University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Disaster relief transitional emergency shelter: environmental and structural analysis of two prefab modular emergency shelters for three different Californian climate zones

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Disaster relief transitional emergency shelter: environmental and structural analysis of two prefab modular emergency shelters for three different Californian climate zones

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Content DISASTER RELIEF TRANSITIONAL EMERGENCY SHELTER: ENVIRONMENTAL AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF TWO PREFAB MODULAR EMERGENCY SHELTERS FOR THREE DIFFERENT CALIFORNIAN CLIMATE ZONES. by Vasudha Rathi A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE August 2010 Copyright 2010 Vasudha Rathi ii Dedication To my parents, Padma Rathi and Vimal Rathi, who have always encouraged and supported me in all of my endeavors. Thank you for being there and providing me with all the opportunities. iii Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the following individuals for their extensive help and invaluable advice in the course of my research and during the execution of the experimentation phases of my thesis. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the Graduate Building Science Faculty at the USC School of Architecture, without them this thesis would not have been possible. Especially, I would like to thank my Thesis Committee Chair, Program Director and Professor Marc Schiler for his outstanding guidance and mentorship throughout this whole process. I would also like to thank my trusted advisors who each contributed their advice and expertise to my research – Prof. Douglas Noble, University of Southern California for expert advice on my thesis and Prof. Anders Carlson, University of Southern California for his outstanding guidance in the structural aspect of my thesis. I would like to thank James Pope, CEO, Green Horizon Manufacturing LLC and Bryant Caruso, Userops for sharing complete information and making all the data available regarding their product and for being so supportive of my study. Many thanks go to my colleagues, especially Ellie for helping me out with the structural aspect of my thesis; Deepa, Duyum and Jamil for always being there for solving my problems and making the studio environment a fun place to work. Last but not least I would like to thank my parents, my roommates and my friends for their support and patience over the duration of this endeavor. iv Table of Contents Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii List of Tables v List of Figures vi Abstract xiii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Background Study 8 Chapter 3: Case Studies 27 Chapter 4: Methodology and Data Collection 45 Chapter 5: Data Analysis 75 Chapter 6: Observations and Conclusions 115 Chapter 7: Future Work to do 117 Bibliography 120 Appendices Appendix A Appendix B 122 123 v List of Tables Table 2.1 Comparative Analysis of Different Types of Emergency Shelters 25 Table 3.1 SIP Modular House: Specifications 34 Table 3.2 Standard Dimensions of Shipping Containers 38 Table 3.3 Container House: Specifications 43 Table 4.1 Modular Structure Comparison (Model vs. Original) 66 Table 4.2 Shipping Container System Comparison (Model vs. Original) 68 Table 4.3 Frame Section Assignments 71-72 Table 4.4 Material Properties - Basic Mechanical Properties 73 Table 4.5 Frame Section Properties 73 Table A-1 List of representative cities for the Californian Climate Zones 122 vi List of Figures Figure 1.1 Temporary shelter, Pakistan, October 2005 1 Figure 1.2 Transitional shelters, Gujarat, India, January 2001 2 Figure 1.3 Transitional to a Permanent shelter 2 Figure 1.4 Number of Disasters reported from 1900-2008 3 Figure 1.5 Number of People affected by Natural Disasters from 1975-2008 3 Figure 1.6 Number of Natural Disasters recorded in EMDAT1900-2005 4 Figure 2.1 Schematic cutaway of the layers of a Monolithic Dome 11 Figure 2.2 Monolithic designed hurricane shelter for DuPont at DeLisle, Mississippi in 2004 12 Figure 2.3 One of the many completed dome in New Ngelepen, Indonesia 13 Figure 2.4 Dome Village, Los Angeles: Housing for the homeless 15 Figure 2.5 Deployment process for Concrete Canvas Shelter 16 Figure 2.6 Global Village Shelter 17 Figure 2.7 Hexayurt Project Dimensions 18 Figure 2.8 Sandbag Shelter: Tested in California 19 Figure 2.9 Low-Tech Balloon System 20 Figure 2.10 Shipping Pallet 21 Figure 2.11 Pallet House: Prototype built for the Architecture Triennale 22 vii Figure 2.12 Pallets in filled with debris, rubble, stones 22 Figure 2.13 SIP Prefab System 23 Figure 2.14 Shipping Container Shelter 24 Figure 3.1 Mobile House 28 Figure3.2 SIP Prefab System: Trailer with a legal permit 30 Figure3.3 SIP Prefab System: Foundation 31 Figure3.4 SIP Prefab System: Sewer treatment Plant 31 Figure3.5 SIP Prefab System: Photovoltaic Panels on the roof 32 Figure 3.6 The Modular Structure: Rear side 35 Figure 3.7 The Modular Kitchen: Equipped with energy efficient appliances. 35 Figure 3.8 Thousands of shipping containers at the terminal at Port Elizabeth 36 Figure 3.9 Modularity: Same concept as Legos 39 Figure 3.10 Flexibility 40 Figure 3.11 Speedy and Sturdiness 40 Figure 3.12 Shipping Container Shelter 44 Figure 3.13 Shipping Container Shelter: Interior 44 Figure 3.14 Shipping Container Shelter: Interior 44 Figure 4.1 California Climate Zones 46 viii Figure 4.2 California Climate Zone 16 48 Figure 4.3 Degree Days 49 Figure 4.4 Outdoor Temperature Range 50 Figure 4.5 Psychrometric Chart 50 Figure 4.6 California Climate Zone 15 51 Figure 4.7 Degree Days 52 Figure 4.8 Outdoor Temperature Range 53 Figure 4.9 Psychrometric Chart 53 Figure 4.10 California Climate Zone 15 54 Figure 4.11 Degree Days 55 Figure 4.12 Outdoor Temperature Range 56 Figure 4.13 Psychrometric Chart 56 Figure 4.14.1 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Layout Template 59 Figure 4.14.3 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Activity Template 60 Figure 4.14.4 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Activity Template 60 Figure 4.14.5 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Construction Template 61 Figure 4.14.6 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Openings Template 62 Figure 4.14.7 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: HVAC Template 63 ix Figure 4.14.8 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Analysis showing comparisons between various variables like temperature, PPD and energy 64 Figure 4.14.9 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Analysis graph showing annual fuel consumption 64 Figure 4.15 SIP System Plan 65 Figure 4.16 SIP System Wall Section 65 Figure 4.17 Shipping Container Plan 67 Figure 4.18 Shipping Container Wall Section 67 Figure 4.19 SIP Modular system Structure: 3D view (Structural Drawings) 69 Figure 4.20 SIP Modular system Structure: 3D view (SAP2000) 70 Figure 4.21 SIP Modular system Structure: Extruded section view 74 Figure 5.1 SIP Modular Shelter- North Orientation 77 Figure 5.2 SIP Modular Shelter- South Orientation 78 Figure 5.3 SIP Modular Shelter- East Orientation 78 Figure 5.4 SIP Modular Shelter- West Orientation 79 Figure 5.5 Shipping Container Modular Shelter- North Orientation 79 Figure 5.6 Shipping Container Modular Shelter- North Orientation 80 Figure 5.7 Shipping Container Modular Shelter- East and West Orientation 80 Figure 5.8 Comparative Temperature analysis in climate zone 16 with four different orientations for SIP structure 82 Figure 5.9 Monthly fuel breakdown for the SIP modular system for the four orientations 83 x Figure 5.10 Daily Solar Heat Gain for the month of January for South and North orientation for SIP modular system 83 Figure 5.11 Annual chiller usage comparison for the South and North orientation for SIP modular system 83 Figure 5.12 Comparative Temperature analysis in climate zone 16 with four different orientations for Container structure 84 Figure 5.13 Comparative Temperature analysis in climate zone 16 with four different orientations for Container structure and SIP structure 86 Figure 5.14 Daily Temperature Analysis for the month of October for South orientation for SIP modular system 87 Figure 5.15 Daily Temperature Analysis for the month of November for South orientation for SIP modular system 87 Figure 5.16 Monthly Fuel consumption for the four orientation for the Container system 88 Figure 5.17 Daily Solar Heat gain through windows for North and South orientation for the Container system 88 Figure 5.18 Comparative Temperature analysis for climate zone 15 with four different orientations for SIP structure 90 Figure 5.19 Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the SIP structure 91 Figure 5.20 Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the Container structure 91 Figure 5.21 Comparative Temperature analysis for climate zone 15 with four different orientations for Container structure and SIP structure 92 Figure 5.22 Comparative Temperature analysis for climate zone 13 with four different orientations for SIP structure 94 Figure 5.23 Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the SIP structure 95 Figure 5.24 Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the Container structure 95 Figure 5.25 Annual Fuel breakdown for four different orientations for the SIP structure 96 Figure 5.26 Monthly Fuel breakdown for two different orientations for the SIP structure 96 Figure 5.27 Internal Gains for the months of February and March for Southern orientations for the SIP structure 97 xi Figure 5.28 Internal Gains for the months of February and March for Northern orientations for the SIP structure 97 Figure 5.29 Comparative Temperature analysis for the worst and the best orientations for SIP structure 99 Figure 5.30 Comparative Energy consumption analysis for the worst and the best orientations for SIP structure 100 Figure 5.31 Comparative Temperature analysis for the worst and the best orientations for Shipping Container structure 101 Figure 5.32 Monthly Energy Consumption comparison for the best cases in each of the climate zones for both SIP and Container structure 102 Figure 5.33 Monthly Energy Consumption comparison for the worst cases in each of the climate zones for both SIP and Container structure 103 Figure 5.34 SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing all the members 108 Figure 5.35 SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node Deflection = 0.53” 109 Figure 5.36 SAP2000 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node Deflection = 0.54” 109 Figure 5.37 SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing the structure deflecting due to the live load 110 Figure 5.38 SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing the structure deflecting due to the Snow load 110 Figure 5.39 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node 111 Figure 5.40 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node 112 Figure 5.41 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the final result 113 Figure B-1: Section A 123 Figure B-2: Section B 124 Figure B-3: Section C 124 Figure B-4: Section D 125 xii Figure B-5: Section E 125 Figure B-6: Section F 126 xiii Abstract “We all are aware of human impact in nature and its effects: pollution, deforestation, land mismanagement, the green house effect, and more, have accelerated the rate of disasters. Added to that are the man-made disasters; millions of displaced humans, wars and human aggression and acts of terrorism with incalculable damage to human life and property. There is a serious sense of urgency to educate ourselves and our children to act more in harmony with nature, rather than insisting on dominating and interrupting the environmental process. As well as awakening to a new set of questions where we deal with the rehabilitation of ones that have been displaced completely from their lands.” 1 This study specifically looks at the emergency shelter needs of a developed country and the shelter type is transitional which is defined as a shelter where victims live at least for a year or more. The study covers a broad survey of all the different kinds of emergency shelters available and the ones that had been used in the past based on the kind of material used, structure, cost, and durability, ease of construction, size and transportability. The survey resulted in a matrix that charts out these different shelters with their characteristics. 1 The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture, viewed on 27 October 2009, <http://calearth.org/building- designs/emergency-sandbag-shelter.html> xiv An in-depth detailed case study is performed on two prefab modular emergency shelters, one made from structurally insulated panels and the other from a shipping container. These two shelters are investigated for their environmental performance in three different Californian climate zones and the structurally insulated panel prefab system is assessed for its structural performance using specialized software tools. The environmental analysis is carried out using the simulation program Energy Plus (Design Builder). The climatic data for all the zones is resourced from a climate tool called Climate Consultant. The environmental results are compared on the basis of indoor air temperatures simulated and the overall energy consumption of the shelter. The overall study is aimed to show that these prefab modular shelters can be a good solution for a transitional emergency shelter and can play a significant part in solving the problem of lack of decent emergency shelter in developed nations. The structural analysis software tool SAP2000 is used to model the prefab panel system and its structure is tested for the whole of California. The main aim is to check the seismic capabilities of the structure since seismic demand is higher than wind loading for short buildings in California or other seismic regions where earthquake disasters may occur. . 