school students’ learning
outcomes and performance, specifically African American students (Bowers, 2000).
In response, this qualitative study was to identify instructional approaches that
were used by urban middle school teachers to effect changes in their students’ learning
outcomes and performance, and to determine if certain instructional approaches have
any positive effects on African American students’ learning outcomes and
performance in core academic subjects.
The study found that certain instructional practices used by six urban middle
school teachers did effect changes in some students’ learning outcomes and
performance. Direct instruction, guided practice, collaborative small group
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instruction, active engagement activities, and high expectations, coupled with
activities to build self-confidence and self-esteem were identified to be dominant
instructional approaches used by the 6 teachers in the study that effected changes in
their students’ learning outcomes and performance.
Previous studies have been conducted to examine instructional practices used
by middle school teachers to improve students’ achievement. But aspects of this
research have focused mainly on teachers’ characteristics such as years of experience,
level of certification, and knowledge of subject in relation to students’ achievement
and not on instructional practices teachers’ use to effect changes in students’
achievement and performance (Goldhaber, 2003).
In reports published by the United States Department of Education, many
middle school students do not receive a rigorous curriculum that challenges them to
think critically and use their minds well, especially in middle schools serving
underserved students. It was reported that 42% of 8
th
graders cannot understand and
apply general information from life and physical science classes because they are not
given challenging assignments and tasks to encourage them to think and apply the
information they are learning to scientific situations or scientific scenarios (U. S.
Department of Education, 1997). In comparison, the opposite was found with 8
th
graders in this present study. Students were given challenging assignments in Science
and Math that encouraged critical thinking and complex problem solving skills. It was
also found that the teachers developed rigorous curriculum that challenged their
students to dig deeper to find answers to complex questions, and to use their minds.
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According to Lumsden (1999), students’ achievement is connected with
curriculum. Students want to know if what they are being asked to learn and evaluate
make sense, has purpose, and is beneficial to them. The same was found with students
in this study. They wanted to know if what they were learning was beneficial to them
and how mathematics, such algebra and fractions applied to their everyday life.
Ames and West (1999) noted for students to be inspired and motivated to
learn, curriculum should be challenging and peak students’ interest. They further
noted that teachers can increase students’ achievement by identifying ways students
learn most effectively and plan instruction accordingly by adapting curriculum and
instruction to meet the needs of students and encourage them to take responsibility for
their own learning (Ames et al., 1999).
The present study found that the teachers’ used certain instructional
approaches at various times when teaching lessons, and planned instruction according
to the subject-matter being presented. The study also found that the teachers provided
information to their students as to why they were given a particular assignment, and
explained why it was important for them to learn the new material.
Furthermore, this study found that teachers activated students’ prior knowledge
to connect assignments to their everyday life experiences which encouraged them to
take ownership and responsible in completing the assignment. For example, one
teacher explained that a particular assignment in math was related to developing a
budget and savings plan. It was further explained that fractions were related to aspects
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of daily living, and learning how to use fractions and equations was important in order
to make good decisions when purchasing items that come in quantities.
Beane (1990) noted that curriculum must be developed around overarching
themes and essential questions, and it must develop deep understanding of big ideas
within and across disciplines. For example, a unit on human relationships might
involve studying roles of other peer groups in influencing attitudes and behaviors,
examining how societies and cultures are formed, exploring the concept of global
inter-dependence, or the impact of technology on communication and personal
relationships.
Similar to Beane’s study, this study found that when teachers’ developed
curriculum that centered on themes and technology, the students were motivated and
eager to learn. They were willing to received new information and direction; they
were actively involved in the learning process, and they appeared to enjoy the learning
experience. They took part in the whole learning process because the curriculum
connected to everyday experiences, had relevance and value, sparked students’
interest, and they perceived it as being beneficial to them.
Bloom, Ham, Melton, and Obrien (2001) also found that a demanding
curriculum, rich in cultural awareness, has intellectual and practical benefits for
students of all backgrounds, ethnicities, and social status. The same was found in this
study. In a History class, students were arranged in collaborative small groups to
create and design an African mask. This assignment was rich in culture; it was
demanding, and the students perceived it as being beneficial to them because it gave
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them the opportunity to gather information about other cultures, and their own culture
in order to finish their masks and share with other groups.
The present study found that when teachers developed lessons with culturally
relevant materials and provided a demanding curriculum, students were actively
involved, excited about learning, and exhibited high performance in completing their
projects. The students in History and Math classes were given assignments that were
interesting and challenging. The assignments allowed the students to apply their new
knowledge and work together in order to complete the assignment which improved
their learning outcomes and performance in these core subjects.
Research indicates the importance of providing rigorous curricula as a means
of improving students’ academic achievement. Teachers in the present study
incorporated materials that connected to real life events and expected their students to
do well on the assignments. Plus, they were given opportunities to work
collaboratively in small groups, or with a partner which increased classroom
participation. This suggests that a demanding curriculum can make a difference in
middle school students’ learning outcomes, and academic performance.
In a move toward raising expectations for students, the teachers in this study
were required to align their curriculum with district and state standards. Bishop
(2000) found that teachers who aligned curriculum with standards and gave rigorous
assignments and tasks to their students had positive effects on students’ achievement.
Similar results were found with teachers who participated in this present study.
Teachers who had high expectations for their students and aligned their curriculum to
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content standards, their students’ grades increased in math. Research indicates that
curriculum aligned to content standards does influence middle school students’
achievement. However, the degree to which standards have influenced day-to-day
knowledge of middle school students is less clear (Lee, 1998).
For example, Kahle, Meece, and Scantlebury (2000) examined standards-based
teaching practices and the effectiveness on urban African-American seventh and 8
th
grade science students. They found that standards-based curriculum had small, but
positive effects on students’ achievement and attitudes, especially for boys. They also
found that certain professional development activities predicated teachers’ use of
instructional practices to incorporate lessons based on standards and subject context.
In comparison, teachers who participated in this present study implemented a
standards-base curriculum to teach objectives, meet district and state requirements,
and to make a connection to subject content, students’ achievement increased.
If middle grade reformers have come to agree on the need to teach standards-
based curriculum, there is little evidence on which instructional approach will do this,
or what effect certain instructional practices will have on middle grade students’
contextual knowledge. This study did not present evidence on how standards-based
curriculum will affect middle school students’ contextual knowledge, but it did show
that middle school teachers think a lot about implementing standards in their
curriculum to effect changes in middle school students’ learning and performance.
To enhance middle school teaching, teachers need to go beyond the notion that
students will learn and make their pedagogy more authentic for a new generation of
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learners. Newmann et al. (1995) advocate authentic instructions where students can
be actively engaged in construction of knowledge, participating in disciplined inquiry,
and applying knowledge beyond classroom situations and experiences. Phillips (1997)
found that teachers who created learning situations where students were actively
engaged in intellectual tasks and goals rather than personal relationships had gains in
their students’ mathematics achievement. Similarly, this present study found that
several teachers presented learning opportunities to actively engage their students in
high performing learning situations that required them to construct their own
knowledge, ask inquiry questions, and challenged them to think critically to come up
with solutions to solve complex problems also showed gains in some students’
academic achievement in History, Math, and Science classes.
As noted by Weiner (1999), teachers’ instructional approaches should be
applied across disciplines to bridge the gap between instructional practices and
students’ performance. In comparison, the present study found that these teachers’
applied practices to meet the needs of students and changed their instructional
approaches as needed to keep students focused and actively engaged in the whole
learning experience, and to teach different disciplines.
By connecting learning to real world events outside of school, students can
find meaning and motivation to do well in school. Instructional approaches that
include active engagement activities to build on students’ prior knowledge and
connect to students’ life experiences have shown to increase students’ learning
outcomes and performance, especially for underserved students in low performing
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schools (Ames, 1998). Stephens (1995) for example, found that middle school
students who engaged in quality service-learning activities showed increases in
measures of personal and social responsibility, communication, sense of educational
competence, and improvement in problem solving skills, as well as an increased in
academic performance.
Similar results were found among teachers in the present study that used
collaborative small group activities. Their students showed an improvement in
communication skills and appeared to be more personally and socially responsible.
Moreover, students showed improvement in higher order thinking skills and made an
effort to become individual contributors to achievement of the group’s goals by
learning how to communicate with each other to clarify and to challenge each other’s
ideas. In addition, teachers who incorporated material that connected with students’
background, culture, family, and community had positive effects on students’ learning
outcomes and performance, especially for African American and Hispanics students.
Culturally relevant material and culturally responsive teaching incorporates the
everyday concerns of students, such as family and community issues into the
curriculum. Peregoy and Boyle (2000) found that teachers who developed learning
activities that were based on familiar concepts of family and community facilitated
literacy and content learning among African American and Hispanic students by
making them feel more comfortable, confident, and connected to their work. This
study found that two teachers shared in culturally mediated instruction and curriculum
that involved their students in culturally responsive teaching and learning situations.
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These teachers believed that culturally responsive instruction was not only important
for academic achievement, but also important for maintaining the cultural identity and
heritage of their students. They incorporated a culturally responsive curriculum and
instruction to celebrate and validate all cultures and ethnic groups in their classrooms.
How Findings Might Inform Practices in Low Performing
Schools to Improve the Learning Outcomes
of Underserved Students
Cooperative grouping is designed to meet the social and intellectual needs of
young adolescents than the assorted strategies generally referred to as cooperative
learning groups (Johnson & Johnson, 1998). “The common purpose of cooperative
groups is to promote independent learning by establishing conditions that require
small groups of students to work productively and positively together, face-to-face,
sharing individual responsibility for the group’s goal or finished product” (Stevenson,
1992, p. 227).
In comparison, the study found that collaborative small groups allowed
students to engage in active learning that integrated social responsibility and rigorous
technical content to problems and projects. Collaborative small groups allowed
students to work together on projects and assignments to complete a task, and it gave
them the opportunity to make a connection between home-life, school-life, and real-
world events. It was shown that collaborative small group instruction enhanced
students’ motivation and encouraged students to engage in new ways of thinking and
behaving, especially among African American and Hispanic students. Students had
more control over their learning by choosing their own themes, projects, and
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resources. By providing opportunities for underserved students to work and learn in
collaborative small groups, students can share ideas, explore new careers, engage in
services to their communities, and expand their own interests and abilities which will
sidestep traditional practices of drill and kill, and rote-memorization methods.
The use of collaborative small groups is important for middle school students
so they can find new meaning and value in their lives as they are beginning to view
themselves in new perspectives, and when differences in expectations and learning
associated with gender, race, and poverty are exacerbated.
This study might inform new practices and procedures for change and teaching
differently, and discourage the use of traditional practices and procedures. It might
also give teachers an inspiration to use collaborative small groups to help their
students reach and achieve their greatest potentials.
Setting high expectations is another instructional approach to consider for
improving learning outcomes of underserved students in low performing schools.
Some research documents the dilution of curriculum for students who are poor, have
limited English proficiency, or are of color (U. S. Department of Education, 1996).
Due to this dilution of the curriculum, some teachers do not expect their
students to perform at higher levels and achieve with a rigorous curriculum. In a
longitudinal study of 23 middle schools, Phillips (1997) found that 8
th
grade student
attendance was significantly better at schools where teachers expected students to
graduate from high school, where greater numbers of students were enrolled in
Algebra, and where students were required to do a greater amount of homework.
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Hoy and Sabo (1997) found that middle school students’ academic
achievement increased where teachers and administrators had high expectations for
themselves, and had a stronger professional and emotional support among themselves.
In comparison, this was found to be true at Success Learning Center where
teachers, administrators, and the entire school staff held high expectations for
everyone associated with the school. Teachers who held high expectations for their
students and incorporated teaching practices to help develop students’ self-confidence
and self-esteem had a positive effect on students’ learning outcomes and academic
achievement in Math. Moreover, teachers’ who employed practices that gave
students’ opportunities to assess their own learning in a less threatening manner
eliminated the fear of failing and boosted students’ self-confidence and self-esteem.
Teachers in low-performing schools might implement practices to promote
underserved students’ learning outcomes by engaging students in challenging, hands-
on activities that require them to practice new skills that incorporate the interests of
students and that relate to life outside the classroom.
Students who were allowed to engage in activities to monitor their
comprehension by summarizing, self-questioning, clarifying, and predicting showed
an increase in their cognitive skills, and gained a better understanding of how to
handle school-based knowledge in learning experiences in and out of school.
Teachers at low performing middle schools can help underserved students with
their learning outcomes by setting high expectations for all students regardless of race,
ethnicity, class, gender, social status, or ability. Furthermore, by creating a supportive,
105
caring climate of encouragement and providing extra time and help for students who
need it, which may have a positive effect on underserved students’ academic learning.
How Findings Might Inform Districts’ Policies
Relating to Teaching and Students’ Learning
A new perspective is needed on the concept of effective instructional practices
used by teachers in middle schools because policymakers are looking for ways to
increased students’ basic skills and expand their intellectual capacity to provide
students with greater breadth and depth of content knowledge in a variety of
disciplines; to increase their ability to maintain different representations of knowledge
simultaneously, which will permit new combinations of knowledge; and to expand a
broader range and more spontaneous use of strategies and procedures for applying and
gaining knowledge (Keating, 1990, p. 37).
Administrators and teachers are looking for effective teaching practices for
teaching and learning to happen on a continuous basis. Therefore, findings from this
study might inform districts’ policies relating to teaching and students’ learning in
several ways: (a) by creating policies that provide an accelerated and rich core
curriculum consisting of topics that provide the academic knowledge students’ need
for graduation, and the skills needed for practical life application; (b) by creating
policies to develop curriculum that make connections to real-life events as well as
academic subjects; (c) by implementing policies that allow authentic assessments for
all students; and (d) by implementing policies that allow for more in-service training
106
for teachers to learn how to develop rigorous curriculum that challenges students to
think critically, and to use complex problem-solving skills.
The present study found that when teachers used instructional practices that
allowed students the opportunity to work in collaborative small groups or with a
partner, some students’ academic performance increased. Further findings from this
study showed that students who worked in collaborative small groups or with a partner
developed skills needed for real life situations, and displayed citizenship
characteristics needed in a multicultural society, which suggests that districts might
use the findings from this study to develop policies that incorporate culturally
responsive teaching in in-service programs on diversity for new teachers.
Furthermore, this study might inform district policies on teaching and students’
learning by developing policies that allow teachers to use instructional practices where
students can partnership on-line to learn with students across continents. Kleiman
(1998) found that graphics, word processing programs, and desktop publishing
programs allowed students to be creative and develop professional projects, and to
share their creativity with others, which was accomplished through the World Wide
Web to capture a real world audience where students received feedback, thereby
building authenticity (Kleiman, 1998).
Similar to Kleiman’s (1998) study, this present study found that all six teachers
used some form of technology-based instruction to motivate and to actively engage
their students in learning. The teachers allowed their students to create similar
projects by using technology, with various computer and software programs that could
107
be presented over the World Wide Web. Moreover, the study also found that African
American students were more motivated to complete assignments that allowed them to
use technology because they were given opportunities to demonstrate their creativity
by using different software programs, making power point presentations, adding
graphics and symbols, animations, and other creative designs to their projects. Some
students’ creativity was displayed in the finished project of their African mask.
It was found that African American students worked harder and more efficient
and proficient with technology-based instruction than with directed instruction or
guided practice-instruction which suggests that the findings from this study might
inform districts to implement policies to allow underserved students to use more
technology-based instruction to create projects of their choice that can be published
over the World Wide Web, which may increase underserved students’ learning
outcomes and performance in core academic classes.
The present study might further inform districts to implement policies that
allow teachers to become more technological advanced in order to use technology-
based instruction to facilitate and improve the learning outcomes and performance of
underserved students.
Findings from this study might further inform districts’ policies by
encouraging authentic assessment practices and strategies. Assessments, when aligned
with national standards, can play a pivotal role in promoting rigorous academic
achievement for all students by communicating the academic goals for schools,
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teachers, and students, and by providing concrete targets for meaningful teaching and
learning (Vars, 2001).
In order for assessment to support the kinds of teaching and learning
envisioned for all students, it must be authentic (2001). In addition, to communicating
the kind of intellectual work expected from students, teachers must use instructional
practices that teach students to think critically, to construct answers that move beyond
factual knowledge, and to build cognitive strategies that will enable them to process
and respond to new information. This study might inform new policies by allowing
teachers to develop their own authentic assessments tools to assess the learning
outcomes of underserved students.
Authentic assessment has several benefits for teaching and learning. First, it
places students at the center of their own learning and reinforces the notion of
individual and continuous progress. Second, it increases student involvement in
setting goals, determining methods of learning, and self-evaluation. Third, students
who are trying hard but cannot make top grades (or even passing grades) will be more
motivated to work towards standards when they have authentic assessment tasks to
evaluate and represent their learning. Finally, authentic assessment provides teachers
with more information about their students than they can glean from traditional, fact-
based, multiple-choice tests.
The present study might inform districts’ to create policies that allow teachers
to examine their students’ work and use scoring guides to assess their students’
performance. By implementing such policies, teachers can better understand the
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strengths and weaknesses of their students’ learning and reflect on their own practices
and strategies, and use them to modify instructional approaches accordingly, by
keeping the ones that work and discarding the practices that don’t work to effect
changes in students’ learning outcomes and performance.
How Finding Might Be Useful for Educators in Planning
Teachers’ Pre-service Education Programs
According to Bowers (2000), teachers must develop instructional approaches
that are effective when teaching students. Findings from this study might be useful in
planning teachers’ pre-service education programs by implementing programs to teach
teachers how to differentiate between instructional practices that delivery information
to students and implementing practices that allow them to “construct knowledge” for
themselves, participate in “disciplined inquiry,” and pursue continuous practices
where they can become “diagnosticians,” tailoring individualized teaching plans for
every student, and teaching every student according to his or her individual needs.
This study found that teachers did develop lessons that incorporated various
learning modalities to accommodate the various needs and learning preferences of
their students, which helped students’ to the learn content in subject areas.
To accomplish this, teachers must have a deep content knowledge of the
subject(s) they are teaching, and have the instructional skills needed to help their
students develop understanding within and across disciplines (Goldhaber, 2001).
Elmore, Peterson, and McCarthy (1996) suggest that the current focus on education
programs, policies, and organizational changes will not alter the static condition of
110
students’ academic performance until professional development for teachers and
administrators become the focus of education reform efforts.
They further argue that professional development is the key element to bridge
policy and changes in instructional practices that will effect changes in students’
performance. Goldhaber (2001) argued that deep subject knowledge facilitates a
teacher’s ability to guide students’ through exploration, construction of knowledge,
and assessing students’ learning. Educational programs and districts’ administrators
need to provide multiple support mechanisms and strategies to help teachers learn how
to implement curriculum that is rigorous, and focuses on deep understanding within
and across disciplines.
Findings from this study might be useful in providing appropriate professional
development opportunities for teachers in order to develop compatible students’
assessment instruments that will give teachers a better understanding of students’
abilities and capabilities, especially for underserved and low performing students.
Implications for Teachers
Fundamental to the democratic belief in education, teachers are supposed to
provide an education to children with the expectation that all children will learn from
his/her teacher and the expectations of ensuring the highest possible educational
attainment to children of all backgrounds, cultures, ethnicities, and social status (Wiles
& Bondi, 2001). To ensure this, teachers are expected to be effective, highly skilled,
high performing individuals who possess a repertoire of skills and strategies to make
111
learning happen for every student in the classroom (Dill et al., 1990). The
implications for teachers, as derived from this study are:
1. Allow for collaborative small groups activities that link students by
areas of interest and provide guidelines to facilitate their own research and manage
their own time schedule.
2. Develop lessons that connect to real-life experiences and real-world
events to create interests and motivation to learn the material.
3. Develop lessons that are culturally relevant and developmentally
appropriate to encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning.
4. Develop a challenging curriculum to see what it looks like and how it
will fit students’ needs.
5. Generate student-centered activities and projects that encourage
participation from all students.
6. Maintain high expectations for students
7. Gradually release control and responsibility of learning to students.
Other implications include a change in teachers’ beliefs about teaching and
how teaching affects students’ learning outcomes and performance. Instead of waiting
on well researched studies to provide the information needed on instructional
approaches and how they effect changes in students’ learning and performance,
middle school teachers should be asking questions about teaching and learning, and
seeking answers from their students by reviewing students’ performance and
assessment data.
112
Low performing schools can use data to initiate and continue improvement in
schools, and improvement in teachers’ instructional practices to raise students’
achievement and increase students’ classroom participation. Teachers in low
performing schools can help to examine what is working and throw out what is not
working and encourage each other to look for answers in their own classrooms. This
study found that several teachers were instrumental in facilitating new practices and
encouraging other teachers to try new approaches.
Teachers’ can arrange study groups to examine students’ data and use other
professional resources and tools to make recommendations for changes in schools’
policies, procedures, and instructional practices. Middle school students cannot wait
for the perfect study to come along because they need to be prepared for high school
and beyond. They need to learn how to become responsible citizens, capable
individuals, and productive world producers in this global society.
Middle school teachers need to use the best approaches, skills, strategies,
techniques, and resources available to them to make educating a new generation of
learners possible. Over time, both scientific and action research will determine with
greater certainty what instructional approaches and practices are best to use to effect
changes in middle school students’ learning outcomes and performances.
Recommendations for Further Research
Since this study was limited to one urban middle school and six teachers, it is
recommended that further research be conducted to include a larger number of urban
middle schools, and a larger number of teachers and students. The study was also
113
limited to a time frame of 6 weeks. It is recommended that a new study cover a longer
period of time.
It is further recommended that a new study include elementary and high school
teachers to determine if the same instructional approaches are used by these teachers
and how these practices might effect changes in elementary and high groups of
students’ learning outcomes and performance, specifically, African American
students’ learning and performance in core academic subjects, such as Math and
Science where minority students have the greatest difficult.
Finally, it is recommended that further research be conducted on teachers’
attitudes, beliefs, thinking, and planning for instruction in predominately diverse
classrooms to change old paradigms and instructional practices. These
recommendations are imperative if changes in teaching practices are to occur.
114
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APPENDIX A
SOLICITATION LETTER TO TEACHERS
Dear Teachers,
As part of the requirement to obtain the Doctorate of Education Degree from the
University of Southern California, I am asking you to participate in a research study
conducted by myself, Precious Flemings, under the advisement of Etta R. Hollins,
Ph.D., at the Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California, because
you are a middle school teacher.
You were selected as possible participants in the study because I am interested in
instructional approaches of urban middle school teachers to identify approaches used
that might have a positive effect on African American students’ learning outcomes and
performance. A total of 10 teachers from various LAUSD middle schools will be
solicited. Therefore, I need teachers who teach subjects in English/Language Arts,
Math, History, and Science, and who have been teaching at least two years to take part
in an interview process so I may gather information regarding his/her instructional
approaches in teaching middle school students, and to see what effect these have on
students’ outcomes and performance.
I would also like to observe the teacher in his/her classroom during one instructional
period after the interview process is completed. The interviews will take
approximately 45 minutes to one hour, with a maximum of two interviews per teacher.
The teacher may schedule times convenient for him/her. Participation in the study is
strictly voluntary, no teacher’s identify will be revealed, and the information gathered
will be kept confidential and secure.
If you are interested in participating in this educational study to contribute to empirical
research on urban middle school teachers’ instructional approaches that may have an
effect on the learning outcomes and performance of African American students, please
contact me at the information listed below. Thanks for your time and interest.
The contact information is:
PF:
127
APPENDIX B
PREINTERVIEW PROTOCOL QUESTIONS
The Pre-Interview Protocol and Questions
I will use these questions for my purposeful sampling strategy to select subjects to
participate in this study, and as my criteria to determine what I consider to be an
effective, high-performing, highly-skilled teacher.
1. What inspired you to become a teacher?
2. How long have you been teaching?
3. How long have you been credentialed in the subject area you teach?
4. How long have you been teaching at this particular school?
5. What do you find rewarding about teaching?
6. What defines you as an expert in your profession?
7. What is your definition of an effective, high-performing teacher?
8. Do you consider yourself to be an effective, high-performing teacher? Why?
9. At the beginning of each new school year, what is the one unique thing you do
to prepare yourself for your students?
10. What are your expectations for your students? Why?
11. Are these expectations posted in the classroom so the students can see them?
12. Is there anything else you would like to tell me about yourself?
Thanks for you time. These are all the questions I have at this time. However, I
would like to schedule another appointment to have one last interview session, and I
would also like to observe you one time in your classroom, one period only, teaching a
lesson. Will you call me to schedule an appointment when it’s convenient for you to
let me to observe your classroom instruction?
128
APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL AND CASE STUDY GUIDELINES
Interview Protocol and Guidelines for the Qualitative Case Study
Case Study Phenomenon: To identify instructional approaches employed by urban
middle school teachers to effect changes in African American students’ learning
outcomes and performance.
This research phenomenon will be studied by several interviews and observations of
urban middle school teachers’ in their natural settings to gather data about
instructional approaches used to teach their students to determine if these approaches
have any effects on African American students’ learning outcomes and performance.
Guidelines for the Interview:
1. Introduction: The investigator will contact the principals of perspective schools
to gain permission for entry, and permission to solicit teachers to participate in
the study. A letter will be placed in the teachers mailboxes to solicit participants.
All interested participants will be asked to contact the researcher via email,
phone call, or personal letter.
2. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study will be explained by the
investigator, which is to gain insight on urban middle school teachers’
instructional approaches in thinking and planning to teach African American
middle school students to determine if these approaches impact African
American students’ outcomes and performances.
3. Main Points of Interview: The investigator will inform participants that the
interviews may last up to one hour and permission to use an audio-tape to record
responses/comments is needed to ensure accuracy and validity of the interview.
The investigator will review the significance of the study with participants
before any interviews take place.
4. Permission Granted: After gaining permission to start the interviewing process,
the investigator will re-check equipment, file the consent forms in an appropriate
place, and secure location for the interview to be conducted without intrusions,
interruptions, or unwarranted noises from outsiders. The interviews will be
limited to two per week, ranging between 45 minutes to an hour, and will cover a
period of six weeks.
129
APPENDIX D
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Research Question #1: What instructional approaches do urban middle school
teachers’ employ to effect changes in African American students’ learning outcomes
and performance?
Interview questions asked of teachers:
1. What is the first thing you do when planning to teach a lesson?
2. What resources do you use in planning your lesson?
3. Are the resources determined by the district, the principal, or do you decide
what is appropriated to use for your students?
4. What instructional approach do you use when teaching your students?
5. What is your preferred instructional approach?
6. What approach do you think African American students respond best?
7. If/when you use this approach; do you look for specific learning outcomes and
performance?
8. Do your students get the “Big Picture” the first time the lesson is taught,
especially your African American students?
9. If your students don’t get the “Big Picture” the first time, what approach or
strategy do you use to re-teach for higher outcomes and performance?
130
Research Question #2: What assessment strategies do urban middle school teachers’
use to assess the learning outcomes African American students?
Interview questions asked of teachers:
1. When assessing your students performance and learning outcomes, what
assessment approach do you use?
2. Is this assessment approach part of the district’s curriculum standard for
evaluating students?
3. Which assessment approach do you prefer?
4. Do you think this assessment approach work well with African American
students?
5. If you did not use this approach, is there any other assessment that you would
use to assess your African American students’ learning and performance?
6. Have you had any professional development opportunities to assist you in
using this approach?
7. Were there any incentives for participating in these professional development
opportunities?
Research Question #3: What instructional approaches are most likely to have a
positive effect on African American students’ academic performance in core subjects,
such as English/Language Arts, History, Math, and Science?
Interview questions asked of teachers:
1. Since you consider yourself to be an effective, highly-skilled, high-performing
teacher, what approach do you use to get high performance from your
students?
2. Have you witnessed any positive changes in the learning outcomes and
performance of your African American students with this approach?
3. Do you think that you will continue to you this approach or some other
practice to get high outcomes from your students?
131
4. Research indicates that some African American students in urban middle
schools are failing their core academic classes (English/Language Arts,
History, Math, Science) at a high rate than compared to White students in these
same classes, what is an appropriate or a suitable instructional approach for
teachers to use to teach African American students in these core classes?
5. What instructional approach do you think might effect changes in African
American students’ learning outcomes and performance in core subjects, such
as Math and Science?
6. Have you had any special in-service training on using this approach in your
teaching practices?
7. How can this practice be implemented in other subjects to achieve the same
results?
8. Do you share ideas with your colleagues about an approach that works and
approaches that don’t work to effect changes in your African American
students’ learning outcomes and performance?
9. These are all the questions I have for you on this topic. Is there anything else
that you would like to add or go over again?
I want to thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to participate in
my study. I appreciate your thoughtfulness and honesty in answering the
questions. Let me reassure you that all of your responses will be kept confidential
and secure, and I will share the finding of this study when my dissertation is
approved for publication.
Once again, thanks for your assistance. You have contributed to an empirical research
study that has potential to influence urban middle school teachers’ in their
instructional approaches to teach African American students throughout America.
132
APPENDIX E
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Observation Protocol Guidelines
School Site: Success Learning Center, a K-12 School
I. Describe the School:
A. Physical Appearance/Environment/Outdoor Upkeep
1. How does the school look from the outside?
2. Are there any distinguishing marks, signs, etc.?
3. How does the classroom look on the inside?
4. How does the teacher greet the students as they enter the classroom?
5. Are there any distinguishing work of students on the walls?
6. Does the teacher interact with students? How is student participation
elicited?
II. Teachers’ Classroom
B. Describe the Characteristics of the Classroom:
1. Describe the arrangement of the room
2. Where does the teacher sit, at the desk or in another place?
3. What class and period is the investigator observing?
4. If applicable ask for copies of the instructional lesson plan and materials.
Specify what is wanted and number of copies if necessary.
Ms. Appleblossom’s classroom
Ms. Peabody’s classroom
Same questions apply
Ms. Actress’s classroom
Same questions apply
Mr. Goodbody’s classroom
Same questions apply
Ms. Congeniality’s classroom
Same questions apply
Ms. Funtucket’s classroom
Same questions apply
133
APPENDIX F
THANK YOU NOTE TO PRINCIPAL AND TEACHERS
Dear Principal Wills,
I want to take this opportunity to thank you and your wonderful staff, especially the
teachers who participated in my research study. You and your teachers demonstrated
a degree of professionalism that was very positive and contagious for a middle school
environment. The time I spent at your school, interviewing and observing your
teachers was very exciting, and I will forever be grateful for this experience and
opportunity that you and your staff provided to me. If it had not been for you and your
teachers, my research project would not have come to fruition. Thanks for granting
me the privilege to enter your school.
Dear Teachers,
Thanks for letting me interview you, and observing you in your classrooms. I know
that I intruded on time that you really didn’t have to share, but you allowed me to
enter your worlds anyways. I will forever be grateful to all of you for your
participation in my research study. Thanks so much.
APPENDIX G
RAW DATA TABLES 8 AND 9
Table 8. Instructional Approaches Identified from Interviews with Teachers
Areas of
exploration
Teacher
#16-Science
Teacher
#20-Math
Teacher
#22-History
Teacher
#25-L/A
Teacher
#50-History
Teacher
#75-L/A
Areas of
exploration
Teacher
#16-Science
Teacher
#20-Math
Teacher
#22-Hisory.
Teacher
#25-L/A
Teacher
#50-History
Teacher
#75-L/A
Instructional
approaches
employed to teach
minority students,
specially, African
American students
Real-world
connection
Standards related
Relevance to the
students
How it relates to
the students
Standards, aim
Importance of
real-life lesson to
students
Relations to world
events
Standards,
objectives
Important words
they should learn
Cultural relevance
Standards
Past, historical
relevance life
lessons
Relates to
students culture
Standard
aims
Connect to prior
Knowledge
Modify lessons to
needs of students
Standards
related
Students to see
how lesson relates
to every day life
Instructional
approaches used
by effective,
highly-skilled
teachers to produce
high-outcomes
from African
American students
Direct Instruction
Cooperative
learning groups
Peer tutoring
Cooperative
learning
Direct instruction
Direct instruction
Technology,
review
Cooperative
groups
Role play
Interactive
instruction
Visuals, auditory,
kinesthetic
High expectations
Cooperative
learning
Peer tutoring
Direct instruction
Cooperative
learning
134
Instructional
approaches
employed to
assess African
American
students
learning
outcomes
Rubrics
Tests,
Essays
Projects graded by
rubrics
Tests based on
concepts and
material
Mini quizzes,
Review and
reteach
Essay exams
Multiple choice
Oral exam
Rubric based
projects
Essays
Reflection writing
Rubrics based on
standards
Multiple choice
questions
Essays
Projects based on
theme of lesson
Essays writing
Rubrics
Oral testing
Instructional
approaches that
are most likely
to have a
positive effect
on African
American
students
academic
performance in
core subjects
Cooperative
learning groups
Interaction with
teacher
Group projects
High expectation,
clear objectives
Clear objectives
and high
expectations
Review concepts
and retest
Practice with
partner
Cooperative
learning groups
Class size
reduction
Small group
High expectations
Review and
reteach
Hands-on
interaction music,
storytelling
Role play high
expectations
Cooperative
groups and peer
tutoring
Groups limited to
four
Technology base
projects
High expectations
even with low
achievers
Clear objectives
Role play, music,
story-telling
High expectations
Teacher interaction
with students
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 8 (continued).
135
Table 9. Instructional Approaches Identified from Analysis of Raw Data
Planning for instruction of minority students, specifically African American
middle school students
Background knowledge
Cultural relevance
Clear objectives
Interesting to students
Importance to students life
Real world connection
Prior knowledge of content
Approaches used by effective, highly-skilled teachers to produce high
outcomes from African American students
Build confidence and self-esteem in students
Carefully planned and clear obtainable objectives
High expectations for students and personal
relationship with students
Positive learning environment
Provide small cooperative learning groups
Provide safe and orderly classroom
Physically attractive classroom
Ownership of learning
Rubric based projects
Use current learning material and use of technology
in the classroom
Approaches used to assess African American students’ learning outcomes
and performance
Group collaboration
Oral and written responses
Rubrics aligned to the curriculum
Simulation of real-life contextual activities
Technology based projects
Simulation of real-life contextual activities
136
Table 9 (continued)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Approaches that are most likely to have positive effect on African
American students’ academic performance in core subjects
Continuous assessment to determine concepts learned and knowledge
obtained
Engaged in constant review to allow students to ask questions and
receive answers to questions
Established routines and rituals balanced with excitement
Group-centered learning activities
Technology related activities
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
137

Abstract (if available)

Abstract A qualitative case study research design was used to identify instructional approaches used by urban middle school teachers to effect changes in African American students' learning outcomes and performance. The impetus for this study derived from a lack of research on instructional approaches used by urban middle school teachers to teach African American students that may have a positive effect on their learning outcomes and performance in core academic subjects such as English/Language Arts, History, Math, and Science classes.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Flemings, M. Precious B. (author)

Core Title "Thinking in the middle" what instructional approaches are employed by urban middle school teachers to effect changes in African American students' learning outcomes and performances?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/09/2007

Defense Date 08/15/2006

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American students,instructional approaches,learning outcomes,math,OAI-PMH Harvest,performance,Science,urban middle school teachers

Place Name California (states), Los Angeles (counties), school districts: Los Angeles Unified School District (geographic subject), USA (countries)

Language English

Advisor Hollins, Etta R. (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo T. (committee member), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member)

Creator Email drpflemphillips@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m783

Unique identifier UC1473175

Identifier etd-Flemings-20070809 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-537379 (legacy record id),usctheses-m783 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Flemings-20070809.pdf

Dmrecord 537379

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Flemings, M. Precious B.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu