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Factors inhibiting application for financial aid by low-income students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa

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Factors inhibiting application for financial aid by low-income students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa

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FACTORS INHIBITING APPLICATION FOR FINANCIAL AID BY LOW-
INCOME STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII AT MANOA

by

Karen C. Lee

____________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2010

Copyright 2010 Karen C. Lee

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am profoundly grateful to the following individuals for their incredible
support and guidance through the entire Ed.D. program. No dissertation would have
been possible without them.
Dr. Kenneth Lee, my longsuffering and encouraging husband, who served as
primary cheerleader as well as primary caregiver of our son during the first three
years of his life;
Caleb, my son, whose radiant smile brightened any countless number of days
absent adequate sleep;
Dr. Dominic Brewer, my dissertation chair extraordinaire, who gave great
academic and moral support whenever needed and applied just enough pressure to
push me through;
Drs. Melora Sundt and Lawrence Picus, my dissertation committee members,
who provided meaningful and constructive criticism to deepen my understanding of
financial aid;
“Team Dom,” the amazing group of eight, expanded to eleven, in the 2007
Hawaii cohort who generously shared insights, literature, and hope as we moved
along our Ed.D. journey; and
My many colleagues at the University of Hawaii who offered endless policy
and technical expertise, access to information, and wonderful assistance throughout
the data gathering and analysis portions of the dissertation.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables iv
List of Figures v
Abstract vi
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Chapter Two: Literature Review 18
Chapter Three: Methodology 48
Chapter Four: Analysis 58
Chapter Five: Analysis, Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation 94
References 113
Appendices 124
Appendix A: Email Invitation to Students to Participate in a Focus 124
Group Interview
Appendix B: Email Invitation to Freshmen to Participate in a Survey 126
Appendix C: Statement of Purpose and Informed Consent 127
Appendix D: Brief Questionnaire to All Focus Group and Interview 128
Participants
Appendix E: Focus Group and One-On-One Interview Guide 129
Appendix F: Survey Questionnaire to Uh Manoa Freshmen Students 131

iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: College-Going Rates by Family Income, 1977-2007 6
Table 2: Documents Needed for FAFSA Completion for Academic 60
Year 2010-2011

Table 3: Comparison of Demographical Data: Survey to Fall 2008 UH 64
Manoa Total Undergraduate Enrollment

Table 4: Item-Total Correlation 66
Table 5: Students’ General Attitudes Toward Financial Aid by 68
Demographics, in Total Score Mean

v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Educational Pipeline: Best-Performing State, National and 7
Hawaii Data

Figure 2: Students’ General Attitudes Toward Financial Aid, in Total 67
Score Mean

Figure 3: Students’ General Attitudes Toward Financial Aid by 69
Demographics, in Total Score Mean

Figure 4: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Obtain Aid, 71
by Application Status for Low-Income Students

Figure 5: Attitude Toward Adequate Information about How to Obtain 78
Aid, by Gender

Figure 6: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Acquire Aid, 79
by Ethnicity

Figure 7: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Obtain Aid, 80
by High School Type

Figure 8: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Obtain Aid, 81
by Participation in a College Access Program

Figure 9: Attitude Toward Effectiveness of FAFSA Application, by 90
Ethnicity

Figure 10: Attitude Toward Effectiveness of the FAFSA Application 91
by High School Type

Figure 11: Attitude Toward Effectiveness of the FAFSA Application, 92
by Participation in a College Access Program

vi
ABSTRACT
Today’s expanding global society has caused changes in the needs of the
workforce as well as the level of skills and education required by various jobs across
the United States. While the number of jobs demanding a post-secondary degree
increase, the U.S. output of college graduates has not kept pace. A previous leader in
secondary and tertiary educational attainment, the U.S. has been outperformed by
other countries in recent years. Specifically, the State of Hawaii has experienced a
decline in college-going rates over the last decade. Affordability has been identified
by the literature as a potential barrier for students, particularly low-income students,
to attend college.
This research study adds to the literature by studying factors which may
inhibit application for financial aid by low-income students at the University of
Hawaii at Manoa, the research campus of the University of Hawaii public higher
education system. The focus of the study was on students newly enrolled on the
campus and their attitudes toward college financial assistance. Specifically,
students’ perceptions of the information available about financial aid and financial
aid resources as well as their attitudes toward the financial aid application process
were studied. Overall, it was found that information about financial aid and financial
aid deadlines was readily available to students but that they needed to be compelled
and motivated to apply, including feeling that they could not attend college without
aid and that they would qualify for aid. In addition, the application process was very
difficult and laborious, but students felt that it was worthwhile to apply. Persistent

vii
support and external pressure (i.e., from parents or siblings, counselors, etc.) were
essential to complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid.
The findings from this study will help policymakers and educational leaders
to develop policies and programs to increase application for financial aid by low-
income students. Ultimately, it is recommended that federal policymakers simplify
the Free Application for Federal Student Aid, that state officials support educational
institutions in their quest to assist students to enroll in college, and that college and
high school educators work together to provide mandatory sessions that motivate
students to go to college and give practical, hands-on assistance to apply to college
and apply for financial aid.

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The global economy has changed the needs of the workforce and the types of
jobs that are available in the United States. With the rise in use of information
technology and globalization, jobs require more knowledge and skills than ever
before while employment that used to require a high school diploma have become
outsourced or automated (Friedman, 2005; Kirst & Venezia, 2004). Moreover, some
reports claim that even the high school graduates, once employed, are not prepared
for their workplace assignments (Achieve, 2008; Adelman, 1999). In the early
2000s, Achieve, Inc. produced a series of reports documenting the “sizeable gap
between the standards students are required to meet to earn a high school diploma
and the knowledge and skills they need to be successful in their college and career
pursuits after high school” (Achieve, 2008, p. 2). As of January 2009, three-quarters
of the civilian population 25 years and over with a bachelor’s degree or higher were
employed, in comparison to only 40 percent of the same population with less than a
high school diploma and 57 percent of those with only a high school diploma (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). The college-going outlook worsens by family
income. Only 43 percent of students from families who made less than $30,000
annually immediately entered postsecondary education in 2004; by contrast, 75
percent of students from families who made more than $50,000 entered
postsecondary education (Long and Riley, 2007).

2
By 2010, nearly two-thirds of all jobs in the U.S. will require some
postsecondary education (Carnevale & Desrochers, 2002; Achieve, 2008). The
Education Trust forecasts that we will have more than three million more jobs
requiring a bachelor’s degree than we have college graduates to fill them by the year
2012, and nearly one million more jobs necessitating a necessary associate’s degree
(Haycock, 2006).
In the State of Hawaii, the highest paying in-demand occupations require a
post-secondary degree. The top five jobs requiring a postsecondary degree with
highest annual openings – secondary, elementary and middle school teachers,
general/operations managers, and accountants - earn an average of $63,924 annually
versus the top five jobs requiring moderate or long-term on-the-job training or
related work experience – customer services representatives, bookkeepers, restaurant
cooks, carpenters, and sales representatives - at $37,998 annually. For short-term
on-the-job training, the top five jobs earn an average of $23,148 (Hawaii State
Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 2008). These jobs include retail
salespersons, waiters, cashiers, office clerks, and food counter attendants.
The educational system in the United States has not kept pace with the
demands of the expanding global society. A comparison across 35 Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development countries and partner countries shows the
United States alone as having the same percentage of its 25-to-34-year-olds with at
least high school educational attainment as the 55-to-64-year-olds (OECD, 2008).
All other OECD countries show an increase in high school educational attainment

3
amongst their 25-to-34-year-olds. It is a very similar outlook for tertiary education,
with the United States showing a very slim improvement of attainment for the 25-to-
34-year-olds (OECD, 2008). Likewise, among 27 OECD countries and partner
countries, the U.S. ranked only 21
st
in high school graduation rates and fell to 15
th
in
college graduation rates from 2
nd
in 1995 (OECD, 2008). A previous leader in
secondary and tertiary educational attainment, the U.S. has been outperformed by
other countries in recent years.
In Hawaii, the college going rates of public and private high school graduates
have declined steadily since 2000, and overall since a decade ago, with only about
half of all Hawaii high school graduates going on to postsecondary education in Fall
2005 (Johnsrud, 2006). In comparison, more than 55 percent of the nation’s high
school graduates enter postsecondary education (Johnsrud, 2006). Meanwhile, a
report by the Western Interstate Commission on Higher Education predicts that
Hawaii will experience a steady decline in the number of high school graduates until
2019 (WICHE, 2008).
Beyond the economic argument in favor of more and better secondary and
post-secondary educational attainment, there exist documented personal and
community benefits. In 2004, the national average total annual personal income for
workers aged twenty-five and over with a bachelor’s degree were approximately
$25,000 more than those with just a high school diploma (IHEP, 2005). Only 3
percent of those with a baccalaureate degree were unemployed in 2004, while 6
percent of those with a high school diploma were not employed (IHEP, 2005).

4
Citizens with a bachelor’s degree also report better health; in some states, 95 to 97
percent described their health as good, very good, or excellent in 2004 (IHEP, 2005).
They are more likely to enjoy employer-provided health insurance and pension
benefits (College Board, 2007).
The attainment of a postsecondary degree also benefits the public, as
educated citizens show a higher rate of civic involvement which includes
volunteerism, voting and blood donation (College Board, 2007). College graduates
also contribute more to tax revenues than others (College Board, 2007). Moreover,
those with a bachelor’s degree have a reduced reliance on public assistance (IHEP,
2005).
The Educational Pipeline
Although the public and private benefits of postsecondary education are well-
documented, the United States continues to “leak” students from the educational
pipeline. Only recently have educators and education policymakers begun to
conceptualize the idea of a kindergarten through college, or “K-16” pipeline, through
“an articulated system of schools and postsecondary institutions with a particular
state of polity” (Ewell, Jones and Kelly, 2003). No longer can states afford to look at
K-12 systems separately from postsecondary education because this pipeline is
essential as states attempt to increase their educational capital, the number of highly
knowledgeable, skilled people in a state’s workforce (National Center for Public
Policy and Higher Education, 2004). The pipeline typically contains four key
transition points for students: high school graduation, entry into higher education,

5
persistence in higher education and completing higher education (National Center for
Public Policy and Higher Education, 2004; Ewell, Jones and Kelly, 2003). Another
transition point could be entering the workforce (Ewell, Jones and Kelly, 2003).
The National Center for Higher Education Management Systems published a
success rate per one hundred ninth graders at each transition point in 2006.
Nationally, of one hundred ninth graders, 69 graduate from high school in four years,
42 immediately enter college, 28 are still enrolled in their college sophomore year,
and 20 graduate within 150 percent of time, which is within three years for an
associate’s degree or within six years for a bachelor’s degree (National Center for
Higher Education Management Systems, 2009). Low-income students perform at
even lower rates. In 2005, the high school graduation rate for students from the
bottom income quartile was 68.6 percent ($36,174 or lower annual income) as
compared to 92.5 percent for the highest-income quartile of students ($96,560 or
more annual income) (Mortensen, 2006). Although strides have been made in
increasing college access for students at all income levels, they continue to fall short
for low-income students. In 1977, 66 percent of high-income students attended
college; in 2007, only 55 percent of low-income students attended college (U.S.
DOE, 2008). In other words, thirty years later, college access for low-income
students does not begin to approach the same access for high-income students.

6
Table 1: College-Going Rates by Family Income, 1977-2007

YEAR
Low Income
(3-year rolling average) Middle Income High Income
1977 32 44 66
1982 34 42 71
1987 38 50 74
1992 44 57 79
1997 51 61 82
2002 51 61 78
2007 55 63 78
Source: U.S. Department of Education, The Condition of Education, 2009, Table A-21-1.

Only 43% of low-income, college-qualified students who entered college in 1992
earned a bachelor’s degree by 2000, as compared to 80% of high-income students
(Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance [ACSFA], 2006).
The Center cites Hawaii’s statistics as below the national average: of one
hundred Hawaii ninth graders, 68 graduate from high school in four years, 41
immediately enter college, 24 return for their second year, and 12 graduate within
150 percent of time (National Center for Higher Education Management Systems,
2009). With approximately 26 percent of 25-44 year olds with bachelor’s degrees,
Hawaii is able to keep and attract a higher percentage of college graduates in the
state than able to produce college graduates, but it lags far behind best performing
states such as Massachusetts and Connecticut (Ewell, Jones and Kelly, 2003).

7
Figure 1: Educational Pipeline: Best-Performing State, National and Hawaii Data

Furthermore, low-income students in Hawaii do not fare as well as the rest of the
state. Only 34 percent of all 2006 Hawaii high school graduates who were eligible
for Free and Reduced Lunch status went directly to any two- or four-year college;
only 11 percent of the same population went directly to a four-year college (P-20
Partnerships for Education, 2006).
A review of the literature suggests there are several interrelated factors that
influence a leaky educational pipeline. The four most cited are academic
preparation, the college-going culture and social support offered a student, access to
college information, and affordability of college (Achieve, 2008; Adelman, 2006;

8
Bedworth, Colby, & Doctor, 2006: Martinez & Klopott, 2005; Schramm & Sagawa,
2008). Although all are significant, the literature consistently points to the
affordability and costs of college as a potential barrier for low-income students. In
particular, individual factors – lack of general information about financial aid, the
costs of college, the types of aid available to them, and their eligibility for aid, as
well as possible stigma of being a financial aid recipient - and institutional factors -
complicated financial aid application procedures, early deadlines to apply and
protracted notification of awards, a trend to declining need-based assistance and
increasing loan amounts, a history of low-tuition and low-aid policies by colleges,
and a lack of guidance and support from institutions to apply – will be explored that
may inhibit application for college financial aid.
The Statement of the Problem
The leaky educational pipeline in the United States is a significant problem
affecting the nation’s economic and social development as globalization and
technological change continue. Hawaii is in a worse position than many other states.
For example, despite reports that there are 13,000 jobs available annually which
require a college degree, Hawaii continues to graduate only approximately 10,000
students per year from postsecondary institutions (Johnsrud, 2007). In addition, only
12 students out of 100 Hawaii ninth graders graduate within 150% of time – within
six years for baccalaureate institutions and within three years for community colleges
- in 2006, Hawaii does not keep pace with the national average of 20 students out of

9
100 ninth graders graduating in the same time span (National Center for Higher
Education Management Systems, 2009).
The University of Hawaii at Manoa (UHM), the flagship research institution
of Hawaii’s only system of public higher education, has the largest enrollment and
graduation output of all of Hawaii’s higher education institutions. With an
enrollment of nearly 20,000 undergraduate and graduate students, UHM graduates
approximately 4,000 students annually, 2600 of whom are undergraduates
(University of Hawaii, 2007). The six-year average graduation rate for the Fall 1990
to Fall 2005 cohorts (defined as first-time freshmen in a given Fall semester) as of
2006 was 54 percent, which is 16 percentage points lower than the benchmark
1

average of 70 percent and 13 percentage points lower than the peer
2
average of 67
percent (University of Hawaii, 2008). The average one-year retention rate is 79
percent, compared with 88 percent for the benchmark group and 85 percent for the
peer group (University of Hawaii, 2008).

1
As developed by the National Center on Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS)
Information Service, UHM’s benchmark institutions are Indiana University at Bloomington, Michigan
State University, State University of New York at Buffalo, University of Arizona, University of
California – Berkeley, University of California – Davis, University of California – Los Angeles,
University of Colorado at Boulder, University of Florida, University of Illinois at Urbana -Champaign,
University of Iowa, University of Maryland – College Park, University of Michigan – Ann Arbor,
University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, University of Missouri – Columbia, University of Oregon,
University of Washington, and University of Wisconsin – Madison.

2
As developed by the National Center on Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS)
Information Service, UHM’s peer institutions are Colorado State University, Iowa State University,
Louisiana State University & Agricultural & Mechanical College, Oregon State University,
University of California – Davis, University of Georgia, University of Kentucky, University of
Missouri – Columbia, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of Tennessee,
University of Utah, and University of Virginia.

10
UHM has the highest tuition rate in the UH System, currently charging
$3,384 per semester to a full-time, undergraduate, resident student and $9,408 per
semester to a full-time, undergraduate, non-resident student in the 2009-10 academic
year. However, until 1996, the state government kept all tuition revenues and funded
UHM entirely for its operating and construction costs. After the revenue structure
changed so that tuition revenues would be collected and kept by the University, the
state of Hawaii continued to subsidize UHM financially but decreased its share of the
expenditures in the 1990s and early 2000s when state revenues were limited. After
an attempt in 2002 to raise tuition rates failed, the University administration
successfully persuaded the UH Board of Regents to pass a tuition schedule that
would raise tuition significantly (University of Hawaii, 2005).
Currently in the middle of a tuition schedule from 2006 - 07 to 2011 -12,
UHM will be raising its tuition by 94 percent for resident undergraduates and 91
percent for non-resident undergraduates (University of Hawaii, 2005). Because of
concerned testimony by students and community members about the hike in tuition
rates, the University made a commitment to Hawaii resident students at the time that,
while tuition would double within six years, need-based financial aid would
quadruple, essentially shifting UHM from a low-tuition/low-aid institution to a high-
tuition/high-aid one.
While UHM had previously ranked the lowest in undergraduate in-state
tuition and fees prices in comparison to its peer institutions, in 2008-09, UHM’s
tuition and fees price was the median (The Institute for College Access and Success

11
[TICAS], 2009). And, the rates will continue to rise until 2012 (University of
Hawaii, 2005). However, UHM has the second to lowest undergraduate financial aid
application rate, as evidenced by the completion of the Free Application for Federal
Student Aid (FAFSA), among its peers (TICAS, 2009).
The low rate of financial aid applications at UHM, especially among low-
income students, is troubling for several reasons. When low-income students do not
complete the FAFSA, they are not eligible for numerous sources of financial
assistance, in particular at the federal and state levels. They fail to utilize the largest
source of need-based entitlement aid, the Federal Pell Grant, in additional to other
grants, loans, and work-study funds that reduce the cost of tuition to them and their
families. As a result, they may not be able to attend a post-secondary institution due
to financial barriers (Jackson, 1978, Olivas, 1985, Haycock, 2006). Likewise, even
if low-income students are able to initially enter college without financial assistance,
they are likely to dropout without persistent, adequate financing (Choy and Bobbitt,
2000). They also tend to extend their time-to-degree, which is another indicator of
early dropout, tend to choose to work or increase work off-campus because wages
may be higher than on-campus, and spend less time engaged in on-campus activities,
all of which contribute to early dropout (Astin, 1984; Cabrera, Nora, & Castaneda,
1992; Choy, 2002; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Walpole, 2003). Finally, specific to
UHM, the lack of financial aid applications by Hawaii students is troubling because
of the institutional policy shift from a low-tuition/low-financial aid institution to a
high-tuition/high-financial aid institution. If students continue to fail to apply for aid,

12
access to the flagship public institution of higher education may be deeply affected,
and students may choose not to attend UHM, or perhaps any college, or if they are
able to attend, may drop out because of financial barriers to persistence.
The Purpose of the Study
This study will investigate the factors which inhibit the application for
financial aid through the FAFSA among low-income first-year students at the
University of Hawaii at Manoa. The focus of the analysis will be on why students do
not access benefits they would have likely received and that would have a positive
impact on their continued enrollment in college. Currently, there is no clear
evidence on why UHM students do not apply for assistance. Nationally, although
there exists a wide body of literature on financial aid and national college access,
there is a dearth of studies on why students do not apply for aid, and there exists no
study specific to Hawaii. Identification of the factors and the suggested
recommendations will aid education policymakers and decisionmakers to make
relevant college access policy decisions directly applicable to UHM, including the
necessary information and tools to students to encourage application for aid and
attendance at UHM.
Specific research questions include:
• To what extent does the students’ awareness of financial aid resources
affect applying for aid?
• To what extent does the current financial aid application process deter
students from applying for aid?

13
Importance of the Study
The results of the study may be useful for two primary reasons. The first is to
provide information and guidance to school and college officials who work directly
with students on applying to colleges and who consider finances to be a primary
barrier to college enrollment, and to inform policymakers who are trying to increase
college going-rates, retention and completion as well as change public perception of
higher education affordability. The second is to impact patterns in the pipeline in
college access, enrollment, retention and completion, should the findings of the study
be applied to help current students who have not applied for aid.
First, high school and college outreach counselors may find the results of this
study useful when counseling students about going to college and applying for
financial aid. In particular, the findings about the lack of accurate and available
financial aid information as well as the perceptions of students and their families
about the real costs of college and their ability to afford it may help them to create
marketing or college assistance support programs that target low-income students.
Furthermore, any findings about the financial aid application process, including the
completion and filing of the FAFSA, can help counselors tailor their advice and
outreach to most effectively assist students who may be unfamiliar with the process.
The results of this study may become useful to state policymakers in Hawaii
interested in increasing an educated citizenry. In particular, policymakers who wish
to extend access to higher education to low-income students, who traditionally have
not had opportunities to attend college, through financial assistance may be

14
interested in this study. Furthermore, since Hawaii does not currently have an
access-oriented state scholarship, some policymakers who have an interest in such a
scholarship will be interested in the findings. Hawaii legislators who, in 2006, had
discussions with UH administrators about such a scholarship, may want to continue
the dialogue about the possibility of such new aid. The implementation of any new
state or institutional grant aid to students should take into account those who are
eligible but choose not to apply for financial assistance because the operational
aspect of awarding aid may continue to inhibit low-income students.
Furthermore, the findings of this study can help to inform college and
university administrators who desire to increase enrollment, persistence and
graduation on their campuses. Although this study focuses on students who are
already enrolled in college who did not apply for aid, the burden of the costs of
college can affect dropout and success rates for needy students.
Limitations/De-limitations of the Study
There exist several limitations and delimitations in this study. First, only one
institution, albeit the largest postsecondary institution in the state of Hawaii, was
studied. Furthermore, only college freshmen within that institution were surveyed
and interviewed. No high school students or other college students were studied.
Therefore, the generalizability of the study to the state or nation is limited. Second,
students who have already chosen to enroll at a post-secondary institution, UHM,
were studied. These are students that have decided that attending college is
important, regardless of their financial situation. Students who attended high school

15
and chose not to further their education – and the reasons for that decision – were not
studied, and further studies about the effects of non-application for financial aid on
the decision to attend college would be merited. Third, the institution is one of ten
that comprise the University of Hawaii system, at which the researcher works. To
protect any personal identifying information from being used by the researcher for
any other study beyond this one, officials at the University of Hawaii were contacted
and the researcher agreed to turn over all personal identifying information to the
officials at the completion of this study. Fourth, since the focus group interview was
held in the summer, the participants were limited to those volunteers who were
accessible. Some may have been traveling or working; some may return to their
home islands or states over the summer. Therefore, the participants were only a
sampling of low-income freshmen on the campus. Fifth, due to the difficulty of
getting non-applicants for financial aid to participate in the interviews, interviews
were conducted on three students who were freshmen from the 2008-09 school year
and two who were freshmen from the 2009-10 school year. Due to the recent
economic crisis, the financial situation of the two students may have changed
significantly from their situation a year earlier and changed their attitudes toward
financial aid. Sixth, this recent downturn in the economy may have contributed to
the increase in numbers of students applying for financial aid in the 2009-10
academic year. While it is encouraging that more students are applying for federal,
state and institutional financial assistance to help with their educational goals, the
dramatic shift in the economy may have contributed to findings this year that might

16
have differed significantly, had the data been collected a year or more ago. Finally,
the study will focus primarily on two possible factors that contribute to the inhibition
of financial aid application. However, it is clear from the literature that there are
potentially many different and interrelated variables that may contribute to this
phenomenon. Future studies may want to take up and analyze the other factors.
Definitions
For the purposes of this study, the following is a definition of terms:
Educational Pipeline: the continuous progress of students from pre-
Kindergarten to elementary and secondary school to college to the workforce (Ewell,
Jones & Kelly, 2003).
Eligibility for Free and Reduced Lunch in grades K-12: limited to school
children from families with incomes below 185 percent of the federal poverty level.
Eligibility among 18 to 24 year olds for the Federal Pell Grant: limited to
family income above the poverty threshold allowing for meeting basic family needs,
family size, assets, number of children in college, age of family head, etc. Roughly,
the analysis is limited to families with incomes below about $40,000 per year, or the
bottom quartile of 18-24 year old high school graduates (Mortensen, 2009).
Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA): the federally-mandated
application for financial assistance for students planning to attend a postsecondary
education. Its completion is necessary for students to be considered for any type of
federal financial aid for college.

17
Grant Aid: a type of financial assistance awarded to financially needy
students that does not need to be repaid.
Loans: a type of financial assistance awarded to students or parents that needs
to be repaid.
Low-Income Students: not defined clearly or consistently in the literature, but
generally implies students from families with incomes 150 to 200 percent greater
than the poverty threshold. For the purposes of this study, low-income students were
defined to have a self-identified household income of $60,000 or lower.

18
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The purpose of this literature review is to analyze and examine existing
literature about the influence of financial aid and potential factors that inhibit the
application for financial aid by low-income students. It also provides a context for
the two research questions developed about non-application. The literature shows
that the factors affecting aid application as well as the factors affecting the
educational pipeline are closely interrelated, but for the purposes of this literature
review, an outline of the factors is important. Therefore, the following topics will be
covered in this literature review:
1. A conceptual framework for barriers to college access, affecting the
educational pipeline in the United States;
2. The importance of affordability and financial assistance for college-
going;
3. Characteristics of students who don’t apply for financial aid;
4. Individual choices that may affect students’ applying for financial aid;
a. lack of information and adequate knowledge about financial aid
b. stigma of being an aid recipient
c. other
5. Institutional policies that may affect students’ applying for financial aid.
a. financial aid application procedures

19
b. timing or deadlines for financial aid application
c. declining need-based aid and increasing merit-based aid
d. increasing loan amounts
e. history of low-tuition and low-aid policy by post-secondary
institutions
f. lack of guidance and support from existing structures

Conceptual Framework for Barriers to College Access
A review of the literature shows that there is no one factor that alone explains
a leaky educational pipeline. In fact, there are at least four major factors that affect
access to college – academic preparation by students, the college-going culture and
social support offered a student by the high school, family and community, access to
college-going information, and affordability of going to college (Achieve, 2008;
Adelman, 2006, Bedworth, Colby & Doctor, 2006; Martinez & Klopott, 2005;
Schramm & Sagawa, 2008). Bedworth et al (2006) would assert that another
contributing factor would be students’ aspirations, as well as their parents’ and
teachers’ expectations for them, about attending college; however, that factor does
not consistently emerge in the literature.
Academic preparation is a clear indicator of access to, and eventual success
in, college. Adelman (1999, 2006), examining two different national cohorts
scheduled to graduate from high school a decade apart, asserts that a rigorous high
school curriculum impacts bachelor degree completion more than any other factor.

20
He points to high school “curriculum intensity,” the number of units in each
academic subject, as contributing to the academic momentum a student needs to
continue through college to graduation (Adelman, 2006). Likewise, the alignment of
high school graduation standards to the demands of the college curriculum is crucial
for success (Achieve, 2008; Kirst & Venezia, 2004). States need to commit to
aligning academic standards and holding high schools and colleges accountable for
student postsecondary success (Achieve, 2008).
A second factor affecting access to postsecondary institutions is one of
cultural capital and social support for high school students. Students whose parents
attended college have a stronger likelihood to attend college (Choy, 2002; Choy,
Horn, Nunez, & Chen, 2000). However, those whose parents did not attend college
can overcome this deficit. Less-qualified students who have social support, in the
form of friends who plan to attend college or involvement in a college outreach
program or family and high school engagement and support to further their
education, have a higher tendency to apply for college entrance (Choy et al., 2000;
Choy, 2002). In a National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 analysis for
students deemed moderate- to high-risk of not completing high school, Choy et al.
(2000) found that having friends who planned to attend college was the highest
predictor of college enrollment. The college-going culture in a high school, defined
by Roderick, Nagaoka, Coca, Moeller, Roddie, Gilliam & Patton (2008) as one
where high schools no longer view themselves as their students’ ultimate educational
goal and instead serve as launch pads for their students’ college and career success,

21
likewise can affect the success of high school students. The Consortium on Chicago
School Research found that students took steps toward college enrollment if their
high schools had a strong college-going culture where the high school faculty and
staff were involved in helping students navigate the college application process and
were committed to preparing students (Roderick et al., 2008). Not dissimilar to
findings from Choy et al. (2000), the Consortium found having a strong college
climate in the high school made the biggest impact on college enrollment for
students who were less qualified (Roderick et al., 2008).
Access to information about enrolling in college is strongly linked both to
academic preparation for college success and to college-going culture and social
support in the high schools and community. High school teachers and counselors
and college representatives should be trustworthy sources of college-going
information – not only about academic qualifications, but also about the application
process for enrollment and financial aid, and the deadlines to apply (Martinez &
Klopott, 2005). According to Cabrera & La Nasa (2000), however, low-income
students lack the variety of resources to access information about colleges, and
instead tend to rely solely on high school counselors. This trend may be changing
when looking purely at information access. One study conducted by studentPOLL of
500 college-bound seniors claims that 90 percent of students from families with
incomes less than $50,000 have Internet access (Art & Science Group, 2000). When
collecting information on colleges, students rank the Internet second in importance to
guidance counselors (Art & Science Group, 2000). However, a limitation of the

22
study is that the students surveyed by studentPOLL are college-bound already,
having taken the SAT as well as an optional web-survey fielded by The College
Board.
It is clear from the literature that academic preparation, college-going culture
and social support, and access to information about colleges are essential for students
to be able to enroll in postsecondary education. However, the focus of this literature
review will be on the remaining contributing factor – affordability – which impacts
the other three factors and is particularly affected by access to information.
Importance of Affordability and Financial Assistance
In 2007-08, more than $143 billion in financial assistance (federal, state &
institutional grants, federal loans, federal work-study, federal tax credits and
deductions) was given to undergraduate and graduate students (College Board,
2008). In addition, students borrowed about $19 billion from state and private
sources for educational purposes (College Board, 2008). More than 5.5 million new
Federal Pell Grants were expected to be awarded in the same year (U.S. Department
of Education, n.d.). With only 33 percent of the average tuition, fees, room and
board at a public four-year college covered by the maximum Pell Grant in 2008-09
(College Board, 2008), the magnitude of total financial assistance awarded to
students becomes understandable. In addition, with the costs of attending
postsecondary education increasing annually, the presence and amount of financial
assistance become paramount to low-income students.

23
Much has been written about the importance of financial assistance to
students interested in attending a postsecondary institution. It is increasing in
importance as tuition prices rise more rapidly and federal grant aid covers a smaller
percentage of the costs (Haycock, 2006; College Board, 2006). In the past ten years,
tuition and fees at public four-year institutions rose at an average rate of 4.2 percent
per year, after inflation, while from 1978-79 to 1988-89, they rose at an average rate
of only 2.4 percent (College Board, 2009). In 2003-04, only 56 percent of full-time
students from families earning less than $30,000 received sufficient grants and tax
benefits to cover tuition and fees at a public four-year college (College Board, 2006).
Financial assistance is essential in encouraging students to enroll at an
institution as well as to persist in enrollment toward completion. First, the receipt of
financial aid has a positive impact on enrollment decisions of accepted applicants. A
recent study shows that an overwhelming majority of counselors and college-
qualified students said college cost and the availability of financial aid were primary
obstacles to college enrollment (Hahn & Price, 2008). An offer of financial aid
promotes college attendance, and just being offered an award is often more
influential to students than the amount of aid (Jackson, 1978). The implication is
that, for students weighing the option of attending college, an offer of aid may
influence their decision to attend. However, a more recent study, while
corroborating the importance of financial aid, shows that the amount of aid is
significant to students as well. For every $1,000 increase in the amount of financial
aid offered, the probability of enrollment increased between 1.1 percent and 2.5

24
percent (Braunstein, McGrath & Pescatrice, 1999). Both financial grants and loans
also positively affected student enrollment (Braunstein et al., 1999).
Second, the receipt of financial aid has a positive impact on the persistence
by students to remain enrolled in college. It eases the academic and social
integration of a student on campus, thus influencing a student’s intent to remain
enrolled (Cabrera, Nora & Castaneda, 1992; Nora & Cabrera, 1996). Both students
with no calculated financial need who received aid and students with need that was
fully met persist at higher rates than other students, suggesting that the impact is not
limited to low-income students in college (Bresciani, 2002). However, different
sources of financial aid on retention can impact students differently. While higher
loan and work-study amounts awarded to students discouraged persistence, grants
did not (St. John, Andrieu, Oescher, & Starkey, 1994). Similarly, in a study about
financial aid “packaging,” in which the impact of different types of aid on student
enrollments was studied, those with large loans and little grant aid persisted at lower
rates than those with smaller loan burdens, no need, or unmet need (Bresciani, 2002).
Interestingly, there exists limited literature on the impact of aid on degree attainment,
and conclusions are mixed. One study suggests that merit-based financial aid
indirectly increases graduation rates by encouraging continuous persistence in
enrollment (DesJardins, Ahlburg, & McCall, 2002).
While much has been written about the importance of financial assistance and
discounting to open access to, and persistence in, postsecondary education, there is
very little research on why families do not apply for financial aid, especially when

25
some families may be eligible for need-based federal grants such as the Federal Pell
Grant. With approximately one-fourth of low-income dependent and independent
college students choosing to not apply for financial aid, the numbers of students
without need-based financial aid are not insignificant (King, 2006). The literature on
low enrollment or low “take-up” of public assistance or welfare benefits, in
combination with studies on the importance of financial assistance to college access,
may help to inform this study on applications for financial assistance.
Unfortunately, in a 2006 report, the United States Department of Education
pronounced the entire financial aid system to be “confusing, complex, inefficient,
duplicative, and frequently does not direct aid to students who truly need it” (US
Department of Education, 2006, p.12). The report suggests that the multitude of
redundant federal aid programs, the complicated FAFSA, the timing of financial aid
notification, the amount of unmet need, and debt collection all contribute to the
blocking of college access. This literature review will explore various factors that
may influence the non-application for financial assistance by college students.
Characteristics of Students Who Do Not Apply for Aid
Although the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance (ACSFA)
notes the lack of institutional data on eligible college students who do not apply for
financial assistance (ACSFA, 2008), one report attempts to look at some of the
characteristics of these students. In an update to an issue brief in 2004, King (2006)
and the American Council on Education (ACE) note that a significant number of
students in post-secondary education do not apply for financial aid even though some

26
may qualify. The brief also describes the characteristics of students who did not file
a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) based on 2003-04 National
Postsecondary Student Aid Study statistics produced by the U.S. Department of
Education, National Center for Education Statistics. While the overall aid
application rate rose from 50 percent in 1999-2000 to 59 percent in 2003-04, the
lowest-income dependent students – those with family incomes less than $20,000 -
had no improvement in their aid application rates and the lowest-income independent
students – those with incomes less than $10,000 – saw a decline in their aid
application rates. The number of low- and moderate-income undergraduates who did
not file a FAFSA rose from 1.7 million to 1.8 million (King, 2006).
The students who do not file tend to fall into three general categories. First,
they are upper-income students and students attending college part-time. Seventy-
three percent of independent students with incomes over $50,000 and 50 percent of
dependent students with incomes over $80,000 do not apply for aid. Forty-two
percent of half-time students did not apply. Second, there are significant portions of
lowest-income students who do not apply. Twenty-two percent of dependent
students with incomes lower than $20,000 and 28 percent of independent students
with incomes lower than $10,000 do not file a FAFSA (King, 2006). While these
percentages show that the majority of lowest-income students do apply for aid, the
fact that approximately one quarter of them do not apply is still sizable. Third,
students at the community colleges are less likely to apply for aid. King (2006)
found that 55 percent of community college students did not apply for aid, compared

27
to 37 percent of students at four-year institutions in 2003-04. The ACSFA, in
reviewing 2008 Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) data
and the U.S. Department of Education’s Beginning Postsecondary Students (BPS)
survey data, notes that the majority of community college non-applicants believe
they did not think they would qualify for financial aid or did not need financial aid
(ACSFA, 2008). They propose that these students are not aware of financial aid
available to them and the benefits of that aid.
Interestingly, the 2006 ACE issue brief estimates 25 percent of full-time non-
applicants, 18 percent of half-time non-applicants, and 24 percent of less-than-half
time non-applicants may have been eligible for financial aid had they applied (King,
2006). One and a half million students who did not apply for aid would have
qualified for Federal Pell Grants in 2003-04 (King, 2006).
In summary, financial assistance is essential to promote post-secondary
enrollment and persistence, in particular for low-income students. When students do
not apply for financial aid, they limit opportunities to continue their education. The
numbers of students who do not apply for financial aid are significant, and the
reasons merit exploration. It is important that educators and policymakers study the
reasons for non-application in order to lift barriers to college-going success. The
remainder of the literature review will explore possible individual and institutional
contributors to non-application for college financial assistance.

28
Individual Choices
Lack of Information & Adequate Knowledge
General Financial Aid Information. A review of the literature shows that
there exists for low-income students a general lack of knowledge about what college
financial assistance is and how to receive it (Bedsworth et al., 2006; Matus-
Grossman & Gooden, 2002; McSwain, 2008; Olivas, 1985; Sallie Mae Fund &
Harris Interactive, 2003; Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal, 2001). Low-income students,
many of whom may come from backgrounds in which their parents did not attend
college, do not have access to a variety of sources of college application information.
Therefore, for most of them, high school counselors are the primary, or sometimes
sole, source of information (Art & Science Group, Inc., 2000; Luna De La Rosa,
2006; Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal, 2001). A study by Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal
(2001) shows that 72 percent of low-income students are more likely to rely to
counselors to discuss financial aid than their higher-income peers, only 34 percent of
whom, would do the same. While counselors may hold accurate information about
financial aid, they are frequently overburdened or unavailable (Burdman, 2005).
Moreover, as the primary or sole source of college information, they may have
excessive influence over their students. Grubb (2001) found that counselors
sometimes label low-income and minority students as academically incapable of
attending college and steer them toward less rigorous academic or vocational
programs. Counselors’ personal opinions about costs of colleges and affordability
may even steer low-income students to certain types of college, such as community

29
colleges, because they believe those colleges are all that students can afford
(McDonough & Calderone, 2004). In this case, they influence students’ notions
about financial aid and its availability at private institutions or other four-year
colleges (McDonough & Calderone, 2004).
Peers may also be a significant source of information to those whose access
to college information is limited. If their high school has no mechanism for financial
aid outreach to occur, students who are college-bound rely on counselors or must
track down the information themselves or learn about it through word of mouth from
other students (Matus-Grossman & Gooden, 2002). According to one study, peers
and classmates are a commonly cited source of college financial aid information for
11
th
and 12
th
graders (Luna De La Rosa, 2006).
In some cases, students decide to forego college enrollment because they do
not have the means or the information to obtain the means to finance it. In a recent
study by the Institute for Higher Education Policy, non-college-goers were found to
be much more concerned about financing college than college-goers; college price,
the availability of grant or scholarship aid and the need to work were rated highly as
concerns by the clear majority of non-college-going respondents (Hahn & Price,
2008). High school counselors concur that paying for college is of utmost
importance to college-qualified students who choose to not attend college. In the
same study, counselors perceive that finances is the primary reason that students do
not attend (Hahn & Price, 2008). One in four young adults who consider but do not
attend college would be more likely to enroll if they had better information about

30
how to pay for college when making educational decisions (Sallie Mae Fund &
Harris Interactive, 2003). Likewise, three-fourths of young Latino adults in
California who do not attend college would have been more likely to enroll if they
had known more about financial assistance when making college-going decisions
(Zarate & Pachon, 2006). Many low-income high school students simply have no
idea that certain financial aid programs exist or that they may be eligible (Matus-
Grossman & Gooden, 2002). Conversely, students who read information and are
knowledgeable about financial aid are more likely to take steps toward attending
four-year institutions than two-year colleges and attend full-time rather than part-
time (Berkner & Chavez, 1997; Ekstrom, 1992).
Similarly, for certain welfare benefits, there exist low “take-up” rates among
eligible participants due mainly to the lack of information and knowledge about
these programs (Currie, 2004). In telephone surveys with 501 low-income parents,
respondents were asked reasons for not using public benefits. While most had heard
of the larger programs such as Medicaid and Food stamps, significant minorities had
not heard of some of the benefits (Zeidenberg, 2005). Bilingual application
assistance increased Medicaid enrollment among Hispanic & Asian families (Aizer,
2003), suggesting in part that non-English application assistance increased
information about the program.
Misperceptions About the Costs of College. Although students may lack
information about what financial aid is and how to apply, many low-income students
may not bother to apply for aid simply because they believe the costs of college

31
tuition, fees and other expenses to be out of their means even with assistance. This is
significant because inaccurate cost estimates discourage students from attending
college (Goldrick-Rab, 2006). In telephone interviews with 1009 adults, two-thirds
of those surveyed believe college is inaccessible, up from 62 percent in 2007
(Immerwahr & Johnson, 2009). While 57 percent believe financial aid for college is
available, anxiety about the true accessibility of financial aid has increased in 2009
to 39 percent from 29 percent in 2007. (Immerwahr & Johnson, 2009). Furthermore,
low-income and minority parents tend to overestimate the costs of college and are
more likely to have inaccurate knowledge of actual college costs (Grodsky & Jones,
2004; Horn, Chen & Chapman, 2003, OmniTrak Group, Inc., 2006). One study
suggests that parents’ ability to estimate college costs accurately is positively
correlated with income (Horn, Chen & Chapman, 2003). Grodsky and Jones (2004)
believe college information is restricted to disadvantaged parents due to their lack of
social networking with others knowledgeable about the college application process.
Parents are particularly significant because those who think they cannot afford to pay
for college may discourage their children from applying or may be less inclined to
encourage their children to adequately prepare for college (Grodsky and Jones,
2004). They may indirectly affect college accessibility for their children by
discouraging academically challenging courses or failing to save for college.
In Hawaii, a People’s Pulse survey indicates that majority of participants with
incomes under $35,000 overwhelmingly overestimate the cost of tuition at the
University of Hawaii at Manoa (OmniTrak Group, Inc., 2006). Sixty percent either

32
did not know or overestimated the tuition by more than two times the actual tuition
rate (OmniTrak Group, Inc., 2006). Clearly there exists a perception in the literature
that college costs are a barrier to postsecondary education (Tierney & Jun, 2001).
Misperceptions about Types of Aid. Related to the lack of information about
college costs and discounting through financial aid, families have limited knowledge
about the types of financial assistance available. Sixty-two percent of parents with
children who plan to attend college do not name grants as a source of financial aid;
58 percent do not name scholarships, and 64 percent do not name loans (Sallie Mae
Fund & Harris Interactive, 2003). Low-income parents are more likely to lack
sufficient information about financial aid: 60 percent of parents with annual incomes
under $50,000 indicate they do not have enough information about how to pay for
college, as compared to only 37 percent of parents with annual incomes of $75,000
or more (Sallie Mae Fund & Harris Interactive, 2003).
Likewise, 65 percent of students who plan to attend college do not name
grants as a source of financial aid; 72 percent do not name scholarships, and 71
percent do not name loans (Sallie Mae Fund & Harris Interactive, 2003). Students
feel there is a lack of transparency about the amount and types of financial aid
available to them (Hahn and Price, 2008). Moreover, they frequently do not have an
accurate sense of what “technical concepts like tuition, financial aid, loans, or
scholarships actually mean” (Tierney & Jun, 2001, p. 217). Some students do not
learn the details about specific types of financial assistance until the 11
th
or 12
th

33
grade in high school, or until they have received their financial aid award letter
(Heller, 2006).
Inaccurate Perceptions about Eligibility for Financial Aid. Many low-
income students who do not apply for aid believe they do not need aid. In the 2006
ACE study, 28 percent of lowest-income dependent students - those with incomes
less than $20,000 - and 39 percent of lowest-income independent students - those
with incomes less than $10,000 - say they did not file a FAFSA in 2003-04 because
they believed they could afford to pay, which was the most common explanation for
not applying for financial aid (King, 2006). In the same study, one in four low-
income students who met the eligibility criteria for a Federal Pell Grant did not apply
for federal aid (King, 2006). While some of these students may have received aid
from a source that did not require the FAFSA, the analysis of the National
Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) data shows that the aid was insufficient
to completely explain non-application (King, 2006). Instead, erroneous assumptions
may contribute to the failure to file the FAFSA. Some assume that their household
income is too high to make them eligible for federal aid (King, 2004; Matus-
Grossman & Gooden, 2002). Forty-one percent of students believe they or their
family can afford to pay for college (King, 2004). In California, far fewer Latino
students than are eligible actually apply for the state Cal Grants because they
erroneously believe that high grades are required (Zarate & Pachon, 2006).
A review of welfare take-up literature reveals similar misperceptions about
eligibility for welfare benefits. Confusion about eligibility was found to be a

34
participation barrier across benefits. In a survey of potential welfare recipients, 57
percent of low-income respondents thought they were ineligible for Food Stamps
(Zeidenberg, 2005). Those who feel frustrated or confused about applying for
assistance may simply give up. In a qualitative study involving interviews of 1400
people, those who felt the application for benefits was too long and complicated or
felt that many were confused about who could apply were 1.8 times less likely to
take up Medicaid benefits than those who did not perceive these barriers (Stuber,
Maloy, Rosenbaum & Jones, 2000). Seventy-three percent thought there was
confusion about who was eligible to apply (Stuber et al., 2000).
Stigma as a Financial Aid Recipient
A review of the literature does not reveal any studies that directly show
college students experienced any stigma as financial aid recipients or that high
school students felt that stigma was a factor to avoid applying for aid. Perhaps
because a large percentage of four-year college/university students – an average of
69 percent in 2003-04 at public four-year institutions (National Center for Education
Statistics, n.d.) - receive some type of financial assistance, it is not perceived to be a
barrier to application. In welfare take-up literature, the role of stigma as a deterrent
to application for welfare aid is inconclusive, or minimal at best. In one study,
48.6% of low-income respondents felt either that they “didn’t want to deal with
DSHS” or they “would find going to the office embarrassing or uncomfortable”, and
therefore didn’t apply for welfare (Zeidenberg, 2005). However, a literature review
on welfare studies found that the idea of stigma as a deterrent to application for

35
welfare was difficult to study and analyze, and the results of such studies were weak
(Remler, Rachlin, Glied, 2001). Others suggest that social stigma played less of a
discouraging role of take-up rates for public assistance than commonly assumed
(Currie, 2004; Stuber, Maloy, Rosenbaum & Jones, 2000).
The Role of “Other”
As mentioned earlier, there exists very limited literature directly addressing
the problem of low-income students’ not applying for post-secondary financial aid.
However, the possibility exists that there may not be any primary or over-arching
reason for non-application, reflecting the complexity of students’ lives, rife with
competing priorities (King, 2004; ACSFA, 2008). A US Department of Education
study from 1995-96 showed that the second most common response to non-
application was “other reason”, and when staffers followed up with telephone
interviews, they could not assign the answers easily to categories (King, 2004).
Likewise, an analysis of both the 2008 survey CCSSE and the U.S. DOE BPS
Survey from 1995-96 show that a sizeable 20 percent of respondents cited “other” as
the reason for not applying for financial aid, identifying a need for further study on
contributing factors (ACSFA, 2008).
In summary, students and families may not apply for financial aid due to a
lack of information about what financial aid is and due to other, as yet unspecified,
reasons. In particular regarding lack of information, individuals lack general
information about financial aid, the costs of college, the types of aid available to

36
them, and their eligibility for aid. The literature does not yield stigma associated
with applying for or being a recipient of college financial assistance.
Institutional Barriers
Application Procedures Too Laborious or Complex
Much has been discussed recently about the complexity of the application
process for post-secondary financial assistance, particularly regarding the completion
and filing of the FAFSA (U.S. Department of Education, 2006; ACSFA, 2005;
College Board, 2008; The Institute for College Access and Success, n.d.; Lederman,
2008). The FAFSA form currently contains approximately 100 questions for
students to complete, exclusive of parental income and asset information and
exclusive of supplemental worksheets that require additional information (Heller,
2006). It has been cited as too confusing and difficult for both students and parents,
and more difficult than the federal tax return (ACSFA, 2005; Dynarski & Scott-
Clayton, 2006; U.S. DOE, 2006). The recommendation from the U.S. DOE in 2006
was to streamline the analysis for student financial need by replacing the numerous
and complicated criteria with a simple single criterion of family income (U.S. DOE,
2006).
Similar to the earlier discussion about the impact of financial aid application
on families weighing the costs and benefits of college enrollment, potential students
will weigh the transaction costs and benefits to determine if applying for aid is
worthwhile, even if they have already decided to attend a post-secondary institution.
If application procedures are deemed too complicated, time-consuming or laborious,

37
the costs are likely to be higher than people believe are worth the benefits (Currie,
2004; Dynarski & Scott-Clayton, 2006). Lower participation levels in public
assistance were associated with longer and more complicated enrollment forms
(Stuber, Maloy, Rosenbaum & Jones, 2002; Pavetti, Maloy & Schott, 2002).
Potential participants in certain programs will simply find it is too much of a hassle
to apply (Zeidenberg, 2005). However, the lack of financial assistance for students
who decide to enroll in college anyway may impact the persistence of low-income
students to remain enrolled and to complete their program or degree (Bresciani &
Carson, 2002; Nora & Cabrera, 1996).
Unfortunately, making an application process shorter or more efficient alone
may not prove effective enough. For many families that need financial aid, there
needs to be an automatic enrollment process. The College Board (2008a) calls for
Congress to eliminate the FAFSA and to retrieve family financial information from
the Internal Revenue Service in order to award the Federal Pell Grant. In addition, a
literature review on welfare suggests that reducing individual administrative barriers
seems to have little effect on welfare take-up; however, the move from voluntary to
automatic enrollment is extremely effective (Remler, Rachlin, & Glied, 2001). In
fact, if low-income students expect, rather than just hope, to receive financial aid,
they are more likely to aspire to college than those with low incomes who do not
expect aid (King, 1996; Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal, 2001).
Interestingly, a recent study experimented with FAFSA simplification by
commissioning H&R Block tax professionals to help low- to moderate-income

38
families. Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulos & Sanbonmatsu (2009) found that families
who received assistance by H&R Block to complete and file the FAFSA, an estimate
of their eligibility for government aid, and information about applying to colleges
were substantially more likely to submit the FAFSA, enroll in college the following
fall semester, and receive more financial aid. Those families who received
information and personalized estimated eligibility info, and did not receive assistance
to complete and file the FAFSA, were not more likely to submit the FAFSA. They
also found that dependent students who completed the FAFSA in the H&R Block
office and whose families elected to receive a paper copy of the completed
application to mail into the US DOE on their own (instead of having H&R Block file
the FAFSA for them electronically) were far less likely to file the FAFSA. This
experiment reinforces the claim by some that the FAFSA is overly complicated and
that providing assistance and streamlining the completion and filing process would
increase aid application and college enrollment (Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulos, &
Sanbonmatsu, 2009).
It is possible that the eligibility notification in the H&R Block experiment did
not come early enough to make a difference in students’ application for college
admission. Some believe early estimates of college financial aid can be made as
early as the eighth grade (U.S. DOE, 2006). Early notification of financial aid
eligibility is most effective, however, if it is accompanied by a commitment for
funding the aid (Heller, 2006). Unfortunately, such a program would require future
legislative commitments to funding, even when the economy is suffering, a

39
simplified eligibility system for transparency to families, and a mechanism to deal
with possible changing family circumstances from the time aid notification occurs
and the time the student enters college (Heller, 2006). In a program recommended
by the College Board, families should be notified every year of a student’s eligibility
for the Pell Grant from the time they turn age 5 to age 19 (College Board, 2008a). In
addition, although the program’s evaluation is limited, Indiana’s Twenty-First
Century Scholars Program, an early notification and guaranteed state financial aid
program for low-income middle-school students, is considered a model for state aid
by some (Blanco, 2005; Heller, 2006; St. John, Musoba, Simmons, Chung Schmit &
Peng, 2004). St. John et al. (2004) found that being a Scholar was positively
associated with college enrollment, increasing the odds of enrollment by 4.77 times.
The state of Hawaii, however, does not have any form of state need-based aid
that is guaranteed to low-income students. The only aid bearing any resemblance to
guaranteed aid falls to two institutional merit aid programs at UHM, namely the
Centennial Scholarship and the Manoa Chancellor’s Scholarship, which are
guaranteed to students who meet a particular grade point average minimum and SAT
score but they are not tied to any financial need (University of Hawaii , n.d.). No
separate financial aid application process is required. However, this type of merit aid
is typically awarded to middle- to high-income students who are already college-
bound (Mumper, 2003, Dowd, 2004).

40
Financial Aid Application Timing and Deadlines
Many deadlines for non-federal financial aid and scholarship programs at
institutions are too early for students who may be unfamiliar with the college
application process, creating a barrier for those who need financial assistance to
attend a postsecondary institution. Although application for federal financial aid has
no specific deadline, one in four low-income dependent students said they did not
apply because they missed the deadline (King, 2004). Of the undergraduates who do
apply, 55 percent do so in March or later, missing deadlines for many other
assistance or scholarship programs (King, 2004).
Furthermore, the entire process of FAFSA form filing, submission of
additional forms such as FAFSA supplements and parental income tax information,
determination of Expected Family Contribution – as calculated by a Federal formula,
and submission of state-required information, exclusive of any delays due to
mistakes or omissions, takes months (Heller, 2006). Heller (2006) argues that this
timeline is simply too late for low-income families to make choices about college,
thus limiting access to post-secondary education to low-income students.
Declining Need-Based Financial Aid and Increasing Merit-Based Financial Aid
The introduction of the Servicemembers’ Readjustment Act in 1944
(commonly known as the Montgomery G.I. Bill) and the passage of the Higher
Education Act in 1965 signaled the federal government’s commitment to increase
access to higher education for lower income families by increasing federal financial
assistance in the form of scholarships, loans, and work-study funds to students who

41
wished to enter colleges and universities (Lucas, 2006). However, the Basic
Educational Opportunity Grant, the precursor to the Federal Pell Grant, which is an
entitlement grant to students from families in the lowest income bracket, used to
cover 84 percent of the cost of attending a public college or university in 1975
(Haycock, 2006; Mumper, 2003; ACSFA, 2002). Today it only covers 36 percent
(Haycock, 2006), leaving financially-strapped families to find financial resources to
pay for the additional expenses of college on their own.
Moreover, there are clear shifts in the foci of federal and state governmental
aid programs toward merit aid, favoring higher-income families (Long & Riley,
2007; Mumper, 2003). The emergence of the Georgia HOPE scholarship, new
college savings plans and tax credits all benefit the middle class (Long & Riley,
2007). State scholarship programs also appear to be moving away from serving
needy students. Virtually all new state dollars on financial aid are geared toward
merit programs to keep their best students in the state (Baum, 2002; Mumper, 2003).
These new programs, however, are designed to make higher education affordable to
middle and even upper-income families whose students were already on track to
attend college, rather than providing an incentive for other students to enroll
(Mumper, 2003, Dowd, 2004).
In the 1990s, the proportion of institutional aid going to merit aid also rose
sharply (Long & Riley, 2007; McPherson and Shapiro, 1998; Mumper, 2003).
Colleges compete for a finite group of desirable students as a part of their enrollment
management strategies and to value the best interest of the institution as they

42
perceive it (Baum, 2002). The movement by colleges to “use their resources to
compete with each other for high-end, high-scoring students instead of… college-
qualified students from low-income families who cannot attend college without
adequate financial support” (Haycock, 2006, p. 2) is spurred by the desire to improve
their rankings in magazines and guide books that are widely available to the public
(U.S. Department of Education, 2006; Haycock, 2006). The “private benefit” here is
for the reputation and rankings of the institution. However, some argue that
institutions will continue to recruit the best and brightest, regardless of state and
federal needs to educate more students or views that educating students reflect a
public good rather than a private benefit, because there exist no incentives or
penalties for institutions to do otherwise (Baum, 2002). Instead, it should be the
responsibility of the federal government to become the leader in providing access to
public higher education as part of a national aid initiative, evolving the basic
structure of the federal aid policy to meet the increasing needs for low-income
students (Baum, 2002). The responsibility of state government, on the other hand, is
to keep their best residents in the state even though in reality, American students face
very different levels of access to higher education depending on their state of
residency (Baum, 2002).
Increase in Student Loans
Another potential factor affecting applications for financial aid may be the
increase in student loans given by institutions as a form of financial aid, moving
away from grant aid. From 1989 -1990 to 2003-04, the percentage of full-time, full-

43
year students with loans rose from 36 to 50 percent (College Board, 2008b; Long &
Riley, 2007). Subsidized loans only account for 34 percent of total education loans,
down from 57 percent ten years ago, while unsubsidized loans now account for 20
percent (College Board, 2008b). However, students from traditionally disadvantaged
backgrounds are unwilling to incur substantial debt to attend college due to their
perception that they may not be able to pay back the debt (Leslie & Brinkman, 1988;
Long & Riley, 2007, ACSFA, 2008). At community colleges, students show a
preference to work a significant number of hours rather than borrow funds (ACSFA,
2008). In a survey administered to 400 Latino youth in California, only 17 percent
of college students financed their college education with loans, while 31 percent
were not sure they were willing to incur debt for college (Zarate & Pachon, 2006).
Should the perception exist that financial aid necessitates debt accumulation, low-
income students may instead choose to finance college themselves or decline
enrollment instead of applying for aid. Unfortunately, the vicious cycle in which
low-income students may find themselves is that, in the federal needs analysis
formula, they may be penalized for working and given reduced grant aid, thus
forcing them to work more (ACSFA, 2008).
Students in Hawaii may be particularly averse to debt collection. At UHM,
only 27 percent in 2006-07 had student loan debt with an average amount of debt at
$12,094 (TICAS, 2009). Both the percentage with debt as well as the average
amount of debt is far below its peers, whose students’ average percentage of debt is
at 51 percent with average debt at $18,527 (TICAS, 2009). Since the current UHM

44
tuition schedule which calls for a substantial increase in tuition only began in 2006,
this trend may change in the future.
History of a Low-Tuition/Low-Aid Policy by Post-Secondary Institutions
As cited earlier, democratic ideals have pervaded American higher education
as different educational institutions were built on principles of access and
democracy. In what may have been the early American beginnings of democracy in
higher education, the antebellum period brought about an influx of institutions of
higher learning so that citizens could avail themselves to college educations in their
own townships (Lucas, 2006). The passage of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890,
which created state-funded land-grant colleges, afforded more citizens access to
higher learning closer to where they lived and created a mechanism in which state
governments could encourage college attendance as a public good (Lucas, 2006).
Sustained effort by state and federal policymakers put public higher
education at the lowest feasible cost for decades (Mumper, 2003). However, the
price of tuition began to rise nationwide in the 1960s & 1970s, and price increases
across the nation accelerated rapidly in the 1980s due to inconclusive reasons (Kane,
1995; Mumper, 2003). Though state support to public college increased steadily, that
increase declined as a percentage of total state budgets (Mumper, 2003); some argue
that tuition increases were necessary as services and amenities to students grew
(Hauptman, 1990). As a result of the declining percentage of institutional budgets
being financed by the state, public institutions moved to a high-tuition/high-aid
policy to administer means-tested aid to those who need it, and to encourage families

45
who could afford to pay a higher percentage of the total cost of attendance to do so.
Unfortunately, as the net price of higher education increases, participation rates for
low-income students decline (Kane, 1995; McPherson & Schapiro, 1991).
In the state of Hawaii, tuition prices at public post-secondary institutions
remained relatively low for state residents until 2006, when the University of Hawaii
Board of Regents approved a six-year tuition schedule that aims to raise tuition to
reach the median of its ten institutions’ peers (University of Hawaii, 2005). The
University of Hawaii at Manoa, although charging the highest in-state tuition among
the state public campuses, had historically charged the lowest tuition among its
national peers (The Institute for College Access and Success, 2009). It also
continues to charge the lowest tuition in the state compared to any of the other four-
year private higher education institutions. Therefore, it is possible that some
students choose to decline to apply for financial assistance because they are not
aware of the increase in UHM tuition and financial aid policy and assume that they
must be able to pay the tuition, or refrain from enrollment. For example, the UH Did
Not Enroll Survey in Fall 2006 indicates that two-thirds of respondents who chose to
not enroll at a UH campus were not influenced by financial aid; of those for whom
financial aid was a factor, a significant 40 percent did not apply (Johnsrud, 2007).
Lack of Guidance and Support from Existing Structures
Even if institutions had complete and thorough information available to
students about the amount of financial assistance that will given, the exact
application procedures and deadlines, the types of aid that will be given, and the

46
trends in aid over the years, the information alone may not be adequate enough to
help students negotiate the college and financial aid application process. Simple
access to information is not enough to yield results in college enrollment (Luna De
La Rosa, 2006; St. John, 2006). It is important that students be able to connect the
information with integration and action toward enrollment (Luna De La Rosa, 2006).
Because low-income students rely heavily and primarily on their high school
counselors for college information, counseling support is crucial to help negotiate the
application process (Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal, 2001). Unfortunately, high school
counseling in public schools is often inadequate (Burdman, 2005). While counselors
show concern for the growing costs of higher education and the families’ notions of
affordability, some may exhibit deep biases about the race, ethnicity and social class
of their students, therefore pushing them toward certain types of colleges, like
community colleges (George & Aronson, 2002; McDonough & Calderone, 2006).
The creation of the Internet as a great equalizer for all students likewise has
its limitations. While low-income student appear to have access to computers and
the Internet in their homes, schools or communities (such as the local library) to find
information about financial aid, they lack the knowledge and support needed to
navigate the myriad of financial aid resources available online (Venegas, 2006).
Venegas’ (2006) study of two high schools shows that students are aware of web-
based scholarship search engines and the FAFSA online; some could recite the
FAFSA website by memory. However, follow-through on applications was difficult.
For example, the FAFSA website required parent e-mail information and passwords,

47
while other college financial aid websites did not delineate next steps or explain that
students had to check the system regularly for updates.
In summary, in addition to individual factors, institutional factors may affect
student non-application for financial aid. These factors include complicated
financial aid application procedures, early deadlines to apply and protracted
notification of awards, a trend to declining need-based assistance and increasing loan
amounts, a history of low-tuition and low-aid policies by colleges, and a lack of
guidance and support from institutions to apply.
In conclusion, a review of the existing literature on financial assistance and
its impact on college-going, as well as critiques in the literature on the entire
financial aid system, in particular for low-income students, shows that there is a gap
in our understanding of why some students do not apply for financial aid for college.
There is a sizeable percentage of lowest-income students who would be eligible for
some type of financial assistance. In Hawaii, the University of Hawaii at Manoa had
the second-to-the-lowest percentage financial aid application rate amongst its peers
in 2006-07 (TICAS, 2009). Since there are no existing studies about this
phenomenon in the state of Hawaii and since there is little literature about the
reasons for non-application for aid, this study will attempt to fill this gap.

48
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of the study is to explore the factors which inhibit the
application for financial aid through the FAFSA among low-income first-year
students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. The conceptual framework for the
research questions arose from a review of the literature on financial aid barriers to
college access as well as literature on low enrollment or low “take up” of public
assistance and welfare benefits. There is relatively little research specifically on
factors that inhibit applications for financial assistance to post-secondary educational
institutions. Therefore, this study focused on two areas of concern, lack of
awareness and information about financial aid and complexity of the financial aid
application process, which may contribute to low financial aid application rates at
UHM.
The specific research questions are:
• To what extent does the students’ awareness of financial aid resources
affect applying for aid?
• To what extent does the current financial aid application process deter
students from applying for aid?
This chapter will explain the methodology used to collect data in this study.
It will describe the sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, and data
analysis. The focus of the analysis will be on why students do not access benefits

49
they would have likely received and that would have a positive impact on their
continued enrollment in college.
A mixed methods approach was used to determine which factors impact the
decision by students to not apply for financial assistance as well as the specific
impact of the lack of information about financial aid resources and the students’
perception of their ability to pay for college. First, one focus group with low-income
students who just completed their first year at UHM and who applied for financial
aid, and five individual interviews with low-income students who did not apply for
aid were conducted to identify which factors most impact financial aid application.
Nearly all interviews were tape recorded and transcribed. Second, a survey was
administered to the current UHM freshmen population to confirm the initial findings
from the interviews.
Sample and Population
This mixed methods study focused on freshmen students at the University of
Hawaii at Manoa. UHM is the largest and most selective public higher education
institution in the state of Hawaii and the flagship campus of the University of
Hawaii, the only public higher education system in the state. For the qualitative
study, interviews with ten students were conducted with purposeful, homogeneous
samples, in order to describe two particular subgroups (Patton, 2002). The first
subgroup consisted of 5 UHM low-income students who did not apply for financial
aid; three who were freshmen in the 2008-09 academic year and two who are
freshmen currently, in the 2009-10 academic year. The second subgroup consisted

50
of 5 UHM low-income students who did apply and who were freshmen in the 2008-
09 academic year, although 6 students were originally accepted to account for no-
shows or last-minute cancellations, as a comparison group (McEwan & McEwan,
2003). The interviews were conducted in the summer and fall of 2009 and early
spring of 2010. The invitees were chosen through various methods. The original
method was from a list of all current freshmen students at the University of Hawaii at
Manoa (UHM) who did and did not apply for aid in the 2008-09 academic year, as
documented in SCT Banner, the official student database for the University. All first-
time freshmen were contacted via e-mail and invited to voluntarily participate in one
of two sessions (see Appendix A). A $10 Starbucks gift card was offered to all
participants. They were asked to identify themselves as students whose household
income is less than $60,000. The first dozen students who replied and who had
applied for financial aid were asked about their availability for several 60-90 minute
timeslots for the focus group interview via doodle.ch, a free scheduling website. Six
students responded that they could attend the same scheduled date and time for one
focus group, although only five actually attended the scheduled session. Once
chosen, the participants were asked to fill out a brief questionnaire with questions
which provided general information and a context for their verbal answers.
Only two students who did not apply for financial aid responded to the
request for a focus group interview. Since there were only two respondents, the
interviews were conducted as one-on-one interviews. Two additional e-mail requests
were sent, and one student responded by phone. The interview was also conducted

51
by phone, per student’s request. When no other students responded, an e-mail
request for interviews was sent to current freshmen for the 2009-10 academic year.
As a result, two more freshmen responded and one-on-one interviews were
conducted. The purpose of the focus group and one-on-one interviews was to
determine the most important and salient factors affecting application for financial
aid so that questions may be created for the survey to be distributed to all freshmen
students.
For the survey, a 39-question survey was given to current freshmen to further
augment the findings culled from the interviews. The online survey was conducted in
September of 2009, shortly after the fall semester began, in order to maximize the
response rate. These students were invited via e-mail (see Appendix B) to answer
the questions as a survey to be administered by the Office of the Vice President for
Academic Planning and Policy and Office of the Vice President for Student Affairs
at the University of Hawaii System. The survey was sent to all first-time, classified
(degree-seeking) freshmen students at UHM. The 1,878 recipients were identified
via the official UH SCTBanner student database based on their student status, and
their e-mail addresses were pulled directly from the database so that the survey could
be e-mailed to them using SurveyShare, a survey program licensed by the
University. After the survey was initially sent, three e-mails reminding participants
to respond were sent, beginning after approximately one week.

52
Instrumentation
The framework of the qualitative and quantitative data collection was derived
mainly from the potential factors of financial aid non-application derived from the
literature review. However, the focus group questions were also informed by the
findings from the 2008 Community College Survey on Student Engagement, in which
special survey questions were created to probe why students choose to not apply for
aid.
A mixed methods approach was utilized in order to triangulate data and
observe outcomes from differing viewpoints (Patton, 2002). First, for the qualitative
approach, a focus group interview was conducted in order to promote data collection
in a social context, and where the students can consider their views and opinions
amongst others’ views and opinions (Patton, 2002). Furthermore, patterns or
discrepancies in views quickly emerge in focus group interviews (Patton, 2002).
Since the purpose of these interviews was to garner the salient factors that inhibit
applications for financial aid, these patterns, or lack thereof, were important. One-on-
one interviews were also conducted since non-applicants for aid did not respond in
large enough numbers to conduct a focus group.
Second, quantitative data were collected in the form of a survey given to all
first-time freshmen in 2009-10 at UHM. Although the survey was limited to those at
one institution, all freshmen were invited to complete the survey. This allowed for
answers from a wider range of students than those targeted in the focus groups,
which will help with generalizability (Light, Singer, and Willett, 1990). The survey,

53
which gathered household income levels as well as demographic data, was used to
corroborate and augment insights gathered from the qualitative data. The questions
were derived from the findings of the literature review, some of the findings of the
focus group interview of students who had applied for financial aid, and by past
surveys administered by the University of Hawaii to ensure uniformity of
demographic questions. Before the survey was administered, however, a pilot test
was administered to two students – one who had applied for financial aid and one
who had not - to ensure that the questions were clear and reliable (Light, Singer, and
Willett, 1990). Since financial aid terminology can be complicated, it was important
that the instrument questions were understandable to both the interviewees and the
interviewer.
Data Collection Procedures
For the qualitative part of the study, one focus group of students who applied
for financial aid was conducted in person at a conference room located on the
University of Hawaii at Manoa campus. Five one-on-one interviews were conducted
of students who did not apply for aid. Four of the interviews were conducted in
person at various locations around the UHM campus, depending on the schedules
and convenience of the students. For one student who was unable to meet, a phone
interview was conducted. At the start of each interview or of the focus group,
participants were read a statement of purpose and asked for their informed consent.
For a copy of the statement of purpose and request for informed consent, see
Appendix C. As noted earlier, participants were asked to complete a brief survey to

54
provide educational and demographic context to their verbal answers. Appendix D
consists of a list of questions in the brief survey. The sessions were tape recorded
and, in addition for the focus group, notes were taken by a third party notetaker.
Then, they were transcribed verbatim. The protocol was semi-structured, but the
content of the questions focused on the reasons why the students decided to apply or
not apply for financial aid. Appendix E consists of a list of questions in the
interview protocol for both those who did and did not apply for aid. Some follow-up
questions were asked outside of the protocol, but only to probe further into answers
given by the interviewees.
For the quantitative portion of the study, a survey, largely informed by the
themes derived from the literature review and the interviews, was distributed via e-
mail to all UHM first-time, classified students who are current freshmen in the 2009-
10 school year (see Appendix F). Students were told that it would take
approximately 5 – 7 minutes to complete the survey, that they may exit the survey at
any time, that no personal identifiers (i.e., their e-mail addresses or university ID
numbers) would be revealed, and that their participation was completely voluntary.
The survey first requested student background information, including
demographic information: gender, ethnicity, age, high school, family educational
history, and family income information. It also asked students about their current
work situation and past participation in college access programs. Second, students’
attitudes about factors that may have affected their decisions to apply or not apply
for financial aid for their first year were surveyed. Based on the literature review,

55
the questions were focused on the following factors: the lack of financial aid
information and eligibility information, the complexity of the financial aid
application process, the shift in the types of aid being awarded, the belief that they
would not qualify for or need aid, and the influence of support throughout the college
and financial aid application process. For these attitudinal questions, the survey
eliminated the middle alternative as a choice in order to eliminate risk of non-
commitment by the respondents (Converse & Presser, 1986).
Data Analysis
Exploring factors that contribute to the lack of financial aid applications by
low-income college students guided the analysis of the data. As indicated by the two
research questions, emphasis on data analysis was placed on information about
financial aid and financial aid resources known by the students as well as on
students’ perception of complexity of the financial aid application process.
The survey data were analyzed by the researcher in conjunction with the
qualitative data gathered from the focus group and individual interviews. First,
summary statistics about the Fall 2008 UHM freshman class were gathered in
relationship to the descriptive statistics gathered by the survey from 2009 UHM
freshmen. These are independent variables, and include self-reported demographic
background (gender, race/ethnicity, age), family income information,
parental/guardian educational background (whether or not the students are first-
generation college students), high school background information (public, private,
home-schooled, charter), current work situation (as measured in increments

56
commonly used by UH researchers who survey students), and participation in
college access program information (participation in GEAR-Up, Talent Search, etc.).
Second, using summary percentages and SPSS 17 as the statistical analysis
tools, analyses were conducted to compare attitudinal differences (the dependent
variable) of students who did and did not apply for financial aid, and to compare
differences between the independent variables from the demographic and
background information and how they impact the dependent variable of factors
affecting aid application, given by those who did apply for aid and those that did not.
A reliability analysis of the Total Score of financial aid attitudes was first conducted
to assess the overall reliability of the survey. An item-total correlation was also
performed to test correlation amongst the attitudinal questions. A t test for
independent means, ANOVA and Multivariate General Linear Model analysis were
conducted to identify any significant differences among factors that affect financial
aid application between the various groups (Salkind, 2008). The outcome of such
analyses will be useful in determining the salient independent variables that affect
students’ attitudes toward financial aid application.
Third, themes from the qualitative data gathered from the focus group and
one-on-one interviews were used to illustrate and deepen the findings determined by
the statistical data. Together with the outcomes of the survey data, the themes which
emerged from the interviews of students who both did and did not apply for aid
allowed for a richer analysis of students’ stories about their attitudes toward their
household financial situation, their views toward college-going and costs of

57
attending college, and their reactions toward financial aid and paying for college.
The qualitative aspect of the data presented an opportunity for students to share their
own specific situations beyond the information that the survey data requested.
Ethical Considerations
The Institutional Review Boards from both the University of Southern
California as well as the University of Hawaii were contacted to obtain permission to
conduct the qualitative and quantitative research. Participation by students was
completely voluntary. Although the participants in the focus group were asked for
their informed consent, they could not be assured complete confidentiality simply
because the interview was conducted in a group format where participants heard and
saw one another and each other’s answers (Patton, 2002). However, to the extent
possible, personally identifiable information was not revealed in the data analysis or
conclusions. Any personally identifiable information initially gathered for the focus
group interviews in order to have a purposeful and homogeneous sample of low-
income freshmen at UHM was deleted.
Furthermore, participants in the focus group and the interviews were told that
the information they gave for this study would be used solely for this study. Since I,
as the researcher, am also an administrator at UH, I have agreed to not use any
personally identifiable information for other areas of my job and will not use
information gathered for the purposes of this study for other reasons linked to my
position. However, the final conclusions of this study may be useful to me and other
policymakers at the University to increase access to financial aid at UHM.

58
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS
In this chapter, survey data and observed outcomes are reported and
analyzed, framed by the research questions presented in Chapter One. First, however,
the financial aid process for entering first-time freshmen directly from high school
will be described, in order to give a context and overview of the financial aid
application process. Second, an overview of the data collected will be given. Third,
descriptive findings will be presented in order to provide a context for the results.
Fourth, the findings will be organized by the two research questions posed in
Chapter One.
Context
High school students who intend to enroll in an institution of higher
education usually apply in their 12
th
grade for admission to college the following fall
semester. Depending on their school, they might begin to learn about college
admission preparation, receiving information about financial aid and scholarships in
9
th
grade. Typically, however, preparation to apply for college admission and
financial assistance begins in the 11
th
grade. Colleges usually begin to mail
viewbooks and admission information to students after they have completed the 11
th

grade. At some high schools, counselors might begin to advise students about taking
entrance exams and preparing college applications.
In the State of Hawaii, the University of Hawaii and the P-20 Partnerships for
Education group jointly began mailing information about application to colleges and

59
how to obtain financial assistance to public high school 11
th
and 12
th
graders in 2007.
In January of 2009, brochures about financial aid were sent to every public Hawaii
high school student, 9
th
through 12
th
grade, highlighting the need for FAFSA
completion to begin the financial aid application process. During the month of
January, the State of Hawaii hosts College Goal Sunday where members of the
regional Hawaii financial aid association, the Pacific Association of College
Financial Aid Administrators, hold multiple sessions across the state to help families
learn about financial aid and to complete the FAFSA. In addition, several of the
Hawaii high schools have college counselors who organize college information
sessions and invite colleges to the high school to speak to interested 11
th
and 12
th

graders about the admission and financial aid application process. However, while
most public high schools have post-high counselors, not all have a comprehensive
college counseling program. Furthermore, although Hawaii does not have a
statewide scholarship web portal, there are multiple local, national and international
websites that provide various financial assistance and scholarship opportunities for
students who search for college aid on the Internet.
High school students interested in directly entering college after graduation
apply for financial assistance after January 1
st
in their senior year. The University of
Hawaii at Manoa has a priority financial aid deadline of March 1
st
, by which the
FAFSA should be completed, in order for students to be eligible for institutional aid.
Students can actually apply for financial aid as late as June 30
th
of the following
year; however, certain federal, state and institutional funds may eventually be

60
depleted, necessitating the early priority deadline. The priority deadline, however,
requires that students or students’ parents/guardians complete their federal tax return
before the national deadline of April 15
th
to complete the FAFSA.
As mentioned earlier, the completion of the FAFSA may be a barrier to
financial aid application. The PDF version of the FAFSA itself is approximately six
pages long with over 100 questions. However, the completion of the FAFSA is
strongly recommended to be performed on the web, requiring students to have access
to a computer and to the internet. It also requires detailed personal and financial
information from both the student and parents/guardians, if the student is a
dependent.
In fact, FAFSA completion requires multiple sources of information.

Table 2: Documents Needed for FAFSA Completion for Academic Year 2010-2011

Your Social Security Number
Your driver’s license (if any)
Your 2009 W-2 Forms and other records of money earend
Your (and your spouse’s if you are married) 2009 Federal Income Tax Return
Your Parents’ 2009 Federal Income Tax Return (if you are a dependent student)
Your 2009 untaxed income records
Your current bank statements
Your current business and investment mortgage information, business and farm
records, stock, bond and other investment records
Your alien registration or permanent resident card (if you are not a U.S. citizen)
Source: U.S. Department of Education, 2009, www.fafsa.ed.gov/before003.htm

61
Throughout the spring and summer, students are then notified of their
financial aid packages, which they may accept or decline. Students are able also to
accept or decline parts of the aid package, such as loans.
A low-income dependent student from a family of four with a household
family income of $40,000 who applies by the priority deadline at UHM would
receive, on average, a financial aid package of $8,696, $3,512 of which would come
from the Federal Pell Grant. One with a household family income of $60,000 would
receive an average of $7,818, $1,638 of which would come from the Pell Grant
(University of Hawaii, 2010).
Applications for financial aid at the UHM campus have increased
dramatically over the past two years. In academic year 2007-08, the UHM Office of
Financial Aid processed 14,840 FAFSA’s and only 43% of all students at UHM
received financial aid from a total headcount enrollment of credit students of 18,750.
By contrast, as of January 2010 for this current academic year 2009-10, the office
has processed 20,598 FAFSA’s with 52.8% of students receiving aid from a total
headcount enrollment of credit students of 19,309. In other words, with enrollment
increasing only 3%, FAFSA applications have increased nearly 39%. More students
are also needier, evidenced by the increase in the number of students eligible for the
Federal Pell Grant, typically awarded to students from the lowest-income families.
In the entire 2008-09 academic year, 9,928 students were given $28.4 million in Pell
Grants. By contrast, in Fall 2009 semester alone, 11,648 students were given $23.6
million in Pell Grants. Although the 2009-10 academic year has not yet concluded,

62
over 13,000 students have been awarded $44.8 million in Pell Grants as of January
2010 (University of Hawaii, 2010).
General Summary of Findings
In general, information about financial aid and how to apply for financial aid
were readily available to students and families through high schools, the internet,
parents, and other varied sources. However, information alone may not be enough to
motivate students to apply; instead, they need to believe they are eligible for receipt
of aid as well as need to believe that they could not attend college without aid.
Deadlines for application were also well-known by both those who applied and those
who did not. Interestingly, attitudes towards knowledge about financial aid
resources differed by gender, ethnicity, high school type, and participation or non-
participation in a college access program, but not by IRS dependency type.
Furthermore, students were in agreement that the FAFSA is difficult and
tedious, but those that did apply felt that it was worthwhile for the aid that was
received. Consistent support and/or outside pressure by family members or
counselors to complete the FAFSA was crucial to FAFSA completion. Several
students also noted that income tax return requirements for the FAFSA was
confusing, and they had a difficult time navigating through the complexities of the
FAFSA together with the requirements of the tax return. Finally, attitudes towards
the FAFSA differed by ethnicity, high school type and participation or non-
participation in a college access program, but not by gender or IRS dependency type.

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Description of Data
Data were collected through a survey to all current freshmen at UH Manoa
and through focus group and individual interviews with students who were freshmen
in 2008-09 as well as 2009-10. First, in September 2009, all first-time freshmen in
Fall 2009 were e-mailed a survey with attitudinal questions about financial aid and
applying for financial aid. Three hundred seventy five completed questionnaires out
of 1878 (20.02% response rate) were returned. Seventy-nine percent of those who
completed the survey applied for financial aid, as compared to UHM data that 47%
of the total enrolled student body applied for aid in 2009-10 (University of Hawaii,
2010). A higher percentage of aid applicants completing the questionnaire was not
surprising given the fact that the invitation to complete the questionnaire indicated it
was a survey about financial aid. Unfortunately, survey data from low-income
students who did not apply for aid were very limited. Only 11 students with
household incomes of $60,000 or less who did not file a FAFSA completed the
survey. However, a comparison of demographical data from the survey shows that
the respondents had similar characteristics to those of the total enrolled population at
UH Manoa.

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Table 3: Comparison of Demographical Data: Survey to Fall 2008 UH Manoa Total
Undergraduate Enrollment

Survey Percent
Total Undergraduate
Percent
Applied for Financial Aid 79 47
Gender
Female 65 54
Male 35 46
Ethnicity
Asian 49 48.5
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 11 14
Mixed Race 14 10
White 20 22
Residency
Hawaii Resident 70 71
Non-Resident 29 29
High School
HI Public 51 68.9
HI Private 16 22
Mainland 27 28.1
Foreign 3 2
College Access Program
Participation
15 Unknown
Source: University of Hawaii, 2009, Fall Enrollment Report, www.hawaii.edu/iro

Second, one focus group of five low-income students who were freshmen in
academic year 2008-09 and who applied for aid was conducted in August 2009.
Four were female. Three were Asian, one Caucasian, and one African-American.

65
Four were from Hawaii, while one came from the foster care system in California.
Four were from public high schools.
Third, individual interviews with five low-income students who did not apply
for financial aid were conducted from August 2009 to January 2010. Two males and
a female were freshmen in academic year 2008-09, and a male and a female were
freshmen in academic year 2009-10. All four students from Hawaii attended public
high schools, while one student from New York graduated from a Catholic private
school. Four were Asian, and one was Caucasian.
What Analysis Was Performed
Analysis was performed with the results of the attitudinal questions as the
independent variables. First, the responses to the attitudinal questions (questions #21
to #36), which were scored as Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Somewhat Disagree,
Somewhat Agree, Agree, and Strongly Agree, were changed into numeric scores of 1
to 6, respectively. Second, the scores of seven of the attitudinal questions were
reversed so that all of the questions would measure attitudes toward financial aid,
tuition costs and the application process in the same positive direction. Questions
#27, #28, #29, #30, #31, #33, and #35 were reversed. Third, because there were 16
attitudinal questions, a Total Score, a sum of the attitudes per student, was computed.
Fourth, an item-total correlation was performed to check on the internal consistency
of the Total Score. With the exception of Question 24 (The cost of attending my UH
campus is high for me), all of the attitudes were highly correlated with the Total
Score.

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Table 4: Item-Total Correlation

Attitudinal Question
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
21. Financial aid is available .502 .000
22. I had information about what financial aid is .586 .000
23. I had information about how to get financial aid .643 .000
24. Cost of UH is high .137 .010
25. Financial aid makes a difference .437 .000
26. Information about types of aid is available .637 .000
27. Receiving aid would require too many loans .412 .000
28. Receiving aid requires a high GPA or test scores .338 .000
29. More aid is given to those with high GPA or test scores .264 .000
30. I do not believe I am eligible for financial aid .563 .000
31. Being an aid recipient would be embarrassing .273 .000
32. It is worthwhile to complete the FAFSA .598 .000
33. The tuition was affordable without aid .306 .000
34. Deadlines for aid are reasonable. .482 .000
35. The timing of aid notification discourages attendance .398 .000
36. I had enough help to apply for aid .536 .000

Furthermore, a reliability analysis was conducted for the attitudinal variables,
Question 21 – 36, to ensure that the survey was a reliable instrument. Since
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.717 and the Split-Half was 0.75, the test appeared reliable.
A simple t-test for independent samples shows that students’ general attitudes
towards financial aid and cost of tuition at UHM differ significantly, depending
whether they have applied for aid or not, since t(351) = -5.171, p<.05.

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Figure 2: Students’ General Attitudes Toward Financial Aid, in Total Score Mean

Interestingly, students’ general attitudes toward financial aid and cost of
tuition did not differ significant by five various independent demographic student
characteristics – gender, ethnicity, IRS definition of dependency, high school type,
and participation in a college access program. It also did not differ significantly by
demographic characteristics and whether or not they applied for financial aid. In
other words, since the attitudinal questions measured whether students felt positively
toward the need and the effectiveness of applying for financial aid, the data showed
that all types of students, including whether they applied for aid or not, tended to feel
favorably toward financial aid.

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Table 5: Students’ General Attitudes Toward Financial Aid by Demographics, in
Total Score Mean

Demographics N Sig R Squared Mean Std. Error
Intersect
with Applied
or Not - Sig
R Squared
Gender .104 .082 .937 .082
Male 68.761 .965
Female 66.886 .623
Ethnicity .928 .099 .633 .099
Hawaiian 67.364 1.881
Caucasian 66.645 1.195
Asian 67.656 .692
Mixed 68.766 1.579
IRS Dependency .224 .083 .866 .083
Independent 66.005 2.279
Dependent 71.862 1.097
High School Type .122 .144 .617 .144
HI Public 68.901 .756
HI Private 67.966 1.228
HI Charter 65.125 4.215
Mainland Public 64.790 1.135
Mainland Private 67.014 2.265
Home Schooled 70.000 7.539
College Access Pgm .295 .121 .432 .121
No 299 65.528 2.230
Yes 54 70.599 2.548

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Figure 3: Students’ General Attitudes Toward Financial Aid by Demographics, in
Total Score Mean

However, attitudes did vary significantly in the two specific research areas in
which this paper is focused – students’ awareness of financial aid resources and the
financial aid application process.
Research Question 1: To what extent does the students’ awareness of
financial aid resources affect applying for aid?
Finding 1: Information about financial aid and financial aid resources was
generally available for students.
Students at UHM, regardless of whether or not they applied for aid, perceived
information about financial aid and financial aid resources to be available and

70
presented to them from a variety of sources. However, low-income students who did
not apply for aid felt less strongly that they had adequate information about how to
obtain aid.
According to the survey, 337 out of 374 students (90.3%) strongly agreed,
agreed or somewhat agreed with the statement that financial aid is available to
students with financial need. Similarly, 301 students (80.4%) strongly agreed,
agreed or somewhat agreed that they had adequate information about how to get
financial aid. Even amongst low-income students with household incomes of
$60,000 or less who did not apply for aid, 9 of the 11 (81.8%) strongly agreed or
agreed that financial aid is available. Although 8 of the 11 strongly agreed, agreed or
somewhat agreed that they had adequate information about how to get aid, their
percent of 72.7% is slightly lower than the percentage of the total respondent
population. In comparing the attitudes of the low-income students who did not apply
for aid (n=11) to those of the low-income students who did apply for aid (n=143) in
the survey, they vary significantly in their attitudes about knowledge of how to get
financial aid. With the rating of “strongly disagree” given a value of 1 to “strongly
agree” given a value of 6, means were calculated from the two categories of students.
In a t-test, t(152)=1.82, p<0.05.

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Figure 4: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Obtain Aid, by
Application Status for Low-Income Students

Moreover, when asked to rank-order their top three reasons for non-
application, 5 out of 11 low-income students who did not apply for aid cited as their
top reason that they did not have enough information about what financial aid is and
how to get it. Amongst 39 students who did not know their household income and
who did not apply for aid, lack of information was not cited.
Whether or not a student is aware of financial aid resources may be different
than whether or not a student has and understands the financial aid information. In
interviews with low-income students, the students all agreed that financial aid
information was available and even often offered to them, but various circumstances
caused them to decline participation.

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RP got scholarship and financial aid information from teachers and staff at
his high school; they would come by classes and routinely encourage students to
apply for aid. They would also tell them where to go if they have questions, but RP
declined to follow. SC admitted that he didn’t listen when teachers talked about it.
He says, “I didn’t get a clear picture; I couldn’t understand the vocabulary and
everything. My brother tried to help me out.” Likewise, CS said, “I didn’t think
about it. We had classes about it; when certain colleges came for information
sessions, we would go to listen. Guess I knew about everything but never really
thought about it.”
The interviewees in the focus group, all of whom were low-income students
who applied for aid, listed a number of resources they received from their schools
and families: a college center that pushed the FAFSA; a mandatory class called
“advisory”; a pushy parent, sending the student to free workshops, classes, and
college fairs in the community; a senior seminar; a requirement to attend the college
fair; and college and ROTC information sessions. One student who received
agreement from the rest of the group members said, “Information is pretty readily
available, and especially now it’s easy because it’s online.” They did not feel that
there was any excuse to not being able to find financial aid information, if one
searched for it.

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Finding 2: Other factors must accompany knowledge about financial aid and
financial aid resources - including belief of eligibility and motivation to apply – to
turn knowledge into action.
The idea of students being motivated to apply appeared essential to any
action toward financial aid completion. Access to information was not enough. First
of all, belief in eligibility to receive financial aid was crucial to application for aid.
Low-income students in the survey cited as the top reason they applied for aid that
they believed they would be eligible for financial aid. Eighty-two out of 135
students (60.7%) picked “I believed I would be eligible for financial aid” most
frequently as one of the top reasons they applied. It was the top reason for students
who did not know their household income to apply for aid as well. While they must
have had some information about what financial aid was and how to receive it, they
clearly also believed that it would be worthwhile to apply because they were eligible.
In the focus group, all of the students strongly believed they would receive
financial aid. There did not appear to be any question in their minds that they would
receive something; the only doubt they had was in how much they could get. In fact,
4 of the 5 students received more than they thought they would. One student said, “I
got way more than I thought I would. I paid off everything. I thought there wouldn’t
pay enough to pay for half. It was way more than I needed for tuition, housing, meal
plan. I got way more than I thought, which was great.” Another student, NR, has
taken her enthusiasm for financial aid a step farther, encouraging others to apply.
She said, “A lot of people I know that go to UH, I told them to apply. Even if your

74
income is not high end. If you’re middle class, you should try anyway. Better to
have some grants than to have zero and not trying.” In agreement, another student
added, “Especially since the FAFSA is free. It’s not super easy but it’s not… for the
reward that you’ll get, it’s really worth it.”
Oddly, according to the survey, 8 out of the 11 low-income students who
didn’t apply for aid (72.8%) did not agree with the statement that they were not
eligible for financial aid. And yet, they had not applied for aid. Therefore, it is
possible that eligibility alone is not a strong enough of a motivating factor.
However, at least two of the students interviewed and who did not apply for aid were
not convinced that they would qualify for aid. One of the freshmen students said she
was now convinced that she would have been eligible had she applied last year.
However, at the time, she was feeling overwhelmed by the FAFSA and she was not
sure that she would receive any aid. As she put it, “I talked to this one friend of
mine. He said he did apply for FAFSA but never got anything. So, I thought, maybe
I won’t get anything. Why should I try? He’s the one person that made me go,
ugh…. I’ll worry about it later.”
Another student, RB, whose family household income of $15,000 to $25,000
would certainly allow him to qualify for the Federal Pell Grant, was certain that he
would not meet eligibility requirements. As he put it, “I don’t qualify for anything.
But, I feel the pinch now.” When asked how he knew he wouldn’t qualify, RB said:
I asked people. I asked my college counselor because I said I think I’m
making too much money. And then, other things were declined, like the
School Lunch program. We were declined. And stuff like that. So, like

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previous financial aid. When I talked to my parents about the eligibility, they
talked me out of doing the FAFSA because they didn’t want to get declined
again. They said, “We’ll just pay for it.”

Second, students must feel compelled to apply for aid because they have no
other means of financing their education. The second most popular reason for aid
application, with 70 out of 135 students (51.8%) who applied for aid, was that they
could not have attended college without aid. The goal of attending college for these
low-income students was strong enough to motivate them to apply; if not, they could
not attend.
Focus Group Participant CZ stated it succinctly in saying, “Financial aid was
the only way for me going to school. Period. I got accepted to UH. But if I didn’t
have money, which my parents didn’t, then I wouldn’t have gone to school. I’d
probably be working now. So, financial aid was a big part about going to school.”
In agreement with CZ, NR, who had received far more financial aid than she
had expected, said, “I always think about my parents because they paid so much to
get me to school. They sent me to private schools. I didn’t want to go to public
school. I said maybe I should try to do it [apply for aid] anyway. It was a lot more
helpful than I thought it was would be.”
The non-applicants who were interviewed did not feel as burdened by fiscal
constraints as the applicants. Although clearly struggling financially, they all felt at
the time they could have applied for aid that they had other priorities, and that that
someone else would finance their tuition and educational costs. SC, who eventually

76
relied on a promise by his grandmother that she would pay for his college if he
stayed in Hawaii and attended UH said:
It was my senior year, yeah? I was having a hard time at school. I was
struggling, struggling to make my grades. I was president of DECA. It was
really hard and I was working part-time. And, I had girl problems and a lot
of things happening. I was stressing out at that time. I didn’t concentrate on
school as much and I didn’t know what to do, too, yeah? With work and all,
I just forgot about deadlines and everything. I didn’t even apply for colleges
until senior year, the beginning, which was almost too late.

Similarly, TW noted, “It [applying for aid] wasn’t really the top thing on my
mind. I wasn’t thinking more about whether I would get in or not… and my classes.
And, I had a private scholarship of $2600, so I was like, if I can’t get in, I could use
that and maybe apply next year.”
Finding 3: The suggested financial aid deadlines, as a part of information
about financial aid, were well-known and reasonable.
The literature had specifically cited the early financial aid deadlines as
information that is a potential barrier to aid application. Despite the fact that first-
year students are expected to apply for financial aid months in advance of tuition
payment deadlines and class attendance, the data shows that most UHM students
found the deadlines to be reasonable. Surprisingly, a clear majority of survey
respondents had no difficulty with the suggested deadlines, in part perhaps because
an overwhelming majority of respondents had in fact applied for aid. 88.4 percent of
the total respondents of the survey strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed with
the statement that the deadlines and suggested deadlines to apply for financial aid
were reasonable. Even amongst the 11 low-income students who did not apply for

77
aid, 8 agreed or somewhat agreed to the same statement, and 129 out of 142 (90.8%)
of low-income students who did apply strongly agreed, agreed or somewhat agreed
as well.
All students who were interviewed knew that there were deadlines and that
they were important, even if they could not cite them. None expressed surprise or
indignation about institutional deadlines. Focus group participant JR noted that her
high school stressed the deadlines:
I think in my case the financial aid deadline was stressed as much as college
application deadlines. Make sure that you get it in. You had to try harder to
find out yourself the deadline for UH because you had to go and find out
yourself. Because different schools had different deadlines but you knew that
you had to find out the deadline.

Non-applicant JT admitted:
I knew in March there’s a priority deadline. I knew about deadlines because I
was in a lot of AP classes, and that’s where the most motivated students are.
And one of my students who’s now at Harvard would tell me about the
deadlines and stuff. So, I got most of my information throughout high school
from friends who were all going to go to college, and they were all in the
same economic situation I was, so they needed the financial aid which is why
they memorized the deadlines.

Finding 4: Attitudes toward having adequate information about how to apply
for financial aid differ significantly depending on gender, ethnicity, high school type,
and participation in a college access program.
Unlike the general attitudes toward financial aid availability and cost of
college, which did not differ significantly amongst various demographics of the
students, the attitudes toward adequate information about how to acquire aid did
differ significantly amongst different groups. This is important to note because the

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results by group may impact the intervention by education officials and policymakers
to reach non-applicants. First, the female respondents, who comprised 65% of the
respondents, averaged a lower score for adequate information about financial aid
than did the males. So while both groups agreed that they had adequate information,
the females did not agree as enthusiastically. A t-test shows t(367)=2.670, p=0.008.

Figure 5: Attitude Toward Adequate Information about How to Obtain Aid, by
Gender

Second, students from different ethnic backgrounds had significantly
different responses in their attitudes toward adequate information. A one-way
ANOVA for adequate information by ethnicity between groups is significant

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(F=2.335; df=7; p=0.024), with the most positive attitudes toward adequate
information from Hawaiian, Mixed, American Indian, and Pacific Islander groups.

Figure 6: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Acquire Aid, by
Ethnicity

Third, attitudes toward adequate information differed significantly by high
school type. Hawaii public and private high school graduates had the most positive
attitudes toward having adequate information about financial aid, having the same
mean score of 4.6. This data are somewhat surprising considering the resources that
Hawaii private schools tend to put toward college and career counseling, in contrast
to the Hawaii public schools which may not have any comprehensive college

80
counseling program. Another interesting point is that students from mainland
schools did not feel as strongly that they received adequate information about
financial aid, especially in light of their having to pay a much higher, non-resident
tuition rate at UHM. A one-way ANOVA for adequate information by high school
type between groups is significant (F=5.409; df=6; p=0.000).

Figure 7: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Obtain Aid, by High
School Type

Finally, students who participated in a college access program, such as
GEARUP, Na Pua Noeau or Talent Search, felt significantly more strongly toward
adequate information on financial aid than did those who had not participated in one.

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Since these college access programs often emphasize financial aid application and
often conduct FAFSA application workshops, the higher score is not surprising. A t-
test reveals participating in one of these programs yield a significantly higher/more
positive attitude toward adequate information, t(368)=-2.503, p=0.013.

Figure 8: Attitude Toward Adequate Information on How to Obtain Aid, by
Participation in a College Access Program

In summary, the data suggest that a clear majority of students felt that
information about financial aid resources was readily available. Although some
answers differed by demographic group on the survey, they still generally agreed that
they were aware of resources, regardless of whether they applied for aid or not.

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However, both quantitative and qualitative data showed that information alone was
not enough to motivate students to apply. In particular, belief in financial aid
eligibility and belief that receipt of financial aid was imperative in order to be able to
attend college were stronger motivators.
Research Question 2: To what extent does the current financial aid
application process deter students from applying for aid?
Finding 1: Students concur that the FAFSA application is difficult and
tedious, but it is worthwhile to complete.
Combining the data collected from the survey as well as the interviews, it
appears that students feel the FAFSA is difficult to complete and that the application
process is very long. However, whether they applied for aid or not, they believe that
it is worthwhile to complete, as it is the portal to receipt of aid. Amongst all students
who completed the survey, 368 or 93.8% strongly agreed, agreed or somewhat
agreed that it was worthwhile to complete. A substantial 49.2% strongly agreed that
it was worthwhile. Since even students who did not apply for aid agreed that the
FAFSA was worthwhile, the data shows that a clear majority of students, even non-
applicants, were aware of what the FAFSA is and its purpose. Even 10 of the 11 low-
income students who did not apply for aid strongly agreed, agreed or somewhat
agreed that it was important, although 6 of the 11 only somewhat agreed. None of
the 11 students indicated that the FAFSA was too difficult to complete. However,
amongst non-applicants who did not know their household income, the third most

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popular reason for non-application with 10 votes was that the FAFSA was too
difficult.
TW, a freshman at UHM who lives in public assistance housing, attended a
workshop led by a financial aid officer where the FAFSA application was reviewed.
Instead of feeling relieved that assistance was available, she felt overwhelmed by the
long application and amount of information necessary to complete the FAFSA. She
said:
I just knew you had to fill out a tax form. I’m not sure of the process; it
seems very complicated. People did tell me stuff, but I just kinda covered my
ear. I think it was just time-consuming, very time-consuming. I didn’t know
what to do with it and how to fill it out. That was my biggest worry. Seemed
like a couple of pages. Didn’t actually fill out because I thought if I didn’t
have the tax form, there was no point in me having to fill it out.

She laughed that the FAFSA workshop probably caused the opposite action of what
it had intended, ultimately discouraging her from applying. Likewise, SC said he
was overwhelmed, and instead of sitting and working it out, he just asked his brother
to do it.
JT’s story illustrates another problem some motivated students may
encounter. Although now in his second year of college, as a high school senior, JT
did apply for aid by completing a FAFSA. This he did with his mother’s help in New
York after flying to Hawaii on his own to visit UHM and Hawaii Pacific University
and getting all necessary admission and tuition information. After filing his FAFSA,
however, he ran into trouble with his name when he was told that his name on his
social security card was incorrect, off by one letter from the name listed on his birth

84
certificate. At that point, the identity issue became so complicated and cumbersome
and took so long to resolve that JT gave up on his aid application. When asked if he
had anything more he wanted to tell others about applying for financial aid, he
responded, “It’s a long process. A very very long process.”
For those with the patience to complete it, however, the FAFSA can be
worthwhile. As one focus group participant said, “It’s not super easy; it’s not. …
[but]for the reward that you’ll get, it’s really worth it.”
Finding 2: Support is important, but persistence and external pressure must
be present as well.
As with financial aid information, support to complete the FAFSA is very
important. However, it may not be enough to encourage students to complete a form
as difficult as the FAFSA. Students need to have constant extrinsic pressure to finish
the financial aid application process. A clear majority of all survey respondents,
83.1%, felt that they had enough help from teachers, parents, counselors, and others
to apply for financial aid. Similarly, 119 out of 142 low-income students (83.8%)
who did apply for aid strongly agreed, agreed or somewhat agreed that help was
available. In addition, 7 out of the 11 low-income students who did not apply for aid
agreed or somewhat agreed that they had available support. Therefore, it does not
appear that lack of support is a primary reason for non-application. However, the
qualitative data suggests that strong pressure was crucial for successful application
for aid.

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All of the focus group members said that their parents, or in the one foster
care child’s case, social worker, instilled in them that that financial aid was
absolutely necessary to attend college. This does not mean that they necessarily
received FAFSA completion support from their family members. Two had no help –
their parents were not educated in the U.S. and were not native English speakers –
but had parents that pushed their children to apply. The other three did have FAFSA
completion support.
Student KY said, “My sister and I filled it out the same time. I just copied
her for the most part. My mom is big on financial aid so I had my mom help also.”
JQ also had parental help. He said, “My dad helped me. Because neither of us knew
how to do it since I’m the oldest. It was difficult and time consuming but worth it.”
NR was the student who felt bad that her parents had sacrificed so much
financially to send her to a private high school. She noted that:
I had to fill out FAFSA by myself. I didn’t know who to ask. No one in
accounting in my family. So I had to go through the tax forms by myself….
So, what’s this? Sometime I can’t find it… sometimes FAFSA tells you
which line (on the tax form) to look at depending on the tax form, but other
times, I couldn’t find it. I didn’t want to do it, but it was helpful in the end,
even if processing is really….

Likewise, CZ said:
I’m the first for financial aid. I had a sister go to college but not financial aid.
I don’t know why. My parents had a hard time to understand because they’re
FOB [fresh off the boat = newly immigrated]. Straight from their hometown.
It was kinda difficult. When I was in high school, I didn’t know anything
about funding. I didn’t know anything about taxes and IRS. I thought it was
sales tax. I couldn’t fill out [the FAFSA] at the college counseling center at
school; that was the rule.

86
While the students who applied for aid were very specific about who did or
did not help them complete the FAFSA application, by contrast, the non-applicant
students were very vague about support they received. While it appeared that they
did have access to some support, it was either sporadic or too casual. TW explained
her resources:
I had this presentation thing at high school for FAFSA. This guy would
come and show a Powerpoint slide on how to fill it out. I went to that – it
was from 4 – 6 o’clock. My parents couldn’t make it so I went instead. It
was helpful because I got to see what the form looked out and how tedious it
looked.

In response to a question about involvement by teachers or counselors, TW said:
They [my parents] don’t usually ask me too much about school. I do my
thing, and they will support me. They heard about it from their co-workers,
their Chinese co-workers, and they asked me about it a couple of times. So I
told my dad I needed the tax form, but I never got it. I only gave the
accountant about a week’s time before the deadline so it was really close.
They [my parents] said they would pay for it. I told my dad that I didn’t
think I could get it this year, but I’d try to it next year. And he said okay.

SC was the most confused about who to go to and how to proceed. When asked
about resources, he answered:
I guess school – career counselors - internet, library, Borders, my brother.
There is a lot of information out there. But I need help. It’s hard for me to
read something and learn that way. I need someone to go with me to help
with the process and then I’d know it better. Cause for financial aid, don’t
you apply every year or semester? Actually, I think my brother tried to apply
for me. I don’t know what we were trying to do. Actually, I didn’t know how
it worked. I was just going to ask my brother. I was going to rely on
somebody else, which is bad. You know, I should have learned myself. I still
don’t know how to use it. It’s complicated, you know, getting all those ..
getting my parents to do it. You know.

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Later, he expressed desire for hands-on help for the FAFSA. In answer to the
question about what might have been helpful, he said:
Someone to sit down with who actually knows it. My brother – I didn’t
know what he was doing, so someone to explain the process. That would
have been helpful. I didn’t know where to go to get that. I’m sure if I asked
Pearl City [high school], they would have it. But there was nothing in the
bulletin. There was nothing that said, ‘Come down, we have people to help
you do financial aid’.

The only one amongst the five students interviewed who did not apply who
did receive a significant amount of consistent support was JT, the student who filed a
FAFSA but hit an administrative problem with his name. He said his mother “fed
me, basically, the websites. She did the research for me. She actually went on the
UH website and navigated through, and you know, said, ‘This is where you go.
Make sure you check it out.’”
Finding 3: There exists confusion regarding income tax requirements for
financial aid application.
The focus group and individual interviews yielded interesting comments
about the intersection between information requested by the FAFSA and the family’s
income taxes. Two students noted the difficulty in obtaining copies of their parents’
income tax forms in order to complete the FAFSA. TW, who did not apply for aid,
said that she “asked my dad to ask his accountant to get the tax forms. But, she
never did give it to me. By that time, the deadline was coming up already, so I was
like, ‘it’s no use.’” NR, who did apply for aid, noted that the timing of the FAFSA

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priority filing deadline by colleges did not match with the IRS deadline for filing
income tax forms.
You can’t do the FAFSA unless you get tax information, but my parents
don’t turn it in until the last day, so we had to wait until March/April so I
couldn’t turn it in until then. You can estimate things but then you have to
change a lot of answers when you re-do it. So, I thought that I may as well
wait until April to re-do it.

Two students also could not understand whether they were dependents of
their parents or independents. They correctly surmised that a student who is
independent by federal income tax definition may not be categorized as independent
by the financial aid office. As applicant JR put it:
One problem I had with financial aid. I had issues with what direction I’m
going to take in future. My dad threatened to not pay tuition and not fill out
forms so he told me to not fill in his information without his permission, but I
didn’t qualify to do this and be independent. If you are still a dependent but
your parent won’t pay or give you the information then, you’re screwed.

NR concurred. She said:
I was confused about that too. I didn’t know what would make you
financially dependent vs. independent. Same as what qualifies you for
Medicaid. My mom told me that when you’re 19 years old, you don’t have to
be financially independent. I had a job at 19. I couldn’t have my own taxes
because I didn’t make enough money. But I didn’t make much money so I
included with my parents since I can’t have my own tax forms. Am I
independent or dependent? I still don’t know.

Although the four students had different types of comments regarding their families’
income tax returns, their comments suggest that the complexities of filing the
FAFSA intersecting with the filing of the income tax return yields confusion and a
possible barrier to application for aid.

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Finding 4: Attitudes toward the effectiveness of the FAFSA application differ
significantly depending on ethnicity, high school type, and participation in a college
access program.
Unlike the general attitudes toward financial aid availability and cost of
college, which did not differ significantly amongst various demographics of the
students, the attitudes toward the effectiveness of the FAFSA application did differ
significantly amongst different groups. This is important to note because the results
by group may impact the intervention by education officials and policymakers to
reach non-applicants. First, students from different ethnic backgrounds had
significantly different responses in their attitudes toward the FAFSA completion. A
one-way ANOVA for effectiveness of the FAFSA by ethnicity between groups is
significant (F=2.649; df=7; p=0.011), with the most positive attitudes toward FAFSA
completion from Hispanic, Pacific Islander, and Hawaiian groups.

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Figure 9: Attitude Toward Effectiveness of FAFSA Application, by Ethnicity

Second, attitudes toward FAFSA completion differed significantly by high
school type. Hawaii public and charter high school graduates had the most positive
attitudes toward having adequate information about financial aid. Aside from home-
schooled students and public mainland school students, however, the mean scores
were very similar across the different high school types. A one-way ANOVA for
adequate information by high school type between groups is significant (F=2.295;
df=6; p=0.035).

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Figure 10: Attitude Toward Effectiveness of the FAFSA Application by High
School Type

Finally, students who participated in a college access program, such as
GEARUP, Na Pua Noeau or Talent Search, felt significantly different toward
FAFSA completion for financial aid than did those who had not participated in one.
Again, this is not surprising, considering the emphasis on FAFSA completion in
these programs. A t-test reveals participating in one of these programs yield a
significantly higher/more positive attitude toward adequate information, t(365)=-
2.933, p=0.04.

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Figure 11: Attitude Toward Effectiveness of the FAFSA Application, by
Participation in a College Access Program

In summary, the data suggest that the financial aid application process is
difficult. For some students who did not apply, the FAFSA was intimidating.
However, the majority of students agree that it is worthwhile, particularly if one is
eligible. Moreover, completion of the financial aid process requires persistent
support by parents or others who are willing to put pressure on the students to apply
for aid. Third, the income tax requirements for FAFSA completion are confusing
and complex. Fourth, attitudes about the FAFSA differ significantly by ethnicity,
high school type and participation in a college access program.

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Summary
The research questions were addressed through qualitative and quantitative
data analyses, which included descriptive statistics and various means tests on the
survey results. The findings of the analyses will provide a basis for future
intervention, research and practice to encourage more low-income students to apply
and qualify for financial assistance to attend college.
In the next chapter, the findings are discussed in depth in the context of the
literature on the educational pipeline, issues on access to college, and the importance
of financial aid. Also, recommendations are made to high school and college
officials and education policymakers to improve reaching students who may not be
able to finance their college aspirations. Finally, future research opportunities in this
area are suggested.

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CHAPTER FIVE
ANALYSIS, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Overview of the Problem
Despite a long-standing reputation for an excellent educational system, the
United States has been experiencing a significant decline in students completing their
secondary education and choosing to enroll in a post-secondary educational
institution even as an increasing number of jobs require training and education
beyond high school. In the state of Hawaii, an estimated 12 students out of 100
Hawaii ninth graders graduate within 150% of traditional time for college, well
below the national average (NCHEMS, 2009). The University of Hawaii System,
the state’s only public higher education system, received only 32.1% of Hawaii high
school graduates in Fall 2006, a decline from nearly 40% in 1994 (Johnsrud, 2006).
The literature has shown that affordability may be a factor for students who
wish attend college but cannot afford its costs. Since the University of Hawaii at
Manoa campus has a low undergraduate financial aid application rate - which
admittedly has risen dramatically in the past year due to the state’s economic decline
- in a state with a high cost of living, there is concern that low-income students are
simply not applying for financial aid. This non-application pattern is troubling
because some students may not be able to attend college without any financial help.
It is also troubling because some students who choose to enroll in college without
financial aid may choose to drop out of college before completion because they
cannot afford the continuing costs.

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Therefore, this study investigated factors that may inhibit the application for
financial aid by low-income students at UHM. Identification of the factors will aid
education policymakers and decisionmakers to create policies and procedures that
will encourage needy students to take steps that will remove financial barriers to
college access. Specific research questions include:
• To what extent does the students’ awareness of financial aid resources
affect applying for aid?
• To what extent does the current financial aid application process deter
students from applying for aid?
This study employed quantitative and qualitative methods to study these
factors. A focus group interview of low-income students at UHM who did apply for
aid was conducted as well as individual interviews with low-income students who
did not apply for aid. Furthermore, a survey was given to all UHM freshmen to
gather demographic data along with attitudinal data about financial aid information
and application procedures. Together, the data presented a richer picture of what
students knew about financial aid, the cost of tuition, the resources available to help
with application, and the complexity of the financial aid application procedures.
The first research question involves students’ awareness of financial aid
information and resources. In general, the findings showed that information about
financial aid and how to apply for financial aid was plentiful and readily available
through various sources. The data from the survey findings showed unequivocally
that students were provided information about options for financing post-secondary

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education and aware that they had access to resources to find aid. The qualitative
data likewise confirmed that students were offered financial aid information, usually
through high school classes, college/post-high counselors, and teachers, but if not,
through parents and friends. However, since this information appears accessible and
yet needy students still choose not to apply, information alone may not be enough to
motivate students to apply. Instead, they need to believe they are eligible for receipt
of aid as well as need to feel strongly that they could not attend college without any
aid. Another type of information, regarding deadlines for application for financial
aid, was also generally well-known by students. Those who were interviewed were
able to cite the priority deadlines and knew that the earlier they applied, the better the
chances of receiving aid. Finally, attitudes towards knowledge about financial aid
resources differed by gender, ethnicity, high school type, and participation or non-
participation in a college access program, but not by IRS dependency type.
The second research question involves the process of financial aid application
for college-bound students. Overall, the financial aid process is complicated and
time-consuming. The students were in agreement that the FAFSA is difficult and
tedious, but those that did apply felt that it was worth the effort. Those who did
complete the FAFSA found that consistent support by close family members or
counselors was essential. Several students also noted that the income tax return
requirements and terminology for the FAFSA were confusing, and they had a
difficult time navigating through the complexities of the FAFSA together with the
requirements of the tax return. Finally, attitudes towards the FAFSA process

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differed by ethnicity, high school type and participation or non-participation in a
college access program, but not by gender or IRS dependency type.
Connections to Prior Research
As indicated in Chapter Two, there exists very little literature on factors that
contribute to the non-application of college financial aid, even as there exists an
abundance of literature on the impact of financial aid on college attendance and
persistence. While King (2006) found that significant numbers of low-income
students choose not to apply for financial aid, and she was able to summarize the
characteristics of these students, she does not offer explanations to their non-
application.
However, in the one existing study that directly tackles the issue of non-
application for aid, the ACSFA, in a secondary data analysis, noted that the majority
of community college non-applicants believed they did not think they would qualify
for financial aid or did not need financial aid (ACSFA, 2008). The ACSFA
proposed that these students were not aware of financial aid available to them and
the benefits of that aid. Unlike the ACSFA finding, the findings in this study show
that 8 out of the 11 low-income students who did not apply for aid disagreed with the
statement that they were not eligible for aid; however, they still did not apply. At
least two students amongst the non-applicants who were interviewed felt that they
probably would not have qualified for financial aid. Furthermore, unlike the ACSFA
study, this study showed that students overwhelmingly felt that they had adequate
information about how to get financial aid. It appears, however, that all students

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would benefit from efforts by schools to get students to comprehend and digest the
financial aid information and the significance of the benefits of the aid.
Before connecting the findings of this study to literature relating to the two
research questions, it is important to note that there are two possible general
explanations to discrepancies of the findings to the existing literature. One is of
timing. As noted earlier, the UHM campus experienced a significant increase in
FAFSA applications in the 2009-10 school year in comparison to just one year
earlier. Part of this increase may be attributable to the recent economic downturn;
however, it is also possible that students’ awareness of financial aid resources has
increased and their attitudes toward financial aid have changed since the existing
literature was published. Because of the relatively recent public attention given to
the financial aid process, and because of the easy and instant access to information
that the internet provides, students’ and families’ perceptions of financial aid
resources could have shifted significantly in a relatively short period of time.
Second, because the study concentrates solely on one institution in one state,
the findings may differ from studies conducted in other parts of the country. The
institution is a public baccalaureate-granting research institution and the only one of
its kind in Hawaii. In such a small state, the entire community feels involved in the
University’s policies and feels they know about the policies, whether they are
accurate or not. In addition, Hawaii tends to be somewhat removed from many
national studies due to its location, separate from the continental United States, as
well as its ethnic and cultural makeup.

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The following section will briefly connect the extant literature on financial
aid with the findings of this study, based on the two research questions.
Research Question #1: To what extent does the students’ awareness of
financial aid resources affect applying for aid?
The literature on the awareness of financial aid shows that there exists for
low-income students a general lack of knowledge about what college financial
assistance is and how to receive it (Bedsworth et al., 2006; Matus-Grossman &
Gooden, 2002; McSwain, 2008; Olivas, 1985; Sallie Mae Fund & Harris Interactive,
2003; Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal, 2001). They simply do not have the same type
of access to information from varied sources that higher-income students do, even
though a study of two high schools shows that students are more aware of web-based
scholarship search engines and the FAFSA online since the advent of the internet
(Venegas, 2006). In this study, while an overwhelming majority of participating
UHM students agreed that they had adequate information about how to acquire
financial aid, the low-income students who did not apply for aid had a significantly
lower percent of agreement than those that did apply. The qualitative data did show
that while the students knew they were offered information about financial aid, they
did not pursue the offers and felt overwhelmed when confronted with the application
process.
The literature likewise supported the finding in this study that low-income
students who were strongly motivated by the possibility that they would not be able
to enroll in college applied for aid. Hahn and Price (2008) found that high school

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counselors believed that paying for college was of utmost importance to college-
qualified students who choose to not attend college. In the same study, counselors
perceived that finances is the primary reason that students do not attend (Hahn &
Price, 2008). One in four young adults who consider but do not attend college would
be more likely to enroll if they had better information about how to pay for college
when making educational decisions (Sallie Mae Fund & Harris Interactive, 2003). It
was strikingly clear in the interviews of this study that the low-income students who
did apply for aid were very knowledgeable about the application process, the types
of aid available to them, and the consequences to them, had they not secured any
financial aid. By contrast, the low-income interviewees who did not apply for aid
knew they had been offered to learn more information about aid, but did not know
the process in detail, their eligibility, or the types of aid available to them.
Fortunately, these interviewees had other sources of income to finance their first year
of post-secondary education.
Similarly, one of the findings in this study was that students needed more
than information to motivate them to apply for financial aid. In particular, those who
felt they would qualify for aid and those who felt there was a possibility of not being
able to attend college turned financial aid knowledge into action to complete the
FAFSA. Likewise, the literature found that simple access to information was not
enough to yield results in college enrollment (Luna De La Rosa, 2006; St. John,
2006). Luna De La Rosa (2006) concluded that it was important that students be able
to connect the information with integration and action toward enrollment. Regarding

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eligibility, another study found that many low-income students who do not apply for
aid believe they do not need aid. In the 2006 ACE study, 28 percent of lowest-
income dependent students - those with incomes less than $20,000 - and 39 percent
of lowest-income independent students - those with incomes less than $10,000 - say
they did not file a FAFSA in 2003-04 because they believed they could afford to pay,
which was the most common explanation for not applying for financial aid (King,
2006). Had they known that they would have qualified for financial aid, they may
have applied.
The findings in this study did not agree with two conclusions from the
literature. First, an overwhelming majority (90.8%) of low-income students who
completed the UHM survey strongly agreed, agreed or somewhat agreed that the
financial aid deadlines were reasonable. Even the interviewees in the study knew
that there were early deadlines and that they had to meet them. None said they did
not apply because they missed the deadline; in fact, most could cite the actual
financial aid priority deadlines of UHM. Contrary to this finding, an ACE study by
King (2004) found that one in four low-income dependent students did not apply
because they missed the deadline.
Furthermore, the study did not find any evidence that many low-income high
school students simply have no idea that certain financial aid programs exist or that
they may be eligible (Matus-Grossman & Gooden, 2002). The quantitative data
showed that the clear majority of students felt they had adequate information about
financial aid. It also showed that the majority of low-income students thought they

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may be eligible for aid, even if the non-applicants did not believe this as
convincingly as the applicants did.
In summary, the literature generally supported the findings of Research
Question #1 regarding students’ familiarity with financial aid information and
resources. While there is some discrepancy regarding low-income students’
awareness of financial aid and their eligibility, students overwhelmingly felt that
they had access to information and were knowledgeable about deadlines. However,
certain groups of students had stronger agreement with the statement that they were
aware of financial aid resources. Furthermore, students needed more than
information alone to feel compelled to begin and complete the application process.
Research Question #2: To what extent does the current financial aid
application process deter students from applying for aid?
Several recent studies have focused on the complexity of the financial aid
application process, particularly regarding the completion and filing of the FAFSA
(U.S. Department of Education, 2006; ACSFA, 2005; College Board, 2008; The
Institute for College Access and Success, n.d.; Lederman, 2008). The FAFSA has
been cited as too confusing and difficult for both students and parents, and even
more difficult than the federal income tax return (ACSFA, 2005; Dynarski & Scott-
Clayton, 2006; U.S. DOE, 2006). The students in this study confirmed that the
FAFSA is tremendously laborious to fill out, that the terminologies and income tax
information necessary are difficult to understand, and that the entire financial aid
application process is time-consuming. Even applicants, many of whom benefited

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from applying for aid, struggled with the FAFSA and needed significant assistance to
complete it.
However, the interviewees who successfully completed the FAFSA
consistently noted that the labor was worthwhile, once they received their financial
aid package. Unfortunately, not all needy students made it through the application
process. The literature confirms that if application procedures for any benefit are
deemed too complicated, time-consuming or laborious, the costs are likely to be
higher than people believe are worth the benefits (Currie, 2004; Dynarski & Scott-
Clayton, 2006). Regarding welfare benefits, lower participation levels in public
assistance were associated with longer and more complicated enrollment forms
(Stuber, Maloy, Rosenbaum & Jones, 2002; Pavetti, Maloy & Schott, 2002).
Furthermore, potential participants in certain programs will simply find it is too
much of a hassle to apply (Zeidenberg, 2005).
It is essential that students receive consistent support and pressure from a
family member, teacher or counselor to complete the process. As cited earlier,
Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulos & Sanbonmatsu (2009) found that if H&R Block
helped families to complete and file the FAFSA, to receive an estimate of their
eligibility for government aid, and to gather information about applying to colleges,
they were substantially more likely to submit the FAFSA, enroll in college the
following fall semester, and receive more financial aid. Terenzini, Cabrera and
Bernal (2001) specifically noted that high school counselors must lend support.
Because low-income students rely heavily and primarily on their high school

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counselors for college information, they found that counseling support is crucial to
help negotiate the application process (Terenzini, Cabrera & Bernal, 2001).
Likewise, amongst the students who were interviewed, those that applied for aid
either had hands-on assistance by an adult or older sibling, or had parents who
nagged/asked them about aid repeatedly. The non-applicants tended to lack that
level of pressure and support.
To summarize, the findings of this study correlated with the findings of the
literature regarding the financial aid application process. Despite a complicated and
difficult process, students who successfully complete it generally find that it is
worthwhile in order to receive their college aid. However, they usually need external
support and pressure by family members and high school counselors to navigate
through the financial aid terminology and income tax requirements.
Implications
The findings of this study produce several important recommendations for
action by university officials and high school administrators in order to reach low-
income students and encourage them to enroll in college. The findings to the two
research questions in particular can lead educators to re-think how they interact with
students, present information about financial aid, and can change the current
application process to encourage more applications. Education officials should
consider the following:

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1) High Schools
a) High schools may consider making college financial aid information
sessions mandatory and the sessions need to cover more than pure
information alone. Although this study found that information about
financial aid is plentiful and easily accessible, students who are not
motivated will not access the information. A short weekly class in the
student’s final year that addresses the benefits of attending college
and includes general tuition prices at local public colleges, average
financial aid awarded for different income bands, and a step-by-step
instruction manual on how to finance a college education would be a
concrete step to addressing some of the deficiencies in motivation.
The weekly class would also provide an opportunity for the teacher to
follow up with students on their progress in applying for admission
and applying for aid, thereby providing support to students who do
not have it in their homes.
b) High schools could target those who are typically underrepresented in
college populations with outreach efforts. The findings in this study
show that students, dependent on their gender, ethnicity, type of high
school, and participation in a college access program, have
significantly different attitudes toward the availability of financial aid
information and resources. Likewise, students from various
ethnicities and types of high schools and who did or did not

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participate in a college access program have significantly different
viewpoints about the difficulty of the FAFSA. Therefore, a one-type-
fits-all approach to outreach to increase applications for financial aid
will not be effective. Instead, it is recommended that high schools
create programs that are targeted to those who may decide to forego
college or who are intimidated by the application process.
c) High schools should consider tracking students and keeping data on
whether their outreach efforts are encouraging more students to apply
for financial aid and to enroll in college. Too often college/post-high
counselors conduct college preparatory programs and methods of
outreach that remain static year after year, even though student
demographics change and student needs change. Without pre- and
post-tests to measure effectiveness, control groups and longitudinal
tracking systems, it is difficult to gauge if new or current programs
help students.
2) Colleges and Universities
a) College financial aid outreach officials should consider creating
FAFSA work sessions in conjunction with high school counselors
where students can find detailed, hands-on support to complete the
FAFSA. In the qualitative research in this study, Student TW
suggested:

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To make it easier, I would say to do the FAFSA with a group
of friends. Do it together to help each other out. ‘Cause now I
have friends who did the FAFSA, so I ask them, could you
stay with me and coach me along as I do this? ‘Cause they
know what they are doing. So I suggest doing it with friends
and spend some time ‘cause that’s a lot of money. I have
friends that have money left over, and I’m like, “Wow. That’s
so amazing.”

These work sessions can occur during the weekly college information
class proposed in #1a above if students can be required to bring a
copy of their families’ income tax returns with them. Furthermore,
because of the technical nature of the tax return terminology as well
as the level of detail required by the FAFSA questions, it is
recommended that trained financial aid professionals conduct these
work sessions.
b) Like #1b, higher education institutions, together with high schools as
well as community groups, should consider creating opportunities for
financial aid education that reach underrepresented students.
Currently, financial aid officers conduct information sessions at high
schools and FAFSA workshops open to any student or parent in the
month of January, in conjunction with College Goal Sunday, a
national volunteer movement to provide financial aid assistance.
However, the outreach efforts need to target those groups of students
found in the study to feel that financial aid information is less
accessible to them and those who feel that the FAFSA is too difficult

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to complete. These outreach efforts should be open to students of
non-traditional ages as well. Unfortunately, this study did not focus
on this group of students.
3) Federal Government
The FAFSA needs to be simplified if college is to be made more
accessible to low-income students, many of whom come from immigrant
families or families where no other adult has attended college.
Fortunately, steps have already been taken toward FAFSA simplification.
The difficulty of completing a form with over 100 questions, much of
which requires detailed family income information from income tax
forms, is a clear deterrent to students who wish to complete the financial
aid application process. Because it is a form that is mandatory for receipt
of any federal aid, and often for receipt of institutional aid, students who
fail to complete it are not eligible for need-based aid. The United States
Department of Education is piloting the FAFSA EZ as well as a program
to auto-populate the FAFSA based on information filed by families on
their income tax returns from the prior year. As indicated earlier, the
study conducted by Bettinger, Long, Oreopoulos, & Sanbonmatsu (2009)
in which families receive FAFSA help from H&R Block found that the
assistance increased FAFSA filing and college enrollment significantly.
It also increased the amount of financial aid that families received.
Clearly, for low-income families, the difficulty of the FAFSA can be a

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barrier to receipt of financial aid and enrollment in an institution of higher
education.
4) State Government
State governments who have a vested interest in increasing the number of
educated residents in the state may want to consider increasing funding to
K-12 schools and public colleges and universities to repair the leaky
educational pipeline. The findings in this study show that assistance to
low-income families to access financial aid in its current form can be very
expensive. Because the current financial aid application process is so
complicated and technical, a “high-touch” approach is necessary to
motivate students to get financial aid information and to get students to
complete the FAFSA. The H&R Block approach conducted by Bettinger
et. al (2009) would be very expensive to replicate for all low-income
students across the country, even though it has proven to be effective for
participants. Even if that approach is not financially feasible for state
governments, state governments must still increase funding to public
educational institutions to conduct mandatory college-preparation classes,
to adopt a hands-on approach to reach out to underrepresented students,
and to provide individualized assistance on the FAFSA.
Recommendations for Further Study
The findings of this study show that there is much research yet to be
conducted to learn more about students’ attitudes and perceptions about financing

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their education, even though this study is a step toward understanding freshmen at
the University of Hawaii at Manoa. First, it is recommended that the study be
expanded for eventual generalizability. The UHM campus is a large, public,
research university unlike any other institution in the state of Hawaii. Should a new
study choose to include students from the community colleges, the private colleges
and universities, and the two public comprehensive universities in the state, a more
thorough analysis may be conducted that would have implications for a broader set
of institutions. Furthermore, because there is a dearth of information about why
students may choose not to apply for aid, this study could be expanded nationally to
include institutions outside Hawaii.
Second, it is recommended that a study be conducted of recent low-income
high school graduates who chose not to enroll directly in college. The subjects from
this study were already enrolled at UHM, regardless of whether or not they had
applied for or needed financial aid. For them, their economic status did not prevent
them from enrolling in college. However, there may be a significant number of
students who were unable to enroll because of their financial situation, and it would
be interesting to study their attitudes toward the financial aid application process and
availability of information.
Third, one of the findings of this study concerned the motivation of students
to apply for financial aid. A followup study on student motivation – what compels
one to apply for aid over another? why does the same information given to two

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students impact them differently? - would aid high school and college officials as
they create programs to motivate low-income students to complete the FAFSA.
Finally, it is recommended that further study be conducted on non-traditional
students, those who have fallen out of the educational pipeline and entered the
workforce, only to find that they would like to pursue higher education years later.
Non-traditional students do not have access to high school counselors or college-
preparatory programs. Some may not be aware of the FAFSA requirements or may
have attempted to complete it when they were enrolled in high school, only to be
deterred by its length or its complicated requirements. In other words, non-
traditional students may require different interventions in order to compel them to
apply for financial aid.
Conclusion
In announcing his American Graduation Initiative in 2009, United States
President Barack Obama stated his goal that the U.S. would have the highest
proportion of college graduates in the world by the year 2020. To reach his goal, the
U.S. must increase the number of college graduates and certificate holders by 5
million over the next ten years. In order to achieve this, the leaky educational
pipeline must be repaired so that all students are encouraged to continue their formal
studies beyond secondary education. Unfortunately, for those who are unable to
afford it outright, higher education may seem untenable, particularly if information
about financial aid is unavailable or if the financial aid application process is a
deterrent to accessing any aid. This study aimed to analyze a small population of

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students, those low-income students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, in order
to determine factors that inhibit application for financial aid. It was limited in scope,
and as a result, is limited in generalizability. However, for policymakers in the state
of Hawaii, high school administrators and officials at the UHM campus, this study
yielded concrete suggestions on how to reach more low-income students. Future
studies that broaden and expand the research will allow for more generalizability.

113
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124
APPENDIX A
EMAIL INVITATION TO STUDENTS TO PARTICIPATE IN
A FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW
July 25, 2009
Subject: A Study on Applying for Financial Aid
Fr: karencle@usc.edu

Dear UH Manoa Student:

I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California studying
factors which may inhibit students from applying for financial aid to attend the
University of Hawaii at Manoa. As a student who recently completed your first year
at UHM, you may have insights that contribute to my research.

I would like to invite you to participate in a small focus group interview so
that I may hear your views and thoughts about financial aid. Your participation in
this focus group interview is completely voluntary. Nothing you say will be
identified with you personally in my study or in any discussions I have outside of the
study. I am also an administrator at UH. However, I will not use any personally
identifiable information from this study to influence my position at work.

If you participate in the group interview, you will be given a $10 Starbucks
gift card as an acknowledgement of your precious time. I anticipate the interview
will take 60 – 90 minutes. I will interview both those who did and did not apply for
financial aid through the FAFSA (Free Application for Federal Student Aid).

Criteria: If you were a full-time (12 or more credits), first-time freshman at
UHM in either/both the Fall 2008 or Spring 2009 semester, and you are from a low-
income household (total family income of roughly $40,000 or less), you may be
eligible to participate.

To participate, please e-mail me at karencle@usc.edu and let me know if you
did apply for financial aid (via the FAFSA) as a freshman or did not. I will respond
with possible dates/times, beginning this Thursday, for the focus group interview.
I'm hopeful that the findings from my research will help more students receive
financial aid for which they are eligible.

125
I look forward to hearing from you!
Sincerely,
Karen C. Lee

126
APPENDIX B
EMAIL INVITATION TO FRESHMEN TO PARTICIPATE
IN A SURVEY
September 2009
Sent to: UH username
Subject: UH Freshman Survey on Financial Assistance

Dear UH Freshman:

Welcome to the University of Hawai‘i! We are absolutely delighted you have
chosen to attend one of our fine University of Hawai‘i campuses and are committed
to making your student experience a positive and fulfilling one. As part of that
effort, we are asking for your input on financial assistance—regardless of whether
you applied or not, regardless of whether you received aid or not. Your responses
will help us improve our current policies and practices.

Access the questionnaire with your UH username at:
www.hawaii.edu/offices/app/finaid

Please note your responses are confidential. Your email will not be linked to your
responses and identifying information will not be collected. For questions on your
rights as a participant, contact the UH Committee on Human Studies (956-5007). For
all other questions, call 956-7487 or send email to app@hawaii.edu. Thank you in
advance for your participation.

Our goal at the University of Hawai‘i is to provide you with a quality education that
prepares you for entry into the workforce and fosters an appreciation for lifelong
learning. We wish you all the best as you begin your studies.

Mahalo,

Linda K. Johnsrud
Vice President for Academic Planning and Policy
University of Hawai‘i System

And

Karen C. Lee
Associate Vice President for Student Affairs
University of Hawai‘i System

127
APPENDIX C
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE AND INFORMED CONSENT
I am a doctoral student studying factors which may inhibit students from
applying for financial assistance to attend the University of Hawaii at Manoa. As a
student who recently completed your freshman year at UHM and didn’t/did apply for
financial aid, you may have insights that contribute to my research. I would like to
hear your views and thoughts about your experiences to inform the research
questions in my dissertation.

I am interviewing about 10 students in total. Your participation in this focus
group/interview is completely voluntary. Nothing you say will be identified with
you personally in my study or in any discussions I have outside of this room. [For
focus group only: However, by virtue of the fact that this is a group interview, I
cannot guarantee you complete confidentiality since other students in this room may
attribute an answer to you.] As we go through the interview, if you have any
questions about why I’m asking something, please feel free to ask. Or if you do not
want to answer, just say so.

Further, although I am an administrator at UH, I will not use any personally
identifiable information from this study to influence my position at work. Although
I may utilize the final results of my research in my position to help students to
finance their education, nothing you say that is identifiable to you personally will be
used to inform any activity or policy outside of this actual study.

I am also taping this discussion so that I can give you more of my attention
and so that I am able to describe your answers accurately. I will use the tape to
transcribe this discussion, and the tape will be destroyed. No one else will have
access to the tape.

At the end of this interview, you will be given a $10 Starbucks gift card as an
acknowledgement of your precious time.

Are there any questions before we begin?

128
APPENDIX D
BRIEF QUESTIONNAIRE TO ALL FOCUS GROUP AND
INTERVIEW PARTICIPANTS
1. Are you (check one) _____ male _____ female _____ other?
2. What high school did you attend? In what city and state is it located? (If you
earned a GED instead of completing high school, please write “GED” and what
state.)

3. What year did you graduate from high school?
4. Were you a participant in any college outreach program prior to enrolling at
UHM? If so, which one?

5. Did you work in your freshman year?
If yes, how many hours per week? On-campus or off-campus?

6. According to IRS tax laws, are you financially independent (from your parents)
or dependent (i.e., parents/guardians claim you on their tax returns)?

7. What is your household income (i.e., this is your parents’/guardians’ income if
you are a dependent; this is your/your partner’s income if you are independent)?

_______$ 12,500 or less
_______$12,501 to $25,000
_______$25,001 to $40,000
_______$40,001 to $50,000
_______$50,001 to $60,000
_______$60,001 and over
______ Don’t Know
8. What is your ethnic background?

_____________________________________________________

9. What is your age? _______________

Your name: _________________________________________________

129
APPENDIX E
FOCUS GROUP AND ONE-ON-ONE INTERVIEW GUIDE
Before enrolling at UHM, how important was receiving financial aid to you?
What kind of information did you have about college and financial aid, if any?
Did you ask anyone for financial aid information (or did you hope it would come to
you)? Who?

Did you search for financial aid information (or did you hope it would come to you)?
How?

If you did ask or search, what did you perceive as barriers in the financial aid
process?

Specifically:
Did you believe that financial aid was necessary for you to attend college?

What did you know about financial aid deadlines?
- What do you wish you had known about deadlines?
Had you heard about the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)? Did
you attempt to complete it? Why or why not?

What did you know about the information you had to supply to qualify for aid (i.e.,
scholarship apps, tax forms, divorce information, proof of residency)?

Were you able to accurately cite the price of tuition at UHM?
- What do you wish you had known about the price?
Do you think you would have qualified for financial aid? Why or why not?
- What do you wish you had known about your eligibility?
What resources were available to you to help with applying for aid?
- What do you wish you had known about resources?
What did you know about the types of financial assistance available to you? Are one
type of aid (grants, loans or work-study monies) more important than the others?

130
Did you feel there is any stigma or embarrassment attached to applying for financial
aid?

Was there anyone/anything instrumental in affecting your decision to apply/not
apply for aid?

131
APPENDIX F
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE TO UH MANOA FRESHMEN STUDENTS
1. What is your gender?
(a) Male (b) Female (c) Other
2. What is your age?
(a) Under 18 (b) 18-19 (c) 20-21 (d) 22-24 (e) 25-29
(f) 30-34 (g) 35-59 (h) 60 and over

3. How do you describe yourself? (Select the one category which best represents
your ethnic background.)
Mixed: (a) Mixed Asian (b) Mixed Hawaiian (c) Mixed Pacific Islander
(d) Mixed Race (2 or more races).
Asian: (e) Asian Indian (f) Chinese (g) Filipino (h) Japanese (i) Korean
(j) Laotian (k) Thai (l) Vietnamese (m) Other Asian
Pacific Islander: (n) Guamanian or Chamorro
(o) Native Hawaiian/Part-Hawaiian/Mixed Hawaiian
(p) Micronesian (except Guamanian or Chamorro)
(q) Samoan (r) Tongan (s) Other Pacific Islander
(t) Caucasian or White (u) Hispanic (v) African American or Black
(w) American Indian/Alaska Native

4. What is your UH home/primary campus?
(a) Manoa (b) Hilo (c) West Oahu (d) Hawaii CC (e) Honolulu CC
(f) Kapiolani CC (g) Kauai CC (h) Leeward CC (i) Maui CC (j) Windward CC

5. What type of student are you?
(a) First-time, degree-seeking (b) Non-degree-seeking (c) Transfer
(d) Re-enrolling at my UH campus

6. Are you a Hawaii resident?
(a) Yes (skip to Question #8) (b) No (c) Unsure
7. If you answered ‘no’ or ‘unsure’ on question #6, do you pay:
(a) in-state tuition (b) out-of-state tuition (c) 1.5 times in-state tuition
(d) other__________

8. By IRS tax definitions, are you financially independent from your
parents/guardians or financially dependent (i.e., parents/guardians claim you on their
tax returns)?
(a) Dependent (b) Independent

132
9. What is your household income (i.e., this is your parents’/guardians’ income if
you are a dependent; this is your/your partner’s income if you are independent)?
(a) $ 12,500 or less (b) $12,501 to $25,000 (c) $25,001 to $40,000
(d) $40,001 to $50,000 (e) $50,001 to $60,000 (g) $60,001 and over
(h) Don’t Know

10. What is the highest level of education attained by your mother or female
guardian?
(a) Less than 4 years of high school (skip to Question 12)
(b) High school graduate (skip to Question 12) (c) Some college
(d) Bachelor’s degree or higher

11. If your mother or female guardian did attend college, was it in the United States?
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Don’t Know
12. What is the highest level of education attained by your father or male guardian?
(a) Less than 4 years of high school (skip to Question 14)
(b) High school graduate (skip to Question 14) (c) Some college
(d) Bachelor’s degree or higher

13. If your father or male guardian did attend college, was it in the United States?
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Don’t Know
14. What type of high school did you attend?
(a) Hawaii public (b) Hawaii private (c) Hawaii charter (d) Mainland public
(e) Mainland private (f) Home schooled (g)Other _________________________

15. Did you participate in any college access programs in high school that helped
you learn about how to go to college? (Select all that apply)
(a) GEAR-Up (b) Na Pua Noeau (c) Talent Search (d) Upward Bound
(e) Other (please specify)_________________________

16. Are you working or planning to work during this school year?
(a) Yes , off-campus (b) Yes, on-campus (c) Yes, on and off-campus
(d) No (skip to Question 18)

17. If you answered ‘yes’ on question #16, how many total hours are you planning
to work per week?
(a) 1-10 (b) 11-15 (c) 16-20 (d) 21-30 (e) 31 or more
18. Did you apply for financial aid by completing the Free Application for Federal
Financial Aid (FAFSA)?
(a) Yes (b) No (skip to Question 21)

133
19. If you answered ‘yes’ to question #18, select the option that best describes your
financial aid situation:
(a) awarded need-based aid (including grants, loans, work-study) which you
accepted;
(b) not awarded need-based aid (grants, loans, work-study);
(c) awarded need-based aid but decided to decline the aid (grants, loans, work-
study).

20. If you received financial aid, was it a significant factor in your decision to enroll
at your UH campus?
(a) Yes (b) No
Please indicate whether you strongly agree, agree, somewhat agree, somewhat
disagree, disagree or strongly disagree with the following statements:

21. Financial aid is available to students with financial need.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

22. Before I applied to my UH campus, I had adequate information about what
financial aid is.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

23. Before I applied to my UH campus, I had adequate information about how to get
financial aid.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

24. The cost of attending my UH campus is high for me:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

25. Financial aid makes a significant difference in what a student pays for college.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

26. Information about the various types of financial aid is readily available:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

134
27. Receiving financial aid would require accepting too many loans:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

28. Receiving financial aid requires a high GPA or standardized test scores:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

29. I believe more financial aid is given to those with high GPA’s and test scores:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

30. I do not believe I am eligible for financial aid:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

31. Being a financial aid recipient would be embarrassing to me:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

32. It is worthwhile to complete the federal financial aid application (FAFSA) to get
aid.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

33. The tuition & fees of my campus were affordable enough without financial aid:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

34. The deadlines and suggested deadlines to apply for financial aid are reasonable:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

35. The timing of financial aid notification discourages students from attending
college:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

36. Parents/counselors/teachers/others provide enough help for students to apply for
aid:
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Somewhat Agree (d) Somewhat Disagree
(e) Disagree (f) Strongly Disagree

135
37. If you applied for financial aid, skip to Question #39. If you did not apply for
financial aid, select the three most important reasons why:

Most important (dropdown box with reasons below).
Second most important (dropdown box with reasons below).
Third most important (dropdown box with reasons below).
____ There was not enough information about what financial aid is and how to get
it;
____ There was not enough information about the types of financial aid available;
____ Receipt of financial aid would require accepting too many loans;
____ Eligibility of financial aid would require a high GPA or standardized test
scores;
____ I would not be eligible for financial aid;
____ I was too embarrassed to be a financial aid recipient;
____ The FAFSA was too difficult to complete;
____ Applying for aid was not worth the time or effort;
____ The deadlines to apply were too early;
____ The timing of the notification was too late;
____ I felt I could afford the campus tuition and fees;
____ I work enough to pay for educational costs that I don’t need the financial
assistance;
____ I didn’t have enough support from parents/counselor/teachers/others to try to
apply.

38. If you selected ‘Other’ on Question #37 as one of the most important reasons
why you did not apply for financial aid, please elaborate below.
_________________________________________________

39. Please skip if you did not apply for financial aid. If you did apply for financial
aid, select the three most important reasons why.

Most important (dropdown box with reasons below).
Second most important (dropdown box with reasons below).
Third most important (dropdown box with reasons below).
____ There was adequate information about what financial aid is and how to get it;
____ There was adequate information about the types of financial aid available;
____ I believed eligibility of financial aid would require a high GPA or
standardized test score;
____ I believed I would be eligible for financial aid;
____ I would not have been able to attend without aid;

136
____ I didn’t believe there was any stigma or embarrassment to be a financial aid
recipient;
____ The FAFSA was worthwhile to complete;
____ The deadlines to apply were adequate and not too late;
____ The timing of the notification was adequate;
____ The campus tuition and fees were substantial enough for me to apply for
financial aid;
____ I had enough support from parents/counselor/teachers/others in the
application process to apply;
____ The recent economic downturn affected my/my family’s financial situation;

40. If you selected ‘Other’ on Question #39 as one of the most important reasons
why you applied for financial aid, please elaborate below.
_________________________________________________

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Today's expanding global society has caused changes in the needs of the workforce as well as the level of skills and education required by various jobs across the United States. While the number of jobs demanding a post-secondary degree increase, the U.S. output of college graduates has not kept pace. A previous leader in secondary and tertiary educational attainment, the U.S. has been outperformed by other countries in recent years. Specifically, the State of Hawaii has experienced a decline in college-going rates over the last decade. Affordability has been identified by the literature as a potential barrier for students, particularly low-income students, to attend college.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lee, Karen C. (author)

Core Title Factors inhibiting application for financial aid by low-income students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/10/2010

Defense Date 03/07/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag financial aid,low-income students,OAI-PMH Harvest,University of Hawaii

Place Name Hawaii (states), Honolulu (city or populated place), Manoa (city or populated place), USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Brewer, Dominic J. (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member)

Creator Email karencle@usc.edu,karenhi@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2905

Unique identifier UC1458749

Identifier etd-Lee-3596 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-319323 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2905 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Lee-3596.pdf

Dmrecord 319323

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lee, Karen C.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu