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A study of student affairs administration professional preparation in Chinese higher education
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Content
A STUDY OF STUDENT AFFAIRS ADMINISTRATION PROFESSIONAL
PREPARATION IN CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION
by
Jing Li
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2009
Copyright 2009 Jing Li
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply grateful to my chair Dr. Melora Sundt for all of her support
and guidance not only during my work on the dissertation but throughout my six
years of graduate study at the Rossier School of Education. I could not have
started, continued, or completed my doctoral degree without her nurturing support
and patient guidance. She has served as more than a professor, a mentor, an
advisor and a dissertation chair. She has been a great friend, as well as her
family. I am grateful to all of them.
My dissertation project has been made possible through the assistance of
numerous individuals and institutions. I would like to begin by thanking Dr.
Clayton Dube, the associate director of the US-China Institute, who generously
provided support through the Summer Fieldwork Grant which made possible my
data collection at three Chinese universities in Beijing. I am grateful to Dr. Mike
Diamond, Dr. Mark Robison, Dr. Alex Jun, and Dr. Si-zhao Qin for their support
connecting me to the participating universities in China. I would like to give
special thanks to Dr. Kristan Venegas and Lisa Galvan for their untiring support. I
wish to thank all of the 52 participants in my study. Their contributions are
equally appreciated.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my family. I thank my grandmother
for inspiring me to go to the U.S. to study. I appreciate all of the love, friendship,
support and encouragement from my husband Chang Yan. I am extremely
iii
grateful for my baby daughter Harmony Ann Lin Yan-Li for all the joy, hope and
strength she has brought and will continue to bring in my life.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
Background 2
Statement of the Problem 5
Propose of the Study 9
Brief Description of the Methodology 11
Significance of the Study 12
Limitations 13
Outline of the Dissertation by Chapter 14
CHAPTER TWO: AN OVERVIEW OF THE CHINESE
HIGHER EDUCATION HISTORY 16
Introduction 16
The Origin of Chinese Higher Education 16
The Inception of Western-style Colleges and Universities in China 18
The Reforms of 1905 20
Higher Education during the Nationalistic Period (1911-1949) 22
Socialist Higher Education in the People’s Republic of China
(1949-1966) 23
The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) 26
The Transitional Years after the Cultural Revolution (1977-1980) 29
Higher Education Reforms after the
Open Door Policy (1980 – current) 31
The Mission of Chinese Higher Education 36
Academic Freedom in China 38
Ideological Values in the Chinese Higher Education 42
Summary 45
CHAPTER THREE: THE U.S. STUDENT
AFFAIRS PROFESSIONALS 50
American Guiding Values and Principles for Student Affairs
in Higher Education 51
Curriculum Structure and Contents for Student Affairs
Master’s Programs by CAS 55
v
Objectives of American Higher Education 57
Academic freedom in the Untied States 58
Student Affairs Administration in American Higher Education 62
Leadership in Student Affairs Profession 66
A Comparison and Analysis between the U.S. and China in
Student Affairs Profession 67
CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY 71
Introduction 71
Sample and Population 74
Instrumentation 76
Data Collection 80
Data Analysis 85
CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS 88
A Description of the Sample 88
Role in the university 89
The students 90
The faculty 91
The administrators 93
The Organization of Student Affairs Administration in
Chinese Higher Education 96
A general review of the organizational chart 96
People in specific positions talking about
their responsibilities 101
The Challenges in the Professional Development of
Chinese Student Affairs Administrators 134
The Educational Philosophies Held by Chinese
Faculty and Administrators 146
Purpose of Higher Education 147
Whom should higher education serve? 152
What do students gain? 156
The relationship between the university and students 161
The Practical Challenges for Chinese Faculty and
Administrators When Working with Students 171
A division between teaching and student affairs
since 1980s 171
A long journey: from conducting mandatory collective
political study to an awareness of personalized services 172
Students’ addiction to internet 181
Students’ Psychological Problems 182
Students’ Vocational Counseling 188
Residential Life 192
vi
Academic Support 193
Financial Aid 196
Interpersonal Skills 197
Students’ Greatest Concerns According to Faculty,
Administrators and the Students Themselves 198
The longitudinal perspective 199
The general perspective 200
The laser lens 201
The perceived challenges and concerns by students 207
The gap of the perceived students’ most concerns
and challenges by faculty and administrators versus
students themselves 216
The Parts of CAS Standards that the Chinese Faculty and
Administrators Believe Suitable in Chinese Context 217
An objective and a special emphasis in a Chinese
student affairs master’s program 217
The applicability of foundational studies in a
Chinese student affairs master’s program 222
The applicability of the study of U.S. student development
theory for a Chinese student affairs master’s program 228
The applicability of the study of student characteristics
and the effects of college on students in a Chinese student
affairs master’s program 231
The applicability of the study of individual and group
interventions in a Chinese student affairs master’s program 233
The applicability of the study of the organization and
administration of student affairs in a Chinese student
affairs master’s program 234
The applicability of the study of assessment,
evaluation and research 235
The applicability of supervised practice
in the CAS standards 236
The applicability of CAS statement of shared
ethical principles 238
The applicability of CAS characteristics of individual
excellence for professional practice in higher education 242
Characteristics of Chinese student affairs administrators 243
General knowledge for Chinese student affairs
administrators 247
General skills for Chinese student affairs administrators 249
Comments from Chinese student affairs administrators
on CAS Characteristics of individual excellence 250
vii
Recommendations Offered by Chinese Faculty and
Administrators about a Student Affairs Master’s Program 254
What kind of students would be interested in
doing student affairs work? 254
Where to find the students interested in a master’s
program in student affairs? 256
A doctoral degree in student affairs administration 260
Recommendations on the joint master’s program
in student affairs 262
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION 265
Summary 265
Discussion 271
Areas for Future Research 275
Implications for Practice 279
Conclusion 280
REFERENCES 283
APPENDIX A: Interview Protocol (for Chinese faculty
members and administrators) 296
APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol (for Chinese
undergraduate and graduate student) 300
viii
LIST OF TABLES
1 Number of the Administrators, Faculty Members and Students
being Interviewed in the Three Universities 78
2 A Distribution of the Student Status and Gender of the 24 Students
in the Three Universities 91
3 Rank Distribution among Faculty Participants 93
4 The List of the Job Titles of the 19 Interviewed Student Affairs
Administrators 95
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
1 The Typical Organizational Figure of a Student Affairs
Administration System in University 98
2 The Classifications of Student Affairs in China 100
x
ABSTRACT
This dissertation examined the applicability of the Council for the
Advancement of Standards in higher education (CAS) that guide the U.S. student
affairs master’s programs to a Chinese higher education context to prepare
Chinese student affairs administrators. Fifty two Chinese faculty members,
student affairs administrators and students from three Chinese universities
participated in the interviews and focus groups. The findings illustrated the
organizational structure for Chinese student affairs administration among the
participating universities, the educational philosophies held by the Chinese faculty
and administrators and the practical challenges facing Chinese faculty and
administrators in their working with students. The research suggests the US CAS
standards are culturally grounded, and China needs to study its own students to
develop its own culturally relevant theories to guide Chinese student affairs
practice. The study recommends that a joint student affairs master’s program
between a U.S. university and a Chinese university should not address the values
of the Chinese political system, but instead to help Chinese universities think
about the process by which they could develop their own standards for such
programs.
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Sulfuric acid was thrown on five black bears in the national zoo by a
senior college student from the most prestigious university as a scientific
experiment to test the smell sensitivity of these animals (Li & Wu, 2002). Another
college student put a three-month old dog in the microwave to heat up and the dog
was badly burned (Shi, 2002). A senior biology student, once the second place
winner in the national Olympic physics competition, killed his four roommates in
the dormitory and the university did not discover the crimes until one week later
(Jiang, 2004 ; Lin, 2005). In 2005, a series of student suicides was reported
among universities across the country; at one college within one month three
female post-graduate students and one male undergraduate student killed
themselves (Bai, 2006). Indeed, a 2006 report on student health at colleges and
institutions found that more than 60 percent of undergraduates were experiencing
moderate or severe mental health illnesses (www.chinanews.cn), and more than
twenty-five percent of university students in major cities acknowledged to have
had suicidal thoughts (Bai, 2006). Suicide remains the leading cause of death
among the youth between ages 15-24 (http://news.jongo.com).
You may guess that these events happened in the United States, the
country with a large higher education system and the stereotype of being attacked
by terrorism, gun violence and psychological isolation. However, these events
happened in China, the country with the largest population in the world
2
(Rosenberg, 2008). With 1 percent of the world’s total education budget, China
trains 25 percent of the worlds’ student population (Postiglione, 2001; Hao,
2000). Thirteen percent of China’s government expenditures are allocated to
colleges and universities, a proportion lower than most developing countries
(Postiglione, 2001).
Without any supportive infrastructure readily available, 90 percent of the
students committing suicide had never received any kind of assistance, not to
mention professional help (Bai, 2006). The focus of this dissertation was to
examine the perceptions of Chinese faculty, student affairs administrators and
students regarding the role and preparation of student affairs administrators at
three Chinese universities, using the guidelines of the Council for the
Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS). As a starting point for
discussion, this study was an attempt to explore where a Chinese student affairs
preparation program might find common ground and potential areas for
partnership with U.S. programs.
Background
China’s college enrollments have continued to expand since Deng
Xiaoping’s Open Door Policy in 1978. The total enrollment of higher education
students reached 856,000 in 1978. It soared to 2.066 million in 1988 (Statistical
Yearbook of China, 1988). The enrollment increase rates in 1990, 1995 and 2000
were 3.4 percent, 7.2 percent, and 11 percent respectively (Rui, 2002). In 2005,
3
sixteen million students attended postsecondary education (Statistical Yearbook
of China, 2006), a seven-fold increase compared to 1978.
Contemporary Chinese higher education is transitioning from elitist to
mass education. In the early 1980s, only four percent of high school graduates
gained admission to China’s colleges and universities (Ouyang & Ouyang, 2005).
In 1999, 49% of Chinese high school graduates were admitted (Postiglione,
2001). Currently, out of 2.6 million Chinese high school graduates every year 1.3
million, 10 percent of that age group (Min, 2001), were admitted into Chinese
higher education (Rui, 2001). In 1999, the Ministry of Education issued the
Action Plan to Vitalize Education in the 21
st
Century aimed for a gross enrollment
increase rate of 15 percent by 2010 (Rui, 2002). One of the goals of the Tenth
Five-Year Plan (2001-2005) was to raise the total enrollment rate of higher
education up to 15 percent of the age group (Ouyang & Ouyang, 2005), because
the international standard for enrollment rates for mass education is 15%.
The tremendous growth in enrollment is a result of the rapid economic
development in China. Ever since Deng Xiao Ping’s Open Door Policy, China has
shifted from a static, state-controlled and centrally planned economy to a
dynamic, free-market mechanism socialist economy (Min, 2001). Education at all
levels has been the fastest growing enterprise in Chinese society (Min, 2001). At
the same time, the Chinese government has paid close attention to the
development of Chinese higher education. Chinese leaders see a strategic
4
advantage in providing a reputable education for future leaders and an improved
working life. In 1993, the Chinese government announced the 211 Higher
Education Project, which aimed to develop 100 top universities for the 21
st
century (Hayhoe & Pan, 2005). In 1998, President Jiang Zemin launched the 985
World-Class University Project, with the purpose of providing high-level funding
to the nine top institutions with the greatest potential to succeed internationally
(Hayhoe & Pan, 2005). Thus, both economic and political forces have contributed
to the quantitative growth in Chinese higher education.
The quantitative expansion of Chinese higher education has been
accompanied by an increasing interest in quality. The top Chinese universities
position themselves to compete with Harvard, Oxford, Yale and the Sorbonne to
gain greater respect in the international community (Mohrman, 2005). Chinese
academics in the natural and physical sciences talk about “catching up to Western
research”; Chinese professors in humanities and social sciences pay great
attention to Chinese traditional culture such as in literature and history (Mohrman,
2005). Meanwhile, China’s entry into the World Trade Organization has led to
greater openness to foreign influences and more joint efforts with Western
universities (Postiglione, 2001). As a result, China’s universities have been
increasingly influenced by economic globalization, domestic market forces, and
cross-cultural academic exchanges. There is growing interest in joint-degree
5
programs between Chinese universities and foreign colleges to improve
competition, teaching quality and international scholarship (Min, 2001).
With the rapid expansion of domestic student enrollments and rapid
development of international collaborations, there has been a widespread concern
about quality (Ming, 2001; Yang & Yeung, 2002). In 2000, the official Xinhua
Wenzhai , an authoritative magazine on behalf of the Communist Party, published
an article by Bao Guoqing claiming that China’s entry into the World Trade
Organization (WTO) would be a accelerator to lift Chinese education up to
international standards, lead to individual growth, and foster freedom (Rui, 2001).
He assumed that by opening the door to foreign influences and expanding access
to higher education, the market itself would take care of any problem in higher
education. Contrary to this assumption, college student crisis issues have been
increasing. Consequently, Chinese universities have begun to look at American
student affairs strategies and models to help deal with the increase in student
problems on Chinese campuses.
Statement of the Problem
Foreign colleges are interested in partnering with Chinese colleges as a
way of exporting their educational products which are cheap to put in place and
attractive to local markets (Altbach, 2006). The partnering motives of these
foreign colleges can be either commercial or academic, but commercial benefits
usually play a primary role (Altbach, 2006). The Chinese official from the State
6
Planning Commission publicly depicted Chinese higher education as an
investment market with great potential for economic growth (Rui, 2001). It is not
unusual for a Chinese economist to state publicly that education is a commodity
(Rui, 2001). Thus, shared economic interests between Chinese and foreign
universities bring about joint programs in areas of business management,
medicine and information technology. Some American and European institutions
partnering with China to provide direct exposure for their own students to study
Chinese language, history, and culture as an integrated internationalization
strategy (Altbach, 2006). However, there are few collaborative degree programs
between China and Western countries in higher education administration.
College administrative services related to improving the quality of
student life, student culture, student retention, and student development remain
largely ignored in China. Under the Chinese 985 World-class University Project,
six out of the first nine selected institutions are science-oriented, and three are
comprehensive. Peking University and Tsinghua University in Beijing each
received $ 225 million, and Fudan University in Shanghai received $150 million
(Mohrman, 2005). Preferential funding sets precedence for Chinese higher
education tradition to concentrate resources on a handful of key institutions with
an emphasis on scientific performance. Research in humanities is far behind
(Mohrman, 2005). There is little research on Chinese students’ development in
Chinese colleges and universities.
7
The education of students is regarded to be the primary objective of all
higher education institutions (Fuhrmann, 2002). The counterpart of the U.S.
student affairs administration in China is ideological education. In August 2004,
the Central Committee of the Communist Party in China issued the document
titled "Views on Further Strengthening and Improving Ideological and Political
Education for Students in Higher Education", which was usually referred to as the
16th Document. The 16
th
Document has been the programmatic document for
guiding the student affairs administration in Chinese higher education. The first
part of the Document argued that with the enrollment of 20,000,000 students in
colleges and universities, strengthening and improving ideological and political
education in Chinese higher education was an important and urgent strategic task.
The field of the ideological and political education was not good enough to adapt
to the new situation and circumstances. Some colleges did not place adequate
emphasis on the ideological education, neither had many ways to implement it.
The second part of the 16
th
Document (2004) pointed out the guiding
values for Chinese higher education student affairs work. One the one hand,
Chinese ideological and political education should be guided by and adhere to
Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and Three
Represents
1
. The core of Chinese student affairs was to develop students’ ideals
1
Three Represents is a socio-political ideology credited to General Secretary Jiang Zemin which
became a guiding ideology of the Communist Party of China at its 16
th
Party Congress in 2002.
The official statement of the ideology stipulates that the Communist Party of China should be
8
and beliefs, with a focus on patriotism and a basis for moral construction. On the
other hand, Chinese student affairs should be people-oriented and responsive to
the students. It must foster students’ development as a whole and make them
qualified socialist builders and reliable socialist successors.
The seventh part of the 16
th
Document (2004) was about vigorously
strengthening and building the arm of the student affairs administrators in their
ideological and political education work. Literally in Chinese, this part
emphasized strengthening ideological and political education disciplines to
cultivate specialized ideological and political education personnel. Using
American words, the 7
th
part in the 16
th
document referred to the professional
preparation and development for Chinese student affairs administrators to do a
good job in ideological education. With the guidance and support of the 16
th
document, Chinese universities are just beginning to show interest in the master’s
level preparation programs in the U.S. that train administrators to serve in student
affairs roles.
Colleges in the United States have a long history of providing a co-
curriculum (i.e., “student affairs”) focused on supporting student needs outside of
the classroom with the knowledge that these efforts enable students to be better
scholars. The leading programs in the U.S. base their curriculum on guidance
provided by the Council for Academic Standards (CAS). These standards,
representative to advanced social productive forces, advanced culture, and the interests of the
overwhelming majority.
9
however, are uniquely “American” in that their foundation is predicated on
theories of organizational and student development based on U.S. populations and
cultural values. Zheng (2005) claimed that adopting the “structure” of foreign
models without an understanding of their purposes would not help Chinese
universities perform effectively. There is little knowledge about the applicability
of the CAS standards which guides a U.S. student affairs master’s program to the
Chinese higher education context to prepare Chinese ideological educators.
Purpose of the Study
Student development in college is described as the holistic buildup of
individuals through interactions with the college environment in the U.S. (Brown,
1972). There is growing attention on the student affairs profession internationally
(Nuss, 2001). This research project was an attempt to explore to what extent the
aspects of American postsecondary student affairs administration are relevant and
useful to a system of higher education that is founded on a very different base of
political and social values in the Chinese context.
Specifically, the purpose of the dissertation was to develop
recommendations for how to adapt a U.S. Student Affairs Master program to the
needs of Chinese higher education by examining the need for student affairs
administration from the perspectives of Chinese university leaders, faculty and
students. The findings would help American universities better understand and
perhaps respond to challenges and issues facing Chinese higher education reform,
10
as well as encourage dialogue in ways that would successfully facilitate the
development of collaborative, transnational educational programs to cultivate
Chinese college student development.
There is one overarching research question. This dissertation focused on
understanding how three Chinese college faculty and administrators defined the
purpose/focus of a master’s degree in student affairs. We know we cannot simply
“drop” existing American curriculum into a Chinese University’s context. But
what should the program involve? The central research question is to what extent
would it be useful to structure a Chinese student affairs Master’s Program using
the U.S. CAS standards? There are several sub-questions. Specifically, I explored
the following:
1. How is student affairs administration organized in Chinese higher
education?
2. What are the educational philosophies held by Chinese faculty and
administrators?
3. What are the practical challenges facing Chinese faculty and
administrators in their work with students?
4. What are students’ greatest concerns, according to faculty,
administrators and the students themselves?
5. What parts of CAS standards do the Chinese faculty and
administrators believe to be relevant to the Chinese context?
11
6. What recommendations do Chinese faculty and administrators offer
about a student affairs master’s program?
Brief Description of the Methodology
Qualitative inquiry was appropriate for the exploratory nature of the
research question and the purpose of the dissertation. While quantitative methods
are most appropriately used in studies that seek to test hypothesis and theories
based on observable, measurable facts (Creswell, 2003; Glesne, 1999), qualitative
methods seek to understand from the view of the participants (Rist, 1977). Thus,
the researcher’s role in qualitative research is to understand how the participants
in a particular social setting understand the world around them (Glesne, 1999).
The qualitative researcher has the freedom to “explore a range of behavior”
(Glesne, 1999, p.6), and remains open to the information that emerges (Patton,
1990). The research questions of this study were centered on developing a
thorough understanding of how faculty members and administrators in Chinese
universities characterized the content and skills necessary to prepare future
student affairs professionals for their institutions. They were exploratory in
nature, so qualitative methodology was good to use. Interview and focus group
were conducted to 52 faculty, student affairs administrators and students in three
Chinese universities in Beijng.
12
Significance of the Study
With the enrollment expansion of higher education, there were
20,000,000 students in Chinese colleges and universities (Chen, 2006). However,
the increasing number of students in colleges and universities has not resulted in a
parallel improvement of services delivered to them in student affairs. College
administrative services related to improving the quality of student life, student
culture, student retention, and student development remain largely ignored.
Chinese college student affairs advisors originated from a political instructor
system (Wang, 2007). According to Wang (2007), the Central Committee of the
Communist Party founded the first military academy called Chinese Red Army of
Workers and Peasants University in 1933 to train military cadres. The political
department in the university was set up to take charge of the Party’s ideological
and political education to adapt students to the needs of the revolutionary war and
anti-Japanese war. The political ideological instructors were responsible for
students’ thinking, learning, living and health. The political instructor system still
exists in Chinese higher education in the 21
st
century, though it is now called the
higher education advisor system. Chinese universities are just beginning to show
interest in the U.S. master’s level preparation programs designed to train higher
education advisors (political instructors) to serve in student affairs roles in
Chinese colleges and universities.
13
The research on the applicability of a U.S. student affairs master’s
program to the Chinese context to prepare Chinese ideological education
administrators is almost nonexistent. Neither is there research on what a Chinese
student affairs master’s program should look like. Therefore, as a result of this
study, contributions to higher education might include: a) furnishing Chinese
higher education institutions with knowledge regarding how a Chinese student
affairs master’s program could start if they work on their own; b) providing
insights on how a joint program in student affairs master’s program between a
Chinese and U.S. university could focus collaboratively; and c) promoting
appreciation for cultural diversity and politics of differences, further facilitating
cross-cultural understanding, and as a result, creating opportunities for student
affairs administrators and faculty exchange in the two countries.
Limitation
The discrepancy in the quality of Chinese higher education between
rural areas and urban areas, as well as between the key universities and ordinary
colleges is overwhelming (Ni, 2002). The government’s overall educational
budget is limited, with most spending concentrated on urban areas (Brown, 1991).
Restructuring and educational reforms have escalated stratification among higher
education institutions by geographical location, funding resources, administrative
authority, and functional purpose in the past decade (Zheng, 2005). Over seventy
percent of the graduate programs are located in the prosperous southeast and
14
northeast areas, thus higher education in the remote and economically
disadvantaged inner provinces is underrepresented (Guo, 1998). As a result of the
limited time and data access, the three universities selected in the study are all
located in Beijng, the capital of China. My assumption is that a Masters Program
in Student Affairs in a Chinese University cannot be carried out nation wide
unless it is first accepted by the leading universities and with the support of
adequate funding.
Outline of the Dissertation by Chapter
This dissertation is organized into six chapters. Chapter one is an
introduction of the background, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the
study, the research question and the significance of the problem. Chapter two
provides an overview of Chinese higher education history. In this section, I
describe the Chinese higher education structure, its mission and value, and how it
is currently structured. As well as, student admission, the relationship to college
to jobs, as well as the development of ideological education instruction. Chapter
three is an overview of the U.S. student affairs professions. It reviews the guiding
values and principles in U.S. student affairs and introduces the contents of CAS
standards that guide a student affairs master’s program. The mission and value of
the U.S. higher education is introduced, as well as, the theoretical principles and
leadership in the U.S. student affairs administration. Chapter four is methodology.
The methodology part examines the rationale to choose a qualitative inquiry
15
method, the selection of university and participants, the instrumentation of the
interview and focus group, as well as my data collection procedures and data
analysis. Chapter 5 reports my findings, implications and recommendations for
future research.
16
CHAPTER TWO: AN OVERVIEW OF
THE CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION HISTORY
Introduction
In this literature review I provide an overview of the significant
historical events in Chinese higher education. The evolvement of Chinese higher
education for more than 2,000 years is presented chronologically, starting from
the origin of Chinese higher education and the inception of Western-style colleges
and universities in China, followed by the reforms of 1905, higher education
during the nationalistic period (1911-1949), socialist higher education in the
people’s republic of China (1949-1966), the cultural revolution (1966-1976) and
the transitional years after the cultural revolution (1977-1980), and then ends with
higher education reforms after the Open Door Policy (1980 – current). The
chronological illustration of the development of Chinese higher education is
intended to lay out the Chinese higher education structure, as well as the student
admission policy and the relationship of getting into college to job placements at
different times. At the same time, the missions and values of Chinese higher
education and the development of ideological education instructor system are
discussed.
The Origin of Chinese Higher Education
The history of higher education in China is traced back to the Han
Dynasty more than 2,000 years ago (Brown, 1991). Emperor Han Wu Di (r. 140-
17
86 B.C.) extensively expanded the Chinese empire and needed loyal bureaucrats
to administer it. The Confucian scholar Dong Chongshu selected able and
ambitious young people nation-wide and gathered them to the capital. Dong
taught them using books about Confucianism and tested them. Those with the
desired performance were assigned to government positions (Brown, 1991).
In the 400 years of ruling history by the ancient Han Dynasty, they not
only created higher education in China but successfully perpetuated Confucian
values (Wong, 1998). Confucianism emphasized hierarchical order, obedience
and learning, believing that people who work with labor are supposed to be ruled
and controlled by those who work with their mind (Brown, 1991). Confucius also
revolutionized education by opening access to all. Prior to Confucius, education
had been limited to the noblemen. Confucius claimed that people are the same in
nature and education can make a difference, and anyone can succeed if he works
hard enough (Chan, 1963). For a long period of time, higher education has been a
primary avenue to upward social mobility (Fairbank, 1994).
During the Tang dynasty, the dynasty after Han Dynasty, a sophisticated
national examination system was developed (Wong, 1998). The civil examination
system (keju) was initiated as a merit-based search program (Brown, 1991). The
male child studied with tutors in a village school for many years. He had to first
excel in the local examination. If he stood out, he proceeded to the provincial
examination. If he succeeded again, he went on to the metropolitan examination
18
in the capital that was held once every three years. Those failing the intermediate
or highest examinations usually became the local aristocracy or teachers. Those
who passed went to institutions (da xue) of great learning and were appointed to
high governmental positions (Brown, 1991). The doctrines of Confucianism,
which emphasized hierarchy and obedience, constituted the curriculum and text
books (Ni, 2002). Education was designed to preserve and reproduce the
traditional core values. Higher education trained the bureaucratic elite to master
classical Chinese in the Confucian tradition. Ever since, higher education has
almost always been the exclusive avenue to upward social mobility and great
wealth. The traditional civil service examination system (keju) remained more or
less intact for more than 1,000 years until 1905 (Fingar, 1980).
The Inception of Western-style Colleges and Universities in China
Western-style colleges and universities in China date back to the
nineteenth century. Missionary schools and the Western-educated Chinese were
the first two primary channels of foreign influence on Chinese education (Fingar,
1980). From 1840-1842, the Chinese were responsible for the distribution of
opium to the British. In 1842, the British won the battle in the Opium War.
Shortly after the end of the war, missionary schools appeared in China under a
series of “unequal treaties” between the Chinese government and Western
countries (Ni, 2002).
19
The earliest higher education institutions in China were created to
address the Western invasion and to retain the Chinese territorial and cultural
integrity (Ni, 2002). In 1888, the first Chinese higher education institution, Jinling
University, was established and later merged into Nanjing University (Zheng,
2005). In 1894, China was defeated by Japan. The imperial government published
the Guidelines for Education Affairs, which modeled the Chinese education
system after that of the Japanese to replicate the Western system (Zheng, 2005).
The first modern university Beiyang gongxue (later Tianjin University) was
founded in 1895, followed by Nanyang Xue Tang (later Shanghai Jiaotong
University) in 1896, Qiushi Academy (later Zhejiang University) in 1897, and the
Imperial University (Jing Shi Da Xue Tang, later Peking University) in 1898
(Hayhoe, 1997; Zheng, 2005). These early modern government colleges adopted
the principles of Western learning in engineering, navigation and foreign
languages of their own initiative (Fingar, 1980). Historically, students were
required to take the civil service examination in order to attend college; however,
these colleges were never part of the civil service examination system and shifted
higher education from classical to modern. It was not until the official termination
of the civil service examination in 1905 and the collapse of Qing Dynasty in 1911
that Western universities became the standard for higher education.
20
The Reforms of 1905
The reforms of 1905 had impacted public attitudes about institutions,
government expectations, and the future structure of Chinese higher education.
The movement marked the end of the traditional civil service examination in
Chinese higher education (Fingar, 1980). The rationale to create a nationally
centered education system was based on the assumption that control should
follow responsibility and tbat centralization should build loyalty (Fingar, 1980).
The 1905 reforms established China’s first Ministry of Education
(MOE). The establishment of the MOE was important both symbolically and
substantively (Fingar, 1980). Symbolically, the setup of the Ministry of education
signaled the education system as a primary vehicle of modernization, not merely
as the preferred or tolerated actions of individual officials but as a matter of
national policy (Fingar, 1980). From then on, all Chinese government and
political leaders have made efforts to improve schooling at all levels. Performance
in education has become an increasingly important criterion for Chinese people to
judge regime achievement (Fingar, 1980). Substantively, the 1905 reforms had a
profound impact on the future structure of the Chinese education system and the
beginning of China’s single centered national education system. All schools and
institutions, from primary schools to secondary schools to higher education
universities, have been subordinate to the Ministry of Education ever since.
21
The reforms of 1905 established a two-tiered higher education system
(Fingar, 1980). At the top were the “regular” traditional academic institutes where
trained people would move toward high-status official careers. At the second tier
there were “irregular” or inferior schools that provided practical training. Because
of the severe resource constraints, Chinese leaders have chosen to concentrate
resources to achieve the best results academically and professionally in a short
period of time. “Regular” education and “irregular” education are treated
distinctively. In some way or another, the two-tier system has been a permanent
feature of Chinese education.
The 1905 reforms abolished the traditional civil service examination
(Fingar, 1980). Prior to 1905, mastery of the classics and success on the civil
service examination opened the door to an official career, nobility and wealth.
Theoretically, success on the civil service examination was the only way to enter
official positions. In reality, official positions and titles could be purchased by
wealth such as through gains in business or large landholdings (Fingar, 1980).
After 1905, mastery of “modern” skills in science and technology became a sure
way to elite status and prosperity (Fingar, 1980). In addition to academic skills,
membership in particular political parties and cliques could also lead to wealth
and power. In many cases personal attributes such as party loyalty, military
competence, and political leadership were considered more important than
22
academic achievement (Fingar, 1980). Despite these trends, the movement toward
modernization provided opportunities for education for the youth of China.
Higher Education during the Nationalistic Period (1911-1949)
With the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, China’s dynasty tradition came
to an end and a new form of government emerged. The new Nationalistic
Republic government pushed educational development to a new stage and brought
about the first golden age of education in modern China (Ni, 2002). The
government unified and nationalized the higher education system (Ni, 2002): the
Ministry of Education supervised a national curriculum for colleges to follow
related to staffing, especially the appointment of senior administrators, was
subject to government approval.
Chinese higher education suffered dramatically as a result of the Sino-
Japanese War in 1937 and the successive civil war from 1946 to 1949 between the
Nationalists and the Communists (Ni, 2002). During the Sino-Japanese War, the
Japanese conquered the coastal areas rapidly in a few months and bombed a
minimum of 24 higher education institutions by November 1937 (Ni, 2002).
Seventy-seven colleges and universities went out of business or were forced to
leave for the interior hundreds of miles away and the student retention rate varied
from 25 to 75 percent (Ni, 2002). Japanese military action ruined 70% of cultural
institutions in China during the 1937 Sino-Chinese War (Marlow-Ferguson &
Lopez, 2001).
23
Despite the years of political and social turmoil, both Chinese and
foreign-run schools increased in size and number. The Chinese Communist Party
established a number of new colleges and universities. Most of them were
technical institutes and the curricula continued to focus on scientific and technical
subjects due to the shortage of engineers and technicians (Brown, 1991). Students
were encouraged to specialize in these fields early in their education.
Consequently, Liberal Arts and other similar programs were eliminated as non-
essential. By the time of national liberation in 1949, there were 200 colleges and
universities (Fingar, 1980).
Socialist Higher Education in the People’s Republic of China (1949-1966)
The People’s Republic of China (PRC) was established in 1949.
Communist Russia had been the “big brother” and the entire national higher
education system was reorganized to follow the Soviet model in 1952-1953 (He,
2005). University teachers and students were required to have ideological training
and classes in Marxism and Leninism. College entrance policies heavily focused
their attention on students’ family background. Peasants, workers, the former poor
and other people who were the backbone of the revolution were preferred. Higher
education was free for all college students with the government paying tuition and
then assigning jobs upon graduation (Zheng, 2005).
Under the new regime, science and technology were embraced as the
path to modernization and to assure national security. Between 1952 and 1957
24
Chinese higher education adopted both a structural and procedural system from
the Soviets with a focus on specialization in education and a blending of politics
and professionalism (Brown, 1991). In 1952, a new National Ministry of
Education in the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) was founded with a close tie to
its Soviet counterpart (Brown, 1991). Nearly half of college students majored in
science and engineering programs. According to Chan (2005), the 1952 higher
education reorganization brought about three types of government-controlled
colleges and universities. The first category was comprehensive universities with
classical arts and sciences. The second sector was the polytechnic universities
such as Qinghua with a broad range of applied sciences. The third kind was the
institutions designated to train advanced personnel with special knowledge to
meet the special demands of socialist development in medicine, law, finance, and
so on. A revolutionary university, People’s University, was the head of its
counterparts with the objective to develop a powerful Marxist, Leninist, and
Maoist canon for the social sciences (Chan, 2005).
Following the Soviet style, the PRC reinforced the two-tiered system
and enhanced the process of nationalization (Fingar, 1980). First, the higher
education system consisted of “regular” and full-time universities, as well as
“irregular” and part-time schools, which was consistent to the 1905 reform. The
“regular” universities were superior to “irregular” schools, which were designed
to teach adults foundational literacy and mathematics, or instruct basic skills to
25
young people who had to work in the fields most of the time. Second, according
to the university affiliation, the institutes administered and funded by the Ministry
of Education or its subordinate branches were superior to their counterparts which
were run and financed locally (Fingar, 1980). Third, there was a distinct
dichotomy between the “key” universities and “ordinary” colleges. More money,
equipment, the best professors, and the best students were channeled to the
relatively few elite colleges and universities in the name of putting a premium on
efficiency. Ordinary colleges had distinctively lower quality and were less
reminiscent of advanced Western values and practices (Fingar, 1980). The best
students and faculty were attracted to the better institutions.
While basic instruction was provided domestically, advanced training
was regarded to be obtained more efficiently and effectively abroad. During the
1950s and 1960s, 40,000 young Chinese students were sent to the Soviet Union
and Eastern Europe for advanced training (Thomas, 1980). China trained very few
graduate students at that time (Fingar, 1980). In September 1961, the Central
Committee passed the “sixty articles” on higher education (Brown, 1991). The
“sixty articles” emphasized the advancement of academic standards, the
importance of science, technology, and research. They pointed out the advantage
of academic independence from political interference, as long as the
independence supported the supremacy of the Communist Party. Many of the
26
changes after the Cultural Revolution were based on the “sixty articles.” By 1965,
there were 417 colleges and universities (Brown, 1991).
The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
During the beginning days of the PRC, Communist Party members were
assigned to important and influential positions with little regard to their formal
qualifications. Specialists and officials from the Kuoming Party regime needed to
be supervised by the loyal supporters of the Party. Political activism and Party
membership became the alternative path to attending good universities for
advancement.
However, by the mid 1950s, well-publicized policies made it clear that
education weighed more than activism as a ticket to success (Fingar, 1980).
Education and expertise, rather than political activism, were the primary criteria
for securing a position, or assuring a good post (Fingar, 1980). To secure a
comfortable position, one must attend a good university. Some people benefited
from the new policies seeking to defend the existing elitist system, while others
seriously disadvantaged longed for fundamental change (Fingar, 1980).
Within this context, Mao Zedong decided to bring about change by
thoroughly shaking up Chinese tradition, culture and religion (Zheng, 2005).
Maoism preferred “revolution” over “production”, and announced that nurturing
the Communist values weighed more than the country’s economic development
(He, 2005). Contrary to the policies and values stressing quality and selectivity,
27
the educational goal of the new Revolution was to create an education system that
put an emphasis on practical skills and rudimentary instruction for all (Fingar,
1980). Formal education and expertise became depreciated. Elitism was
condemned as incompatible with the Revolution. The poorly educated were said
to be able to lead China into the twenty-first century. Modernization could come
true only by counting on the wisdom and expertise of the masses (Fingar, 1980).
The educational goals of the Cultural Revolution were most appealing to
the groups considered second-rate students attending what was considered a
second-rate college or university (Fingar, 1980). They were attracted to the
possibility of overthrowing the existing system in which the most talented
students had benefited and gained access to prestigious universities. The elite
intellectuals became victims. The Cultural Revolution transformed Chinese
education at all levels, especially in higher education (Fingar, 1980). Regular
colleges and universities were closed for five years in 1966. A great number of
university buildings were converted to other purposes such as worker housing.
The laboratory equipment was destroyed and library collections ruined. Some of
universities did not reopen until 1976, and others reopened in 1971 or 1972. But
the reopened universities were quite different than in 1965 with regards to the
enrolled students, curriculum and teaching.
High school students had to become peasants or workers first before
they had the opportunity to enter the college (Zheng, 2005). “Class background”
28
and nomination by the work units played a critical role to getting into college
(Fingar, 1980). Qualifying candidates had to support the Communist Party.
College Entrance Examinations were cancelled, and quotas were distributed to
various work groups. Candidates with good political enthusiasm and from
families of ideal revolutionary background such as poor peasants and workers
were privileged. At that time, a variety of “new” colleges such as July 21
Workers’ Universities and Zhouyang agricultural colleges were created (Fingar,
1980).
During the Cultural Revolution, intellectuals, teachers and professors
were scattered, persecuted, tortured, and humiliated both as individuals and as a
group in unprecedented fashion. They had to receive “reeducation by the peasants
and workers” (Zheng, 2005). Many university instructors spent years, even a full
decade, doing manual work in remote locations. Senior faculty members were not
allowed to teach as a result of their “bad class background” (Fingar, 1980). Roles
were reversed: teachers were asked to learn from their students. Workers,
peasants, and political activists taught courses in Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong
thought, Communist Party history, and rudimentary technical subjects. Chinese
intellectuals were dismissed from the ruling class (Fingar, 1980).
The Cultural Revolution had a dramatically devastating influence on
young people in that decade and on the whole nation. Student enrollments at
postsecondary institutions had remained at pre-1966 levels (Fingar, 1980).
29
Training programs were shortened from four or five years to two or three years.
College programs emphasized political study, manual work, and practice-oriented
applied training with little attention to academic subjects such as basic science
and humanities. Students spent most of the time in “political study.” “Practical
knowledge” replaced academic subjects and little time was devoted to science
education. Productive labor became an important part of the curriculum (Fingar,
1980). The one million college students who graduated from 1966 to 1976 were
commonly regarded as incompetent and unqualified (Fingar, 1980). Young people
in that decade were later called the “lost generation” (Fingar, 1980). For a decade,
China trained almost no scientists, researchers, doctors, engineers, or any other
specialists.
The Transitional Years after the Cultural Revolution (1977-1980)
In 1977, the government announced the reinstatement of the College
Entrance Examination to select undergraduate students. The revival of the
entrance examinations in 1977 is often considered as the most significant
educational reform in that decade. It was a milestone that marked the end of the
turmoil of the ten-year Cultural Revolution (Zheng, 2005). In the same year, the
Ministry of Education and the Chinese Academy of Sciences proclaimed the
reestablishment of graduate education. In April 1978, an important national
educational conference came to an agreement to replace the focus of class
struggle during the Cultural Revolution with modernization as the major goal of
30
educational development. Scholastic test scores became the primary determinant
for access into regular colleges, and a “moral” evaluation and physical check-up
played a supplemental role (Fingar, 1980). Class background and family political
history were no long related to access to college. Since 1978, admission to
undergraduate study in the regular programs has been through a single college
entrance examination administered in July. Another factor influencing admission
is the quota of enrollment in specific majors and specific institutions assigned in a
national plan.
The single national uniform test scores set the measurement for
academic achievement. About 6 million students took the college entrance exam
in 1977, 1978 and 1979 respectively, and fewer than 300,000 entered colleges
each year (Fingar, 1980). In 1980, 3.3 million students had the opportunity to take
the exam as a result of qualifying screening to limit the applicant pool (Brown,
1991). Less than 5 percent of all middle school graduates were able to enter
higher education. Competition for the fewer than 300,000 annual openings was
fierce, but the dictum was that “everybody is equal before the marks” (Fingar,
1980, p.64).
Graduate school was in its early stage in China. In the post-Mao period
of 1978, 10,500 graduate students were enrolled. In 1979, an additional 8,500
graduate students joined the pool (Fingar, 1980). In 1980, another 8,000 graduate
students were admitted (Brown, 1991). There were about 26,000 graduate
31
students in the whole country in 1980. Graduate candidates had to be under 30
years old (Fingar, 1980). Academic life, housing, and dining were well integrated.
Housing was offered to most students, faculty and staff (Thomas, 1980).
The hierarchical two-tiered system was visibly elitist. China still had
regular and part time educational programs, but the distinction between key and
ordinary universities persisted. There were approximately 630 colleges and
universities in 1980, of which roughly 161 were normal schools. The total student
enrollment was 1.5 million, including about 30, 000 graduate students (Thomas,
1980). More than 40 percent of students majored in scientific or engineering
programs. One-third of students specialized in teacher training. In irregular
programs, including factory-run colleges, part time and correspondence programs,
students were not admitted on the basis of the national college entry
examinations. First priority always resided in the regular programs. The innate
nature of China’s intellectual elitism was very visible.
Higher Education Reforms after the Open Door Policy (1980 – current)
The educational system of the 1980s was still structured along the lines
of the Soviet model, recreating its counterpart of the early 1960s (Ni, 2002).
Policy and procedures immediately after the Cultural Revolution ensured that
only the very best and brightest students could gain access to colleges (Fingar,
1980). Higher education became the primary path to power and prestige. Though
the competition was intensively cruel, high status and rewarding work placement
32
were assured (Fingar, 1980). College students were known as “God’s favored
ones”, unusually lucky persons. After graduation, graduates secured permanent
employment (Chan, 2005). On January 1, 1981, the degree system was first
implemented (Chan, 2005). During Deng Xiaoping’s reforms period, a college-
level degree was a prerequisite for officials at the all levels including the county-
level leadership positions. Chinese intellectuals were reintegrated into the
governing authority (Zheng, 2005).
There has been a tendency toward decentralization and delegation since
the 1980s (Ni, 2002). The central government made an effort to distinguish its
responsibilities for overall strategic planning from the responsibilities of colleges
for day-to-day operations (Ni, 2002). An instance of the trend toward divestment
of responsibilities was the abolition of the central job allocation policy and the
closing of the stipend system. Since the early 1950s university students had been
awarded a stipend to cover full tuition and expenses, as well as room, board and
medical care. The state had been accountable for matching graduates to
employment (usually a high-status job) according to the state’s plan. In 1986 the
State Council announced its decision to end the stipend system. Only students
entering teacher colleges and other unpopular specializations were the exception.
In January 1988, the State Education Commission informed higher education
institutions that the state would not be in charge of job placement any more (Ni,
2002). The future employment of graduates’ was increasingly insecure.
33
The 1997 freshmen were the first class to pay for their own college
education and find jobs on their own through a “two-way selection” (Duan, 2003).
“Two-way selection” is a free market mechanism through which employers and a
college graduate both make a decision about employment without the intervention
of the state government. Without a legal guarantee to fair competition, nepotism
has been rampant. The best positions are preserved for urban male students with
privileged social capital. For example, students filling attractive job openings
usually have parents or relatives in dominant authoritative positions (Chan, 2005).
With the introduction of tuition and cessation of the regulated enrollment quota in
1988, the highly controlled socialist education system in China has transformed.
By the end of 1980s, the national student-stipend plan was over. To address the
financial concern of poor students, a student loan program was introduced in
1986-1987.
The State Education Commission in 1988 commanded two basic student
enrollment categories: students in the directed or state-assigned plan (Zhilingxing
jihua), and students in the guided plan (zhidoaxing juhua) (Ni, 2002). Some
students under the directed state-assigned plan come from border and mountain
regions. They have to sign a contract with a promise to return to their locality
upon graduation. Other students under the directed plan are often from poorer
families, and have to agree to major in the unpopular specialties. The specialties
include teacher training, petroleum engineering, water conservation, agriculture,
34
geology and mining. Students under the directed state-assigned plan must accept a
state-assigned job placement in their training area after graduation. In return, they
are exempt from tuition payments and receive a state subsidy for living expenses.
Students under the guided plan have the flexibility to choose more popular
training areas which may lead to well-paid, high status careers.
The government’s decision to expand higher education was stimulated
by the Asian economic crisis in the 1990s with an attempt to keep family savings
in education and keep students in school in a time of increasing unemployment
(Rui, 2002). Since 1995, economic reforms have provided incentives for
institutions to admit self-supported college students (zifeisheng) to increase
income. The self-supported student is the candidate with a score below the cut-off
point of the unified college entrance examination but who can afford a large
amount of money to compensate their lower scores. Students whose scholastic
scores are above the admission cut-off point have been commanded to pay 4,000
to 6,000 yuan every academic year (Duan, 2003). Students below the cut-off point
are required to pay 20,000 to 30,000 yuan per year (Chan, 2005). To further drive
the economic growth, the Chinese government in 2002 lifted the admission
restrictions of being single and less than 25 years old to include all ages to
admission for life long learning (Rui, 2002; Ouyang & Ouyang, 2005). In 1990s,
colleges and universities started to admit part-time postgraduate students. Only
prominent individual professors are accredited to direct doctoral students by the
35
academic degree committee. Female students were underrepresented, with women
accounting for a quarter of all enrollments at the master’s level and one tenth at
the doctoral level (Guo, 1998).
While higher education has expanded rapidly at the undergraduate and
master level, there has been cautious action by the government toward enlarging
doctoral programs (Rui, 2005). But as the number of doctoral students is directly
associated with the government appropriation, the number of self-funded doctoral
students has been growing, substantially contributing to university revenue (Rui,
2005). From 1978 to 1994, 280,000 students graduated with master’s degrees and
17,000 with doctoral degrees (Guo, 1998). In 1998, an estimated 3,409,000
students were registered in 1,020 colleges and universities; and 198,885 were
graduate students (China Statistical Yearbook, 1999). In 2000, 2 million more
freshmen were admitted to regular institutions (Postiglione, 2001). The total
student enrollments in the postsecondary in 2000 were more than 10 million,
which was 10 percent of the relevant-age cohort (Min, 2001).
A student’s major is predetermined before entering college. Once
enrolled, students cannot change their majors. They also have little freedom on
course selection. In the late 1980s, outstanding students have been allowed to
have double majors, and major/minor programs have been introduced to students
with a desire to explore another professional expertise in the second area.
Relationships between students and teachers, as well as among the students in the
36
same year and department, are very important, close and can last a lifetime.
Student transfer between colleges, either graduate or undergraduate, is
unprecedented (Thomas, 1980).
The Mission of Chinese Higher Education
The mission of Chinese higher education is more to serve for the country
and society than to individual students. When the People’s Republic of China was
founded in 1949, the Common Guidelines of the First Chinese People’s Political
Consultative Conference in stated that Chinese educational mission was to
improve people’s cultural level, to train qualified personnel for China’s
reconstruction, and to develop ideological educational guidelines (Chan, 2005).
The essential part of the ideology guideline was to serve the people (Chan, 2005).
In the Constitution approved on December 4, 1982, Article 19 provided
the most significant stipulation on education (Chan, 2005). It specified the
principle of Chinese education as “the state develops socialist educational
undertakings and works to raise the scientific and cultural level of the whole
nation.” The purpose of education in China was “to wipe out illiteracy and
provide political, cultural, scientific, technical, and professional education,” as
well as, “to encourage people to become educated through self-study.”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China)
These rules became the cornerstones for successive legislation in the 1980s and
1990s.
37
In February 1993, the Central Committee of the Communist Party and
the State Council issued the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in
China (Ashmore & Cao, 1997). In this Outline education was essentially
considered as an instrument to increase the ideological and ethical standards for
the Chinese citizens, as well as advance the scientific and technical development
(Ashmore & Cao, 1997). In 1995, at the Eighth National People’s Congress the
Law on Education was passed. This was the first educational law in the history of
the People’s Republic of China and it linked the significance of education to the
economic and social growth of the country (Chan, 2005).
The present mission of Chinese higher education is to cultivate tens of
millions of specialized personnel with advanced knowledge of science,
technology and management, so they can keep pace with the scientific,
technological and cultural development in the course of socialist modernization
(Wang, 1992). From the turn of the twentieth century to today, Chinese officials
have regarded education as the key to national strength (Zhao, 2004). Political
leaders have believed that the study of scientific and technical subjects is critical
for the creation of a powerful economical and political force capable of
safeguarding China’s sovereignty (Zhao, 2004). Education is supposed to serve
the cause of national strengthening and modernization.
A second major goal of Chinese higher education has been to infuse a
set of commonly shared values. One of the reasons to build a centralized
38
education system is to instill a particular set of social values to the country, or to a
specific regime, and build loyalty. The Resolution of the Central Committee of the
Communist Party of China on Educational System Reform (Resolution) has
proclaimed that “Education must service socialist construction, and socialist
construction must rely on education” and that the “ultimate goal of institutional
reform in education is to improve the quality of our people and to have a large
supply of talented people” (Gu, 2001, p. 70). So a certain amount of moral and
political training has been important and is always a must during the college days.
Higher education reforms in China have been driven by the political,
economical, and social needs of different periods (Brown, 1991). The most
influential factors on higher education reforms have been political stability,
economic modernization, and the desired social reorientation (Chan, 2005). After
the Cultural Revolution, China initiated the pragmatic educational policies to
uphold the modernization movement (Zheng, 2005). It was not until the issue of
the 16
th
document in 2004 that fostering and nurturing individual college students’
development as a whole became the educational goal. One of the guiding values
in the 16
th
document for strengthening and improving ideological education to
students in higher education is to center on students’ holistic development.
Academic Freedom in China
The Chinese Academy of Sciences (http://english.cas.ac.cn/) and the
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (http://bic.cass.cn/english/) are the leading
39
research institutes in China. Eleven key universities also play a primary role for
the sake of knowledge. Chinese graduate education is a mix of the Soviet
administrative model and American degree systems (Guo, 1998). With
characteristics of the Soviet-inspired model, universities’ research role is de-
emphasized, and the centralizing of research in research universities becomes the
focus (Guo, 1998).
In 1999, the Ministry of Education released the Plan to Build up Key
National Bases for Humanities and Social Sciences Research in Regular Higher
Education Institutions (Rui & Yeung, 2002). One hundred and three research
centers in humanities and social sciences were established across 40 universities
in 2000. At the centennial of Peking University, the advancement of humanistic
values and moral development were highlighted (Chen, 1998).
A university faculty member was guaranteed lifelong tenure at the very
beginning of their becoming a member of the faculty body. After the founding of
the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the faculty promotion system in the
1950s was politically oriented. Faculty promotion was grounded on the person’s
political ally with the Communist Party, relationship with comrade, as well as
teaching and publication (Zheng, 2005). The “safe harbor” of the life-tenure
system in Chinese higher education is being challenged by the market model
(Zheng, 2005). It is regarded as incompatible with the market economy. Some
actions have been taken to create an academic atmosphere conducive to research
40
and teaching. For instance, Beijing University initiated a new tenure system.
Lecturers will sign a six-year contract, during which they can apply to be
associate professors twice. Associate professors will have a contract with a term
of nine to twelve years, during which they can apply for a professorship twice.
Anyone who fails twice will be directed to leave the school the next year.
Academic freedom in the humanities is different from that in science and
technology. The principals of academic autonomy in Science were created to be
immune to political interference at a conference sponsored by the Chinese
Academy of Science and the Ministry of Education at Qingdao in 1956 (Hayhoe
& Pan, 2005). The stipulation made it clear that scientific theories are politically
neutral, free from ideological labels and political tags as well as political
evaluation. The policy was not adhered to during the anti-rightist campaign, but
was restored in 1980. Faculty members in science have the privilege to teach, do
research and publish without political intrusion (Hayhoe & Pan, 2005).
The academic autonomy in humanities was restricted before the
founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. In 1942 at the Yan’an Forum
on Literature and Arts, Mao Zedong argued that the goal of the humanities was to
“operate as powerful weapons for attacking and destroying the enemy.”
(http://www.writemyessay.com/essays/Mao-Zedongs-Talks-Yanan-Forum-
Literature/162227/) This political view means research and teaching in humanities
41
is to express support for the political system. It becomes the only legitimate
purpose and standard for doing research and teaching in literature and arts.
In 1956, Lu Dingyi, director of the Propaganda Bureau, invited
intellectuals to think critically of the Party’s policies. The policy of the “hundred
flowers” period was that “let one hundred flowers bloom; let one hundred schools
of thought contend” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign).
Mao Zedong and the Party Central Committee were shocked by how much their
authorities were questioned and how their policies were challenged. Then Lu
Dingyi initiated an “anti-rightist” campaign, in which all who criticized the
government, including the university intellectuals, were severely persecuted. As a
result, there has been a lasting and penetrating caution and fear of any subsequent
invitations to open suggestion and criticism.
On May 4
th
1998 at the centennial of Peking University, the speakers
highlighted the need to ensure university autonomy and independence (Chen,
1998). In 2004, the interviewed senior vice presidents among the nine top-ranking
universities in the 985 Project stated that Chinese intellectuals were still prevented
from taking initiative in research in the fields of ideology and culture, and health
issues such as AIDS and SARS as well as the political sensitive topics remained
in the “forbidden zone” (Hayhoe & Pan, 2005).
42
Ideological Values in the Chinese Higher Education
The Chinese hold a tradition of cultivating moral values and leadership
by training leaders on moral grounds (Wong, 1998). For example, higher
education in Han dynasty served the purpose of selecting talented scholars and
preparing them, primarily through ethics education, for the civil service (Brown,
1991). Ethnical humanism had dominated Chinese philosophy since the Chou
dynasty (1111-249 B.C.) and reached its summit in Confucius (Chan, 1963).
Confucius stressed the importance of moral training of character on people and
human activities. According to Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC), the first purpose of
learning is to be a righteous and moral gentleman (shen shi) and the second is to
serve the people and the states. Note that serving for the state rather than
preparing for a vocation is the primary function of education (Wong, 1998). For
example, one of Confucius’ disciples asked the nature of a gentleman. Confucius
answered that the gentleman is someone nurturing himself with seriousness to
bring security and peace to ordinary people (The Analects, 14:15; Chan, 1963).
As a result of the profound influence of Confucianism, Chinese scholars usually
feel morally obligated to serve the state morally (Wong, 1998).
Since the early twentieth century through today, almost all the Chinese
senior leaders suffered a sharp bitterness of the humiliated experience and shared
the dream of “a strong China” through modernization (Zhao, 2004). During the
World War II, Mao Zedong organized the Anti-Japanese Military and Political
43
University (Kangda), which emphasized political and ideological indoctrination.
This became the ancestor of the parallel system of cadre schools in Chinese
higher education system today.
A master’s program in student affairs in China has never existed and
there is little research on what such a program should look like. The only major in
China similar to student affairs administration in the U.S. is in political and
ideological education. The political and ideological instructor/advisor system in
China is the counterpart of the student affairs administration in the United States.
Chinese political education was implemented soon after the establishment of the
People’s Republic of China which was founded in 1949.
Subsequently in 1952, the Department of Education issued a directive
for “instruction to selectively try out the political work system in higher education
institutions,” which included the establishment of the office for political work in
colleges and universities, and the implementation of a political instructor system
for students (Wang, 2007). The political work office and the political instructor
led students in the study of politics (Chen, 2006). In 1953, the political instructor
system emerged in Tsinghua University (Chen, 2006). Senior students in
Tsinghua University, who were students of good character and fine scholarship,
took the role of political instructor, who organizing regular political study and
taking care of students’ academic and ordinary lives (Chen, 2006).
44
In 1961, Party Central Committee officially required the establishment
of the full-time political instructor in colleges and universities for the first time
(Chen, 2006). By 1965, a comprehensive political instructor system was
established in higher education institutions nationwide (Chen, 2006). During the
cultural revolution from 1966-1976, political instructors were criticized and the
political instructor system was canceled. With the re-establishment of college
entry examination system in 1978, the Department of Education reinstituted the
political instructor system in higher education institutions. Political instructors
were selected from graduates who were both politically conscious and
professionally competent (Chen, 2006).
According to the “Chinese Encyclopedia educational section” (1995),
the authoritarian definition of students’ political instructors is “ the political cadre
at the basic (or grass-root) level in Chinese higher education institution, whose
primary responsibility is to implement political education and try every possible
way to provide ideological education to college students”. According to the no. 16
document (2004) from the Party Central Committee and the State Council,
political instructors are “one of the most important parts in the teacher contingent
in higher education, the backbone to implementing moral education and political
ideological education. They lead the way and guide the direction for students’
healthy development” (p.6).
45
By 1986, there were more than 30 universities that had set up this
major. They were the national universities like Tsinghua University, Fudan
University and Nankai University. A great number of political instructors, the
mainstay in the Communist Youth League Committee and General League
Branch, specialize in this program. They come back to work in the universities
after graduation. They are a vital new force in political and ideological education
on college campuses (Chen, 2006). Students from all kinds of majors with the
Party membership and student leadership experiences are selected as the political
instructors by the communist party secretary at the department/school level.
Summary
This overview of the literature has been an attempt to describe an
education environment that is constantly in flux. What is true can be out of date
tomorrow. Higher education in the People’s Republic of China is a very large-
scale tertiary enterprise. Higher education policies not only mirror a long
evolutionary heritage but are also responsive to the political, economic and social
needs of a specific period. Current reforms are built upon the positive lessons
from the past.
There had been a long historical tradition and ideological inclination
toward orderliness and central control since 1905. The rationality for creating a
centralized and controlled system was to ensure responsibility and loyalty. Since
the Open Door Policies in 1978, there has been a tendency toward delegation and
46
decentralization. With the influence of the free-market mechanism, the two-level
education governance system has been introduced (Zheng, 2005). The central
government of Ministry of Education shares responsibility with local
governments of provincial bureaus of education (Zheng, 2005). The higher
education system in China remains centralized. Colleges and universities are
under one umbrella of a single Ministry of Education directly or indirectly. At the
same time, the system is polycentric and diversified. Provincial, municipal, and
local authorities, as well as several other ministry-level agencies play an
important role in the administration of Chinese higher education.
There is a distinction between the “regular” full time programs and the
“irregular” part time programs in Chinese higher education structure. The
irregular programs are not well respected. The two-tiered system creates and
perpetuates inequalities, but is perceived necessary and acceptable. All the
“regular” colleges and universities generally fall into one of two categories: key
or ordinary. Designation of key universities is an attempt to optimize limited
resources.
Education is a, if not the, primary strategy for the rise of China in the
twenty-first century. In 1950s and early 1960s, China had remodeled higher
education according to the Soviet-style system with select specializations in
science and technology. After the Open Door Policy in 1978, Chinese higher
education has drawn closer to American and Western models. Though the
47
scientific and technical programs are still privileged, which has been the fact
throughout the PRC history, management, economics, humanities and other fields
in art are drawing increasing attention.
The current educational reforms in China have had a profound impact on
college student life. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, college
students got free higher education and guaranteed job placement with the similar
entry-level salary (Zheng, 2005). This situation has undergone modification since
early 1990s to be compatible with the development of a free market economy
model. After 1997, tuition and living expenses have been placed on the shoulder
of students and their families. The graduates have to find the jobs on their own.
Without well-established legislation for fair competition, nepotism in acquiring
jobs has been popular. Increasingly insecure job prospects and financial stress
have caused some student unrest. Traditionally as an avenue to power, wealth and
status, the value of higher education has been questioned for the first time in
Chinese history since the 1990s (Brown, 1991). With the enrollment expansion
and transformation to mass higher education, there has been a tendency toward
consumer demand for quality.
In spite of the educational reforms and restructuring, the fundamental
purpose and function of higher education has remained the same in the People’s
Republic of China. Its focus is for the advancement of the country rather than
cultivating individuals. Regardless of the enrollment expansion and the quick
48
growth of admission rate (4 percent in 1980s to 50 percent currently), the
financial stress, the competition for getting into the few formal institutions, the
competition for few good job openings and the emphasis on measurable
achievement have transformed Chinese students from being group-oriented to
being more individualistic, by degrees unable to maintain the tradition of altruism,
collectivism, or collaboration in Confucianism (Min & Chen, 1997). The elitist
nature of the key universities and the predetermination of students’ majors keep
students from exploring and developing their potential talents and imagination at
will. The passive pedagogy has proven to be deficient in inspiring students with
critical and creative thinking (Zheng, 2005).
A quantitative increase in the number of Chinese colleges, universities
and student enrollments confront the quality problem in Chinese higher education.
China’s vast population imposes major restrictions on the government’s ability to
realize its revolution. Regardless of the tedious efforts of Qing Dynasty
“modernizers”, Kuomingtang official of the Republican era (1911-1949), and the
Communist officials after 1949, a large number of education-related problems
seem irrepressible. The quantity-quality dilemma has proven pervasive and
difficult to resolve. The tension between limited resources and the vast population
demands sensitive political and practical balance between quantity and quality.
With the change of the society and students, the ways to conduct
traditional ideological education have to be improved and enhanced. The 16th
49
Document stipulated that “advisors and form masters are the backbone to
implementing ideological and political education to college students. Advisors
must carry out ideological education in accordance with the deployment of the
Party Committee. Form masters are responsible for providing guidance in
students’ thinking, learning and living” (P.6). The seventh part of the 16
th
Document in 2004 was about strengthening and building the ideological and
political education work force. Item 24 stated that “we should strengthen
ideological and political education disciplines to cultivate professionally
specialized personnel to carry out ideological and political education. We should
recommend and select a group of key ideological and political education leaders
to study in the ideological and political education or related areas for professional
master's degree and doctoral degree. After completing the degree, these people are
engaged in professional ideological and political education work (P.6)”.
According to Wang (2007), the future direction for the ideological and political
advisor system was to prepare an arm force that would be professional experts in
conducting ideological education, educational management, psychological
counseling and vocational counseling. In other words, the expectation of the
professional preparation in Chinese student affairs administration is to establish a
new mechanism to conduct ideological education.
50
CHAPTER THREE:
THE U.S. STUDENT AFFAIRS PROFESSIONALS
American higher education has not been centrally organized as a system.
American higher education was unusual from the start in that it was founded on
the belief that both the students’ character as well as scholarship must be nurtured
(Komives, S.R., Woodard, D.B., & Jr. 2003). Faculty first acted in the role of in
loco parentis during the founding of the colonial colleges, followed by the
creation of specialized deans of women and deans of men in late nineteenth
century, finally leading to organizational functions of student affairs today (Nuss,
2001).
The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education
(CAS) has been dominant in promoting quality-control benchmarks in student
affairs, student services, and student development programs since 1979
(www.cas.edu). It sets up guidelines for master level student affairs professional
preparation programs to provide the professional education of student affair
practitioners (Dean, 2006). The curriculum standards are centered on foundation
studies, professional studies, and supervised practice. Some have argued that the
creation of CAS standards in student affairs preparation and practice marks the
maturation of the profession (http://www.cas.edu/). In this chapter, I will first
review the values and principles that have lead the emergence and evolution of
student affairs. Then the rationale for the structure and contents of the required
51
curriculum by CAS standards and leadership in the student affairs profession will
be examined. Finally, I will identify the key points of similarities and differences
between the U.S. and China in student affairs profession and the knowledge gap
regarding the integration of U.S. student affairs preparation into Chinese higher
education.
American Guiding Values and Principles for Student Affairs
in Higher Education
Two continuous and distinguishing concepts in the history of the student
affairs profession are its commitment to the development of the whole person and
its dedication to supporting the diversity of institutional and academic goals
(Nuss, 2001). Regardless of the shift of social priorities, the values of community,
individualization and caring are enduring and distinct in student affairs (Young,
2003). With the initial and ongoing development of student affairs professionals,
the corresponding values have evolved and expanded.
Student affairs professionals in American higher education can be traced
back to the founding of the colonial colleges (Leonard, 1956). In 1636, sixteen
years after English Puritans were settled in the New World, Harvard College (now
Harvard University) was established in Cambridge, Massachusetts (Gade, 1991).
Its goals were to produce ministers for the churches, produce English and Indian
young people with knowledge and piety, and advance learning (Cremin, 1970).
Eight more colleges, including Yale in Connecticut in 1745, were founded before
52
the Revolutionary War. All of them were religiously affiliated institutions jointly
sponsored by the colonial government and Protestant denominations (Gade,
1991).
The structure of these colleges and their curricula was profoundly
influenced by the British Oxford-Cambridge model (Thelin, 2001). The British
structure combined all aspects of scholarly life such as study, dining, and
governance together in a “collegiate way” (Thelin, 1992). This model integrated
living and learning by providing residential facilities. Residential education “was
designed to bring the faculty and students together in a common life which was
both intellectual and moral” (Brubacher & Rudy, 1976, p.41). Faculty in the
colonial colleges were accountable for implementing all disciplinary regulations
and was empowered to act in loco parentis (Brubacher & Rudy, 1976).
In 1870, the first college dean in American higher education was
appointed at Harvard University (Steward, 1985). This dean’s primary role was to
relieve the president of disciplinary responsibilities. In 1891, more than a century
ago, the appointment of LeBaron Russell Briggs as the Dean of Harvard expanded
the role to include personal counseling, opening the new field of student affairs in
American higher education (Young, 2001).
The 1937 and 1949 Student Personnel Point of View by the American
Council on Education (ACE) articulated the philosophy of student affairs (Nuss,
2001). The 1937 report stressed the significance of comprehending the nature of
53
the individual student, the importance of harmonizing the primary functions of
instruction and management, as well as the concept that student services should
be organized to support the unique mission of each institution (American Council
on Education, 1937/1994a, p.69). The 1949 report described objectives and
conditions for student growth, and claimed that “the concept of education is
broadened to include attention to students’ well rounded development –
physically, socially, emotionally, and spiritually, as well as intellectually”
(American Council on Education, 1949/1994b, p.109).
The 1949 Student Personnel Point of View affirmed that student affairs
work aimed at “the development of students as whole persons interacting in social
situations” (American Council on Education, 1949/1994b, p.122). This statement
indicates the two major values of the early student affairs work – individuality
and community. They are also part of the central values of American democracy:
Free individuals deciding to live together (Young, 2001). Individuation means
valuing the growing student. According to Gardner (1961), a college student’s
first obligation is to discover a unique identity. From the student affairs
perspective, individuals were whole, unique and responsible; the qualities of
education and student affairs programs were measured by student experiences.
The student affairs deans were the role models (Young, 2001).
Lloyd-Jones and Smith (1954, P.5) presented four “common beliefs”
about student affairs: belief in the value of the individual, implying that human
54
resources are the most important; belief in equal respect to thinking, feeling and
working, proposing that one’s personal work is not only in developing his/her
mind, or his/her economic abundance, but the whole person; the belief that the
world has a position for everybody; the belief that what an individual absorbed
from the experiences persists. Lloyd-Jones and Smith considered the mission of
student affairs as “deeper teaching”.
The second major value in early student affairs was about community
(Fisher & Noble, 1960). Community was where students got involved with each
other and developed meaningful relationships (Young, 2003). The 1949 Student
Personnel Point of View listed eleven student needs and one of them is “a sense
of belonging to the college” (American Council on Education, 1949/1994b,
p.128). However, in the past fifty years, the concepts of equality and justice have
become noteworthy in student affairs (Young, 2001). This notion of equality has
changed from people’s different gifts to the status of people in universities and the
expanded society. Justice stands for fairness.
Canon and Brown (1985) have brought forward the idea of caring-based
ethics in student affairs practice. Altruism as a kind of caring for human
betterment has been considered as an essential value of the student affairs field
(Young & Elfrink, 1991). The value of caring strengthens the fundamental
mission of student affairs as well as higher education: to serve (Young, 2003).
55
The 1997 ACPA/NASPA Principles of Good Practice in Student Affairs
supported the value of student service to society.
The ethical framework in student affairs has been centered on five
principles: respecting autonomy, doing no harm, benefiting others, being just, and
being faithful (Kitchener, 1985). The principle of respecting autonomy is the
foundation of American values (Fried, 2003). It is closely associated with First
Amendment rights such as freedom of speech and assembly and the right to self-
determination. The concept of respecting autonomy prevents student affairs
professionals from paternalistic instincts and entitles students to learn from their
own mistakes (Canon, 2001). Doing no harm implies the professional obligation
to not impose physical or psychological damage (Canon, 2001). Benefiting others
requires understanding how an individual or a group of students defines good, and
then the help that is offered will be perceived and accepted as helpful. Being just
indicates equal and impartial treatment to all and loyalty is at the core of any
meaningful relationship (Fried, 2003).
Curriculum Structure and Contents for
Student Affairs Master’s Programs by CAS
The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education
(CAS) was established in 1979 as a consortium of professional associations
(http://www.cas.edu/). Its 2008 mission statement was to “promote the
improvement of programs and services to enhance the quality of student learning
56
and development” (http://www.cas.edu/). CAS believes that the learning and
development of all students are the essence of higher education. CAS standards
have been applied in practice in at least three areas. They are institutional program
review, program development and advocacy, as well as professional preparation
(http://www.cas.edu/).
CAS standards and guidelines for masters-level student affairs
professional preparation programs require development of program mission
statement and provide guidance on the curriculum structure (Dean, 2006).
Curricula for student affairs professional preparation master’s programs should be
structured around foundation studies, professional studies and supervised practice
(Dean, 2006). The curriculum of foundational studies is composed of the cultural,
historical, philosophical, and ethical and research foundations. These foundational
courses inform how student affairs program are integrated into the larger
educational context (Dean, 2006). The professional studies curriculum includes
student development theory, student characteristics and effects of college on
students, individual and group interventions, organization and administration of
student affairs, and assessment, evaluation and research (Dean, 2006). Further, at
least two distinct internships in student affairs with a minimum of 300 hours of
supervised practice are recommended for the master’s programs in student affairs.
For each of the topics recommended by CAS, I will briefly discuss the content
that usually appears in U.S. preparation programs.
57
Objectives of American Higher Education
Objectives of American higher education are defined differently based
on distinct philosophical perspectives: the liberal learning perspective, the
research perspective, the professional perspective, the student development
perspective, the radical perspective, the social obligation perspective, and the
multi-university perspective (Fuhrmann, 2002). Liberal learning emphasizing
democratic values is regarded as the basis of all education and remains at the heart
of undergraduate education. The purpose of liberal education is to nurture
students’ intellectual potential to pursue truth as a life-long goal. The processes of
thinking and reasoning to solve problems logically and humanely are more
important than the content itself.
From the research perspective, scientific advancement and the
development of knowledge is the primary purpose of higher education, and
teaching is secondary at most. This view leads one to perceive the college or
university as an ivory tower (Fuhrmann, 2002). The professional perspective
stresses utilitarian interests. The objective of higher education is to develop
students’ skills and habits of mind for successful careers (Fuhrmann, 2002). From
the student development perspective, higher education has to correspond with the
needs of students, who are experiencing cognitive, physical, psychological, and
moral growth. The radical perspective believes that human beings are intrinsically
self-directed and the demands of higher education are misdirected and need to be
58
torn down. The social obligation perspective focuses more on the obligation of
colleges and universities to serve communities than on student learning. However,
modern comprehensive and research universities serve multiple purposes such as
the development of the whole individual from a diverse student body, the
advancement and dissemination of new knowledge, as well as community
services. Meanwhile, there are numerous laws governing students’ rights and
staffs need to know them.
Academic freedom in the Untied States
The concept of academic freedom in the United States originated from
German universities which long recognized the freedom of professors to teach
and the freedom of students to learn (O’Neil, 2005). The formal rise of academic
freedom in America started from the issue of a “declaration of principles” in the
American Association of University Professors (AAUP) in 1915 (Metzger, 1993).
The drafters of the 1915 document described the emergent university as an
“intellectual experiment station, where new ideas may germinate and where the
fruit, though still distasteful to the community as a whole, may be allowed to
ripen until finally, perchance, it may become part of the accepted intellectual food
of the nation and the world” (p.13).
Another milestone to broaden academic freedom was the 1940
“Statement of Principles of Academic Freedom and Tenure” by AAUP and the
Association of American Colleges (now Association of American Colleges and
59
Universities) (O’Neil, 2005). The 1949 Statement declared that university
professors are entitled to academic freedom in the following three aspects. First,
professors have freedom in research and in getting the research results published.
Second, professors possess freedom in the classroom to discuss the subject of
their expertise. Third, professors have freedom from institutional censorship or
groundless sanction. The 1949 Statement was codified in 1970 and modified to
use gender-neutral language in 1990. But the core of the 1949 Statement remains
as intact as the U.S. Constitution (O’Neil, 2005).
In June 1967, in Washington, five national sponsors including the
American Association of University Professors (AAUP), the United States
National Student Association (USNSA), the American Association of Colleges
(AAC), NASPA, and NAWDAC drafted the Joint Statement on Student Rights
and Freedoms. The statement described the minimum criterion of academic
freedom that facilitates student learning (Nuss, 2001). The principals manifested
in the statement have stayed overtime and continue to play a leading part in
student practice.
Theoretical Bases of Student Affairs in American Higher Education
A large number of theories and models about students have been
developed since the mid-1960s (McEwen, 2003). These theories deal with how
students develop, how they learn, what factors get together to promote students’
success, and how the campus environments influence student outcomes. There has
60
been a growing literature on the impact of colleges on students since the late
1950s and 1960s (Nuss, 2001). According to Clark (1992) and Nuss (2001), the
most comprehensive work on this topic has been done by Perry (1968), Feldman
and Newcomb (1969), Chickering (1969), Bowen (1977), Astin (1977),
Knefelkamp, Widick, and Parker (1978), Parker (1978), Rest (1979) and
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991).
A theoretical basis provides a foundation of knowledge for student
affairs practice (McEwen, 2005). Lloyd-Jones (1949) proposed that student affairs
was not a distinct profession until its preparation programs required training in
empirically based counseling and testing skills. Student affairs administrators
were expected to be applied behavioral scientists (Zaccaria), student development
specialists (Grant, 1968), and student development experts (Tripp, 1968). Student
development theory came to be a foundation of the student affairs profession in
the mid to late 1970s (Brown, 1972).
The Council of Student Personnel Associations (COSPA) in 1975
published Student Development Services in Post-secondary Education, which
proposed the “purpose of student development services in postsecondary
education was to provide affective and cognitive expertise in the processes
involved in education” (Council of Student Personnel Associations, 1975/1994, p.
429). The fundamental objectives of student affairs practice are to facilitate
students’ growth, to purposefully design educational environments, and to be
61
specialists in organizations and how they operate (McEwen, 2003). Theory
provides the knowledge and expertise to do these.
McEwen (2005) summarized nine members in the families of theories in
student affairs: Psychosocial development theories; cognitive-structural
development theories; social identity development theories; developmental
synthesis models; typology models; theoretical applications; student success
theories; organizational theories and theories about campus environments.
Psychosocial development theories are interested in understanding what students’
major concerns are and how they change over time. Cognitive-structural
development theories deal with “how students will think about those
(psychosocial) issues and what shifts in reasoning will occur” (Knefelkamp et al.,
1978, p. xii). Social identity development theories consider what individual
students think and how they think about their particular social identity such as
race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, social class, ability, disability, and
religion.
Developmental synthesis models take into account both students’
psychosocial and cognitive development and their interaction with each other.
Typology models focus on the relatively stable and lasting characteristics or
behaviors of individuals. Theoretical applications judge how the college
environment interacts with students’ development to influence students’
experiences and outcomes. The core of student success theories study student
62
departure, attrition and retention. Organizational theories offer insights on the
behavior of individuals and groups within the context of the organizations.
Theories about campus environments study how the design and redesign of
environments can facilitate educational purposes. These student development and
student affairs theories inform professionals about the wide range of campus
activities and practical intervention associated with supporting and intellectually
nurturing students from a more holistic point of view (Hamrick, Evans, & Schuh,
2002).
Student Affairs Administration in American Higher Education
By the middle of nineteenth century, the concept of extracurricular
activities came into existence as a result of students’ response to the traditional
rigorous classical course of study (Nuss, 2001). As Nuss (2001) pointed out, the
desire for the extra curriculum reflected the idea of considering student
development as a whole – mind, body and spirit. Early activities included eating
clubs, literacy clubs, debate teams and athletic teams (Thelin, 1990). By the
1850s, the Greek-letter fraternities and sororities had developed to provide
housing for their members (Brubacher & Rudy, 1976). Some colleges, especially
the denominational colleges, were discontented with the emergence of athletics
and regarded it as a distraction from one’s spiritual growth (Brubacher & Rudy,
1976). The responsibility to supervise the extracurricular activities became a
responsibility of student affairs personnel.
63
At the turning point of the twentieth century, American higher education
had been through some significant changes in student affairs. As Bok (1982)
concluded, before 1900 a college provided education with an emphasis on mental
discipline, religious piety and strict regulations which controlled student behavior;
after 1900 a counteractive points of view developed. For instance, Charles
William Eliot, president of Harvard from 1869 to 1909, advocated a broad range
of elective courses to replace the dictated classical curriculum. This elective
system allowed students to pursue knowledge by following their “natural
preferences and interests” based on individual differences (Rudolph, 1965, p.293).
Another example was that undergraduate education had established robust
extracurricular activities such as athletics, campus newspapers, clubs, fraternities,
and sororities (Canby, 1936).
The first student affairs preparation program was initiated at Columbia
University’s Teachers College. The first professional diploma for an “Adviser of
Women” was granted jointly with the Master of Arts degree in 1914 (Bashaw,
1992). The earliest functions for personnel bureaus were related to vocational
guidance (Yoakum, 1919/1994). The most important tendency after 1918 was the
expanding concerns with student mental health and psychological services; a
number of colleges and universities provided student health services (Brubacher
& Rudy, 1976). With the emergence of student affairs as a profession at the turn
of the twentieth century, Brubacher and Rudy (1976) claimed that “in the years
64
following 1918 the student personnel movement gained national recognition and
professional stature; it was becoming self-conscious, confident, and widely
influential” (p.336).
The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 – commonly known as the
G.I. Bill of Rights – provided the policy tool to increase the diversity of American
higher education by making government student aid an entitlement (Thelin,
2001). President Harry S. Truman endorsed the 1947 Truman Commission Report
– Higher Education for American Democracy. This report proposed a permanent
growing access and affordability to higher education (Thelin, 2001). Soon after
that, college students were actively involved in the external political events such
as the Vietnam War, which signaled a new popular culture of student activism
(Thelin, 2001). Disruptions at Santa Barbara, Kent State, and Jackson State
College brought about injury and death (Cowley & Williams, 1991). Conflict
resolution and mediation skills became essential for student affairs professionals
(Nuss, 1991).
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the doctrine of in loco parentis was
questioned and finally annulled (Nuss, 2001). Beginning with Dixon v. Alabama
State Board of Education (294 F.2d 150) in 1961, the Supreme Court handed
down a series of decisions on student rights, which recognized that students more
than eighteen years old were legally adults and therefore, students at public
institutions held the fundamental constitutional rights of adults (Bickel & Lake,
65
1994). The role of student affairs professionals made a major shift from
disciplinarian or authority figure to coordinator and educator (Garland & Grace,
1993). As specialized professionals, “student affairs was called upon to provide
admissions, financial aid, registration and records, housing and food services,
student activities, personal and academic counseling, orientation, and special
student support services” (Garland & Grace, 1993, pp. 5-6). In the 1960s, 33
percent of American youth went to college and by the 1970s this figure had
expanded to more than 50 percent (Thelin, 2003). These numbers transformed
American higher education from elitist to mass education (Thelin, 2003).
The new programs and policies from 1970 to the present brought an era
of adjustment and accountability (Thelin, 2003). By 1972, the federal government
had increased its dedication to improving social justice and education
accessibility. Student financial aid such as the Basic Educational Opportunity
Grants (BEOG) and Supplementary Educational Opportunity Grants (SEOG),
currently known as Pell Grants, made students’ choices for college plans less
restricted by affordability issues (Thelin, 2003). Implementation of loan
programs, work study programs and institutional scholarship programs further
expanded higher education access from 1972-1980 (Thelin, 2001). In 1979 the
Department of Education was created, which signaled a greater national
recognition of the importance education (Stadtman, 1992).
66
In terms of admission policy and selection criteria, there are no standard
admission regulations for American higher education institutions. The diverse
missions, functions, and levels of American colleges and universities are designed
to foster as many Americans as possible to pursue higher education according to
their interest and ability (Stadtman, 1992). There is a dual admission system of
“open” and “selective” entrance. For selective institutions, the most popular
examinations needed for undergraduate entrance are the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude
Test) which measures verbal and mathematical competency, and the ACT
(American College Testing) examination in mathematics, English, science and
social studies (Stadtman, 1992). The most widely used examination for graduate
students is the Graduate Record Examination. In addition to academic grades and
test scores, admission officers also pay attention to the extracurricular activities
for undergraduates and recommendations from faculty members for graduate
students. (Stadtman, 1992).
Leadership in Student Affairs Profession
Professional associations were founded to address the shared concerns
and needs of student affairs practitioners after student affairs had appeared as a
distinct organizational function in the early 1900s (Bloland, 1985). In 1916 the
National Association of Deans of Women (NADW) was established (Bashaw,
1992). In 1919 the founding conference of the National Association of Deans and
Advisers of Men (NADAM) was held at the University of Wisconsin. This
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organization chose the official name of National Association of Student Personnel
Administrators (NASPA) in 1951 (Rhatigan, 1991). The American College
Personnel Association (ACPA) was set up in 1924 (Bloland, 1983).
In addition to NASPA and ACPA, by 1945 many other professional
organizations had been founded to articulate the professional roles in student
affairs in American higher education by 1945. For example, the Association of
College Unions International (ACUI) was created in 1910; the American
Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (AACRAO) was
created in 1910; the American College Health Association (ACHA) was initiated
in 1920; and the National Orientation Directors Association (NODA) was
established in 1937 (Cowley, 1964/1994b). Further, some professional
associations were organized in reaction to gender and racial discrimination. For
instance, in 1954 the Association of Deans of Women and Advisors of Girls in
Colored Schools met the National Association of the Deans of Men in Negro
Education Institutions. They developed the National Association of Personnel
Workers (NAPW) and were named after the National Association of Student
Affairs Professionals in 1994 (NASAP) (Barrett, 1991)
A Comparison and Analysis between the U.S. and China
in Student Affairs Profession
Colleges and universities in China and the United States share similar
goals and functions, such as to maintain and cultivate a body of culture and
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knowledge for following generations and to prepare proficient citizens and
workers for societal and economical development. However, the foundation of
higher education in the two countries differs from each other distinctively in terms
of historical roots, philosophical perspectives, and cultural views. The evolution
of higher education history, the values and principles that have driven changes
and the theories that have directed practice all reflect the values of the greater
society in two different contexts of the two countries.
Morrill (1981) formulated that “there are no enduring and general, no
absolute or universal, standards for human conduct. Whatever standards that do
exist are tied to special conditions, relative to particular times, places and
cultures” (p.59). The standards, philosophy, values, theories in American student
affairs represent its unique historical and social context. For example, the
principle of respecting autonomy in the United States has become difficult to put
into practice for students from more collectivist cultures than the United States
(Fried, 2003). We can not assume that the standards and guidelines of student
affairs professional preparation master’s programs by the U.S. CAS standards can
automatically be applicable in Chinese settings.
American undergraduate education is composed of general education
and a concentration, usually known as a major (Stadtman, 1992). General
education is multidisciplinary with an attempt to broaden students’ knowledge.
The “major” is a concentration on one subject or in one department. It is designed
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for career preparation or continuing graduate study. In the “collegial ideal” of
American higher education tradition, students as beginners in scholarship are
entitled to access faculty members and well developed libraries.
Beyond scholarly endeavors, much of the education happens outside the
classroom (Stadtman, 1992). A large range of extracurricular activities include
clubs, publications, and recreation. An institution’s faculty and administration
usually delegate the student government to be in charge of student activity. The
most highly publicized activity of American higher education occurs on the
playing fields and in the gymnasiums and stadiums. Intercollegiate athletics and
intramural athletics are highly publicized, especially in popular sports such as
football, basketball, baseball and track and field (Stadtman, 1992).
Chinese colleges and universities have student unions at three levels:
institution, department and class. Regional student union associations exist in
each province. The National Student Association of China operates at the national
level (Wang, 1992). Student unions represent students’ interests, organize student
activities, and act as the bridge to connect students to the institutional leadership.
In this chapter, I have outlined the historical, philosophical, cultural, and student
differences between the U.S. and Chinese higher education. I have reviewed the
values that have driven the emergence and development of student affairs
professionals in the United States and the guidance for master level student affairs
professional preparation programs by CAS standards. American college students
70
enjoy more service and autonomy than their counterparts in China. However, little
is known about the needs and perceptions of student affairs professional
preparation programs in Chinese higher education.
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CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this dissertation was to understand how Chinese students
and faculty perceived the needs of students in higher education, and therefore the
type of preparation they imagined a “Chinese student affairs” professional might
require. Ultimately, the findings from this dissertation would be used to develop
suggestions regarding how to tailor a U.S. Masters Program in Student Affairs to
prepare Chinese higher education professionals to serve the Chinese students’
developmental needs from a holistic view.
Chinese colleges and universities are embedded in a collectivistic and
authoritarian culture influenced by the present national mission to pursue
modernization. In contrast, American higher education is fundamentally
characterized by highly individualistic principles. This study was an attempt to
explore to what extent Chinese faculty and administrators find utility in the highly
individualistic ethos that characterizes American student affairs administration, as
represented in the CAS standards.
The research questions were centered on developing a thorough
understanding of how faculty members and administrators in Chinese universities
characterized the content and skills necessary to prepare future student affairs
professionals for their institutions. The U.S. CAS standards for a Master’s
Program in Student Affairs were used as the primary reference tool to facilitate
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mutual understanding and solicit suggestions by its Chinese counterparts. The
philosophical differences in higher education between U.S. and China have
stemmed from the distinct cultural and historical contexts in which their systems
evolved. However the way different scholars in academia think of student affairs
also plays an important role in shaping how college students are served. Clark
(1992) claimed that, in the international community, the most comprehensive
work on the topic of the impact of college on students has been done in the United
States by Feldman and Newcomb (1969), Bowen (1977), Astin (1977) and
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991). This research has provided a solid theoretical
foundation to guide U.S. student affairs practice. However, as a critical
constructivist, I neither assumed that U.S. standards for student affairs programs
and services in higher education were universally shared or accepted, nor did I
imply that U.S. educational norms are superior to those of the Chinese. Instead,
this study emphasized the perspectives of the Chinese higher education faculty
and administrators, because Chinese universities would be the service providers.
A Master’s program in student affairs in China has never existed and
there is little research on what such a program should look like. As a native
Chinese and Doctor of Education candidate in a U.S. university, my bicultural
experiences and bilingual skills put me in an advantageous position to conduct an
exploratory study regarding the design of a Master’s Program in Student Affairs
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in a Chinese university from the view point of Chinese administrators, faculty and
students.
Qualitative inquiry was a good match for the exploratory nature of the
research question and the primary purpose of the study. More specifically, I chose
the ethnographic case study tradition as my preferred approach. A case study
design is employed to explore a “bounded system” through multiple information
sources with detailed, in-depth data collection to provide an intensive description
of the context (Creswell, 1998). Here the bounded system or the case was Chinese
higher education. It was employed instrumentally to illuminate the applicability of
the assumptions that underpin a U.S. Master’s Program in Student Affairs to a
Chinese setting, so this project focused on an instrumental case study. The
multiple sources of information were comprised of observations, interviews and
focus groups at multiple sites.
In addition, ethnography describes and explains a cultural social group,
in which the researcher examines the meanings of language, behavior and
interactions of the culture-sharing group (Creswell, 1998). In this dissertation, I
was interested in exploring a group of Chinese faculty, administrators and
students in Chinese higher education institutions, looking for patterns in how
professionals thought about their relationship to students, how they served
students now and how they would like to serve the students in the future from a
Chinese cultural lens. Hence, an ethnographic case study was appropriate. In sum,
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this dissertation was an attempt to explore to what extent a U.S. student affairs
master’s program would look like if shaped by Chinese values. I employed
qualitative inquiry methods, described below, involving interviews, observations
and focus group to collect data.
Sample and Population
Criterion sampling, critical case sampling and snowball sampling were
used to purposefully select Chinese universities in the study. The predetermined
criterion was that the universities for this sample must be either comprehensive
universities that had an education school/department, or a teacher training college,
so the selected university had the potential to establish a Master’s Program in
Student Affairs. Critical case sampling suggested that I chose universities that
were so important and influential that if an innovation were to happen there, it
would be emulated by other institutions. Given these conditions, three universities
in Beijing, China were proposed for this study: Peking University, Peking Normal
University, and Capital Normal University.
Peking University, the first state-owned comprehensive university in
China, opened in 1898. It consists of 30 colleges and 12 departments with a
student enrollment of 46, 074 (http://www.pku.edu.cn/eabout/faculty.htm). Peking
Normal University was the first teacher-training university in China, founded in
1902. It has 16 schools, 30 departments and 77 research centers and currently
enrolls 16,500 students
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(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_Normal_University). Capital Normal
University is a municipality-level university founded in 1954, consisting of 17
colleges and departments with more than 25,000 students enrolled
(http://www.cnu.edu.cn/english/intro/intro.asp). All the selected universities were
located in the capital of China because it is the most economically and
educationally developed area in China with more exposure to Western culture and
ideas. The new reforms usually start from this area and then spread to the interior
cities. I selected three universities in one city because I want to get an extensive
picture of Chinese faculty, administrators’ and students’ perceptions about student
services in Chinese higher education within a limited time frame.
In addition to its distinctive status in the Chinese system of higher
education, each university was selected because of a prior relationship either
through my faculty in the Rossier School or through my prior educational
experience. Beijing University and Beijing Normal University are top-ranked
national universities (http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-
02/21/content_418027.htm). Capital Normal University is a top municipal
university. The Chinese higher education system is hierarchical and there is a
clear delineation between the national key university and the municipal key
university. I was interested in the key universities at the both levels, because the
goal of the study was to understand the perceived needs of a tailored Chinese
student affairs master program to prepare professionals to facilitate Chinese
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college students’ holistic growth. Insights gleaned from different types and levels
of key universities could help me to construct the general broad needs and
complex views for a student affairs master program to inform policy and practice.
Instrumentation
I used interviews and focus group to get a thorough understanding of the
social and cultural context of Chinese higher education, as well as gather different
perspectives. The multiple information sources led to a broader picture of Chinese
universities’ needs for a master’s program in student affairs.
One-on-one interviews were conducted with university faculty,
administrators and students. An interview is defined as an intentional
conversation for the researcher to find out what is “in and on someone else’s
mind” (Patton, 1990, p.278). The interviews was jointly constructed and
contextually grounded, because the interview protocol was refined by first asking
for feedback from other 2 faculty and senior administrators in Chinese
universities prior to conducting the interviews. Specifically I sent the pilot of the
interview protocol to the dean in school of Education in Peking University and the
associate director in the student affairs office in Capital Normal University first.
Opinions and feedback on the protocol were solicited before I move on to the
actual interviews. Based on students and administrators’ availability, three focus
groups were conducted. One group was composed of four undergraduates. One
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consisted of four graduates. And the other group had three student affairs
administrators.
To remain open to the information that emerges (Patton, 1990), I chose
semi-structured, open-ended interview questions. This choice gave me flexibility
to pursue a range of topics, offered the subjects opportunity to shape the content
of the conversation, and yielded comparable data across the subjects.
In each of the 3 universities, I interviewed student affairs administrators
with different roles such as the University Party Secretary, the Deputy Party
Secretary and League Committee Secretary at the school and department level,
the Associate Director in the Student Affairs Office and so on. In addition, I
interviewed faculty members at each university. As there is no “student affairs”
profession or professional preparation program, I selected participants for the
faculty interviews from higher education department and school that seemed
closely related to this area. I selected faculty from the higher education program
because they worked in the area of higher education administration, and might be
able to provide insights about the field of student affairs from a Chinese higher
education perspective.
Each interview lasted from 30 minutes to one hour. The interview
questions centered on the existing college services for students, the interviewee’s
role in student college life, the perceived challenges and concerns encountered by
Chinese college students, Chinese higher education philosophy and the
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applicability of a U.S culturally-based master’s program in student affairs to a
Chinese university. As many U.S. student affairs master’s programs are guided
by the CAS standards, the interview questions included an exploration of the
applicability of the content areas required by these standards. The details are
listed in appendix one – the interview protocol for Chinese faculty and
administrators.
I conducted interviews with students in each university, including
undergraduates, master students and doctoral students. I included student leaders
from the student union and non-affiliated students, with a preference for students
not involved in student union. In sum, I interviewed a total of at 52 faculty,
administrators and students in the three universities. Table 1 represents the
breakout of administrators, faculty members and students by university.
Table 1
Number of the Administrators, Faculty Members and Students being Interviewed
in the Three Universities
University
Name
Number of the
Administrators
Number of
the Faculty
Number of
the Students
Total
University 1 11 (21%) 5 (10%) 10 (19%) 26 (50%)
University 2 3 (6%) 2 (4%) 6 (12%) 11 (21%)
University 3 5 (10%) 2 (4%) 8 (15%) 15 (29%)
Total 19 (36%) 9 (18%) 24 (46%) 52 (100%)
Trustworthiness is a general concept referring to the credibility,
believability and accuracy of the study. Data source triangulation and
methodological triangulation were used to address the validity of and reliability in
the findings because each type of approach and data source has strengths and
79
weaknesses. Multiple sources of information were used to validate and cross-
check findings, as well as to provide a comprehensive perspective about
philosophies about student services in China.
In terms of data source triangulation, I used a variety of data sources in
the ethnographic case study to see if the phenomenon remained the same in other
spaces, at other times, or as people interacted differently. For instance, three types
of universities are selected. They include a national comprehensive university, a
municipal teacher education university, and a national teacher training college.
Another example for data source triangulation was that administrators, faculty
members and students were all included in the interviews. My purpose was to
understand and represent different individuals’ voices and experiences. Data
source triangulation helped me search for divergence in the information.
With regard to methodological triangulation, I used multiple data
collection techniques such as focus group and interviews to gather related data
and substantiate the findings. All the data collected pertained to the research
question and the focus of the study. Interviewees were asked to read the transcript
of their interview and give comments on the accuracy of facts and interpretation, a
process called “member checking.” I wrote down “observer comments” to record
what thoughts I had about what was going on and what was missing. All the
gathered documents were filed. Rather than confirming a single meaning,
triangulation leads the researcher to search for additional interpretation in a
80
socially constructed reality (Oliver-Hoyo & Allen, 2006). In sum, data source
triangulation and methodological triangulation assured the validity and confidence
of the findings from the instrumental perspective.
Data Collection
The first issue in data collection was to get access to the data. How to
get access to conduct the case study depends on “who you are, what you want to
study, and what you hope to accomplish” (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003, p.73). I am a
Chinese international student in a Doctor of Education program in the United
States. I wanted to understand the Chinese universities’ perceptions regarding the
needs of a master’s program in student affairs in Chinese higher education, and
then develop recommendations regarding how to tailor such a program in the U.S.
to the Chinese settings. My doctoral course work and my 5 years of work
experience as a research assistant at USC had prepared me well for collecting
qualitative data. I stayed in close touch with my professors and friends in China,
while continuing my education here in the U. S. These professors served as “gate
keepers,” people inside the institution who could help me gain access to faculty
and students, at each of the three universities. The University of Southern
California has a long collaborative relationship with Peking University, and my
study was introduced to the Graduate School of Education by a faculty member at
the Rossier School of Education. A faculty member and an administrator in
Peking University were key personnel in the coordination of my study. The
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University Communist Secretary at Beijing Normal University had agreed to
assist me in collecting data there through his network. I formally sent each of
them an invitation letter introducing myself and asking their support in
conducting the study in their school settings. In the letter, I explained the purpose
of my study, why I chose them, what I was going to do, what support I needed
from them and the importance of the study. High status people were often willing
to offer help but had many competing obligations. To gain their approval, it was
important for me to emphasize that my presence and study were unobtrusive – not
interfering with what they normally do.
After gaining initial access, I did not rush into the interview
immediately. I asked for documents such as the mission statement, curriculum
design, organizational chart and campus map. I observed the campus culture and
immersed myself in the environment first. My observations was “descriptive” in
nature at the beginning, and shifted to being more “focused” later, which meant
my attention was directed to a deeper and narrower portion of student affairs
related issues. I showed up informally for 7 days, introducing myself, spending
time with the key informants and their colleagues, and having lunch or drinks
with them. Spradley (1979) suggested that “enculturation is the natural process of
learning a particular culture” (p.47). I believed that it was important for me to feel
comfortable with the participants and for the participants to feel comfortable with
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me. My participants then did not feel that they were being interviewed by a
stranger as we had had the chance to get to know each other better.
I was able to identify people who should be interviewed in depth as well
as ask for referrals. As Dexter (1970) suggested, early interviews would be part of
the preliminary discovery that would lead to an identification of who should be
interviewed in depth. Interviews were conducted with administrators, faculty
members and students in each university. Faculty members were selected because
I want to discover how they construct their relationship with students beyond their
role in facilitating students’ academic growth. I was interested in the
administrators’ points of view because they had close connection with students,
and provided rich information regarding the services that were available to
students, and what could be done to prepare professionals to serve students better.
At the same time, as the service recipients, Chinese college students’
voices were included. The development of students is considered to be the
primary mission of the U.S. student affairs master’s program. Stringer (1999)
proposed that “an army of experts is unlikely to be able to meet people’s needs if
the people themselves remain merely passive recipients of services” (p.37).
Without an understanding of current students’ experiences, needs and challenges,
it would be easy to miss the target. An integration of the opinions from the
Chinese faculty, administrators and students provided rich feedback to inform the
design of a new transnational program.
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To achieve a productive conversation, I asked the interviewee to choose
the interview location and time. At the beginning of the interview, I asked for
relatively neutral, descriptive information, followed by questions that got to the
heart of the study. Body language like non-verbal appropriate facial expression
and eye contact were used to show my interest and attention and encourage my
subjects to talk freely. I listened carefully and gently asked for clarification and
did my best to understand exactly what the subject thought. Their gestures,
periods of silence and facial expressions were noted. Confidentiality was assured
and all interviews were audio-taped after securing the permission of the
participants. After the interview, the conversation was transcribed. Each
transcription was sent to the interviewee for clarification, revision and
confirmation. I took notes when interviewing. For those people who did not give
me permission to audiotape, I reviewed the notes and added what could be
remembered as much as possible immediately after the interview.
My data collection from faculty were centered on understanding their
views of the foundational theories and courses offered in the Chinese master’s
program in student affairs. My interviews with administrators focused on getting a
sense of how student affairs administration worked in China and what kinds of
training they wanted. I asked faculty and administrators their opinions on
students’ greatest concerns and biggest challenges, as well as their experiences
with students. My conversations with students were to identify the perceived
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concerns and challenges for them and how they were served now. Student data
were used to triangulate the perceptions of faculty and administrators regarding
Chinese college students’ needs. This data triangulation increased the validity of
and reliability in the findings, and provided information regarding what a Chinese
student affairs master’s program would focus on.
To remain open to the information that emerged (Patton, 1990), I chose
semi-structured, open-ended interview questions. This choice gave me flexibility
to pursue a range of topics, offer the subjects opportunity to shape the content of
the conversation, and yield comparable data across the subjects. Although the
semi-structured questionnaire had similar items for both administrators and
faculty, I followed up by probing different issues that came up during their
respective interviews.
I wrote down what was heard, seen, experienced and what thinking was
stimulated. Field notes were kept in a log to help track the progress of the case
study, to envisage how the research agenda had been influenced by the data
gathered, and I remained conscious how the researcher had been impacted by the
data, and then decided how to move the process of data collection ahead (Bogdan
& Biklen, 2003). The field notes included descriptive field notes and reflective
field notes. The descriptive field notes recorded the details of what had happened
in the field with my best effort, a more objective part of the journey. The
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reflective field notes laid out plans for future research, confessed my mistakes and
inadequacies, my likes and dislikes.
Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis was to find meanings by breaking data
down to identify patterns, themes, and characteristics. The constructive side of my
research paradigm means that each person may view the same thing very
differently and all views are equally important. The critical side of my research
paradigm means that I was interested in roles that social structures and power play
in the development of the individual’s views. In addition to the universal themes,
I paid attention to any marginalized or contradictory voices. The first step of data
analysis was to organize the data and make backup copies. All the interview
transcripts, observations, focus group and field notes were filed in the computer.
The interview transcripts were sorted by university and status of the participants.
The observation field notes were categorized by university settings. The field
notes were organized chronologically. Back-up copies were made for all of the
data.
Data analysis is repetitive and interactive with data collection (Merriam,
1998). Part of the reflective field notes in the data collection process was
reflections on analysis. I speculated what I was discovering, the themes emerging,
connections between data pieces, and patterns that might show up. When all the
data had been collected, I reviewed all the information several times and obtained
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a sense of the overall data, writing memos (short phrases, ideas or concepts),
summaries, and reflective notes in the margin.
Because multiple sites were chosen, I first provided a within-site
analysis, followed by a cross-site analysis. In the within-site analysis, I gave a
detailed description of each university and themes within the university, and
developed the profiles describing the perceived needs and designs of a master
program in student affairs for all 3 universities. Meanwhile, I identified the
anchored material to “use a compare-and contrast process to extract observable
differences” among universities (Boyatzis, 1998, p.42). In the cross-site analysis,
a thematic analysis across the cases and an interpretation of the meaning of the
whole issue was asserted.
The process of theme development began with a categorical analysis in
which I developed codes or categories and sorted text into categories. Categorical
analysis was employed to identify micro and macro themes (Miles & Huberman,
1994). I made preliminary “counts” of categories and identified the most common
codes, which became the five or six general themes. As Boyatzis (1998) said: “A
theme is a pattern found in the information that at minimum describes and
organizes the possible observation and at maximum interprets aspects of the
phenomenon. A theme may be identified at the manifest level (directly observable
in the information) or at the latent level (underlying the phenomenon)” (p.4). In
my case study, the themes were generated inductively from the raw data. Working
87
directly from the raw information and making close connection between the codes
and the raw information increased reliability.
As a student studying in the U.S. for six years, I did not have current
exposure to Chinese universities. As such, I invited an insider -- my
undergraduate dean, an experienced faculty and senior administrator, as the key
informant to review the themes and to check for biases and unwarranted
conclusions. I asked him to ask me difficult questions concerning the sensitivity
of my interpretation and was accordingly open to his input.
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CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS
This study examined the applicability of the CAS standards that guide a
U.S. master’s program in student affairs in the Chinese higher education context.
Through a combination of individual interviews and focus groups to 52 Chinese
faculty, student affairs administrators and students in three universities in Beijing,
I explored the six sub-research questions: 1) How is student affairs administration
organized in Chinese higher education? 2) What are the educational philosophies
held by Chinese faculty and administrators? 3) What are the practical challenges
facing Chinese faculty and administrators in their work with students? 4) What
are students’ greatest concerns, according to faculty, administrators and the
students themselves? 5) What parts of CAS standards do the Chinese faculty and
administrators believe to be relevant to the Chinese context? 6) What
recommendations do Chinese faculty and administrators offer about a student
affairs master’s program? In this chapter, with a start of the sample description, I
reported the findings following the order of the 6 sub-research questions.
A Description of the Sample
From June 20, 2007 to July 20, 2007, I went to Peking University,
Peking Normal University and Capital Normal University in Beijing, China to
interview the college faculty, administrators and students using the specified
protocols for this proposal. To ensure the confidentiality of responses, the three
universities were named randomly University 1, University 2 and University 3. A
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total of fifty two Han people participated in the study; nineteen were
administrators, and nine faculty members, and 24 students. Han people are an
ethnic group native to China and composed of 92 percent of the population in the
People’s Republic of China.
Role in the university
Of the 28 faculty members and administrators, four assumed both
administrator and faculty roles. Whether they were categorized as a faculty
member or an administrator depended on their primary responsibilities and self
identification. For instance, the person working as the League Committee
secretary in the English Department in University 1 also taught English classes,
but the main responsibilities were student affairs administration so the position
was regarded as an administrative. Another person at University 1 was a lecturer
as well as the form master. For this person, because teaching and research were
the primary responsibility and student administration was supplementary, this
person was identified as a faculty member. Two other interviewees at University
2 and University 3 had administrative roles such as the vice party secretary or a
deputy dean. Additionally, they provided services either a professor or an
associate professor. They were categorized as faculty members by self-
identification.
90
The students
The 24 students consisted of 16 undergraduates, 5 master students, and 3
doctoral students; 12 females and 12 males. A detailed distribution of the student
status and the gender of the total student sample in the three universities is
described in Table 2. When the interviews were conducted, 13 students were
student leaders of their class, department, and school or university level, while 9
were simply students and 2 were students who had been student leaders. Counting
the last two as students only, there were 11 (46%) students and 13 (54%) student
leaders among the interviewees. The number of student leader interviewees was
surprising as I had expected participants to be only students, who might have less
access to the support available and thus could reflect the level of university
student affairs service more accurately. The age of the students varied from 19 to
38 with an average age of 23. They were enrolled in a variety of humanities and
social science and science majors. The humanities and social science majors
included philosophy, psychology, educational technology, educational public
policy, educational economics, higher education, Chinese literacy, Chinese
history, Chinese linguistics, Korean, finance, law, geography, travel planning, and
international economy and trade. The science majors consisted of mathematics;
physics, the earth and space, geographical information system, genetics and
evolvement, biology and biological technology. One out of the 24 students was a
double major in psychology and Chinese literacy.
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Table 2
A Distribution of the Student Status and Gender of the 24 Students in the Three
Universities
University
Name
Undergraduate
Students
Master Students Doctoral
Students
Total
Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male
University
1
3
(12.5%)
3
(12.5%)
1
(4%)
1
(4%)
1
(4%)
1
(4%)
5
(21%)
5
(21%)
University
2
1
(4%)
3
(12.5%)
2
(8%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
1
(4%)
3
(12.5%)
4
(17%)
University
3
3
(12.5%)
3
(12.5%)
1
(4%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
4
(17%)
3
(12.5%)
Total 7
(29%)
9
(37.5%)
4
(17%)
1
(4%)
1
(4%)
2
(8%)
12
(50%)
12
(50%)
Data were gathered from students through sixteen interviews and two
focus groups. In University 2 and University 3, 14 interviews were conducted. In
University 1, 2 interviews and 2 focus groups were completed. One focus group
was comprised of 4 graduate students and the other 4 undergraduate students.
Two master’s students and two doctoral students participated in the graduate
focus group. In the undergraduate focus group, there was one freshman, one
sophomore, and two juniors. Each of the focus groups was composed of two
females and two males. Each focus group took about one hour and fifteen
minutes. Each interview averaged 24 minutes.
The faculty
The nine faculty members consisted of 2 females and 7 males. Seven of
the nine assumed faculty roles, but the other three committed themselves to
responsibilities of both administrators and faculty members. The administrative
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responsibilities resided in student affairs, Party management and academic
administration. In Party Management, individuals held titles such as Party
secretary of the Party committee. In Academic Administration, individuals held
titles such as the deputy dean. In student affairs, faculty members held titles such
as the form master. The titles of the nine people ranged from lecturer, assistant
professor, associate professor to professor. The distribution of the nine faculty
members by title appear in Table 3. The age of the faculty members varied from
30 to 54 with an average of 43 years. Their years of working experience at the
university ranged from 1 year to 30 years. For example, the male professor from
University 3 with 30-years professional experience at the university worked first
in student affairs for 20 years, as the form master for 9 years, the Party vice
secretary for 9 years, and the associate director in student affairs for 2 years. He
then became a faculty member for 10 years. The male lecturer with one year of
experience at University 1 was also the form master, undertaking the task of
student affairs administration. All the faculty members were interviewed about
their interaction with students, their perceived challenges and concerns of the
students, and their comments on the applicability of the CAS standards on the
Chinese higher education student affairs administration professional training.
Their recommendations on the implementation of a masters program in student
affairs in China were solicited. The interview time varied from 40 minutes to 2
hours with an average of one hour and twenty minutes.
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Table 3
Rank Distribution among Faculty Participants
Title Lecturer Assistant
Professor
Associate
Professor
Professor Form
Master
Deputy
Dean
Vice
Party
Secretary
Total
No. 1 1 2 5 1 1 1 12
The administrators
There were 19 student affairs administrators participating in the study.
Nine of them were female and 10 were male. The youngest one was 25 years old
while the oldest one was 61 years old. The average age was 34 years old. Their
work experience at the university varied from 1 to 39 years with an average of 11
years. The youngest participant, 25 years old, served as a student administrative
assistant in the student affairs office in University 3 and the 29 year old graduate
student advisor with a doctoral degree at University 2 started their first position in
student affairs. In contrast, the 61 year old director in the psychological
counseling center at the University 1 had worked in colleges for 39 years,
assuming a variety of student affairs administrative positions such as the vice
director in student affairs and the director of student affairs.
With an average of 11 years experience at the university many
administrators, assumed multiple roles longitudinally, but in this study I focused
on their current posts at the time of the interviews in 2007. For example, the 36
year old female with 11 years work experience at University 1 had worked in the
graduate student affairs office before 2004, and then she held both the deputy
Party communist secretary and the deputy dean position until 2007. Only her
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positions as the deputy Party communist secretary and the deputy in 2007 were
counted in this study.
In the Chinese hierarchical administrative system, the status of the
interviewed administrators varied from the University deputy Party secretary, the
highest position in student affairs and the equivalent of the vice president for
student affairs in the U.S., to the starting positions such as the League committee
secretary at the department or the school level, as well as the student affairs
assistant at the university level. The responsibilities of the student affairs
administration fell on the shoulders of the Party secretary and League secretary at
the department and school level. The university usually hosts the student affairs
office, the graduate student affairs office, the career center, the psychological
counseling center to oversea student affairs. A detailed list of the job titles of the
interviewed student affairs administrator are given in table 4.
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Table 4
The List of the Job Titles of the 19 Interviewed Student Affairs Administrators
At the University Level At the School/Dept. Level
Job Title Number Job Title Number
University Party
Secretary
1 Deputy Party committee
secretary and the deputy
dean
1
Associate director in
the student affairs
office
2 Deputy Party committee
secretary and the deputy
director in the department
1
Student affairs
assistant in the student
affairs office
1 Deputy Party Committee
secretary and the director
of the student office
1
Staff in the student
affairs office
1 League committee
secretary
2
The head in the
graduate student affairs
office
1 Branch League committee
secretary in the school of
X , student Party
committee secretary in the
Y department, and teacher
1
The director in the
graduate student affairs
office
1 The League committee
secretary at the A
institute, the political and
ideological assistant in B
department, and the
secretary of the general
Party branch.
1
The director in the
career center
1 The League committee
secretary, and the person
in charge in the Dean’s
office
1
The director in the
psychological
counseling center
2 The political and
ideological assistant for
the graduate students
1
Total 10 Total 9
I conducted 16 interviews and one focus group of the student affairs
administrators. The focus group comprised of three persons: the head and the
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director in the graduate student affairs office, as well as a political and ideological
assistant for the graduate students. Administrators were asked the same questions
as faculty members regarding the students, the CAS standards, and the
recommendations on a master program in student affairs in Chinese higher
education. Additionally, the administrators were asked questions about the current
student affairs administration organizational structure in China, their career path,
the challenges they had faced in practice and the necessity to have professional
training. The interview time ranged from 40 minutes to 90 minutes with an
average of 73 minutes.
The Organization of Student Affairs Administration in Chinese Higher Education
A general review of the organizational chart
The political Communist Party system in China has played a primary
and decisive role in the organizational structure of the student affairs
administration in universities. There are two paralleled administrative lines
passing through and linking together in the state managerial system in China. The
executive branch or the administrative unit is under the ruling leadership of the
Communist Party Committee. The leadership given by Party Committees should
be primarily political; that is, they should ensure the correct political orientation
of the work of the units concerned. Just as the Party governs everything such as
the people’s thoughts, politics, and qualifications for their positions, both top
down and nation wide, so does Student Affairs for the university. Generally, in
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the Chinese higher education structure, the university president is responsible to
the leadership of the Communist Party committee. The Communist Party
committee is responsible for the political and ideological education of the faculty,
staff and students. A vice Party Secretary in the Party Committee in a Chinese
university is the head of the student affairs, in charge of students’ political
thoughts education, the management of the students, and the service for the
students. In addition to the Party, there is the Communist Youth League of China,
the reserve army for the Party. Youth between the ages of fourteen and twenty-
eight are eligible to participate as a League member. The League committee
works for the league members under the leadership of the Party.
Student affairs administration at the university is vertically implemented
top down at the three levels. Please refer to chart 1: the typical organizational
chart of a student affairs administration system at a university. The highest
administrator is at the university level, followed by the school/department level,
and the lowest one is at the class level. At the university level there are 6
functional units. They are the student affairs office, the graduate student affairs
office, the League committee, the psychological counseling center, the career
center and the financial aid office. The student affairs office, the graduate student
affairs office and the League committee are primarily traditional student affairs
administrative units. The career center, psychological counseling center and
financial aid office are usually perceived as the student service units and are
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relatively new additions to university structure. At the school/department level,
the student affairs staff is composed of a vice secretary of the Party committee or
an associate dean, as well as a secretary of the League committee. They are full
time student affairs administrators. At the class level, usually a young faculty
member is assigned as a form master in a class or cohort. A form master is usually
a new and young faculty member, who serves the Party to inform students about
major change, advises students and completes other duties as requested by the
Party. Unlike student affairs in the U.S., the residential life and the housing office
in Chinese higher education belong to the janitorial offices and facility
maintenance.
Figure 1: The Typical Organizational Chart of a Student Affairs Administration
System in a University
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The hierarchy and subordination among the functional units can vary
from university to university. For instance, the career center and the psychological
center are parallel with the student affairs office, the graduate student office, and
the university League committee in University 3, while in University 1 they are
under the direct control of the student affairs office. Another example is that the
vice secretary of the Party committee in the department or school may be directly
under the leadership of the university vice Party secretary, or be commanded by
the student affairs office, or be subordinate to both. However, at the department
and the school level, the secretary of the League committee and form master are
always under the vice Party secretary. In addition, the functional units in each
university are not exactly the same. For example, there is no financial aid office in
University 3. In University 2, the Youth Research Center is part of the student
affairs administration. Chart one illustrates a general student administration
structure. Though the structure may vary for institutions, their responsibilities
remain the same.
The routine work for student affairs in Chinese higher education,
according to an associate director in student affairs office at the University 1, can
be categorized as the ideological education for the students, and the general
affairs for students. The general affairs for students include the management of
students and the service for students. Please refer to the chart 2 below.
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Figure 2: The Classifications of Student Affairs in China
The division of the student affairs work among the functional units may
vary from institution to institution. But generally the student affairs office and the
graduate student affairs office usually serve for the undergraduates and the
graduates respectively. Their Party management responsibilities can include but
not limit to the ideological and political education, Party building among students,
and national defense education such as the military training and the curriculum
design for the military affairs theory. Their administrative duties are to manage
the status of the students, as well as the administer rewards and penalties to the
students. The League committee is in charge of the Party building, and League
building, as well as the mass organization activities for both undergraduates and
graduates. The duties of the financial aid office are to manage the work-study
program and the student loan program, plus provide financial help to
disadvantaged students. The career center usually hosts the job fair, provides
career counseling, and processes students’ employment. The psychological
counseling center provides psychological consultation to students and has
Student Affairs in China
General Affairs for
Students
Ideological Education for
students
Management for
Students
Service for
Students
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prevention programs for psychological crises. In addition to the student affairs
administration units at the university level, the staff at the department and school
level is comprised of the department vice Party secretary, the associate dean and
the League secretary, who interact with students directly on a daily basis on all
the issues related to students except teaching them classes.
Though the student affairs administration units are independent of each
other physically, there are a lot of overlapping functions operatively. For example,
all the units assume the responsibilities of political and ideological education to
all the students. Another instance is the fact that the student affairs office overlaps
with the League committee in Party building. The League committee recommends
excellent League members to be Party member candidates, while the student
affairs office is responsible for educating and managing student Party members.
People in specific positions talking about their responsibilities
University party secretary:1 person
The 43 year old University Party Secretary worked at the college for 20
years. She was in charge of the job assignments for the students after they
graduated. At the school level, she had worked as the Vice Party Secretary and the
Deputy Dean. At the university level, she supervised the political and ideological
education for students in the student affairs office, guiding students’ political
thoughts and patriotism through the implementation of educational activities.
Currently as the university Vice Party Secretary, she overseas the student affairs
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units as a whole and provides feedback on student affairs work macroscopically.
She classified her work into 4 categories: the work perceived as more important,
the work regarded as a weakness, something emerging new, and something which
follows the prescribed order. Her priority alternates depending on the situation
and time.
When interviewed, the focus of the Vice Party Secretary was the
implementation of a new practice guided and driven by a new philosophical way
of thinking. She frankly admitted that in the past, student affairs primarily focused
on political and ideological education of students. The fundamental guiding
principle for staff administering students was to preserve the political system. The
point of teaching was to instruct students rather than guide them and provide
services for them. For example, the educators had developed a curriculum for
political studies, organized meetings and activities, and told students what they
should and should not do and think, and then the students followed as passive
recipients. Since 2002, this practice has changed in that higher education, which
now emphasizes student-centered services. Rather than problem solving using a
political frame, students are encouraged to consider many starting points. There
are many starting points, that is, from the perspective of the students to consider.
This is a concept shift on the surface, but in reality, it is an earth-shaking change
which has significantly influenced how student affairs is being implemented and
restructured.
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First of all, this shift has influenced the way the Vice Party Secretary
structures and coordinates the functional units within student affairs, and the way
she coordinates with the academic departments. In the past, they operated
independently. The Vice Party Secretary has been trying to link the functional
units together based on the principle of focusing on the overall development of
students. It is with this background that all departments and personnel determine
their roles. The Vice Party Secretary illustrated how the work was restructured by
giving examples in the design of the curriculum, development of student job
placement services, and the creation of orientation for incoming 2007 students.
Prior to 2007, student affairs personnel were not involved with
curriculum design; however, now they have a more active role. As a
representative of student affairs, the Vice Party Secretary stated:
The day before yesterday I participated in a curriculum design meeting
in an academic department. In the past, academic personnel were the
only individuals in attendance. We student affairs people did not know
anything about courses or how they were set up. Now they incorporate
the student affairs perspective into the curriculum design. Our opinion is
listened to, because we understand the students well. All of us discussed
the teaching plans together, the number of field-based courses, the
number of core courses, the number of professional courses, and the
distribution method… I think that the students lack social experiences
and work experiences. Therefore, we added field-based courses to the
curriculum designed for the incoming 2007 students. These courses can
take place on holidays, over the weekends, and during regular class time.
I think that the increase in practical courses will help them grow…
To illustrate the faculty’s involvement in students’ job search, the Vice
Party Secretary further explained:
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In terms of student employment after graduation, for example, in the
past job placement was on the shoulders of student affairs, but now the
faculty has to participate. Faculty members participate by providing
guidance to students, helping them make contact to secure an internship.
Now faculty has to do this, though they did not do it before … Therefore
from a macro perspective, it should be said that now all of us are
involved in the overall development of students. Their development is
what dictates our functions. We no longer work independently but are
working together. Before we regarded student affairs as people who
worked independent of faculties but now we have to change. To have
reached this point, I think it is a great distinction.
The Vice Party Secretary also mentioned the increased of awareness of
continuing support for students in their vocational development and psychological
growth. She stated:
Another instance could be the earlier intervention of our employment
guidance and psychological guidance. We started to give career
guidance very late in the past. Now I would like to start in the freshman
year. My experience is that if you start well, everything will follow.
With a bad start, a lot of time will be spent to achieve results. In 2007,
we will give freshmen a vocational guidance course, and help them with
the situation analysis as well as with establishing a more accurate view
about society. The guidance for psychological health, I will begin in the
freshman year, too. This guidance is divided into phases from freshman
to senior year…
Second, consistent with the notion of student centered services, student
affairs management has been on track to be in accordance with the law that
protects individual students’ rights. The Vice University Party Secretary
furthered explained:
We really have done a lot of detailed things to manage student affairs
according to the law. This is not the same as in the past. For instance, in
terms of the administrative penalties for students, before we dealt with
the student as if they were guilty, or that he had made enough mistakes
in the past that student affairs personnel would say that the student had
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to accept the punishment. Now, we must let students know about the
regulations for penalties in advance. Everyone has to get the rules, and
even teachers speak to students face to face regarding the regulations.
Now, if a student violates the regulation, the student has to acknowledge
that he or she committed the error. Then before giving a final decision
on the appropriate punishment, we have to meet with the student and the
student must accept responsibility for their action. In the past we were
not very sophisticated about these procedures. All of these procedures,
though complicated, in fact reflect the management of student affairs in
accordance with the principles of the law.
The University vice Party Secretary reported finding great satisfaction
among the young people in the student affairs department. She said she enjoyed
working in student affairs because there is always something new emerging –
“There will always be new issues because students change, their status changes
and social conditions change, therefore all things must constantly adjust.” In spite
of some new initiatives, the university Vice Party Secretary was aware that the
concept of student-centered services, to recognize and address the individual
student needs, will take a long time. “Therefore,” she said: “Being student-
centered is only in the making. To really realize this notion, we have a long way
to go.”
Student affairs office: 4 persons
In the student affairs office, I interviewed four people with the titles of
Associate Director in Student Affairs, Associate Director for Political Education
and Party Building, student affairs assistant and student affairs staff. When a
university houses the graduate student affairs office, the student affairs office
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takes primary responsibility for undergraduates. When a university does not have
a graduate student affairs office, the student affairs office serves graduates and
undergraduates. The student affairs office or the university League committee
may be responsible for financial aid if there is no financial aid office in the
university. The political and ideological education of students, Party building and
League building for the students, national defense education, as well as student
management are the primary responsibilities of the student affairs office.
First, the ideological and political education of students is intended to
help students establish a correct socialist and communist outlook on the world.
The ideological and political work is to draft documents and plan activities based
on the current national policy and new themes that may have emerged from the
central government, as well as convey a consistent point of view to the students.
While the drafting of documents and planning activities is on the shoulders of the
student affairs office, the student affairs arm in the department and the school is
responsible for implementation. Personnel in the student affairs office usually
upload a summary report after the implementation of a program.
Political education offices do not only schedule activities, nor does it
only provide instructional component. It often has some intended educational
outcomes. The associate director in the student affairs office in charge of the
political and ideological education at university 3 further explained:
Students experience large changes in their personality. I generally carry
out educational activities to instruct them. If there is a main hot spot in
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the community, or a new theory out, we will have to educate the students
by specifically planning a number of themes and programmed activities.
We carry out the activities at the school and department level. For
example, two years before, the country's relatively popular theme was
the eight honors and eight disgraces
2
in socialism. We organized an
educational activity with the theme of the socialist concept of honor and
disgrace. A second example is the Long March. Last year was the 70th
anniversary of the Long March
3
victory. We designed Long March
related educational themes. They were focused on self-determination
and service to country.
Second, Party building among students involves the nurturing and
development of student Party members, as well as the building of Party
organizations. Student affairs personnel hold regular meetings of the Vice Party
Secretaries at the school and department level to approve funds, distribute tasks,
and provide day-to-day management guidance.
2
The "eight honors, eight disgraces" raised by President Hu Jintao is becoming
the new moral yardstick to measure the work and conduct of Communist Party
officials. They mean that to love the motherland is an honor, and to impair the
motherland is a disgrace; To serve the people is an honor, and to deviate from the
people is a disgrace; To uphold science is an honor, and to be ignorant is a
disgrace; To work hard is an honor, and to despise labor is a disgrace; To enhance
solidarity is an honor, and to harm others to benefit self is a disgrace; To be
honest is an honor, and to forget all moral principals at the prospect of profits is a
disgrace; To be law-abiding is an honor, and to violate the law and discipline is a
disgrace;To live plainly is an honor, and to welter in luxury and pleasure is a
disgrace.
3
The Long March was a massive military retreat from South China to Northwest
China in 1934-1936 for the Red Armies of the Chinese Communist Party, the
forerunner of the People’s Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Chinese
Nationalist Party army. Most Communist leaders took power (1949) were on this
journey including Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and Zhude.
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The associate director in the student affairs office responsible for
political and ideological education at university 3 stated how he implemented
political education to student Party members on the Party’s birthday:
I am responsible for party building. For example, prior to July 1 (the
Party’s birthday) this year, we conducted ideological and political
education for the student Party members. Then on July 1, we invited
soldiers to perform the national flag-raising ceremony at Tiananmen
Square. They conducted the Flag-raising performance for our student
Party members, while allowing new members to be sworn in. The
combination of the flag-raising ceremony and swearing in of party
members provided an opportunity to educate party members.
The associate director at University 3 was also in charge of conveying
the university Party Secretary’s thinking and strategic plan to all students. He
said:
Our university now proposes building the ‘unique, research-based,
comprehensive’ university. This is the mission of the university. Instead
of directly contacting all the students in the university, I have to allow
all students to understand the Party Secretary’s thoughts through
leadership and planning. I put emphasis on supervising how the various
departments and schools plan to implement the main ideas of University
Party committee and their conceptual plan for organizing related
activities.
Third, the student affairs office is dedicated to building and improving
the student affairs arm at the department and school level. The student affairs arm
is composed of a Vice Party Secretary or a Deputy Dean in charge of students,
and a League secretary. These individuals are employed as full time advisors and
their primary responsibility is ideological education and regular management of
students in the department and school. The management of the full-time advisor
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did not attract any domestic attention until 2004. After 2007 the country took the
role of the advisor very seriously.
The student affairs office organizes training and evaluation of the full
time advisors. The associate director in student affairs office from University 2
told me:
On June 16, 17, the two-day weekend, we asked the full time advisors to
participate in training by the people in the career center and
psychological center. They were taught how to engage with students one
on one and give them some psychological counseling, as well as how to
assist students plan their careers. I use this weekend to train advisors and
require them to grasp this knowledge.
Fourth, the student affairs office is in charge of national defense
education and student management. National defense education includes the
design and teaching of military theory courses and organizing military training,
day-to-day national defense education and military sports. Military training is
required for undergraduates. Student management refers to rewards and
punishments, student status, student identification cards and other student
services. However, the work in the student affairs office goes far beyond these
four points. It is not unusual to hear personnel in the student affairs office say that
their work is all-inclusive and that everything related to the students is applicable.
The staff in the student affairs office from University 3 mentioned:
My work covers a wide range of responsibilities, and tasks vary...
Student affairs work is comprehensive and complicated. I feel that the
responsibilities are about everything related to students. The public
safety department will come to us if they have safety issues related to
students. The residential center will come to us if they have problems
110
with students. The health insurance office, the health center … my work
entails a wide range of varied responsibilities.
The associate director in the student affairs office in University 3 stated:
Though each functional unit has unique responsibilities, for example,
advising related to employment, psychological counseling, and the
mental health of students, the student affairs office and the graduate
student affairs office will coordinate with each other as necessary. For
example, if an undergraduate student is in psychological crisis, the
student affairs office will collaborate with the psychological center to
deal with the problem. If a graduate student is in psychological crisis,
the graduate student affairs office will collaborate with the psychological
center to deal with the problem. If a student commits suicide, the
relevant departments will get together to deal with the issue. I feel we
deal with it all.
In sum, the student affairs office is in charge of a variety of
responsibilities. These responsibilities include implementing the ideological
education, Party building, national defense education, and student management.
The student affairs office is also responsible improving and building the student
affairs arm at the department and school level.
Graduate student affairs office: 2 persons
The head in the graduate student affairs office in University 1 told me
that with the expansion of the number of graduate students in the past few years, a
large number of graduate students were not provided adequate student services. In
response, most of the Chinese colleges and universities have set up a graduate
student affairs office responsible for the ideological and political education of
graduate students and graduate student affairs management. The focus of this
graduate unit is the same as the student affairs office in that they are primarily
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responsible for the planning and management of student services. However, they
serve a different student body. The student affairs office usually serves
undergraduates while the graduate affairs office serves graduates. The specific
function of the graduate office includes the ideological and political education,
Party building among the graduates, and day-to-day management of graduates
such as the status of the graduates, the rewards and punishment, financial aid and
other services.
University League Committee: 0
The University League committee is primarily responsible for the
League building among students. Areas of responsibility include planning
activities and supervising the Communist Youth League organizations. The
University League committee administers to its counterpart at the department and
school level, guides the undergraduate student union, the graduate student union
and on-campus community organizations, as well as organizes fieldtrips to
significant memorials or key industries. Leadership from this committee plays an
important role in enriching campus culture. There is some overlap between the
University League committee, the student affairs office and the graduate student
affairs office in terms of Party building. For example, when it comes to the
development of student Party members, the department League committee and
school League committee recommend excellent League members to become the
Party member candidates to the student affairs office and the graduate student
112
affairs office. A student can not join the Party without the recommendation from
the League committee. Nobody in the University League committee was
interviewed in the study because of time limitations.
Career Center: 1 person
There were 6 people working in the career center at University 1. They
served 11,062 undergraduates and 5,117 graduates. The director was interviewed.
The career center is responsible for employment guidance for all students, job
placement expansion, employment procedures, as well as employment education.
Employment guidance refers to the delivery of elective courses and planned
lecture series for career planning, providing employment publications, and the
invitation of celebrities and community organizations to hold seminars about the
forefront of business and insights from entrepreneurs. Employment expansion is
the development of the job market. On the one hand, it is linked to employment.
Special sessions are held to inform students of job opportunities. On the other
hand, potential employers are provided with the qualification of graduates.
Employment procedures include providing report cards and recommendation
forms for the students who graduate. Employment education involves ideological
and political education to students in their choices of employers with an attempt
to guide students to go to the most needed places of the country.
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The career center as the representative of the university is involved with
the graduates’ employment procedure after they get a job offer. The director in the
career center at University 1 explained the details as follows:
I do not know the situation abroad. The situation in China is rather
special. For a graduate who is employed to any employer, he should
have a report card first (The report card is a summary of the students
achievement and a report on their conduct). To get the report card,
students must have a recommendation form. The recommendation form
must be stamped by his affiliated department or school, the career center
and the employer (The stamps from the students’ department and school
and the career center are to confirm the students’ record. The stamp of
the employer is to confirm job offer). Second, after the student brings
the recommendation form from the employer back to the university, we
will give him a different form -- a three-party agreement. Students,
employers and university have to sign the three-party agreement. The
agreement will go to the educational and administrative government
departments in Beijing that are in charge of the student report card. This
report card is very useful in that it is the only authorization for the
student as a new employee to register with the employer and change the
registered permanent residence. The student also delivers the complete
individual dossier
4
to the employer. It stays there until the student
changes jobs. Therefore, a large number of graduate’s formalities go
through here. Imagine we have about 4,000 graduates each year. Every
student will come to the career center at least 2-3 times. We have a total
of six people! The workload is very big!
The career center is tracking students after they graduate. The report
card system can be abused in that if a student has a relationship problem with a
student affairs administrator at any level, he/she can keep the student on hold
from his/her employment opportunity.
4
Complete educational history, follows the student since the elementary school.
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Employment education is a combination of ideological education with
economic benefits to attract students. The career center director said:
Our employment education is intended to call students to make
contributions to the rural areas, to the grass-roots units. For example, in
the past two years, we have been calling graduates to Beijing's rural
areas to become the village officer. Village officer refers to the assistant
village director, or the assistant secretary of the village Party branches.
University graduates are to stay there three years, three years after
another career. During the three years, monthly wage for the first year is
RMB 2,000, the second year RMB 2, 500, the third year RMB 3,000.
There is change in policy, so we have to do some encouragement to
students. Another instance of employment education is to call students to
be primary and secondary school teachers in rural areas. Of course, our
policy is very supportive for students to listen to the call from the
country. In a market economy, without policy support, I am afraid that
unilateral ideological education can not be fully effective.
The career center works closely with the student affairs office at the
department and school level, as well as with the student affairs office, the
graduate student affairs office, and the university League committee at the
university level. The career center depends heavily on the various departments
and schools as it works directly with students on their employment. The career
center, student affairs office, graduate student affairs office and the university
League committee all assume the responsibility for ideological education. The
director added:
For example, integrity and credibility of the students is reflected the
most obviously in their willingness to keep their agreements with their
college sponsors. We advocate that students go to work in places with
the most in need. The effectiveness of this kind of ideological education
reflects in employment. Students’ performance in employment is a
measurement of the status and result of political education.
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Accepting employment in the most needed place adds political capital to
the students’ interests in advancing their career.
Psychological counseling center: 2 persons
Psychological counseling centers in Chinese higher education
institutions started in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the psychological
counseling center at University 1 and University 3, there were respectively 5 and
7 full-time personnel serving about 16,000 and 18,000 students accordingly. Each
center hosted about 10 individual counseling sessions on a daily basis, which was
a small part of the center’s work. The main focus of the psychological counseling
center is to conduct group-based mental health education for all students, not on
individual services.
In terms of the positioning of the psychological counseling center, the
director in university 1 with 39 years of college work experience said:
I work for the psychological counseling center and my philosophy is that
I can not manage it the same as a hospital, or, as a psychological clinic,
waiting for students with issues to come to me. I think I should take the
initiative to show students I care. If the student takes the initiative to
come see me, even if he is very active, we can only serve a small
number of students. We must consider how to enhance the psychology
quality of the whole student body. This is our psychological counseling
center’s position. We are not specifically designed to solve problems but
to upgrade, or optimize the psychological quality for all students.
Therefore, our psychological counseling is for all students, in mental
health education . . .
Though the psychological center provides one on one service, the
center’s primary task is to reach out to all the students. This is very different from
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the traditional U.S. psychological counseling center, which typically provides
service one on one through a student’s initiative.
The primary method for providing mental health education is to offer
classes, daily lectures and regular workshops. Mental health classes can be
compulsory or elective. The content of the course includes training in
psychological quality of life, interpersonal skills, coping strategies, knowing self,
and other related skills. The psychological counseling center collaborates with
other offices. It offers seminars and advisory group counseling to students in
schools and departments periodically. For example, at the beginning of the fall
semester, the psychological center gives presentations to the incoming new
students regarding how to adapt to college life. Another venue is military training.
Many students feel pressured by military training. Consequently the psychological
counseling center has to do some workshops in conjunction with military training
to relieve students’ pressure. In addition, students usually feel extremely stressed
upon their graduation as a result of career choices, the uncertainty of employment
and the breakup of relationships. The psychological counseling center takes the
initiative to meet with students for psychological education and psychological
counseling to demonstrate their caring for student growth. The psychological
counseling center director in University 3 said: “Upon graduation, student
romances are usually over as the two have to separate. As long as the department
asks, I will go there to make a presentation…”
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In addition to direct mental health education and services to students, the
psychological center also provides training to staff and faculty. The training is
intended to mobilize all personnel to provide a healthy on-campus ecological
environment and atmosphere for students’ mental health development. The mid-
level leadership teams in the university, the student affairs arm in the department
and school, the faculty members, the form masters, the student housing
management staff, public safety personnel, and student cadres in the dormitory
5
are required to participate. The training includes the psychological characteristics
of college students’ development, the social skills necessary to interact with
college student, the common psychological problems of college students, the
indicators of college students’ psychological crisis, and the identification of
students’ suicidal tendencies and so on. The director in University 1 stated:
We get the whole university leadership, teachers, student affairs
administrators, custodians, residential staff and student cadre involved.
We give them training. We enable them to understand the characteristics
of the psychological development of college students, the psychological
problems students may encounter, as well as the symptoms of the
psychological crisis. We show them how to identify a student’s tendency
to commit suicide and teach them the skills to interact with students…
Thus, there is support throughout the university, not just the staff in the
counseling center, for sharing concern for students’ psychological
development.
5
Typically students are housed 10 to a suite. One student assigned as the
coordinator of the students in the room is called student cadre in the dormitory.
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The Director added that the psychological center is well prepared to train
the intended groups. The other psychological center director at university 3 said:
I have the record and keep the lesson plans. What should I present to the
dormitory managers? What should I stress to the form masters? What
should I say to the student leaders? I have all kinds of lesson plans...I
have trained those who are now the backbone of the program and then
let them do the work. My reach is greater this way…
To demonstrate all personnel’s involvement in caring for students’
psychological growth, the 61 year old director in University 1 stated:
We have a five-level psychological education network system which
includes every student. The first level refers to the university level.
University leaders and public relations departments such as the student
affairs office, the graduate student affairs office, the academic office, the
propaganda office, the public safety department, the university hospital
and the relevant leadership departments are the leading group for student
mental health education at the university level. The second level is
located at the schools and departments. The student affairs arm and
faculty members in the schools and departments have to be involved.
The third level is in the classroom. The leadership team at the classroom
level includes the form master, the class Party secretary, the class
monitor, student leaders in the student union, and the psychological
director of the class. The fourth level resides in the student housing
center and student apartments. Because of the full implementation of
the credit system, the class structure is relatively loose and unstable. But
the students living in the same dormitory room are a relatively stable
space. Though psychological problems frequently occur there, the
easiest solution is to provide service there as well. The fifth level is the
individual. We provide guidelines at each level, describing
responsibilities. What are the benefits of such a system? First, the great
coverage is self-evident. The five-level system covers every student.
Vertically, the concepts of mental health knowledge and methods have
been delivered to every student through our training to every level.
Second, the system makes up for any shortage of professionals. For
instance, our university has five full-time professionals in psychological
counseling. Our number is no less than other universities. If we expand
to ten, even twenty full-time professionals, we still are not able to solve
all the problems of 16,000 students. Further, the advantage is that once
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there is a psychological crisis, the system will report to us promptly. Just
like the people's war, we get everyone involved, which is very good.
After the mental health knowledge is disseminated through our training,
a lot of students, staff and faculty can identify the symptoms of students’
facing a suicide crisis in their daily life and report to us in a timely
manner to do rescue work. Workers, teachers, the secretary, and
student’s roommates have reported finding something wrong with a
student. They reported to us in time and we were able to provide
professional assistance…
In addition to the students and related personnel training, the
psychological counseling center closely communicates and collaborates with
other relevant offices, departments and parents to construct an all-around mental
health education and crisis prevention and intervention system. Some common
issues reflected by students in psychological counseling are not personal issues.
These issues can be, for example, test anxiety during finals for a certain number
of students in a specific department, some negative comments about the student
dining hall and sleeping accommodation conditions that make students unhappy.
Under the premise of protecting the privacy of students, the psychological
counseling center will make recommendations to relevant departments and units
to improve students’ ability to study and live on campus. Conversely, once
student affairs management is informed that the student problem involves a
psychological aspect, they will let the psychological center intervene. For
example, when the student affairs office has to expel a student or punish a student,
they may worry about his/her psychological problem as well. They can refer the
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student to the psychological counseling center for psychological intervention to
prevent suicide.
Further, the psychological center gets parents involved to help students
grow. The director of psychological counseling center in University 3 gave an
example:
More and more graduate students have been doing extreme things in the
past few years. We have been studying why these things happen. Some
cases were related to the student’s family. So I engaged in family
treatment. Parents had to come for the counseling with no charge to the
family. Parents need to grow with students. Without dealing with the
parents, when the student returns home, her mother treats her same; if
the student calls his father, the father still talks negatively. The student’s
pressure will never be relieved.
The primary task of the psychological counseling center is to provide
group-based mental health education for all students instead of individual
services. The psychological counseling center achieves this goal through offering
classes, daily lectures and regular workshops to students, as well as training staff
and faculty. It also works closely with other relevant offices, departments, schools
and parents to construct an all-around mental health education and crisis
prevention system.
Deputy Party secretary: 3 persons
A Vice Party Secretary is the head of the student affairs arm at the
department and school level. The other members of the team are composed of
personnel from the League Secretary (the undergraduate ideological and political
advisor), the graduate ideological and political advisor and the form masters. A
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Vice Party Secretary is responsible for the overall distribution and coordination of
student affairs tasks in the department or in the school. He/she does not just
distribute tasks, but also works on them personally. The tasks can include
anything related to students apart from teaching and research in the classroom.
Three Deputy Party secretaries were interviewed, averaging age at 40 years old
with16 years of work experiences on college campuses. Besides the Party title of
Deputy Party Secretary, they had administrative positions such as the Deputy
Dean, the deputy director and the director in the student affairs office. Each Vice
Party Secretary was in charge of 600-700 undergraduates and graduates with one
or two other full-time student affairs people.
The 29 year old female Party Secretary in the history department had a
typical student affairs team. She described as follows:
A League Secretary is directly below me. He is the ideological and
political advisor for undergraduates, managing a number of specific
matters for them. I also have an ideological and political advisor for
graduates. The graduates include masters and doctoral students. The
day-to-day management of graduate students’ affairs is in his
possession. These two people are full time student affairs people, plus I;
we have three full time student affairs people in our department. Then
we have form masters. Form masters for either undergraduates or
graduates are all part-time in terms of student management. Teaching is
their main task. Ideally we hope for low turn over among the form
masters. For instance, a form master will stay with undergraduate
students for 4 years. Young and new faculty members can do this. After
a young faculty member completes his four-year form master task, we
generally will not choose him to do this again. For a relatively senior
faculty member, if he is assigned to be the form master, he will be
mobile and has to be replaced in two years. That is to say that a form
master is not a professional career, but an auxiliary position. Form
masters are usually assigned some big things such as the welcome of the
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incoming students and the graduation of students. They meet with
students once or twice per semester or per year. There are more than 600
undergraduates and graduates in our department and we have probably
9-10 form masters. Each form master is in charge of approximately 60
students.
The main function of student affairs is party building and ideological
education. The other day-to-day administration includes student rewards and
punishments, student loans and financial aid, psychological counseling,
employment guidance, recruitment and admission, student graduation and other
related student services. Unlike student affairs in the United States providing
services to individual students, Chinese student affairs management is centralized
with strong hierarchical tiers. For example, the new incoming students check in
and register in the fall semester. They have to check in and register at the
department and the school level. Then the Vice Party Secretary office will register
them at the university. When students graduate, the university diplomas are
issued to the department, and then the department redistributes them to every
student. If students want to apply for loans, they have to do it through the
Department. The relationship between the students and department or school is
very close. The Vice Party Secretary arm is the one between students and the
administrative units at the university.
The Vice Party Secretary at the pharmaceutical school at the university 2
vividly illustrated its office function as follows:
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Logically speaking, in mainland China, one of our main functions is in
fact ideological education. Though we are asked to take care of students’
eating, drinking, and sleeping, the university contracts janitorial services
and facilities management to work on these and these functions should
not be reflected in the many. We are called the political advisor, so
students’ ideological and political education should be our job. This is
probably not the same as foreign countries like the United States. There
is no ideological and political education and moral character education
in the U.S. U.S. student affairs emphasizes independence and guidance
and their system can be accessed by the student directly based on their
needs one department after another. . For instance, if the student has
psychological problem, he can go to the psychological counseling center
directly. If the student loses his identification card, he can go to the card
office to get it directly. What we do in this office is very comprehensive.
We do everything for students from start to finish, including their eating,
drinking, and sleeping. For instance, something in the dormitory is
broken. Students will come to report to us and we will help the students
communicate with the janitorial office to get things fixed. Students in
the U.S. may not be like this. They can report to a special office that
something is broken and needs repair. They do not need go through any
office like us. We in China are these people who directly interact with
students and connect them to the administrative units at the university
level. We actually are such an office.
Party building at the department and school level refers to the
development of party members, training for Party member candidates, and a set of
strict procedures to nurture Party members. Managing these tasks is a very
important part of a Vice Party Secretary’s job. She reports that she has to spend a
lot of time on it, particularly when there are many students with an interest in
joining the Party. For example, with increased enrollment, there are many
graduates but employment is limited. Eligibility for many of these limited
positions is designated for Party members. Joining the Party puts students a step
ahead of others for employment. In addition to relatively good academic
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performance of the students who pursue political careers, employment pressure is
identified as a very important factor that contributes to “Party fever” among
students. In the history department at university 1, student Party members account
for about 12% of the 400 undergraduates. This percentage is relatively high,
although many of students who want to join the Party cannot be accommodated.
The Deputy Party Secretary A in University 1 noted that the way the
institution conducts ideological education has changed significantly as a result of
a change in student characteristics and student roles on campus. She described
current college students are disobedient and self-centered, noting that if the
intention to conduct the political and ideological education is obvious, these
students do not participate. Pure indoctrination education does not work any
more. Meanwhile, over the past two years, the administration realized that
students are a mainstay of the campus culture and they should play a leading role
as active initiators instead of passive followers. Student organizations are
becoming more and more active on campus. The Deputy Party Secretaries have
been struggling to find the middle ground between the required ideological
political education and student needs.
The Vice Party Secretary with 30 years of working experience as the
political and ideological advisor shared her experience like this:
In terms of political and ideological education, I would like to do some
practical work to help students grow both from the content and format of
the political education. But I still can not get away from the most
primitive approach of indoctrination. . . We are in the process of trying.
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We really want to start thinking from an administrative perspective. Our
inculcation happens relatively less frequently. If we want to inculcate the
students, and design an ideological and political education course, the
students simply do not come to listen. Really, they do not! So what can
we do to make students more involved in ideological education? We
have to ask students what they want, and what kind of format they
prefer. After soliciting ideas from the students, what shall we do? We
are here to serve them. If we don’t do this, students simply don’t come.
For example, a considerable number of students had psychological
problems to some extent. Some were more serious and had to go to
therapy. Some were less serious and when we gave them some guidance,
they recovered. I invited psychological experts to give students a
presentation regarding their psychological health. While the experts
were talking, the students did not listen. This was very embarrassing for
me. Later, I decided that we had to change. Before we organize an
activity, we will administer a questionnaire to students. For instance, I
asked what would have a significant impact on your college life and
what are your needs? Have you ever encountered psychological
problems? Do you need information on psychological issues to help you
deal with pressure? They said they needed the knowledge. Then we went
further to ask the students what approaches they preferred. We solicited
their input. We handed out pieces of paper and asked them to write
down ideas as a class. We collected the information through class
activities and League activities… After receiving students’ input, we had
to add the content of ideological education required by our supervisor, or
say we added one more perspective to help students get the political
education done.
The Deputy Party Secretary with 7 years of working experience in
student affairs at university 1 provided the following reflections regarding the
student organizations and political education:
We used to put more emphasis on instilling a lot of things in students
before. It has been well known since last year that students are the main
body on campus and using their independent activities are the best way
to educate them. After we changed the concept, I would like to say that
student organizations are more vibrant than ever, because most of the
activities are proposed by students…I think my opinion may be
controversial. We used to put emphasis on controlling students like
through ideological education. The country had this system and there
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was nothing we could do about it. Now we are slowly changing this
system. Many institutions of our country are slowly changing. But I
think for the past two years it could be said that we are still improving.
At least we recognize that management, education, and service are a full
range of support. You can not say you would like to emphasize one
while neglecting another. This does not work. In the past two years,
there was change particularly in student characteristics, the society and
the country. You can not indoctrinate students. It does not work.
Independent student organizations are popular. What we generally do is
to be supportive first, to provide financial support given the
circumstances. Second, I give them a little political guidance. As long as
their ideas and activities do not go beyond the nation’s politics and
ethics, I would permit them to do it.
The popularity of independent student organizations indicates that
students are playing a more active role in college life.
League secretary: 4 persons
Four League Secretaries with an average of 27 years old were
interviewed in the schools and departments of education, foreign language,
physics, as well as earth and space sciences. In addition to the title of League
secretary, the other Party positions these individuals could hold are student Party
committee secretary and the secretary of the general Party branch. One League
secretary taught English classes. Their years of experience at the university varied
from 2 to 6 years. The number of undergraduate and graduate students under their
charge ranged from approximately 400 to 700. While every student in the
department and school can meet with the League secretaries, League Secretaries
often deal more with the student leaders of student League Committees, student
unions, student organizations and classes. A League secretary usually receives
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tasks and work-related requirements directly from the university student affairs
office, the university League Committee, and the vice Party secretary at the
department and school level. The League Secretary assigns work to form masters
or student leaders. Here, the League Secretary is the first person to take
responsibility. All of the form masters and student leaders play more
complementary roles. In other words, the League Secretary relies on form masters
and student leaders to get things done.
The work of a League Secretary includes training and managing student
cadres, ideological education, League building, Party building, advising and day-
to-day administration. Planning and organizing student activities, as well as
propaganda are the important work of a League Secretary. The League Secretary
provides oversight to the two student organizations, the student union and League
committee at the school and department level. The department and school League
committee is led by the university League committee. The League Committee is
relatively formal and they usually organize political education activities required
by authorities at the university level. The student union is registered with the
university and is less formal, organizing entertainment activities, student
competition and so on. The League Secretary stays in close contact with the
monitor in each class. The League Secretary passes on information such as
university management requirements and department activities through student
leaders in the student union, department League committee, student organizations
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and classes to the student body. Therefore, training the student leaders in the
school and department is very important for a League Secretary.
League building at the department and school level usually refers to
organizing all kind of activities for League members, recommending excellent
League members to become Party member candidates, and certifying students’
expanded quality related to character education. For example, when it comes to a
number of important League and Party holidays and the required content, the
League secretary will assign League members to participate in related activities.
League members are also members of the reserve army and serve as assistants for
the Party. For those outstanding League members who are active in joining the
Communist Party of China, the League Secretary is responsible for part of the
review process and will verify that the candidates meet the requirements. In
addition, from the time a student goes to college until his/her graduation, the
League Secretary maintains a detailed record and certification regarding his/her
involvement in university activities, participation in lectures and social practices.
This is called “quality expansion certification”.
The Party building for a League secretary means developing new student
Party members and regularly organizing student Party members to participate in
theory and practice learning. Theory learning refers to learn national policy and
major events. Practice learning refers to participating in various activities as Party
members such as the Party day activities. In terms of the process to develop new
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student Party members, the League secretary with 4 years of working experience
said:
I am in charge of the League committee in my department, and at the
same time I am the student Party branch secretary, responsible for
developing the student Party member candidates and monitoring the
student Party members. As far as the development of a Party member
candidate, the student must first be a League member who submits an
application to join the Party, and then we will review and audit the
application. One year later, we will send a Party member in our Party
branch to his class to investigate his relationship with his classmates, his
transcripts, his thinking and so on. Also, we will write to his parents and
investigate his parents. This is a “must do”. If the student has no
problems, and there is nothing wrong with the parents and they are all in
line with the politically important issues then we will have a meeting
regarding the development of Party members and recommend the
student to the Party.
In terms of day-to-day administration and advising, the list goes so long
that it covers almost everything related to students. The routine administration
includes orientation for incoming students, organizing military training, the whole
process of student graduation, Chinese New Year and a Christmas evening party.
The advising role involves coaching students in their studies, thoughts,
psychology, financial aid, vocational development, love relationships, residential
life, social life and other aspects.
The League secretary with 4 years working experience illustrated the
comprehensive nature of his work as follows:
Student affairs work at the department and school level has to deal with
everything outside of giving classes (Laughter). This is a heavy day-to-
day work load. There are some routine tasks, and the rest is usually
trivial. For example, the student may come to me to talk about his
academic difficulty and I have to help him find a solution. I am in charge
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of more than 400 students. In addition to their day-to-day study life,
their accommodations, their intention to study abroad, the
documentation for them to leave the country, monitoring their absence
from school or drop outs, and so on, they bring all their concerns to me.
Except their examinations, I take care of everything related to them.
From the first year to the fourth year, from their orientation at the
beginning to their graduation in the end, I have to be responsible for the
entire process. I generally have the most contact with students. . . So,
every day basically from the beginning of the work day, our office
phone and my cell phone keep ringing… In any case, aside from
students’ examinations and how to design their tests, all of the other
responsibilities are on my shoulder. We do a hybrid of work. When
students fight with each other, I need to deal with… For instance, a few
days ago, students in the dormitory did not get along and had trouble
with another. They came to me to solve the problem.
Not only are the contents of student affairs all-inclusive, but the scope
and responsibility of student affairs in China goes beyond the boundary of their
counterparts in the Untied States. The student affairs professional in China get
involved in relationships between students and their parents, assisting with family
conflicts. The League Secretary with 5 years work experience at the college level
made the comparison regarding the responsibility to take care of students’ family
relationships in the two countries as follows:
Last year we went to Minnesota University in the United States to study
their student affairs practices. There are a lot of differences. In the
United States, college students’ relationships with their parents are an
out-of-school concern. They need to take care of it themselves. If they
violated the law, law enforcement authorities would deal with it. But in
China, our work includes to a large extent situations which occur in
society and the community. If the student has problems with his/her
family, we have to coordinate and help sort it out. Our work is all-
encompassing when dealing with students.
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The League Secretary, distinguished as the top 10 excellent advisors in
Beijing, told me about her daily work, the university’s accountability for student
safety and how she gets parents involved as follows:
In a word, my work includes everything. Anything related to my
students is all on my shoulders. You could say one size fits all. In the
universities in China, if a student committed suicide, the school is
responsible. In Hong Kong, Macao and foreign countries, students are
independent individuals as adults. If a student committed suicide, it
would have nothing to do with the university. It is very different here in
China. Parents will question the university for a student’s death. They
believe if the student was turned over to the care of the university and
now the student has a big problem, then you, university, certainly have
the responsibility. After a student suicide, the university will have to
give the parent a large amount of money for compensation. I really deal
with everything. If a student did not take enough classes or did not
perform well, the school would have an early warning notification list,
and I would contact the parent. I contact the parents regarding serious
things, sometimes when not so serious.
The League Secretary with 5 years of working experience told me that
he voluntarily made his cell phone available 24 hours a day and 7 days a week
(phone fee was not reimbursed) as a result of his concern for students’ safety:
I would like to be able to maintain a link to all my students. I need at
least to ensure that my students can find me at any time! In China, when
a student enters college, we are responsible for his/her security both off
campus and on campus. This is different from the U.S. When a student
leaves the family, we need to pay attention to everything about him/her.
In fact, three out of the four League Secretaries being interviewed did
the same thing to be available to their students any time. It would not be a surprise
if a League Secretary said that he was awakened at midnight by a student’s call.
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The political and ideological assistant for the graduate student: 1 person
If the majority of students in a school and a department are graduate
students, the school and department usually have a political ideological assistant
for graduate students instead of a League Secretary. A League Secretary is mainly
in charge of undergraduates while a political assistant for graduates work for
graduate students. Two political assistants from university 1 and university 2 were
interviewed. One had a Ph.D. degree in biology and the other was a Ph.D.
candidate in education. Their work responsibilities were similar to the League
Secretaries in terms of training and managing student cadres, planning and
organizing student activities, ideological education, Party building, advising and
day-to-day administration. The political and ideological assistant in university 1
described his daily work as follows:
First of all, I certainly need to train student leaders. For example, each
year all graduate students are assigned to different classes, and there are
a number of class leaders in charge of specific student life. If we
received a requirement from the graduate student affairs office to
organize a specific activity, I would ask class leaders to communicate
with ordinary students so that they can take part. Second, my job is
about ideological education and Party building. There is a Party branch
in each class. In each Party branch, there are Party members and Party
Secretary. These Party cadres take responsibility for Party building. For
all students in my department, I have the student union to plan and
organize activities in academics, entertainment, sports, and
propaganda… So the graduate student affairs office will give directions
and allocate tasks to us, and then we at this level usually implement the
tasks and work with the ordinary students through the student leaders.
Because every college or department has hundreds of graduate students,
it is difficulty for a teacher like me to cover all aspects, so I basically
train student leaders, the backbone of the work. I complete my work
through the student leaders.
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The political and ideological assistant for graduate students trains
graduate student leaders, implements ideological education and is responsible for
Party building. The assistant also organizes all kinds of activities such as
academics, entertainment and sports. However, propaganda or the party emphasis
is still a major part of the work task. Under the League Secretary and the Political
Assistant for Graduate Students are form masters. Next, I interviewed the form
masters.
Form master: 2 persons
The role of the form master role is usually assumed by a new faculty
member who has just started his/her career as a lecturer. The form master’s
primary responsibility is teaching and research, so his/her work as the form
master is transitional and it usually lasts 2-4 years. While the Vice Party Secretary
and the League Secretary focus on the work of the whole department and school,
the form master puts emphasis on a class. All of them are engaged in the
ideological education of students. The Form Master communicates a number of
issues requested from the Vice Party Secretary and League Secretary to students.
Meanwhile, the Form Master gives feedback from the students to the Vice Party
Secretary and League Secretary. In addition to the regular management of the
class, the Form Master provides academic guidance to students. The Form Master
in University 1 told me that he might meet the class once or twice a semester and
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did not have as much contact with individual students, but he stayed in close
contact with the monitor of the class.
The Challenges in the Professional Development of Chinese Student Affairs
Administrators
This section presents the historical, philosophical, organizational and
educational challenges in Chinese higher education in terms of the emergence of
student affairs as a profession. First of all, the management of students historically
originated from the management of ideological education. People who specialize
in Marxism and Leninism and major in ideological political education have been
engaged in student management. The master program in ideological education
still exists. The new program for a master’s degree in student affairs
administration is another attempt to prepare student affairs personnel. With the
coexistence of the two master programs, how to prepare personnel differently in
the new program is not clearly defined nor agreed upon yet. For example, the
potential for fundamental philosophical conflicts between the two programs make
it challenging to find a supplementary position for the new program. Second,
student affairs is usually perceived as the job anybody can do rather than as A
profession. The career ladder and evaluation system for student affairs personnel
are missing from the organizational structure, nor are student affairs
administration the priority of the university leadership team. Third, though there
is a need for the professional preparation for the student affairs administrator, the
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lack of a theoretical base provides a great challenge in terms of the substance on
which to base a curriculum, as well as the knowledge and skill to be developed.
Ideological education versus student affairs administration
The role of ideological political education in Chinese higher education
has had a long history but it does not prepare student affairs personnel to work
well with today’s students. League committee secretary A talked about the
preparation of student management personnel in Chinese higher education. He
said:
Generally, the major focus is to prepare people in student management
in ideological and political education in the school of Marxism and
Leninism. Student management has a strong ideology influence. Student
management was once called ideological and political work, the
equivalent of student affairs in the United States. It was not affiliated
with a school of education.
Deputy Party Secretary C majored in ideological education and she felt
that the preparation was too outdated to help her work with college students now.
Deputy Party Secretary C said:
In addition to pharmacy, I also majored in ideological and political
education. Of course, the ideological and political education major is a
unique one in China. While I learned ideological and political theories,
they were very simple and outdated. I do not have the ability to manage
students using scientific concepts because I do not have the knowledge
base. Why? Current students have a very wide range of knowledge.
They understand and accept things very quickly with a variety of sources
such as the internet, TV and movies. Students may not be acceptable to
the orthodoxy. They know what they want to be and what they should do
in a modern society. If we talked to students in accordance with the
previous tradition and the way we were taught in ideological education,
students would not listen. So we feel our education is empty and stale.
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There is an increasing awareness to the distinction of ideological
education from student affairs administration. The director in the career center
said:
I suggest that we separate ideological and political education from
student affairs administration. They are in two different categories, but
we mix them together in China, believing that all student management is
about ideological education. I do believe some of student management is
not ideological education. In theory, everything is about ideological
education, but in reality, this is not the case.
However, ideological education, with support from the central
government, has had a profound impact on student management. Associate
professor B said:
We have had a long history of an ideological and political advisor
system. When we brought up the idea of developing professional
advisors for students, people first began to think of using the major in
ideological and political education without any consideration for
creating a new major. We expect that the professional training for
student advisors can be done through the ideological education program,
not in the school of education or in the school of psychology. We have
some psychological counselors coming from the medical school. If we
re-established a student affairs administrative system, it might not be
consistent with that of political education.
There are fundamental philosophical differences between the traditional
ideological education program and the new student affairs administration
program. The traditional ideological education is a top down model which focuses
on discipline and control, while the new student affairs administration is bottom
up and requires a service orientation and facilitation skills. In traditional
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ideological education, administrators act as the authority. In the new student
affairs administration, administrators are facilitators. Associate professor B said:
What is the most important difference between political education and
student affairs administration? The philosophy is subversive. In student
affairs administration, we perceive students as adults and serve them
rather than control them. When we went to college, what did the
ideological assistant do? They were in charge of our time to get up and
go to bed, not to be late for class, do the cleaning , develop Party
members, ask students not to date and so on. In fact, these things have to
change. Student affairs administrators need to get off their high horses
and communicate with students equally and help them grow. They have
to listen carefully to students’ ideas and needs. I think this is very
difficult.
There is great confusion among all the interviewed student affairs
administrators about the duty and scope of student affairs when Chinese student
affairs starts to provide service to students. The questions are what kinds of
services are they supposed to provide and what should they be accountable for?
Associate director A in the office of student affairs said:
I do not think the sphere of work in student affairs is clear. In terms of
the service provided for students, there are two extremes. The first
extreme is to put special emphasis on ideological and political education.
The contents in ideological education are good. But students have no
pressing needs, nor are they interested in it. The second extreme is that
student affairs is a hodgepodge of responsibilities. All of the student-
related work is on our shoulders. In fact, there are a lot of things that we
can do nothing about such as students’ committing suicide and
unemployment.
Student affairs work is a mixture of ideological education and student
service. The staff at the department and school level takes care of a variety of
things, including ideological education. League committee secretary D said:
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We have a lot of departments such as the career counseling center, safety
department, the office of student affairs and so on. They come to us
regarding anything related to our students. There are also tasks assigned
from the university level. At the department and school level, we have to
do a lot of things irrelevant to student affairs such as the Party’s work.
The Party’s work occupies a lot of my time and energy. Some colleagues
assume the role of academic secretary, research secretary and so on.
Though we are full time student advisors, we can not concentrate on our
students. Part of our time and energy is distracted by other things. As the
junior people in the department, we are assigned many irrelevant tasks.”
The League committee secretary said: “Now my work is a combination
of ideological education and student affairs. If the total is 100, I feel the
political management is kind of high, occupying about 70-80%. We
attach great importance to educational management but the proportion
is not enough. Personally I believe it will be good if the balance is half
and half.
Ideological education and the student affairs profession can be
interchangeable to a certain degree. The university Party Secretary defined
ideological education as having four parts: narrow ideological education, student
affairs administrative management, psychological counseling and vocational
guidance. She said:
We have this concept of political and ideological education which is
similar to student affairs in the United States. We usually split this
concept into several parts. We have pure ideological and political
education, student affairs administration, psychological counseling and
vocational guidance. Basically, we have the four parts.
Regardless of the confusion about the duty of student affairs, with the
approval of the masters program in student affairs from the university and
government, the student affairs masters program and the ideological education
program coexist. The ideological education program is assigned to play the
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leading role and the masters program in student affairs is supplementary.
Associate professor B said:
After we designed the masters program in student affairs, the Beijing
Municipal Education Commission told us that we could not replace the
original ideological and political education program and professionals
but act as a supplement. What should we complement? We focus on
some specific technical things such as students’ psychological
counseling, financial aid, and student activities. Ideological education
can not do these things and we cannot replace it. However, at a deeper
level, we can not replace ideological education. In fact, students still see
us as managers who discipline them and are in charge.
Student affairs is not perceived as a profession
The student affairs profession is not perceived as a profession but a job
that anybody can be qualified for. Student affairs people are from all kinds of
majors except the major of student affairs administration because there is no such
a major in Chinese higher education yet. They have such a low status that they
can be assigned clerical work or even something similar to janitorial service. The
Associate Director A in the office of student affairs said: “Basically student
affairs personnel are not perceived as professional. It seems that everyone can do
it, a job similar to logistics and janitorial services.” League Committee Secretary
C said:
In the various departments and various institutions, the status of student
affairs administrators is not high, because student affairs management is
regarded as whoever can do it and whatever major does not matter.
Student affairs has not yet reached the recognition it should. Although
we have an annual conference and academic conference, the
administrators in the student affairs are from all kinds of majors and it is
believed that anybody can do the job.
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Student affairs administrators do not see themselves as professionals
either. Deputy Party Secretary B said:
The administration of student affairs is not specialized yet. Not many
student affairs people have related majors. When you came in and called
me a professional, I felt so ashamed (laughter). I do not do the job
professionally, nor did I ever learn this. We administrators had different
majors in the arts and sciences when we were in college. A lot of us are
not very professional. For example, I am working on my master’s degree
in history rather than in student affairs. In fact, we really show a lack of
professionalism. It is difficult to raise our work to the theoretical level
and we do not know how to do the job or think about the job from a
professional perspective. Everyday we have to do a lot of trivial work
and few of us take time for reflective thinking. This is the biggest
problem for student affairs now.
The lack of a career ladder for student affairs people in the organizational
structure
Student affairs is usually a temporary and transitional job for young
people. There is a high turnover rate in student affairs as a result of a lack of a
career ladder. Professor C said: “Student affairs people work on students’
development but they themselves have concerns about their own development. In
China, people are usually unwilling to do the job because there is almost no career
ladder for them to move up.”
The Associate director A in the office of student affairs stated:
We in student affairs lack a professional background. We end up doing
everything. We do odds and ends. Our confidence decreases and then we
leave the field. The career path is not continuous. There are a lot of
uncertainties for the future. There is great mobility in this area. We want
to be professional but we can not.
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Deputy Party Secretary C said:
The workload in student affairs is very heavy and only young people can
make it. The student affairs positions are suitable only for the youth with
passion. When they get older, they will transfer to teach or to other staff
positions.
Student affairs people share concerns and fear about their future.
Professor B worked in student affairs for 21 years and then shifted to teaching for
9 years. He told us his story like this:
I am a senior student affairs person. I worked in student affairs for 21
years and then became a professor for 9 years. Actually student affairs
people have a fear like this: After working in student affairs for a few
years, what shall I do next? Over the past few years, student affairs
people have not taught or conducted research. They are left behind by
other faculty members. Their research and teaching ability are less
satisfactory and their opportunity to be professors is diminished. Others
become professors and have their doctoral students in their thirties, but I
became a professor to be able to have my doctoral students in my fifties.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, we student affairs people were not allowed
to do research so that we would not be distracted from student affairs
work. The workload in student affairs was very heavy. It was not until
1985 that we could do student affairs, teaching and research at the same
time.
Other than transferring to faculty positions, the other options for the
student affairs people on the administrative line in a university are relatively
limited. They may go outside of the institution for other administrative positions.
Associate professor B said:
The career developmental prospect is an important issue for student
affairs people. The administrative system is shaped like a pyramid. To a
certain extent, there is some space for some people in the university.
Many other places are also interested in administrators from colleges
and universities to be their administrative leaders. But if you follow only
the administrative line in the college, the opportunity for promotion is
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usually limited to the level of a deputy directorship. After a person
reaches that level, he/she either carries on in the same position, or
leaves. Generally speaking, there is a problem in the career ladder for
student affairs people. This problem is very difficult to solve.
Due to the lack of a career ladder and the very pronounced mobility of
student affairs administrators, some are optimistic about the future for
professional development in student affairs, while others feel it is hard for student
affairs to be professional. Being an optimist, Deputy Party Secretary C with 30
years of work experience with students at the department and school level stated:
I do hope that young student affairs people will not be like me. They will
have specialized knowledge in the field of student affairs. They will get
motivated and have no concern about their future. They will see a career
ladder. They will not just be doing a job but will be building their career.
In contrast, the Director in the office for graduate students spoke
conservatively in a careful way to express his disagreement. He struggled to find
the appropriate words. I summarized his opinion like this:
We are not specialized in student affairs. It is hard for us to be known as
experts. It is usually difficult for a person to stay in student affairs for a
long time to achieve something and build up something. Professionalism
in student affairs is not doable in China, though we hope we can be
professional. It is almost impossible to be an expert because I have done
student affairs for a long time. For example, in China, the cadre selection
system in higher education institutions requires a candidate to have
experience in different areas. In our traditional culture what is the
symbol of the high social status? Many people want to be officials. Your
official rank in administration determines your income and status. It is
not that your knowledge and skills increase and then your income
increases. Knowledge and skills are not linked to income and status.
Knowledge and skills may not be recognized or rewarded.
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A lack of an evaluation system and a sense of self-achievement in student affairs
In the student affairs profession it is difficult to receive recognition due
the lack of an evaluation system. It is hard to develop a sense of achievement
among student affairs administrators. Associate director A in the office of student
affairs said:
Evaluation criteria are not clear after we get the job done. We are busy
all year round. We are busy and busy without purpose. We are very
ineffective. Though I have done a lot, but I do not have a strong sense of
accomplishment. The self-achievement and self-recognition are
particularly weak. In our university we have started to set up the
evaluation criteria for student affairs administrators, including the
standards for the student affairs arm in the department and school level.
But our standards are not yet widely accepted.
A lack of evaluation criteria may cause some experienced student affairs
administrators to leave the field and bring up the low morale of the personnel.
Merit-based employment in student affairs administrator selection is questioned.
The Student Affairs assistant in the student affairs office said:
In China we do not see student affairs from a professional point of view.
It is believed that everybody can do it. It does not matter whether the
work is well done or not. Even if you do not know how to do it, you will
be able to make it (as long as we want to employ you)… Even if you are
very capable, who cares? There is no theoretical base for student
affairs… When there is no sound evaluation system, you never know
what kind of person is suitable for student affairs work, what kind of
person can get the job… After I get my master’s degree and continue
this job, I may have some advantages over others. But this is just one
possibility. To a large extent employment here relies on interpersonal
relationships. It is hard to predict where I can work after my graduation
with a master’s degree.
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A lack of priority and resources
The resources to build a professional student affairs arm in Chinese
higher education are questionable. Building a professional student affairs team
would be so costly that it may not be a priority of the university leadership team.
Professor A said:
The question is that to what extent the university leadership team can
direct financial support to build a professional student affairs army. If
the financial resources are unlimited, then the army can be very big. A
very practical problem is the cost of the student affairs army. Now most
student affairs administrators have concurrent positions. It is cost
effective. Everybody does some student affairs work and everybody is
not completely dedicated to the work. To implement professionalism in
China, we have a long way to go. If you ask the university president
what the biggest concerns are, student affairs might not be on the list.
What are on his mind can be things like building or finding more
classroom buildings, and more work space for faculty members. For
example, the working conditions for faculty members are not good yet.
There are five faculty members in one office. The first thing is to change
the situation so that two or three faculty members share one office.
Therefore, student affairs development may not be on their agenda.
Student affairs administration: A new discipline in China
There is a strong demand and need from the central government, faculty
and student affairs administrators for student affairs to be a profession. The
biggest challenge is how to build professionalism in student affairs. The
university Party Secretary said: “We are now actually making an effort to move
student affairs into the direction of professionalism. The State Ministry of
Education had a conference regarding the construction of the professional student
affairs administrators.” Associate director A in the office of student affairs said:
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The Ministry of Education is working on specialization and
professionalism in student affairs. To implement the professional
training for student affairs people, the Ministry of Education is building
a professional training and research base for student affairs people in the
State Ministry of Education.
The lecturer said:
There is no doubt about the need for specialization of student affairs.
There are a lot of reasons for the problems of college students. There is
no much we can do to change the society and at the state level. What we
can work on is the professionalism in student affairs in higher education.
In recent years there has been increasing awareness from higher
education leadership that not anybody from any major can do student
affairs work. The senior leaders realize that student affairs people need
to understand contemporary college students and have skills to
communicate with them effectively. In terms of recruiting student affairs
staff, some universities do not have any requirements except a strong
sense of responsibility, but some universities consider the candidates’
majors. People majoring in administration, psychology and education
are preferred. However, though there is the awareness and need for
student affairs to be specialized, how to be professional and what should
be known and learned are not yet known.
The biggest challenge in the professional training for student affairs
people in Chinese higher education is that student affairs is not an independent
discipline yet. There is disagreement about what should be counted as student
affairs and what it means for student affairs personnel to be professional.
Associate director A in the office of student affairs said:
In China there is no definition for what the specialization in student
affairs is and how we can achieve that. There is no agreement on what
content should be included in student affairs. Some people believe that
student affairs work is a manifestation of ideological political education
in Chinese higher education, so the academic and professional
background in student affairs should be based on ideological and
political education. However, the result of our recent discussion is that
student affairs should include career planning, education, psychology,
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sociology and administration. But to include so many disciplines is
unrealistic. Thus, how to make student affairs a relatively independent
discipline is the greatest difficulty. We are very immature in this aspect.
Establishing a theoretical base for student affairs work is challenging
according to the University Party Secretary. She said:
Ideological education, career planning, administrative management in
student affairs and psychological counseling are scattered among
different areas. For instance, administrative management in student
affairs is included in administration and education. The contents of
ideological and political education are in political and legal thinking.
Psychological counseling is in psychology. The contents of student
affairs in China are scattered in various disciplines and in every
discipline there is no specialization in student affairs. Moreover, student
affairs uses neither purely academic nor theoretical research. It uses
applied research. We need the theory to guide the practice. But how to
raise the practice to the level of theory is what we are struggling with
and exploring.
Another challenge is to establish professional standards in student affairs
in Chinese higher education. University Party Secretary said:
What is missing in student affairs administration is a professional
standard. Student affairs people are often at a loss because we do not
know what to request, what the professional requirements are for a
student affairs person and what the requisite qualities are for student
affairs administrators.
The Educational Philosophies Held by Chinese Faculty and Administrators
I thought I would have found out three or four themes regarding Chinese
higher education philosophy. When faculty and administrators were asked the
purpose of Chinese higher education, who it should serve, and what students
should gain from their college experiences, there was little consensus. A variety
of opinions and disagreements were expressed. I view these differences as
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reflective of a transitional period in Chinese higher education when traditional
views exist with new opinions and new thoughts emerging. To be thorough, I
report not just the relative dominant themes, but the sporadic opinions and the
contradictory points of view. These infrequent and controversial opinions may
predominate in the near future.
I explored the philosophy of Chinese higher education in four areas: the
purpose of Chinese higher education, who Chinese higher education should serve,
the relationship between the university and students, and what students should
gain from college. In each area, I presented the points of view from faculty and
administrators by themes.
Purpose of Higher Education
Student growth was identified as important in the purpose of Chinese
higher education from the interviews of faculty and administrators. There are two
consistent views. First, for some faculty and administrators, Chinese higher
education has its political and economical goals, but students’ growth is always
taken into account. Second, while most administrators and faculty talked about
the purpose of Chinese higher education from the perspective of national policy,
one administrator expressed her personal thinking on the purpose of Chinese
higher education without referring to any authoritative points of view. This
administrator suggested students’ overall quality development should be the only
purpose of Chinese higher education.
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The stereotype of the goal of Chinese higher education as a socialist and
communist country is to train successors to the cause of socialism with Chinese
characteristics or to the cause of communism so that the cause of the Party and
people will be carried forward. However, none of the 28 administrators and
faculty mentioned the cause of communism when being asked the goal of Chinese
higher education. No faculty member talked about fostering the successors of
socialism. Three out of 19 administrators did regard training the successors to the
cause of socialism as one of the goals of Chinese higher education, but whenever
this goal is mentioned, it is accompanied by the goal of serving China’s economic
development or individual students’ development as a whole. The detailed
description of the three administrators’ beliefs about the goal of Chinese higher
education is as follows.
First, the university Party Secretary said: “Now the goal is to train
reliable successors and builders to the cause of socialism. The guiding philosophy
is basically more integrated than in the past. We pay more attention to the
students’ all-round coordinated development.” Here the political goal of Chinese
higher education is mixed with the educational goal of the students’ personal
growth as a whole.
Second, department League Committee Secretary A said: “Now the goal
is to train high-quality specialized personnel. The higher education serves the
country's economic and social development and fosters innovative successors
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with socialist political beliefs.” Nurturing the political quality of the students in
higher education is emphasized. Meanwhile, Chinese higher education serves the
country’s economic development.
Third, the comment school League Committee Secretary B integrated
the political value, the economical benefit and student growth together as the
purpose of Chinese higher education. He said:
I think the overall objective of higher education is to foster able people
in line with the socio-economic development in China. Well, this is the
first and most important goal…We also hope that colleges and
universities train fully developed people in terms of their moral,
intellectual and fitness level as well as in their appreciation of aesthetics.
From the state or political Party’s point of view, higher education is to
train successors for the socialist society.
It is fair to say that though training the successors for the cause of
socialism is one of the goals of Chinese higher education, the dominant aspects of
the purpose of Chinese higher education from the interviews lie in the intention of
training high level professionals to serve the country’s economic development and
help students’ overall quality growth. The perspective is shifting from the political
lens to points of view that consider economical construction and students’
development. The prior political lens primarily concentrated on students’
ideological education and political quality.
China’s emphasis on its economical growth has had an impact on the
purpose of Chinese higher education as it focuses on students and not political
ideology. Chinese higher education at this rapid economical development phase
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has vocational and utilitarian goals. Associate professor B illustrated this as
follows:
I have to say, the purpose of Chinese higher education at a very
superficial level, is for a large number of people through the process of
higher education to find more satisfactory jobs. From a social point of
view, high education cultivates high-level expertise for the country's
economic development. This point of view is economically based, or
socially based. In other words, for economic development and social
development, I would like to train a group of specialized personnel
because of the lack of these skills. I think this is related to China's stage
of development. First of all, survival is the basic demand for human
development. Only after that stage of development, will the needs of
other demands like values be taken into consideration. We have not yet
developed to that stage, so there is little real consideration of a person's
development, his goals, and how much of his development education
should serve. In this sense, the purpose of Chinese higher education
remains in the practical stage, looking for a job and meeting the needs of
the community... this view is not without basis. Ji Zhou, Minister of
Education put forward that we have to establish an employment-oriented
higher education. He made very clear that the goal (of higher education)
is (for an individual) to get a job.
Associate professor B emphasized the practical value of higher
education. China now attaches great importance to economic development than in
the past when it pursued only political goals.
Others believe Chinese higher education pays more attention to
individual students’ development. This can be illustrated by professor A’s
comments:
From my understanding of national policy, the purpose of higher
education has two functions. One is to meet individual students’ needs.
With the one child policy, parents want their children to pursue higher
education, which leads them to be in a comparative competitive
advantage. Second, from the perspective of the state, it takes into
account economic development, hoping that the country's higher
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education will be able to match its economic development, and promote
its economic development. I also think there are two aspects for
consideration. In the past we were more focused on the second,
economic development. Now, I think of the significance of education in
itself, and China's development level. I feel more oriented towards the
idea that higher education should serve each individual. Our government
now has to promote a people-oriented harmonious society. We have
begun to concern ourselves with the non-economic factor.
From Professor A’s comments you find the merging of a concern for
national policy with his own personal opinion to conclude that higher education
serves both the country and the individual.
With regard to the purpose of higher education, director B in the
psychological counseling center described her professional point of view:
I work on students’ mental health education. From the point of view of
character education, first of all, the student should develop a healthy
personality. At the same time, he/she is strong to become a modern high-
quality talent. Because education is to train people, I think higher
education should be student-centered, responsible for all-around growth
of the students instead of only focusing on his learning, knowledge and
abilities. For example, if the student had a doctoral degree in a
prestigious university and then committed suicide, his personality would
not be healthy and this would not be (the purpose of higher education).
So a student through higher education first should develop a healthy
personality. Then he/she is able to use knowledge to serve the society.
The director B in the psychological counseling center placed more
weight more on a student’s all-around development than on his/her ability to
contribute to the society.
When being asked the purpose of higher education, Deputy Party
Secretary B expressed her personal opinion without referring to any official
approbation or national policy:
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I think this is certainly not what the Ministry of Education said, nor the
views from professionals. I think, my personal opinion is, Chinese
higher education needs to train, or using the simplest words, we should
cultivate the most qualified people. A student does not necessarily come
out to become a person with ability, or say a student must be a talent and
how excellent he should be through higher education. I believe most
important of all, a student becomes a qualified person. Here qualified
means that first, to have a certain quality; second, at least is mentally
healthy and able to face challenges and setbacks; Third, I think there is a
certain degree of learning ability; Fourth, can live a happy life. A student
like this is certainly a qualified person.
Deputy Party Secretary B independently thinks about the purpose of
Chinese higher education. Her definition of the qualified person focuses on
students’ moral, psychological, cognitive and purpose development.
Whom should higher education serve?
There are disparities about which higher education should serve. Of the
respondents, 48% gave a single answer, identifying one subject that higher
education should serve. The one subject can be the student, the society, the state
and nation, or all the people who are willing to go to college. Of the interviewees,
52% gave a combined answer, recognizing two or more subjects that higher
education should serve. The subjects which surfaced in the combined answers
include the student, family of the student, professor, family of the professor,
knowledge, society, business circles, government, the state and nation, the
nation’s economic development, and all humankind. The different combinations
consisted of “the students and knowledge”, “the students and professors”, “the
students and society”, “the students, professors and society”, “the students,
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business circles, and government”, “the students, society, knowledge, and some
authoritative relationship”, “the students, society, nation, and all the human
beings”, and “the students, the nation’s economic development, and knowledge”.
There was no real agreement on what is the most important subject that Chinese
higher education should serve. The nation and state, the government, the society
and the students are respectively regarded as the most important client of the
Chinese higher education.
Professor C believed that most important of all, the Chinese higher
education should serve the nation and the state. He stated:
The most important part of Chinese higher education is to serve the
country's development and revitalization of the nation. Of course, higher
education also serves the economic development of the local area,
improving the quality of life of the people. Teaching and research
promote social development, serving human beings and the world.
Universities need to bring forth through training a large number of
Chinese indigenous intellectuals and cultural elites with an international
outlook. We can not be turned into a totally colonized people. Our
graduates should have a vision of internationalization and be willing to
contribute locally and nationally. It is not good that our graduates only
want to go abroad or work in a big city, abandoning the local area.
Professor E thought Chinese higher education served the students, the
society, the business circles and the government, but most importantly its purpose
was to serve the government. He stated:
First, the clientele of teaching are college students. The entire higher
education is to serve citizens, the equivalent to serve the society.
Second, over the past few years, with the reform and opening up to the
outside world, we have faster economic development. The business
community has a sharp demand for qualified personnel from colleges
and universities. So higher education should serve the needs of the
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enterprise and company. Third and most important, China's education
has a tradition for government services. The funding of China's higher
education is from the government. The government is giving money to
higher education. Higher education should definitely serve the
government.
Associate Professor A believed that the purpose of Chinese higher
education was to serve students, as well as the faculty and research. She stated:
“Higher education serves three purposes. First is the community and to see what
the needs of society are. Second is the group of teachers. The third is the group of
students and, more importantly, student groups.”
League committee secretary A regarded the student’s development as
the most important service higher education should do. He said: “First of all,
higher education should serve the development of the students. Second, it should
contribute to the country's economic construction and the creation of knowledge.”
There is disagreement on whether the Chinese higher education should
serve individual students or the society. Professor B strongly believed that the
university should just serve the students, not the society. He argued like this:
The University is just to serve students. Some say that the university is
to serve society. In fact, it is not. In the past, we always talked about
education serving society and the market economy. The university
serves students and trains students. Then the students serve for the
society. The university serves society indirectly rather than directly. The
University cultivates high quality students who serve society. Of course,
we sometimes also directly serve society. For example, we can send
experts to train farmers, repair an irrigation reservoir, and guide farmers
to have a high yield of wheat. These are direct service. But the
university’s primary service to society is reflected more in training high-
quality students and nurturing talented people. With fashionable words,
the university trains people with ability for social service.
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Contradictory to professor B, professor A thought that higher education
not only served students, but also society, faculty and government. His arguments
are as follows:
Services of higher education can be divided into several areas. First of
all, higher education serves students, the educated, taking care of their
cognitive, psychological, emotional, and moral development. I think this
should be the main target of higher education. In addition to this, the
service of the university also has a social dimension. As one of the major
social institutions, the university has a long-term mission oriented
towards a fair, healthy, democratic, and affluent society. The university
does not just serve the students, and it has a social accountability, taking
into account the future. Of course, faculty as the in-house members is
the target of university services too. The university should provide them
with better teaching conditions and living conditions. In sum, the
university serves students, professors, and society including the
government.
There is also debate regarding whether Chinese higher education serves
by creating knowledge. But the consensus in the debate is that higher education
should serve students. The Director in the office for graduate students regarded
nurturing students, not creating knowledge, as the main service of higher
education, because there were many research institutions assuming the
responsibility of creating knowledge in China. He stated:
I know that in the United States, most of the scientific research is
conducted in colleges and universities. China may be slightly different
from that. There are a lot of research centers under the Chinese
Academy of Sciences Institute. They are the main force for research,
though colleges and universities also bear scientific research tasks. So I
think higher education should mainly serve students.
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Associate professor B believed that doing research and creating
knowledge could be part of the service in higher education:
I think reasonably higher education should serve the students. But the
students are just one of the aspects! ... For some faculty members, their
interests are mainly in the field of knowledge. They considered little of
the students. The students are a channel to their interest in knowledge,
not an end. These faculty members teach the students because they want
to engage in scientific research. Teaching the students gives them the
positions to conduct the research… But I think generally speaking,
Chinese higher education should be in service for students, if I can
choose only one subject. Chinese higher education is to help the students
gain the knowledge and skills to find a job.
In sum, there are variation in response about who higher education
should serve, what the first priority is in Chinese higher education, and whether
Chinese higher education serves knowledge creation. However, 81% of the
respondents identified students as the target or one of the targets in Chinese
higher education. 62% of the respondents identified society and the nation as the
target or one of the targets in Chinese higher education. Hence, Chinese higher
education should primarily serve students, society and the nation.
What do students gain?
The benefit for students from their college experience is not just to learn
knowledge, but also to develop an outlook of the world, as well as develop a
sense of purpose. 77% respondents regarded the formation of values and a
worldview, character building, and purpose development as the most important
gain in college. Professor A directly pointed out that the values and objectives
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were not politically defined but came out of students’ developmental needs in
college. He stated:
The value the university adds on students should be in a number of
aspects. From the perspective of knowledge, the university lays a
knowledge foundation for students… In addition to the understanding of
knowledge, I think it is more important that university fosters students’
basic attitudes, values and beliefs toward life and the world. In fact,
knowledge is growing rapidly, and the knowledge learned in the
university is very limited. Having values and beliefs, acting from
principles, and learning to be human are all important. Learning to be
human is even more important. We can see many outstanding people
recalling their college time; they might not be able to remember what
specific things they learned. The impact the college has had on them is
to help them set up their principles in life. When I say a set of values and
objectives, they are not the empty political goals we talked about in the
past such as the realization of the ideal of communism and dedication to
the socialist construction. The values and beliefs here refer to those
fostered from the perspective of human development at the stage of
college life.
Deputy Party Secretary B believed that college life should expand a
student’s horizon and help them develop an appreciation of diversity. She said:
Most important of all, what students gain from college are the ideas,
concepts and principals. We Chinese students in middle and high school
relatively have no freedom because of the pressure on our performance
about the college entrance examination. After going to college, students
should first know that our knowledge, our ideology, our culture and our
society are very diverse and autonomous. After recognizing the
diversity, they may develop qualities such as inclusiveness and being
able to make good choices. If the students do not understand and
appreciate diversity, they will live a relatively narrow life. College life
should broaden students’ horizon and develop a vision, not just
knowledge. This is particularly important.
Director B in the psychological counseling center illustrated the impact
of college life on students in terms of purpose development like this:
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The University plays an important role in the development of students’
career and life objectives. University life is in the latter part of the
development of young people. They are on the way to becoming mature.
The university should lay a good foundation for students’ personality
development and their whole life development. College life should help
students set a direction and objective in their life.
The knowledge students learn in college should effectively lead them to
their employment. The lecturer clearly stated the relationship between knowledge
and students’ vocational development:
First, students have a clear understanding of their future career
development. Second, students gain the necessary capital for their
occupation and for what they want to do in the future. The capital can be
knowledge, skills and capacity. If students could achieve their goals in
these two areas, going to college really means something.” He regarded
knowledge as a means to reach the end of employment. Employment is
an important outcome of college life. Professor E said something similar
like this: “Going to college should help students find a decent job with
significant income. It is a way to change your social status.
Knowledge was categorized by faculty and administrators as general
knowledge and specialized knowledge. General knowledge and specialized
knowledge provide students with a basis for updating their knowledge in the
future. Specialized knowledge is the focus of the interviews in that university
education in China is believed to be professional education. But general
knowledge is receiving increasing attention. As associate professor B stated:
General knowledge, general skills, or the general quality of students are
drawing more and more attention. High school and the university are not
the same in this respect. High school may pay more attention to specific
knowledge. But when students graduate from the university, they should
be more aware of the knowledge about the society, the interpersonal
situation, the organization, the employment and so on. So students can
better adapt to the society, their job position and further their own
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development. Now everybody seems to think that college students are
not short of professional knowledge. What is missing is something
interpersonal, an understanding of the society.” In addition to general
knowledge and specialized knowledge, one faculty member identified
that ideally students should seek knowledge in areas of interest.
Students’ cognitive development in college is the most recognized area
by both faculty and administrators. Students’ cognitive capacities such as the
ability to learn and think independently and creatively draw the most attention.
Creativity was uniquely discussed by faculty members. In terms of the ability to
learn, Professor C said: “We must focus on lifelong education. The ability to learn
is particularly important. University can not exhaust all knowledge and ideas.
Students can never be complacent.” Professor A used a metaphor to illustrate the
importance of the ability to learn: “With the ability to learn, students can continue
to understand new situations. It is equivalent to a hen with an increased capacity
to lay eggs.”
With regard to independent thinking, professor A explained: “Students
with independent thinking can analyze complex problems and use their own
judgments and opinions.” Associate director A in the office of student affairs
went beyond the value of independent thinking to talk about independence. He
said: “Students need to learn to be independent. They have to be able to live
independently, think independently, in charge of their own lives, and be socially
responsible. College must teach students to be independent.”
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The discussion of creativity had two sides. On the one hand, faculty was
aware of its importance. Professor E said: “To innovate in the current context of
China is very important. A student goes to an enterprise or whatever institution, if
he/she has a sense of innovation, that will definitely do him/her good.” On the
other hand, they noticed that students lacked creativity. Associate professor B
claimed: “We have high expectations; we want our students to be creative, but
this capability I think is more missing.”
Interpersonally, the ability to communicate verbally and socially was
identified as important. Psychological endurance, resilience and positive thinking
were believed to be essential. Morals, perseverance to overcome difficulties and
honesty in social life were regarded as something missing and needed to be
nurtured in students. The other capacities mentioned by faculty and administrators
for students to acquire were adaptability and self regulation.
Associate professor A expected students to develop social capacity and
said: “(Students) need to learn to deal with people. While in college, their
interpersonal skills should reach a certain level of maturity, so they can
understand other people better.” University Party Secretary wanted students to
collaborate with others and said: “There are a number of interpersonal skills such
as team work, and collaboration with others that should be learned at the
university.”
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Students’ psychological health aroused attention. Respondents
emphasized generally in times of difficulty or in a specific context like
unemployment. For example, Deputy Party Secretary B said:
In the last two years I am more and more aware of the importance of a
very good state of mind and psychological health for students. When I
spoke to my students who graduated this year, I told them that the
prospect of employment in the area of history was not good this year. As
your teacher, I definitely want each of you to find a desirable job. But I
hope each of you can face unemployment with a smile on your face,
because in your lifetime, you may have to encounter unemployment
more and more.
League committee secretary C focused on students’ resilience: “(I want
my students) to have psychological resilience, or so-called psychological
endurance. Whenever there is a setback, the student should be able to stand up
and bounce back, and even try to make a comeback.”
Associate professor B was the only one who paid attention to the moral
development of students. He said:
In fact I think what students lack most is the quality of character, for
example, determination as well as perseverance to overcome difficulties,
honesty and integrity. I think these may be something we want our
students to have but they lack.
The relationship between the university and students
When I asked faculty and administrators how they would characterize
the relationship between the university and students, the question did not seem to
be understandable. So I described the contractual versus parental relationship used
in the U.S. that describes the relationship between the university and the students.
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Then I got a lot of metaphorical responses to describe the relationship between the
Chinese university and the Chinese college student. From the diversity of
responses, it is evident that faculty and administrators do not agree on the nature
of the relationship between the university and student, and their expectation of the
roles for the university relative to students is blurry.
There is a Chinese saying “if the person is your teacher for one day, he
will be your father all your life long.” Some people believe that university is like
the parents and gives students a home. The League Committee Secretary D stated:
The University is the young students’ home. The students who graduated
this year wrote a banner like this and I think so. The university should
enable students to recognize their university and be proud of the
university. Students’ future life is related to the university, though they
have graduated. The relationship is kind of blood relationship, a long
relationship that is memorable their whole life.
The university Party Secretary went beyond the family and regarded the
university as the parents plus a library. She said:
The ideal relationship between the university and students is the parent
plus the library. Because Chinese parents usually give children guidance
in life and help them with their life management, but focus less on
intellectual and knowledge development. Parents are an aspect of the
family; I add the library because university also gives students
knowledge. The description of a parent and library relationship captures
both the emotional and academic elements.
They are many disagreements on the parental relationship. Some think
the university and students are not as close as parents and children in a family.
Associate professor B said:
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I think (the relationship between the university and the students) has not
yet risen to the relationship between parents and children. The students
are not very close to the university though they call it their alma mater.
If the university is really a student’s alma mater, students should have a
willingness to give back. For example, if a student makes fortune after
graduation, the student should make a donation to the alma mater. Now
the concept of giving back is very weak, at least it is not as obvious as in
the U.S.
Second, the Chinese parental relationship is hierarchical. The parents
usually have the ownership of the kids and the kids are strongly dependent on the
parents. The current university and students are believed to be equal to each other
and independent of each other. Instead of a parental relationship, the university
and students are perceived as a contractual relationship by more and more people.
Professor A described the changed relationship from the parental to the
contractual as a result of the way they treat students as separate entities instead of
dependent kids. He said:
In the past, it was said that university and students were like a family,
but now the students are more like consumers and clients because they
are no longer treated as kids. The relationship between the university
and students is not static but dynamic. It has changed. If we take a look
at the curriculum and the services for students, I do believe the view of
students as consumers is more appropriate. In the past between the
university and students all was common. The rights and interests of
students were not independent, so the university did not treat a student as
a separate entity that had its own sovereignty and its own needs. Now
there is a clear-cut line between the two. Students are becoming more
and more independent of the university. The university recognizes their
independence and realizes that their needs are reasonable.
League committee secretary B stated that the parental relationship was
hierarchical and the university was more in a leading position. But the
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relationship between the student and university now should be equal and
complementary to each other. He was in accord with the contractual relationship
by saying:
I think the relationship between the university and student is like the
contractual relationship, or at most the contractual relationship with
some family elements, but definitely not like a parental relationship. In
China, the parental relationship means a lot of dependence from the
children. Parents are more likely to guide the children. But in the
contractual relationship, the university and student are supposed to go
hand in hand. In fact, students can promote the development of the
university, which in turn is able to promote the development of students.
It is a complementary process as it moves forward.
Professor E was confident about the contractual relationship based on
the national policy of the educational commercialization. He said:
Some time ago we talked about the industrialization of education.
Higher education serves society and produces products like a business.
Higher education has professional and utilitarian features. According to
the current situation, (the university and students) is exactly the buyer
and seller relationship, or contractual relationship. The University is the
vendor, selling a product in higher education to meet the needs of the
parents and students.
Some people believed that the university played a role in the shaping
and molding of the students. They regarded the university as the melting pot, and
the students as the raw materials to be processed; or they described the university
as the factory, and students as the stone to be processed. Another metaphor used
was to see the university as the barrack and the students as the soldier.
The director B in the psychological counseling center illustrated the
change of students from raw materials to steel by saying: “I feel like the
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University is a melting pot, and the students are raw materials. Through the
process in all aspects of education, students are melted into qualified steel.”
League committee secretary C used the factory and processed stones to
describe the relationship between the university and students. Meanwhile, he
pointed out that students were not as passive as stones. He said:
Students are originally stones. The university processes the students and
turns them into pieces of jade. In other words, at the very beginning
students are the ordinary stones with edges and corners and holes. They
have their own inertia and they may not be able to adapt to the society.
But through higher education, they should be re-sublimated and their so-
called talents revealed. The processing is not force-feeding. Students are
not in completely passive roles.
Associate professor B used the barrack and soldier metaphor to describe
the relationship between the students and university, and he pointed out the
relationship is temporary. He said:
It is said the relationship between university and students is like the iron-
made barrack and soldiers like running water. The barrack is the
university and soldiers are the students. The relationship is like training
soldiers. After they are trained well, they go out like water running, but
the barrack remains unchanged. I think the relationship is that the
university is the place of education. After students are educated, they are
out.
However, the molding and shaping relationship was criticized because it
negated the fact that each student is personalized and everyone is different.
Deputy Party Secretary B explained:
I do not quite agree with some opinions, especially regarding the
university as a factory. A university can not be a factory because a
university cannot produce on a large-scale like a factory. We must train
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a student as a particular individual. Every one is different and all of our
students are personalized. I think this is the way.
Some people regard the university as the sustenance. The metaphorical
relationship can be the land and the plant, the garden and the trees, the rattan and
the melon, and the water and the fish. For example, League committee secretary
A said: “The relationship between the university and the students is like that
between the garden and the trees. Students are the trees inside the garden. The
university is the growing soil and the environment.” The political and ideological
assistant for the graduates described: “My major is biology. I would like to use
the biological land and plants to illustrate the relationship between the university
and the students. A university is the land, and the land is the same. Different
plants grow on the land.”
At the same time, the sustenance model was limited. Professor B
reasoned like this:
The image of the university as the melting pots or the land sounds
plausible, but if we think about it carefully, either is appropriate. For
example, if we say the university is the melting pot, so is society. The
students are impacted by society too. If we say the university is the land,
the community is a piece of the land too. Students’ family also affects
students. These metaphors do not distinguish the university from other
agencies. The university has its own unique characteristics. A university
trains students. So the relationship between the university and students is
to train and to be trained.
The other metaphors used to describe the relationship between the
university and the students are the platform, the driving force of the superior and
subordinate. The university works like the platform in that it is a critical
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transitional place for students to mobilize their socio-economic status and change
their fate. The lecturer described the platform in detail:
I think the university is a platform. Despite poor employment
opportunities, the university is the platform for students in low socio-
economic status to move to a higher socio-economic status. If you go to
a university, your fate can be changed; if not, you will stay in the remote
mountain areas… In a word, in our country there are differences
between the urban and rural areas as well as differences in mental and
manual labor. The university is an effective platform where students can
change their destiny.
Deputy Party Secretary B regarded the university as the driving force for
students to move into their future life. She stated:
I hope that the university works as a driving force to move students into
their future life. When students are in college, they are very young and
have a long way to go in their lives. I really hope that the university
enables students to stand their ground in a crow.
The metaphors of the platform and the driving force are not clear
illustrations of the relationship between the university and students. But they
explain the function of the university to channel the students and prepare students
for their future. The superior-subordinate metaphor indicates the hierarchical
nature of the relationship between the university and the students. Further, some
people thought it was too difficult to describe the relationship and gave up.
There was no unanimous metaphor describing the relationship between
the university and the students. The differences are reflected by the variances in
metaphors such as the parental, the contractual, the molding and the sustenance.
People may agree or disagree within the same metaphor. The debate on these
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metaphors originates from the multiple perspectives, or even contradictory lenses
they use to look at the relationship between the university and the students: Is the
relationship hierarchical or equal? Is the relationship temporary or permanent?
Are students independent or dependent from the university? Should students be
molded or shaped, or should they be personalized? What unique impact should
university make on students to distinguish itself from other agents like the society,
the community and the family?
Some administrators and faculty illustrated the relationship between the
university and the students without a metaphor. Two points of view stand out.
One is that the university serves students’ growth. The other is that the university
is transitioning from managing students to serving students. Both highlight the
importance of service. Deputy Party Secretary C said: “Now the relationship
between the university and students is very clear. The university is student-
centered, serving students’ growth. All the work in the university should be
around the students. A university does not exist without students.”
League committee secretary E stated:
I think the relationship between the university and students is
transitioning from the previous administration and management
relationship to the service relationship. Of course, we are still just
beginning this shift. A lot of the services provided (by university) may
not keep up with (the students’ need). University and students were once
purely a management relationship. You students came to school, and
then the university had to manage you. Now we promote something
more like management services. The concept of service has clearly been
brought up.
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Paralleling with the service relationship between the university and the
students, the work of student affairs is divided into three categories: to educate, to
manage, and to service. Professor B said:
The original idea in student affairs was to educate and to manage. To
educate referred to the ideological education. To manage was usually to
organize some activities, reward and punish students for their
performance and behavior. Now we combine education and management
with service, a three-in-one. Academic counseling, psychological
consultation, providing employment information, and help with
academic difficulties are all kinds of service.
Three out nine (one third) faculty members raised the challenge of
service in reality and concept. During my interview, I asked the associate
professor B who higher education should serve. He revised my question to who
higher education should work for because there was no service to students yet.
His statement was as follows:
I think theoretically higher education should definitely serve the
students… In reality, many colleges and universities just basically teach
the students, and then their client, if we say there is service, but it is hard
to tell whether or not they do the service, however, you ask who higher
education should serve. In fact, universities and colleges are not serving
but managing. Any way, let’s say the target of higher education is the
students.
Professor D elaborated the meaning of management and administration
in a Chinese university a top-down control. There is no service for students in
reality. She said:
I feel a big difference (from abroad) is that whether the students are the
priority. Neither students nor faculty are the priority in China. This is the
case. For example, when we organize an activity, or we bring something
new, the development of the students or faculty is rarely taken into
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account. Policy is more important. China’s policy needs to be
implemented, and everything is top-down. To preserve the rice bowl, we
teachers have to listen and obey. When I came back from abroad, I
thought the biggest problem (in China) is management and
administration. Chinese management is essentially to take control, and
the controlling model has not changed yet. For example, from the
kindergarten to college, students are not allowed to do this and are not
allowed to do that. There are too many things not allowed. Control is
basically the model. Administrators are not to create the environment so
that both faculty and students can develop their potential. This is not the
management philosophy. The nation can raise the ideas in the policy, but
in reality, taking a look at the facilities and conditions, I do not think
students feel any humanistic concern. Administrators are managing for
their convenience, not for the convenience of students and faculty.
Sometimes, if something is convenient for the administrator, as well as
the faculty and students, then he/she is very good. Two days ago, we
faculty gathered together and complained a lot. Students would
complain even more. This is a vicious cycle. The faculty can not get
human caring and concern from the administration; naturally they do
similar things to the students. The faculty is under control, so naturally
they control students. People-oriented and student-centered can be
embodied in the United States. In China there is no place reflecting these
concepts.
Professor E explained the conceptual difference between China and the
U.S. in terms of service and pointed out that serving student is something new. He
said:
I feel there is a big difference in Chinese philosophy on the concept of
service compared to that in the U.S. In Chinese history, it is widely
accepted that doing the service is an inferior task. The concept of service
in the West is established in a democratic society. Service can refer to a
public service to society and be mutually beneficial. In China, service
traditionally means the subordinate provides convenience to the
superior. For example, in movies the maids and the female servants are a
reminder of the service role according to Chinese tradition. Opening a
restaurant is providing service. A barber provides service. The tertiary
industry is the service sector. We university is involved with the sphere
of theory, ideology, culture, education and scientific research. We do not
want to engage in the recognition of the service, though now we are
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getting better. In addition, we colleges and universities have the official
standard. As the director in the student affairs office, the university Party
Secretary, the Vice Party Secretary, and so on, they are the
administrators and managers. They do not think of their job as service.
This is very understandable and traditional. There is a big gap in
understanding the concept of service between the East and West… We
had only engaged in management, not service. Who serves whom?
Ordinary people should serve officials. How come the direction is
reversed? Serving students is a creative concept.
The Practical Challenges for Chinese Faculty and Administrators When
Working with Students
A division between teaching and student affairs since 1980s
The structural change to student affairs administration started in 1980s.
In the 1970s, the faculty stayed with students all the time. The professor taught
book knowledge, imparted ideological education, and took part in students’
political study and social practice. Respondents noted that since 1989 (the year of
the Tiananmen Square Incident), faculty members have been focusing on teaching
and reducing their contribution to other student services. Providing student
services is the primary responsibility of student affairs personnel. Deputy Party
Secretary C stated:
The concept of imparting knowledge and nurturing students was in place
before 1989. But after 1989, faculty members just teach, and then they
are gone. In fact, at the beginning of the 1980s, faculty already started to
withdraw (from looking after students). In addition to teaching, any
other management services related to students fell on the shoulders of
student affairs people… In the 1970s, students and professors were
mixed. A faculty member was inside the class and outside along with
students. He taught classes, provided ideological education, assumed the
position of the Party Secretary and so on. In a word, the faculty and
students stuck together. At that time, the faculty’s responsibility of
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imparting knowledge and educating students was fully embodied. …But
now there is a change…
Respondents noted that the increase in enrollment in Chinese higher
education since 1999 has overloaded the teaching capacity of the faculty. Some
senior faculty teaches undergraduates, master’s students and doctoral students at
the same time. Their interaction with students, especially undergraduates, has
significantly decreased. Professor E said:
Since the expansion of higher education in 1999, student enrollment has
increased substantially. The preparation of teaching faculty and teaching
conditions in universities are far behind the expansion of the number of
students. I teach undergraduates, master students and doctoral students at
the same time. Next semester I will teach six classes. The teaching of
undergraduates is the lowest priority on my schedule. With limited time
and energy, my interaction with students especially undergraduates, has
diminished. College professors are kind of burned out. Our interaction
with students is naturally reduced… Yes, I feel very fatigued. I teach
undergraduates. My attention to them was not like a few years ago when
I might chat with them. Now I have enough on my mind without
worrying about them. I am not the only one. This is kind of universal.
The higher education expansion after 1999 enhanced the division
between the faculty and student affairs administrators. It made faculty focus
primarily on teaching, and leaving the rest of the work to the student affairs
personnel.
A long journey: from conducting mandatory collective political study to an
awareness of personalized services
The composition and characteristics of college students have changed
dramatically since the revival of college entrance examinations in 1977. The
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Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989, the admission of self-supported college
students in 1995, the advent of tuition charges to college students in 1997, and the
higher education expansion after 1999 have respectively and chronologically
made a significant impact on the study body. The student affairs arm at the
department and school level interacts with students directly. Their approaches for
executing ideological education for students had to be adjusted accordingly. It is a
journey from mandatory collective political study in 1977 to the effort to make
personalized services for each individual student nowadays.
The college entrance examination was reinstated in 1977. According to
the respondents, from 1977 to 1989 (the breakout of the Tiananmen Square
Incident), students were obedient and followed directions from the department
and school Party Secretary easily. They were also highly motivated to study hard
and acquire solid knowledge to contribute to the country. Each class was
composed of students with work experiences and those graduating directly from
high school. The elder students with work experience usually assumed the
leadership roles. The Deputy Party Secretary C stated:
I started working as the political and ideological assistant in 1977 when
our country’s college entrance examination was restored. At that time,
the basic qualities of the incoming students were uneven. Some had
worked in rural areas, in factories, enterprises or institutions for several
years. Some had just graduated from high school. The advantage of such
a mixed student body was that those students with work experience had
strong self-management ability and knew how to get things done. As the
ideological assistant, as long as I gave the elder students some advice,
they would lead the younger students… In the 1980s, it was not easy for
students from poor families to get in college. The students were
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determined to learn skills and wanted to contribute to the country. They
acquired a high level of political consciousness.
At that time, the contents of political study were normative, assigned by
the political assistant. The political study activities were managed by the students
on their own and the political assistant was very hands off. In addition to the
regular theoretical political study, the ideological assistant arranged opportunities
for social practice so students could exercise their sense of social responsibility.
Another main task for the political assistant was to assign jobs to graduates. The
Deputy Party Secretary C stated:
Before 1989, basically we arranged the contents of political study and
developed the study plan. Then students followed. For instance, we
assigned every Wednesday afternoon or every Saturday as the political
study time. We gave information to students regarding what should be
learned. There was a monitor in each class. The monitor followed our
instructions and commanded the political study for the whole class. All
the students voluntarily participated. Every one became involved. We
took part as the audience and the instructors. We also set up links for
students to go out for social practice. These activities included clearing
the campus, planting trees, helping disabled people and so on. Further,
we were in charge of job assignments for the graduates according to
students’ academic performance and political fidelity.
The Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989 was a major event in China
which brought a shock to students and society. College students came directly
from high school without any social experiences. They challenged some of the old
ideas and pursued a more democratic government. The Deputy Party Secretary C
said:
The college student body was composed of students who came directly
from high school. As a result of a lack of social and work experience,
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they did not very understand what the society and reality were like.
Students challenged some of the old ideas in China and believed that
students should be more self-managed, and the country should have
more political freedom.
Respondents described student affairs personnel played a loving and
caring role to help students sort out a number of social problems and find the right
angle for looking at society during the Tiananmen Square Incident. The Deputy
Party Secretary C said:
During the turmoil of the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989, what kind
of role did we take? We went to Tiananmen Square to deliver meals to
students, persuading them not to use sit-ins to achieve the objective of
awakening the government. In fact, we argued the Party organizational
system could do that. The responsibility of the student affairs personnel
was to guide the students to take the normal channels to express
themselves.
A host of changes have taken place since 1989. With the introduction of
and the opening to a number of Western countries, the voices for freedom and
democracy have been rising in Chinese society. The students’ thinking was
different from that before 1989 and personalization emerged. It was impossible to
assign the traditional political study content to students and ask them to study
together voluntarily in their spare time. The Deputy Party Secretary C said:
The situation has changed. The composition of students and the
students’ thinking has changed a lot since 1989. We could not assign the
political study content and arrange students to study them collectively.
Students were not willing to learn those political theories, nor were they
willing to think about them… During the late 80's and early 90's, a
growing number of students who independently thought too much
experienced psychological problems, but there were not many. For
example, in each cohort among the 90 students during their 4-5 years in
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college, 2 or 3 might experience psychological issues. Personalization is
what then emerged.
With the change in the Chinese society and the change in student
characteristics, student affairs administrators started to reflect on the content of
the political study, ways to manage students, and the impact of political education
on students’ growth. The Deputy Party Secretary C said:
We started to reflect on the effectiveness of our political education. We
reflected on what difference we made in requiring students to follow
proscribed political study with fixed content and pattern. What was the
value added to the students by their study? What should be given to
students during their process of growing up? … I remember we
administrators discussed how we could manage students and be in
control?
Deputy Party Secretaries received the task of updating the political
education from higher-up and developed a study plan which included a leadership
team from each class. Students’ voices started to be heard. The format of the
political study changed to facilitate interactive discussion between students and
administrators. The content became an integration of national policy, the
Communist Manifesto, and hot topics such as freedom, democracy and
individuality. The Deputy Party Secretary C said:
The leadership from the senior organizations gave us concrete tasks
regarding what should be learned and what activities should be
organized for students. Basically, those activities and political study
content were in accordance with national policy, and the original
ideology of communism like the Manifesto of the Communist Party. I
integrated the requirement from above with the problems in my
department and the hot topics. I developed all the study plans with the
class leaders. We mainly organized the forums centering on themes and
participated in the discussion ourselves. For example, we discussed with
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the students freedom, democracy and selfhood in accordance with the
national policy. I had to guide what a correct understanding of these
concepts was.
The characteristics of students have changed dramatically since 1995.
The ratio of students who fail academically has increased. The philosophy of
studying hard to contribute to the country has decreased. Students may openly
show their unwillingness to be educated politically and have a strong tendency to
express themselves. Deputy Party Secretary C said:
The student change after 1995 is even more noticeable. The main point
is reflected in self-expression. When the university organizes political
activities, they do not attach great importance to them. They may not
prioritize their academic performance either. The students coming to our
university are all at the very top of the college entrance requirements.
But after being admitted, they are divided into two categories. Some
students are better self-regulators, have a study plan, and set up certain
goals. But their studying hard is rather for their own learning than to
make contributions to the country. The motivation to learn for the
country is getting less. This phenomenon is related to the larger
environment. For example, if the country takes off economically, then
the students would certainly consider the profit and benefit of study
hard for themselves rather than for the country. Another cluster of the
students muddle along. The ratio of these students is getting bigger.
More and more students have failed in their examinations. When the
names of the students who failed academically were listed, they filled at
most one page of the paper, with about 10 students. By the year 2000,
the name of the students who failed had to be listed in a book, at least
more than 100 individuals. Some students failed four or five subjects in
one semester. Before then maybe 10 students failed in one semester and
that was considered a lot, now there is a trend with more and more
students failing.
Students after 2000 have an even stronger spirit of self-expression and
participation. Deputy Party Secretary B stated:
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The year 2000 was really a watershed. The 2000 incoming
undergraduates I contacted are particularly not the same as before …
They are better than the prior students in terms of being true to
themselves, creativity and imagination. Our society is becoming freer,
and cultural inclusiveness is growing. I think college students are
definitely affected. They are more active in thinking. I feel they are true
to themselves. I was born in 1978 and went to college in 1996, but I feel
college students after 2000 are very different. When I went to college,
sometimes I did not agree with what had been said by the teacher but I
did not refute it and kept my concerns to myself. This is not the case for
the current students. The current students express their ideas and wishes
in a public way and have a strong spirit of participation.
The way to implement ideological education has to be adjusted again.
Students’ needs are usually asked for first. Suggestions from the class leadership
team are solicited. Then the required political education is integrated. The Deputy
Party Secretary C said:
To implement ideological education, we are really starting from the
management. We do not use authoritarian means of education or
instruction any more. If we asked the students to come to our traditional
education class or education activities, they would not listen at all.
Seriously, they would not come. Now to engage them in (political)
educational activities, we have to ask first what they want and what
format they prefer. What role do we play? We are here to serve
students… We also solicit suggestions from the class committee. After
listening to students, we have to add the political education and help
students from a different perspective.
Regardless of the adjusted way of implementing ideological education,
its true nature is to indoctrinate students with certain ideas. The indoctrination
format is not widely accepted now. League committee secretary D stated:
Ideological education is necessary in China and Western countries. It is
a matter of format. In China the nature of ideological education is still to
indoctrinate, but now it is very difficult to use purely political theory to
attract students… We do not do a good job in ideological education.
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Especially in the past we put to much emphasis on indoctrination. It was
too dominant. The United States has their values and people agree with
them without indoctrination. When the Chinese Communist Party brings
up a theory, people instinctively reject it because of its political nature. It
does not really go into the People’s heart.
Both faculty and administrators were aware of the challenges of
ideological education. Students feel lost in their life goals, values and purpose
development. The Lecturer said: “We should admit that there are a lot of
problems in the ideological education for college students and their ideas and
values. This is known well enough. We do not need to hide this.” League
committee secretary A said:
There are many ideological problems among the undergraduates. They
are confused with views on life and values. They also need to set a
direction in life. For instance, before high school they are centered on
the college entrance examination. After getting in college, they need to
set up a new direction and a driving force for life. In the current
education system, most students just follow their instincts. It is definitely
good to go to the most prestigious university so students study hard to
come here. After graduation, if a student can find a satisfying job, he or
she may go ahead. If not, he or she will go to graduate school for a
master’s degree. If a good job is not found with a master’s degree, then
they will seek a doctoral degree continues. But why do I come to higher
education? There is a lot of confusion. X University students are
disoriented about their future goals, life goals and ideals. Many may
have a more utilitarian approach, such as wanting to find a good job,
have a house, and live a comfortable life. But the internal driving force
for life is difficult to resolve. When being asked about beliefs, a lot of
students are very confused. Many undergraduates lead a life of vice
because they feel their self-worth is getting smaller and smaller. They
can not find themselves.
The administrators and faculty realize that servicing Communism and
being dedicated to a socialist construction become empty political endeavors for
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university students nowadays. Though they have not found a replacement they are
aware that it is inappropriate to simplify students’ problems to problems in their
political thinking. Students’ needs and their struggles in their growth are
reasonable and provide the opportunity for higher education to intervene.
Professor A stated:
Many students’ values and beliefs are formed during their college time.
Here the values and beliefs are not the empty political stuff we talked in
the past such as the ideal of serving the Communist Party. Our political
model in the past has had a profound and far-reaching impact on student
affairs, which usually simplified students’ needs. When students
expressed needs, we regarded them as problems in their political
thinking. Thus we denied students’ rational and reasonable needs. In
fact, it is natural for students to have problems throughout their
development. When students are in a state of disharmony and conflict,
we have a great opportunity to intervene. We had actually avoided this
opportunity in the past by simply believing that it did not deserve our
attention.
Respondents spoke of an increasing awareness of specific student
challenges. The dominant challenges for student affairs personnel are increasing
student addiction to the internet, students’ psychological problems, students’
vocational development, and problems in students’ residential life and
interpersonal relationships. With these diverse needs of students, group activities
have been decreasing and personalized counseling has been increasing. Deputy
Party Secretary C stated:
Now student affairs administration is increasingly personalized. Large
group activities become less frequent and personalized education
becomes more frequent. Different students have different problems, so
we need to educate different students according to their different
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situations. There is a tendency toward more and more personalized
counseling.
Students’ addiction to internet
Students’ addiction to the internet is a new phenomenon for Chinese
faculty and student affairs administrators. Some attributed it to the less qualified
and less self-regulated college students and as a result of the higher education
expansion after 1999. Professor A said:
In the past our higher education was elitist. The quality of students
including their intellectual, psychological and social development was
relatively elite. We put an emphasis on their intellectual development
and helped them grow academically. Now, the situation has changed…
For the ordinary universities, the student composition has changed a lot.
College students are no longer elite. They are just part of the ordinary
population. More than 20% of high school students come to university.
The students who were not qualified for college are admitted to
university now. So the problems faced by the university are more
diverse. For example, many of the student problems have nothing to do
with their academic growth. They are related to students’ dating
relationship, their attitude toward life, and their ability to self regulate.
Can the students manage themselves and focus on learning rather than
going to an Internet café to play games? According to my understanding,
students’ addiction to the Internet is becoming very serious in many
ordinary higher education institutions. We have never encountered such
a problem.
However, addiction to the Internet is not just a phenomenon in the
ordinary universities. The elite universities are facing the same issues. Deputy
Party Secretary C stated:
Since 2000, more and more students have been obsessed with the
Internet, especially male students. They do not go to classes. Nor do they
go to sleep. They wish they did not have to eat. Take a look at the
students entering college in 2001. One hundred and fifty students were
recruited. At least 10% of the cohort was held back and required to
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repeat the year because of their addiction to the Internet. I talked with
them. They can not be helped. ‘Only when I sit next to the computer, I
know who I am. If I leave the computer, I really do not know what I am
doing.’ Students like this do not go to classes at all. Not mention
examinations! Some students got 4 out of 100 points. You can easily tell
the student did not study at all! The students who can get into our
university are the best at the college entrance examination nation wide.
Facing such a situation, you say what can we do?
The Deputy Party Secretary C ended the statement with a sigh. With the
increasing number of students addicted to the Internet, some faculty suggested an
internet addiction treatment center. However, little research has been done to
understand students’ addiction to the internet. From my interviews, faculty and
administrators do not see much they can do about it.
Students’ Psychological Problems
Students’ psychological concerns were once regarded as an incident that
something was wrong with the student’s political quality. This is not the case any
more and there has been an increasing awareness of students’ psychological
problems. Professor A said:
Some students’ problems are no longer a question of ideology and
morality. They are psychological problems… There are students
committing suicide, experiencing depression and dropping out of school
from the university every year. How to face and help these tough and
difficult students becomes an important part of higher education
administration.
Further, with the increasing suicide rate, it is believed that graduate
students have more serious psychological problems than undergraduates. Deputy
Party Secretary B:
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Now when the students encounter a little problem they can become very
emotional. The emotional peak is to commit suicide. Committing suicide
was rare before. But in the past two years, we have both undergraduates
and graduates committing suicide. The suicide rate is on the rise though
I do not have accurate statistics. The graduate students are even worse…
The graduate students have more severe psychological concerns than
undergraduates.
Some attributed students’ psychological problems to external social
factors such as the social transitioning in China, the polarization between the rich
and the poor, as well as the one child policy. Deputy Party Secretary B said:
I think students’ psychological problems are definitely partly caused by
the society. China is experiencing a social transformation during which a
high suicide rate is inevitable. Frankly speaking, during the transition
time, we teachers and adults are in a dilemma in many situations. I mean
we have work and life experiences but we still feel powerless. The
students have not been out in the world. So when they encounter a
number of setbacks, they feel helpless. This is normal …In fact a lot of
students with psychological problems are poor. Or let’s say the ratio of
poor students with psychological concerns is relatively high. Therefore,
China’s social gap between the rich and the poor has been influential
among the students in the past two years… I do not know if you heard of
the terminology post-80 and post -90 generation. They are used widely.
In the social-cultural study, the post-80 and post-90 phenomenon refers
to the fact that the young people who were born after 1980s and 1990s
as a group have different characteristics from those who were born
earlier. First, the youth who were born in the 1980s and 1990s have only
one child in their family. Their independence is stronger than ever. They
are relatively selfish. Second, the living conditions of these young
people improved a lot after their birth. The parents do not want to let
their children suffer and do their best to meet their requests. So when
these young people encounter setbacks, their ability to overcome the
setback is relatively low.
Others believe that the higher education system itself is accountable for
college students’ psychological issues. The specialization of the curriculum
design in college makes students think narrowly. Campus activities are designed
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primarily to meet the requirements from the top without taking into account
students’ development needs. Professor D stated:
Historically we in higher education focus on specialization. Last time we
made reforms to increase the number of classes in general education.
But the classes of Marxism-Leninism, political economics and
University English account for more than half of the classes in general
education. This leads to today’s students, they seem to be very informed.
For instance which star has a new song and as such. But their knowledge
base is not wide and knowledge meaningful to their real life is rare. If a
graduate student encounters relationship problems, the death of their
parents and so on, I will have to help them adjust. It is ok for me to help
them when the students are in a very sad time. However, they come back
and forth, back and forth. I feel it is too much. I think the university
curriculum and university activities are associated with this
phenomenon. There are not many campus activities. Usually they are
organized by the university League Committee, which follows the
direction of the Communist Youth League Central Committee. Fewer
activities are really related to students’ life and growth. Activities on the
topics of family, marriage, love, and communication should have been
organized. But I never hear my students talking about these.
Regardless of the factors accounting for students’ psychological
problems, few students with issues will actively go to the counseling center to
seek help. Having a psychological problem is a stigma for students and they are
afraid of losing face. Deputy Party Secretary C said: “Mainland Chinese students
suffering psychologically will not go to see the psychological counselor. The
student can not risk losing face. He/she is not aware and does not admit that
he/she encounters psychological problem.” League Committee Secretary C
stated:
According to conventional Chinese thinking, students would rather
communicate with and talk to teachers (faculty, the League Committee
Secretary and the Deputy Party Secretary) than go to the psychological
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counseling center. They believe that going to the psychological center is
a manifestation of the mental illness and only people with serious
psychological problems need to go there. Few students take the initiative
to go to the psychological counseling center because they are unwilling
to admit that they experience psychological difficulty.
The student affairs arm at the department and school level play an
important role in dealing with students’ psychological problems. League
Committee Secretary C stated:
Basically students’ psychological problems are dealt with by us at the
department and school first. Only when the problem is so serious that we
can not handle, we will suggest or bring the student to the university
psychological center. The psychological center and career center give us
training to do the work. The psychological counseling center and career
center are open to all the university students. But if we really push all the
psychological work and career counseling work to those centers, their
capacity for accommodating is limited and they can not do the work.
The department and school student affairs arm take the initiative to
identify students with psychological concerns by talking to students and checking
their attendance in classes. Deputy Party Secretary C said:
We usually identify some students with something wrong through our
in-depth and meticulous work. For instance, we take roll before class
begins. If a student did not come to class, we would not punish him/her.
We are not in that role. The purpose for us in checking students’
attendance is to find out why the students do not come to class. In fact,
from students’ class attendance, we have really been able to detect some
students with psychological disorders. They do not come to classes
because of depression.
Students’ psychological problems are challenging for the student affairs
administrators and faculty to deal with. The short history of realizing the
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psychological problems results in a lack of theoretical guidance. Deputy Party
Secretary B said:
I think we do not have a very good understanding and solution to
students’ psychological problems. We started to realize students’
psychological problems one or two years ago. Now we know
committing suicide is actually a manifestation of psychological
problems, even a phenomenon of an illness. In the past, we had a lack of
in-depth understanding.
Professor D stated:
College students’ psychological work can not be done on the basis of
experiences, or even with a wrong assumption. The wrong concept is to
believe that students should be obedient and we need to control them
and keep them out of trouble. When no trouble crops up, the
management can be considered to have done well. Now the college
students are all one child in their family. They are more difficult to work
with because they come into contact with a lot of information and are
not as obedient as we are. There is a generation gap between the
counseling people and the students. They have conflicting values. So it
is hard for them to communicate well. Psychological counseling should
have a set of theories to guide it.
Current psychological counseling is more administrator-centered than
student centered. Associate professor B stated:
Psychological counseling is just beginning. From the perspective of
many administrators, the biggest issue is to have no loss of student life
on campus. The focus is not to truly help a student to grow. For
example, if there is no loss of student life, no student jumping from high
up, no student committing suicide, and no news event in a university, it
will be very satisfying. So I feel (the psychological counseling) is very
rough. It is not really student centered but administrator centered. If
there is no news event in a university, the administrators will feel safe
and ok.
The biggest challenge for Chinese student affairs administrators related
to students’ psychological problems is the students’ committing suicide. First, the
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university is always responsible for the students’ death if the student commits
suicide at the college. The university usually has to pay reparation to the parents.
League Committee Secretary D said:
In Chinese universities, if a student commits suicide, the university has
to take responsibility. In the U.S. and Hong Kong, the individual college
students are independent. If the adult college student commits suicide,
the university typically bears little responsibility. It is different here in
China. Parents will submit a claim to the university. The parents think
we give the student to you and now the student has such a big problem.
The university is definitely accountable.
With the increasing number of student suicides, the student affairs
administration is under great pressure from society. Associate Director A in the
office of student affairs said:
In China, if you have one accident, one death, one student jumping from
a high place, the student affairs administration experiences great
pressure as if you did not do your job. What’s more, we need to take
care of the aftermath of the death. With the increased number of students
jumping from high places, the social pressure is more intense after the
accident happens.
Student suicide has been attracting much attention because it is regarded
through a political lens as a matter of political security and stability, rather than
that of student development. However, this view is beginning to shift. League
committee secretary A said:
The emphasis and work methods of student affairs personnel need to be
adjusted, in particular how we deal with tragic events such as student
suicide or students’ hurting each other. These incidents are not political
problems but about human life, though we can understand them from a
political point of view related to security and stability. Before when we
said security and stability, it referred to the fact that students did not take
any political action, but now security and stability mean that students do
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not have the psychological problems of suicide. The perspective has
completely changed. Student affairs administration is very concerned
about student suicides. This issue must be resolved through counseling.
The big concerns for students’ psychological suicidal problems result
from the fact that some faculty members have to lower academic standards to let
the students with psychological problems pass just in case that their problems get
worse. Professor A stated:
It is not the individual student who has the psychological problem. More
and more students are suffering psychologically. We have student
suicides every year in universities in Beijing. Now we have to adjust our
teaching and academic guidance. For example, a couple of days ago I
attended a doctoral defense. The dissertation chair told me that his
student had a mental illness. The chair wanted me to take the student’s
mental illness into consideration and lower the academic standards
during the defense. This is a way for us to deal with student’s
psychological problems. If we were strictly in accordance with the
academic standards, there would be no way for the student to pass the
defense. Then the student may suffer from depression and then no one
can imagine the consequences. So now the university’s attitudes to
students are not as strict as before. In the past, if students did not meet
the requirements, we simply asked them to take the class again and
apply for an extension. Now we are afraid of doing things like that
because many students have taken radical actions.
Students’ Vocational Counseling
There are great needs and demands for career counseling both from the
undergraduates and the graduates. The conditions of employment are
exceptionally tense in China now. Associate director A in the office of student
affairs stated:
Domestic employment pressure is relatively great. The employment
situation is very tight. The overall employment rate declined over the
past few years. The employment rate in our university last year was
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90%. This was not bad. But many colleges and universities could not
reach that rate.
Deputy Party Secretary B explained that students felt powerless facing
employment:
Many phenomena including finding employment make students feel
powerless, including employment. Sometimes I tell my students that I
am very jealous of them because they are in an era of rapid development
with a lot of opportunities. Meanwhile, I think my students also have a
tough time because they are under great pressure. The employment
positions available after graduation and the social recognition to the
value of their academic degree have gone through an earth-shaking
change. For example, one or two years ago employment was not like
today. We are a normal (teacher education) college. Our graduates could
find a job and it was just a matter of good job or a bad job one or two
years ago. You either went to a keynote school to be a teacher or an
ordinary school to be a teacher. That was the distinction. But over the
past year, it has become whether or not you can find a job. The big
change is a hard blow to students. So current college students feel lost
when they study in college. Their loss is inseparable from the social
circumstances.
Career counseling draws a lot of attention because students’ employment
plays an important role in maintaining political stability. Deputy Party Secretary
A said: “Employment is a government action. There are too many people in
China. If 1,000 students could not find a job, social unrest might take place, which
is not a manifestation of the superiority of socialism.”
Faculty and the student affairs office at the department and school level
are all required to provide career counseling to students. Generally, they feel a
lack of theoretical guidance and organizational support to do the work, though
they get training from the university career counseling center. League committee
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secretary C pointed out that 90% of career counseling was done at the department
and school level. He said:
In terms of employment, the university career center provides training
for us first, and then we will provide guidance to our students in our
school and department. If we have some specific issues that we can not
solve, we will ask the student to go to the career counseling center.
There are few staff members in the career center. If more than 2,000
graduates go to the career center each year, it would be impossible for
the staff to accommodate them. To be honest, not many students go the
career center. 90% of the employment counseling is digested here at the
department and school.
League Committee Secretary D expressed her difficulty in giving
students employment guidance:
I feel challenged to provide employment guidance to my students. In
terms of career planning, in China we are kind of behind. Without
systematic training, I can only advise students on manners of personal
conduct during the interview at a superficial level. I talk more from my
own experiences and feelings. We do not have systematic training in
place. We had a delegation to visit universities in Hong Kong this year.
Their career counseling is very professional. Compared to them, we are
far worse. They recruit people with rich work experience to counsel
students. Our guidance completely relies on personal qualities.
Faculty members are required to help students with their employment,
but professor D implied there was not much they could do about it. She said:
Career counseling is particularly difficult. Many students can not find
work. The university gave us a notice requiring us to help students with
their employment. I asked my graduates and they told me that they
received a small amount of employment information from the university.
Mainly these kids listen to each other and learn from their own
experiences. We should conduct systematic research on professional
career counseling.
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The lack of organizational support for students to change their major
makes the career counseling even more challenging. The organizational structure
does not provide students with the opportunity to explore their possible career
choices. League Committee Secretary A stated:
Career planning is really an issue. The question for a student is that what
I want to do in the future, and how I can do what I want to do in the
future. The vast majority of undergraduate students are directly admitted
to their majors when they get in college. There is little possibility for a
student to change their major. The independent space for a student to
make a choice is quite small. The conflict between a student’s major and
interest is increasing. Some undergraduates have no feeling toward their
major when they graduate. They also do not have the opportunity to
learn other things. For that student, going to college is a waste of time. It
is a waste of human effort. This is also a waste of educational resources.
I have been thinking of the relationship among the career, major,
academic performance and employment. How we can help students
manage their time effectively? In fact, graduate students have this
problem too. They often change their direction.
The primary responsibility for students’ unemployment lies on the
student affairs administration system. But student affairs administrators feel that it
is not fair because there is not much they can do about it. Then the question of
who should be accountable for students’ unemployment was brought up.
Associate director A in the office of student affairs said:
This is purely a personal point of view. Some universities can not reach
the expected employment rate. The pressure is mainly put on the student
affairs administration system. We are blamed for not doing our job. The
office of student affairs and the career counseling center are in charge of
undergraduates’ employment. The graduate student affairs office and the
career counseling center are in charge of graduate students’
employment. All the pressure, or at least most of the responsibility is put
on the sectors including the office of student affairs, the graduate student
affairs office, the career counseling center, and the student affairs arm in
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the department and school. The university leaders will criticize us for
not doing our job. In fact, many people recognize that the student affairs
administrative system can not be responsible for students’ employment.
Now some change is taking place. For example, in our university,
faculty members are required to help students make their job contacts.
But the overall pressure is still on student affairs. Now from the
government to colleges and universities, the employment rate attracts
special attention. Employment is regarded as a factor of political security
and stability. However, in terms of employment, what student affairs can
do is limited.
Associate director A in the office of student affairs further implied that
the students were not prepared well for their employment by the curriculum in
college. He said:
At present, there is a gap between students’ employability and social
needs. They are relatively out of touch. Students’ recognition to
themselves is distant from the value they were recognized by the social
needs. What students consider necessary is not necessarily recognized
by society. What society needs may not be achieved by the students.
There is a disconnection between the curriculum design in the college
and society’s needs. Many classes at the college are not needed by
society. Higher education faces great challenges in terms of enabling and
preparing students to adapt to changes in society.
Residential Life
Through outsourcing of college services to independent service
providers, the social responsibilities of the residential hall have been transferred to
the market economy. Student affairs administration is not in charge of students’
residential life. The student affairs administrative system gets connected to and
communicates with the residential center. Associate director A in the office of
student affairs explained the connection by saying:
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We in student affairs are not in charge of students’ residential life,
though we sometimes organize joint activities with the residence halls.
The student affairs arm in the department and school are required to
know about students’ residential life. In addition, we manage the student
leaders. There is a group leader in each dormitory room. We provide
regular training for the group leaders in the residence halls. The training
includes safety education, information communication and so on. If
there is anything wrong in students’ residential life, they will report to
the department and school, and then the department and school will
communicate with us.
Some administrators realize that student affairs should have been
managing the residence halls and students’ residential life, because students’
residential life provides a great opportunity for educational intervention. League
committee secretary A said:
The residence halls do not fully plan their educational functions. I took a
class in the school of education and realized that the residence hall is
actually an important place for education. Right now the educational
function of the residence hall is zero. Students receive professional
education in classes. When they are back to their dormitory room, they
are undisciplined and idling. There is no continuity. Students in the
dormitory are expected either to swim or sink. Student is on his/her own.
There is no guidance.
Academic Support
Unlike the colleges and universities in the U.S., there are no full-time
professional academic advisors for students in China. The assistant professor said:
Students are at a loss when they need to choose classes. Nobody can
really give them guidance about their academic plan and class choices.
Full-time student affairs people, like the Deputy Party Secretary and
League Committee Secretary, know little about the academic aspect.
Full time faculty members do not have a lot of contact with students. We
do not have a person who plays a role in helping students with academic
advice regarding how to develop their academic plan, what classes to
choose, and how to manage their time in the college year.
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Meanwhile, students do not have many choices about what classes they
want to take. Associate professor A said: “From the students’ responses, we have
an elective system in the university to provide students with optional classes. But
students feel that their optional classes are very limited. There are not many
choices.”
Curriculum design is often based on the convenience of management
rather than students’ growth. There is no accountability system in design of the
curriculum. Associate professor B stated:
The design of these courses should have been based on students’
development and for their benefit. This is not the case. In order to save
costs, the universities and colleges usually have large classes. Faculty
members pursue their own academic development and promotion, and
they teach their favorite classes not students’ favorite. It is very difficult
to change the situation and culture. Ideally we want students to learn
what they are interested in. But how can we make that happen? In terms
of the courses, the Party’s Central Committee does not care, nor does
the government. The bottom line is for the students to complete the
coursework.
The fact that students are not allowed to change their major does not
provide organizational support for academic advising. Associate professor B said:
We do not provide academic advising to students. We do not have
academic advisors either. Some professors may play the role of the
academic advisor occasionally. We once planned to ask the Dean to give
students academic counseling before the semester started. There is a big
problem here. What principle should the Dean follow to help students
choose classes? Would the Dean help students make course choices in
accordance with the requirements of the school to complete the degree
faster and easier? Or would the Dean help students make course choices
according to their interest, strength, potential and capacities? The
principle makes a big difference. If the Dean follows the latter, then we
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have to adjust the curriculum and the current system. For example if we
say we want the students to fully develop, then first of all we have to
allow the students to change their major. But in our current system, it is
very difficult to change the major. So here we are in a dilemma. We say
we want to provide service for the students. But when the students really
need our service to change the major, we can not provide this kind of
service.
There are many needs from students in terms of the opportunity to
change majors. But allowing students to change the major can also bring
corruption and increase management complexity. Thus, it is very difficult to be
operational. Associate professor B stated:
According to a survey of students, 40% of our students are not interested
in their major, or say in our country, 40% of people are doing what they
are not interested in doing… Many faculty members feel that students
should be allowed to change their major. One the one hand, allowing
students to change their major can satisfy students’ interest, but on the
other hand it may create corruption and provide opportunity to trade
power for money. For example, a student is admitted to a relatively
unpopular major because of his/her low entrance score. Then the student
shifts to a popular major which requires much higher score. This
phenomenon may cause social discontent. So the administrator would
rather sacrifice the interests of students. Not allowing students to change
their major is a demonstration of fairness in our university. We
administrators are fair. In addition, allowing students to change their
major can cause a lot of difficulties and confusion in management. The
current way is the simplest. We use the computer to rank the students’
scores and match their scores to their major. After a student’s major is
determined, it can not be changed. Of course, this is easy. If we allow
the students to change majors, they can be here for a while, and be there
for a while. The curriculum, the faculty members, and the number of
students in a school can be changing. The will increase the complexity
of management. Hence, not allowing students to change the major is cost
centered and management centered. It does not take student’s
development into consideration.
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Overall respondents noted that the students are less motivated to study
and may not be interested in academic advice because employment is becoming
less merit-based and more social-network based. Professor E said:
I was admitted to college after the resumption of the college entrance
examination. Students’ enthusiasm for learning was very high. Now
students are less enthusiastic than in the past. Their attention to and
concern about their employment is much stronger than it is for academic
issues. Students’ academic interests are decreasing. Their pragmatism
and utilitarianism are increasing.
Professor D told a story about her adjustment to her female graduate
who spent most of her time looking for a boyfriend rather studying but
successfully found a job. She said:
The female graduate student knew the most cost-effective way to find a
job in Beijing was to find a boyfriend. Finding a boyfriend was the most
important! With regard to her studies, she was satisfied with just passing
and got a degree. Passing with a master degree compared to finding a
boy friend, finding the boy friend was more important. She finally found
a boyfriend who helped her get a job in Beijing. Otherwise, she really
could not find a job! She had to survive. Now we say the students lack
the motivation to study. To some extent, the environment is responsible
for this… After the expansion of higher education, only one third of the
graduates admitted they really want to study, the rest came because of
unemployment. As soon as they get in, they start to work on finding a
job… The graduate students think narrowly and are particularly
utilitarian. They want to set up their thesis topic as soon as they get in.
Once the thesis topic is set up, they will not do anything else. They do
not even come to listen to the lectures.
Financial Aid
Great progress has been made in financial aid to help poor students go to
college. In the past, poor students usually came from the suburban areas. Now
there are a number of poor students in the urban areas. Poor students with
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excellent academic performance attract the most attention. Deputy Party Secretary
B said:
Financial aid is becoming more and more standardized recently. Student
loans help a lot. Poor students can not pay the tuition fees without a
student loan. In fact, our tuition fees are relatively low. On average, the
tuition is RMB 5,000 each year. It may be slightly higher in art and
music like about RMB 8,000-10,000. The rent rate is usually RMB 650-
900 per year and six students share one room. The living expenses
probably cost RMB 3,000-4,000. The living expenses are about survival.
We have student loans and donations. The donations are usually
assigned to poor students with outstanding academic performance.
Without financial aid, many poor students can not afford to go to
college.
The challenge of financial aid is that students who get financial aid often
have a lot of psychological problems. In terms of student loans, the difficulty is
about how to make sure students will repay the money. Associate professor B
said:
In terms of financial aid, students get financial assistance, accompanied
by many psychological problems. The financial aid office is only
responsible for lending the money without taking into account one’s
ability to repay. The purpose of providing loans to students is to insure
that no student drops out of school because of poverty. The ultimate goal
is to help officials secure a job and an official position.
Interpersonal Skills
How to deal with interpersonal relationships is regarded by respondents
as a challenge for undergraduates, master’s students and doctoral students. There
is no program available to help students develop their interpersonal skills. League
committee secretary A said:
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Now the students have a lot of confusion with regard to human
relationships. They have questions about how to deal with relationships
with the opposite sex, the roommate, the parent, and colleagues.
Relationships with the opposite sex are very important, because many
students start dating as the undergraduates. The generational gap exists
widely. After students get in college (the most prestigious university),
their parents may have difficulty providing them any further guidance.
Students are pretty much on their own. How does a student deal with
his/her relationship with the professor in a laboratory and their
colleagues in a laboratory? There are also behavioral problems, such as
an excess of the normal behavior. Regardless of the age of students,
interpersonal relationships are essential.
Students’ Greatest Concerns According to Faculty, Administrators and the
Students Themselves
Perceived students’ most concerns and challenges by faculty and administrators
Chinese faculty and administrators were asked about their perceptions to
students’ challenges and concerns. Three lenses were used to approach the
question. The first lens was the longitudinal perspective in which students’
challenges and concerns change over time according to their progress in the
degree program. The second lens was the general perspective which views
students’ needs using a wide angle. This lens is general and vague. The third lens
was the laser lens, which identified specific concerns confronting students. The
specific concerns were students’ concerns in their employment, interpersonal
development, psychological concerns, academic development, financial challenge
and others.
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The longitudinal perspective
The longitudinal perspective demonstrates that students’ challenges and
concerns change according to the year they are in as an undergraduate.
Additionally, the concerns for undergraduates, master students and doctoral
students are different. League Committee Secretary C described this shift of
concerns for undergraduates in the four-year college:
Undergraduates’ concerns do not stay the same from year-to-year. For a
freshman, the greatest concern is about how to adapt to college life. In
high school, teachers force students to do things like study every day,
while in college self-regulation is emphasized. So the freshman’s
primary concern is how to adapt to college life successfully and develop
the capacity for self-regulation. In their sophomore year, students pay
special attention to their academic progress. Sophomores start to care
about their majors. They take classes seriously and hope to have a
breakthrough in their academic advancement. Junior students start to
think about their future development. For instance, shall I go abroad to
study, or pursue a master’s degree in China, or look for a job? Seniors
students primarily focus on looking for a job. Job prospects become the
major concern.
League Committee Secretary A identified greater challenges among
undergraduates, graduates and doctoral students. He said:
For undergraduates, the challenge is the find their direction in life.
Before entering college while in high school, their focus is the college
entry examination. After coming to college, they have to refocus their
direction in life and get motivated… The main problem facing master’s
students is their career choice. Most master’s students will go out to look
for a job after their graduation. How to find a satisfying job is
particularly important for them. The concerns for doctoral students are
their academic progress, their communication with their chair as well as
their job placement after graduation. The vocational options for doctoral
students are relatively narrow. Many full-time doctoral students are
married. The family and financial pressures are great.
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It seems that undergraduates’ most concerns change from year-to-year
and they are not concerned about their employment until junior, but graduates
including master’s students and doctoral students are concerned about their
employment all the time.
The general perspective
The general perspective gives a broad overview of the students’
concerns in their personal development and the nature of the concerns. The
University Party Secretary believed that the awareness of students’ concern about
their personal development varied from person to person. She stated:
I feel that students’ greatest concern is their personal development. But
the individual students may be different from one another. Some
students are aware of these concerns, but some may not be very clear
about their concerns. Their self-esteem is not particularly strong. They
may not think of how to design and control their own future. But I
believe for students as a whole, their greatest concern is their own
personal development, though the degree of the concern varies.
League Committee Secretary D pointed out that students usually held a
pragmatic view in selecting activities related to their own personal development.
She explained:
Students are now very practical. They (undergraduates) are concerned
about getting into graduate school, or employment. Many students get
engaged in social work with a utilitarian purpose. For example as a
student leader in the Student Union, one the one hand, he develops his
own leadership. On the other hand, he earns certain extra scores when
participating in the graduate entrance examination as a compensation for
the lost study time when doing the social work. What he does must be
directly related to his interests. Students are only concerned about their
development-related matters.
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Associate director A in the office of student affairs said:
Students are concerned about their personal development, and the most
immediate is employment. I personally think they are related and are
two aspects of the problem. Students are very concerned about their
study and vocational planning, as well as the overall improvement of
their capacity, quality and knowledge to be competitive.
The laser lens
The laser lens identified students’ specific concerns describe what this is
and how many will you present. In the laser lens the perceived students’ concerns
about employment are predominant in that 92% (22 out of 24) faculty and
administrators interviewed believed that employment was the students’ greatest
concern or part of their greatest concerns. The staff in student affairs office stated
employment is a common concern for all the students:
Students’ greatest concern is employment. Regardless of their status as
an undergraduate, a master’s student, or as a doctoral student, the final
result is to get a job. Everybody wants to get employed, but there is little
guidance regarding how to get a job. Students often do not know what to
do.
Deputy Party Secretary A thought the employment problem made
students anxious. She said: “Employment creates a lot of anxiety. From freshmen
to seniors, plus graduate students, all are very anxious about seeking employment.
Undergraduates are even more concerned about their employment.” The director
in the career center further specified:
Most students’ concerns are employment related. Being well qualified
for and then securing a job absorbs their immediate attention. First, they
care about whether or not they can find a job. Second, they are
concerned about the quality of the employer. They may be wondering
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whether they can find a job, whether they can find a job in Beijing and
whether the employer is the key national institution. Students may prefer
a relatively stable job like in the civil service.
League Committee Secretary B stated the importance of employment for
students: “Now in China, as you may already know, students are concerned about
their employment because it is related to their survival. Students pay special
attention to the employment prospects of their major.” The lecturer attributed
these concerns to the Chinese higher education enrollment expansion after 1999.
He said:
After the higher education enrollment expansion in 1999, the number of
graduates has increased several times, but job openings have not
increased proportionally. Thus there is a disparity between the number
of jobs and the number of students looking for jobs. The challenge
facing students is whether or not they can find appropriate jobs after
graduation.
Meanwhile, another employment-related challenge for students is
perceived as a lack of social experience. The University Party Secretary said: “I
think the challenge for students is that they lack experience in life and in the real
world.” The staff in student affairs office commented: “Students are challenged to
be able to adapt to society and get recognized.” Associate director A in the office
of student affairs stated:
There is a gap between what students think of them and their
understanding of society. What the student values is not necessarily
recognized by society. What the society needs may not be what students
have achieved. This is a big problem. This may lead to a gap between
student employability and the demands of the society.
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In addition to students’ employment concern, students’ psychological
growth is one of the perceived challenges of faculty and administrators. The
psychological aspects include psychological resilience, emotional management,
and emotional quotient. Director B in the psychological counseling center
believed the challenge for students was that students have a relatively low
psychological resilience and few coping strategies. She said:
The challenge confronting students is that they lack the competency to
face pressure and setbacks. In my time, the country’s economy was
relatively slow and life was much harder. The hardship made us strong
enough to suffer setbacks and be independent. In contrast, the current
youth enjoy better economic conditions, but the degree of their
psychological endurance is decreasing. We teachers feel that the
incoming students every year are getting less and less mature. In fact,
the incoming students’ biological age stays the same, but their
psychological age is getting younger. Contemporary parents do not do a
good job in terms of nurturing students’ independence. I feel parents are
falling short in this area. The parents love their kids and try to do
everything they can for their children in their growing process. The
children do not have a chance to grow up and learn independence. So
when setbacks and difficult times come, the students do not know how
to respond.
League committee secretary B stated:
Another challenge for students is, I think, how to adjust oneself
psychologically under great social pressure… The number of students
suffering from psychological disorders has been increasing. The rate in
China may be higher than foreign countries. To a large extent, these
disorders come from the challenge for students to adjust psychologically
to the pressures from society.
League committee secretary C gave an example of students’ lack of self-
regulation and coping strategies when facing difficulty. He told me with a sigh:
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I think the challenge for students now is their capacity for self-
regulation. For example, one day a student called me at 2 o’clock in the
morning and told me that somebody sent a verbally abused message over
the internet about him. The student was scared and asked me what he
should do and how he could respond.
League Committee Secretary E said: “Students getting into our
university have a very high IQ. Generally speaking, they usually do not have any
problems with their academic studies. They face more challenge in the
improvement of their EQ.”
Some administrators have noticed students’ concerns and challenges in
their ability to develop interpersonal relationships with their peers, their parents
and the opposite sex. Deputy Party Secretary A said:
Students are concerned about their interpersonal relationships. They care
about comments from others. In China, a group’s influence is usually
great. For example, a student may care about their relationship with their
roommates in the dormitory. If the student gets along with everyone, he
or she will be happy. If the student does not get along with their
roommates and does not adapt to dormitory life, he or she may be very
upset.
The League Committee Secretary A said:
Students are very concerned about how to handle their interpersonal
relationships. For example, they feel challenged in terms of how to deal
with their roommates and how to deal with the relationship with the
opposite sex. Relationships with the opposite sex are very important. A
lot of students start dating as undergraduates. With regard to how to deal
with the relationship with their parents, the generation gap is widespread
now. After students’ get into college, many parents can not provide
further guidance in students’ knowledge development and future
direction. Students are pretty much on their own.
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Students’ concerns about the stability and harmony of their family were
paid special attention. League Committee Secretary B further pointed out:
Students are concerned about their family, including the family of their
parents, and their own future family. Most students are concerned about
their parents’ family at their beginning years in college and then pay
attention to their own future family when getting older. The
relationship between the students’ parents has a large impact on
students, because students’ parents are the source of their tuition. If the
parents have problems, students will be influenced emotionally,
financially and academically.
One administrator and one faculty identified students’ academic
concerns. Deputy Party Secretary A said: “Academic pressure is very strong for
undergraduates. Female master’s students, they have academic concerns. They
have to publish a 30,000-word paper.” Professor A said:
Part-time doctoral students feel challenged by their dissertation writing.
Most part-time doctoral students are in leadership positions in schools
and other institutions. They are used to writing work reports and doing
some administrative work. After they come back to the university, what
they are good at and recognized for at work is not acknowledged any
more. They are challenged to understand basic academic requirements in
dissertation writing.
Two administrators were aware of students’ financial concerns,
especially students from rural areas. The head in the graduate student affairs
office said: “There is financial pressure for students because now students have to
pay tuition and fees.” Deputy Party Secretary A stated:
In addition to employment, male students have financial pressures.
Many students are from poor rural areas. As grown-ups students are
hesitant to ask their family for money. Though there are scholarships
and a living allowance, only 5% of students can get a scholarship. We
have more male graduate students from rural areas.
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The other challenges identified by the administrators are students’
choice making and how to stay grounded. League committee secretary B said:
I feel that an important challenge for students is to how to make choices.
Students have a lot of information and many more opportunities. But
they also face a lot of conflicts and have to make choices. In the
decision-making process, they have to decide what to give up and what
to take and make the best choice. I feel that it is getting harder and
harder for students to make choices. This big challenge is not only for
students, but also for adults. Decision making is getting more and more
serious.
League Committee Secretary E said:
What do students need to pay attention to and improve? Compared to the
students of the past, current students are in very good living conditions.
They are confronted with various temptations such as the internet.
Students’ development may be pluralistic. Students may experience
some of the frustrations of life. As far as my feelings, they should be
more practical and grounded.
In sum, from the laser perspective of the faculty and administrators,
students’ greatest concerns were predominated by employment, followed by
psychological growth, interpersonal development, academic and financial
concerns. Generally speaking, students were concerned about issues with their
personal development, though the specific concern could change over time. To
examine how much Chinese faculty and administrators accurately understood
students’ most concerns, students were invited to talk about their greatest
concerns. The findings were as follows.
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The perceived challenges and concerns by students
Among the 24 interviewed students, two out of 16 undergraduates had
no worries and did not see any challenges while the remaining 14 undergraduates
and all 8 graduate students had specific concerns. The students’ concerns fell into
four categories: employment, academics, choice making and transitions.
Employment concerns
About one third of the students felt challenged and concerned about
employment opportunities. The students with employment concerns consisted of
junior and senior undergraduates, master’s students and doctoral students. They
were concerned about whether or not they could find a job, as well as where to
find a job given their major and personal preferences. Some students, especially
doctoral students, expressed powerlessness in the relationship-oriented market
and the disparity between expectations for a job and the reality.
The junior student majoring in philosophy at University 2 started to
think about the employment issue and said:
My greatest concern is employment. This concern may be unique for
juniors. This summer I will start an internship and do some preparation.
The campus job fair will start this October. Freshmen and sophomores
do not care about this information. Juniors like me pay special attention
to our future, specifically to employment preparation.
The junior majoring in biology at University 3 was struggling with the
disconnection between their major and employment: “I feel challenged by the
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relationship between employment opportunities and my major. They are not
connected at all.”
Some students are challenged by making choices concerning what kinds
of jobs they should pursue. The master’s student majoring in educational
technology at University 1 was debating between higher education institutions
and industries in his job search. He said:
The alumni in my major mainly work at colleges and universities. The
salary is really not high. It is about RMB 2,000 – 3,000 per month.
Alumni working for a company have a much higher salary like RMB
7,000 – 8,000 per month. My personal interest is to work as a teacher or
as an administrator in a college, but the salary gap is too big. If I want to
stay in Beijing, I need to find a job in a university take care of my
registered permanent residence. If I want to make money, I will have to
go to a company. I’d better prepare for both. The challenge is that the
required preparation for the two jobs is different.
The master’s student majoring in travel planning at University 1 was not
sure what kind of job would be available and be a good match for her. She said:
Mostly I am concerned with my future employment. We are in school
for such a long time and the ultimate goal is to find a nice job. I am
thinking about the kind of job I should look for and what I am going to
do in the future. I got my bachelor’s degree in this university. When I
graduated as an undergraduate, I was struck by the fact that there is
definitely no direct proportional relationship between academic
performance and the quality of the employer. Many of our classmates
did not earn a bachelor’s degree, and had a lot of make-up courses. But
they got very nice jobs. The students with excellent scores in courses did
not necessarily get satisfactory jobs. So now, for me as long as I can get
a master’s degree, I am perfectly fine. I do not like academic research. I
prefer interacting with people and yearn for a flexible world full of
change. My concern is figuring out the kind of job I should look for.
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The junior majoring in both psychology and Chinese literacy at
University 1 felt challenged in terms of how to prepare him in a relationship-
based instead of merit-based job market. He said:
My greatest concern is my employment. We had the commencement
ceremony yesterday and just said good-bye to senior students. The
message they left for us is that it is very difficult to find a job and taking
the graduate examination is not easy either. I feel that many students
study very hard but have a very limited advantage competing in the job
market. The job market is a relationship-oriented world. If a student has
a good family background, then the student is very relaxed. Students like
that can even escape classes and just have fun.
The doctoral student majoring in Chinese contemporary history at
University 1 knew that he wanted to pursue an academic position but it was
difficult to write an outstanding dissertation. He felt it would be a challenge to get
a job with an advanced academic degree. He said:
My greatest concern is employment. After graduation as an
undergraduate, I had a job in the mail and telecommunications sector.
That was a very good job. However, in order to improve myself, I took
the test and got in a master’s program. After graduation with a master’s
degree, I could not get a job as good as the one I had with a bachelor’s
degree. There was no other choice so I went on to the doctoral program.
The frustration for me is the big gap between what we think and reality.
It is very confusing. As a doctoral student, I am the oldest (30 years old)
among my four classmates, because I worked a few years after my
graduation as an undergraduate. I have a clear understanding of myself.
An administrative job is not a good match for me as I was never a
student leader. If I do business, I would get sold out by others. I am not
interested in that either. Now I am a doctoral student, doing academic
research. It sounds like a good choice. University teachers have
relatively high social status in China. Since I want to be a professor, I
must complete an outstanding dissertation. When I read the dissertations
written by others, I am often doubtful that I can write such a dissertation.
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The doctoral student majoring in genetics at University 1 felt her
greatest challenge was to find a job that was a good match with her doctoral
degree. She said:
I am concerned about my employment. The employment prospects now
are not as optimistic as the time when I graduated as an undergraduate.
My classmate in the lab, she graduated with a doctoral degree this year
and got a job as a teacher in an ordinary middle school (not a key middle
school). Ten out of eighty graduates have not received a job offer. I feel
there is a big gap between my expectations and the realities of the job
market as a doctoral student. I am really concerned about my job search.
When I graduated as an undergraduate, I would have been able to secure
a job offer as a middle school teacher. I wanted to pursue an advanced
degree because I wanted to advance my career and get a better job. But
now it seems the job I will get may be the same or even worse than what
I could have been eligible for as an undergraduate a few years ago.
Academic concerns
About one third of all students had great academic concerns.
Undergraduates were concerned about whether or not they could get into graduate
school, and how to choose a specialization in graduate school. The graduate
students’ concerns included how to choose a dissertation topic, pass the oral
defense, and graduate as expected. Some graduate students were concerned about
the conflict between the professor’s research project and students’ own interests.
The junior in space physics at University 2 was concerned about getting
into graduate school. He said:
I am mostly concerned with how to get into to graduate school and
pursue a master’s degree, because my academic score and rank are
average. The main problem is how to find a mentor. I also feel
challenged about my potential in my major. I am not sure if I can do
something or make a contribution in the field of my study. I have
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contacted my professor and seniors for advice. I am trying to collect as
much information as possible and will make a decision later.
The junior majoring in education at University 3 was concerned about
her English score which might prevent her from getting into graduate school. She
said:
I am frustrated with my specialization in education. I am interested in
studying the values of youth in China. I am concerned about my English
score on the graduate entry examination. My professors are helping me,
including my form master, as well as the class teachers.
The junior majoring in biological technology at University 3 who was
admitted to the graduate school had concerns about choosing a specialization. She
said: “I have been recommended for admission to the graduate school for a
master’s degree. My concern is what specialization I will choose.”
The master’s student majoring in education economy at University 3
was working on her master’s thesis. She said: “I am concerned about my master’s
thesis. I must write a good thesis and pass the oral defense.” The doctoral student
majoring in higher education at University 2 was working on his doctoral
dissertation. He said:
My concern is to graduate on time. I am concerned about my dissertation
defense. I have developed a plan and set up a schedule. The key is to
implement it and follow it. I really need to conduct a job search, but I
have not started yet. I want to get the dissertation done first.
The doctoral student majoring in Chinese contemporary history at
University 1 felt challenged with regard to whether or not choosing a sensitive
dissertation topic. He said:
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My concern is in academics. My specific problem is choosing my
dissertation topic. My classmates in the cohort have chosen their
dissertation topics. I have to decide the topic by this December. I read a
lot of books translated from English. My classmates’ topics usually do
not involve sensitive issues. But I like studying the problems in the
Chinese Cultural Revolution, Chinese education and so on. My
classmates are afraid of touching these sensitive issues. As a doctoral
student majoring in history, I want to untangle myths in history, but I
also have concerns. For the topic I am interested in it may be hard to
find many literature. After I complete the dissertation, it may be hard to
get it published as well. I am seriously considering my options and have
not decided my topic yet…
The master student’s majoring in educational technology at university 1
expressed his concerns about he was not learning what he expected to learn. He
said:
I want to add one more challenge I am confronting. I spend most of my
time on my professor’s research project. I applied for the graduate
school here because I was interested in the major. After I got in, I found
that most of my time followed my professor’s project. My professor’s
project has nothing to do with my major. I do not know if this is the
case in the U.S. In China, we students follow the professor, and the
professor focuses on the research project. I feel I do not learn what I am
truly interested in… However, I can not turn against my professor
because it can be very costly. Maybe I need to communicate with him
better. But if the professor gives me a task and I do not complete it, I can
not continue my study here. I have to work on it. It is just a matter of
doing the work faster or slower.
Challenges in choice making
Some undergraduates and master’s students felt challenged in their
choice making for their future. They had to decide whether or not pursue an
advanced degree or looking for a job. If they wanted to advance their degree, they
would have to choose either in China or to go abroad to study. If they decided to
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go abroad to study, they would think about the universities to apply for. Some
students also felt challenged whether or not they needed to change their major
when they advanced their degree level.
The freshman with double majors in Korean language and economics at
University 2 said:
I am thinking about what I should do after my senior year in college,
whether I will go to graduate school or go directly to work. If I want to
go to graduate school, shall I go to a graduate school in China or a
graduate school abroad?
The sophomore majoring in international economy and trade at
University 3 said:
My greatest concern for the near future is whether I should take the
graduate school examination to go to a graduate school or if I should
look for a job. The first semester of my senior year I will have to take
the graduate entrance examination. If I want to pursue graduate study, I
will have to prepare for the test during the first semester of my junior
year. I am debating whether I should go to graduate school or go to
work… I feel the biggest challenge is that I do not have practical
experience. My ability to do practical work is rather poor.
The master’s student majoring in space physics at University 2 said:
My concerns are what I should do after my graduation. Shall I go abroad
to study or shall I find a job in China? Shall I continue to study in this
major or shall I change my major in the future?
The male sophomore majoring in physics at University 1 said: “I want to
go to graduate school for a master’s degree. I feel I need to shift from my
undergraduate major in physics to a graduate major in biology.”
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The junior majoring in applied mathematics at University 1 said:
I was debating whether I need to find a job in China or go abroad to
study. I decided to go to Australia to study a few days ago. My first
concern is English. I need to take the IELTS test. I also have financial
concerns. I feel challenged in terms of choosing the university and the
major. I have been collecting information through the internet and
asking advice from my friends who are older than I.
Concerns about transitioning
Concerns about transitioning discussed by the students are either from
high school to college or from graduation from college to work. The freshman
with double majors in Korean language and economics felt challenged at the
beginning of her college life. She said:
It feels like great fall from high school to the university. In high school I
was absolutely the best student. After getting into college, my
classmates were all excellent students. This was a difficult adjustment
mentally to face this issue. For example, in high school, one’s academic
score is the only standard to measure where you are. Academic
achievement is the focus of student life. If I did not spend a lot of time
studying, I would feel very guilty. In college, the academic score is not
the only standard to measure where you are. There are a lot of activities
on a college campus. I feel challenged how I can have a set of scientific
standards to measure where I am relative to others, as well as decide
where I should place my focus.
The master’s student majoring in finance at University 3 felt challenged
because she got a job offer and was concerned about her adaptation to the new
job. She said:
I already accepted a job offer and will start it this August. My concern is
how to successfully transition from being a graduate student to working
at my new job. Meanwhile, I am also concerned about finding a place to
live near my employer.
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Students with no worries and concerns
Two undergraduates expressed no specific concerns or challenges. The
male freshman majoring in Chinese literacy at University 1 said: “I am very
happy. There is nothing to worry about. I care about improving my competence
and would like to try everything.” The female junior majoring in geography at
University 1 said: “I do not have a specific concern. I feel I have grown a lot and I
can handle a lot of problems easily.” Though this student had no personal
concerns, she did have a concern about Chinese educational reform. She said:
As a student in the teacher education program, I am very concerned
about the educational reform in China. The reform is unreasonable and
very unfair. I am afraid that the reform will damage China’s basic
education. I am very disappointed with the higher education reform.
Many courses in the university are not very appropriate. Or I should say
if it is not problems with the curriculum design, it is problems with the
implementation of the courses. I do not understand the purpose behind
the expansion of higher education enrollment. The expansion brings
about a lot of unfairness. The number of university teachers can not
meet the expansion needs. For students like us, there is not much
difference in terms of academic performance. Some students do not
come to classes, or do not do well in the examination, so they can not
pass the class. But the teacher will adjust the score according to class
participation and other factors and then let these students pass.
Sometimes, regardless of whether or not you study hard, or master the
knowledge and skills, everybody gets a passing grade. This is very
unfair to those students who study hard. Many colleges do not have a
good atmosphere for studying hard, so the students do not perform well.
But the teachers do not want to reflect this phenomenon in teaching
because this may impact the teachers’ performance negatively. On the
one hand, students’ academic performance reflects our study level. On
the other hand, the academic results of the students also reflect the
outcome of the teacher’s teaching. Further, if the teacher does not let a
student pass, the student’s form master may go find the teacher and put
pressure on the teacher. The form master wants all his students to pass
and get their degree. The form master does not want anybody to fail the
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class and not get a diploma. I disagree with these things but there is
nothing I can change.
The gap of the perceived students’ most concerns and challenges by faculty and
administrators versus students themselves
Comparing the students’ challenges and concerns perceived by the
faculty and administrator to those perceived by the students themselves, the gaps
in between are as follows. First, students’ concerns do not have a clear pattern
with the change of time as the longitudinal lens described. One freshman may
have the concern in transitioning to college life, while another freshman may feel
challenged to think about the future plan like either go abroad to study or look for
a job after graduation. There is also no big difference among the concerns for
undergraduates, master’s students and doctoral students. All of them may be
concerned about their academic problems. Second, faculty and administrators
overestimate students’ concern about employment but underestimate students’
concern about academics. 92% of faculty and administrators believed that
students’ primary concern was their employment. In contract, one third of
students were concerned about employment. One third was concerned about their
academic performance. One third was concerned about making choices that could
support their academic development and vocational development. A small
proportion of students (about 10%) had no specific personal concerns. Third, the
faculty and administrators get a general picture of students’ most concerns, while
students’ most concerns are usually something immediately confronting them.
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The Parts of CAS Standards that the Chinese Faculty and Administrators Believe
Suitable in Chinese Context
An objective and a special emphasis in a Chinese student affairs master’s
program
When faculty and administrators were asked the objective and a
particular emphasis for a master’s program in Chinese student affairs, they
approached the question from two angles. The top-down perspective emphasizes
that the mission and focus of the program should come from the government. This
implies that faculty and administrators may not be the right people to ask and
what matters is what is required from the government. This perspective is called
“the passive angle”. The other perspective is based on active thinking from
administrators and faculty who assume that they can have an opinion and input
about what a master program in Chinese student affairs should be. I call this
perspective “the active angle”.
There is disagreement in the active angle. Some people believe that a
master’s student affairs program in China should be very broad and
comprehensive without a particular focus, while others think that the focus should
be on student learning and development, or counseling, or both. The opinion
about the comprehensive master program in student affairs is founded on the
current status and development level of student affairs in China, the preparation
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level of student affairs administrators and the organizational positions available
for student affairs.
The Student Affairs assistant in the student affairs office believed in a
comprehensive student affairs program because of the low status and a lack of
division in responsibilities in Chinese student affairs. He said:
It is really hard to say what the particular emphasis should be. In
Chinese higher education, student affairs personnel are not taken
seriously. Nor is student affairs administration a discipline. To establish
a new discipline, the subject should be comprehensive first, then with its
growth and development it will be further refined. Because China has no
idea what student affairs is, curriculum should include everything at the
beginning. The person being trained can be qualified for different jobs in
student affairs. Generally speaking, student affairs personnel have
almost no training in China. It is too early to discuss what direction we
should go. We do not really have division of responsibilities yet.
Based on the fact that student affairs people are from all kinds of majors,
the head of the graduate student affairs office thought the master’s program was
supposed to give general but basic and foundational training. He said:
From my personal point of view, I think the current focus should be
basic knowledge and basic skills training. Look at the three people in the
office including me; none of us really came from student affairs
administration. Our majors were not related to student affairs. So we do
not really know what kinds of work should be included in student
affairs, how to do student affairs. For example, none of us knows the
basic knowledge in education and psychology. So from the status quo, I
think the most important focus should be on understanding and defining
student affairs. As far as how to be an excellent student affairs
administrator, that is the next thing to discuss. In sum, at present, we
should achieve a basic level of knowledge first, and then we shall talk
about how to do a better job.
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With the positions available in the organizational structure, the League
committee secretary E felt that preparing general student affairs administrators is
the only realistic option in a Chinese student affairs master’s program. He said:
The master’s program should be aimed at training student affairs people
in general. It should not be focused on very specialized professionals.
For example, a psychological counselor needs special training in
psychology, and a vocational counselor needs to be trained in human
resource management. I think the master’s program should prepare
students for general student affairs positions. It will be very difficult if
you expect students to work only in one area such as psychological
counseling, financial aid and so on.
Within the positive angle, the opposite opinion to the comprehensive
student affairs program emerged. These views stipulate that a student affairs
master’s program should have a focus. The focus can be student learning and
development, or counseling or both. The rationale of the focus is based on their
assessment of what is missing in student affairs, what the urgent needs of the
students are, and where we can start to build theories for student affairs as a
discipline.
Some people believed that the focus of the Chinese master’s program in
student affairs should be student learning and development, because it is the most
obvious omission and because it could build the program’s academic foundation.
The other areas such as administration, counseling, ideological education and
student cultures exist more or less in Chinese universities. Professor A stated:
I personally feel that student learning and development are very
important. In terms of student development, we usually simply refer to
students’ intellectual development. We have not linked students’
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intellectual development to their development in other areas. I remember
that the material you gave to me talked about multiple areas in students’
development. I think this is the essence of student affairs and has great
potential to serve as the foundation of an academic discipline as well as
a profession. We have a major in educational management and
ideological education, but we are missing one in student learning and
development. With regard to administration and counseling, they exist
to varying degrees on campus. Student cultures are more or less
manifested through the activities of student organization. So it is very
obvious that we do not have student learning and development.
Some people think that what is missing in Chinese universities is not
student learning and development but counseling. The lecturer said:
The focus of the student affairs program should be counseling. In terms
of student learning and development, though not very systematic, we
have a division of responsibilities. For example, the form master deals
with students’ learning and the student organizations are responsible for
student culture and student activities. The League Committee is in
charge of coordinating everything. Though we do not set professional
standards as in the United State, at least we have them more or less. The
weakest are in advising and counseling.
Some people believe that both student learning and development and
counseling should be the focus of the master’s student affairs program. This
suggestion is based on students’ needs. What’s more, the two areas demand
greater professional knowledge. The University Party Secretary said:
I think student learning and development, as well as counseling should
be the focus of the program. In terms of administration, in the process of
selecting candidates in student affairs administration, we pay a lot of
attention to the candidates’ basic ability in and capacity for management.
Though not very professional, their basic management capability is
good. They can also improve their administration through practice and
self-study. With regards to student activities, we make a lot of effort to
work on those. There are a lot of student activities on the day-to-day
basis. Student affairs administrators are capable of organizing student
activities. Because counseling includes psychological counseling,
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academic counseling and career counseling, people needs more
professional knowledge and skills. For example, they need to know how
to understand students, and how to help students to develop a workable
plan based on their characteristics. I think we really need to catch up on
is knowledge. It is urgent.
The faculty and administrators from the passive angle do not express
their opinions directly. They indirectly, carefully and politely implied that the
focus should not be ideological education. They also believe that the government
should be the one who takes the initiative to require a student affairs master’s
program and decides its focus. For example, when asked the focus of the student
affairs master program, a senior administrator started with a sigh, and then told
the personal story about majoring in ideological education and its inapplicability
to current students. His final words were like this: “From my personal experience,
I do feel our education is empty.” I inferred from the conversation that from the
administrator’s point of view, ideological education should not be the focus.
It took another faculty member a few minutes with a lot of pauses,
facilitated with my clarifying questions to express his opinion regarding the focus
and objective of the student affairs master program. The faculty member carefully
picked his words:
The objective of the student affairs master program depends on the
demand, the demand of the country, or the philosophical thinking of the
country. If there is the environment, there will be the demand… In
China, this is how we do things. The philosophy and idea go first, and
then the demand follows. For example, theoretically, in addition to the
master’s program in administration, we should have had a master’s
program in student affairs administration. We do not have the program
yet. Why? It seems that if my major is administration, then I will be an
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administrator and learn leadership. Then I am the person who controls
you. There is no awareness from the senior managers regarding the
importance of the student affairs program. Our mindsets are still in the
official position (which means we are here to control not to serve)… But
I think it is necessary to train master’s students in student affairs…
There has been a growing need for service. With improvements in living
conditions, in addition to the improvement in nutrition and health, we
are more interested in improvements in every aspect of our life. The
college students’ quality of life needs to be improved. Higher education
administration should have provided a more need-based service to
students. However, there is no universal philosophy about service now.
So there is no demand for a master’s program in student affairs yet. With
the development of society, sooner or later we will have it. For example,
if the higher-level government managers stressed that all student affairs
administrators should learn a set of knowledge and skills, and then the
development of the profession will be carried out quickly. So I think the
nature of Chinese society is official-centered. In the past we did not
recognize the social work. In my memory, the government was there to
control you people and had no concept of serving people. But recently
some scholars and senior governors have realized that government is
supposed to serve. This concept really promotes the social development.
The West is bottom-up, and the China is top-down. This is different…
I inferred that what the faculty really meant was that it would be better
to talk to and ask the senior governors first regarding the establishment and focus
of a student affairs master’s program.
The applicability of foundational studies in a Chinese student affairs master’s
program
In the CAS standards and guidelines for masters-level student affairs
professional preparation programs, a program of study in the U.S. must include
foundational studies -- the study of the historical and philosophical foundations of
higher education and student affairs in the United States. To explore the
applicability of the U.S. foundational studies to a Chinese student affairs program,
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I started with questions asking for the literature and documents that shaped the
philosophical and historical foundations of Chinese higher education and student
affairs. I did not get a specific recommendation in this area. Then I went further to
solicit the feedback and comments from the administrators and faculty members
regarding U.S. foundational studies. A variety of responses were brought up.
Some believed that the U.S. foundational studies were not applicable to Chinese
higher education at all. Some commented that U.S. foundational studies would
open a new philosophical perspective to look at the Chinese higher education.
Some gave specific comments on the conflict of philosophies between the U.S.
and Chinese student affairs. Some recommended how to use U.S. foundational
studies as a supplement to Chinese higher education curriculum design.
When asked about recommendation for the literature and documents in
China that could help one understand the inherent values that govern Chinese
higher education and student affairs, no specific recommendation was provided
by the faculty and administrators. Associate professor B with a doctoral degree in
higher education administration felt that the Chinese were not good at thinking on
a theoretical and philosophical plane. He said: “In fact I think China's theoretical
thoughts in education are far behind those in the U.S. There seems to be little
thinking with regard to the long-term philosophy of education…” Associate
director A in the student affairs office had a master’s degree in education
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administration. He told me that his readings in philosophical thinking were all
translated from other languages. He said:
Chinese philosophical foundation (in education)? I am really not sure
about that. Frankly, my master’s degree was in educational
administration. Most of the books such as the spirit of the university
were translated from other languages. There are few books from China.
There should be some, but I just do not know.
The director A in the psychological counseling center with a doctoral
degree in educational psychology suggested I start by looking for a new version
of a book on the educational history, though she liked the education book least of
all. She said:
We have many books on education, but I can not tell which one is the
best. Now I like the book on education least of all. None of them is a
good version. But you can start by looking for a book in Chinese
education and Chinese educational history.
Some administrators and faculty believe that although academically U.S.
foundational studies are important in terms of doing research, student affairs work
is very practical so the foundational studies may be unnecessary for a Chinese
master’s program in student affairs administration. Deputy Party Secretary A with
30 years of work experience in student affairs said:
As far as the historical foundation (of higher education and student
affairs), nobody actually thinks of the history or philosophy in the
process of doing the work. What is taken into account is the practical
significance of student affairs… Of course, if you want to have a
master’s program, students have to know the history, but do not need to
spend a lot of time on it. In fact, the history is very simple to learn. It is
like from what year to what year and what happened. Then with
reference to one country, combined with our own national condition,
what we should do. Because the master’s program prepares professional
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staffs who are able to do specific things, and we do not prepare
researchers, the content should be substantial and produce practical
results.
In contrast, some administrators believe that foundational studies in the
CAS curriculum design are very eye-opening because it is important to know but
current student affairs staff understands little about them. League Committee
Secretary E said:
I am very impressed with the foundational studies in the curriculum
design. I think understanding the historical and philosophical foundation
is very important. It gives the students an overall concept of the guiding
values in higher education administration. For most of the (Chinese)
student affairs people, they do not understand systematically the duties
and objectives of higher education, what they should do to nurture
students. They also think little about student development, higher
education history and philosophy.
In addition, the philosophical foundational contradiction between U.S.
and Chinese higher education brings up concerns about to what extent the senior
government and university leaders would be willing to accept U.S. philosophy,
and even allow the discussion of U.S. philosophy to continue. League committee
secretary A said:
The challenging part is the philosophical foundation, or the driving force
in the U.S. for student affairs administration. It is very hard for the
senior leaders in charge of student affairs to accept the U.S. philosophy
in student affairs. In each college and university, the student affairs
administrative system is dependent on the organizational governmental
system of the Party. The two systems even largely overlap. The
theoretical and organizational structure of the whole system embodies its
political and administrative function rather than the educational
function. So in terms of the purpose and objective, the U.S. and Chinese
student affairs systems are very different. Now we make a lot of effort
to organize the training, but the purpose is to copy rather than replace or
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update the political and administrative function. Of course, there are
updates and the system is now changing… Our university is a pioneer,
but many colleges and universities may not be able to accept the U.S.
philosophy. Because they feel student affairs is very simple, and it is just
to control students and discipline them… The philosophical change is a
fundamental change.
Meanwhile, the philosophical conflict in the two educational systems
also creates confusion for Chinese student affairs people who learn about U.S.
philosophy.
Associate professor B said:
I did not think about foundational studies before, but I think we do need
the philosophical foundation in higher education and student affairs…
We would like our students (in the master’s program in student affairs)
to be able to understand the historical development of student affairs in
the U.S. However, in what stage is our student affairs work? We may
remain at the level of managing or controlling students and engaging in
ideological education. Our student affairs function originated from
ideological education. We need to sort out the philosophical
difference… Academically the discussion of the philosophical
differences is very interesting, but is it really useful for the students
(who do the practical work)? ... In the student affairs in China, we see a
college student as a minor. After passing the college entrance
examination and getting in college, our students in fact do have a lot of
things to learn and to know, but they are not ready for taking
responsibility for their future yet. Theoretically we should treat college
students as adults, but in China for a long time and probably for the near
future, student affairs will still focus on disciplining students, managing
students and controlling students. Where will Chinese student affairs go
finally? It is hard to tell… The focus of the course in higher education
history should be on what kind of person higher education cultivates. I
feel the Chinese philosophical foundation is contradictory to that in the
U.S. They clash. If I am here to serve students, then many of my ideas
and action need to be different… I think if our students were to
understand the philosophical foundation of the U.S., this would really
cause a lot of painful values conflicts. If my students are not aware (of
the U.S. approach), they will just follow whatever is in place now. They
may understand things that benefit college students on a theoretical
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level, but these things are just not realistic and not doable in practice,
and the student affairs students will be suffering and struggle.
Finally, the CAS curriculum inspired reflective and critical thinking
from the faculty members. In addition to the differences between U.S. and
Chinese historical and philosophical foundations in higher education, the
disconnection between K-12 and higher education in the Chinese educational
system raked mention by student affairs administrators. The lecturer said:
As far as the foundational studies, the U.S. curriculum focuses on higher
education. In China, we have to take into consideration the chain-style
educational management system from the primary and secondary
schools to college and universities for student affairs administration. We
may have to sort out the students’ growth in the whole process…
Current college students have a lot of problems that attract the attention
of higher education administration. In addition to social development,
cultural conflicts, the impact of foreign cultures, the discontinuity
between the primary and secondary education and postsecondary
education systems must be taken into account. They are just out of sync.
For example, the morality and values instilled during primary and
secondary school are not recognized and rewarded any more in
college…In the primary and secondary schools, students are relatively
isolated from society and focus on preparing for the college entrance
examination. As middle school students, they are taught values such as
helping others, not haggling over every ounce and studying hard. After
getting into college, the universities and colleges are relatively close to
the community and reality. Reality teaches a college student that instead
of caring for others, I need to care about myself. At the middle school, a
student is told to study hard. In college, the student realizes that I have to
study, but decent academic performance is not necessary for
employment success. As a result, the student may not prioritize studying
and suffer psychologically because of mal-adaptation… The change in
values brings about a challenge for both students and student affairs
administrators. So when we design the curriculum, we can not separate
higher education from secondary education. We had better build a link
between the secondary and postsecondary education experiences in the
curriculum design for the master’s program and give a comprehensive
introduction to the Chinese educational system. If a student affairs
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administrator can not help students successfully transition to college life,
he can not do the job well.
At the same time, the student affairs administration has to be context
sensitive. The lecturer paid special attention to the relationship between the
university and government in the U.S. and China, and their different impact on
student affairs administration. He said:
Our higher education system is more closely linked to politics than that
of the U.S. Higher education in the U.S. is decentralized and ours is
centralized. The state political system interferes with all aspects of
higher education administration in China. In the Untied States, there
may be little intervention from the government. So the students in the
student affairs administration program should understand and distinguish
the relationship between educational management and government
intervention. In China, to do a good job in student affairs, you can not
just take a look at student affairs within the university; you may need to
coordinate university administration with government officers. For
example, if a student has a psychological problem, the university may
want to expel the student. The university should have that right. But in
China presently, the University Administrative Committee and the
university president have to consult with the higher authorities before
making the decision… The master’s program should insure that students
are aware of how the political context impacts how we provide student
affairs services.
The applicability of the study of U.S. student development theory for a Chinese
student affairs master’s program
When I asked administrators and faculty members about the
applicability of student development theory, specifically the CAS standards, for a
Chinese student affairs master’s program, many of them had no idea what student
development theory meant. After some explanation, there was a wide range of
opinions. In fact, student development theory was the most contentious topic
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among the professional studies discussed in the CAS standards. Faculty and
administrators disagreed with one another on whether Chinese student affairs
administrators need to know U.S. student development theory or not, whether
Chinese student development theory exists in China or not, as well as how the
U.S. student development theory could be useful to Chinese student affairs
administrators. One faculty member believed that if the U.S. has theories on the
student affairs administrators’ development, Chinese student affairs people could
be very interested in learning them.
With regard to the applicability of U.S. student development theory for
Chinese higher education, some interviewees were very open to applying U.S.
theory to the Chinese context without any comments concerning cultural or
student differences. They believed that U.S. student development theory would
help Chinese student affairs administrators understand Chinese student clients
better. For instance, Professor E said: “We need U.S. student development theory.
If you do the practical work without knowing the clients well, how can you serve
the clients?” The director in the career center said: “I think this part is very good.
I have no doubt about its applicability.” In contrast, some administrators believed
that student development theory was very American and Chinese student affairs
administrators would not need it. Deputy Party Secretary C said:
Student development theory is actually a cultural issue. Students’ ethnic
background, family background and developmental stage are meaningful
theoretically, but in practice, they are not useful. When I am doing the
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work, I put all the students together and educate them. I will not think of
the theory. Americans do things differently from us.
Administrators believed that there was little student development theory
in China while faculty thought there were a lot. League committee secretary D
said:
I do not get it. Could you tell me again what student development theory
is about? ….Oh, I got it. In terms of student development, we talk a lot
about students’ moral development. In fact, fostering moral development
in college is not very important because everybody already has moral
knowledge… Our understanding of student development is very simple
and one-sided. We emphasize students’ development of knowledge. We
lack in seeing the student as a whole. In fact, cognitive development,
psychological development, interpersonal skills and so on are very
important to them… I think U.S. student development theory is very
good and useful.
The head of the graduate student affairs office said:
I feel student development theory is rarely mentioned in China. It is
good to be able to introduce U.S. student development theory. I have
read some English literature and found out that student development
theory was mentioned a lot. Its contents are all-inclusive. We seldom
bring up student development theory domestically. Personally I think we
should introduce the U.S. student development theory.
In contrast, Associate professor B said: “In terms of student
development theory, it seems that we already have a lot. I think there is a lot of
research in China. We can use the U.S. student development theory as a
reference.”
People with exposure to U.S. universities and U.S. literature are very
cautious about copying everything in the U.S. with regard to student development
theory. Comparative education, basic concepts and research methods in U.S.
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student development theory are the preferred elements to be introduced. The head
of the graduate student affairs office said: “I think we should introduce U.S.
student development theory in the following two aspects. One is the basic
concepts and the other is the research methods.” The staff in the student affairs
office said: “U.S. student development theory should be covered in the discussion
of comparative education and connected to our practical work.” The University
Party Secretary said:
U.S. student development theory can be applicable to some extent. I
went to the University in Minnesota for a while with my delegation. The
first four or five days, we could not communicate and had no dialogue.
They talked about their issues and we talked about our issues. The
concepts were not quite the same… In fact, U.S. student development
theory is very good, but not necessarily applicable to Chinese students.
Of course, it is worth learning. We can learn some ideas from U.S.
experiences, because young students in the U.S. and China may have
some common characteristics. As long as we do not copy exactly what
U.S. student affairs has done and just use the U.S. as reference, it will be
ok.
The applicability of the study of student characteristics and the effects of college
on students in a Chinese student affairs master’s program
Faculty and administrators were unanimous in their perceptions that
colleges and universities in China are homogeneous in nature, and that there is no
research in China regarding Chinese student characteristics and the effects of
college on Chinese students. Generally speaking, this section of the CAS
standards is not applicable in China. Professor A said:
In terms of student characteristics and the effect of college on students,
we in China do not have research in this area. In China, colleges and
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universities are homogeneous in nature. The university or college a
student goes to is dependent on the score the student gets on the college
entrance examination. The difference in student characteristics may be
geographic. For example, the student may be from an urban area or
suburban area. On the whole, this section of the CAS standards is not
applicable in China.
Associate professor B said:
China is very different in this aspect. The homogeneity in colleges and
students is obvious. All the colleges and universities are using the same
model without a variety of features. Good universities stand out because
of their academic standards…The differences among the universities
may be in the subject (what disciplines they study). For example, in the
same city there is a science university and a comprehensive
university…In general, however, homogenization characteristic. . . In
China, when a student applies to a university, the acceptance decision is
based on his/her college entrance examination scores instead of personal
interest. The interest is primarily reflected in the choice of major.
Students may think about the promise of the subject, the reputation of
the university, and the location of the university. Nobody takes into
account the relationship between the culture and characteristics of the
university and personal growth.
However, the session on the study of student characteristics and the
effects of college on students in the CAS standards is thought provoking because
traditional Chinese culture is changing. Associate professor B said:
The traditional Chinese culture does not uphold individuality. Chinese
individuality is built on a common basis. Chinese traditional culture as a
whole values the reserved and the humble. We do not like fighting or
showing off… Of course, now young people have changed a lot. So the
homogeneity in Chinese colleges is not good and it will change. But
change can be very slow. Some colleges are in the search for their
uniqueness. We do need to think about personalized service according
student characteristics.
Some administrators show interest in the professional study of student
characteristics and the effects of college on students in the CAS standards. They
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hope that this section will give them some ideas with regard to how to provide
personalized service to their students and establish the university’s uniqueness.
The head of the graduate student affairs office said:
In China the relationship between student characteristics and the effect
of college on students is not obvious, but I think this session (required
by the CAS standards) should be introduced. I think we need to know
how the universities in the United States build up their own
characteristics according to the students’ aptitude to be competitive. For
example, domestic universities are at different levels. The students’
average score (on the college entrance examination) in our university is
far below the average score of the students in Tsinghua University and
Beijing University. We really need to think about how to help our
students grow better and be well-rounded based on their starting point.
The applicability of the study of individual and group interventions in a Chinese
student affairs master’s program
Faculty and student affairs administrators agree that the study of
individual and group interventions in the CAS standards is important and
necessary in Chinese student affairs. They frankly admit that Chinese student
affairs administrators lack the skills and training in these interventions. People
usually do the student affairs work according to their personal experiences.
Deputy Party Secretary A said: “Individual intervention and group intervention
are very important. We lack these skills and usually intervene according to our
own experiences.”
Further, it is difficult for Chinese faculty to teach classes in
interventions. China student affairs administration may need some hands-on
experiences from the U.S. Associate professor B said: “The intervention part is
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very technical and operational. We have some difficulties providing courses in
this area. But we would like us to have an interventions class in the future.”
Professor A said:
Individual and group intervention, as well as the organization and
administration of student affairs are operational topics and are applicable
to China. If we introduce these two areas (required in the U.S. CAS
standards) to Chinese student affairs training, the effect can be more
visible. These are exactly what is missing in Chinese student affairs, and
can be learned and grasped effectively only through hands-on
experiences. As for student development theory, we can read and think
on our own and it is relatively easy to learn.
The applicability of the study of the organization and administration of student
affairs in a Chinese student affairs master’s program
A student affairs administrative and organizational structure in Chinese
higher education is in place. Faculty and administrators are interested in how to
improve the current system by using the U.S. professional study of organization
and administration of student affairs. The organization and administration of
Chinese student affairs needs clarification and discussion regarding what the roles
should include, what the division of responsibilities should be between student
affairs and other higher education administration, and the coordination of
different parts of student affairs work. The University Party Secretary said:
In terms of student affairs’ organization and administration, we have the
personnel and the basic content. But we need to know how to do student
affairs scientifically based on theory. Our work is kind of repetitive at a
low level...We are not sure what should be included in student affairs
and what theory supports how we do things. There is no clear division of
responsibilities. We do not have a systematic analysis and theory about
student affairs administration and organization yet.
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Further, any improvement in student affairs’ organization and
administration may be dependent on a change in philosophical thinking. Associate
professor B pointed out:
We have a set student affairs organization and administration. The key is
to change the function and purpose of Chinese student affairs. This is
again related to the philosophical approach. The current student affairs
organization and administration can not be changed until the philosophy
is adjusted. It seems that we already have the structure and content of a
student affairs organization and administration in China, but the main
concern is about how to organize student affairs better.
The applicability of the study of assessment, evaluation and research
Most of the faculty and student affairs administrators are interested in
the professional assessment, evaluation and research requirement of the CAS
standards. They attribute the low-level of Chinese student affairs administration to
a lack of research, assessment and evaluation. The University Party Secretary
said: “I have no problem with this section. I think the curriculum on the topic of
assessment, evaluation and research is very good. We are short in these research
skills. This may be why our whole level of administration is low.” The head of the
graduate student affairs office said:
To some extent, we do some investigation, but not systematically yet.
For example, we send out surveys to the undergraduates from time to
time. But we do not use the surveys to get feedback to improve our
work. We do need to learn how to use assessment, evaluation and
research to improve practice.
Though the study of assessment, evaluation and research is important for
improving the effectiveness of the student affairs system, some faculty members
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believe that these skills are non-essential for individual student affairs
administrators. Associate professor B said:
I think assessment, evaluation and research is supplementary to the
individual student affairs administrators. You may not do evaluation,
research and assessment, but you can still be a good student affairs
administrator. An ordinary student affairs administrator does not
necessarily think from the perspective of the whole organization. The
administrator can just think about how to do a good job in his/her own
position. For an ordinary student affairs administrator, I regard
individual and group interventions as the most important topic to
cover.
The applicability of supervised practice in the CAS standards
Faculty members and student affairs administrators were in agreement
about the importance of supervised practice. They viewed the internship as
important and necessary because student affairs administration is an applied field
and purely theoretical knowledge is not enough. Deputy Party Secretary C said: “I
think an internship is very important. A high-level degree does not guarantee that
you can do the job well. It is very important to combine theory with practice.”
League committee secretary C said:
I think an internship is very important. Even though an administrator
may learn a lot of theories and understands them well, when the
administrator is engaged in practice, there are many uncertain factors.
Only when the administrator really gets involved, he/she can have a
specific understanding of the job.
The faculty and administrators often asked the question what “at least
two distinct experiences” meant. I explained that it refers to two separate
internships so that a student can experience two different aspects of student affairs
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profession. After the explanation, some thought it was a very good idea for
students to have different experiences in student affairs, while others believed that
it was not doable because the nature of student affairs work everywhere in China
was similar. Associate professor B thought that an internship of at least two
distinct experiences would help students understand and better coordinate student
affairs work. He said:
I think we can definitely learn from the U.S. CAS standards here. After
the student affairs administrator works for two years, he could change to
another post to do an internship. On the one hand, he will know how
others work. On the other hand, the different experiences can help the
administrator better understand and manage potential conflict among
different student affairs units. For example, the League Committee may
often have conflicts with the Office of Student Affairs, and faculty may
have conflicts with the staff organizing student activities. Student
activities are often organized in the evening when the students have
classes. Those activities often take students away from classes and
faculty… If you have worked in both departments, you may understand
the challenges and find a solution. After all, student affairs work is very
practical instead of theoretical. We definitely need supervised practice.
In contrast, the student affairs assistant in the student affairs office
believed that there was no division of responsibilities so there were no two
distinct experiences in student affairs in China. He said:
You say supervised practice consisting of at least two distinct
experiences. There are no different experiences in Chinese student
affairs. It is not doable in China. For example, at the department and
school level, a student affairs person is in charge of everything including
student registration, student fights, and student loans and so on. The
person is under the supervision of many heads. Another instance is that
I am in charge of ideological education and Party building, but when
military training comes, I have to do the preparation such as buying
stuffs and the blue-collar job.
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One concern was raised by one faculty member regarding the potential
negative effect of supervised practice in China. Associate professor B said:
Supervised practice is definitely necessary. But my concerns are whether
students will learn something good or learn something bad (laughter).
The issue is complicated. When students do an internship, if it is like a
water purification tank, students can be cleaned. If it is like a waste
water tank, the students can be dyed black… If the entire student affairs
evaluation system is not based on whether student development is
facilitated… For example, if there was no trouble from students and
leaders were satisfied, then you would get a promotion. Our students
may learn this. During the internship, they may learn how to deal with
relationships with supervisors, how to meet requirements from a higher
level, and how to facilitate their own career development. Why would I
take student development into consideration? The interests of students
may be at the expense of the internship. As a student affairs
administrator, when there is a conflict between the student’s interests
and the requirements from the leaders, the student affairs administrator
may suppress students’ interest and meet the leaders’ needs to upgrade
his/her own position. The student interests are of less practical concern.
The applicability of CAS statement of shared ethical principles
There are seven shared ethical principles in the CAS standards. The
principles are autonomy, non-malfeasance, beneficence, justice, fidelity, veracity
and affiliation. Faculty and administrators were asked about the applicability of
the seven CAS statements of shared ethical principles in the context of Chinese
higher education. Comments and questions were encouraged. Generally speaking,
Chinese faculty and administrators spoke highly about the seven CAS ethical
principles because the principles reflected the high level of professionalism level
found in U.S. higher education. The assistant professor said: “I feel as a whole
these principles are very standardized and comprehensive.” Professor A said:
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“After I read it, I was impressed with the U.S. higher education standards of
professionalism. They have set up very detailed standards for people to use as a
reference guide. These principles are important and necessary for all higher
education administrators…”
However, as Professor A said: “Some of the principles in the CAS
standards are not suitable to the Chinese situation. We will have to make some
adjustments and amendments.” Chinese administrators and faculty had no
problem with justice, veracity and affiliation, but they commented on autonomy,
fidelity, beneficence and non-malfeasance.
Autonomy is defined as “we take responsibility for our actions and both
support and empower an individual’s and group’s freedom of choice” in the CAS
statement of shared ethical principles. The Chinese student affairs administrators
described having difficulty becoming autonomous as a result of the hierarchical
organizational structure. The head in the graduate student affairs office said:
If student affairs administrators could do things on their own, that would
be very good. But in China, student affairs personnel are often confined
by many conditions. For example, if the graduate student ideological
advisor wants to do something, the supervisor may impose restrictions
on him. Many things have to be approved according to certain
conditions.
With regard to fidelity, the administrators felt there may be a lack of
confidentiality to student information and records. Several administrators used
student transcripts as an example. In the focus group, the director in the graduate
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student affairs office said: “We do not keep students’ academic performance
confidential.” The head in the graduate student affairs office added:
Exactly! We do not recognizing students’ transcripts as private. We do
not mean to not keep confidentiality for students intentionally.” In the
interview, the League committee secretary D said: “Fidelity? We did
little to protect students’ privacy before. When I went to college,
students’ scores were publicized on a piece of paper. Now to protect
students’ privacy, a transcript is issued to each student. We may follow
the foreign countries…
Some administrators felt that what the U.S. identifies as confidential
might not be recognized as such in China. Keeping confidentiality for students is
not regarded as one of the most critical points in student affairs. League
Committee Secretary D said:
Basically, we do not regard keeping confidentiality for students as one
of the most critical points in our work. Our ultimate goal is to solve
problem for students. In the foreign countries, something may be
regarded as private, but I do not think of it as private. I make my own
personal judgment. If a student has academic problems, I will coordinate
with the faculty members. I do not think keeping students’ transcripts
confidential is necessary. There are advantages and disadvantages. The
advantage is to protect students’ self-esteem. If the student has good
scores, everything is ok. If the student has a bad score, he/she will not
lose face. But we can not protect students too much and spoil them,
though we ought to encourage them. We should let the student who does
not have good scores accept reality. After the student goes out of
college, nobody will baby him/her, and everybody will just compete
with him/her. It does the student no good to keep the transcript
confidential in college… My conversation with students should be
confidential. If I make a promise to the student, I will keep it. But if I
feel it is important and necessary for me in doing my job, I will have to
report to my supervisor… In our daily work, our requirement for fidelity
to students is not very strict.
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Non-malfeasance is defined as “to do no harm” in the CAS standards.
Chinese administrators felt it was too basic to become a standard for student
affairs. In other words, malfeasance would not be included in the Chinese student
fairs ethical principals because it is considered as part of the normal work ethic
that is already expected. League committee secretary D said: “Malfeasance is not
a problem for Chinese student affairs personnel. It is the bottom line in life, not to
mention for teachers in colleges and universities.” Deputy Party Secretary A:
“Law-abiding is too fundamental. We would not consider law-abiding (as an
ethical principle)”. Further, one faculty member proposed that China might
consider personal character building as an ethical principle. The assistant
professor said: “Plus, I think there may be some concept differences between the
U.S. and China. For Chinese student affairs personnel, the personal character, or
say individual self-cultivation is very important. We should add it as part of the
ethical principles.”
Beneficence is explained as “we engage in altruistic attitudes and actions
that promote goodness and contribute to the health and welfare of others” in the
CAS statement of shared ethical principles. Beneficence does not seem to be a
well-known concept. The head in the graduate student affairs office said: “In
China, we do not do a good job in charity (altruism) and public welfare. We
seldom mention these concepts.”
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The applicability of CAS characteristics of individual excellence for professional
practice in higher education
To solicit comments and questions on the applicability of CAS
characteristics of individual excellence for professional practice in higher
education, I asked the faculty and student affairs administrators to describe the
characteristics of the Chinese student affairs administrator. The following
questions were used to facilitate the discussion: “What are the characteristics of
the Chinese student affairs personnel?”, “What makes you stand out as the best
ideological advisor?”, “What made you competitive in getting the job in student
affairs?”, and “What are the knowledge and skills needed to do a good job in
Chinese student affairs?” These questions were inspired by my interview with the
League Committee Secretary D who was given an award for being one of the best
advisors for college students in Beijing. She thought that the CAS characteristic
of individual excellence was too general. She pointed out that knowledge and
skills are not necessary for doing a good job in student affairs. She told me:
A sense of responsibility is very important. Knowledge and skills can be
accumulated gradually at work. Displaying an abundance of love is very
important. We have a saying that an advisor is a job with conscience.
Some work you do not have to do and nobody will blame you for not
doing it. Whether or not to do it completely depends on you. In terms of
the skills, communication skills are very important. You have to be
easygoing and earn the trust of the students, and then you can deal with
them. Senses of responsibility and communication skills are very
important. Of course, a certain degree of professional competence would
be very good, but now people from all kinds of majors get jobs in
student affairs administration.
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Characteristics of Chinese student affairs administrators
The characteristics of Chinese student affairs administrators are different
from those in the United States. Chinese student affairs administrators are usually
selected from student leaders who demonstrate with a positive political identity
and a strong sense of responsibility. The political identity is identified as the most
important for student affairs personnel, followed by a sense of responsibility, a
loving heart and enthusiasm. There are no standard qualifications for student
affairs administrators, which mean a student affairs administrator’s college degree
can be from any arts and science subject.
Both faculty and administrators see the political identity as one of the
most important standards for selecting a student affairs administrator. The staff in
the student affairs office said:
First of all, student affairs administrators must be Party members. They
must have a positive political identity and are policy-oriented. In
Chinese student affairs, characteristics such as political security and
stability, as well as non-violence and Party agreement are prioritized.
Student affairs personnel need to trust the Party’s decision. Political
stability is very important.
League committee secretary A said: “Now the primary standard to select
student affairs administrators is the political standard. It refers to whether your
competence to organize related political affairs is outstanding, as well as your
superior-subordinate relationship.” Professor B said:
In mainland China, first of all, a student affairs administrator must have
good moral character, including political character and the general moral
quality required by the standards of the society. Good people and good
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character are very important. The work can not be done well without the
people with good character.
A sense of responsibility, a loving heart and enthusiasm are also
identified as important for student affairs administrators. The assistant professor
said: “To love students is very important for student affairs personnel. Only by
loving students can make you devoted to the job. If you want to do a good job,
first of all, love your students.” League committee secretary C said: “I think the
most important thing for student affairs personnel is their enthusiasm. Let us not
to talk about the skills first. First of all, you must have a passion for the work, and
then you can do the job.”
A sense of responsibility, a loving heart and enthusiasm may sound
vague from the U.S. point of view, but the League committee secretary B thought
this was a cultural difference. He said:
I think (the CAS characteristics of individual excellence) is very
comprehensive and quite good. Chinese student affairs are moving
toward standardization. Our degree of standardization is not as high as
the U.S. yet, though we have the work content. However, in terms of
how to be professional and standardized, there may be cultural
differences between the Western and Eastern. In the Western culture,
standardization means rational terms of specifications. In Eastern
Culture like China, we prefer ambiguous specifications. For example, in
Chinese student affairs, we say that student affairs are a duty of
conscience… In China, everything may be more emotional.
Student affairs administrators were usually student leaders during
college. League Committee Secretary C said: “When I was a college student, I
was a student leader. Right before my graduation, the teacher talked to me and
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asked if I wanted to work at the university in student affairs. Then I started work
here.” Deputy Party Secretary B said:
Basically, this is the model for student affairs personnel to be selected.
We were all student leaders when we were in college. We might have
worked in the Student Union, student organizations and so on. We had
some experience in organizing activities and managing students.
Student affairs administrators and faculty disagreed with one another on
whether or not student affairs administrators really are selected from excellent
student leaders. Associate professor A said:
The student affairs administrators are all selected from the student
leaders in the university. They were excellent student leaders who cared
about others and worked very hard. There are so many student leaders in
one department and in a university. The selected one must be
excellent… It is a very selective process.
However, some people disagreed. Associate professor B said:
When we said that we recruited outstanding student leaders (into our
program), some people immediately objected. They questioned if the
excellent student leaders were really excellent. They argued that only the
people who did not study hard were the ones who spent time organizing
activities and developing relationships, and these then become student
affairs personnel.
Professor D said:
One of my graduate students went to a provincial college to do student
affairs work. People in Chinese student affairs do not need to write a
good thesis. Being obedient and having good oral skills are more than
enough. Of course, student affairs personnel need to be highly flexible.
A student who writes a good thesis is good at thinking and considering
everything seriously. This is not a good match for student affairs work.
Just like the student who can not write a good thesis but can just pass;
who has grammar problems in writing but uses good colloquial
expressions. She is a perfect match for student affairs.
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Student affairs administrators in the sample were from a variety of
majors: education psychology, education economics, educational administration,
ideological education, history, chemistry, politics and law, politics and
administration, English, contemporary drama, pharmacy, physics, chemistry,
space and earth, biology, and so on. At the department and school level, the
League Committee Secretary and Deputy Party Secretary are usually selected
from the student leaders in the same department and school. The political and
ideological assistant for the graduate said: “My specialization is botany. The
ideological advisor is recruited from people with the professional background in
the department and school, who know the graduate students well and have
experience working with students.”
The academic degree of the student affairs administrators could be
bachelors, masters and even doctors. Most of the interviewees had master degrees.
Some of them with bachelor degrees were working on their master’s degrees.
There is preference for student affairs personnel to get a masters degree in
Chinese higher education. League Committee Secretary C said:
There is a preferential policy for a student leader with a bachelor’s
degree to work in the university as a student affairs administrator. I
worked for 2 years with a bachelor’s degree. Two years later, I was
recommended for admission to graduate school to get a masters degree
with exemption from the examinations. So here you work with a
bachelor’s degree for two years in student affairs, and then you are
guaranteed to go to graduate school. When you go to graduate school,
you work in student affairs and on your master’s degree at the same
time. When you have classes, you go to take classes. When you do not
have class, you go to work.
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It is rare for a person with a doctoral degree to work in student affairs.
The political and ideological assistant for the graduate students being interviewed
had a doctoral degree in biology and worked in the department of biology. The
head in the graduate student affairs office spoke highly about the assistant with
the doctoral degree: “In Chinese colleges and universities, a person with a
doctoral degree working in student affairs does not happen a lot. We are doing
very well in this area (of recruiting student affairs personnel with a doctoral
degree).”
General knowledge for Chinese student affairs administrators
The required academic knowledge identified by the Chinese student
affairs administrators and faculty as supporting the work of student affairs
administration was very comprehensive. The variety of subjects suggested
covered education, psychology, ideological education, law, economics,
administration, sociology, student affairs administration, human resources,
interpersonal relationships, aesthetics and ethics. Education and psychology were
identified as the most important for subject knowledge. Knowledge of
administration was not as important. League Committee Secretary A said:
In terms of knowledge, I feel the most important is psychology. Student
affairs personnel also need knowledge in education, administration, and
economics, because student affairs work involves scholarships and
loans. Student affairs work is related to sociology, all aspects of
sociology. Also we have to understand the humanities and social
sciences. Psychology and education are more important. When it comes
to administration, as long as you are a human being, you know how to
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manage more or less. Now the main problems are those in psychology
and educational psychology.
League Committee Secretary B said: “I think the professional
knowledge for student affairs personnel should include education, psychology,
and if (you refer to student affairs) in China, ideological education should be
counted. We should also know administration including human resource
development and interpersonal relationships.”
Professor B said:
The knowledge for student affairs administrators should include
education, psychology, law, and professional student affairs
administration. To do a good job in student affairs you need some
philosophy, as well as knowledge in aesthetics and ethics. It is difficult
to be extensive and profound in understanding all of the knowledge, but
a basic understanding is necessary. Of course, knowledge can be
accumulated in practice.
The required institutional knowledge for student affairs personnel at the
department and school level primarily refers to their knowledge about the
department and school. The assistant professor said:
The student affairs personnel at the school and department level must
clearly understand the mission, the goal, and the professional direction
of the department and school. Then the student affairs personnel have to
make a link between the department/school and the students. They must
convey clearly to students when you come here, what you can learn in
college and what you can do after graduation. Student affairs personnel
need to link the development of the department and school to students’
academic and vocational development.
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General skills for Chinese student affairs administrators
The general skills for Chinese student affairs administrators identified by
the interviewed faculty and administrators were interpersonal /social,
communication, administrative, language (including the writing skill and
colloquial skills), team work, counseling, computer and research.
The assistant professor emphasized communication skills and said:
A student affairs administrator must be good at communicating and be
able to communicate effectively. Students’ personalities are colorful.
There are often different points of views and a lot of conflicts among the
students. How to resolve some of the contradictions and develop healthy
relationships with students are very challenging and demanding for
student affairs administrators. Good communication skills are very
important.
League Committee Secretary C stressed the administrative skill and said:
A student affairs administrator’s competency in Student Affairs
administration is the key. One type of teacher would have the same kind
of students. If you implement a loose management style, students will
have loose characteristics. When you are in contact with students, if you
are very strict and do things systematically, students will be gradually
influenced by you. The student affairs management style has an impact
on students.
League committee secretary B articulated the importance of counseling
skills and said:
The primary skill for a student administrator is counseling, which
includes psychological counseling, academic counseling and vocational
counseling. For example, after a student gets into college, as the teacher,
you have to be able to help the student analyze his/her studies and
develop an academic plan which is a good fit for his/her personality
and characteristics. In addition to counseling skills, I feel that their
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social, team work, and research skills are also important for student
affairs administrators.
The assistant professor explained the research skill required for student
affairs administrators by saying:
I think student affairs administrators must have an ability to collect
information, process information and draw conclusions. Because when
students are in college, they have a lot of problems that require student
affairs administrators to understand, bring together and sum up as the
real problem. The information is from all sides. Student affairs
administrators must be capable of dealing with this information.
League committee secretary A believed that multiple skills were
required. He said:
In terms of the skills, social skills, especially communication skills are
very important. You have to let your students accept you from the
bottom of their hearts immediately. Office, writing, research and
coordinating skills are all necessary. The student affairs position is
relatively comprehensive.
Comments from Chinese student affairs administrators on CAS Characteristics of
individual excellence
Some faculty and administrators believed that the CAS characteristics of
individual excellence were applicable to Chinese student affairs as Chinese
student affairs is moving toward professionalism. Others felt that the CAS
characteristics of individual excellence were very American and the Chinese need
to phrase some of the terms in different ways. They recommended revising CAS
using a Chinese context. Further, the CAS characteristics of individual excellence
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aroused reflective thinking regarding the philosophical differences on the role of
student affairs administrators between the U.S. and Chinese higher education.
Deputy Party Secretary A gave examples of the cultural differences in
the phrasing of items 25, 38, 44, and 47. Item 25 in CAS characteristics of
individual excellence is “provides fair treatment to all students and works to
change aspects of the environment that do not promote fair treatment. The Deputy
Party Secretary A commented:
We would not state that we change the unfair things. We would say that
to maintain the interests of students. When students cheat, or students
have trouble with their teachers, we will coordinate and communicate
with colleagues to establish a good atmosphere and convey what is
promoted and encouraged.
Item 38 is that “commits to excellence in all work.” The Deputy Party
Secretary A commented: “We would say that to be personally committed and
innovative. Being committed means working seriously and efficiently. Being
innovative is a parallel requirement to the commitment. Creation is a reflection of
the personal capacity.”
Item 47 says “stays professionally current by reading literature, building
skills, attending conferences, enhancing technological literacy, and engaging in
other professional development activities.” The Deputy Party Secretary A stated:
“We would describe it as staying current with the trends of the times and
constantly learning.” League committee secretary C stressed the importance of
catching up with whatever was popular among the students. He said:
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I think the characteristics of students are different from those before
because they were born in a different time. We have to be familiar with
the recent happenings among students. For example, a very simple
question is who is the new singer in popular music? If you do not know,
the students will think the teacher is out dated. Also, what happens on
the internet, and what updated technology is being used on the internet,
we all need to know. When students organize activities, they will use
updated internet technology. When they are stuck, they will come to you
and ask for help. If I do not know how to do that, I will be
embarrassed… Regardless of our educational philosophy and access to
educational technology, we need to keep updated.
Item 47 ask professionals to “assume proper accountability for
individual and organizational mistakes.” The Deputy Party Secretary A stated
said: “When mistakes happen, we emphasize reflective thinking instead of
accountability.” A summary of Deputy Party Secretary A’s comments is that
fairness and accountability may not be highly appreciated values and concepts in
Chinese student affairs.
In addition to the specific comments on the items from the CAS
Characteristics of individual excellence, Professor A suggested adding the skill of
crisis resolution and control as one of the general skills required for Chinese
student affairs administrators. He explained:
I think some skills necessary for Chinese student affairs administrators
are not on the CAS list. In China, we emphasize the policy, the political
stability and security of…. Student affairs administrators need to have
skills to deal with conflict between national policy and student needs,
because they are often situated as the point of intersection in the conflict.
For example, the United States bombed the Chinese Embassy in
Yugoslavia. At that time, students were very angry and wanted to protest
against the U.S., but the Chinese government hoped the protest activities
could be controlled to a certain degree. Student affairs administrators
had to allow the students to express their anger, and at the same time,
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make sure students’ anger was under the control and could not cause
social instability. Areas like this are related to certain characteristics of
Chinese society. These may not be listed on the U.S. CAS standards.
The CAS characteristics of individual excellence triggered some
reflective thinking on the philosophical differences and the role differences
between student affairs administrators in the U.S. and China. Associate Professor
B told me that he was impressed with the CAS characteristics of individual
excellence and then sighed. He stated:
We think a lot about knowledge and skills, but we give little
consideration to interactive competencies and self mastery. This way of
thinking may be related to the Chinese training style. We do not pay
enough attention to students. Why do these things happen? After some
reflection I feel that it may be related to our understanding of the role of
administrators. We call it student affairs administration. We actually
think of how to manage students and control students so that they are
disciplined, in line with the rules and do not make mistakes. Then
students develop in accordance with the objectives set by us, for
example, mastering certain knowledge and skills. I think this is our
priority and preference. However, in the United States, student affairs
administrators pay more attention to being helpful in students’
development. Development is the student’s responsibility. The role of
student affairs administrators is to fully understand students’
developmental goals and then help students analyze how to achieve and
revise those goals. The role of a student affairs administrator is as a
facilitator. Hence, student affairs administrators need to have two
qualities. One is to communicate with students effectively, understand
students and respect students. The other is to treat students equally.
Student affairs administrators need to reflect…I am really touched. I
think we may have to learn these.
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Recommendations Offered by Chinese Faculty and Administrators about a
Student Affairs Master’s Program
What kind of students would be interested in doing student affairs work?
I asked the Chinese faculty and student affairs administrators what kind
of students would be interested in pursuing student affairs work. Most of the
respondents indicated student interest in student affairs work depended on the
employment outlook. It might have nothing to do with students’ personal interests
in student affairs or the curriculum design of the master’s program in student
affairs, itself. In light of the current status of student affairs, it might be very hard
to attract excellent students to this area. But student affairs work was attractive to
some students who desired to work at colleges and universities.
The student affairs assistant in the student affairs office thought that to
choose a job based on personal interests was an American phenomenon. He said:
I think a question like what you are interested in is a question that you
can ask the Americans. The assumption of the question is that whatever
major you are interested, you will be able to find a job. In China, if you
ask a student what the student is interested in, it would be like asking a
very hungry person whether he/she would like to have shark’s fin or
bird’s nests (very expensive and luxury Chinese food). When you ask
the question, you need to understand the actual situation in China. China
is different. Only 2 out of 10 students can find a job. What would you
choose? You will certainly select a major in which you can find a job
regardless of whether or not you like it. In China, as longs as a major is
popular in the job market, students will choose it and learn it. Why did I
come to the teacher preparation program? At least I can be a teacher,
from high school to college. On the one hand, students consider their
personal interests. On the other hand, the longer students stay in college,
the less they consider their personal interests. We take the employment
rate of the major into consideration. I always consider an issue in light of
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reality, the more opportunities to find a job in that major, and the more
students will be interested in that major.
Associate Professor A also believed that employment prospects were
critical for the success of a master’s program in student affairs. She said:
Whether students are interested in the master program in student affairs
depends on whether or not it is easy to find a job with the degree. If
students can find jobs after getting the degree, many people will be
interested; vice versa.
Associate director A in the office of student affairs pointed out the
difficulty in identifying students with genuine interests in student affairs as a
result of the employment pressure. He said:
Over the past few years in China, the data have shown that applications
to student affairs work are very enthusiastic. From my personal point of
view, the real attraction to a job in student affairs is the pressure of
getting a job. It is not really how much people love student affairs work.
In addition, a job in a university in China is relatively stable. It is hard to
identify what kinds of students have genuine interests in student affairs.
I do not think that we can attract students just because we design a set of
wonderful courses in the master’s program for student affairs. If the
social status of student affairs is improved, the benefits of working in
student affairs will be raised, and student affairs personnel will have a
promising future, and then we can definitely attract excellent students to
student affairs. Now, I think it is difficult.
League committee secretary A believed that students interested in
working in colleges and universities would be interested in doing student affairs.
He said:
In fact, many students want to find a job at colleges and universities,
because they are familiar with college life, and the university provides
security in all aspects of life. In addition, in China, if you want to
develop through the administrative and political line, student affairs
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work at a university is a very good starting point. I think many students
majoring in arts and science will be interested.
Where to find the students interested in a master’s program in student affairs?
Chinese student affairs administrators and faculty were asked where a
Chinese university could find students who were interested in the master’s degree
in student affairs. A variety of responses emerged. Some believed that the
master’s program in student affairs should be open to anyone. Some disagreed
and laid out the barriers in doing so.
Professor B believed that there should be no concerns about the
application pool for the master’s program in student affairs. He said:
If a person is interested in student affairs work, he/she can apply for the
master’s program in student affairs. The person can be an undergraduate,
staff at a college, or anyone in the society with the appropriate age and
qualifications. The key is not for us to look for students to apply to the
program. The key is that we provide an opportunity for students with the
interest in student affairs to apply. No need to worry about the student
candidates. Student affairs is a profession that some people will always
be interested in.
Deputy Party Secretary C agreed that the master’s program in student
affairs should be open to anyone who was interested in student affairs work. She
said: “We should welcome undergraduates and whoever does not yet do student
affairs work but is interested in doing the work.” The staff in student affairs
office agreed and suggested: “They should have a master’s program in student
affairs on the regulations about admission to graduate school. It should be
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available to undergraduates regardless of their majors. The students can have a
dual degree in their graduate study.”
However, there are three obstacles in recruiting undergraduates to a
master’s program in student affairs through the graduate examination. First, the
master’s program in student affairs may lack the recognition to attract
undergraduates. Associate director A in the office of student affairs said:
I guess that few undergraduates would like to go directly to a master’s
program in student affairs after they just finish college. Undergraduates
may not know much about student affairs, and student affairs is not
highly recognized in society as a profession. When the undergraduates
graduate, they have the choice to go abroad to study. To get a master’s
degree in student affairs in China is certainly not a first choice.
Deputy Party Secretary A said:
We can admit undergraduates to the master’s program, but as a high
school student and then a college undergraduate, it may be hard for the
student to see a future or career in student affairs. Even having worked
as a staff member in college, many undergraduates may not know and
understand student affairs. The time is not ripe yet.
Second, the admitted undergraduates with good scores on the graduate
examination may not have the qualities required in student affairs. The University
Secretary said:
When we choose undergraduates to work in student affairs, they should
have certain qualities. The graduate examination interview is mainly
based on academic standards. Some students with a quiet manner may
not be suitable for student affairs work but would get in the master’s
program. Where would these students go after graduation?
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Third, participants argued that it is not a good idea to directly recruit
undergraduates to the master’s program because the professional channels are not
clear yet. The University Party Secretary said:
Currently a lot of graduate students prefer a major that covers broad
knowledge. Then they can find a job in many areas. The master’s
program in student affairs is not operational or practical. For example,
after I graduate with a bachelor’s degree, if I go to a master’s program in
administration, then I will be able to find a job in a lot of areas. I can be
an ideological advisor in college for quite a long period of time. At most,
I just need to take some courses to get a certificate in student affairs and
then get an entry level job in student affairs. I can also look for a public
service job in the government by participating in the required
examination. In contrast, if I get a master’s degree in student affairs, it
seems that I must find a job in student affairs. If all the graduates can
find a job at colleges and universities, the master’s program in student
affairs will be very attractive. If not, students will have to look for a
public service job in the government. Your major is student affairs
administration but then you want to work in administration for the
government. I do not know what the social acceptance of the program
and degree will be. There is no clear professional channel yet.
Nor was the master’s program in student affairs attractive to student
affairs people at colleges and universities with master’s degree who are currently
doing the job. League committee secretary A said: “Now for student affairs
people who are doing student affairs work, they already have a master’s degree.
They will not be interested in a master’s program in student affairs. It is not
economical or practical.” Associate professor B said: “Now only people with a
master's degree can keep a job at colleges and universities.” Instead, they
suggested shorter professional development (non-degree) programs. Associate
director A in the office of student affairs with a master’s degree said: “The
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domestic market is still very good. I think colleges and universities like us; a lot
of people including me would like to have training in student affairs
administration.” The University Party Secretary said:
The courses in the CAS are very good and necessary for professional
development in student affairs. But how can we achieve the goal of
professional development for student affairs people? Shall we do it
through a master’s degree or through training? The student affairs
people in my university either have a master’s degree or are working on
a master’s degree. We are more likely to think of the training.
There was a consensus that student affairs people who were recruited
from senior student leaders with a bachelor’s degree and are currently doing the
student affairs work at colleges and universities will be very interested in a
master’s program in student affairs. Deputy Party Secretary B said:
There is a great need (for a master program in student affairs). The key
is that in China we do not have a specialization in student affairs yet. So
when many people go to a master’s program, they have to choose other
majors. In fact, many people choose the major of ideological education.
Frankly, student affairs and ideological education are completely
different. Ideological education is a specialization coming out of the
Party administration. It is not student affairs administration.
Deputy Party Secretary B said: “I think first of all we should consider
student leaders with 2-3 years of work experience in student affairs. Now the
people doing student affairs work have a variety of majors except student affairs
administration.”
Deputy Party Secretary C said:
People who are doing student affairs work will be very interested in a
master’s program. Look at the people in my office. One has a master’s
degree and the other two have bachelor’s degrees. One is studying in a
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master’s program in psychology now, because we do not have a master’s
degree in student affairs yet. In fact, that is exactly what we need, but we
do not have one. The staff in my office was all from pharmacy. Does
that make sense? After majoring in pharmacy, they may not be
interested in their professional development in pharmacy because these
women do not want contact with chemicals. They prefer transitioning to
an administrative position. Their coming to student affairs may be a
result of employment pressure. But gradually they start to like student
affairs work. They are looking for an opportunity to (advance their
career) but there does not seem to be opportunities there yet.
One administrator identified that the people in the League Committee of
the city government and educational ministry would be interested in a master’s
program in student affairs. League committee secretary B said:
In the relevant government departments like the League Committee in
the municipal government and the educational ministry, there are people
in charge of student work. This is a large group in China. They basically
have a bachelor’s degree. Now they have an urgent need to upgrade their
degree.
A doctoral degree in student affairs administration
There was a strong interest in a doctoral program in student affairs
administration among the Chinese student affairs administrators interviewed. On
the one hand, most student affairs people who are doing student affairs work
already have a master’s degree. So the doctoral degree is a reasonable and
economical next step. On the other hand, a doctoral degree in student affairs is a
good start toward earning social recognition for the student affairs profession.
However, Chinese faculty disagreed with a doctoral program at this time. The
rationale was that there are no student affairs personnel with training from student
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affairs master’s programs. It would be premature to create a doctoral program
without a related master’s base.
The University Party Secretary directly expressed her interest in a
doctoral program in student affairs. She said:
I am really interested in a doctoral program in student affairs. At a good
university in China like us, our student affairs people either already have
a master’s degree or are working on a master’s degree. The masters
program in student affairs administration then becomes a second masters
degree and people can earn a dual masters degree. But the dual degrees
would not make a difference in terms of advancing these people’s
careers.
The staff in student affairs office said: “I have a master’s degree. If I had
the opportunity to pursue a doctoral degree, it would be very beneficial.”
The director in the career center suggested using the doctoral program in
student affairs to raise the status of student affairs. He said:
I think we should set up a doctoral program in student affairs
administration. The reason is simple. In China, it is nice and necessary to
have a doctoral degree. Student affairs administration itself has not
aroused any special attention. It is inferior to teaching and research in
Chinese universities. If you just design a masters program in student
affairs, there is no weight. Especially in China, the program will not be
valued for a long period of time. If you develop a doctoral program, it
will be much better for the development of student affairs
administration.
The lecturer disagreed with the administrators and believed that a
master’s program in student affairs was more than enough. He worried that
student affairs administrators would leave the student affairs work after getting
the doctoral degree. He said:
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I think a doctoral program in student affairs administration is premature.
A master’s program in student affairs is more than enough. Strictly
speaking, the education in the doctoral, master’s, and bachelor’s
program should be aligned with the country’s economic development.
Investments in personnel training and human resources should be
proportional to their output and contribution. To develop a doctoral
program in student affairs and do the forward-looking research are
valuable theoretically. But we do not have people with master’s degree
in student affairs yet. Where can we find good doctoral candidates?
Further, after the student affairs people get the doctoral degree, they
would not feel settled in student affairs work. They may go elsewhere.
Although the trend is to set up a doctoral program, it is a little early now.
At present, most of the incoming student affairs people are
undergraduates with little professional training. They must feel like they
are not well prepared to work in student affairs. If we can have a
master’s program in student affairs, it will be very attractive and helpful
to these student affairs people. We really are lacking talented people in
student affairs.
Recommendations on the joint master’s program in student affairs
Without soliciting suggestions, Chinese student affairs administrators
actively provided recommendations on what an American university can do to be
helpful in a master’s program in student affairs. Two perspectives came out. First,
the practical perspective emphasized the operational aspect of the curriculum
design in the joint program. Second, the philosophical change perspective focused
on how to change the Chinese student affairs philosophy to be similar to that of
the U.S.
As a representative of the practical perspective, Associate director A in
the office of student affairs gave suggestions on the practical aspect of the
curriculum design. He said:
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In the curriculum design, I think the focus on theory should be
operational. I mean after I learn the theory, I can apply it. Second,
through the material presented in the courses, the student affairs
administrators should be able to be helpful to students. What has been
learned should be helpful to students.
Deputy Party Secretary C said:
In the master’s program, a lot of theoretical classes are not necessary.
One year is more than enough to take all the classes in theory and
practice. Or say theoretical classes are taken in China, and then send the
students to the U.S. for three months or half a year to see how student
affairs is done there. That is enough. The students can not stay in the
U.S. too long because they will be working in China. College students
are different in China. Culture and values are different. The way to
manage students is different, too. So the purpose for the Chinese student
affairs administrators to visit the U.S. is to get some reference points.
As the representative of the philosophical change perspective, the
Student Affairs assistant in the student affairs office proposed to shift Chinese
administrators’ views to conform to the U.S. philosophy. He said:
To be realistic, your dissertation should study the CAS foundational
classes and learn how to change Chinese higher education philosophy.
You need to fully understand the challenges and difficulties ahead. It is
very difficult to bring Chinese student affairs in line with U.S. practice.
It would be like having one railway in the sky, and the other railway on
the earth. How can they dock? They are fundamentally different. To
integrate them together, they need to share a foundation.
In summary, when soliciting practical recommendations on a Chinese
student affairs master’s program, I asked what kinds of students would be
interested and where to find those students. The assumptions of these questions
were that students with interests in student affairs should be identified and
recruited to the Chinese master’s student affairs program. However, the responses
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from the interviews showed that students’ interests in student affairs heavily
depend on the employment prospects after graduation in the master’s program.
The more job opportunities in the master’s program, the more students were
interested in the program. What’s more, the 16
th
Document (2004) clearly stated
that people who could not be consistent with the Party Central Committee on the
political principle, political stand and the political direction should not be engaged
in the ideological and political education work. Publicly recruiting students in the
Chinese student affairs master’s program through the graduate examination may
not be practical and safe.
Without soliciting suggestions, Chinese student affairs administrators
expressed great interest in a doctoral student affairs administration program.
When I asked the opinion of the Chinese faculty about the doctoral program, they
believed the doctoral program was premature because nobody graduated from the
master’s student affairs program yet. However, both Chinese faculty and student
affairs administrators showed great support to a joint master’s program in student
affairs and actively gave input on what the American university could do in the
joint program. While some argued that the U.S. University should contribute more
practical and application model in student affairs, others believed that the U.S.
side should change the Chinese student affairs’ beliefs and foundational
principals.
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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION
Summary
This dissertation was an attempt to examine the applicability of the CAS
standards that guide the curriculum design of many U.S. student affairs Master’s
programs to the Chinese context in order to provide insights into preparing
Chinese student affairs administrators. The study was designed to develop
recommendations regarding where the collaboration should start. To achieve these
objectives, my central research question was to what extent is it useful to structure
a Chinese student affairs Master’s program using the U.S. CAS standards? To
address the central research question, I asked the following 6 sub-research
questions:
1. How is student affairs administration organized in Chinese higher
education?
2. What are the educational philosophies held by Chinese faculty and
administrators?
3. What are the practical challenges facing Chinese faculty and
administrators in their work with students?
4. What are students’ greatest concerns, according to faculty,
administrators and the students themselves?
5. What parts of CAS standards do the Chinese faculty and
administrators believe to be relevant to the Chinese context?
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6. What recommendations do Chinese faculty and administrators offer
about a student affairs master’s program?
Qualitative inquiry was utilized to investigate the research questions
above. Interviews and focus groups were conducted in three universities in
Beijing, China in the summer 2007 with participation by 52 faculty,
administrators and students. Using semi-structured interview protocols, my
research was exploratory in nature because faculty members, administrators and
students were allowed to freely express and articulate opinions and thoughts in
their own words and actively participated in the conversation.
This dissertation provided findings in five categories. First, it provided a
description of the typical organizational structure of Chinese student affairs
administration and the roles of student affairs administrators in a Chinese
institution of higher education. Second, this study identified a range of
educational philosophies held by Chinese administrators and faculty, reflecting
perhaps a transitional period with the coexistence of traditional views and new
thinking in China. Third, this research illustrated the diverse challenges facing
student affairs administrators serving students’ needs. Forth, the dissertation
recognized the gap between faculty’s and administrators’ views of students’ needs
versus the views of the students themselves. Five, the researcher developed
suggestions for strategies to structure a joint Chinese student affairs master’s
program between a Chinese university and a U.S. institution.
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There are three important factors which were revealed concerning the
organizational structure of student affairs at the participating universities. First,
the organizational structure of the student affairs administrative system is shaped
like a pyramid under the guidance of the Communist Party. Second, the university
vice Party Secretary is at the top of the pyramid. The office of student affairs, the
office of graduate students, the university League Committee, the psychological
counseling center, the career center and financial aid office at the university level
are in the middle of the pyramid. The student affairs arm at the department and
school level is at the bottom of the pyramid. Third, the deputy Party secretary and
the League committee secretary at the department and school level interact with
students most and are supposed to be students’ primary point of contact in their
school and department. The structure and roles of student affairs administration
revealed the impact the Communist Party system has had on Chinese student
management.
The educational philosophies held by faculty and administrators were
diverse and contradictory. Faculty and administrators did not agree on who higher
education should serve or what the priority should be in Chinese higher education.
But most of the respondents did believe that Chinese higher education should
serve students as well as the state and society. At the same time, the participants
used different metaphors to describe the ways in which the university should
serve students. The metaphors reflected a parental, contractual, molding and
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sustaining relationship. Most important of all, the awareness of university’s role
in serving students’ growth as a whole has emerged. Faculty and administrators
realized that students should develop not only intellectually, cognitively and
morally, but also they need to grow psychologically, vocationally and socially.
There is no fundamental difference in terms of the willingness and desire to
nurture students’ growth as a whole between the U.S. and Chinese universities.
Chinese student affairs administrators did not think they were equipped
with adequate knowledge and skills to facilitate students’ holistic development.
Since 1980s, there has been a division of responsibilities with faculty doing only
teaching and student affairs people responsible for the rest of the work related to
students. The changes in student characteristics and the social environment have
made the mandatory collective political study in 1970s and 1980s not workable.
Student affairs administrators were aware of the importance of making an effort to
provide personalized services for students’ different problems. For example, they
felt challenged to help students with their addiction to the internet, psychological
problems, vocational counseling, residential life, academic support, interpersonal
skills and financial aid. There seemed to be a great desire and need for
professional development for student affairs administrators to prepare them with
the knowledge and skill foundation to better serve students’ needs.
The emergence of student affairs administration as a profession is
confronting great obstacles in China because of the presence of an ingrained but
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perhaps obsolete traditional organizational structure as well as the low morale of
student affairs administrators. First, student affairs administration originated out
of the ideological education unit at the participating universities. Ideological
education gets support from the central government and plays a critical and
decisive role in student management. It is a top down model emphasizing
conformity, discipline and control. The new student affairs administration can be
described as a bottom up model focusing on service orientation and facilitation
skills. How to integrate the two models with the opposing philosophies both in
theory and practice is a challenging task. Second, the lack of a career ladder and
evaluation system in the organizational structure, as well as the lack of a sense of
self-achievement for student affairs administrators makes student affairs
administrative positions temporary and transitional. Few of the people
interviewed were motivated to work in the field as a career. Third, student affairs
administration is not a discipline yet. It has no solid theoretical base and currently
people from all kinds of majors are doing student affairs work.
In terms of the applicability of the CAS standards to a Chinese context, a
variety of responses were brought up. With regard to the objectives of a Chinese
student affairs master’s program, some thought the curriculum should be
comprehensive while others believed it should have one focus such as student
learning and development or counseling. At the same time, some people implied
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that the emphasis should not be ideological education, but others directly
suggested that I instead ask the government what the focus should be.
The views about the applicability of U.S. foundational studies to a
Chinese student affairs master’s program were contradictory. Some believed that
U.S. foundational studies were not useful at all while others thought they opened
a new philosophical lens and could be used as a supplement in the design of the
master’s program’s curriculum. Meanwhile, some administrators and faculty
pointed out the fundamental conflicts between the U.S. and Chinese student
affairs administrative philosophies and analyzed the impact of the political
systems on student affairs administration. Some faculty broadened the curriculum,
adding contents about the disconnection between k-12 and higher education in the
Chinese educational system.
The CAS standards suggest a curriculum for a student affairs master’s
program include student development theory, student characteristics and the
effects of college on students, the organization and administration of student
affairs, assessment, evaluation and research, as well as supervised practice. When
Chinese faculty and administrators were asked about the applicability of the CAS
standards to a Chinese student affairs master’s program, the study of U.S. student
development theory was the most contentious topic while the study of student
characteristics and the effects of college on students were seen as the least useful.
The interviewed administrators and faculty had a variety of responses regarding
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what parts of CAS standards were applicable to China. But overall, the Chinese
administrators and faculty preferred practice to theory. They were more interested
in whatever was well developed in the U.S. and was transferable directly to China
that could make a big difference immediately.
Discussion
Research on an international joint program in education is scarce and
professional preparation for student affairs program is new in China. Political
sensitivity and cultural understanding aroused special attention in my data
collection in Beijng in summer 2007. It took me about one week with the help of
a gate keeper at the first university to clarify what I wanted to study and rephrase
my research in a Chinese way so that I could introduce my study in 3 minutes to
let an interviewee understand my study and invite him/her to participate. When I
went to the next university, I was referred by the university Party Secretary to
visit the director in the office of student affairs for access to faculty,
administrators and students. The director in the office of student affairs welcomed
me at the beginning. After we sat down, I briefly introduced him to my research
topic. He suddenly jumped from his seat and walked back and forth with a hand
patting his head, saying seriously “you are from China. You know the counterpart
of U.S. student affairs administration in China is ideological education. I can’t
allow you to conduct the study here. It would reflect poorly on me and the
university to reveal to the West that we are educating or controlling students’
272
thoughts.” I had to try very hard to explain to him that the purpose of my study
was to facilitate the professional development of Chinese student affairs
administrators rather than disclose the ideological control in China. We also went
over the CAS standards that guided the curriculum design of a U.S. master’s
program in student affairs together. The director in the office of student affairs
showed great interest in the CAS standards materials. He changed his mind and
became supportive of my study by referring me to his associate director in the
office of student affairs. But the director himself did not participate in the study.
When I worked as the teaching assistant in a higher education finance
class in University 2 during my stay in Beijing for data collection, a doctoral
student in that class insisted on talking with me about my dissertation topic. The
doctoral student was a senior Party member and had visited the U.S. for a period
of time to learn more about U.S. student affairs. When we finally sat together and
had tea, in one way or another, her repeated point was that my dissertation topic
was not as simple as it appeared. She said that her classmates were younger than
she, and they could not understand, but she understood that my dissertation in fact
went beyond what it meant. I did not argue with her. Nor did we question each
other. We were friendly to each other through the whole conversation. I assume
that her main point might be that the philosophical foundation of the U.S. student
affairs administration is threatening to the current political system in China. There
is no clear-cut line to distinguish student affairs administration from ideological
273
education in China, but a researcher needs to be cautious and conscious about the
political sensitivity and cultural diversity when introducing U.S. student affairs
administration.
There seemed to be no Institutional Review Board (IRB) in Chinese
higher education to conduct research. The Chinese faculty and administrators
recommended that I did not waste time introducing the IRB information sheet to
my interviewees, or at the most, I could just say in one sentence: “The
confidentiality of our conversation is protected.” Some faculty, administrators and
students thought they knew the confidentiality policy for the research and told me
to ignore that part when I started to introduce the IRB information sheet, so I
followed their instructions. But I did introduce the main points of the IRB
information sheet to the rest of the interviewees who did not stop me. The
feedback from them was a surprise. They were all impressed with the detailed
description of how their rights and confidentiality were protected on the
information sheet. When I went to an assigned room to conduct the focus group of
undergraduates in University 1, I noticed a teacher was sitting with the 4 students
together to wait for me. After talking to the teacher, I found out that the gate
keeper sent the teacher to be with the undergraduates to ensure they would show
respect and be helpful to me. After I expressed my appreciation to the gate keeper
and the teacher, the teacher was not allowed to participate in the undergraduate
274
focus group so students could freely express their thoughts in a confidential
setting.
The centralized Chinese student affairs organizational structure is
different from its U.S. counterpart. For example, while there is a career center and
a psychological counseling center in both the U.S. and Chinese student affairs
administrative system, but the responsibilities and the tasks of the career center
and psychological counseling center seem different in nature. The traditional U.S.
psychological counseling center usually provides one on one service through a
student’s initiative. In contrast, the Chinese psychological counseling center
primarily conducts group-based mental health education for all students instead of
offering individual services. The five-level psychological education network
system seems to monitor what happens, not really addressing the problems.
Providing individual professional counseling is not the focus of the Chinese
career center either.
The Chinese colleges and universities seem to use the all or nothing
approach to address the student-related problems. For example, if a student
commits suicide in college, the university has to be accountable and pay the
family compensation regardless of the reason for the suicide. Professor A reported
that to decrease the possibility of a student’s extreme behavior, he and his
colleagues had to lower their academic standards to let that student with mental
illness pass the doctoral defense even though the student should not have passed.
275
To avoid the complexity and difficulty of administration, students are usually not
allowed to change their majors. To maintain the scores of teaching performance,
the faculty may allow all the students, whether they come to class or not, to pass.
The interviewed Chinese student affairs administrators and Chinese
faculty do not seem to have an accurate perception of how U.S. universities work
with their students. For example, some Chinese student affairs administrators had
the impression that if a U.S. college student committed suicide in the university it
would be the student’s own business and have nothing to do with the university.
But in fact in the U.S. if a student committed suicide in college, there usually
would be a review process or investigation to determine if the university should
be held responsible. These processes are generally outlined under University
Governance at the school website and are unique to each institution (http://web-
app.usc.edu/scampus/policy-statements/). In most cases the local police would
take control of the crime scene to conduct a criminal investigation. The Chinese
faculty thought that U.S. students could change their majors at will in college.
This is only partly true. In fact in the U.S., a student has to meet certain
requirements to change a major like having a certain GPA.
Areas for Future Research
The purpose of student affairs administration is to serve students.
Chinese higher education aims to prepare people to address students’ needs. So
knowing what students’ needs are is a good start. However, there is little research
276
on current Chinese students’ needs in Chinese colleges and universities.
Anecdotally, perceptions about students’ needs by interviewed Chinese faculty
and administrators were inaccurate. For example, with regard to students’ greatest
concerns, there was a gap between the perception of Chinese faculty and
administrators versus that of Chinese students. Most Chinese faculty and
administrators assumed that employment was the greatest concern of the students.
In contrast, students’ greatest concerns were usually something immediately
confronting them. When I interviewed the 24 undergraduates, master’s students
and doctoral students, their most pressing concerns were equally distributed
across employment, academic problem and choice making. A longitudinal study
of the greatest concerns for a group of randomly selected students from high
school to college and university until their employment would be important to
help us understand how students’ concerns evolve and the impact the college has
on solving their concerns and preparing them for what is needed in the real world.
To serve students well, understanding students’ developmental needs is
important and critical. There was much debate on whether or not there is student
development theory in China among the Chinese faculty and administrators. A
literature review of the current Chinese student development theory in China is
necessary for understanding the characteristics of Chinese students. This literature
review can also serve as a reference for introducing related U.S. student
development theory that might be useful to Chinese faculty and administrators.
277
Meanwhile, to address students’ needs, we have to understand what
students’ needs are not. Students in Chinese colleges and universities are
generally not interested in or responsive to ideological education. Associate
director A in the office of student affairs pointed out that students had no pressing
needs for ideological education. League committee secretary D, who was given an
award for being one of the best political advisors in Beijing, stated that current
college students did not have politics-related moral problems and they were
interested only in things related to their personal development.
Further, to serve students’ needs, we have to understand what causes
those needs. The participating students’ greatest concerns were reflected in
employment, academics and choice making. There were at least three identified
reasons that caused these concerns in this study. First, the job market was
becoming highly relationship oriented and employment less based on merit than
on contacts. Second, the curriculum might be irrelevant to students’ getting a job.
A student asserted that what they learned in college did not prepare them well for
employment. Third, there was a lack of faculty involvement with students’
vocational and academic growth. Research on the causes for students’ needs
should be conducted to make suggestions for how a Chinese university should
respond. We can either change the causes or help students adapt effectively to the
current Chinese system.
278
“Having a love of students” was identified as an important characteristic
for student affairs personnel to do a good job. From a professional perspective in
the United States, this view of loving students sounds immature. It is unrealistic
for a student affairs administrator to love all of his/her students. Meanwhile, the
students deserve more than just love from the administrator for their growth. In
the U.S. a professional administrator is expected to act out of respect for students
than love. Content knowledge and skills are necessary for a student affairs
administrator to help students grow. A future research on the relationship between
loving students and service brought up by the student affairs administrators to
help students grow should be conducted to examine the role of the development
of an ethic of loving in the Chinese student affairs administration.
We usually have the international programs in place to exchange
students across the countries, but we have few international programs to exchange
student affairs administrators in higher education across the border. If we
establish a program which exchanges student affairs administrators between a
Chinese university and a U.S. university, we can conduct a study that illuminates
how student affairs administrators will see and do student affairs work differently
after completing the exchange program and coming back to their university in
their home country.
279
Implications for Practice
The professional development of student affairs administration in
Chinese higher education can be done by Chinese universities alone or in
partnership with U.S. universities. If Chinese universities work on their own, the
study of student development theory and students’ needs as well as the causes for
students’ needs will be a good starting point. To get faculty involved with the
advising service should also be considered.
If a Chinese university partners with a U.S. university for a joint
program in the master’s program in student affairs administration, the match of
the status of the university in each country is important because of the hierarchical
nature in Chinese higher education structure. The U.S. universities should align
with peer institutions in China, and vice versa.
A successful start for a joint student affairs master’s program between a
U.S. university and a Chinese university is good communication, mutual
appreciation and appropriate expectations. Though the U.S. colleges and
universities have well established student affairs administration system and are
equipped with comprehensive theories in student development, they do not
necessarily have the answers and theories readily applicable to the issues that are
challenging the Chinese higher education student affairs administration. How U.S.
developed the student development theories is culturally grounded and China
needs to study its own students to develop its own culturally relevant theories to
280
guide Chinese student affairs practice. With a completely different cultural and
social context, Chinese students and Chinese student affairs administration
confront unique issues which have not been experienced or explored by their
counterparts in the U.S.
If the U.S. University assumes that it knows all the answers and has the
key to solve the problems of Chinese student affairs administration, and if the
Chinese university expects that it can borrow directly from the U.S. student affairs
theory and model and have a quick fix of the Chinese student affairs problem, it is
very possible that the joint program will fall apart. The curriculum in the joint
program should focus on mutual understanding of how student affairs
administration works and develops in each country. I recommend the U.S.
University in the joint program aim to facilitate the dialogue, be a good listener,
and share the concerns of the Chinese student affairs administrators. It is very
important to nurture the research skills and critical thinking of the Chinese
students in the joint program to conduct research and create new knowledge in
student affairs. Both parts play the equal roles in creatively contributing to the
international development of student affairs through collaborative efforts.
Conclusion
What relationship do the CAS standards have with the professional
preparation of student affairs administration in Chinese higher education? How do
we handle the difference of values in student affairs administration between the
281
U.S. and Chinese colleges and universities in a partnered joint program? The
values that matter to Chinese student affairs are different from those of the U.S.
For example, Chinese student affairs value control and management, not treating
students as adults. In contrast, U.S. student affairs stress empowerment and
autonomy, treating students as adults. The value difference in student affairs is
rooted in the difference in the political system and traditional culture of the two
nations. The U.S. is a democratic country and China is a Communist Party
dictatorship. As a result, there is not a lot in the content of a student affairs
master’s program in the CAS standards that would be relevant to Chinese higher
education.
Some people in the U.S. may think that the Chinese student affairs
administrative system is wrong and immature, and the whole Chinese political
system is unfair and unethical. They errors and problems in Chinese higher
education and believe that the best way for change is to advocate for an
alternative system in China. However, from the socio-cultural point of view, some
might argue that it should not be the place of the America to decide the political
system in China. It should be the choice of the Chinese to decide whether or not
to change the system.
An alternative to the joint program is to not address the values of the
Chinese political system, but to focus on the questions that Chinese universities
are asking. Chinese universities are clearly interested in how to strengthen student
282
affairs administration in China, especially the practical strategies and models in
the U.S. But the U.S. has a tough time of teaching prospective administrators
about practice without helping them understand the theory behind it. What may be
a more productive approach in the joint program for a U.S. university is to help
Chinese universities think about process: the way U.S. student affairs have
developed rather than its contents. For example, instead of asking the Chinese
student affairs master’s students to learn the curriculum contents of the CAS
standards, the U.S. University can help Chinese student affairs administrators
understand how the U.S. developed the CAS standards by learning from students,
legislation, British and German models.
The shift from exploring value difference to focusing on Chinese
university’s needs in a joint program has raised a big question internationally. The
U.S. student affairs administration is dominated by student development theory
valuing autonomy and freedom. Can it expand to include the Chinese student
affairs administration system based on the political system of valuing control, or
is it unacceptable?
283
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Appendix A
Interview Protocol (for Chinese faculty members and administrators)
Ethnicity___________________________
Gender____________________________
Age _____________________________
Status ______________________
Session 1: Introduction and orientation
1. Would you please give me a description of your job? Let’s start with
how long you are at universities and your primary responsibilities.
Prompts:
a. Describe your interaction with students: How often do you work with
students? Do you work with students individually or groups?
b. How do you divide your time among research, teaching and services?
c. What part do you like best about your job?
d. What are the concerns and challenges confronting current college
students?
Session two: Philosophical questions
297
2. What is the purpose of Chinese higher education?
3. How would you characterize the relationship between university and
students? or say what is the appropriate relationship between the
university and the students? (Hint: Parental, contractual or anything
else?)
4. Who should higher education serve?
5. What should students gain from their collegiate experience?
6. What should students know and be able to do upon completion of
college?
Session 3: Curriculum questions (Part 5) on CAS standards and
guidelines of master-level student affairs professional preparation
programs
Introduction: According to the CAS standards, a program of study
must include 1) foundational studies, 2) professional studies, and 3)
supervised practice. Foundational studies must include the study of the
historical and philosophical foundations of higher education and student
affairs. For example, why are higher education institutions funded the way
they are? That question is not just an economic or political decision,
certain philosophies and histories drove the decision to fund higher
education as it is funded within the United States. Be aware of the history
298
and philosophy that undergird these decision makes an individual better
able to criticize, analyze and understand these decisions.
7. If you are going to develop a master-level student affairs professional
preparation program in your university, what will be the mission
statement of the professional preparation programs? What makes you
think this way?
8. If you are going to develop a master-level student affairs professional
preparation
program in your university, what would be the three components in
your curriculum that you would like your students to know?
9. If you are going to develop a master-level student affairs professional
preparation program in your university, what general philosophical
foundation in the Chinese higher education would you like your
students know? What historical and current books or documents about
Chinese higher education philosophy would you refer your students to
read?
10. If you are going to develop a master-level student affairs professional
preparation program in your university, what kind of values would you
like your students to hold? What documents would you refer your
students to read to understand the inherent values about students that
govern Chinese higher education?
299
11. There are 5 aspects of the professional studies in the CAS standards
and guidelines, what is your concept of student development theory?
What about student characteristics and effects of college students?
What about individual and group interventions? What about
organization and administration of student affairs? And what about
assessment, evaluation, and research?
12. If you are going to develop a master-level student affairs professional
preparation program in your university, would you like to have the
component of the supervised practice? What makes you think this
way?
Session 4: Practical recommendations
13. May I ask your best recommendations about what kind of students
would be interested in doing the work?
14. Where do you think a Chinese university can find students who are
interested in the degree? How many years should it take to complete
such a master degree?
300
Appendix B
Interview Protocol (for Chinese undergraduate and graduate student)
Ethnicity___________________________
Gender____________________________
Age _____________________________
Status ______________________
Major _________________________
1. Would you please describe a typical week for me?
2. What concerns and challenges do you have?
3. Would you please describe a problem you currently face and how you
solve it?
301
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This dissertation examined the applicability of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in higher education (CAS) that guide the U.S. student affairs master's programs to a Chinese higher education context to prepare Chinese student affairs administrators. Fifty two Chinese faculty members, student affairs administrators and students from three Chinese universities participated in the interviews and focus groups. The findings illustrated the organizational structure for Chinese student affairs administration among the participating universities, the educational philosophies held by the Chinese faculty and administrators and the practical challenges facing Chinese faculty and administrators in their working with students. The research suggests the US CAS standards are culturally grounded, and China needs to study its own students to develop its own culturally relevant theories to guide Chinese student affairs practice. The study recommends that a joint student affairs master's program between a U.S. university and a Chinese university should not address the values of the Chinese political system, but instead to help Chinese universities think about the process by which they could develop their own standards for such programs.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Li, Jing
(author)
Core Title
A study of student affairs administration professional preparation in Chinese higher education
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Degree Conferral Date
2009-05
Publication Date
05/08/2009
Defense Date
01/20/2009
Publisher
University of Southern California
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Tag
cross-cultural program collaboration,Globalization,higher education administration,OAI-PMH Harvest,student affairs administration
Language
English
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Sundt, Melora A. (
committee chair
), Jun, Alexander (
committee member
), Venegas, Kristan M. (
committee member
)
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jingli@usc.edu,jingliusc@gmail.com
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