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.0 Why is it Important: Professor E. L. Quarantelli explained in his study of Patterns of sheltering and housing in American Disasters 2 that the term emergency shelters has been used in different areas for different purposes and has ambiguous meanings, and that one term that could be used for a person staying at a relative’s house for a few hours after a disaster to someone staying in a house for more than a year. Thus for better understanding of this study, specific labels should be given to different terms that will be used in this thesis quite often. A. Emergency/Temporary Shelter: This refers to a shelter that a disaster victim seeks immediately after the disaster has struck as the house may be permanently damaged or maybe because the utilities for the town are not functioning at that time. There is a possibility that the victims return to their permanent houses after spending a night or two in this type of shelter, e.g. tents, sleeping bags, etc. Figure 1.1 Temporary shelter, Pakistan, October 2005 Source: Omaha Rapid Response < http://www.omaharapidresponse.org/PakistanHouseBuilding.htm> 2 Quarantelli, E.L., Patterns of sheltering and housing in American Disasters, Disaster Research Center University of Delaware, 1991 2 B. Transitional Shelters: Earlier the term that was used for these types of shelters was temporary shelter but this term specifically looks at the shelters where the disaster victim plans to stay for a period ranging from a few months to a year. In this system the people resume their household responsibilities and activities and routines are established. Examples of such shelters are mobile homes, trailers, and locally constructed temporary houses. C. Permanent Shelters: In the past we have seen that the period of transition has often exceeded more than a year. For example in the case of Katrina that happened in 2005; the victims are still living in those cramped and unsafe houses for more than 4 years now. So now we are looking for shelters that if required in the future can also be used as permanent shelters and if not, then should have the capability of being reused. Figure 1.2 Transitional shelters, Gujarat, India, January 2001 Source: Earth Bag buildings <http://www.earthbagbuilding.com/projects/inoue.htm> Figure 1.3 Transitional to a Permanent shelter Source: Emergency shelter response <http://gcaptain.com/maritime/blog/tag/shipping_containers/> 3 1.2 Trend of the Disasters: The disasters have happened in past as well but when we see the progressive trends that they are following we realize that they are increasing at a very fast pace as is seen in Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4 Number of Disasters reported from 1900-2008 Source: The International Disaster Database <http://www.emdat.be/natural-disasters-trends> Figure 1.5 Number of People affected by Natural Disasters from 1975-2008 Source: The International Disaster Database <http://www.emdat.be/natural-disasters-trends> 4 A similar trend is seen in the number of people affected in these disasters (Figure 1.5). This progressive trend in the increase of disasters can be scientifically explained by learning about simple reasons such as global warming. Research states that climate change will intensify the wind speed by 0.5 on the Saffir Simpson scale and precipitation in hurricanes by 18% until 2050 (Knutson et al, 2004) 3 . This is supported by the chart showing progressive trends in the water related disasters in figure 1.6. Figure 1.6 Number of Natural Disasters recorded in EMDAT1900-2005 Source: International Strategy for Disaster Reduction http://www.unisdr.org/disaster- statistics/occurrence-trends-century.htm Thus the first conscious step would be to help curb all the harmful activities that are causing this global warming and increasing the chances of the occurrence of the disasters and meanwhile steps should be taken to be prepared for these disasters and reduce their affect on people and resources. Emergency shelters are a key component in this preparedness and studying this aspect is very crucial in today’s scenario. 3 Hopeppe, Peter, World Natural Disasters – Effects and Trends, Geo Risk research 5 1.3 The Problem It is quite evident that disaster relief shelter is a big concern in almost all parts of the world. There has been a lot of research done on this topic but not very many detailed studies have been conducted in this area. Interestingly, there has been more focus on the housing and sheltering problem in the developing countries than in developed countries due to their catastrophic effect on the infrastructure of these countries. However, this should not be the main focus as developed nations have their own problems dealing with these situations and one such developed nation is America. It is also anticipated that the disaster sheltering and housing problems in American society will get complex and worse in the future because of the following reasons as explained by Professor E. L. Quarantelli 4 . “1.2. A. Different household compositions: The American society has evolved a lot over time. Apart from the basic single family composition there are various types of cases that have various different needs that now have to be taken care of, e. g. single parent families, unmarried couples (same or different sex), childless couples, single person units etc.” Thus from the above statement it can be concluded that a design that is multi-user and is adaptable to different situations would be a good solution. “1.2. B. Changes in the age distribution: It is a well known fact that the American population as a whole is getting older. Research suggest that the elderly people are more vulnerable to psychological stress due to any disaster as they usually receive less aid and thus take more time to recoup from the material losses. It has been suggested that there 4 Quarantelli, E.L., Patterns of sheltering and housing in American Disasters, Disaster Research Center University of Delaware, 1991 6 exists a pattern of neglect of disaster help with respect to the elderly (Bolin and Klenow, 1983 5 ; Drabek and Key, 1984 6 ). If so, with the more and worse disasters that we can expect in the future, there is likely to be an acceleration of this problem of the aged in the future.” So in a plan of rehabbing the disaster area a serious effort should be made for the elderly people. “1.2. C. Changes in social expectations in disaster help and relief: The general expectation of the quality of disaster assistance has risen up considerably. The help that was offered in time of disaster which was once gratefully accepted is now seen as a mandated right. This change is because of government policies and increasing debate over the rights of victims to disaster relief.” Thus earlier when a basic roof over the head would have done a good job for the victims, now they expect complete basic facilities and amenities. 5 Bolin, Robert and D. Klenow, Response to the elderly to disaster: An age stratified Analysis, International Journal of Aging and Human Developmant,1983 6 Drabek, Thomas and Keith Boggs, Families in disaster: Reaction and relative, Journal of Marriage and Family, 1984 7 1.4 Objective: The main objective of this thesis is to study and analyze different kinds of emergency shelter available and compare them with one another. This study also examines the possibility of using a Modular SIP panel housing structure for the purpose of transitional emergency shelter. 1.5 Hypothesis: A Modular Structural Insulated Panel structure system can be a good solution for transitional emergency shelters. This will be tested by evaluating this prototype thermally and structurally for climates in the state of California and by comparing it with a similar prefab shelter made from a shipping container 1.6 Scope and limitation: The study will be limited to the thermal analysis of the two emergency housing systems, SIP panel system and Shipping Container system, and structural analysis of the SIP panel system. Several choices were made to narrow down the scope of the project. For example, this study will specifically look at the emergency shelter needs of a developed country and the shelter type is transitional. The geographic location under consideration is the State of California in USA. A basic structural analysis will be carried out for the same SIP panel system and the shelter will be tested for the worst seismic load scenarios for the State of California 8 Chapter 2: Background Study The main goal of this thesis is to find a good solution for a transitional disaster relief design that is sustainable, cost effective and durable. This chapter looks at the different kinds of disasters that humanity encounters and then the different types of emergency shelters, be it transitional or meeting the immediate shelter needs. Data is collected on these collated by parameters in a matrix chart based on the kind of material used, structure, cost, and sustainability quotient of the design, ease of construction, size and transportability. Emergency shelters 2.1 Definitions 2.1.1 Disaster: A common definition for disaster is- “ the tragedy of a natural or human-made hazard (a hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment) that negatively affects society or environment.” 7 2.1.2 Natural Disaster: “A natural disaster is a consequence when a natural hazard (e.g., volcanic eruption or earthquake) affects humans. Human vulnerability, caused by the lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, environmental, or human impact. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster: their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, 7 Disaster, Wikipedia, Viewed on 27 October 2009, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster> 9 e.g., strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.” 8 2.1.3 Man Made Disaster: “Disasters caused by human action, negligence, error, or involving the failure of a system are called man-made disasters. Man-made disasters are in turn categorized as technological or sociological. Technological disasters are the results of failure of technology, such as engineering failures, transport disasters, or environmental disasters. Sociological disasters have a strong human motive, such as criminal acts, stampedes, riots and war” 9 Thus, with the above mentioned definitions for different types of disasters we can now see the applicability of different types of shelters for different types of disasters. 2.2 Types of Emergency Shelters The following list of emergency shelters is not an exhaustive list but the ones that are found commonly. The list contains transitional as well as temporary shelters. Thus, while looking at different types of shelter we can now see their applicability in different types of hazard. 8 Natural Disaster, Wikipedia, Viewed on 27 October 2009, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster> 9 Man Made Disaster, Wikipedia, Viewed on 27 October 2009, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster> 10 A. Monolithic Domes A company named Monolithic developed domes that are made from reinforced concrete fabricated by casting a structural shell monolithically over a form. This type of construction falls under the category of monolithic architecture. Advantage of Monolithic Construction 1. The company states that the structure is very energy efficient in terms of climate controls. The spherical shape offers minimum surface area for a given volume so there is less surface area for heat transfer from outside to inside or vice versa. Due to its monolithic nature, it has a minimal number of seams through which leaks may occur, thus keeping infiltration to a minimum. 2. Once they are finished and ready to use they can withstand earthquakes, tornados and hurricanes, thus making them very suitable for disaster relief shelter applications (FEMA rates them as "near-absolute protection" from F5 tornadoes and Category 5 Hurricanes 10 ) 3. Recently, Monolithic constructed some dome types that could withstand terrorist attacks which include safety against biological attacks as well, as stated by the company. 10 Monolithic Domes, Wikipedia, Viewed on 22 March 2010, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolithic_dome> 11 Figure 2.1 Schematic cutaway of the layers of a Monolithic Dome. Source: Monolithic, < http://www.monolithic.com/stories/the-monolithic-dome-1/photos> Disadvantages of Monolithic Domes 1. The construction method is not very common; therefore a skilled crew is required for its construction. 2. Due to its shape, it results in very oddly shaped room divisions that result in waste of space at the corners. 3. Residential application is still not very popular because people still have not accepted a hemisphere for a house. 4. The resale value of these structures is very low; therefore people avoid investing in it. 5. Requires a larger footprint for the same area of standing area compared to a shelter with vertical walls, a disadvantage in an urban disaster. 12 Disaster relief application These domes have been used frequently as disaster relief housing due to its amazing durability capabilities. Listed are some of the applications in this field: 1. DuPont's Mississippi Gulf Coast Facility- A Monolithic Dome Hurricane Shelter: This facility was built to monitor any hurricane or tornado that would hit the facility. It is a 50’ diameter and 18’ high structure where when a hurricane warning sounds, all plant employees leave, except for the Hurricane Crew. They go into their Hurricane Shelter and stay there for the duration of the hurricane. Once it passes, the Hurricane Crew immediately begins inspecting the entire facility, assessing damages and initiating repairs. With this example one can say that monolithic domes would be a good solution for disasters in hurricane region Figure 2.2 Monolithic designed hurricane shelter for DuPont at DeLisle, Mississippi in 2004. The structure survives a category 5 (155+ mph winds and 18+ foot surge) hurricane. Source: Monolithic Dome Institute < http://static.monolithic.com/gallery/industrial/dupont/pic02.html> 13 2. Monolithic domes were also used in a town in Indonesia. Domes of the World partnered with the World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations (WANGO) to rebuild Ngelepen in Indonesia, a community devastated by the May 2006 earthquake in Central Java. This village of 80 Domes brought new homes to 71 families, clean water, a school, a masjiid and a medical clinic. According to Domes of the world foundation to construct this dome town 370 construction workers were employed and the project was finished in impressive six months. This is a good example for a disaster relief shelter turning into a permanent housing solution. Figure 2.3 One of the many completed dome in New Ngelepen, Indonesia Source: Domes of the World < http://www.dftw.org/topics/projects> 14 A. Next- Gen Dome, Intershelter These shelters are frameless domes made up of aerospace composite panels. The Intershelter states that these domes are very strong and durable and can be assembled within four hours with two people. On the exterior it has a special gel coat that make it resistant to sun, wind, snow and rain and temperatures above 120 o F and below 0 o F. Two types of models for this shelter are available; one for the extreme desert climate and the other for the cold arctic type climate. If the claims are true, then these shelters could be a great solution for all the climate types as they cover the extreme two conditions. The Intershelter company states following advantages and disadvantages of their shelters “B.1 Advantages of Intershelter Domes 11 a. Extremely portable and mobile b. Easy exit strategy "can be disassembled in 45 minutes and reused." c. Life expectancy of over 30 years d. Does not dampen or mildew e. Can withstand hurricane strength wind f. Fire resistant g. Strong enough to shelter from flying debris or falling rocks 11 Intershelter Domes, Viewed on 25 September 2009, < http://www.intershelter.com/dome.cfm> 15 B.2 Disadvantages of the Intershelter Domes a. It is expensive as a temporary emergency shelter option b. Due to its shape it results in a waste of space at the corners which is very important for a disaster relief shelter where a lot of people have to be accommodated in a given space.” Figure 2.4 Dome Village, Los Angeles: Housing for the homeless Source: Instant Housing and designing for disaster < http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/multimedia/2007/10/gallery_instant_housing?slide=12s> 16 B. Concrete Canvas Shelter 12 : Developed by the Concrete Canvas Company based in Britain. This is a new technology that uses a construction material called concrete cloth developed by the Concrete Canvas Company. The construction is a simple process in which this material is filled in a big plastic bag and then when it needs to be erected, it is filled with air and then hydrated with water. A simple concrete canvas shelter takes two people one hour to build and another 24 hours to set and be in a usable condition. One has to just cut doors and spaces for ventilation from the newly formed concrete "cloth." These tents have a design life of 10 years. They are fire proof and can withstand extreme climatic changes. The technology looks quite interesting and it can be a good solution for a temporary shelter but due to its inflexibility in changing and modification it cannot be used as a permanent shelter. Figure 2.5 Deployment process for Concrete Canvas Shelter 1) Deliver 2) Inflate 3) Hydrate 4) Set Source: Concrete Canvas http://www.concretecanvas.co.uk/CCS%20Deployment 12 Concrete Canvas, Viewed on 25 September 2009, < http://www.concretecanvas.co.uk/index.html> 17 C. Global Village Shelter/GVS: This is a simple shelter made from 13mm polypropylene extruded sheets and polypropylene extrusions. The extrusions are used as reinforcement at the corners. It can perform within a temperature range from -85 o F to 285 o F as stated by GVS. All joints are welded and it takes two people 20 minutes to erect this structure. The structure can withstand winds up to 85 mph. The material is biologically inert, does not off-gas, and can be reground (recycled) throughout the world. The only advantage that I see of this shelter is that it is very light in weight and should be easy to transport. But the durability of this shelter is still uncertain. Figure 2.6 Global Village Shelter Source: Global Village Shelter < http://www.gvshelters.com/> 18 D. Hexayurt Shelter: This is a simple experimental shelter which is very inexpensive and easy to build. It is made up of hexacomb cardboard and plastic. Some of the versions also use oriented strand board (OSB). Their durability depends on the kind of material it is made from and that decision depends on the application of the shelter. The shelter can be as cheap as $100. It takes about 2 hours to construct. This shelter is an example of an immediate temporary shelter. As the durability of this system depends on the material used, thus such a material should be selected that can be recycled in the future permanent settlement. Figure 2.7 Hexayurt Project Dimensions Source: Hexayurt Project <http://www.appropedia.org.nyud.net/File:All_hexayurts_web_dimensions.png > 19 E. Sand Bag Shelter 13 : This is a simple shelter type which uses locally available material, thus it is highly sustainable. In this shelter system, soil and cement-stabilized rammed earth mix is filled in plastic sacks and that sack then becomes the building block. This Superadobe Technology was designed by Nader Khalili, engineering by P.J. Vittore, models of which have been constructed and tested for the City of Hesperia, California Building and Safety Department, in consultation with I.C.B.O. (International Conference of Building Officials), in the forms of arches, vaults, and domes between 1993 and 1996. The construction style also passed the stringent Californian code. Thus, proving to be a potential type of self building shelter. This would also be a good example for an emergency shelter built using native materials. Figure 2.8 Sandbag Shelter: Tested in California Source: Sandbag Shelter < http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=821> 13 Sandbag Shelter, Viewed on 25 September 2009, <http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=821> 20 F. Low-Tech Balloon System: This is an interesting emergency shelter system. The outer skin of the shelter is made up of hemp. The main idea is to take the used hemp sacks and sew them together to form a dome shaped structure. The sewed skins are connected by plastic ties and then the structure is filled with inflated airbags or balloons that tighten the plastic ties to increase the air pressure, and dampen the entire structure. Then the outer skin is sprayed with concrete/mortar. When the mortar has dried, holes are cut for the doors and windows and the deflated airbags are again ready to be used. This shelter was designed by a team called TechnoCraft based in Japan. This team claims that the system can be erected by the disaster victims themselves with a little training. Figure 2.9 Low-Tech Balloon System Source: TechnoCraft- Ichiro Katase, Takashi Kawano, Takeshi Chiba, Ken Takeyama < http://news.cnet.com/2300-1025_3-6227524-3.html> 21 G. Pallet House: This shelter is again a good example of using waste material for construction purposes. In this design the main building material is Shipping Pallets. The six prototype houses built used 40 people, 500 pallets, and required 3 days using simple carpenter’s tools. Pallets are great material for this application because they are sturdy, inexpensive and readily available. The idea was first developed by Azin Valy and Suzan Wines of I-Beam Design. According to the I-Beam Design the main idea was to reuse the shipping pallets that would anyways be the packing material for the disaster relief goods. Also the frame of the house can be constructed using these pallets while the infill of the structure can be the debris, stone mud etc and simple water proofing can be done using plastic sheets. Since the structure is not a simple one it does require some knowledge of construction, thus it cannot be easily constructed by the disaster victims themselves. Figure 2.10 Shipping Pallet Source: iStockphoto < http://www.istockphoto.com/stock-photo-3042725-wooden-shipping-pallet.php> 22 Figure 2.11 Pallet House: Prototype built for the Achitecture Triennale in Milan, Italy, 2008 Source: I-BEAM < http://www.i-beamdesign.com/projects/refugee/refugee.html > Figure 2.12 Pallets in filled with debris, rubble, stones Source: I-BEAM < http://www.i-beamdesign.com/projects/refugee/refugee.html > 23 H. SIP Prefab System: It is an emergency shelter system designed by Green Horizon Manufacturing and it consists of two rooms and a living cum dining cum kitchen space. It is a steel moment frame structure with structurally insulated Panels in between making up the surfaces. The system is 12’ x 38’ and it folds in to the dimension of 8’ x 38’ which can easily fit into a shipping container. It also is permitted to be driven like a trailer behind a vehicle. Thus transportation is very easy. The standard configuration accommodates up to six people. The company states that it is a comfortable, environmentally-responsible, fully equipped with essential supplies and completely independent of outside services. Figure 2.13 SIP Prefab System Source: Author 24 I. Shipping Container System: These Modular houses are made up of steel shipping containers which are known for their heavy-duty and versatility in transportation for over forty years. The structure is certified for 110 mph wind rating. The wall and roof are made up of durable steel. The floor is concrete slab with steel cross members welded every 12”. The maximum dimension for a single unit is 40' x 8' x 8'. These modular systems are designed to accommodate 6 people in their two rooms. The container system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include its inherent sturdiness, stackability and multiplication character from its basic shipping container structure. While the disadvantages include its size and dimension limitations. But being widely available makes it a good option to explore. Figure 2.14 Shipping Container Shelter Source: Genesis", Userops, LLC, Bryant Caruso, <http://www.ci.corvallis.or.us/council/mail- archive/mayor/pdfsj37jjZBdW.pdf> 25 S.No. Shelter Name Shelter Type Dimensions ( l x b x h ) Main building Material Time taken to build (hrs) No. of people required to Build Shape Life Expectancy (yrs) 1 Monolithic Domes Transitional 8' - 68' dia available Rebar and shotcrete N/A N/A Dome Shaped N/A 2 Next- Gen Dome Transitional 14' & 20' dia, 9' & 12' ht. respectively Aerospace Composite Panels 4.00 2 Dome Shaped 30 3 Concrete Canvas Shelter Immediate/ Transitional 16.5' x 18' x 8.5' / 32.7' x 18' x 9' Concrete Cloth 1.00 2 Vault Shaped 10 4 Global Village Shelter Transitional 8' x 8' x 8' Polypropylen e extruded sheets 0.33 2 Square plan with Hipped Roof N/A 5 Hexayurt Shelter Immediate/ Transitional 12' x 6'11" x 6' /13'10"x 16' x 12 Hexacomb cardboard and plastic 2 N/A Square plan with Hipped roof N/A 6 Sand Bag Shelter Transitional Design Dependant Sandbags N/A N/A Dome Shaped N/A 7 Low-Tech Balloon System Immediate/ Transitional Design Dependant Hemp Cloth and Airbags N/A N/A Dome Shaped N/A 8 Pallet House Transitional Design Dependant Shipping Pallets 3 weeks 6 Tradition al House 5 9 SIP Prefab System Transitional/ Permanent 30’ x 12’ SIP panel with Steel Frame N/A N/A Cuboid 20 10 Shipping Container System Transitional/ Permanent 40’ x 8’ Shipping Container N/A N/A Cuboid 15 25 Table 2.1 Comparative Analysis of Different Types of Emergency Shelters 26 Table 2.1 Comparative Analysis of Different Types of Emergency Shelters Table 2.1 provides a comparative analysis of the different emergency shelters described in this chapter. Looking at these different emergency shelter options, it can be concluded that it is very difficult to pick the best one as there are so many parameters involved in making that decision. Factors influencing the optimum choice for a specific location and disaster include economics, comfort, durability, portability and ease of construction. So, the choice has to be made based on which variables are most important for a given disaster scenario. For the purpose of this thesis, we will be looking at examples that are transitional emergency shelter that have a potential to be a permanent housing. Thus for feasibility of this study, we had to narrow down the variables to comfort and structural strength and number of case studies to two. In the following chapter the two emergency shelters under consideration are discussed in detail. 27 Chapter 3: Case Studies This study will specifically look at two of the emergency shelters described in chapter two. The case studies under consideration are; first, Structurally Insulated Panel Modular Housing and second, the Shipping Container Modular Housing System. The former is manufactured by a company called Green Horizon Manufacturing while the latter is by Userops, LLC Covington. All the information and data was provided by these two companies. And they both stand out as a good example for transitional shelters that can be reassembled into a permanent housing unit. Important terms: a. “Modular buildings and modular homes are sectional prefabricated building or houses that consist of multiple modules or sections which are manufactured in a remote facility and then delivered to their intended site of use. The modules are assembled into a single residential building using either a crane or trucks. They will either be used for long-term temporary or permanent facilities. Such uses include construction camps, schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing needs, and industrial facilities. Modular buildings are convenient and more feasible in remote and rural areas where conventional construction may not be reasonable or even possible. Other uses have also been found for modular buildings including churches, health care facilities, sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants and cruise ship construction.” 14 14 Modular Homes, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_home, viewed on 12th Oct’09 28 b. “Mobile homes or static caravans 15 are prefabricated homes built in factories, rather than on site, and then taken to the place where they will be occupied. They are usually transported by tractor-trailer over public roads to sites which are often in rural areas or high-density developments. In the United States, these homes are regulated by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), via the Federal National Manufactured Housing Construction and Safety Standards Act of 1974.” This study did not consider mobile homes, seeing the situation with Katrina the victims are still suffering from the consequences of wrong choice of emergency shelters. According to Joe Hagerman, and Brian Doherty in their paper Two & a Half Years Later: Surviving the FEMA Aftermath…, FAS, 21 st February 2008, the main cause of failure of the FEMA trailers was that the inability of the FEMA organization to procure timely and quality shelters for the disaster victims. They made the purchase decision in a hurry that resulted in further suffering for the inhabitants. Thus, in this thesis we will be looking for shelters that are more durable and environmentally livable. Figure3.1 Mobile House Source: Caravan and mobile homes <http://www2.midbeds.gov.uk/services/env_services/home_environment/caravans_mobilehomes/ default.asp> 15 Mobile Homes, viewed on 12 October 2009, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_homes> 29 c. “Structural Insulated Panels 16 (or structural insulating panels): (or structural insulating panels), SIPs, are a composite building material. They consist of a sandwich of two layers of structural board with an insulating layer of foam in between. The board can be sheet metal or oriented strand board (OSB) and the foam either expanded polystyrene foam (EPS), extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) or polyurethane form. Other manufacturers even make panels with reinforced concrete layers sandwiching recycled material insulation on the inner layer. SIPs share similar structural properties to an I- beam or I-column. The rigid insulation core of the SIP performs as a web transferring shear between the outer layers, while the OSB sheathing exhibits similar properties to the flanges of an I-section. SIPs replace several components of conventional building wall and floor construction such as studs and joists, insulation, vapor barrier and air barrier. As such, they can be used for many different applications such as exterior wall, roof, floor and foundation systems.” Structurally Insulated Panel Modular Housing Company overview Structurally insulated panels are manufactured by a number of companies, including Green Horizon Manufacturing LLC that graciously shared information about their products for this thesis. Green Horizon Manufacturing LLC 17 specializes “in manufacturing self-sustaining housing and commercial modular solutions. It was founded in 2007 and based in San Francisco, California, USA. Green Horizon has developed a 16 Structurally Insulated Panel, viewed on 12 October 2009, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_insulated_panel> 17 Green Horizons Manufacturing LLC, viewed on 12 October 2009, <http://www.greenhorizonmfg.com.htm> 30 patented building system that they believe is environmentally responsible, easily deployed anywhere in the world, and designed to be completely self-sufficient without the need for an external infrastructure. Green Horizon structures offer value, design and engineering innovation that they claim are unmatched by any other emergency housing or temporary building solutions.” The modular house was exhibited in the West Coast Green conference 2009, where I got an opportunity to study the system in great detail. The system by itself looked quite efficient. It had its own sewage treatment system (figure 3.4), photovoltaic panels (figure 3.5) on the roof, a small workable kitchen, living area with two bedrooms and a bathroom. The unique thing about the system was its transportability options. The house can resize to fit into a shipping container and also has a valid permit to be trailer driven on the roads as shown in figure 3.2. After reaching the destination it lowers its footing and is ready to use (figure 3.3). Figure3.2 SIP Prefab System: Trailer with a legal permit Source: Author 31 Figure3.3 SIP Prefab System: Foundation Source: Author Figure3.4 SIP Prefab System: Sewer treatment Plant Source: Author 32 Duraform Building Panels: 18 This is a manufacturing facility that produces components for the construction of single and multi-family dwellings. The components, based mainly on panelized technology, are readily adaptable to any floor plan and can be used to construct schools, storage facilities and military barracks and a variety of other military and civilian structural applications. The Duraform Building Panel (DBP) system combines the strength of aluminum framing with the insulation properties of expanded polystyrene (EPS). According to the manufacturer “these are thermally resistant, high performance building systems that are strong, light in weight and energy efficient. The system offers a host of advantages over conventional building techniques including energy efficiency, faster installation time, labor savings, and more. It adds greater construction efficiency and sustainable product value to the project. Figure3.5 SIP Prefab System: Photovoltaic Panels on the roof Source: Author 18 Duraform Building Panels, <http://duraformpanels.com/> 33 Following are some of the merits of this system as claimed by Durafoam Building Panel System. Benefits of DBP It is energy efficient — heating and cooling bills can be reduced drastically, comfortable- structures are less “drafty” and provide enhanced sound insulation, environmentally friendly, made from recycled materials, superior insulation, sound dampening, engineered to reduce smoke and flame spread, does not enable mold, mildew and moisture, last but not the least lightweight”. About the system The system that we will be looking at in great detail has a capacity to accommodate six people in its two bedroom shelter. Duraform building panel state that the shelter is a safe, humane, cost-effective emergency housing for distressed families in need. They also add that the house is an environmentally-responsible, fully-featured home, equipped with essential supplies and completely independent of outside services. According to the Green Horizon Manufacturing the shelter is fully transportable as it fits a 40’x8’ shipping container. They also claim that the unit can be fully deployed by two people in few hours, without having special skills. Another advantage stated is its modular nature, with which it can be networked with other similar systems to expand and help in long term deployment. 34 S. No. Specification SIP panel Modular System 1 Envelope SIP section: 4" thick nitroply + aluminium plate + nitroply 2 Structure Steel framing, moment frame 3 Weight Approx. 20,000 pound 4 Foundation 12 pier @ 2500 pounds (Steel tubing + concrete with embedded steel reinforcement) 5 HVAC system 3 split AC units @ 20,000 Btu 6 Sewer System External storage system, filtration system for grey water 7 Solar Panel System panels @ 10 watt, invertors and convertors 8 Lighting 10 CFL ceiling mounted & DC converted 9 Water Storage Two water tanks imbedded in floor 10 Window Type Low e, argon filled double glazed Table 3.1: Sip Modular House: Specifications 19 19 James Pope, Designer, Green Horizons Manufacturing LLC,<http://www.greenhorizonmfg.com.htm> 35 Figure 3.6 The Modular Structure: Rear side has wheels with which the entire house can be hooked to Car can be transported or moved to a specific location Source: Author Figure 3.7 The Modular Kitchen: Equipped with energy efficient appliances. Source: Author 36 Container Modular Housing System Introduction Shipping containers are now available everywhere and most of them have been discarded at destination ports because they are more expensive to be shipped back empty. They even say that “There are enough shipping containers on earth to build an eight-foot high wall around the equator–twice. Most goods shipped overseas or by train travel in these containers, and many nations import far more containers than they export. Empty containers then accumulate because it is too expensive and wasteful to ship them back to their countries of origin–the United States in particular has a large surplus of containers due to its trade deficit. Thus if we can make good use of them for constructing low income housing or emergency housing they can be great resource” (Center for American Progress, Article dated April 1 st , 2009). Thus, if we can make good use of this waste material, it can ease a lot of pressure on conventional virgin building materials. Figure 3.8 Thousands of shipping containers at the terminal at Port Elizabeth, New Jersey. Source: Wikipedia, Containerization < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization> 37 Container Architecture Definitions: Shipping Containers can be defined as, “Containers which have a specific strength to withstand shipment, storage and handling. Shipping containers are generally large steel boxes designed to be stacked one above the other. These are large reusable steel boxes that can be transported easily from one place to the other.” 20 Another interesting and new type of architecture developed recently is shipping container architecture. It can be defined as “a form of architecture using steel intermodal containers (shipping containers) as structural element, because of their inherent strength, wide availability and relatively low cost. The shipping containers are not just restricted to the use of housing but have wide application in emergency housing, military bases, camping sites, Concession Stands, Fire Training Facility, Medical clinics, Radar stations, Shopping malls, Recording Studios, Data centers, Clandestine Cannabis gardens, Bathrooms, Showers, Workshops etc.” 21 Thus, shipping containers can have a huge role in the field of construction and especially emergency shelters. 20 Containerization, Viewed on 25 September 2009, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization> 21 Shipping Container architecture, Viewed on 25 September, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping_container_architecture> 38 Table 3.2 shows some of the standard sizes of the containers that are available in the market. The great thing about these containers is that they always match up and are exact in dimension which makes construction with them very standardized and universal in nature. Type Internal Dimensions External Dimensions 40' Dry Freight Container Maximum Gross Weight: 67,200 lbs. Tare Weight: 7,782 lbs. Payload: 59,417 lbs. Capacity: 2,376 cu. ft. Length: 39' 1" Width: 7' 6" Height: 7' 8" Length: 40' Width: 8' Height: 8' 6" 20' Dry Freight Container Maximum Gross Weight: 67,200 lbs. Tare Weight: 4,850 lbs. Payload: 62,350 lbs. Capacity: 1,164 cu. ft. Length: 19' 2" Width: 7' 6" Height: 7' 8" Length: 19' 10" Width: 8' Height: 8' 6" 45' High Cube Dry Container Maximum Gross Weight: 71,656 lbs. Tare Weight: 10,449 lbs. Payload: 61,200 lbs. Capacity: 3,037 cu. ft. Length: 44' 6" Width: 7' 6" Height: 8' 10" Length: 45' Width: 8' Height: 9' 6" Table 3.2 Standard Dimensions of Shipping Containers 22 22 Shipping Container Housing Guide, Viewed on 12 December,<http://www.shipping-container-housing.com/shipping- container-standard-dimensions.html 39 B.3 Benefits of Building with Shipping Containers New Zealand pioneers in shipping container house design and construction company Addis Containers states some of the benefits of designing house with shipping containers as following 23 : 1. “Modularity: Containers are like giant Lego blocks. There are unlimited spatial combinations they can be combined into. Figure 3.9 Modularity: Same concept as Legos Source: Container Architecture, Jure Kotnik 23 Addis Containers, as viewed on 29 th December 2009, <http://www.containerarchitecture.co.nz/benefits.html 40 2. Flexibility: They are modular in nature, therefore can change through time and adapt to spatial needs of the occupiers. Fig 3.10 Flexibility Source: Container Architecture, Jure Kotnik 3. Low Structural Cost - High Strength: Shipping containers offer a huge structural strength for a fraction of the cost of traditional timber steel and concrete constructions. Because all the strength is contained in the structural elements themselves, the foundation design is simpler and less expensive. Figure 3.11 Speedy and Sturdiness Source: Container Architecture, Jure Kotnik Fig 3.4 Speed and Sturdiness Source: Container Architecture, Jure Kotnik 41 4. Small Footprint - Large Living Area: This construction technique is ideal for multi-story dwellings or office space, offering a large usable area in a small footprint. 5. Short Construction Time: Once the plan is designed, the containers are prepared and fitted out at the workshop. Construction time onsite can be as little as 7 days to a fully weatherproofed condition. 6. Unlimited Potential for Difficult Sites: the Addis container construction company claims that the structural strength of the Addis engineering technique can be used to overcome design problems posed by difficult sites”. 24 24 Addis Containers, as viewed on 29 th December 2009, <http://www.containerarchitecture.co.nz/benefits.html 42 Company overview 25 Userops is a private company categorized under Trailers-Camping and Travel Manufacturers and located in Covington, LA. It employs a staff of approximately four. It is a very small firm and specializes in manufacturing of travel trailers and campers. About the system: The Modular houses are made up of steel shipping containers which are known for their heavy-duty and versatility in transportation for over forty years. The structure is certified for 110 mph wind rating. The wall and roof is made up of durable steel. The floor is a concrete slab with steel cross members welded every 12 in. Features: 1. The structure is designed for quick installation. 2. The modules are designed to be reused as the interiors are also made up of durable steel and metal furnishings. 3. These houses can be easily stacked both horizontally as well as vertically. 4. The composition of the house is very neat with two bedrooms, dining area, kitchen & washer/dryer facility. 25 Genesis Userops, LLC, < www.manta.com/c/mt1grpq/userops-l-l-c 43 Table 3.3: Container House: Specifications 26 26 "Genesis", Userops, LLC, Bryant Caruso, <http://www.ci.corvallis.or.us/council/mail-archive/mayor/pdfsj37jjZBdW.pdf> S. No. Specification Container system 1 Wall Walls are finished with scratch resistant wood grain paneling from the inside. 2 Floor Concrete finished floor 3 Roof Ceiling is finished with scratch resistant wood grain paneling from the inside. 4 Window Type Large 40"x52" windows (double glazed/vacuum sealed) with sliding screens. Windows have removable steel covers. 5 Weight N/A 6 Foundation N/A 7 HVAC system Split Air conditioner 8 DHW System Instantaneous on demand system 9 Sewer System N/A 10 Solar Panel System panels @ 300 watts , 1300 amps 11 Lighting Ceiling mounted lights use a standard 12" long fluorescent type tube with plastic cover. 12 Water Storage N/A 44 Figure 3.12 Shipping Container Shelter Source: Genesis", Userops, LLC, Bryant Caruso, <http://www.ci.corvallis.or.us/council/mail- archive/mayor/pdfsj37jjZBdW.pdf> Figure 3.13 Shipping Container Shelter: Interior Figure 3.14 Shipping Container Shelter: Interior Source: Genesis", Userops, LLC, Bryant Caruso, <http://www.ci.corvallis.or.us/council/mail- archive/mayor/pdfsj37jjZBdW.pdf> 45 Chapter 4: Methodology and Data Collection The main aim of this thesis is to analyze environmental and structural applicability of the two prefab modular emergency shelters for three different climate zones of California. Methodology in pursuing this goal involves six steps: 1. Obtain data from both the manufacturing companies. Get the material specification as well as details of the structure. 2. Model the two case studies as accurately as possible in the geometric modeling software called DesignBuilder. 3. Perform a thermal analysis using DesignBuilder which uses EnergyPlus as the simulation engine. Perform the analysis for three different climate zones of California. The climate zones chosen are: Climate Zone 16 which is primarily cold, Climate Zone 15 which is a huge valley area with high humidity, and Climate Zone 13 which is characterized by wide swings in temperature, both between summer and winter and between day and night. 4. Model the structure in SAP2000 structural analysis software. 5. Analyze the structural capabilities of the prefab modular structure for the worst load cases. The analysis is especially done to assess the seismic capability of the structure. 6. Compare the results of the three climate zones and make possible suggestions. 46 Environmental Analysis Methodology Climate Zones of California: The state of California is divided into 16 different climate zones. Each zone has a particular climate type. One can see stark contrasts like extreme cold to desert and from perfectly pleasant to extremely hot and humid. The climate zones are based on energy use, temperature, weather and other factors. They are basically a geographic area that has similar climatic characteristics. These climate zones were developed by the Energy Commission. Originally, the weather data was developed for each climate zone by using unmodified data for a representative city and weather year (representative months from various years). Using this information, they created representative temperature data for each zone. The remainder of the weather data for each zone is still that of the representative city. 27 Figure 4.1 California Climate Zones Source: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 27 The list of representative cities is attached as Appendix A 47 Climates Zones under consideration: For the simplification of the thesis, the environmental analysis was narrowed down from the list of 16 climates to their most variable and extreme climates. Tests are conducted using thermal models for these three climate zones, primarily due to their extreme and worst climatic nature. Further it can be concluded that if the models show indoor comfortable temperatures in theses climates, they would most likely work in all the other climate zones of California as the models have been tested for the worst cases. In the next section we will discuss in detail these three climates so that we understand and can relate to the analysis and results. The Three Climate Zones are: 1. Climate Zone 16 2. Climate Zone 15 3. Climate Zone 13 48 Climate Zone 16 Reference City: Bishop Latitude: 37.22 N Longitude: 118.22 W Elevation: 4108 ft Figure 4.2 California Climate Zone 16 Source: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 49 Climate 28 “Climate Zone 16 is a high, mountainous and semi-arid region above 5,000 feet in elevation. It covers a large area from the Oregon Border to San Bernardino County. The climate is mostly cold, but seasonal changes are well defined and summer temperatures can be mild. Temperature varies tremendously with the slope orientation and elevation, but cool temperatures and snow cover predominate for more than half of the year as shown in Figure 4.3 29 . Fortunately, summer temperatures are modest, although the nights are cool. The annual precipitation can be between 30-60 inches a year in this large geographic region, 90% of which falls in the winter. “ Figure 4.3 Degree Days Source: California Climate Zone http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/about/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/california_clima te_zone_16.pdf 28 Climate Zone 16: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 29 Climate Consultant 4.0: Free Software for climate Analysis < http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.edu/> 50 Figure 4.5 Psychrometric Chart Source: Climate Consultant 4.0 Figure 4.4 Outdoor Temperature Range Source: Climate Consultant 4.0 51 Climate Zone 15 Reference City: Needles Latitude: 32.95 N Longitude: 115.55 W Elevation: 0 ft Figure 4.6 California Climate Zone 15 Source: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 52 Climate 30 “Climate Zone 15 is the low desert and is characterized by extremely hot and dry summers and moderately cold winters. The average temperature in this climate is much higher than any other zone in California, especially in the summer. The levels of humidity are also well below the comfort levels throughout the year. This results in a large diurnal temperature range and very cool nights. One of the characteristic features of this zone is clear skies most of the year with an annual sunshine of about 85%. Most of the precipitation is experienced in the months of summer due to the summer storms. August is the wettest month, with 1 inch of rain. The winters are relatively short and mild, and experience occasional frost condition. While some heating is required during the winter, cooling is the overwhelming concern for designing within Zone 15 as is evident from the temperatures shown in Figure 4.7.” Figure 4.7 Degree Days Source: California Climate Zone <http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/about/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/california_clim ate_zone_15.pdf> 30 Climate Zone 15: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 53 Figure 4.9 Psychrometric Chart Source: Climate Consultant 4.0 Figure 4.8 Outdoor Temperature Range Source: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 54 Climate Zone 13 Reference City: Fresno Latitude: 36.46 N Longitude: 119.43 W Elevation: 328 ft Figure 4.10 California Climate Zone 13 Source: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 55 Climate 31 “This climate experiences high summer daytime temperatures and constant sunshine throughout the year. These characteristics make this climate an ideal place to farm citrus trees. It has a constant and a long growing season. Summer humidity is higher here than in other parts of the Central Valley, making cooling energy consumption higher in comparison. Precipitation occurs during the months between November and April on average 1.5" and more per month. The winter chill can be quite intense, and piercing north winds can blow for several days at a time in the winter. Tule fog (extremely thick low fog) blankets the region for days 32 in the winter. This climate has almost equal number of heating days as the cooling days as is apparent in the Degree Day graph shown in Figure 4.11”. Figure 4.11 Degree Days Source: California Climate Zone <http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/about/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/california_clim ate_zone_13.pdf> 31 Climate Zone 13: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 56 Figure 4.13 Psychrometric Chart Source: Climate Consultant 4.0 Figure 4.12 Outdoor Temperature Range Source: Guide to California Climate Zones <http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml> 57 Designbuilder: (Energy Plus) DesignBuilder is a relatively new building energy simulation and visualization tool. It was developed for use at all stages of building design, from the conceptual level to the designing of details like fenestration, etc. DesignBuilder combines thermal simulation software with an easy-to-use yet powerful 3D modeler interface. DesignBuilder’s features allow complex buildings to be modeled rapidly by non-expert users. It uses the EnergyPlus simulation engine. This tool is very easy to use and is suitable for use by architects, consulting engineers, researchers and students. A trial version of the software is available at www.designbuildersoftware.com/index.php. Some typical applications are: that are stated by the software developer are 33 : • “Calculating building energy use • Evaluating façade options for overheating and visual appearance • Visualization of site layouts and solar shading • Thermal simulation of naturally ventilated buildings • Lighting control systems model savings in electric lighting from daylight • Calculating heating and cooling equipment sizes “ 33 Design Builder, Viewed on 24th September 2009, <http://www.designbuildersoftware.com/designbuilder.php> 58 Preparation of the Thermal Simulation Model To prepare the simulation model for these modular houses in any simulation program is a little difficult, to some extent. That is because of the significant variation in type of construction method used for the houses. Like other simulation programs, DesignBuilder also has a design development wizard. This wizard makes the process very easy for input of the data. Normally, the wizard breaks the whole development process into six broad categories that are sub divided to very minute details. The six categories are Layout, Activity, Construction, Openings, Lighting and HVAC system. Each window is specific to its nature and gives an optional selection for a particular material, equipment or type input. To achieve the closest simulation results it is required to create the same situation, surroundings and construction type as the original building design. Sometime it is difficult as the site conditions are varying and the overall design is also too complicated to input. For the Modular shelter systems, we tried to create a simulation model that is closest to the building’s nature. The following Figures from 4.14.1 to 4.14.8 show all the selected inputs for a better understanding of the preparation and changes in the simulation model. 59 Figure 4.14.1 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Layout Template A. This Part of the screen refers to the various zones of the building. In my case the unit is very small so all the zones have similar conditions. The different zones of my unit are master bedroom, kitchen, bathroom, kid’s room and living area. B. On this part of the screen one can model/draw their building. Visualization is always important in understanding and analysis. A B 60 Figure 4.14.3 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Activity Template The generic activity data is loaded by clicking on the Template option under Activity Template. When a selection is made from the list of Activity templates, data from the selected template is loaded to the model. All Activity data is used to generate simulation data at the Zone level. The template used in the study is of Lounge Dormitory Dwelling which is the closest match to a residential activity pattern. Figure 4.14.4 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Activity Template 61 Figure 4.14.5 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Construction Template DesignBuilder uses construction components to model the conduction of heat through walls, roofs, ground and other opaque parts of the building envelope. Constructions can be selected on the Constructions model data tab to define the thermo physical and visual properties of the various internal and external surface elements in the building. Here we define the kind of wall, roof, partitions, etc. to the very detail of material used, type of construction and the R- Values of the sections. 62 Figure 4.14.6 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Openings Template The term “opening” is used in DesignBuilder to describe any opening in the main building fabric. This tab helps you define the kind of opening that you require for your model. The description can be in terms of glass properties, frame type or the size of the opening. These are modeled as exceptions to the main surface construction. 63 Figure 4.14.7 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: HVAC Template HVAC can be defined in DesignBuilder using simple options. The heating/cooling system is modeled using basic loads calculation algorithms. One can also specify the intricate details of the system that need to be installed in the model. Mechanical ventilation loads are calculated locally for each zone which gives accuracy to each zone and calculation and therefore no assumptions have to be made. The heating/cooling systems are defined in DesignBuilder using compact HVAC descriptions but modeled in detail in EnergyPlus. 64 Figure 4.14.8 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Analysis showing comparisons between various variables like temperature, PPD, energy etc Figure 4.14.9 Screen Shot DesignBuilder: Analysis graph showing annual fuel consumption 65 Thermal Simulation of Structurally Insulated Panel Modular House A lot of assumptions had to be made while modeling this structure in DesignBuilder. The assumptions were made in terms of the kind of materials that were available in the DesignBuilder materials list. Table 4.1 compares the elements in the original and the ones assumed in the model. Figure 4.15 SIP System Plan Wall Section: In DesignBuilder one can define and work out the detail wall, roof and slab sections. Figure 4.16 shows an image of a wall section detailed out for this SIP Modular House system. 38’ 12’ Figure 4.16 SIP Wall Section 66 Table 4.1: Modular Structure Comparison (Model vs. Original) 34 Green Horizons Manufacturing LLC, James Pope, Designer, <http://www.greenhorizonmfg.com.htm> S.No Specification SIP Modular System 34 As Modeled 1 Wall SIP section: 4" thick nitroply+al plate+ Nitroplate SIP section: 1/2" OSB + 3.5" Expanded EPS +1/2" OSB R Value = 18 2 Floor SIP section: 4" thick nitroply+al plate+ Nitroplate SIP section: 1/2" OSB + 4" Expanded EPS +1/2" OSB R Value = 20 3 Roof SIP section: 4" thick nitroply+al plate+ Nitroplate SIP section: 1/2" OSB + 4.5" Expanded EPS +1/2" OSB R Value = 26 4 Window Type Low e, argon filled double glazed Double Clear low Iron 3mm/13mm Argon 5 Foundation 12 pier @ 2500 pounds (Steel tubing + concrete with embedded steel reinforcement N/A 6 HVAC system 3 split AC units @ 20,000 Btu Unitary Single Zone System Heating: Cop 3.4 Cooling Cop : 3.1 7 DHW System Instantaneous on demand system Instantaneous on demand system 8 Sewer System External storage system, filtration system for grey water N/A 9 Solar Panel System panels @ 10 watt, invertors and convertors N/A 10 Lighting 8 cfl ceiling mounted (0.25watts/ft 2 ) Suspended ceiling and 0.15 watts/ft 2 11 Water Storage Two water tanks imbedded in floor N/A 67 Thermal Simulation of Shipping Container Modular House Similar to the SIP structure a lot of assumptions had to be made while modeling this structure in DesignBuilder as well. Table 4.2 compares the elements in the original and the ones assumed in the model. The most challenging part was to model the steel skin of the container. Figure 4.17 Shipping Container Plan Wall Section: In DesignBuilder one can define and work out the detail wall, roof and slab sections. Figure 4.18 shows an image of a wall section detailed out for this Container system. The model was incapable in designing the steel corrugations but the overall section of the wall match the performance of the section detailed out for the structure. 40' 8’ Figure 4.18 Shipping Container Wall Section 68 S.No. Specification Container system As Modeled 1 Wall Walls are finished with scratch resistant wood grain paneling. Steel section: 0.05” Steel + 2.5” Expanded EPS +0.05” Steel + ½” Gypsum Board R Value = 11 2 Floor Concrete finished floor Concrete slab 3” R Value = 13 3 Roof Ceiling is finished with scratch resistant wood grain paneling. Steels section: 1/8” + 1/2” OSB + 2.5”Expanded EPS +1/2” OSB R Value = 11 4 Window Type Large 40”x52” windows (double glazed/vacuum sealed) with sliding screens. Windows have removable steel covers. Double Clear 3mm/6mm Air 5 HVAC system N/A Multi Zone Split type System Heating: Cop 3.4 Cooling Cop : 3.1 6 DHW System Instantaneous on demand system Instantaneous on demand system 7 Solar Panel System panels @ 300 watts , 1300 amps N/A 8 Lighting Ceiling mounted lights use a standard 12” long fluorescent type tube with plastic cover. Suspended ceiling, 2 foot candles and 0.15 watts/ft 2 Table 4.2 Shipping Container System Comparison (Model vs. Original) 69 Structural Analysis Methodology Collection of Structural Data The second major task was to collect data for the structural analysis of the SIP modular structure and container structure. But due to lack of information for the container structure, this study only covers analysis of the SIP panel system. The main structure of SIP panel modular system is primarily a moment frame structure. The structure of this housing system was very complicated and modeling the intricate details of the connections and joints was beyond the scope of this thesis. 35 Therefore, for the purpose of basic and fundamental structural analysis certain assumptions were made. Figure 4.19 SIP Modular system Structure: 3D view (Structural drawings) Source: Green Horizons Manufacturing LLC, James Pope, Designer 35 Detailed Structural Drawings for the SIP modular system attached as Appendix B 70 SAP2000 Advance 14.0 “SAP2000 is an analytical tool for structural analysis by Computers & Structures, Inc. being used worldwide since its introduction over 30 years ago. It is quite a versatile tool helpful in any type of structure analysis. The software is very user friendly and the interface is very straightforward and easy to handle. From its 3D object based graphical modeling environment to the wide variety of analysis and design options completely integrated across one powerful user interface, SAP2000 is one of the most integrated, productive and practical general purpose structural program. This intuitive interface allows you to create structural models rapidly and intuitively without long learning curve delays. Complex Models can be generated and meshed with powerful Templates built into the interface. Loading can be applied easily in a number of different ways.” 36 Modeling in SAP2000 Figure 4.20 SIP Modular system Structure: 3D view Source: SAP2000 v14.0 36 Computer and Structure, Inc, SAP2000, viewed on March 22 2009, <http://www.csiberkeley.com/products_SAP.html> 71 Frame Section Type Analysis Section Design Section 1 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 2 Box/Tube 6x3x.25 6x3x.25 3 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 4 Box/Tube 6x3x.25 6x3x.25 5 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 6 Box/Tube 6x3x.25 6x3x.25 7 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 8 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 9 Channel C4x2x0.25 C4x2x0.25 10 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 11 Channel C4x2x0.25 C4x2x0.25 12 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 13 Channel C4x2x0.25 C4x2x0.25 14 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 15 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 16 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 17 Channel C4x2x0.25 C4x2x0.25 29 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 30 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 31 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 32 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 Table 4.3 Frame Section Assignments 72 Frame Section Type Analysis Section Design Section 32 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 35 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 36 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 37 Box/Tube 6x3x.25 6x3x.25 38 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 39 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 41 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 42 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 43 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 44 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 45 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 46 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 47 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 48 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 49 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 50 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 51 Box/Tube 6x3x.25 6x3x.25 52 Box/Tube 6x3x.25 6x3x.25 56 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 57 Box/Tube 5x5x.25 5x5x.25 Table 4.3 Frame Section Assignments Table 4.3, Continued 73 Material properties This section provides material property information for materials used in the model. Material Unit Weight Unit Mass E1 G12 U12 A1 Kip/in 3 Kip-s2/in 4 Kip/in 2 Kip/in 2 1/F 4000Psi 8.6806E-05 2.2483E-07 3604.99 1502.082 0.20 5.5000E-06 A36 2.8356E-04 7.3446E-07 29000.00 11153.846 0.30 6.5000E-06 A500GrB46 2.8356E-04 7.3446E-07 29000.00 11153.846 0.30 6.5000E-06 A992Fy50 2.8356E-04 7.3446E-07 29000.00 11153.846 0.30 6.5000E-06 Table 4.4 Material Properties - Basic Mechanical Properties Section properties This section provides section property information for objects used in the model. Section Name Material Shape t3 t2 tf tw in in in in 5x5x.25 A500GrB46 Box/Tube 5.00 5.00 0.25 0.2500 6x3x.25 A500GrB46 Box/Tube 6.00 3.00 0.25 0.2500 C4x2x0.25 A36 Channel 4.00 2.00 0.25 0.2500 Table 4.5 Frame Section Properties 74 Figure 4.21 SIP Modular system Structure: Extruded section view Source: SAP2000 v14.0 75 Chapter 5: Data Analysis In the previous chapter we saw the procedure followed to model the emergency shelter types in both thermal as well as structural analysis tools. In the following sections it will be seen how the simulations were run as well as a comparison of results for each analysis. This chapter is again divided into two parts: 1. Thermal Analysis: This part of the chapter includes a comparative study of the two types of emergency shelters for three different Californian climate zones. This section also highlights any unexpected behavior of the two models. 2. Structural Analysis: This section includes various load test cases run for different zip codes of California to analyze regions where the Structural Insulated Panel Modular Housing system would work, emphasizing on the high seismic activity in the Californian region. 76 Thermal Analysis The thermal analysis was carried out for all three climate zones for the two transitional emergency shelters and for four different orientations (N, S, E, and W). Different orientations were analyzed as in real life where these modular housing units can be placed in any direction so the factor of orientation can be explored. To make the analysis more comprehendible we will discuss each climate with respective orientation one by one. The simulations were run for two conditions, units with HV AC system in place and without HV AC system in place. The other conditions like lighting, DHW system, etc. were kept the same for an even analysis. The main reason for running simulations for these two conditions is to see how comfortable these shelter systems are without any mechanical system and how is the building envelope performing and adapting to the climate. With the HV AC system in place we get quick numbers for how much energy would be consumed by the system to maintain normal comfort settings. 77 Four Orientations: The four orientations that were chosen for the analysis were North, South, East and West. There are possibilities for different orientations, but for the ease of calculations and analysis these four orientations were simulated in the software. The following section illustrates the building plans in different orientations. It gives a brief idea about the window placements and layout of the building for different orientations. Structurally Insulated Panel: North Orientation: North orientation is defined to mean that the front of the building, the patio is facing the north side. 86 ft 2 of window are facing north and 30 ft 2 of window are facing south in this orientation. Figure 5.1 SIP Modular Shelter- North Orientation 78 South Orientation: In this orientation the patio faces the south direction and the small windows are on the north side. 86 ft 2 of window are facing south and 30 ft 2 of window are facing north. Figure 5.2 SIP Modular Shelter- South Orientation East Orientation: In this orientation the patio faces the east direction and the small windows are on the western side. In this case 86ft 2 of window faces east side and 30 ft 2 on west side. Figure 5.3 SIP Modular Shelter- East Orientation 79 West Orientation: In this orientation the patio faces the west direction and the small windows are on the east side. Figure 5.4 SIP Modular Shelter- West Orientation Shipping Container Shelter: North Orientation: On the contrary to the SIP system, in this system the windows are only on one side and the same side as the front entrance. Thus, in this orientation we can say that the windows are facing north and it is about 38ft 2 . Figure 5.5 Shipping Container Modular Shelter- North Orientation 80 South Orientation: In this case all the windows face the south. Figure 5.6 Shipping Container Modular Shelter- North Orientation East Orientation West Orientation Figure 5.7 Shipping Container Modular Shelter- East and West Orientation 81 Climate Zone 16 As stated in the last chapter this climate zone experiences a very large range of temperatures. The temperatures go as low as 10deg F during the winter months. Thus, it was interesting to see how the two modular houses behaved in this type of climate. Figure 5.8 shows a comparative analysis of the indoor temperature simulated in the SIP modular system. The difference between the fuel consumption of the two orientations north-south and east-west is immense. The west orientation requires about 28% more energy than the north orientation as can be seen in figure 5.9. The reason being very high solar heat gain through windows. But a unique thing is seen in the energy consumption graph for the month of January. More energy is being consumed on the south orientation in a winter month as compared to the north orientation, as seen in figure 5.10. The reason being over heating from the sun on the southern side increased the usage of the chiller in the month of January (figure 5.11). A very similar pattern of indoor temperature is seen in the case of the container structure system as seen in figure 5.12. 82 Figure 5.8 Comparative Temperature analysis in climate zone 16 with four different orientations for SIP structure 83 Figure 5.9 Monthly fuel breakdown for the SIP modular system for the four orientations Figure 5.10 Daily Solar Heat Gain for the month of January for South and North orientation for SIP modular system Figure 5.11 Annual chiller usage comparison for the South and North orientation for SIP modular system 84 Figure 5.12 Comparative Temperature analysis in climate zone 16 with four different orientations for Container structure 85 To concentrate only on the thermal performance of the system, temperatures were recorded after taking out the HV AC system from the Modular shelters. When we see the comparative analysis after taking out the HV AC system of both SIP and container structure for indoor temperatures (figure 5.13), we see that months like April, May, October and November have relatively more comfortable average temperatures. If we break it down further we see that the best performance is seen for SIP structure with south orientation. When the indoor conditions of a structure without HV AC systems are as comfortable as the case with HV AC systems it just shows that the load on the system is almost negligible and the envelope is performing at its best. A similar condition is seen in the case of SIP structure for the months of October and November for the south orientation as shown in figure 5.14 and figure 5.15. 86 Figure 5.13 Comparative Temperature analysis in climate zone 16 with four different orientations for Container structure and SIP structure 87 Figure 5.14 Daily Temperature Analysis for the month of October for South orientation for SIP modular system Figure 5.15 Daily Temperature Analysis for the month of November for South orientation for SIP modular system 88 In the container shelter the north orientation performed better throughout the year, but in this case the south orientation performs better in terms of energy usage for the winter season. Figure 5.16 Monthly Fuel consumption for the four orientation for the Container system The unusual pattern of the fuel consumption during the winter season can be seen because of the solar gain through the exterior windows from the southern façade (figure5.17). But the reverse performance is seen during the hot season. Figure 5.17 Daily Solar Heat gain through windows for North and South orientation for the Container system 89 Climate Zone 15 Climate Zone 15 is the low desert and is characterized by extremely hot and dry summers and moderately cold winters. Thus, keeping those shelters cool using less energy was a challenge. Good performance in this extreme climate is very important. Figure 5.18 shows a comparative analysis of the indoor temperature simulated in the SIP modular system. We see that the system performs quite well during the relatively cooler months - October through March. Even without the HVAC system, the shelter falls in the comfort zone. 90 Figure 5.18 Comparative Temperature analysis for climate zone 15 with four different orientations for SIP structure 91 A similar pattern is seen in the monthly fuel consumption for both the types of structures (figure 5.19 and figure 5.209). The pattern is in direct relation with the comfort charts. Figure 5.19: Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the Container structure Figure 5.20: Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the SIP system 92 Figure 5.21 Comparative Temperature analysis for climate zone 15 with four different orientations for Container structure and SIP structure 93 Climate Zone 13 This climate has higher day time temperatures and lower night time temperatures. This climate has very distinctive summer as well as winter climate. Most of the precipitation is during the months of October to April. Thus, design has to cater to both heating and cooling loads. The general overview of the indoor temperatures for the different orientations for Structurally Insulated Panel Modular system is shown in Figure 5.22 and we see that the most effective orientation is the south orientation and the same conclusion is confirmed by the fuel consumption graph shown in the next figure 5.23. 94 Figure 5.22 Comparative Temperature analysis for climate zone 13 with four different orientations for SIP structure 95 Figure 5.23: Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the SIP structure When we compare the energy consumption by the two systems for this climate zone, it shows that the container system uses substantially less energy during the summer time while its performance during the winters is less efficient then the SIP panel structure. Figure 5.24: Monthly Fuel consumption for four different orientations for the Container structure 96 Figure 5.25: Annual Fuel breakdown for four different orientations for the SIP structure When we look at the detailed annual energy consumption of the SIP structure we see that the difference between the two orientations for the heating energy was almost the same but there was a considerable difference in the cooling loads. Figure 5.26: Monthly Fuel breakdown for two different orientations for the SIP structure 97 When we investigate further and compare the internal heat gains through the window for the months of February and March, we conclude that due to high solar heat gain through the windows in the southern orientation the cooling loads are increased considerably as compared to the northern orientation which does not get hit by direct sun. This could be greatly reduced by the addition of an overhang. Figure 5.27: Internal Gains for the months of February and March for Southern orientations for the SIP structure Figure 5.28: Internal Gains for the months of February and March for Northern orientations for the SIP structure 98 Comparative Analysis of the three climate zones for the structurally insulated Panel Modular Structure and the Shipping Container System: With the detailed analysis results for each climate zone we can now compare the worst and the best cases for each of the climate zones. In all the climate zones the best orientation is the one that consumes the least amounts of energy and is most comfortable. It is interesting to note that in most of the cases the best orientation was the south orientation and the worst being the west orientation as shown in Figure 5.29. Figure 5.28 shows a comparison of indoor temperature relative to the corresponding outside temperature for the worst and best orientations for the three climate zones. It shows that for the major part of the year in Climate Zone 15 the southern orientation falls within the comfort zone. A similar pattern is reflected in the energy usage of this climate zone for this orientation in Figure 5.30. 99 Figure 5.29 Comparative Temperature analysis for the worst and the best orientations for SIP structure 100 Figure 5.30 Comparative Energy consumption analysis for the worst and the best orientations for SIP structure 101 Figure 5.31 Comparative Temperature analysis for the worst and the best orientations for Shipping Container structure 102 Figure 5.32: Monthly Energy Consumption comparison for the best cases in each of the climate zones for both SIP and Container structure Figure 5.33: Monthly Energy Consumption comparison for the worst cases in each of the climate zones for both SIP and Container structure Figure 5.32 and 5.33 shows that if oriented properly, there can be 30-40% savings on the energy cost. It is easy to keep the two structures below 1500 Btu/ft 2 which is very low as compared to a standard American house. 103 SUMMARY From the above simulations in DesignBuilder it is realized that the software is quite sophisticated and it is quite capable of matching the original conditions of the model. To further use the software more effectively, more time needs to be invested with this. The important variable that we used and changed for different cases - Orientation; has a lot of impact on the amount of energy used as is seen when we compared the best and the worst orientation’s energy consumption of both the case studies. Out of the two systems, the container system consumes less energy per square foot than the SIP system though it is quite interesting to note that the overall R-value of the container system was much less than the SIP system. The possible reason for such a behavior would be the compactness and the design of the container system as the surface to volume ratio for the container system was much less then the SIP system. Also, the window to wall ratio was much higher in the container system as compared to the SIP structure system, which reduced the exposure to sun in summers and cold winds in winters considerably. This implies that with improved R values, the container system could be substantially better. With the simulation results for the two case studies it is seen that both the systems have a very similar pattern in terms of their thermal performance. The numbers vary but the pattern remains the same. The building envelope of the two systems is quite different in terms of window placements and the R-Value of the building skin, but interestingly their performance has a fixed pattern. The shipping container uses less energy. However, one cannot draw specific conclusions for these types of emergency shelters as two case studies are not enough but it is worth investigating further. 104 Structural Analysis A detailed structural analysis was carried out for the Structurally Insulated Panel Modular system. The main aim of the test was to check the seismic capabilities of this structure to withstand any kind of seismic disaster anywhere in the state of California. Approach: The approach is simple, the structure will be first tested for the worst load conditions that include, wind, snow, seismic, live and dead load possible in the state of California and then check for the regions where it would work and where it will not. In the previous chapter we discussed how we modeled the structure in the structural analysis tool called SAP2000 v14.0. In this section we will be discussing the kinds of loads that where assumed on the structure and other assumptions made for our study. Standard Followed: The document ASCE 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, is the basis for determining loads on structures for most American building codes including all of the building codes in effect in California. ASCE 7-05 37 : “This standard provides minimum load requirements for the design of buildings and other structures that are subject to building code requirements. Loads and appropriate load combinations, which have been developed to be used together, are set forth for strength design and allowable stress design. For design strengths and allowable stress limits, design specifications for conventional structural materials used in buildings and modifications contained in this standard shall be followed.” (ASCE 7-05, p. 1) 37 ASCE 7-05: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 2006, ASCE, VA 105 Important Terms: Occupancy Category 38 : “The occupancy category is simply a number, Roman Numeral I, II, III, or IV , and it affects the load requirement by adjusting the importance factor for the building in relationship to the risk to human life that would exist in the event of the failure AND the importance of avoiding a failure in an emergency due to the nature of the building's function in the event of an emergency. The higher the occupancy category number, the higher the importance of avoiding failure and keeping the building functioning in the event of an emergency.” Occupancy Category of Buildings (Ch 16, IBC Table 1604.5) I - Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure: Agricultural facilities, certain temporary facilities and minor storage facilities. II - Buildings and other structures except those listed in Occupancy Categories I, III and IV III - Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure. IV - Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities. A few examples include: Hospitals and other health care facilities having surgery or emergency treatment facilities. Fire, rescue, police stations and emergency vehicle garages, designated earthquake, hurricane or other emergency shelters, buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions. 38 Aaron Helberg, Structural integrity, 12 March 2008, <http://halbergengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/occupancy- category-what-is-it.html> 106 Assumptions for Seismic Design: a. Structure type 39 : Ordinary Steel Moment frame i. Response Modification Coefficient (R) = 3.5 ii. Deflection Amplification Factor (C d ) = 3 b. Soil Type 40 : Type D i. Site Coefficient (F a ) = 1.00 ii. Site Coefficient (F v ) = 1.5 c. Redundancy Factor (ρ) = 1.3 d. Occupancy category 41 = I e. Importance factor: 1.0 Assumptions for Snow Load Calculations: a. Exposure Factor 42 (C e ) = fully exposed roof with exposure D winds = 0.8 b. Thermal Factor 43 (C t ) = 1.0 c. Importance Factor 44 (I) = 1.0 d. Ground Snow Load 45 (P g ) = 10 psf e. Slope Factor 46 (C s ) = 1.0 for slope @ eaves < 30 o 39 Table 12.2-1, Design Coefficients and Factors for Seismic Force-Resisting System, ASCE 7-05, 2006 40 Table 11.4-1 & Table 11.4-2, Site Coefficient F a and F v , ASCE 7-05, 2006 41 Table 11.5-1, Importance factor, ASCE 7-05, 2006 42 Table 7-2, Exposure Factor, ASCE 7-05, 2006 43 Table 7-3, Thermal Factor, ASCE 7-05, 2006 44 Table 7-4, Importance factor, ASCE 7-05, 2006 45 Figure 7-1, Ground Snow Load, ASCE 7-05, 2006 46 Figure 7-3, Slope Factor, ASCE 7-05, 2006 107 Loads on the system a. Roof Dead Load = 15 psf b. Roof Live Load = 20 psf c. Floor Dead Load = 15 psf d. Floor Live load = 40 psf e. Wall Dead Load = 15 psf f. Snow Load = 6 psf g. Wind Load: Each case was tested for two types of wind pressure, the worst and the milder case. • Exposure D - wind speed 100 mph and maximum wind pressure = 41 psf. The corresponding wind load on the structure was 195 lb/ft • Exposure B - wind speed 85 mph and maximum wind pressure = 22 psf. • The corresponding wind load on the structure was 105 lb/ft Through our study it was found that the seismic loading was larger than the wind loading, so wind loading need not be investigated further. Therefore two base cases were prepared for the two different wind exposures, D and B and then the Structurally Insulated Panel system was tested for different Seismic Loads which varied for different Zip codes of California. Other loads remained constant for all analysis combinations. Load combinations are determined by material specification or the building code. The structure was checked to comply with the American Institute of Steel Construction provisions, AISC 341-05, incorporated into the SAP2000 analysis and design software used. 108 Test Case 1 The model was first tested for the most intense case in terms of seismicity. The largest seismic coefficient by zip code in the entire state is in McKinleyville, CA. Region: McKinleyville Zip code: 95519 Latitude: 40.949 o N Longitude: 124.09 o W Seismic Coefficient (C s ) = 0.716 Seismic Load = 11,360 lb The simulations were run for the first base case with wind pressure of 41 psf with the above calculated seismic load. Figure 5.34: SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing all the members 109 Figure 5.35: SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node Deflection = 0.53” Figure 5.36: SAP2000 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node Deflection = 0.54” 110 Figure 5.37: SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing the structure deflecting due to the live load Figure 5.38: SAP2000 Screen Shot –simulated SAP2000 model showing the structure deflecting due to the Snow load 111 Figure 5.39 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node 112 Figure 5.40 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the weakest node 113 Figure 5.41 Screen Shot – simulated SAP2000 model showing the final result The Figure 5.41 distinctly shows that the Structurally Insulated Panel Modular structure passes the worst load case scenario in California. 114 A hypothetical test case was run for testing the snow load capacity of the structure. The region with very high snow load was chosen that being Virginia Lakes, which is at an elevation of 9600ft has ground snow load given 47 as 285psf which calculates 48 to flat roof snow load of 220psf. A test case was run and it was found that the structure fails at that load and the allowable snow load limit for this structure is 175psf flat roof snow load. Although the structure fails at 285 psf it would be interesting to note that 285 psf snow is closely equal to about 8-10 feet high snow and with those conditions the house would be inaccessible and inhabitable!!! Summary: To our surprise the structure passed the most stringent live and dead load conditions and worst seismic loads. But the hypothetical test showed that the structure is limited to the amount of snow load that it can take. The test case is called hypothetical because it considers the worst loads in terms of snow, seismic and wind, which is a rear scenario. Thus, no further cases need to be considered and hence, it would be safe to say that this modular system would work in all the regions of California except for the places with roof snow loads more than 175psf. 47 Ground Snow Load p g psf - Roof Snow Load p f Conversion Table, 2007 California Building Code/ASCE 7-05 48 Flat Roof Snow Load p f =(.7)(0.9* or 1.0=C e )(1.1=C t )(1.0=I)p g = (psf) 115 Chapter 6: Observations and Conclusion The main aim of this thesis was to look at different kinds of emergency shelter available and how they compare with one another. This study also aimed at examining the possibility of using a Modular SIP panel housing structure for the purpose of transitional emergency shelter for the state of California. Thermal Analysis Observations: The following observations were made with the help of a detailed thermal analysis of the two systems: SIP structure and Container structure: 1. Out of the two systems, the container system consumes less energy per square foot than the SIP system though it is quite interesting to note that the overall R- value of the container system was much less than the SIP system. The possible reason for such a behavior would be the compactness and the design of the container system as the surface to volume ratio for the container system was much less than the SIP system. Also the wall to window ratio was much less in the container system as compared to the SIP structure system which reduced the exposure to sun in summers and cold winds in winters considerably. 2. It is intriguing to see the impact of orientation on the energy usage of the buildings. It was seen that if oriented properly there can be 30-40% savings on the energy cost or if energy is not available, a substantial improvement in comfort. This means that it is extremely important that the proper placement of the units should be conveyed to the emergency responders and the new occupants. 116 3. With the simulation results for the two case studies it is seen that both the systems have a very similar pattern in terms of their thermal performance. The numbers vary, but the pattern remains the same with some exceptions. 4. With the broad comparative analysis it is seen that both the systems work better in a cold and a moderate climate but have some difficulties in keeping it cool in extremely hot and arid types of climates. The addition of thermal mass might improve that behavior. Structural Analysis Conclusion With the testing of the structural model of the SIP system in SAP2000 software for all the possible worst load conditions in the region of California, we can conclude that the system would work everywhere in California except for the worst snow load conditions which is very rear and region specific. Thus, it is a robust and flexible solution for an emergency shelter for most of the regions in California. 117 Chapter 7: Future Work To Do The entire thesis process enhanced our knowledge about the thermal and structural performance and simulation of two possible emergency shelter buildings. As it was a first detailed attempt at studying these types of systems, there were some observations and notes that might be useful if someone is carrying out a similar study in the future. The suggestions for future work towards the continuation of this study include things that were not accomplished due to limited knowledge or time constraints. 7.1 Thermal and Structural Study: 1. This thesis has the complete and detailed thermal analysis for the two systems for three different Californian climate zones. Future work would expand the thermal testing of these systems for the whole of the United States or even the world. This can be done by dividing the world into different possible climate zones and then carrying out the analyses. 2. For the future thermal analysis study, more parameters can be included in the study like humidity, daylight, ventilation, etc. This would give a more accurate comfort analysis for a given space. 3. There might be consideration of other insulation or construction combinations, after studying various manufacturers’ versions of these solutions 118 4. The other field in which this thesis can be expanded is in terms of improving the systems by making simple design changes like adding shade, improving the envelope quality, etc. and then comparing the results with the base case. Also, one can explore the use of native materials in assembling the system so that it is more cost effective and can be a good solution for developing countries. 5. The current study considered relatively expensive emergency shelters for semi- permanent applications. It would be valuable to study less expensive shelters and more temporary systems. This would include detailed research on types of materials that can be used, innovative building techniques and time taken to erect one such unit and the sustainability aspect of the module. We get a fairly good idea on the possibilities available for different types of emergency shelters in chapter 2, so that can be a good start point. 6. It was interesting to see that the moment frame SIP structure worked extremely well for the worst load case conditions. Thus, this also provides a good opportunity to look at other similarly structured building and performing a detailed analysis on them. 7. Structural studies of container structures should be performed. Investigate another company’s product if information cannot be obtained from Userops. 119 8. Further research could include a database of emergency shelters that would help governments select the best type for their use. Important parameters include the following: • Environmental comfort • Structural capacity • Cost • Ease of construction • Duration of construction • Life expectancy of shelter • Sustainability • Land use of shelters (how many people per square foot (or acre, or some other unit of measure) can be housed in the shelter) • Transportability • Reusability 9. Development of an emergency response tool that selects the appropriate system in response to the hazard and location that has just occurred worldwide: hurricane, tsunami, earthquake in mountainous region, earthquake in urban center, etc. 120 Bibliography Ambrose, James E., Simplified design of steel structures, Wiley, 2007 Babister, E. and Kelman, I., The Emergency Shelter Process with Application to Case Studies in Macedonia and Afghanistan, The Martin Centre University of Cambridge, January 2002 Climate Consultant 4.0: Free Software for climate Analysis, URL: http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.edu/ Concrete Canvas, Viewed on 25 September 2009, URL: http://www.concretecanvas.co.uk/index.html Containerization, Viewed on 25 September 2009, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization Davis, I. R., Emergency Shelter, Disaster, the Journal of Disaster Studies, Policy and Management, p. 23-39 DesignBuilder, Free Software for trial for Building Energy Analysis URL: www.designbuildersoftware.com/index.php Disaster, Wikipedia, Viewed on 27 October 2009, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster Drabek, Thomas and Keith Boggs, Families in disaster: Reaction and relative, Journal of Marriage and Family, 1984 Genesis, Userops, LLC, Bryant Caruso, viewed on 12 October 2009, URL: http://www.ci.corvallis.or.us/council/mail-archive/mayor/pdfsj37jjZBdW.pdf Guide to California Climate Zones, 25 September 2009, URL: http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/arch/climate/index.shtml Hagerman, Joe and Doherty, Brian, Two & a Half Years Later: Surviving the FEMA Aftermath…, Federation of American Scientists, 21 February 2008 Hopeppe, Peter, World Natural Disasters – Effects and Trends, Geo Risk research, 16th November, 2005 Intershelter Domes, Viewed 25 September 2009, URL: http://www.intershelter.com/dome.cfm Kotnik, J, Container Architecture, Links Books, 2008 121 Monolithic Domes, Wikipedia, Viewed 22 March 2010, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolithic_dome x Mostaedi, Arian, Great spaces: flexible homes, Links, 2006 Narayanan, R., Steel framed structures: stability and strength, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 1985 James Pope, Designer, Green Horizons Manufacturing LLC, viewed on 12 October 2009, URL: http://www.greenhorizonmfg.com.htm Quarantelli, E.L., Patterns of sheltering and housing in American Disasters, Disaster Research Center University of Delaware, 1991 Sandbag Shelter, viewed on 25 September 2009, URL: http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=821 SAP2000 Advance 14.0, Software for detailed structural analysis and simulations, URL: http://www.csiberkeley.com/products_SAP.html Siegal, Jennifer, More mobile: Portable Architecture for today, Princeton Architectural Press, 2008 Structurally Insulated Panel, viewed on 12 October 2009, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_insulated_panel 122 Appendix A S. No. Californian Climate Zone Representative City 1. Climate Zone 1 Arcata 2. Climate Zone 2 Santa Rosa 3. Climate Zone 3 Oakland 4. Climate Zone 4 Sunnyvale 5. Climate Zone 5 Santa Maria 6. Climate Zone 6 Los Angeles 7. Climate Zone 7 San Diego 8. Climate Zone 8 El Toro 9. Climate Zone 9 Pasadena 10. Climate Zone 10 Riverside 11. Climate Zone 11 Red Bluff 12. Climate Zone 12 Sacramento 13. Climate Zone 13 Fresno 14. Climate Zone 14 China Lake 15. Climate Zone 15 Needles 16. Climate Zone 16 Bishop Table A-1: List of representative cities for the Californian Climate Zones 49 49 Guide to California Climate Zones, California Energy Commissions, 25 September 2009, 123 Appendix B: Structural Drawings for the Structurally Insulated Panel System Modular House. The following pages display the structural drawing for the SIP modular system. These were provided by the manufacturer, James Pope, Designer, Green Horizons Manufacturing. <http://www.energy.ca.gov/maps/building_climate_zones.html Figure B-1: Section A 124 Figure B-2: Section B Figure B-3: Section C 125 Figure B-4: Section D Figure B-5: Section E 126 Figure B-6: Section F

Abstract (if available)

Abstract “We all are aware of human impact in nature and its effects: pollution, deforestation, land mismanagement, the green house effect, and more, have accelerated the rate of disasters. Added to that are the man-made disasters

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rathi, Vasudha (author)

Core Title Disaster relief transitional emergency shelter: environmental and structural analysis of two prefab modular emergency shelters for three different Californian climate zones

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Publication Date 08/09/2010

Defense Date 04/23/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag disaster,emergency shelter,environmental study,OAI-PMH Harvest,prefab,transitional

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Schiler, Marc E. (committee chair), Carlson, Anders (committee member), Noble, Douglas (committee member)

Creator Email vasudharathi@gmail.com,vrathi@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3335

Unique identifier UC1463526

Identifier etd-Rathi-3652 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-377021 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3335 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Rathi-3652.pdf

Dmrecord 377021

Document Type Thesis

Rights Rathi, Vasudha

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu