University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The experiences of African American graduate students: a cultural transition

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The experiences of African American graduate students: a cultural transition

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THE EXPERIENCES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN GRADUATE STUDENTS:

A CULTURAL TRANSITION

by

Joretta Joseph

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2007

Copyright 2007 Joretta B. Joseph

ii
DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my daughter, Lanice. Mommy loves you
very much. Do not ever allow ANYONE to take your voice away.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This accomplishment was only possible through Christ. I did not and could
not have done this by myself and without the people placed above me who covered
me in their prayers, the people who stood with me and read all of my stuff and
listened to my gripes, the people that went before me and paved the path that I
walked, and the people that stood and continue to stand behind me, pushing and
encouraging me all of the way.
Most important is my daughter, who on many occasions slept at my feet,
whether it was on the floor while I sat at the desk or at the foot of the bed while I was
working the computer in the middle of the bed. She never let me forget why I was
doing this.
Thank You and I Love You All,
Joretta (Dr. Retta)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................ iii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................. 14
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................... 53
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ...................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS .......................................... 193
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 215
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... 227

v

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 3.1: Demographic and Educational Characteristics of
Participants.............................................................................................. 59

TABLE 4.1:Doctorates in Mathematics and Chemistry
Awarded to Women……………….......................................................... 74

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Acculturism-Biculturism Model ............................................................30
Figure 2.2: Acculturation Strategies ..........................................................................36
Figure 2.3: A Model of the Acculturation Process ................................................... 43
Figure 4.1: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Keisha............77
Figure 4.2: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Kerry..............86
Figure 4.3: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Shavanna........94
Figure 4.4: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Paulette........102
Figure 4.5: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Victoria........110
Figure 4.6: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Rachelle.......119
Figure 4.7: The Academic Transition – Keisha……………………………………135
Figure 4.8: The Academic Transition – Kerry…………………………………..…144
Figure 4.9: The Academic Transition – Shavanna………………………………...153
Figure 4.10: The Academic Transition – Paulette…………………………………160
Figure 4.11: The Academic Transition – Victoria…………………………………169
Figure 4.12: The Academic Transition – Rachelle………………...………………180

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ABSTRACT

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) have long been an
intellectual resource for the African American community. HBCUs have provided
and continue to provide an educational pathway for many Black students,
particularly women who seek graduate and advanced degrees.
However, despite the overwhelmingly positive presence of HBCU in the
African American community, the academic training of students who graduate from
HBCUs may be perceived as insufficient by predominantly White graduate
institutions (PWIs). As a result, African American students who are not well
integrated into their respective departmental communities and cultures at PW/is are
likely to leave graduate school. Thus the continuing loss of talented people, potential
research, role models for society, and the next generation of African American
students in the fields of math, engineering, and the sciences (STEM) create a
segregated and limited university environment.
Studies in the field that attempt to provide insight in to experiences of
underrepresented students are ultimately beneficial. However, often such studies do
not address the process of adapting to the culture of a predominantly white
institution (PWI), particularly within white and male dominated fields such as
mathematics and the sciences. Research has also indicated that the first two years at a
predominantly white graduate institution is the crucial transitional period for students
of color, and it is this transitional moment in time that is the focus of this study. I
consider how students make the transition from HBCU to majority institutions, and

viii
what impact this transition has on their persistence and commitment to their
discipline. The limited amount of research that does address the experiences of
minority doctoral students in math and science is usually coupled with the
experiences of women. However, race and gender are not linear or additive. It cannot
be assumed that the same factors that effect the under representation of women of
color have are the same factors that effect the under representation of Euro-American
Women and men of color. This study takes those distinctions into account.
The methodology of this study relies on extensive interview data (among
other sources), to fully examine the transition process of six African-American
women engaged in graduate work in mathematics or science at predominantly white
institutions. I examine each participant’s story as a case study, outlining moderating
influences and perspectives on their acculturation to the STEM disciplines and to
majority institutions.

1
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

“ Where the words of women are crying to be heard, we must each of us
recognize our responsibility to seek those words out, to read them and share
them and examine them in their pertinence to our lives” (Lorde, 1984).

Problem Statement and Historical Context
African American students whose undergraduate training at Historically
Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) may be perceived as insufficient or who
are not well integrated into their respective departmental communities and cultures
are likely to leave graduate school (Herzig, 2004). The loss of talented people,
potential research, role models for society, and the next generation of African
American students in the fields of math, engineering, and the sciences (STEM)
create a segregated and limited university environment. A student’s undergraduate
institution is a significant factor in the decision to attend graduate school. Research
has shown that Black graduate students from Historically Black Colleges (HBC)
have succeeded equally well compared to Black students who graduated from
Predominantly White Institutions (PWI) (Cooper, 2004). Increasing the participation
of minority groups in the sciences involves change on all levels, including the
attitudes of both the scientific community and society as well as attitudes of all areas
of higher education about African Americans and other underrepresented researchers
(Sakai & Lane, 1996).
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the structure for my dissertation. In
this chapter I review existing research regarding the participation by African

2
American students in the STEM disciplines. Much of the existing research utilizes a
socialization framework, which I also review. I discuss the positive influences of
HBCUs on student academic success and learning. I also review literature on the
progression of African American students through graduate school. Subsequently, I
present the problem and the significance of this dissertation and I conclude with a
framework for future chapters.
African Americans in Mathematics, Science, and Engineering
Historically Black Colleges and Universities have long been an intellectual
resource for the African American community. HBCUs have provided and continue
to provide an educational pathway for many Black students, particularly women who
seek graduate and advanced degrees. In 1995 Solórzano found that from 1980 to
1990, HBCUs graduated 73 percent of the African-American women who went on to
receive doctorates in science and engineering. Similar to Solórzano’s study, Leggon
and Pearson (1997) studied the baccalaureate origins of African American women
with doctorates in science from 1975 to 1992. This study found that, in the biological
sciences, 73 percent of those with earned doctorates between 1975 and 1992 earned
their undergraduate degrees at HBCUs. The results were similar for the physical
sciences with 68 percent of African American female scientists earning their
undergraduate degrees from HBCUs. Even more compelling, 67 percent of these
women specifically attended either Spelman or Bennett College, the two women
only HBCUs, as undergraduates (Leggon & Pearson, 1997b).

3
The National Science Foundation (NSF) (2004) also notes that the top
baccalaureate institutions for African Americans with doctorates in science and
engineering from 2000 to 2004 were HBCUs. The top four institutions are Howard
University, Spelman College, Hampton University, and Morehouse College. Florida
A & M University is ranked number five with North Carolina A &T State University
and Southern University (both HBCUs) ranked seven and eight behind Harvard
University, while Massachusetts Institute of Technology is ranked number 11.
Howard University was the most productive, when not controlling for the size of the
institutions. Bennett College, along with other smaller HBCUs, were the more
productive when issues of overall enrollment were considered. The top institutions
for African American men, without controlling for size, were Howard University,
Tuskegee University, and Morehouse College. When controlling for size, Tuskegee,
Morehouse, and other smaller HBCUs were more productive (Solórzano, 1995).
Historically Black Colleges and Universities and their Effects
A by-product of socially constructed racism and discrimination against
African Americans, Historically Black Colleges and Universities continue to be the
primary institutions of higher education for African Americans to be educated (Kim,
2002). In 1942 Benjamin E. Mays said that HBCUs should never exist in isolation
nor produce students with a “better than–thou” attitude. Social responsibility should
be the goal of education for Negro liberal arts institutions, which continue to succeed
in following this path. An illustration of this is in the statement made by Dr.

4
Hrabowski, President of the University of Maryland at Hampton University's
graduation exercises in 2002.
My own Hampton experience not only filled me with a sense of hope and
excitement, but also shaped my philosophy of education. It was at Hampton
that I learned about putting the students first, expecting the most of them,
giving them the support they need to succeed, and emphasizing leadership
and service to others. The fact that Hampton’s commencement falls on
Mother’s Day (Class of 2002) magnifies for all our appreciation of families
and roots. I could not help but think of the parallelism between one’s mother
and one’s alma mater, each serving as a point of commencement, each giving
us love, values and skills for life.

In areas of mathematics, science, and engineering HBCUs educate 50 percent
of all Black scientists, on some academic level, with Fisk University, Howard
University, Bennett College and a few others being the top institutions to graduate
Blacks that continue to pursue doctorate degrees in these fields (Cross, 2001-2002;
NCES, 2001-2002). This statistic is remarkable since such institutions tend to have
smaller endowments, limited or outdated equipment and facilities, and faculty with
large teaching loads (Leggon & Pearson, 1997a). Some researchers attribute this
success to the “quality hands-on-nurturing, [and a] warm, non-hostile environment”
(Cross, 1997) that begins from the time the students walk on to campus where a
community of faculty and staff are all invested in the students’ well-being as part of
a network that works to advance the opportunity of each student (Subramaniam &
Wyler, 1998). Needless to say, HBCUs should be given more recognition and
funding, private and public, for their continued efforts in developing talented African
American scientists and mathematicians (Leggon, 2003b) as a result of their

5
community efforts that supports the successful academic and social integration of the
student.
Perhaps it is easy to assume that the people who do well in math, science, and
engineering either just fit or are able and willing to adapt to the cultural norms of the
discipline. For minority students from culturally different backgrounds, despite their
interest and skill level in the sciences, they need to learn how to participate in both
social and cultural practices of the discipline in order to succeed. Students who are
not well integrated in to their respective disciplinary communities and cultures are
likely to leave graduate school (Herzig, 2004).
For minority students that have attended a smaller HBCU, graduate school at
a large predominantly white research institution may be daunting. Research has
called it indifferent or “sink or swim”, but such an atmosphere does not offer much
advice and it expects the students to work independently on their studies (Morelle,
1996). A sense of isolation is at times heightened by the lack of other minorities
within their respective programs (Hamilton, 2001). Without interaction with peers
minority students are not exposed to interpersonal relationships that bring about
reassurance and confirmation that “all is well”, especially when feedback from
faculty may be quite rare. This lack of reassurance and confirmation of abilities
causes minority students to feel less prepared. One-on-one faculty interaction is a
premium for minority students. The infrequent feedback from faculty can also make
the student believe that they are not being treated equally when compared to their
white peers (Herzig, 2004; Schwartz et al., 2003; Turner & Thompson, 1993). A lack

6
of interactions with peers and faculty can preclude the student from learning how to
be professional in their respective fields by interfering with the student’s acquisition
of dispositions, attitudes, and values (Duncan, 1976).
The Progression of African Americans in Graduate School
Despite the thought that science and scientific methods should be powerful
enough to eliminate any social biases from personal values or interests (Harding,
1993), African Americans enter both an academic discipline and a career field that
has been called “chilly” because it is overwhelmingly White, and predominantly
male (Herzig, 2004). For African American women entering such a field, regardless
of the historical contributions African Americans and women have made to science,
math, and engineering, discord may arise. These students enter an environment that
is reputed to be indifferent, single-minded, and emotionless (Subramaniam & Wyer,
1998) with a lack of meaningful relationships, unlike those that have guided them to
this point (Fries-Britt & Turner, 2002). This transition may be particularly difficult
for African American women entering a major research institution from
undergraduate experiences at a HBCU that is considered less prestigious and where
the culture is perceived to be open and encouraging from the time students step on to
campus (St. John, 2000).
Previous literature that provides specific insight into the experiences, like
those mentioned, focuses on the socialization factors of these students throughout
their matriculation. What these studies do not explore are the issues of adjustment
within the first two - year period of graduate school. This first two- year period is

7
considered the stage of transition where students seek association in the academic
and social communities of the department by building personal affiliations with other
graduate students and faculty (Tinto, 1993, p.235). Socialization is the process of
acquiring knowledge, skills, and disposition that makes an effective member in
society. For graduate students, socialization, both academically and socially, is a
multitude of relationships and experiences that may not have the same effects on
others with similar backgrounds (Weidman et al., 2001). One example of this
socialization research is from Nettles (1990) that used the Doctoral Student Survey
(DSS), containing 142 items, to study 1,286 students. Chi-square tests and ANOVA
were used to compare the experiences of Black, Hispanic and White doctoral
students. The results of this study were that Black students attended less prestigious
undergraduate institutions, received lower UGPAs, and were less likely than their
peers to enter science majors. They were also likely to perceive their graduate
institutions as more racially discriminative.
Turner and Thompson’s 1993 research explores the socialization process of
37 minority women doctoral students and 25 majority women doctoral students.
Two-page questionnaires were used to obtain information on both background and
future career plans. An interview with the participants was also conducted to
examine their personal and professional development. The results of this study were
that the minority students had fewer professional socialization opportunities, while
the social environment was richer for majority students, and more majority students
had greater mentoring and apprenticeship experiences. Ellis (2001) interviewed 67

8
minority persons. The purpose of the interviews was to explore the concepts and
factors that impact doctoral study. The results were that a good relationship with
one’s mentor or advisor was critical. This influenced their social and academic
integration and satisfaction with their doctoral program. Herzig (2002), who
expanded Tinto’s theory of persistence for graduate students, interviewed 18
graduate mathematics students and 10 mathematics faculty members. The students in
this study had either completed one and six years of study, had left their math
program, or were on the verge of leaving the mathematics program at that institution.
“Single minded” is how the student’s expressed their perceptions of the faculty
expectations of them while the faculty participants say that the students do not work
hard enough. Faculty use the results of coursework and qualifying exams as a means
of weeding out students that they believe do not have the math ability needed to be
successful. One professor admitted to having students take doctorate level courses as
opposed to some undergraduate or masters-level courses that would have prepared
them for the higher-level courses. Many of the students felt ill-prepared for the
higher level courses and also felt that the coursework did not prepare them for their
qualifying exams and that it distanced them from the discipline and stifled their
ability to effectively learn. In regards to relationships with faculty the students felt
invisible, overwhelmed, and some also said that the faculty did not bother to learn
their names.
All of the above studies are beneficial. They provide insight into experiences
of underrepresented students. But, as mentioned, they do not address the process of

9
adapting to the culture of a PWI during the first two - year transition period that is so
crucial for the students in this study. Research suggests that Black students at PWIs
experience a discord between their academic abilities and the aspirations, they have
lower academic and social integration and they suffer form discriminatory
interferences and poor study habits. All of these factors along with being perceived
as less capable can and in many cases have caused students to withdraw and never
reach their academic dreams (Fries-Britt & Tuner, 2002). This dissertation will
address these areas of concern, through the framework of acculturation theory, for
the six women who have allowed their experiences to be a testimony and a beacon of
hope for others. When you consider that only 50 percent of all individuals complete
the doctoral degrees and two-thirds of all Blacks pursuing doctoral degrees do not
complete the degree at all (Bethea, 2005) this is not just of particular interest but of
grave importance.
Purpose of the Study
This dissertation focuses on the educational STEM pathway provided by
HBCUs. I specifically focus on one segment of this pathway: the transition by
African-American students from undergraduate study at HBCUs to graduate
education in the sciences at predominantly white institutions (PWIs). Student
transition, persistence, and retention are common topics in the higher education
literature (Allen & Jewell, 2002; Herzig, 2004; Tinto, 1993). In this dissertation, I
examine the cultural impact of the transition from HBCUs, which are generally
considered to be inviting, nurturing, and a supportive “family” environment for

10
students (Kim, 2002). I consider how students make the transition from Historically
Black Colleges and Universities to Predominantly White Institutions, and what
impact this transition has on their persistence and commitment to their discipline.
This dissertation examines the following research questions:
1) What are the experiences of female African-American HBCU graduates
in their transition to a graduate program in a discipline and environment
dominated by whites?
2) How do such experiences affect their persistence to obtain their degree?
Significance of Dissertation
Over the past decade, increased attention has been given to doctoral students,
specifically in terms of rates of attrition and degree completion. In the United States,
only about 40 and 50 percent complete their doctoral degrees (Denecke & Slimowitz,
2004). The completion rates are higher for men than women and generally lower for
minority students. More doctoral students persist to degree completion in the
biological sciences as opposed to the social sciences and humanities. Some of the
identifiable factors that contribute to student departure are program selection, lack of
mentoring, issues with financial support, program environment, the research mode of
the specific field entered, procedures involved in a particular field of study, as well
as time or family commitment (McElfresh, 2005).
With an approximately 50 percent attrition rate for doctoral students in
science and engineering, the nation is losing an important resource of highly trained
people. Many doctoral students who leave their programs do so within the first few

11
years (Denecke & Slimowitz, 2004). I focus on this integral period of transition for
doctoral students. Transition normally takes place during the first two years of
graduate school. During this phase, individuals seek close association with peers and
faculty in both academic and social aspects. This association, students’ prior research
experiences, and the faculty’s expectations of the students’ abilities based on their
undergraduate institution affects the students’ development, their acquisition of
acceptable social and academic skills and behaviors, as well as their overall
adjustment (Tinto, 1993).
Leggon and Pearson (1997) do provide insight into programs that are geared
towards developing African American female science talent. But what previous
research on the baccalaureate origins of Blacks with doctorates in the STEM
disciplines does not explore is how the overall contextual nature of HBCUs
influences the success of these students. This dissertation also contributes to the
limited amount of literature available on the graduate school experiences of African
Americans (AA) in math, engineering, and science programs. Much of the research
that is available speaks to the number of students in graduate programs and the
factors related to socialization that affect their decision to continue or drop out of
their program. What is not addressed is the process of adjustment from a graduate
student to a colleague, at the completion of their graduate program. Previous
literature has discussed the experiences of minority graduate students in a context
that often generalizes the experiences of such students without regard to the
influence of the individual programs and disciplines.

12
The student’s persistence through a doctorate program is reflective of the
specific field of study and what is considered normal, acceptable performance and
behavior that is germane to that particular field (Tinto, 1993). The limited amount of
research that does address the experiences of minority doctoral students in math and
science is usually coupled with the experiences of women. However, race and gender
are not linear or additive. It cannot be assumed that the same factors that effect the
under representation of women of color have are the same factors that effect the
under representation of Euro-American Women and men of color (Leggon, 2003a).
Again, this literature primarily discusses the factors of socialization. Abbe Herzig
(2002, 2004) has explored the progress of female doctoral students in math
programs. Herzig expands Tinto’s theory of doctoral persistence by including the
influence of participation. In her research about female and minority doctoral
students in mathematics she developed a persistence framework for such doctoral
students. Herzig maintains that as doctoral students participate in a community of
practice they are more likely to become integrated into the community and persist to
degree completion. Yet Herzig also acknowledges that participation and integration
in coursework does not guarantee success in the research community. Other
researchers have supported Herzig’s work. Leggon and Parson (1997) provide
insight into programs that are geared towards developing African American female
science talent, noting that extramural experiences positively impacted the careers of
Black women in STEM disciplines. The limitation of such research is their failure to
examine the transition and adjustment period of African American graduate science

13
students whose baccalaureate origins are HBCUs and who attend a PWI for doctoral
education.
Outline of Dissertation
In this chapter, I briefly summarized the existing literature regarding African
American participation in the STEM disciplines and reviewed the positive effects
HBCUs have on student learning. I also presented literature on African Americans
and their progression through graduate school. In Chapter Two, the theoretical
framework of acculturation is presented in order to show the approach I utilized to
conduct the study and process the data. The methodology is detailed in Chapter
Three with the data being presented and analyzed in Chapter Four. I examine each
participant’s story as a case study, outlining moderating influences and perspectives
on their acculturation to the STEM disciplines. Chapter Five concludes with
discussion and implications for higher education and future research.

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CHAPTER TWO:
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction
Graduate School Experiences of Women
Graduate school and science are alike in that they both revolve around the
cooperation of people and its requirement of both human and material resources
(Fox, 1998; Subramaniam & Wyer, 1998). Graduate school is also the place the
student gains a particular professional identity. It is the effects of this process of
socialization, how new skills, beliefs, patterns of action, and at times, personal
identities are acquired by people as they move into a new setting (Van Maanen,
1983) that determine their success as a science graduate student. Under the
conditions of isolation, lack of advisement, and just plan indifference, on the part of
the department, to even the person’s presence, it takes a strong commitment,
discipline, and a high cognitive level to acquire the skills in order for a minority
student to persist under these conditions (Hamilton, 2001).
From the first day of graduate school women recognize the “Master Culture”
where they have to curb all behaviors known to be feminine. Graduate work is to be
all consuming and crying, insecurity, laughter, personal problems and even
complimenting others is frowned upon (Subramaniam & Wyer, 1998). The cultural
environment of the department is very important. The environment plays a pivotal
role in how much students participate and are socialized in to the culture of the
department (Ellis, 2001; Salter & Persaud, 2003). Successful women learn how to be

15
single minded, dedicated, and emotionless. Well-connected, intellectually curious,
and the expert ready to follow the steps of their mentor are considered to be the
persona of a serious scientist. It is this mentor and student relationship that has the
greatest effect on women that continue on or leave the sciences (Subramaniam &
Wyer, 1998).
Advising Relationships. This mentor-protégé model is a double edge sword
for women in science. These advising relationships are expected to last for many
years. They are expected to be close working relationships that are crucial to the
success and progress of the students as a graduate student and a professional
(Etzkowitz et al., 1994). In the mentor-protégé model interpersonal communication
and relationships are quite important, where gender, class, ethnicity, and sexuality
are everywhere. But in reality interpersonal communication, relationships, and other
social makers are some times prohibited (Subramaniam & Wyer, 1998). Student and
faculty interactions of the same sex have a more comfortable relationship. But, the
ratio of male faculty to female students exceeds the ratio of female faculty to female
students in every field. This disadvantage is a result in many female students having
male faculty as advisors (Berg & Ferber, 1983). Some female students have found
the experiences of male advisors to be both supportive and negative. Such an
advising experience is dependent upon the awareness, sensitivity, and political stance
about gender roles and their feelings about the self-worth of women (Etzkowitz et
al., 1994). Sometimes this mentor is the same person that is the student’s advisor, at
other times, it may be a third party which maintains contact with the student’s

16
advisor and assists the student in solving problems and aids her in attaining her
doctorate degree. At times the relationship between the advisor and the third party
mentor may be based on an ongoing professional relationship (Fox, 1998).
Isolation. The feeling of isolation from faculty and peers is quite important in
minorities completing graduate school. In the classroom the climate can be
problematic for many minority students. A majority of the professors are White
males and minority students feel uncomfortable when they have questions because of
the reaction they receive or comments like: “I speak, you listen, there is no
discussion in this class” (Ellis, 2001). There is no mention of race, cultural, or social
standing. The professors are not open to new ideas and points of view. Peer
interactions are also lacking. Although there may be some interaction there were no
real satisfying relationships. Instead, there was a sense of competition. When
relationships are formed it is primarily with others that are of the same race/ethnicity
because of similar cultural values (Ellis, 2001; Herzig, 2004). These created
communities allow students to express their concerns and create a safe place for
themselves (Ellis, 2001).
Knowledge Acquisition. The acquisition of knowledge is imperative for
student’s success. This skill is influenced by the student’s sense of belonging. The
feeling of alienation and being treated as an outsider results in students not being
comfortable to ask questions, attend seminars, or requesting needed help that will
provide the student with the needed assistance to understand the subject matter (Ellis,
2001). Combining an academic and a family life can be a deterrent for many

17
students. The decision to have both a career and a family is usually avoided by
students agreeing to wait until their career is established before having a family. Also
important is having moral support from influential people in the student’s life.
Encouragement and support from these close friends and family members increases
the student's self-efficacy and can be the determining factor of whether to continue
with school or not. Students who have support from influential people in their lives
and a good mentor relationship tend to feel confident in their abilities. For student
with families, affordable housing and childcare along with financial support, which
is directly related to school, allows the student to concentrate on learning.
Succeeding Through Graduate School
Many women of color contemplate leaving graduate school. Of the women
that choose to stay some begin to get involved with women or minorities in science
organizations on campus. These groups allow the students to express their concerns
about their department, research, and personal life. These are safe places where
women can share and be supported and encouraged to continue. As women move up
the academic ladder they spend their time mentoring incoming female African
American graduate students in the sciences (Ferreira, 2002). This results in a climate
of collaborations among graduate students in spite of the coldness and attitude of
indifference that is portrayed by the faculty and the department culture.
The faculty and student relationship is crucial to the success of women
completing graduate school. For many women this relationship is less than ideal. It is
not uncommon for women to get a coadvisor. This coadvisor situation provides for a

18
greater understanding of both the student’s academic and personal struggles. This
outside support fills the lack of support and community by faculty and the
department (Turner & Thompson, 1993). An advisor outside of the student’s field
addresses student’s concerns for changes in communication, and interactions
(Subramaniam & Wyer, 1998).
Based on the experiences of six African American female graduate students
this aforementioned information will be examined though the acculturation process.
The acculturation process was selected for this study because it presents the identity
changes and developmental choices students from cultures other than the dominant
can face when they interact with the dominant culture of both the chosen school and
field of study. The acculturation process was also selected because it may position
the students to have to chose between the dominant culture and their culture of
origin, which may place additional stress on how the students in this study progress
through their graduate education (Torres, Howard –Hamilton, Cooper, 2003).
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical perspective of
acculturation theory, review empirical aspects of acculturation studies, and describe
the use of the acculturation process in this dissertation. This chapter will also present
the interpretive perspectives from which the study of acculturation in this dissertation
is drawn. The historical perspective provides information regarding some of the
initial studies on the process of acculturation as well as pertinent information from
the scholars that shape how we currently use and view the theoretical framework of
acculturation. While presenting the historical aspects of acculturation, I also draw

19
upon empirical information that supports theoretical advances (Rudmin, 2003). The
review of empirical studies is explored based on the types of studies, how they were
applied, and the methods from research that shapes our current view of acculturation.
Theoretical Framework of Acculturation
The best way to understand the transition of the six African American women
in this study, from undergraduates to graduates students, is through the process of
acculturation. Change allows for the study of the acculturating process, overtime, of
the individuals. Changes as a result of acculturation can best be conceptualized by
considering the constructs, separately and as they relate, of the original culture and
the dominant or new culture (Phinney, 2003).
Acculturation, which is rooted in the fields of anthropology, sociology, and
psychology, “comprehends those phenomena that result when groups of individuals
having different cultures cone into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent
changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups” ( Redfield, Linton,
& Herskovits, 1936). Typically acculturation occurs in one of two ways: first, where
elements of a culture may be forced upon a group of people (imposed); or second,
when cultural elements are voluntarily (blindly or democratically) received.
Acculturation may also transpire when social, economic, and political inequities
exist (or are perceived to exist) between groups of people (Redfield et al., 1936).
Since cultures do not exist without human interaction, acculturation is the process of
change as experienced by individuals (Gillin & Raimy, 1940).
The History of Acculturation

20
Acculturation has been studied for centuries. Plato argued that humans have a
predisposition to imitate strangers as they travel which result into new cultural
practices. Plato urged that this behavior pattern (cultural contamination) should be
minimized but not to the point of cultural isolation (Rudmin, 2003,).
The first use of the word was not recorded until the 1880s (Rudmin, 2003:
(Torres, 1999). In 1883, Powell defined acculturation as the psychological changes
that are induced by cross-cultural imitation (Powell, 1883). In 1898 W. J. McGee
also defined acculturation as an evolutionary process which involves exchange and
mutual improvement by which societies advance from savagery, to barbarism, to
civilization, to enlightenment (Rudmin, 2003). The first full psychological theory
regarding acculturation was written in 1918 by Thomas and Znaniecki; more than
100 classifications of acculturation have been published since their account (Rudmin,
2003).
Thomas and Znaniecki (both sociologists) adopted a psychological view that
contends that culture encompasses shared apperceptive processes. They believed that
personality types are based on the individual differences grounded in the instincts of
fear and curiosity. As such, their approach to acculturation focused on individual
behavior and social contexts. Thomas and Znaniecki concluded that persons who are
considered high in curiosity and low in fear are well suited to live in an urban,
efficiency oriented society. Persons that are low in curiosity and high in fear are
conformist, accepting social traditions in their most stable elements. Creative people,
with a balance of curiosity and fear, tend to widen his or her environment and the

21
control of the environment for personal purposes by modifying the cultural habits,
attitudes, and beliefs (Rudmin, 2003).
In 1920, Isaac Berkson related acculturation to American democracy and the
social promise to not just provide an environment of tolerance but the creation of
continuous “possibilities of individual growth” (Wacker, 1979). Berkson believed
that Americanization is counter productive and racist and an affront to freedom
(Wacker, 1979; Rudmin, 2003). Like Berkson, Herbert Miler, in 1924, also supposed
that the “melting pot” theory is inclusive of pre-existing oppressive psychosis that
immigrants bring with them. Both scholars argued that a double allegiance by
immigrants to their primary culture and the American culture can be resolved in
communities and schools where ethnic heritage is maintained by the use of language,
the availability of ethnic newspapers, the ability to positively influence cultural
oppression in their homeland, and other ethnic resources (Rudmin, 2003).
Robert Park advanced a three-prong model of contact, accommodation, and
assimilation (Padilla & Perez, 2003). His argument was that both racial and
geographic features mark cultures and that acculturation begins as a state of
marginality, characterized by emancipation of the limitations of culture by
enlightenment, objectivity and less prejudice (Rudmin, 2003; Park, 1928). He also
says that racial problems are a result of individuals’ divergent physical traits rather
than their different mental traits. The blending of various cultures through marriage
and other social interactions, Park argued, will ultimately transform relations that
were simply co-operative to become socially and culturally intimate (Park, 1928).

22
The definition of acculturation that is utilized in this dissertation stems from a
committee report of the US Social Science Research Council (1936). Their
memorandum explains that the manner and result of the acculturation process
depends on the types of contact, the acceptance of the dominant culture’s traits,
individual responses to those traits, the perception that acculturation is forced or
voluntary, and the degree of conflict which results form the integration of the two
cultures (Rudmin. 2003; Redfield et. al).
The research of the 1940’s has shaped the intricacies of what we know about
acculturation. Many of these theorists from that era considered acculturation to be
successful when the dominant culture was quickly accepted; subsequently,
individuals had a complete loss and a diminished view of their primary culture.
Failure to acculturate is when conflict arises because the minority group does not
want o give up their first culture. This is considered being rebellious and anti-
governmental, in terms of “becoming Americanized.” When members of the
minority culture tries to selectively acculturate as a member of the dominant culture
(by acquiring certain characteristics and rejecting others), acculturation is incomplete
and marginality results. As opposed to acculturation, assimilation occurs when
minorities have totally lost their cultural awareness and have been accepted by the
dominant culture. In this instance, marginality exists when the dominant culture does
not accept the assimilated person (Rudmin, 2003).
What became more prevalent in subsequent research was the belief that the
acculturation process “creates severe problems of emotional adjustment” (Spiro,

23
1955). During this time, researchers focuses on the isolation and segregation that
occurs as part of the acculturation process. Alan Richardson (1957) described
individuals who remained distant from the dominant way of life and determined to
foster his or her traditional lifestyle as isolated. The concept of segregation was
furthered by Daniel Glaser (Glaser, 1958) who focused on minority ethnic
identification. Glaser demonstrated that on the continuum of acculturation a
segregating patterns exist is on one extreme while assimilation is the on the other
extreme. Marginal and desegregating patterns exist between those two extremes.
Herbert London expanded the concept of bicultural integration that is used
within acculturation research (Berry & Sommerlad, 1970). London believed that
assimilation policies required the minority culture to give up all of their old values
and customs and adopt new ones. He also argued that acculturation requires the
majority group to be acceptable of interracial marriages. Groups that are determined
to preserve their traditional separation from other cultural groups typically create
their individual subculture. London believed that the United States was the best
example of cultural integration that allowed for interaction between cultures. Such
integration allows for minority cultures to retain their cultural identity (Rudmin,
2003).
Acculturation research was criticized by Alvin Rabushka (Rabushka, 1970),
he argued that if attitudes are used both as a measure of integration and as one of the
causes of integration, then circular measurements results. His study compared the
attitudes of cultural preference and the willingness of particular inter-ethnic relations

24
to behavioral reports of recent multi-ethnic interactions (Rudmin, 2003). During the
same time period, Fredrick Barth (1969) also challenged the assumptions of most
acculturation research. His theory was that that there are no distinct cultures. He
proposed that cultures are not defined by practices, norms, and values but by the
permeable borders they maintain with other cultures. Barth noted that depending
upon the acculturation options cultural leaders choose, there is a different outcome
for their community (Rudmin, 2003).
If society is “the product of consensus about norms and values” based on “an
elaborate hierarchy of deeply rooted unspoken, unwritten, and frequently semi-
conscious customs and traditions,” and “if the war of all against all is only prevented
by the unifying bonds of a common value system” then the assimilation of cultural
minorities is the only stable form of acculturation. This is the outcome of T.B. Rees’
(1970) acculturation research that examined acculturation through social equilibrium
theories. Rees’ research also noted that cooperation and interdependence between the
minority and majority cultures results in an inherent instability due to power
inequalities between the dominant and minority cultures (Rudmin, 2003). In the
1970s, a theory of “psychological adaptation and development under acculturation
stress” was proposed by David Born (Rudmin, 2003). Born’s theory argued that
dissonance and deprivation of possessions, status, behaviors, and worth are
introduced when dominant and traditional cultures are in contact and new cultural
traits develop. As part of this theory there are four modes of adaptation. They are
innovation, retreatism, reconciliation, and withdrawal. Born believes that

25
reconciliation, which is a combination of the traditional and the new, is a likely mode
of acculturation since it provides for the probability of cultural blend and renewal
(Rudmin, 2003).
In 1972 John Berry, Catherine Evans, and Heather Rawlinson prepared a
paper that declared that different kinds of acculturation were dependent upon
whether or not members of the minority group wish to retain their original culture,
wants to contribute to the larger society, and wants to control his / her own
institutions. Those types of acculturation would be 1) assimilation (if the person
decides not to retain their culture); rejection (if the person would like to hold on to
their culture) (it is segregation when it is imposed); and 3) integration (when the
person wants to retain their cultural identity, contribute to the larger society, and
control its institutions). A six-fold classification was derived from a study that
measured acculturation by Clark Kaufman, and Pierce (1976). The first measure
evaluated the attitudes towards and participation in the original culture vs. the new
culture. The second measured the behaviors in the first culture, while the third
measured the person’s feelings of belonging and partaking in the majority culture
(Rudmin, 2003). Unlike most acculturation research, Spindler (1977) believed that
the process of acculturation does not result in assimilation. She states that the result
of the acculturation process should be defined as “adaptive strategies used by people
who cope with economic, social and political disadvantages of their positions as
minorities.” Pierce, Clark and Kaufman developed three acculturation scales in 1978.
The traditional orientation and the anglo face scale, which measures the individual’s

26
behaviors as part of the dominant culture, were developed from the use of factor
analytical methods. The third scale, the Acculturative Balance Scale, measures the
knowledge of the dominant culture over that of the minority culture (Rudmin, 2003,
p.28).
Amado Padilla proposed a multidimensional psychological theory of
acculturation in 1980. This theory was based on and cultural awareness (knowledge
of cultural materials) and ethnic loyalty along with the amount and degree of inter-
ethnic interactions (Padilla, 1980; Rudmin, 2003). This model of acculturation
allows for the construction of acculturation types by specifying particular ongoing
dynamics that assist in understating an individuals psychological functioning.
Peter Nelde (1987) studied issues involved in political language conflict
particularly in multicultural environments where inequities of demographic and
political power exist. He writes that those who tend to assimilate are those language
groups that are either numerically weak or emotionally weak. Numerically stronger
groups, with a common language, traditional values, and their own history and
culture tend to favor political confrontation. Needle also argues that linguistic
integration results from conflict that is often the focus of both political and cultural
struggles that are larger than language alone (Rudmin, 2003).
George DeVos (1995) argued that ethnicity is subjective and representative
and that depending on the contextual and chronological ethnic identity is in
competition with other identities. With a present, past, occupational, or future
oriented focus, a person’s identity may entail loyalty to a state (regardless of family

27
origins), a sense of belonging and sharing in cultural traditions and languages,
specific work-related identities that prevail over national or ethnic identity, and a
focus on the ideal that often reacts to of injustice in the present for the sake of the
future (Rudmin, 2003). At the same time De Vos also presented five modes of
distressing acculturation that follow a chronological course of alienation, passing,
expulsion, and accommodation. De Vos argued that alienation is, at times,
experienced by upwardly mobile people who may have cut ties with the past and lost
a deeper sense of meaning. The concept of passing consists of presenting a façade of
being assimilated. This purposeful manipulation may be a result of self-hatred; the
outcome may lead to withdrawal or even expulsion from the minority culture. Some
form of accommodation is required in a bicultural situation. Within the context of
control and exploitation, ethnic identity is a social construction for economic and
social feasibility; this is how De Vos concludes his study (Rudmin, 2003).
Yamada and Singelis (1999) described an acculturation typology that is based
on an individual’s self-analysis of independence and inter-dependence. They argued
that different types of individuals, having experienced varying amounts of cultural
contact and having made different choices in adjusting to cultural groups, might
portray distinctive self-construal patterns. Persons with a strong independent and a
weak inter-dependent awareness are in the Western group. Traditional people are
those that have a strong independent and a strong inter-dependent self-awareness.
Bicultural people are described as those with both a well-developed independent and
independent self-awareness. Lastly, culturally alienated people are those with a

28
poorly developed independent and interdependent self-awareness (Rudmin, 2003;
Yamada & Singelis, 1999).
Contact between cultures and the phenomenon of cultural change has been
observed for many years (Padilla, 1980). These historical studies serve as the
anchors for any subsequent research. In addition, these historical studies allow us to
develop nuances and dimensions of acculturation for our contemporary use (Berry,
1980).
What We Know about Acculturation
Acculturation is the process of change, as experienced, by individuals (Gillin
& Raimy, 1940). The classical definition of acculturation by Redfield, Linton, and
Herskovits implies continuous contact, which confronts two basic issues: 1) cultural
maintenance and 2) degree of participation within the host’s society. The next
component to explore is the dimensions of acculturation.
Acculturation models describe the process as linear, two-dimensional, and
multidimensional. On one side of the continuum that encompasses the dimensions of
acculturation is assimilation, where the acculturation process is a total loss of an
individual’s identification with his/her traditional culture and absorption of the
dominant culture. The other side of that continuum is rejection of the dominant
culture, (if voluntary), or segregation, which involves a separation of the dominant
culture, (if imposed).
Linear models describe the acculturation process as the absorption at both the
group and individual levels of the dominant/host culture with which the other

29
individuals are in contact (Castro, 2003). These models are simplistic in that they
assume that a stronger mainstream or dominant identification requires individuals to
weaken and eventually dismiss their ethnic/cultural identification (Torres, 2003). The
unidirectional process can be determined by an individual’s change in values,
cultural patterns of the host society, interactions and societal networks of groups and
institutions within the dominant culture, marital assimilation (interracial marriages),
self-identification with the main culture, and attitude /behavior assimilation. The
rate at which this absorption takes place is dependent on the amount of time spent
with the host culture; the rate also varies among the gender and ages of the
individuals (Castro, 2003; Teske & Nelson, 1974).
When there is consideration given to the effect that the underrepresented
group’s culture has on the dominant culture, both simultaneously and independently,
there is a two-way dimensional acculturation relationship (Torres, 1999). The
continuous contact in the given definition of acculturation, implies an interchange
between both groups, thus a bi-directional process (Teske & Nelson, 1974; Torres et
al., 2003). A bicultural model also assumes that as individuals spent more time
within the host culture, they adapt to the new culture while retaining their original
cultural ties. This model also depends on the uniqueness of the community of
reference and their degree of support (Castro, 2003). The variables that are most
influential in this kind of model are the degree and community support of the
original culture. Based on this, a bicultural model may lead to the following
relationships between the two dimensions: 1) High Cultural Involvement and

30
Bicultural, 2) High Cultural Involvement and Monoculture, 3) Marginal and
Monoculture, and 4) Marginality and Bicultural (Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1980;
Torres, 1999).

The multi-dimensional model is more specific in that every cultural trait
varies and is evaluated independently on a continuum as a trait to be accepted or
rejected (Torres et al., 2003) without discussion of the interaction among those traits
(Torres, 1999).
As acculturation research has and continues to evolve, we understand that the
process, whether smooth or rocky, and the pace of acculturation is dependent on
certain social characteristics. The first requires contact between two independent
cultural groups. This assumes that one group dominates the other group and that
there must be change in one or both of the groups as a result of the contact. Such
domination of one group over another suggests that there is difficult, reactive conflict

31
rather than a smooth transition. It is assumed that somewhere between the initial
contact and the change, discord exists (Berry, 1980).
A three-phase course of the acculturation process is the second social
characteristic. The first phase is contact, which is necessary. The second phase,
conflict, is probable; adaptation, the third phase, is inevitable. Contact is the core of
acculturation. Contact may be voluntary or involuntary. This process may be due to a
voluntary physical move into a new society, or through invasion, or enslavement.
The trajectory that will take place while acculturating into a new environment is also
dependent on any prior contact with the new society (Cabassa, 2003). Conflict arises
when there is resistance. Adaptation happens in a variety of ways in order to reduce
or stabilize any conflict (Berry, 1980).
Another characteristic of acculturation is the level at which it happens.
Although the concept originates and has at most times been treated as a group
phenomenon, the standard definitions refer to individuals. So, when considering this
concept and the three phases of acculturation, the terminology has equal relevance to
both a group and an individual (Berry, 1980).
Beyond the specific characteristics of acculturation, there are two
dimensions: maintenance of the original culture and maintenance of relations with
persons of other cultures. If within these two dimensions the evaluative responses are
divided into categories then four acculturating strategies may be determined:
integration, separation, assimilation, and marginalization (Ward & Rana-Deuba,
1999). Individuals that value both their original culture and their relationships with

32
persons from other or another culture are seen to endorse integration; someone who
cherishes their own culture and the cultures of others adopts a separatist approach.
By contrast, someone that values the other culture and does not maintain his or her
own is an assimilationist. Individuals that do not value any culture are said to be
marginalized. These four strategies relates to other features, such as changes in
socioeconomics status, education, socialization patterns and language use within the
acculturation process (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999).
How Acculturation Has Been Studied
Traditionally acculturation is either studied through a psychological or
sociological lens. When studied from a psychological perspective acculturation
focuses on the person and his/her emotional well being in terms of stress (Ward &
Kennedy, 1999). The acculturation process is viewed as provoking a number of
stressful personal and social changes that challenge and demand coping responses
(Berry, 1997b). This use of acculturation theory in order to determine the stages of
adaptation is influenced by medicine and psychiatry, and takes a clinical approach to
change and cultural contact (Ward, 1996). The number of acculturative stress and
adaptation problems is influenced by self-esteem, cognitive style, gender, ethnicity,
social and political factors, and attitudes (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999).
When studied from a sociological perspective the concern is the acquisition
of social skills and cultural learning (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). In other words, this
approach considers an individual’s ability to fit in and negotiate the aspects of the
new culture (James et al., 2004). This is a more recent approach that emphasizes

33
varying degrees of affection, behavioral, and cognitive mechanisms (Ward, 1996).
Acculturation, from this sociological perspective, is measured by the ability and
difficulty the person experiences in daily tasks. Such experiences are dependent on
the length of residence in the new environment, the ability to communicate, and the
amount of contact with people in the new society, and the social, economic, political
infrastructure (Ward & Kennedy, 1999).
Adaptation, through the acculturation process, is both psychological and
sociological (Pope-Davis et al., 2000). These psychological and social changes
encompass acculturation and affect individual experiences when people enter a new
and different cultural environment (Cabassa, 2003). Ethnic identity is also an
important factor in the acculturation process. It can be thought of as the “theoretical
framework that has been used to understand acculturation”, since ethnic identity
“focuses on the subjective sense of belonging to a group or culture” (Phinney, 1990).
Ultimately the reliability of acculturation theory and research rests on the
dimension of change. What research has revealed is that psychological and
sociological outcomes display different and fluctuating patterns over time. A
learning pattern, of newly acquired culture-specific skills, with rapid improvement, is
demonstrated early on and then gradually levels off, over time, as part sociocultural
acculturation. From a psychological perspective, the adjustment varies over time,
with the greatest difficulties being experienced at the earliest stagiest of the transition
period (Ward & Kennedy, 1999).
Acculturation Research Today

34
Recent studies regarding acculturation can be separated into two distinct
theoretical frameworks. One group of researchers insists on acculturation as a
unidimensional construct. The opposite point of view argues that acculturation is
bidimensional with distinct perspectives regarding loyalty to the dominant culture
and maintenance of their culture of origin. These two typologies of models that have
produced literature that explores the changes that people go through when they are
introduced to cultural environments different from their own (Cabassa, 2003).
An unidimensional approach assumes that the acculturation process only
affects the minor culture with no influence on the dominant culture. Such an
approach argues that cultural maintenance and cultural adaptation are opposite
(Arends-Toth & van de Vijer, 2004; Rudmin, 2003). Many of the measures that rely
on such a model rely on behavioral, cognitive and attitudinal areas in order to
determine where a person falls on the theoretical continuum of acculturation. A false
assumption is created when individuals are placed on this continuum to acculturate
(Cabassa, 2003; Cuellar et al., 1995). A linear model acculturation is also a function
of time that varies with the amount of time a person is in contact with the dominant
culture (Castro, 2003). This zero-sum model assumes that individuals throw away all
of the cultural roots and make room for entirely new values, attitudes, and behaviors.
There is no room for the existence of two cultures. This model provides and
incomplete and fragmented measure of the multifaceted cultural process (Cabassa,
2003).

35
Unlike the one-dimensional model, the two-dimensional model treats both
cultural maintenance and adaptation as independent dimensions (Cabassa, 2003;
Toth & Vijver, 2004). Since these dimensions are independent, the adaptation to the
host/dominant culture does not require the reduction of any aspect of the culture of
origin (Tooth et al., 2004; Berry 1997; Piney, 1990; Flannery, Raise, & Yu, 2001).
This theoretical assumption provides individuals with the options of accepting and
rejecting their first culture. Between acceptance and rejection are four strategies that
assist in the understanding of the how individuals behave, interact in, think about,
and value the new culture ((Cabassa, 2003; Phinney et al., 2001; Torres, 1999).
Integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization are the four
strategies for acculturation. The two salient questions implicated in these strategies
are: 1) is it considered to be value to hold on to one’s cultural heritage? 2) Is
developing relationships with the dominant culture considered to be of value? An
affirmative response to the first question and a negative response to the second
define separation, and the reverse denotes assimilation. The assimilation strategy
refers to individuals that do not wish to maintain their cultural heritage and seek
daily interactions with other cultures. Separation is defined when there is a choice to
avoid other cultures and holding on to an individual’s cultural heritage. Integration
exists when there is interaction with other cultures and maintenance of the original
culture. This strategy allows for some degree of cultural integrity while participating
as a vital part for the community at large. Marginalization is defined when there is
forced cultural loss and exclusion or discrimination by others within the dominant

36
group (Berry, 1997a, 2001). These attitudinal positions are based on the supposition
that people can choose how they want to acculturate and engage with people of other
cultures (Berry, 1997a, 2001). This model also highlights that acculturation proceeds
in diverse ways and that different cultures may coexist (Phinney et al., 2001).
Fig. 2.2 Acculturation Strategies

John Berry provides the most widely researched bi-dimensional approach to
acculturation (Ryder et al., 2000). Berry’s study picked up where Teske and
Nelson’s study left off (Padilla & Perez, 2003). The psychological perspective on
acculturation offered by Teske and Nelson argued that the acculturation process
included the changes in material traits, behavior patterns, norms, institutional
changes, and especially values (Padilla & Perez, 2003). This study says that values
are the salient concept in understanding the acculturation process. Whether or not the
acculturation is contingent is based on the change (or acceptance) of value structures
(Teske & Nelson, 1974). The weakness in this study was that it did not address how

37
diverse cultures accommodate each other (Padilla & Perez, 2003). Berry expanded
Teske and Nelson’s view that identified the four previously mentioned acculturation
strategies.
Some of the important aspects of Berry’s model, which will be discussed in
detail, are that the model acknowledges the significance of multicultural societies,
minority groups and individuals. He argues that people have a choice as to how far
they proceed through the acculturation process although this may not always be the
case (Padilla, et al., 2003; Berry 2001). Berry’s model also incorporates the
importance of ancestral language in the process of cultural change (Padilla, et al.,
2003).
Berry’s acculturation framework, with its widespread use (Ward & Rana-
Deuba, 1999), is meant to assist in the understanding, design, and implementation of
further research. His theory is from the point of view of the non-dominant group and
assumes that individuals have a say in how they acculturate. The dominant group is
open and embracing of cultural diversity (Berry, 1997a). This notion brings about the
previously discussed strategies. When the dominant group imposes certain forms of
acculturation constraints, the outcomes may be segregation, the notion of a melting
pot, or that of a pressure cooker (Berry, 1997a).
The behaviors of the students within the acculturation process are dependent
upon the attitudes they have in regards to the four-acculturation strategies:
integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization. These attitudes and
behaviors make up acculturation strategies. The attitude that one has about

38
acculturation and its strategies vary depending on context, time period, and personal
characteristics like age and education (Berry, 1997a; (Smith Castro, 2003; Teske &
Nelson, 1974). Although there is normally a rational preference for one strategy over
another, the choice is also based on the person’s location. In private arenas, there
may be a tendency to seek more cultural maintenance than in public arenas. The
broader social context also affects the acculturation process through its policies, and
its acceptance and perspective on issues of equality. Constraint from policies and the
acceptance of the dominant group may limit the individual’s preference and choice
of strategy. Conflicts from personal preferences and policies may result in stress or
“culture shock.” Acculturation stress refers to responses of environmental stressors
where the “shock” relates to only negative experiences from intercultural
interactions. Also, as acculturation takes place over a period of time, people may
experience many strategies and settle with the one that is useful and satisfying
(Berry, 1997a).
The main thrust of Berry’s framework is that in studying acculturation there
are particular variables that need to be taken into account. These key areas of
recognition are the person’s society of origin (political, economic, and demographic
context), the society of settlement (attitudes, policies, political, economic, and
demographic context), and moderating factors, that can be both risk and protective
factors. Such factors exist before and during the acculturation process.
Prior individual characteristics that affect the acculturation process are both
demographic and social in nature. Age affects acculturation. Gender has a variable

39
influence on acculturation. Females tend to have more issues of risk than their male
counterparts. A personal resource, in itself, is education. Education is related to
issues like income, occupational status, and support networks, and has proven to be a
consistent factor of acculturation. Higher levels of education results are associated
with a positive experience with acculturation. A common experience of people in the
acculturation process is limited socio-cultural status. When individuals depart one
society, their status drops, as they become part of the new society. This may be due
to different qualifications, and/or prejudice that may lead to increase risk for stress.
The greater the cultural differences (such as languages and religion) between the
culture of heritage and the dominant society, the more difficult the acculturation
process. Locus of control, introversion or extraversion, self-efficacy and other
personality traits also affect the course of acculturation in both positive and negative
ways (Berry, 1997a). During the acculturation process there are factors (cultural,
emotional, and behavioral) that arise during that need to understand. Time is a
definite factor that affects the kind and extent of the experiences.
Coping strategies are also related to the acculturation process. Adaptive
resources that develop in interaction with an individual’s personality (Schonpflug,
2002), coping strategies are specific behavioral and psychological efforts that people
employ to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize stressful events (S. Taylor, 1998).
The coping capacity of a person may be the consequence of an individual’s ethnic
identity (Schonpflug, 2002). Two general coping strategies have been distinguished:
problem-solving strategies are efforts to do something active to alleviate stressful

40
circumstances, whereas emotion-focused coping strategies involve efforts to regulate
the emotional consequences of stressful or potentially stressful events (S. Taylor,
1998).
A successful transition from one culture to another is also dependent on the
willingness of members of the dominant culture. In this individual process there is an
apparent interaction between the individual and the group. Such interaction
contributes to whether or not the acculturating process will lead to either a smooth
transition or a rough transition that may bring about oppression or marginality
(Redfield et al., 1935).
The proposition that people can choose which acculturation strategy they
would like to pursue is challenged by the fact that some people may be forced or
discouraged from interacting with and acquiring traits of the dominant culture
(Cabassa, 2003). The acculturation process is complex because this process involves
more than one culture. In order to understand the complexities of the problem both
the culture of heritage and the new dominant culture have to be explored along with
both the psychological and sociological aspects in order to get a complete picture as
to how individuals progress.
Acculturation in this Study
A bicultural model is used in this study where the results may lead to an
acceptance and adaptation of new cultural patterns or traits while retaining aspects of
one’s previous culture. Research shows that a person without a sense of self, and
who feel rejected by others are exposed to considerable psychological costs in their

41
own communities. This also imposes costs on the dominant society. Members of the
non-dominant community that do not understand and accept the core values and
norms of the society of settlement may irritate members of the larger community.
Managing both cultures is dependent on the person acceptance as a contemporary
fact of life and a willingness to change (Berry, 1997b). In particular this study
concentrates on the first two-year adjustment period of six, female, Black, graduate
students from HBCUs who are now attending a PWI in the sciences. This study
provides both a psychological and sociological “snapshot” of the individuals because
it examines feelings, behaviors, attitudes, and values and not just events and
activities throughout time and space (Anderson & Jack, 1991) by discussing multiple
factors of being acclimatized with the characteristics of both the acculturating person
and the acculturation situation being described (Ward, 1996).
The presentation of acculturation in this manner is different from past
acculturation research that has been largely interpreted within a stress and coping
framework and where social cognition approaches have not been well developed and
examined as ends in themselves, but in relations to larger patterns of adaptation
(Ward, 1996). Also, Many researchers consider acculturation as a state where the
definition and its measurement (Ward, 1996) are the focus where researchers have
only researched the psychological aspects and they have not paid attention to the
individual’s development. When studied from a psychological aspect acculturation
focuses on the person and his/her emotional well-being in terms of stress. When
studied from a sociological aspect the concern is the acquisition of social skills and

42
cultural learning (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). But transition and adaptation is both
psychological and sociological (Pope-Davis et al., 2000). It is those psychological
and social changes that encompass acculturation that individuals experience when
they enter a new and different cultural environment (Cabassa, 2003). Psychologically
acculturation looks at a person’s satisfaction and sense of well-being. Sociologically
it considers a person’s ability to fit in and negotiate the aspects of the new culture
(James et al., 2004). It is these aspects of acculturation that this study will explore:
the ability to fit-in (behaviors) and the students’ feelings of well-being and
satisfaction (values).
As previously discussed Berry’s model looks at acculturation on a group and
an individual level. The core of Berry’s model uses multicultural ideology that
incorporates the acceptance of integration by both the dominant and non-dominant
groups. Integration and multicultural, in this case, involves placing equal value on
both cultural maintenance and participation on to the larger society. On an individual
level Berry’s model explores the acculturating experience through the psychological
changes that are undergone and its effects on adapting to the new circumstances
(Berry, 2003). Highly regarded and used in the prediction of acculturation stress and
cross-cultural comparisons, which tend to measure the state of acculturation at a
point in time (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999) this work was driven based on a better
understanding of the attitudes and actions facing immigrants and their interactions
with others (Berry, 1997a).

43
Colleen Ward, who would have preferred more recognition of the cultural
learning approach in Berry’s model (Berry, 1997a), created the following model
which will be used to guide this research. This model pertains to the ability to
negotiate the interactive aspects of the new culture with the greatest point of
adjustment difficulties being in the beginning (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999).

Figure 2.3: A Model of the Acculturation Process (Ward, 1996)

This model, that was developed in order to expand the evolution of cross-
cultural transition and adjustment, considers acculturation as an ongoing process and
not just a state concerned with its meaning and measurement (Ward, 1996). In this
model acculturation is a process with emphasis placed on emotional well being,
which is affected by life changes, coping styles, and social support and behavior
competence, which is influenced by cultural learning and the acquisition of social

44
skills (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). This model also facilitates the development and
research of acculturation theory by offering a basic distinction of psychological and
sociocultural adjustment, by presenting a combination of personal and situational,
cultural and noncultural, individual and societal level variables with descriptions of
their roles and interactions (Ward, 1996). This model, which will is used to present
the data, is an organized framework that distinguishes between the psychological and
sociological aspects of acculturation while incorporating selected predictors of
adjustive outcomes of acculturation (Ward, 1996). This model aids in the
understanding of the occurrences that are experienced by the human senses (feelings
and interactions) of the students in this study over time. This model accomplishes
this by presenting a complete grasp of the internal and external aspects of the
“phenomena, which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come
into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural
patterns of either or both groups”. Like this definition, the model considers culture
contact as a major life event (Berry, 1997b; Ward, 1996). This life event can place a
burden on the person(s) involved. Such a load stems from the experience of having
to negotiate and participate to some extent in the two cultures in contact. Next the
person considers the meaning of their experiences and evaluates them for difficulty,
opportunities, or as neutral. It is the evaluation process that will determine the need
for behavioral shifts. Some conflict may occur where some adjustment, adaptive
changes, may be needed in order for the person to fit into the dominant culture
(Berry, 1997b).

45
Intertwined in the internal and external aspects of the phenomena of the
acculturation process is individual identity (Berry, 1997b). Identity is based on a
person’s perception of self worth, significance, and a sense of kinship that are
derived from a person’s shared culture, language, and social interactions (Torres,
1999; Valentine, 2001). Identity is dynamic and it changes over time and context
(Phinney, 1990,). As identity changes there may also be changes in many cognitive
and behavioral responses, depending upon the situation (Valentine, 2001). Identity is
not just individually oriented but also group oriented and is independent. Either or
both may be secure and strong or undeveloped and weak (Phinney et al., 2001;
Valentine, 2001). A person with a strong identity that also identifies with the new
society may be viewed as someone who has integrated. Someone that has separated
would have a strong identity, but does not identify with the new society, as where
one that only identifies with the new society has an assimilated identity. The
marginalized identity would be of the individual that has no identity (Phinney et al.,
2001). A person without a sense of themselves and who feels rejected are exposed to
emotional issues (Berry, 1997a).
Contextual factors that affect the phenomenon of acculturation need to be
considered in order to fully understand acculturation (Cabassa, 2003). Usually
overlooked, the contextual factors directly impact how individuals adapt to a new
culture (p. 129). The creation and disruption of social networks influence the
acculturation process into a new environment (Rogler, 1994). Attention to the
particular contextual factors (prior and settlement cultures) assists in providing a

46
better understanding at to how individuals adapt to a new environment (Cabassa,
2003).
In this dissertation the following areas have been taken into consideration
while exploring the acculturation process of the students in the study.
1) Society of Origins - The Historical Black College that the student
attended
History – HBCUs were founded as a means to educate newly freed
slaves. The quest to provide an education to African Americans was
not just their priority. It was also the priority of northern whites, who
were against slavery, and felt it was their mission to assist the
“helpless souls of a corrupt and immoral system” (Allen & Jewell,
2002).
Campus Climate – One of the advantages of HBCUs is the “quality
hands –on nurturing, warm and non-hostile environment (Cross,
1997). The students believe that the faculty and staff go out of their
way to assist them with their needs and provide support and
encouragement (Fries-Britt & Turner, 2002).
Governance – The nonexistence of shared governance is something
that many HBCUs have in common. This continued lack of allowing
all vested parties a part in the policy making has been passed down
from segregated times. The board of trustees continue to rule these
institutions in order to follow the wishes of racially motivated

47
legislatures and community leaders and to please wealthy white
benefactors that may be racist in deed if not in thought (Phillips,
2002). The manner in which the institution is governed determines the
disciplines to be offered, the programs of studies within the specific
majors, and timeliness of the course offerings.
Funding – Typically HBCUs operate on a relatively small budget.
Many end the fiscal year with a marginal surplus or a deficit with
little or no endowment (Hill, 1984; Williams & Ashley, 2004). The
amount and direction of the funding influences the stability of the
capital and technological infrastructure of the institution, the quality
of the faculty, and the financial support provided to the individual
students.
2) Society of Settlement – The graduate discipline and program which the
student is studying
History – Many institutions of higher education were established to
prepare White men for the clergy, to be men of refinement and culture
for positions of responsibility and leadership (Lucas, 1994). By the
late nineteenth century higher education had changed as a result of a
combination of social, political, cultural, and economic factors.
Changes in science and technology fueled an interest in the creation
of knowledge through which scholarly research became extremely
important (Lucas, 1994).

48
Faculty research interests – Students attend particular doctoral
programs, within the STEM disciplines, based on their prestige. Since
doctoral students bear a greater responsibility in their education they
also tend to attend institutions that have faculty that are pursuing
research in their areas of interest (Denecke & Slimowitz, 2004).
Faculty expectations of the students – Many professors consider
students for HBCUs to be less prepared. This expectation of less may
have a negative impact on their self esteem (Kobrak, 1992).
Research that is being pursued within the department – All
institutions do not have or pursue the same research interests. Many
departments specialize in certain types of research which may be
dependent on the type and amount of funding they receive from
outside sources (Lovitts, 2001).
Research opportunities for students – This is dependent on funding,
space availability, and faculty expectation of the student (Lovitts,
2001).
Funding - Although the amount and availability varies per institution,
many schools have increased funding to their doctoral students in
order to positively increase completion rates (Denecke & Slimowitz,
2004).

49
3) Characteristics of the Individual (as they relate to this study)
Age – The students in this study are between the ages of 23 and 25.
Age has a known relationship in the manner in which acculturation
occurs (Berry, 1997b).
Education Level – All of these students will have a bachelor’s degree
and be within their first and second year of graduate studies. The
greater the educational level the smoother the acculturation process
(Berry, 1997b).
Discipline – Each specific field of study has its own academic
requirements and social norms.
Background – The region (within the united States) in which the
student were raised, family structure, and financial resources while
being raised.
Expectations – The student’s expectations are based on their hope for
their future.
Research Experience – Prior research experience can be a determinate
in the graduate school selection process and how well the person
integrates in the discipline on a graduate and professional level
(Denecke & Slimowitz, 2004).
Coping Strategies – These are specific efforts, both behavioral and
psychological, that people employ to master, tolerate, reduce, or
minimize stressful events. Two general coping strategies have been

50
distinguished: problem-solving strategies are efforts to do something
active to alleviate stressful circumstances, whereas emotion-focused
coping strategies involve efforts to regulate the emotional
consequences of stressful or potentially stressful events (S. Taylor,
1998).
4) Characteristics of the Situation
Life Changes – This is the possibility of getting married, having
children, of a death of an immediate family member.
Support System (academically and socially) – A support system are
interactions with family members, peers, staff, and other faculty
members that provide encouragement via emotional and academic
support (Herzig, 2004).
Interactions and relationships with faculty – This can be categorized
as a mentee and mentor relationship or it can be based on the receipt
of feedback and faculty availability (Ellis, 2001).
Cultural Distance – Discord that may occur when a person is
becoming a part of a new culture (Berry, 1997b).
Time – Length and amount of contact in the new environment.
These contextual factors, although not exhaustive, have been identified form
existing literature. The purpose of these factors is to provide a preliminary
framework that can aid in providing clarification that influences the acculturating
experience of the students in this dissertation.

51
The reason for the move along with any prior contact with the new society
will determine the course that the individual will take in the acculturation process
(Cabassa, 2003,). The amount of exposure, if any, to the host culture is also a factor
in why and how an individual progresses through this process. The three reasons for
the entry into the process are voluntary, mobility, and permanence. The entry into the
acculturation may be as a result of a physical move, the colonization of territories.
Settlement into a new culture may be permanent or temporary where individuals
move from one culture to another (Berry, 1997a).
When faced with a new environment the individual must develop a method
that allows the person to both learn the culture and manage the stress that is related
to the learning process (Coleman, 1995). This perspective is particularly important to
the women in this dissertation since issues of diversity are prominent in this study.
As these students progress from being undergraduates the progression through a
graduate program is reflective of the specific field of study and departmental norms
of what is considered normal, acceptable performance and behavior that is germane
to that particular field. This is quite different from an undergraduate environment
where students are involved in activities that are institutional as opposed to being
specifically disciplined based (Tinto, 1993). Also, cultural predispositions may arise
when women of color, like those in this study, due to cultural conflicts. Discord
arises for many students of color that enter PWIs. The reason for this is not always
due to incidents of racial discrimination but it may be a result of cultural conflict.
Robert Ibarra argues that women and students of color tend to be very personal and

52
specific, highly emotional and group oriented, which is the opposite of academic
cultures which is considered to be that of low emotions, or personal involvement,
analytical and not very expressive (Hammack, 2001; Ibarra, 1996). At this
educational level social integration is closely related to academic integration. For the
students of color that succeed in maintaining their cultural identities while accepting
the ways of the academy do this by becoming “cultural brokers” by attempting to
blend the two cultures (Ibarra, 1996; Tinto, 1993; Young et al., 1994). This notion is
central to this study when you consider that these six ladies attended a HBCU, as an
undergraduate, that is known to have a different culture than that of a Predominantly
White Research University.

53
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Qualitative research assumes that the meaning of a phenomenon is
entrenched in the experiences of the individuals being studied. Meaning is also
mediated through the perceptions of the researcher (Merriam, 1998). I utilized a
qualitative approach in this dissertation to provide insight about minority women
enrolled in graduate education, their experiences, and their viewpoints on their
graduate experiences in PWIs (Gilligan, 1993). My goal was to undertake an
interpretative analysis of the stories offered by the participants in the study. The
inherent involvement of individual perception makes the researcher the primary
instrument of both data collection and analysis. Fieldwork, which is usually involved
in qualitative research, connects the person to the natural setting that allows the
researcher to observe behavior and become intimately familiar with what is being
studied in its purest form (Wolcott, 1999). This type of research inductively builds
towards theory based on the observations and understandings of the information
from the interviews. Qualitative research, as in this dissertation, focuses on
understanding through a rich description of words in order to convey what was
learned. Ideally this type of research is flexible and changes according to the
conditions as themes and categories emerge (Merriam, 1998).
In this dissertation, the researcher allows the voices of the students, who are
the subjects of this study, to be heard by utilizing qualitative research methods. The
qualitative case study approach was utilized in order to explore individual attitudes,

54
behaviors, and cultural identities. A case study is necessarily bound by time and
place – a study that deliberately covers the contextual conditions and subsequent
effects on the individuals being studied (Creswell, 1998). The individual students
and their experiences within their first two years of graduate study are the cases
being examined in this study. The contextual conditions for these students include
their undergraduate institutions, and the norm, values, and structural standards of
their chosen discipline in graduate school. These common elements will allow the
exploration of the uniqueness of the individuals, their experiences, and the effects of
these experiences to be emphasized (Stake, 1995).
The theoretical perspectives of acculturation guide the presentation and
analysis of data in this dissertation. What also guides this study is the understanding
that each individual is different with unique experiences, although each of these
women attended HBCUs, which were founded as a result of socially constructed
racism and discrimination against African Americans within the United States (Kim,
2002). The focus of my interview protocol and qualitative methodology was the
contrast between the undergraduate HBCU experience and graduate enrollment at a
predominantly white institution. As data was collected, the research questions,
interview protocol, and interview focus were refined
1
. Despite the researcher
expecting and at times knowing that certain events, problems, and situations are
important the data gathering techniques were adapted to the circumstances and the

1
See Appendix A for Interview Protocol

55
responses of the women. This ability to analyze data from the beginning allows for
clarity and summarizing of the information as the study proceeds (Stake, 2000).
The intention of this chapter is to provide the reader with an understanding of
how the study was conducted. This chapter begins with an overview of qualitative
research and why a case study approach was selected. I then focus on how the
women were identified, accessed, and selected for this study. Data gathering
methods and its connection to the featured framework are explained as well as how
the gathered data was analyzed. The issues of trustworthiness, limitations of this
study, and the researchers perspective are revealed with a conclusion to end the
chapter.
Using a Qualitative Case Study Approach
Qualitative research frequently relies on personal contact and open-ended
interview questions (Ibarra, 1996). Interviews offer a distinctive way of gathering
data that is essential to understanding the lives of individuals that is needed in order
to provide in-depth information that, at times, is missing from quantitative research
((Etter-Lewis, 1991; Ibarra, 1996). The experiences of the African American women
in this study are complicated by intersections of race, gender, and social class within
language, history, and culture (Etter-Lewis, p.43). I employ a case study approach
that is suited for uncovering complex layers and provide an understanding of issues
such as race and gender within higher education. The individualized nature of these
issues requires a qualitative approach for data collection and analysis (p.43).

56
A case study is about both the process of the inquiry and the result of the
inquiry (Stake, 1995). Case studies serve as an effective qualitative research design
when the goal is to be sensitive to the underlying meaning while gathering and
interpreting data. The approach investigates a phenomenon as it occurs in its real-life
context with the belief that this context is very important to what is being studied
(Yin, 2003). The particulars of the individual cases are also important. The case
study approach allows us to examine and treat the uniqueness of the individuals and
their situation for what it does and might represent (Stake, 2000; Merriam, 1998).
This focus on the individual and her experiences furthers our understanding of the
particular, as opposed to a more general focus provided by other research methods.
Such a focus also recognizes the multiple influences that impact an individual’s life.
A qualitative case study approach is deliberately used to study the contextual
conditions when it is important to the phenomenon (Yin, 2003). In order to do this
data gathered through a case study is based on the following six concepts:
1) The nature of the case;
2) The case’s historical background;
3) The physical setting;
4) Other contexts (e.g., economical, political, and aesthetic);
5) Other cases through which this case is recognized;
6) Those informants through whom the case can be known (Stake, 2000).
A case study is a comprehensive research strategy inclusive of the research design,
data collection techniques that gathers on all of the above, and approaches to data

57
analysis (Yin, 2003). Not only did a case study approach impact my data collection
and analysis, but the approach is also reflected in the organization of my dissertation.
I present each woman’s experience as an individual case before drawing conclusions
across the cases.
Site and Participant Selection
This study consists of six African American women, within their first and
second year of graduate school. The participants were initially identified via the
database of the National Physical Science Consortium (NPSC). The NPSC is an
organization that administers fellowships to persons seeking a PhD either in math,
science, and engineering. Although the fellowship is open for all students, its
emphasis is towards women and underrepresented minorities. I reviewed the
database of students that have applied for and have received the fellowship within
the last three years and identified perspective participants. I also spoke with a
gatekeeper at a government agency (a Department of Energy Lab) about people
within their organization that would be both willing and good candidates for this
study. I initially contacted thirty male and female persons via email, introduced
myself and briefly describe my study to them. Five female students responded,
within a two-week period, with an interest and willingness to participate in this
study. From the initial five respondents, I utilized snowball sampling techniques to
secure an additional participant for this dissertation. One person sent an email to
additional persons regarding this study and one of those persons responded favorably
directly to me. A month later additional emails were sent to the original students who

58
had not responded but I received no additional responses. This process determined
the number of students in this study. I included the original email and responses in
the appendix
2
.
All of the participants in this dissertation attended a HBCU at the
undergraduate level and are now attending a major research institution (PWI) in
order to receive their doctorate (PhD) degree in either mathematics or chemistry.
Although the structure of graduate science programs differ from institution to
institution, the students studied entered their graduate (doctoral) program directly
from their undergraduate institution, with no previous graduate school experience. In
other words, these students transitioned directly from a bachelor to a doctorate
degree without having obtained a masters degree in between. The students are at the
same educational level without any previous graduate school experience that would
have provided them with additional familiarity for them to rely upon in pursuit of the
doctoral degree.
In Table 3.1, I identify each of the participants in this study by demographic
and educational characteristics. Each student in the dissertation is identified by a
pseudonym in order to ensure confidentiality. (See following page):

2
See Appendix B

59

Table 3.1: Demographic and Educational Characteristics of Participants
Name *

Age Undergraduate
Institution
Graduate
Institution
Discipline First
Generation
College
Student
Keisha 24 Spelman
College
Univ. of
Georgia
Mathematics

No
Kerry 22 Howard Univ. Duke Univ. Mathematics Yes
Shavanna 24 Tennessee
State Univ.
North
Carolina
State Univ.
Mathematics No
Paulette 24 Hampton Univ. Univ. of
North
Carolina
Chemistry Yes
Victoria 26 Southern Univ. Univ. of
Missouri
Chemistry No
Rachelle 23 Southern Univ. Univ. of
Arizona
Mathematics No
* Pseudonyms
A smaller group, such as this one, allows for the gathering of more in depth,
detailed and rich data. Multiple interviews with this small group of women
permitted a relationship of trust and confidentiality. Such intimacy resulted in
students expressing personal and difficult stories to me, the researcher.
In considering the setting of the cases it should be duly noted that the people
being studied are not attending the same institution. The reasoning for this is that
there are so few African American students attaining doctorate degrees in these
critically fields. In the 2001-2002 school year the total number of doctorate degrees
for African Americans in the STEM fields was 302 (2 percent) out of 14,237 total
doctorates conferred in these fields. There was an increase in both the number (355)
and the percentage (3 percent) of doctorate degrees conferred to African Americans

60
in these fields in 2002-2003 but the total number (10,470) of degrees conferred
slightly declined. Given these general trends and distribution statistics, with over 400
doctorate-granting institutions it would be quite difficult to study African American
doctorate students, from HBCUs, at only one or from a range of only a few
institutions (NORC, 2003).
Data Collection
Data collection for a case study is dependent on many resources (Yin, 2003;
Creswell, 1998). By collecting data through interviews, observations via web
camera, documentations, participant journals, and the reflective notes of the
researcher, a detailed description and interpretation about the case emerges
(Creswell, 1998). The goal for an effective case study approach is the use of multiple
methods and multiple sources.
This study was conducted, from January 2006 through August 2006. I
utilized individual interviews, observations, my reflective notes, participant journals,
and document analysis (including departmental brochures, handouts, college
catalogues, and other published literature). The research occurred over the Spring
and Summer. Audio taped interviews began in the early Spring. I conducted four
interviews with each student. Each interview lasted approximately one hour with 15
to 20 questions being discussed during each interview. The first interview session
discussed the student’s background and briefly considered the experiences at the
student’s undergraduate institution. The second session clarified any questions that
emerged from the first session and elaborated on the undergraduate experiences and

61
discussed the student’s choice and expectations of the current graduate institution
and specific discipline. The third interview session expanded on the student’s
experiences, ways of adjusting, areas of growth and their thoughts about their future.
The fourth interview session allowed for clarification and closure of the formal
interview process. The researcher via the telephone and a web camera conducted all
of the interviews.
The reason for meeting with the participants more than once is to build a
relationship of trust that will allow the participants to be comfortable with providing
the researcher with what may be personal and uncomfortable information about their
experiences. Meeting more than once also increased the attainment of validity. The
multiple interview structure allows the participant and the researcher to check for
any inconsistencies and make sense of what had been said (Seidman, 1998). The
interview and the interview process is an important tool in understanding and
developing themes about the lives of the women in this study. This rationale was
achieved by allowing the researcher to hear and interpret the language and words that
the women used to describe how they are adapting to the culture of graduate school
(Anderson & Jack, 1991). The interaction between the researcher and the participant
is the core source of information (Miller, 2000).
Observations were also conducted throughout the interview process in order
to draw inferences about the participant’s point of view that were not obtained by
relying solely on the interviews. The observations, via a web camera, took place
during the third interview at the student’s convenience in their everyday setting at

62
their convenience. This allowed the researcher to draw inferences about the student’s
behavior and interactions that the students may have been reluctant to state during
the interview alone, this provided uniqueness to the individual stories that are being
related to the reader (Maxwell, 2005). The web camera interviews and observations
also allowed the researcher to note their voice inflections, body language, facial
expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal indicators that provided additional
meaning to the words of the participant (Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000).
Interviews and the observations together provided a clearer understanding of what
the participants’ intentions were (Stake, 1995).
Notes were taken throughout the process, as a means to reflect on the
interviews, my reaction to the interviews, and summarize any conclusions that
developed into themes at a later stage (Creswell, 1998). The reflective notes were not
just a means of analyzing data but they also facilitated and stimulated analysis
(Maxwell, 2005). This method of using both written and audio recordings also
allowed me to integrate the research mentally and construct an evolving framework
to best present the data in the report at the time of collection. The variety of data that
was gathered allowed me to recognize the commonalities and dissimilarities of the
data early on in the study.
Participant journals, which were requested from the students from the
beginning, permitted the researched to be researchers and express their experiences
and feelings in their own words. They also provided the researcher with more insight
in to the women’s opportunities, challenges, and the handling of the issues that these

63
students face on their continuing journey (Merriam, 1998) Participant journals, were
loosely structured (emails and private web blogs) allowed for introspection and kept
the students focused on the study (Janesick, 2000; Polkinghorne, 2005). The journals
offered greater focus, and insight into the information that was gathered from the
interviews and observation. It also encouraged the students to express themselves in
a manner that best exemplified their thoughts.
Public documentation, such as written program marketing information,
course schedules, and syllabi, was also studied in efforts to gain contextual
information on both the undergraduate and graduate institutions. This information
provided a cultural aspect to the department, the program, and the manner in which
students progress through their programs. Individual information, such as this, also is
important to the way that the participant’s experiences and circumstances are viewed
and shaped.
Data Analysis
Representative of the qualitative tradition, data analysis began from the onset
of the study through a mental synthesis of data (Creswell, 1998). The researcher
moved from a fixed linear approach to an analytical spiral approach. The data
entered the spiral only to exit as a narrative of the students’ stories. This approach
began with the researcher organizing the data and continually immersing oneself in
the data by reviewing the literature, taped interviews over and over again, reviewing
the participant journals, and by staying in continuous contact with the women in this

64
study. All of this resulted in categorizing and classifying the data so that the
presentation is an accurate image of all of the data collected (Creswell, 1998).
Since my goal as the researcher is to relate the stories of these women this
dissertation attempts to recognize that the experiences of these women are influenced
by multiple social roles. They are both women and Black and their actions are
simultaneous in both roles (Etter-Lewis). As the study began and progressed the
conversations between the women and myself became quite intimate. From the very
first interview the stories were personal, honest, and open. Prior to the first interview
themes from the literature regarding the experiences of African American students at
HBCUs and PWIs, and both socialization and acculturation theories were used to
construct the initial interview questions. This deductive method of using themes
provided the basis for the researcher to recognize, expand, or develop a new theme.
The inductive method of developing themes was also derived as data was collected,
internalized, reduced to a manageable size on a perpetual basis (Boyatzis, 1998). A
preliminary list of thematic codes that were derived from the data included
information as it relates to the women’s personal attributes and background, their
undergraduate and graduate experiences, any prior knowledge or research
experiences in their chosen field of study, and the future plans. I include these codes
in the appendix
3
.
The first interview focused on the student’s personal backgrounds. The
undergraduate experiences of these students were discussed in the second interview.

3
See Appendix C

65
The third interview emphasized the graduate school experiences of the women. Web
cameras were also used during this interview that allowed for observations to take
place. Just as important was being able to put faces with names, on both sides; this
immediately made the sessions personal and open. There was also a fourth interview
session where questions that were not within the scope of the three previous sessions
were discussed. There were also clarification sessions that took place via the phone
and email. Throughout the process four of the women also wrote personal journals
that elaborated on what they may have been thinking at that moment and at other
times in between the interview sessions.
At the end of each interview session I reviewed and enhanced my notes in
order to ensure that I had taken comprehensive notes of my recollections of what was
said and the manner in which it was intended. It was within weeks that the audio
taped interviews were transcribed. Once the transcription was complete both the
audio version and the written version were reviewed for accuracy. They were also
reviewed along side the initially proposed interview questions in order to develop
additional interview questions for the next session. All of the women were initially
asked the same questions but their situation and answers to previous questions
determined the manner in which the following interview sessions took place. Trust
was built as a result of the multiple interviews which yielded valuable information
that not only benefited this study but also allowed the students to express thoughts
and feelings that may not have expressed during a single conversation.

66
Participant journals and documentation were reviewed as they were acquired.
The introspective writings journals were also reviewed on a regular basis to assist in
improving interview questions to ensure that precise and relevant information was
being collected. The documentation provided contextual information and shined
some light on the values of the department and a view on how the students
progressed.
The data analysis for this dissertation involved repeatedly reading and
reviewing all of the data from the various sources. This extensive canalization
provided for the development, refinement, and use of themes that arose from the data
(Austin, 2002). Data summaries were also completed during the case study analyses
to provide the reader with a comprehensive descriptive of the connection of the
experiences of the students during their academic career and the theory of
acculturation (Ragusa, 2004). It was the combination of the multiple data gathering
methods and the data analysis from the beginning that permits me to present a more
accurate and complete depiction of the cultural transition from one type of institution
to another.
Trustworthiness
The multiple data gathering methods increased validity through the
triangulation effect that provides many measures of the same phenomenon.
Triangulation, a convergence of lines of inquiry (Yin, 2003), reduces the risk that my
findings are reflective of my personal biases allowing me to gain a more secure
understanding of the issues being investigated (Maxwell, 2005). These multiple

67
sources of data also permitted me, the researcher, to understand and investigate a
broader range of cultural, behavioral, and attitudinal issues (Yin, 2003). This is of
particular interest in this study where cultural, behavioral, and attitudinal issues will
be explored
4
.
There are no methods and procedures that guarantee reliability but there are
processes that rule out the threats and increase the trustworthiness of the data and its
interpretation. From the beginning efforts were made in the analysis to ensure
reliability by considering the time span of the interviews, the analysis of the
information, and the many times the interviews were listened to in order to be certain
that concepts and categories are truly representative of what the students conveyed.
The students were provided with a copy of the transcription at the completion of the
formal interview process, for their review, for clarification and assurance that their
feelings, thoughts, and words are being properly expressed (Maxwell, 2005), to
which no one responded. There were also discussions with a fellow researcher
throughout the study about the findings as they emerged. This keeps the researcher
honest (Creswell, 1998) by allowing the researcher’s preconceived ideas and biases
to be expressed and minimized.
The trustworthiness of the study is also enhanced by the analysis of the data
because it focuses on the participants and her story. Thick, rich data and the
presentation of the data are presented in a descriptive, expressive, and persuasive
manner that gives voice to the participants. This dissertation is a culmination of the

4
See Appendix D

68
individual experiences that are represented by the data. It is the thick description of
the data that is the medium by which a well rounded picture of these experiences is
portrayed (Creswell, 2003).
Triangulation, which searches for the convergence of information, will assist
in creating credibility among the data and its interpretation by compiling bits and
pieces of information that will bring about a convincing understanding of the
behaviors and actions of the students based on recurring evidence. The weight of the
data is just as important as the aspects of data gathering methods. By allowing the
students to review and criticize the data illuminates the subject matter, brings about a
more sensitive understanding and human perception, and it reduces the risk of the
researcher interpreting the research based on their prior thought and points of view
(Creswell, 1998).
Limitations
The obvious limitation of this study is the number of participants. This study
is reflective of the views of the six participants within the study and it does not allow
for generalizations. Although these people are and have been in similar situations,
the effects and manners of dealing and succeeding in or out of their situation are
different and are subjective. Although factual, such subjectivity may not be reflective
of the whole (Miller, 2000). Since the whole is inclusive of men (African American
and other) and other non-African American students there are no comparative
insights.

69
An inherent limitation with data about human behavior depends on the
participant’s ability to reflect, discern, and effectively communicate their own
experiences (Polkinghorne, 2005). The women in this study are subjects and authors
and they determined what was relevant and what was not. As the conduit from which
their stories flowed it was my responsibility to piece together their words in a
manner that understandably conveyed their thoughts and experiences.
Another limitation is the researcher’s preconceived ideas and theories from
which the initial interview questions may be framed and how the responses to those
initial questions may be analyzed. Since my background is very similar to those in
the study there was a connection and closeness from the beginning. At times I shared
my experiences in order to illustrate that I understood their stories, to extract
information, and provide a safe place for their thoughts, experiences, and words.
Lastly there was a great deal of data. All of which needed to be reviewed and
discerned for our reading purposes. Although everyone appreciated the chance to
have their voice heard, every word could not fit between these pages. Just as there
was a beginning there has to be and end. The end was more like a commencement
that allowed for interpretation and presentation so that others may learn from the
women in this dissertation.
The Researcher’s Position
In research such as this the researcher is the main instrument for gathering,
analyzing, and responding to the data (Merriam, p.20). During the first interview
with all of the ladies, they each asked about my background. Such questioning made

70
me believe that they wanted to ensure that I was “real.” “Real” in the sense that yes, I
really do exist, and “real” in that my intentions were not to exploit them and their
reality and use it for my own selfish reasons. I am sure that it was not my words that
assured them as it was my background and my journey to this point, they saw that I
am one of them.
Like the women in this study I attended Clark Atlanta University (CAU), a
small liberal arts Black college in Atlanta, Georgia as an undergraduate where I
earned a Bachelors Degree in accounting. I also attended Howard University in
Washington, DC and earned a Master’s Degree in Business Administration with an
emphasis in Finance. Currently attending the University of Southern California
places me in a similar situation as these women by being one of a few African
Americans in the their department of study and possibly the only African American
female with HBCU roots. It was this that connected them to me and made it both
legitimate and easier for them to share and invite me in to their lives.
I am, like some of these women, a first generation college student. Our paths
are similar in essence but differ in detail. During most of my formative years I was
raised by my mother only, a person I consider to be extremely intelligent who chose
responsibilities over academics. My mother never really discussed college but
always stressed good grades. It was while she was working in the accounting
department of USC that college became real to me and not just a pipe dream. As a
way to keep me out of trouble she searched for summer programs and found the USC
Upward Bound Program. During the summer of 1984, as a participant of the USC

71
Upward Bound Program, is when I decided to attended college. I also decided to
attend CAU. At that time graduate school was not even a thought. But I remembered
a conversation that I had with my mother when she shared with me that she had been
told, while she had been working at USC, “you are the smartest person we have in
this department but we cannot move you up without a degree.” On hearing those
words, I vowed to never give anyone that chance to tell me that and I decided that if I
needed to get a doctorate degree, I would.
Conclusion
Math, engineering, and science are areas that hold a great deal of prestige in
the hands of a few. Given that academic hierarchy dictates where prospective
graduate students can attend, this study explores the student’s views of their
undergraduate origins, which are considered less prestigious, and their experiences in
graduate schools in a field that is considered white and male oriented (Solorzano,
1995). Since the connection between graduate school and the student’s career path is
so strong it is the first hand interaction between these African American students and
their graduate faculty and peers that allows for either the change to, or conforming
of, the values that exist within the culture of science. The inclusion of a diverse
population would allow for increased creativity and equity, implications that reach
far beyond the domains of math and science (Herzig, 2004). In other words, problem
choice, data collection, analysis, along with format and content are shaped by the
perspectives and voices of those that practice science (Leggon, 2006). Voice comes
in different forms (Tierney, 2000) and this study will be used to shed light on the

72
experiences and thoughts of six female African American graduate students that are
entering an academic discipline and career that is both feared and revered (Ladson-
Billings, 1997).

73
CHAPTER FOUR:
FINDINGS
In recent decades, statistics have increasingly illustrated the under
representation of women in the sciences. The issue is even more acute for women of
color: from 2001 to 2004 the percentage of African American women that received
graduate degrees in mathematics and chemistry was only 4.6 percent of all of the
women that received doctorate degrees in math and chemistry (NSF, 2006). The
percentage of African American female PhDs that attended a Historically Black
College or University for undergraduate education is even less (See Table 4.1).
Based the issue of the numbers alone the six women being discussed within this
dissertation have overcome significant disadvantages. It is not uncommon for women
to encounter an invisible wall even before they reach the halls of higher education
(Erwin & Maurutto, 1998; Ferreira, 2002). The women profiled in this dissertation
reflect not only the small percentage of women who pursue graduate education in the
sciences, but even a smaller number who have completed undergraduate degrees at
HBCUs.
Although the women in this study share similar academic and professional
backgrounds, each presents unique perspectives regarding life choices, professional
interests, and academic experiences. The purpose of this chapter is to document each
individuals understanding of how they enact and construct meaning in their daily
lives (Denzin, 1999) while going through the experience of an acculturation process
(Austin, 2002). These women, all of whom completed undergraduate studies at a

74
Historically Black College or University (HBCUs) and are now enrolled in graduate
mathematics and chemistry programs at Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs),
face multiple levels of acculturation related to gender, academic discipline, and
race/ethnicity. In addition to assuming their role as a graduate student and integrating
into both academic life and the scientific profession, and becoming a member of a
specific discipline, these students also face the challenge of purposefully
transitioning between, traditionally and culturally different institutions of higher
education.
Table 4.1: Doctorates in Mathematics and Chemistry Awarded to Women (American
citizens)

All Females

African
American
Females

Percentage
of African
American
Females

African
American
Females
with HBCU
Origins

Percentage
of African
American
Females
with HBCU
Origins

2001

502

25

5%

13

3%

2002

507

30

6%

16

3%

2003

498

16

3%

13

3%

2004

477

20

4%

7

2%

Total

1,984

91

5%

44

2%
(The percentages are rounded estimates of total female graduates.)
Source: (NORC, 2006; NSF, 2006)

75
This chapter is organized to reflect the students’ understanding of their
experiences during years one and two of graduate school. The use of the
acculturation model, as presented in chapter two, is used to provide both a
framework for understanding individual student backgrounds, values, and
interactions at a crucial point in their academic and academic development. Once the
individual analysis has been completed, I discuss the cultural dynamics of both
HBCUs and PWIs. This section will begin with an empirical view of how African
American students matriculate through both of these types of institutions. The
second half of this section will provide detail individual accounts of the experiences
and progression of the women in this study through their own testimony based on
common themes that emerged from the data.
A Review of the Participants
The six people in the study are all African American female graduate
students. They are in their first or second year of a graduate program with a
concentration in either math or chemistry. The acculturation model, as presented in
chapter two, is used to organize a basic snapshot of both the psychological and
sociological distinctions of the student’s progression through the acculturation
process. I outline a description of the roles and interactions related to personal,
situational, cultural, individual, and societal variables.

76
Keisha
The Individual (Background). Keisha spent her high school years in Augusta,
GA where she grew up with her parents and three siblings. While attending an all
white high school, Keisha noticed that she liked her math and science courses more
than her other classes. When asked about any particular encouragement into math,
Keisha said:
I don’t think I got too much encouragement either way as far as like going to
math or doing something else. I think I did get some encouragement from one
of our family friends who said she said engineering as a way to go and so I
began thinking about that as I applied to college to colleges for engineering.

77
Figure 4.1: The Model of the Acculturation Process at it pertains to Keisha

78
When it came time to prepare for college, Keisha benefited from her parents’
college experiences. Both of her parents attended a HBCU. Growing up in a family
where her parents and other relatives were college graduates, college was not an
option. The importance of a college education and the opportunities (knowledge,
financial stability, and career options) afforded as a result were of value to her
family. As Keisha explained “I come from a family where everybody went and it
was just assumed that you were going go to go [to college].”
The Society of Origin (Spelman College). Keisha wanted to attend college in
Georgia where she would be close to home. Public state schools were not an option
for her due to a change in the requirements that were implemented during her senior
year of high school. Keisha’s choice was Spelman College, located in Atlanta, GA. It
is one of two women only HBCU’s of distinction. Founded in 1881, Spelman is a
private liberal arts institution that graduates the most African American women that
go on to complete doctorate degrees, particularly in the sciences ("Spelman college",
2006). Keisha was originally looking for a good engineering school and Spelman
offered a five-year dual degree (BS and MS) program.
Spelman was the best of both worlds instead of me just going to Georgia
Tech, I could start at Spellman and then go to Georgia Tech and everything
would just happen for me. Then I went to visit and I loved Spellman and my
mom encouraged me about, she felt good about Spellman. And, Spellman
was going to pay for my tuition. So, you know that was pretty much it for me.

When asked about her expectations prior to attending Spelman, Keisha
responded:

79
It just seemed like it would be for me. Just like the focus would be for me
and I wouldn’t have to think twice, you know, about experiencing
discrimination and I could feel cultured and more knowledgeable about
myself and my people, living and learning and ,you know, socializing with
people who look like me and people who have my best interests at heart.

Socially, Keisha adjusted quickly to Spelman, and readily made friends there.
Culturally she realized that everyone is special and has their own place and their own
uniqueness and so differences should be something to celebrate. Academically, after
Keisha changed her major to math from engineering, she had some difficulty with
the transition to higher-level math courses. That did not deter her although she was
not as confident in her mathematical skills as she began the higher-level math
courses. “Those [the transition courses] were just more difficult because they [the
concepts] were less easy to grasp for me. I don’t think I learned as much in my
transition course as maybe I should have. But it didn’t hurt me any but I just wasn’t
as confident going into the um, higher level math.”
Keisha was always interested in graduate school. “I think I decided that
personally”, she noted, “and then the professors would ask and when you tell them
(that you want to go to graduate school) they encourage you in anyway.” That was
one of the reasons she selected to attend Spelman, because of the dual degree
program where engineering students attend Spelman for four years, Georgia Tech for
one year and they graduate with a bachelors degree from their home school (Spelman
College) and a masters degree from Georgia Tech. “That’s pretty much what I found,
because what I liked about math and I wanted to do more. Spelman, kind of like, just
gave me a taste of it (attending conferences and conducting research). And it would

80
pretty much be necessary for me to go to graduate school to be more knowledgeable
and prepared for me to go out and get a career, if I want a career in that field.”
As Keisha began to research graduate schools, particularly doctorate
programs, she was not sure that she was willing to put in the extended time required
in order to get a PhD. She applied to three schools and selected the University of
Georgia (UGA). It offered a well defined Masters program although she preferred
the program at the University of Maryland.

I applied to UGA and I applied to the University of Maryland, which is where
my research advisor got her Ph.D. I really liked their program and UGA’s
was pretty good too, but I knew that UGA’s was a definitive two-year
masters program and I wasn’t sure at the time if I was going to get a masters
and a Ph.D. or just try for a Ph.D. and just try to skip over the masters.

Society of Settlement (University of Georgia). UGA, the state’s flagship
institution, is the oldest, most comprehensive, and most diversified institution in the
state of Georgia. Founded in 1785, UGA was the first land and sea grant school as
well as the first state chartered school in the United States. What began as an all
white male institution of higher learning began admitting women in 1918 and
African American students in 1961. The current student population is over 30,000,
57 percent are women and 6 percent of the students are African American
("University of georgia", 2006).
The Department of Mathematics is one of the largest departments at UGA.
They offer five degrees in mathematics: Bachelor of Arts (A.B.), Bachelor of
Science (B.S.), Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Applied Mathematical Science
(M.A.M.S.), and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.).

81
Although, this is one of the largest departments (undergraduate and
graduate), only 14 graduate students enrolled in September 2005. The cohort
included eight women and six men. There are four Asian, nine Whites, and one
African American. Since Keisha was the only African American female to enter the
graduate math department at UGA in September of 2005 she felt that it was fortunate
for her to have met a fifth year graduate student who had also attended Spelman
College. Having this person there to assist her in navigating the social-cultural
context of the program, the department, the university, and society around the school
has definitely helped her in such a business like environment where help is given
only when it is asked for. To be more precise, Keisha describes the math department
as being “very cordial.” She says that no one seeks her out for study groups, and
there are no visible collaborations. Keisha basically works alone.
It is particularly difficult for Keisha because she does not like her program.
The program is not particularly relevant to her interests in applied mathematics, as
opposed pure or theoretical mathematics. “I knew that the UGA program really
wasn’t applied and I felt like well, if I go on to the Ph.D., then at least this masters
here, even though its not applied math, would strengthen me, Keisha explained. “The
most trouble that I’m having right now is doing this work, that’s difficult work that I
don’t want to do and I’m not really interested in what the class is about,” she
concluded.
The Situation (Prior Exposure). As noted in research regarding acculturation
theory as well available research on women in the, sciences, previous exposure to

82
math and science provides not just experience, but insight into a field that is both
feared and revered. Keisha feels fortunate to have had prior involvement in her field
of study. While in high school she participated in H-Cop, or the Health Careers
Opportunities Program. Participation in the program helped her to realize that her
initial thoughts of being a pharmacist were not the route for her. But the program
introduced her to the sciences, which initially seemed so secluded and out of reach
for her. At Spelman, her introduction to the field of math increased by attending
conferences with professors and also I having conducted research with them. She
was also a part of the Enhancing Diversity in Graduate Education program the
summer before she began graduate school. This program is for women and it is
geared with providing women the tools they need in order to succeed in graduate
school and in the field of mathematics.
In the summer of 2006 Keisha worked as an intern at the National Security
Agency. She explained, “The first 3 summers [during undergraduate school] were
internships in corporate America and that helped me decide that I definitely wanted a
career where I had and could see/feel that I had a direct impact on the goal of
whatever project I worked on. “ She continued:
The next summer I was in an REU in Statistics at Rice University. The next
summer I did an enrichment program to help prepare for grad school. And
this past summer, I interned with the government and I really liked using
math in very practical and directly useful ways. So, I've seen some of the
world of math, and it has been helpful because I didn't see myself going into
the most traditional math profession, the one most widely known, which is
teaching.

83
Moderating Factor(s) and Responses. Keisha’s determination to continue in
her program at UGA is twofold. The first part of that determination comes form the
recognition that she is learning a lot and the knowledge she is gaining has been
beneficial. In addition, she feels confident in her desire to “finding solutions that
increase the quality of life for common people.” Keisha is determined to make this
work. She admits to adjusting her behavior and being very focused on her studies.
Keisha conducts her interactions with her peers, faculty and the department in
general in a business like manner. She does not socialize with them out side of what
is needed to assist her in her progression. She maintains a separation between her
personal and academic lives.
I talk to my officemate, you know, I see her all the time. They’re other grad
students I see and I speak to them, but there are some grad students I don’t
speak to because I don’t see them. A lot of the times, I might not be seen as
one of the sociable graduate students. Just because when I’m at school I’m
usually trying to do work and I don’t benefit from socializing in the
department going around just sitting in people’s offices going around having
conversation because I feel like I’m at school. I need to be doing work
during business hours. Either in class or at work I can or I’ll have questions
for the professors who are here during business hours. But if it’s not work
hours or I’m at happy hour, then yes, you know, that is a time and place to be
sociable. But in the department, I am doing work. Very rarely do I eat lunch
outside of my office.

84
Kerry
The Individual (Background). Kerry always showed an interest in school with
math being her favorite subject while in high school. She grew up in a working class
household, in Detroit, MI, with both parents, neither of whom attended college.
Despite this, her parents pushed education and college was not an option: Kerry was
going. A college education was so important to Kerry’s family that although their
financial situation was tight Kerry attended parochial school during her primary
grade levels in order for her to have a solid educational foundation.
While Kerry attended an all Black public high school in Detroit, she took
advantage of all of the presented opportunities that presented themselves to her:
advanced placement courses, extracurricular activities, and she participated in a
summer program where her interest in math grew. So, when Kerry graduated as the
valedictorian of her class she had a lot of options. One of those options presented
itself during her senior year, through an aging white gentleman who had worked for
Ford motors. This person was recruiting math and science students for Howard
University and invited her to visit (all expenses paid) Howard for a weekend. Kerry’s
weekend at Howard was: “the best weekend I (Kerry) ever had.” She stayed in the
dorms with students from Detroit and she met and spoke with high level
administrators while there.
Even with the frustrations of the college process, Kerry made her decision
based on what “just felt right and where it would be absolutely free”.
An 80-year-old White man, from Ford, recruited math and science students to
Howard. One day he was recruiting at my high school and he asked to speak

85
with me. He told me about Howard and paid for me to spend a weekend there
so that I could see the campus and meet different people. This was the best
weekend I ever had. I stayed at Howard in the dorms with other girls from
Detroit and they were really nice to me. The man that took me (and some
other students) to Howard also introduced me to the president and other top
administrators. After that weekend I just knew, it felt right and it was
absolutely free.

86
Figure 4.2: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Kerry

87
The Society of Origin (Howard University). Kerry attended Howard
University in Washington, DC. Howard University is a comprehensive, research
oriented, institution of higher education for African Americans. Founded in 1866, it
currently has an enrollment of close to 11,000 students. The mathematics department
at Howard was established in 1867 and it offers both undergraduate and graduate
degrees in Math ("Howard university", 2006).
Prior to enrolling as a new freshman, Kerry participated in a pre-freshman
program that was geared to provide a smooth transition to college life, academically
and socially, from high school. She took a variety of classes and excelled,
particularly in calculus. She noted “I had AP (advanced placement) courses in high
school so these pre-freshman courses were really easy.”
The sixteen year old majored in math and minored in philosophy. Not only
did Kerry excel academically, she also played softball for Howard. As she
matriculated through Howard, she took math courses were there were just two or
three students. Being in these small classes allowed each student to receive
individual attention. It was at this time that her interest in math grew and her
thoughts of and curiosity about graduate school were cultivated.
The Society of Settlement (Duke University). Kerry applied to five graduate
schools and was accepted to three of those five graduate schools. She choose to
attend Duke University. This research oriented, private institution was founded in
1924 from the provisions of James Duke, which changed Trinity College to what is
now Duke University. The current student population is over 13,000 students; six

88
percent of the graduate students are African American. That math department
describes itself by both the high quality research they produce and their close
relationships with the graduate students. There are 44 doctoral students in this
department; all of them receive some form of financial aid ("Duke university",
2006).
A second year student in this program, Kerry was the only female and
African American graduate student (out of six male students) to enter Duke’s math
department. Initially she was not going to attend Duke; there were no other African
American graduate math students and none of the 25 tenured professors are women.
This was definitely not the environment she wanted to be in. However, she
ultimately selected Duke because of a phone call she received from the only Black
(actually Belizean) professor in math and physics, who encouraged her to attend. He
said that he would mentor and support her throughout the program and this was very
important to Kerry. This professor also mentioned that someone has to be first. With
her there, at Duke, that would attract other African American graduate mathematics
students to Duke. “I was given a really honest picture by Dr. Cutter, she recounted.
When he called me to try to convince me to come and he told me this is not going to
be ideal. But if you come, you know, it’ll be the start of something and we can try to
get more people.”
When asked to describe the culture of Duke Kerry describes Duke as a
“Southern, White, private school and that’s a big difference.” Even her officemate, a
White male who has attended other White colleges, without giving particulars, said

89
that Duke is different. She says that Duke is not “very competitive”, they recruit very
good students, and there are a lot of students at Duke University whose grandparents
and great-great grandparents went to Duke. The students are very conservative and
homogeneous. “The students look alike, dress the same, and have some sort of aura
of arrogance. It is like they live up to this Duke standard and I do not know what that
means.”
The Situation (Prior Exposure). Kerry participated in a summer math
program while in high school. This program was held at Michigan State University
and it showed her mathematical concepts that made math interesting as well as
introducing her to math culture. While attending Howard University, Kerry’s
instructors wrote her a plan of action to guide her to graduate school. Part of this plan
was that she attended conferences and took part in research. During her first and this,
her second summer at Duke University, Kerry has and is part of an internship
program at the National Security Agency, that is a requirement for the six year
fellowship that Kerry has. The internship program allows her to conduct significant
research in the field and create a social network. As Kerry noted, her professional
network includes individuals who incessantly encouraged her persistence in graduate
school.
Moderating Factor(s) and Responses. The three things that keep Kerry
grounded and focused on receiving her doctorate is her faith. Her true belief that
“God has not bought me this far to leave me” has sustained her through some very
difficult times. Kerry also became very involved in her church as a means to assist

90
her through her first year. “I joined a church in the area and I immediately spoke
with the pastor. I explained my situation to him and basically said put me to work.
Since that point on I have been working with the youth and spreading the gospel
within the college community.” Her engagement with the religious community has
allowed Kerry to become involved with Duke in a way she might not have been able
to realize through other avenues.
Karry’s other source of support and encouragement in her academic career
comes with having a mentor. Having a mentor is “key” for Kerry. Kerry discusses
both academic and personal matters with her mentor. Mentors at Duke (faculty) and
NSA (senior scientist) have suggested that she become visible in the department and
continue on in her program. As a result of taking this advice Kerry coordinates
speakers that visit the graduate math students and she is also involved in recruitment
for the department. “This year I became the coordinator for speakers and events for
the graduate math students. So, if someone wants a particular person to speak to the
graduate students they have to come through me,” she said. “Its pretty clear that I am
one of the more personable people. So, like sending me to Nebraska, it was like, oh
ok who can speak at this. First of all we have to send a woman, because it was a
woman’s conference.”
Ultimately, Kerry maintains a strong distinction between her role as a
graduate student (the only African American women in the department) and her
personal interests. “Treat your academic life as if it was a business and keep your
personal life separate” is additional advice that she was given by her mentor at

91
school. “I actually kind of got that advice from my mentor, to be honest with you,”
she said. Kerry works steadily at maintaining this division. She added, “Every once
in awhile I’ll have a conversation or two with people, but it’s very impersonal. That
might be, kind of anti-social. I don’t know.” According to Kerry, her peers and
faculty in the math department rarely see her social side. Kerry has socially removed
herself from the department, and approaches the study of math as a purely academic
endeavor. “I have forced and convinced myself to be successful and changed my
mode of thinking and concentrate on math and math only,” she concluded.

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Shavanna
The Individual - (Background). Growing up in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Shavanna always knew that she was going to college. Her parents had attended
college and made it clear that college is very important. Her father introduced
Shavanna to mathematical concepts and ideas at an young age. While attending high
school she attended a summer program – Gateway to Engineering and Science and
Technology. Also, while in high school, Shavanna’s mother took her to visit
different colleges so that she could get a feel for the type of school she wanted to
attend and the environment she wanted to learn in.
Shavanna had many options on the school she wanted to attend as an
undergraduate. It was important to her and she was also encouraged by her mother
to attend a HBCU. After visiting many schools, Shavanna was very interested in
being in an environment that was majority Black. She believed that this environment
would be good for her and that the people around her would have her best interest at
heart. Shavanna chose to attend Tennessee State University. She liked the city, her
sister was only four hours away in Atlanta, GA and she received academic and
athletic scholarships that paid for her expenses. She said,” My mother attended
Marquette University in Milwaukee because that was the only place she could
afford; she was awarded a scholarship.” But Shavanna’s mother did not believe that
this was the best place for her. “ Especially during the time my mother attended
Marquette socially she did not believe the school matched with her. Meaning the
social events and activities they sponsored were all catered toward the majority

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population and she did not necessarily have those same interests. However, she
believes she received an excellent education.” So Shavanna was quite fortunate to
choose an institution that matched both her academic and social interest. “She
believes the nurturing, education, academic support and professional training, and
social life an African-American experience at an HBCU is much greater than they
would receive at a majority institution. So she encouraged my older sister and I to
attend HBCUs for undergrad,” Shavanna concluded.

94
Figure 4.3: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Shavanna

95
The Society of Origin (Tennessee State University). Tennessee State
University (TSU), a comprehensive urban land-grant institution is located in
Nashville, TN. Founded in 1912 and developed from a normal school for Negroes
TSU is committed to educating a non-racially identifiable student body. Currently
TSU has an enrollment of more than 9,000 students, 75 percent are African
American and 21 percent are Caucasian ("Tennessee state univ." 2006). Despite her
interest in mathematics, Shavanna applied to college as an English major with the
intentions of attending law school.
The summer prior to her freshman year, Shavanna attended the Packard
Science Institute Program at TSU. This was summer bridge program that was geared
to those interested in math and chemistry. This program had such an impact on
Shavanna that the second semester of her freshman year that she switched from an
English major to a math major. “I attended the PSI Program because I wanted to be
familiar with TSU's campus, meet students and staff, and learn a little bit about
Nashville prior to starting undergrad. Since all of the programs for incoming
freshman were math/science or engineering programs, I chose to be a participant in
the math/science program because I always liked math and usually did well in it.”
According to the institutional website the goal of the math department at TSU
is to provide students with the necessary skills to enable their graduates to either
attend graduate school or be employed in a number of private and government
institutions. It was in this math department that Shavanna’s opportunities to gain
increased knowledge and opportunities grew. Faculty helped her find opportunities

96
and as a result she attended conferences and participated in many other math related
programs. It was while Shavanna participated in a NSF internship program that she
considered about attending graduate school and thought, “why not?” As she
explained, “I had never thought about getting a PhD. I [had] not been exposed to it, I
was not aware and I did not know anyone with a PhD. For so long I just wanted to be
an attorney. It was not until I was a part of the NSF program that I seriously thought
about it.”
The Society of Settlement (North Carolina State University (NCSU)). The
program, the experiences of their current graduate students, faculty research and
location are why Shavanna chose to attend North Carolina State University (NCSU).
NCSU was founded in 1887, as a land grant institution. The institutional website
notes that NCSU is a leader in science and technology. The institution is ranked 6
th

in technology patents and has partnerships with the technological community,
universities, industry, and government to produce scientific innovations ("North
carolina state un." 2006). This is what attracted Shavanna to apply to the NCSU for
graduate school. NCSU has a student population of 30,000 students, 9 percent of the
students are African American. A recent article in the Journal of Blacks in Higher
Education ("Student group gives low grades to north carolina state university's
efforts to increase racial diversity", 2006) argued that NCSU is not doing much to
recruit new students or increase the retention of their current African American
students.

97
The mathematics department at NCSU is committed to a diverse graduate
student body. They have about 100 graduate students; six students are African
American. Despite being the only, first year, African American student Shavanna
said “NCSU is a good place for me. The math department is not hostile and everyone
has been friendly and helpful. “ As a graduate student Shavanna identified a
challenge for herself, which has been being able to connect with people in order to
get the help you need.
The Situation (Prior Experience). Shavanna has been exposed to the sciences
and math at various stages of her education. While in high school she participated in
Gateway to Engineering, Science and Technology. She was also a counselor for a
summer math program in as an undergraduate and received a National Science
Foundation internship. Once she completed TSU she was a student in the Enhancing
Diversity in Graduate Education for Women Program at Bryn Mawr College, which
she was made aware of by one of her Professors. This program was an intense
program for women that prepared them for graduate school. After completing her
first year in graduate school, Shavanna has also interned with the National Security
Agency as part of a six-year graduate fellowship that she received upon her
acceptance to NCSU.
Recognizing the benefit of external research opportunities to her development
as a scientist and to her social networks, Shavanna said,” Internships and
participation in other math programs will definitely be beneficial to my future.
These opportunities allowed me to develop a network of contacts who are also in my

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field as well as those who are interested in promoting and encouraging the
development of mathematicians at all levels (funding various programs, awards,
scholarships).” These experiences have shaped her ideal and provided a model for
her career once she completes graduate school. She continued:
In addition to the network, many of these individuals are mentors who set a
great example of how to be successful in mathematicians in various ways and they
also continue to support me throughout this process and connect me with others who
are also willing to help. Eventually, I hope to be like my mentors by assisting in
developing young mathematicians and supporting (emotionally and financially)
those who come after me. As a result, this cycle will continue and ideally it will
expand into a much stronger force.
Moderating Factor(s) and Responses. Shavanna is determined to be an
educator and she will not allow anything to sway her from achieving that goal. When
asked about the main factors for Shavanna’s progression at NCSU she is quick to
note her faith, her attitude, and her family. She says “I thank GOD every day for
where I am and the destiny that awaits me. Thank God I have successfully completed
my first year and I am embarking on more new and exciting opportunities to grow,
learn, and mature in my field as well as in my life.” Also important to her
progression is Shavanna’s personal investment into her graduate education. “School
is what you put into it. You have to make the effort to allow people to get to know
you.” Shavanna is conscious of and consciously fosters those relationships.

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“ Overall, I am very pleased with the outcome of my first year and I am looking
forward to doing even better next year as well as being well prepared for my
qualifying exams, which I plan to take next summer.” Lastly Shavanna does
maintain a sense of self outside of graduate school, and she has a close relationship
with her family, who expand her support network beyond her peers at NCSU. She
said,” They (her parents) are very excited for me. They will support me in whatever,
my mom would read my homework and provide tips regarding my essays.”
Even with this great outlook, Shavanna admits to having problems in
adjusting. Since she is the only first year African American student she has become
visible beyond her department. She notes that “another outlet from school is my job;
I am a tutor for student athletes, which I really enjoy.” This helps their academic
career and strengthens her desire to succeed and become an educator. “I love
teaching people math. When the student’s feel well it is a confidence builder. They
discuss things with me as oppose to just answering the questions” she added.
One of the major differences between TSU and NCSU is building
relationships with other people, “it takes more time to get to know people”, she said.
In order to interact and purposely engage with her colleagues she attends social
events in with her colleagues, this includes being a member of the Association for
the Concerns of African- American Graduate Students. Shavanna explained, “This is
a group that offers an opportunity for African American graduate students to network
with each other, participate in campus activities, socialize, and discuss issues that
affect us on campus and in society. This is a great way to connect with others who

100
understand what you go through on a daily basis in some form or fashion.” Without
her participation in this organization Shavanna feels that her interactions with other
students of color would be limited.

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Paulette
The Individual – (Background). Paulette grew up in Pierson, GA, the oldest
of six siblings and the first person in her family to attend college. Paulette has always
been interested in chemistry. Growing up she would perform experiments from old
books that her mother would bring home from the school that she worked at as a
teacher’s aid. Although she did not know any one who had attended college it was
always expected that she would attend based on how well she did in school. When it
came time to apply to college Paulette had little help except for the registrar at her
high school. The registrar, an older Black woman, wanted her to attend a HBCU.
Paulette said, “My registrar she was like helping me and she was like I want you to
go to a Black school. So, she basically like looked up all the schools for me and gave
me the information.” Although Paulette originally wanted to attend the University of
Georgia and decided that would not be the best choice for her. “Whenever I started
choosing schools or whatever first I was like I wanted to go the University of
Georgia cause you know we’re big sports people; [Georgia] Bulldogs. And then I
was looking it up and it was like 30,000 people in this school and I was like ok there
are 3,000 people or like 6,000 people in my county and do I really want to go to
school with 30,000 people?”

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Figure 4.4: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Paulette

103

The Society of Origin – (Hampton University). One of the institutions that
Paulette applied to was Hampton University. As Paulette notes, “ When I got my
thing from Hampton they said they gave me a full ride automatically. I was like
that’s where I’m going….because I wasn’t going to college if I had to pay for it and
that was how I picked Hampton.” Hampton University is located in Hampton,
Virginia. Founded on the banks of the Virginia Peninsula in 1868 during the period
of reconstruction, Hampton’s principles are “Education for Life” and “Learning by
Doing”. According to Hampton’s website the student enrollment is over 5,000
students with students from 49 states and 35 countries. The website also states
“Hampton is a community of learners and educators, a place that will challenge your
intellect and nurture your spirit. [Our] strong roots reach deep into the history of this
nation and the Africa American experience” (Hampton university, 2006).
While at Hampton, Paulette worked hard to keep her grades up and maintain
her scholarship. She studied all of the time. ”That was fine,” she explained. “I
expected that.” Paulette does not recall ever feeling out of place from the beginning.
At times she found classes to be a bit challenging but she studied with her roommate,
who was biology major, and she easily spoke with her instructors. The chemistry
department at Hampton prepares students for graduate school, medical and health
professional schools, and industry. The department included faculty that represent
various subfields of chemistry. Students have regular computer access in the
department, as well as space for student use for tutorials, preparation of laboratory
reports, simulations, and internet connection. According to the departmental website,

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the goal of the undergraduate degree program is to “prepare students for advanced
degrees in chemistry as well as other science and health fields.”
What Paulette did know is that she wanted to command her future and she
believed that obtaining graduate degree would allow her to do just that. She
explained:
I think it was the beginning of senior year. Because my teachers, well I guess
the advisor, the head person in my department, Dr. -------, he, we had a class
with him freshman year the first semester and they really pushed us to go to
graduate school or something, and there were only twelve, at the time. I
think seven of us, seven chemistry majors so um it was a close-knit thing.
And they got to know us kind of personally and then really actually half of
them wanted to go to medical school. Yeah there were four of them that
wanted to go to medical school and two of them eventually changed their
minds and decided to go to grad school also, but all of us wanted to do
something else. That, I guess it just, I kind of got on the bandwagon and I
was like yeah I don’t want to go to work and have somebody else tell me
what to do because I only have a bachelors.

The Society of Settlement – (University of North Carolina). The University of
North Carolina (UNC), the nations first state university was the only public
university offering degrees during the 18
th
century. Traditionally opened to White
men only, UNC admitted its first woman in 1897, and it admitted its first African
American in 1951. Currently women make up 58.2 percent of the total enrollment
and African Americans make up 9.9 percent of the total enrollment (Univ. of North
Carolina, 2006). On the graduate level African American women represent close to 6
percent of the graduate enrollment. With 60 new chemistry graduate students, for six
different divisions, Paulette was one of only two African American female students
to enter in her cohort.

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Paulette selected to attend UNC due to it reputation, its ranking as having a
good chemistry program, and the number of instructors that are conducting research
in the areas that she is interested in. Paulette’s research lies in either semi bioorganic
or natural product synthesis. Most institutions have professors that conduct research
in one of these areas but UNC has Professors that conduct research in both of these
areas. The website of the UNC states that faculty member in the department bring in
over $18 million in research funding annually. The website also notes,
“ Collaboration between research groups in pervasive, and many students carry out
joint projects with two or more faculty mentors.”
The Situation – (Prior Experience). Research experiences began for Paulette
while she was attending Hampton University. During her sophomore year, Paulette
applied to many intern programs and did not receive one positive response. Paulette
had already gone home for the summer and applied for summer work in her city
when she received a call from Procter and Gamble (P&G). A young scientist, who
had previously attended Hampton, offered her a summer internship, which she gladly
accepted. The internship with P&G was a wonderful experience. Paulette got a
chance to work and see what “real” scientific work entails.
My freshman summer I didn’t do anything. I went home. The second and
third year I worked at Proctor & Gamble in Cincinnati doing analytical
chemistry well analytical polymer chemistry. But it was, I applied for a
bunch of different summer programs my sophomore year. And I didn’t really
hear anything from them and I had actually already gone home. And I got a
call from the guy in Cincinnati at Proctor & Gamble, who’s actually a Black
man that went to Hampton, and he had seen my application and everything.
And he had, I guess he could pick his own interns. And he had narrowed it
down to three people and the other two people already had taken other jobs.
So it was like I was in for the position if I wanted it. If I was willing to take

106
anything cause I did not want to stay home that summer. It was exciting, they
flew me up there for a visit just to see everything and I had, I would get my
own office and they had these nice labs. And I was like, is this real? So I
worked there my first summer and I got invited back the second summer.

Paulette also worked for Amgen for two additional summers, as part of the
requirements of a six-year graduate fellowship that she received. While at this
internship, Paulette had the opportunity to work on research that allowed her to
narrow her research interest.
Moderating Factors and Responses. Paulette’s determination and fortitude
have been her reasons to keep going in her program. She is also a founding member
of the National Organization of Chemical Engineers on her campus. The purpose of
this organization is to increase the number, exposure, and support of the Blacks in
the sciences by providing them a safe place to discuss their interests and concerns in
their respective program and chosen field. The thing that helped her most is that she
is very active in her church. Paulette is a mentor and that helps her confidence and
gives her a sense of belonging. As Paulette puts it,” it is nice having someone
looking up to me.”
This relationship is particularly good since it is also common for Paulette to
work by herself. In order for her to progress to she had to do the one thing that would
place her out of her comfort zone, ask for help. She explained,”well on Tuesday I
finally broke down and asked for help. It was a very humbling moment for me. I
don’t know why it took me so long to go to my advisor. Well, yes I do. Because I
don’t like to ask anyone for help, too much pride. I have been struggling with my
work and everything else since I got here and I have kept saying that I was going to

107
go talk to my advisor and get some suggestions from him on ways to study and that
type of thing. But did I ever do what my good sense told me and go talk to him.
Nope!”
This act was very difficult for Paulette but she was quite relieved by her
advisor’s response. “He said he understood why I was frustrated and he did think that
I was working hard. To make a long story short, well shorter, I feel better about the
whole school situation now. My body even feels better. I am so glad I finally talked
to him. Wish I would have done it a year ago.” This interaction with her advisor
showed her growth a scientist and a person.

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Victoria
The Individual – (Background). Shreveport, LA is where Victoria grew up
with her younger brother and a very hard working mother. With a Masters degree
and 60 hours of additional training Victoria’s mother worked hard as a speech
pathologist and English teacher so that she and her children could have a middle
class lifestyle. Although Victoria attended a magnet public school where there was a
50/50 (students of color and Caucasian students) student ratio, and she lived in a
racially mixed neighborhood, her intimate circle of friends included all Black
children.
As Victoria progressed through high school, her mother made it clear that she
would be attending college and that she would be attending Southern University.
Victoria did not personally apply to any college. Her mother applied for her and she
only applied to Southern University. Her mother as well a host of other family
members had attended Southern. “There was definitely the expectation that I would
go there, too,” Victoria started. Victoria did get to choose her major and was advised
to pick the subject in school that she liked the most. Chemistry was chosen because it
the only subject “that did not get under my skin.” Her selection of major was also a
result of a conversation she had with a chemist. “I had no clue what I wanted to do,
other than dance, and they (dancers) don't make money. So my mom asks, ‘What
was my favorite/most bearable class in high school.’ My first choice was dance line,
but the second was chemistry and third was math. She (my mom) had a friend, who
was a chemist at a gas plant, come talk to me.”

109
This conversation proved to be significant to Victoria’s decision of her career
choice. “He said lots and lots of positive things and only one bad one; there are not a
lot of Black women in the field. He also made sure to let me know that chemist make
GOOD money, and a chemical engineer does just as well if not better.” Victoria
enrolled at Southern University with chemistry as her chosen field of study.

110
Figure 4.4: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Victoria

111
The Society of Origin – (Southern University). In 1880, Southern University
and A & M College began when a group of Black politicians wanted to establish a
school of higher learning for “colored” people. Southern offers bachelor’s degrees,
master’s degrees and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The university was
established in the city of New Orleans. Although the institution still has a campus
there that offers graduate degrees, the main campus is located in Baton Rouge,
Louisiana. The university is the only historically black land grant university in the
United States. According to the institutional website, part of the institutional mission
is to “prepare students to compete globally in their respective professions, and to
engage in advanced study in graduate and professional schools (Southern
university", 2006).”
The university offers bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees and doctorate
degrees in various subjects. Approximately 9,000 students are enrolled at the main
Baton Rouge campus, some 95% of which are Black. Students represent 39 states
and 52 countries. Victoria thought Southern would be like high school, the 50/50
student ratio, real comfortable, laid-back atmosphere, everybody just goes to class
but it was totally different. But it was the opposite. “It’s like stepping into another
world, its strictly Black culture.” Victoria began as a chemistry major and switched
to the chemical engineering major. As a chemical engineering major Victoria had the
opportunity to take classes and pursue research at Louisiana State University, while
still continuing on as a student at Southern University.

112
But the transition from one school to the other was quite difficult for her.
“When I went to LSU to add on chemical engineering I was a fourth year student and
the students of the chemical engineering classes I was taking were in the last
semester of their 2
nd
year. They had already been with everyone else [and] joined
their little groups,” she said. Victoria had difficulty adapting to new styles of
teaching and other social groups. She said, “The teachers already knew the students
and at LSU the teachers switched back to the professional teachers, they come they
teach they leave. You have a question you go to their office; they answer the
question and its over. ” Victoria identified several differences between the two
institutions. “So at LSU you’re back to studying or doing work yourself and hoping
that it’s ok. I didn’t balance both of those well because I was still in Southern and
now I had to switch to LSU. It was hard to break into a study group and break into
getting help from other students because you were new to them and they already
knew the other people in the class for the last year and a half. ”
Victoria’s time at LSU added to the uncertainty she was experiencing about
her major. Along with the isolation Victoria felt at LSU and her interest in her
chemistry classes she later switched back to being chemistry major. The chemistry
department was also approved by the American Chemical Society, which definitely
benefited Victoria in her preparation for graduate school.
One good thing about Southern, my chemistry department, is that it was ACS
certified. ACS is the American Chemical Society and there are certain
courses and guidelines that you have to follow to be ACS certified and the
universities don’t have to do it like Grambling wasn’t ACS certified for
awhile and Southern University in New Orleans wasn’t certified. So the
department being ACS certified and making sure that they offered every

113
course possible was an advantage when applying to graduate school and
internships because they ask you what courses you’ve taken and I could say
oh yeah I’ve taken that course or yes that course is available or I have an
elective that equals that. So yes it was very beneficial for that.

Interest in graduate school came about during a summer program at
Louisiana State University (LSU) with Dr. Walker. “He’s a great mentor and he
talked to me about what I’m interested in doing once I finished school”, she said. It
was this conversation that forced Victoria to consider her career and academic plans.
“He said that the best way for you to be in control of what you do instead of being a
lab rat is to go to graduate school,”she explained. As she said, “And by that time,
after 4-5 years of graduate school, you will graduate and walk into a job that would
take you 4-5 years of work to get to. It was mainly Prof. Walker that told me
graduate school would be the best way to go.”
The Society of Settlement – (The University of Missouri). Founded in 1839,
the University of Missouri (Mizzou) is the first public university west of the
Mississippi river and the first state university in the Louisiana Purchase territory.
Mizzou has the reputation of excellence in teaching and research and it is the only
public institution in Missouri that was selected for membership in the Association of
American Universities. With a diverse enrollment of 28,000 students there are 5.4
percent African American students and 3.2 percent African American female
students. The students represent 50 states and 101 countries ("Univ. of Missouri",
2006).
Similar to the way in which Victoria arrived at Southern Univ. is she also
arrived at Mizzou. Although Victoria applied to other strong graduate programs in

114
chemistry, she applied to the University of Missouri because her mother attended
graduate school there and received her master’s degree in speech pathology. But she
chose this institution because it offered the best financial package. The chemistry
department at the University of Missouri is committed to research and supporting
their students throughout their program. According to the departmental website,
“[the department] continues a tradition of educating highly competent scientists with
the vision, creativity and resourcefulness necessary to meet the ever-changing
challenges of their professional environment.” The department also assures
prospective students of financial aid and support. “The Department of Chemistry
makes every effort to provide year-round support for all students making satisfactory
progress toward an advanced degree in chemistry,” the website also notes. Such
support is typically through research or teaching assistantships.
When Victoria first enrolled at Mizzou she was disappointed. She explained,
“ I thought the department would be more big time. There would be constant
important research going on in the bldg. Conferences, publications, (and) and
activity. Now I have learned those things happen every once in awhile and it
(graduate school) is largely research and repetitive. It is a good department that
graduates students who do learn something. Also, that they are not trying to hold you
there. There are some professors who like to keep students working, [conducting
research, for] 6 and 7 years.”
Victoria has been conducting research from the beginning. Unlike most
students her current research advisor requested to speak with her based on her prior

115
research experience with Dr. Walker. Knowing that this is unusual and illustrates the
high regard that this professor has for Dr. Walker she accepted the invitation to be a
part of her research lab. “When I applied to the school and came for recruitment
weekend we got to speak with three professors. [My advisor] asked to speak with me
because of the person I did my undergraduate research with, Dr. Walker at LSU. She
really looks up to him. He is a big name in analytical chemistry. So. To have one of
his researchers was making her a better professor. She kind of eyed me and had her
group speak with me and influence me to join her research group. What it really
boils down to is that she really admires Professor Walker.”
The Situation – (Prior Experience). As previously mentioned, Victoria had
research experience prior to attending the University of Missouri. She did a semester
of dental research where fluoride toothpaste was tested for its effectiveness in the
areas of strengthening and whiteness. Another semester she did research in organic
chemistry. The work she did with Dr. Walker, at LSU, while she attended Southern
University was in analytical chemistry for a year and a summer. The research that
she is currently working on at Mizzou is for NASA. Without going in to any detail,
Victoria knows that her research will be something really useful.
Moderating Factors and Response. Victoria is adamant about her future.
With the support she has from her mother and other family members, and with her
mother being such an example of hard work and perseverance, she is determined to
keep going and successfully complete her program. Victoria wants to perform active

116
research and work with consumer goods that will benefit people in their everyday
lives.
Like the other women in this study, Victoria admits and suggests that being a
Black female in this field means being open and accepting of change or adjustment.
She has accepted this mandate by being careful about what she says, conducting
herself in a business like manner, and by not taking comments personally. “I do not
reveal everything about myself to those I associate with in the chemistry department
at graduate school.” she said. Victoria’ mother is very supportive and influential. She
tends to provide Victoria with timely advice just when she needs it. “I feel most of
the time that I am so different from everyone here and really alone. There is a
difference between lonely and alone. Reminded by my mom the speech pathologist.
You are never alone, she concluded.”

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Rachelle
The Individual – (Background). Rachelle did not have a stable life. Although
her mother was a college educated software engineer the family moved a lot.
Rachelle’s mother kept the family in middle class all White suburban neighborhoods.
She attended 11 or 13 different schools between the Dallas and Houston areas of
Texas, prior to attending college. If the constant moving was not enough Rachelle’s
mother was very negative. She did not support her or her two brothers in any way.
“She was really real negative and it was just like you couldn’t do nothing right and if
you did you didn’t get no recognition for it but with me and my brothers we’d rather
be at school than go home,” Rachelle recounted. School served as an escape from a
difficult home life. She noted, “ Because school was where we had like peacetime, at
school we were with our friends and it was the happiest time of the day. And it was
so bad because me and my brothers had like perfect attendance. We went to school
every day and if we missed the bus we would find a way to get to school somehow
because we didn’t want to stay home.”
Along with school being a safe place for her Rachelle also became very
interested in the subject of math. It is as if she has to do math on a regular basis.
“Math was always the one subject that I could do and that I could do better than
everyone else when I was in school, so you know that for a long time was what made
me feel good and that’s what, well math became like part of me and if like I couldn’t
do math, I’d get irritated,” she explained. The connection Rachelle has with math
began early in her education. “In middle school I started taking like advanced level

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courses and even the advanced level courses were not a challenge to me. Then I just
liked the fact that I was better than everyone else in my math courses and so I think I
came to need math.” It was her math skills that Rachelle relied on as she moved from
high school to college. “So when I got to college you know I wanted to do
engineering but I didn’t know which engineering because I didn’t know which one
would let me do the most math, so just freak it, I’ll be a math major with a minor in
computer science.”
Rachelle is unlike the other women in this study in one significant way:
currently Rachelle is married (without children) to a man she met after her freshman
year of college. As a friend he provided support and encouragement from the time
they met. Rachelle’s husband is currently in the armed services and has recently
returned from South Korea. She explained, “During my freshman year I had met
Carlos who is my husband now and so he got me through most of [my undergraduate
experiences]. He said you know, all you have to do is pray, you going to get through
it and when it’s all over they’re going to be the ones looking stupid.”

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Figure 4.6: The Model of the Acculturation Process as it pertains to Rachelle

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The Society of Origin – (Southern University). Rachelle attended Southern
University for her undergraduate education. Since she had attended only all white
school for most of her life Rachelle really wanted to go to a Black college. She
applied to three institutions but Southern was chosen for two very different reasons.
Rachelle was offered a full scholarship, which was a definite factor in her selecting
Southern. The other reason was to spite her mother, who did not approve of Southern
as an academic selection for her. “I wanted to go to a Black school regardless, cause
I wanted to see how it would be to go to a school where everybody looks like me and
you don’t necessarily stick out as much,” she said. “So I was just like, yeah I’m
going to go to a Black school and I don’t care which one. I was just like Clark
Atlanta or Morgan State, whatever. It did not matter as long as I went to one. But I
picked Southern just because my mom (who attended Southern University) didn’t
want me to go,” Rachelle added.
According to Southern’s website, the math department at Southern Univ.
provides students with a strong foundation that they can use in both graduate school
and in industry. The factor that stands out about the math department is that this
math department also trains both middle and high school teachers in various areas of
math and techniques in instruction. The curriculum includes components to prepare
students for graduate education and to prepare students for careers as teachers
("Southern Univ." 2006).
The Society of Settlement – (Academic and Industry). Rachelle’s society of
settlement has two aspects. When she graduated a semester earlier than scheduled

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(December instead of June) she began working with Bell Helicopters. Along with
working Rachelle also began graduate school at the University of Texas – Arlington
(UTA) in the following fall semester. Since her husband was stationed in the
Arlington/Houston area UTA was chosen based on geographical convenience.
Rachelle remained interested in pursuing a graduate degree, but her choices were
dictated by her husband’s career.
Although Rachelle had support from some of her undergraduate professors
and she was a participant of the Ellis Lamp Program (which I discuss in the next
section on prior experience), the choice of graduate school was not easy. Not only
did she need to work for income, for herself and her brothers (who she assists
financially), the experience at Bell, after a few months, also allowed her to determine
that graduate school was the right choice for her. “After being with my mom’s
capricious lifestyle, I find myself always needing things to be planned and concrete,”
she noted. Many graduate schools only have fall admittance for science majors.
Since Rachelle graduated in December she had the oppotunity to work in industry
and solidify her decision to attend graduate school. “As soon as I graduated I didn’t
know if grad school was for me or not because I needed to get a taste of the industry
to determine that I’m making the right decision when I going to graduate school so
after working in the industry for a couple of months I said, yeah, time to go to
graduate school.” she recounted.
Rachelle was accepted to the University of Arizona (UA) for entrance for fall
of 2006. This PhD program is in Applied Math and it was the only program that she

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wanted to attend. Before she was accepted to the program, she explained that, “The
only thing that gets me through the day is the glimmer of hope that I get accepted to
graduate school at the University of Arizona in their PhD Applied Math program and
get back doing what I REALLY REALLY LOVE and get a fellowship so I can
afford to do so without having my finances go in the red.” She added, “If that fails
I’ll be subject to the dull antagonizing life in the industry.”
When Rachelle visited UA in March she was the only Black female out of 26
people (14 for applied math and 12 for pure math). Although Rachelle considered the
campus and her interactions with the professors were cordial and refreshing, the total
Black student enrollment is only 2.8 percent and there are only 84 Black female
graduate students out of 7361 graduate students (1.14 percent). The university
describes itself as a “premier, student-centered research institution.” According to
the institutional website, the university is one of the nation’s top 20 research
universities. Founded as a land grant institution in 1885, UA embraces “students,
faculty, and staff who represent a broad diversity of thought, background, ethnicity,
and perspective who find inspiration through their interactions with each other”
(Univ. of Arizona, 2006).” Rachelle encountered a range of individuals during her
visit to the campus:
It was very informal. And they were like laid back, like one dude he had just
came in from riding his motorcycle and it broke down. He showed up to work
in like a beach shirt and some shorts and I was like, I’m really feeling a laid
back type, I could do that. Like he didn't come in a shirt and tie, so I really
liked that. It really makes you feel at ease. But one chick, she was like the
math bio person. Like I thought you know she at least try to have some
conversation back and forth and like when I got in there she was looking at
me, and I’m looking at her. And I was like, so you know you want me to just

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start out telling you about myself. She was like yeah yeah. So, it was like
really awkward with her. It was like she didn’t want to conversate or
something. You had to pry her to just talk.

The Situation – (Prior Experience). Rachelle’s introduction in to the field
began for Rachelle when she was in the Ellis Lamp program at Southern University.
She explained, “The Ellis Lamp Program is like for Science Math Engineering and
Technology majors and to stay in the program you have to maintain at least a 2.9
overall GPA and a 3.0 in your major which was easy for me because in order to keep
my other scholarship I had to maintain at least a 3.0 but in the program we had
mentor meetings once a week on Tuesdays for an hour and he would lecture to us
about the importance of us getting an education and the importance of going to
graduate school.” Through this program Rachelle noted, “different people come and
talk to us about the industry, opportunities, research opportunities, the different
majors and summer research programs, and grants. It was mandatory that over the
summer we either had to a research program, a summer internship or go to summer
school and we went to conferences that, let’s see, we went to one about graduate
education for minorities.” As a part of this program she got a chance to meet
mathematicians and scientists from industry, government, and academia. This
program also encouraged her to conduct research and participate in conferences.
“[At] another conference I went to was in Washington D.C. where I gave a
presentation of my summer research and they gave us a stipend of like a thousand
dollars a semester for staying in the program.”

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At Bell Helicopters Rachelle was hired as an Aerospace Engineer. This
position not only introduced her to a coding position where she wrote programs that
were used for helicopter simulation modeling. Rachelle did not enjoy the work or the
social aspects of her chosen career. This experience also motivated her to apply to
graduate school.
I was hired at the same time as another Aero. Engineer and we both have the
same position, except they wouldn't give me work that actually requires using
more than one brain cell because they assumed I didn't know how to do the
work. I felt like a quota, but the fact that I’m one of two Blacks and one of
three females in the simulation group makes me think they are doing a real
shitty job of fulfilling the quota. It took almost 4 months before they gave
me any meaningful work, until then I was using that time to improve my
vocabulary to retake the GRE since I had a feeling that sitting at a computer
for 8 hours is not what I want to do for the next 20+ years.

Moderating Factors and Responses. In every aspect in her life, Rachelle is
determined to prove the negative forces in her life wrong. To go from being told that
she could never do anything right to obtaining a PhD in a discipline that so many
people revere is the best way to overcome adversity without having to actually say
anything to your detractors. Despite the funding she was offered Rachelle has
decided to focus on work. She is attending attend UA part-time in a non-degree
program for a year. She will become a full-time student at UA next year. This was a
very difficult decision for her because she really wants to attend school full time.
Working at Raytheon allows her to build her savings so that finances are the last
concern for her and her husband. Raytheon will also pay her tuition, fees, and half of
her salary when she begins full time in the fall of 2007.

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The Cultural Dynamics of Historical Black Colleges and Predominantly White
Colleges

For graduate students, socialization consists of a multitude of relationships
and experiences which may or may not have the same affects or be perceived of
similarly by others with both similar or different backgrounds (Weidman et al.,
2001). This socialization process is influenced by both academic and social factors.
The academic factors for the students include both academic and social relationships
with faculty through mentoring and advising, as well as the relationships one
develops with peers. The social factors which affect socialization are the being
financial assistance available as well as family support and motivation (Maton &
Hrabowski III, 2004). The one factor that brings all of these together is the student’s
personal efforts and ability to grasp the skill and knowledge that is being presented.
(Amenikhienan & Kogan, 2004).
In order to conquer the socialization process successfully the student needs to
be able to navigate the context of the department and understand that their values and
expectations are also influential in their achievement (Turner, 2002). Both external
and internal policies, institutional values, traditions, as well as the discipline and the
department itself also determine the context of the department the student finds
themselves in.. Cultural influences, prior experiences, personalities, the persons
external support system, along with the student’s level of commitment also
influences how students get through graduate school (Ellis, 2001; Herzig, 2004).
Therefore, the cultural realities of these women do not come from any one source but

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a variety of perspectives based on the conditions and circumstances within the
institutions (Ibarra, 2001).
A Sense of Belonging at HBCUs
Many of the prominent African Americans attended a HBCU at some point in
their educational quest. Jill Constantine found that HBCUs add value (economic
market value) to the students that attend their institutions. Constantine believes that
this added value may be a result of the remedial programs that HBCUs offer. Along
with the presence of an HBCU increasing the likelihood that Blacks will attend
college in that state (Kim, 2002) their remedial programs may increase the students
chance of graduating by bringing up their basic skill level while other institutions
may have a sink or swim attitude toward their students (Constantine, 1994). Berger
and Milem also compared the increases in self-concept of African American students
between HBCUs and TWI and found that HBCUs provides an educational
environment that promotes a positive academic outcomes as a result of the climate
that exists at HBCUs (Berger & Milem, 2000).
HBCUs provide a developmentally powerful environment for its students
from the time the student walks in the door at HBCUs. There is a community of
faculty and staff that are invested in the students’ well-being as part of a network that
works to advance the opportunity of each student (Subramaniam & Wyer, 1998).
Students gain a sense of psychological well-being, cultural affinity, while nurturing
academic and social relations that could last for many years beyond the college
experience (Kim, 2002). Students at HBCUs tend to feel at home like they are

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among family. The students believe that the faculty and staff go out of their way to
assist them with their needs and provide support and encouragement (Fries-Britt &
Turner, 2002). Peer interactions are friendly with a far reaching sense of mutual
support (Fries-Britt & Turner, 2002).
A Sense of Social Responsibility
In 1942 Benjamin E. Mays said that HBCUs should never exist in isolation.
Negro liberal arts institutions should not be highbrow institutions that produce
students with a “better-than-thou” attitude. The goals of this education should be in
terms of social responsibility. This is as true now as it was then. Mostly located in
segregated communities HBCU train and prepare their students to be leaders and
proponents of change.
It is imperative that in understanding the fundamental characteristics and the
one commonality of social responsibility of all HBCUs there are six goals that serve
as a framework for which HBCUs are “social agencies” and a “social equalizer” for
students of color that have been denied access to higher education and marginalized
in society. These six goal are 1) the maintenance of the Black culture and historical
traditions; 2) the creation and retention of Black leadership within the HBCU; 3) the
HBCU, itself, being an economic unit within the community that it stands; 4) the
creation of Black role models to interpret the dynamics that impact other Black
people outside of the college community; 5) the creation of leaders that are confident
and competent in their dealing with of issues that effect all people; and 6) the
creation of change agents that can conduct research, training, and disseminate

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information in regards to the everyday living of all minority communities (Brown &
Davis, 2001). Although all HBCUs are not alike they all provide such an
environment that instills a sense of social responsibility that reaches far beyond
themselves.
Faculty Interactions at HBCUs – Hands On and Personal
The faculty at HBCUs play a major role in the success of the students. The
diversity of the faculty at these institutions provides the student with role models that
are readily available for one-on-one discussions. The literature notes that the
interpersonal relationships between the students and faculty may be at the heart of
what makes the difference in the academic success of the students. Students reported
that their relationships with faculty are supportive, understanding, and that a genuine
concern for their well being is displayed (AAUP, 1995). These interactions between
the students and faculty members play a big part in the students’ participation in both
academic and social organizations, student government, and their self-concept
(Berger & Milem, 2000) this ultimately has a positive effect on the student’s
academic success. The students say that it was the faculty that noticed their talents
and they not only encouraged them to attend graduate school but also opened doors
for them that they could not have imagined. As noted by an administrator at a HBCU
“you don’t get much teaching and hands-on care at other school as you do at
HBCUs. Our professors are involved with a lot more that research and teaching. We
do some real close mentoring, for instance, that you don’t get at other places” (St.
John, 2000, p38).

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Self Image and Identity
Students with a strong sense of self and cultural identity are less likely to be
vulnerable in an environment that may not be as welcoming to them (Chavous et al.,
2002). Friends and parental attachments have been associated with college
adjustment and racial identity (Hinderlie & Kenny, 2002). A strong sense of
confidence, cultural pride and determination has been noted as important attributes
for African Americans to have in order to succeed at PWIs. When African
Americans are one of few in their courses they also have to be tolerant, friendly,
adaptive and have courage just to deal with being the only one in their course(s) (E.
Taylor & Olswang, 1997). Working in tangent with self-identity is the perception the
student has on his or her academic ability and commitment to a goal. The academic
achievement of African Americans is directly related to their prior academic ability.
African American students that are disciplined and confident in their academic
ability are also less likely to allow others to minimize their potential.
Having a positive and strong sense of identity may protect the feelings of not
socially fitting in which may also influence participation in social activities (Chavous
et al., 2002). This is of particular importance to these women and others that attribute
their strong sense of identity to their experiences from attending a HBCU. African
American students that feel good about themselves and have confidence in their
abilities have fewer self-doubts in their ability to attain their degrees in a potentially
negative environment (Ervin, 2001; Gloria et al., 1999). The most important

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attributes that African American students need in order to succeed are a strong sense
of confidence, cultural pride, and determination (E. Taylor & Olswang, 1997).
The Culture at PWIs – A Little Chilly
Many students that begin the journey to a Ph.D. may have experienced
academic disappointment. For African American female students that have attended
HBCUs, graduate school at a large research institution may be daunting. Some may
call it indifferent or chilly, but such an atmosphere does not offer much advice and it
expects the students to work independently on their studies (Morelle, 1996). A sense
of isolation may be normal in graduate school as it is a reflection of the particular
normative and structural character of the specific field of study (Tinto, 1993,). This
outlook on the experiences of students of color at major research institutions is also
consistent with Robert Ibarra’s (1996, 2001) theory that the interactions between
students of color and academic culture, in general, result in a cultural conflict, which
is not always motivated by racism. This theory downplays the role of social class and
stresses that the common culture of students of color and their conflicts with
dominate academic culture (Hammack, 2001,). The argument is that academic
culture is has little emotion or invests little in personal involvement; analytical, not
expressive, and abstract and symbolic, while students of color are very personal and
specific; highly emotional and group oriented and field dependent (Hammack;
Ibarra, 2001).

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Interactions with Faculty at PWI’s – Mechanical Contact
Faculty provides the reality of what is expected of the students in the
classroom. Faculty has the power to make the classroom environment inclusive for
all of the students through their demeanor, expectations, and curriculum. Instead
there are instances when African American students would say that faculty are the
leaders of acts of discrimination (Suarez-Balcazar et al., 2003) by continuing to hold
stereotypical perceptions and preconceptions of African American students. Quite
often instructors have low expectations of African Americans students which may
have a negative impact on their self esteem (Kobrak, 1992).
The lack of female faculty and faculty of color also play a role in the success
of African American students. This issue is of particular interest since the
relationship with students outside of class as mentors, are gatekeepers to student’s
success. Also, inaccessibility and less than positive responses to students by faculty
may be perceived by African Americans as discriminatory which may leave the
student wondering what is expected of them academically (Kobrak, 1992; Saenz et
al., 1999).
Interactions with Peers at PWIs – Meager at Best
It is a lack of interactions with peers and faculty that can preclude the student
from learning how to be professional in their respective fields by interfering with the
student’s acquisition of dispositions, attitudes (whether or not they had made the
right decision to attend graduate school or continue on their chosen career), and
values (Duncan, 1976). Interactions with their White peers may at times also be

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ambivalent. The White peers of these students are generally cordial but they have no
clue to Black culture, other than what they have seen on television. The women in
this study find themselves being their peers’ only window to a group of people and a
world that is seemingly different from their own. Without interaction with peers that
share the same values and outlooks on life minority students are not exposed to
interpersonal relationships that bring about reassurance and confirmation that “all is
well,” especially when feedback from faculty may be quite rare. This lack of
reassurance and confirmation of abilities causes minority students to feel less
prepared. There may be some interaction with their peers but there were no real
satisfying relationships. Instead, there is a sense of competition. It has been noted in
the literature that people do not drop out because they cannot do the course work
they drop out because they could not pass the qualifying exams. They cannot pass
the qualifying examinations because they do not talk to any one who has previously
taken then in order to gain insight as to how to approach these vital examinations
(Fields, 1998).
Academic Preparedness
In order to conquer the adjustment process successfully the student not only
needs to be able to navigate the context of the department and understand that their
values and expectations are also influential in their achievement (Turner, 2002) they
need to have the ability to grasp the skill and knowledge that is being presented.
(Amenikhienan & Kogan, 2004). The acquisition of knowledge is imperative for
student’s success. This skill is influenced by the student’s sense of belonging. The

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feeling of alienation and being treated as an outsiders leads to students not being
comfortable to ask questions, attend seminars, or requesting needed help that will
provide the student with the needed assistance to understand the subject matter (Ellis,
2001).
Strategies for Success
The context of graduate school and the student’s respective department is
swayed by the both external and internal policies, institutional values, traditions, as
well as the discipline itself. Cultural influences, prior experiences, personalities, the
student’s external support system, along with the student’s level of commitment also
influences how students get through graduate school (Ellis, 2001; Herzig, 2004).
Goal commitment, which contributes directly to self-efficacy, is the most
important predictor of success. Students that are not fully committed to their goal are
less likely to tolerate the unpleasant situation and leave the program. Students that
are fully committed to their goal are likely to contend with the adverse conditions
and achieve their goals (Leslie et al., 1998). With such a commitment to their goal
these women, like so many, have curbed their behaviors. They learned how to be
single minded, dedicated, and emotionless in recognition to the “Master Culture” that
is White male (Subramaniam & Wyer, 1998).
It is easy to assume that the people that do well in these areas either just fit or
are able and willing to adapt to the cultural norms. For these students, despite their
interest and skill level in the sciences, they needed to learn how to participate in both
social and cultural practices of the department in order to succeed in the sciences.

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The loss of people because they do not “fit in” does not create a diverse arena.
Students that are not well integrated into their respective departmental communities
and cultures are likely to leave graduate school (Herzig, 2004). Increasing the
participation of minority groups in the sciences involves increasing their positive
experiences, which occurs by making changes on all levels, including attitudes of the
scientific community and society, employment practices and attitudes of all areas of
higher education about minority women researchers (Sakai & Lane, 1996).

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Figure 4.7: The Academic Transition - Keisha

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Spelman College
Culture. From her first visit Keisha knew that Spelman was the place for her.
She loved it and they were going to pay her tuition. Keisha said, “I went to visit and I
loved Spellman and my mom encouraged me, she felt good about Spelman and
Spelman was going to pay for my tuition. It just seemed like it would be for me it
would be for me and I wouldn’t have to think twice you know about experiencing
discrimination. I could feel cultured and more knowledgeable about myself and my
people, living and learning and socializing with people who look like me and people
who have my best interests at heart.”
The first few weeks at Spelman were a bit rough for Keisha. She was not
used to being in an environment with so many different African American women
and she did not have any close friends with her. The few people she did know at
Spelman were ahead of her and it took some time before she caught up with them.
Since Keisha’s roommate came to Spelman with a close friend the friends Keisha
met during those initial weeks were through her roommate. Keisha recalls, “My first
couple of weeks at Spelman they were pretty good but you know they were rough
because if I had other friends who had gone there with me it might have been a little
bit easier but pretty much the only friends I had were people who were in classes
ahead of me, who I had known from home. My roommate came to Spelman with one
of her close friends from high school so we would hang out a lot you know those
first couple of weeks. Just being at Spelman and you know not being [in an
environment with] a lot of beautiful Black women before you know kind of like my

137
self-esteem went down a little bit those first couple of weeks. I realized it wasn’t that
serious after awhile. I realized that everyone is special and has their own place and
their own uniqueness and so your differences should be something to celebrate and
you know looks can be can be deceiving.”
Once Keisha moved passed the first few weeks she gained lasting
friendships. It is these friendships that stick out in Keisha’s mind when describing
Spelman as a wonderful experience.
Everybody I knew just the people there were very supportive. For me there
was no drama I didn’t encounter any kind of peer drama, you know different
kinds of people attract different kinds of things and I just don’t get involved
in that and that was no problem for me. I rarely even heard about anything
dramatic going on, but being involved in campus life and events throughout
the AUC (Atlanta University Center) I pretty much knew a lot of the things
that was going on and was pretty much respected by my peers and I had
friends that were truly friends. I can say that I’m their friend too and all those
things work together and we were really active. We were those people who
went out for things that were going on. I call it getting your moneys worth. If
things were going on we were going to take advantage of it because we were
students and our time was going to be up soon, so we had to take advantage
of whatever it is.

Academically, Keisha expected Spelman to be challenging but she felt
prepared. When Keisha did have difficulties she took advantage of the resources that
were available. Keisha’s devotion to her schoolwork confirmed her understanding
that school was first and socializing was second.
I knew that things were going to be challenging, but I felt I could meet those
challenges with the preparation that I had and also knowing to reach out for
help when I needed it. I had always done well in school and I felt like I would
continue to do well. The transition to higher math, that’s not so much
computational but more about proving results and things, those were just
more difficult because they were less easy to grasp for me and I don’t think I
learned as much in my transition course as maybe I should have. But it
didn’t hurt me any, I just wasn’t as confident going into the higher-level

138
math. I did more practice in those classes and that made up for anything that I
thought I didn’t learn in the transition course. I participated in study groups
and I asked the teachers for help and those are the ways I really got help.

Faculty Interactions. Keisha’s commitment to academics was also seen in her
relationships with faculty members. During her junior and senior year her
relationships became more colleague-to-colleague and less student and teacher. She
notes, “My relationships with them were very good. I guess they got better my junior
and senior years because I was taking math classes more than any other classes
during those years. I got to meet and talk to different professors and I had at least
every math professor maybe two or three times. I didn’t necessarily go stop by if I
was in the area, but if I would need something or anything I would go talk to them.”
As her relationships with professors grew they took her to conferences, encouraged
her to participate in research, and really pushed her to go to graduate school. “They
offered to take me to conferences and so I actually went on a conference for three
days, a three-day trip to North Carolina with like two professors. This year, last
semester, they asked me to come back and speak to the students, to the current math
majors about my experiences thus far in graduate school. I went to a conference a
couple of weeks ago, a huge math conference, and I met up with the professors who
came. I had had all of them before, before I went on a conference with them
previously or I did research with them and so all of them were there and they really
treat you and just talk to you, you know, as your equals as you become more familiar
with them and have been in more than one of their classes you know they reach out
to you and suggest things to you and you know guide you in any way,” she said.

139
I decided that (graduate school) personally and then the professors would ask
and when you tell them they encourage you in anyway and that’s pretty much
what I found I liked math and wanted to do more. Spelman just gave me a
taste of it and it would pretty much be necessary for me to go to graduate
school to be more knowledgeable and prepared for me to go out and get a
career.

Social Responsibility, and Image and Identity. The combination of positive
academic experiences and positive social experiences had by Keisha would be in line
with Spelman’s goal to educate the entire person. Spelman specifically, like Black
colleges in general, has mandated themselves to instill a sense of social responsibility
in their students. “One time I saw in the course bulletin that Spelman’s mission is to
cultivate the whole person. To bring about social change and bring a positive change,
in the world, in their lives, in the community, that they inhabit and to help and create
and bring about a complete person that gives to the world in that way,’ Keisha
recalls.
Spelman also encourages their students from the beginning to be strong, have
a sense of cultural pride, and a strong self-image. These implications of identity are
also strengthened by their instruction to look beyond their world and use their skills
and talents to help others and not just themselves. Keisha explained, ”Spelman has
helped me to find that identity where I have a purpose in my life and to actually seek
that purpose out. I view myself as a member of a community, a leader, and someone
who’s an example for others. [I] strive to be the best at whatever I do. My desire for
the future is that I fulfill my purpose and that I do what I’m supposed to do in life.
To know that there’s always resources and people there to help me.”

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University of Georgia
Keisha applied to several graduate programs but she selected UGA because
of its defined masters program. Keisha considers herself a doctoral student but
admits that the time commitment may be more than she can handle. She does not
want to work for four years and know that if she does not complete her degree she
will receive the same masters degree had she worked just two years on it.
I applied to UGA and I applied to the University of Maryland, which is where
my research advisor got her Ph.D. from. I really liked their program and
UGA’s was pretty good too, but I knew that UGA’s was a definitive 2-year
masters program and I wasn’t sure at the time if I was going to get a masters
and a Ph.D. or just try for a Ph.D. and just try to skip over the masters. The
masters program at Maryland is not really defined and so if got involved and
decided I just wanted a masters it might have taken me like four years or so
to get one and so I just decided to stick with UGA and it was fairly close to
home and um a little bit more familiar.

Climate. Once Keisha arrived at UGA it was a bit of an adjustment for her.
After attending a all girl predominantly Black institution Keisha entered as one of
eight women and the only African American first year student. The graduate students
were cordial and the faculty members were helpful. As Keish explained, “The entire
department was helpful if you seek help. The graduate students were cordial, some
speak and some do not. People do not seek me out for study groups and I do not
notice any collaborations. I tend to work alone. The instructors are very cordial, well
some are and some aren’t.” But in order to have a more collegiate atmosphere, “At
the beginning of the year the department had student faculty teas where everyone
was encouraged to mix and mingle. I was so focused on other things that I would just
run in grab cookies and keep moving.”

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Peer Interactions. As good as her peer interactions were while a Spelman
they are not the same at UGA. At Spelman people spoke to and cared for one
another. This was different at UGA where “ Some people don’t speak and so I’m not
as comfortable speaking with everyone anymore because I don’t like not getting a
response. Maybe I should continue to speak anyway. I talk to my officemate, I see
her all the time. I might not be seen as one of the sociable graduate students, because
when I’m at school I’m usually trying to do work, I don’t benefit from socializing in
the department going around just sitting in people’s offices going around having
conversation because I feel like I’m at school. I need to be doing work during
business hours. I’m either at class or at work or I’ll have questions for the professors
who are here during business hours, but if it’s not work hours or I’m at happy hour,
then yes, you know, that is a time and place to be sociable,” expressed by Keisha.
Despite the departmental social gatherings it was a fifth year graduate
student, who had also attended Spelman College, a few years before Keisha, which
made her transition much easier. “My transition would have been harder if a fellow
Spelmanite was not there. Her just being there was comforting. We have a common
background of the Spelman sisterhood, math, being from Georgia, but different
interest. She helped me a lot. She showed me around the city, the university and the
department,” Keisha explained.
I knew it would be harder since other friends in other departments are doing
things with their life. I had to be more focused it was something I had to
accept especially since every class is about math. With more of a math mind
set it takes up your whole day. But I have to make the adjustments.

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Academic Preparedness. Academically, UGA would not be considered a sink
or swim environment. “UGA gives a pretest exam in order to place students in the
appropriate courses based on the test. I was in the group that did not pass but there
are different levels in the class with different areas of knowledge, interest, and
preparation.” Fortunately Keisha has an assistantship from the graduate school and
she is not required to teach, this allowed her “ to keep up [and] stay focused on
reading ahead and staying on top of things in order to not get lost.”
Strategies for Success. In order to endure and pursue her studies at UGA
Keisha has also had to modify her behavior. Keisha went from being more social and
laid back to having a more stern business like approach in order to fit in and continue
her studies.
I carry myself in a more professional situation. I get very expressive with my
hands and facial expressions. I don’t know how to explain it. I just act
normally. I guess and that’s just my personality. I don’t know how people
will take it, because I’ve thought about it before and I think that those
mannerisms and things like that would be more accepted and understood if I
was in a Black environment. I don’t want my mannerisms to be looked at as,
she’s mad at me or cause sometimes when I speak I can be very sarcastic and
I’m playing. I’m not trying to be mean. I just feel like those types of ways
and mannerisms are more accepted in my friendships in those people who
know me because they know me like that. In this department they don’t know
me like that. That’s casual Keisha that’s not student Keisha. (laughing). So,
when casual Keisha comes out I don’t want people to take it the wrong way
at times.

Future Outlook. Keisha is close to completing her master’s degree. She is
also considering whether or not to continue on and get her doctorate or if she should
get another masters degree in a different aspect of mathematics. “Whether it’s a
Ph.D. or just an advanced degree in another area. That’s the question that’s still out

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there. But I know that I love school and what I’m learning about right now is not
what I want to learn about. I really like applied, like the whole theory stuff…and I
know you can’t get away from theory in math, but there’s a different way, there has
to be different way,” Keisha concluded.

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Figure 4.8: The Academic Transition - Kerry

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Howard University

Climate. “The best weekend I ever had” is how Kerry described her weekend
visit to Howard University. “It felt right, and it was absolutely free’ were the reasons
why Kerry chose to attend Howard University. Although the college process was
frustrating to her and her parents, Kerry knew that Howard was the place for her.
From the very beginning Kerry loved being at Howard. She was very involved from
the start, she played softball for Howard, she went out and enjoyed the city, and
other people took her in, like family. Kerry enthusiastically descries her time at
Howard, “I loved it. I was highly involved; I did it all. I felt at home, it was a family
atmosphere. People took me in and out. What ever I needed I got. You could be you
and find a place instead of trying to fit in.”
Although Kerry was very young (16 years old) while attending Howard she
had a lack of respect for the school, academically. Having been in private schools for
many years and successfully taken AP course in high school and she felt prepared.
She bypassed a few freshman courses and did really well in others. Kerry explained,
“My expectations of Howard were that it was not that difficult. During the pre-
freshman program I took a variety of courses. I did really well in those classes but I
really excelled in calculus.”
Faculty Interactions. In Kerry’s major math courses there were very few
students. “In my upper level math courses they are maybe two or three students.”
The small classes allowed the students to get personal attention, which resulted in a
good relationship between Kerry and her professors. “Once I expressed and interest

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in math and in graduate school my instructors wrote me a plan of action. They made
sure that I attended conferences and they encouraged me to participate in research.”
Image and Identity. Attending Howard was about more than academics it was
also about maturing the entire person. Howard University provides an atmosphere
that connects the students desires with their academic ability. This maturing process
can be related to a sense of identity and cultural pride. When considering the reasons
why HBCUs were founded and the mandate for social responsibility that they place
on themselves self-image, for both the institution and the individual, is very
important. Kerry explained that her time at Howard was definitely beneficial to her;
given the positive self-image and identity she now has for herself.
[Howard] really had a positive affect on my self-image, being at Howard and
seeing other Black women being successful and that sort of thing. But it’s
weird, though, because I didn’t see any Black women being successful at
math at Howard, there were no professors or anything. The professors that
were there always made me feel that it was something that was attainable to
me if [I wanted to] pursue math in graduate school. No one ever made it seem
like I couldn’t. Actually, they made it seem like it was very, very possible. So
that really helped. I respected their opinion, so it really helped that they
thought I could do it. Being at Howard they’re always encouraging you. I
laugh about this with my friends now, just kind of how they make you
believe that there’s really nothing you cannot do. We laugh about it because
we talk about things we envisioned and thought about while we were at
Howard, like yeah I’m going to do thins, just big, big things. Maybe they
seem a little unrealistic now, but we laugh about it because they get you so
pumped up. You know, you hear all these inspiring lectures and you have
these personal conversations with professors and you really come away at
times thinking, yeah I’m about to change the world. I appreciate that because
even when you bring that down to reality it still helps you in your little area
that you’re in now that you can be successful. I think it was really, really
positive.

Social Responsibility. As part of a conversation with Kerry about the social
mandate that Black colleges has place on themselves the interviewer read a 1942

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quote by Benjamin E. Mays that states that “HBCU’s should not exist in isolation
nor produce students that are better than thou or with a better than thou attitude.
Social responsibility should be the goal of education for Negro liberal arts
institutions.” Kerry’s response was, ”Wow. Wow. Wow that is deep because there
were about ten people, I want to say in this honors course, and the professor stood in
front of us [and said], you know you guys are cream of the crop, you know,
intellectuals, he referred to us as intellectuals the whole semester. Intellectual
Watson, intellectual Johnson, it was really crazy, but he kept beating it in, since the
first day. You all have a social responsibility. That was like the theme of the
semester, everything we read. We read about a lot of intellectuals in Black America
and history and things like that, but we always brought it back to what the impact
was on the social context of Black people in general, All Black people. So, it’s just
been kind of ingrained in me and that’s how I felt. That’s how I think a lot of us felt,
in my circle of friends anyway. I didn’t feel that way before I went. Even though I
grew up around Black people and seeing the issues that were affecting the Black
community I didn’t feel that way. That’s a good quote. Wow.” It is obvious, based
on the response, that Howard intentionally creates an environment and a curriculum
that fosters a sense of belonging and compassion beyond themselves.
Duke University
All of the graduate math students that were accepted to Duke the same time
as Kerry she did not attend the regularly scheduled recruitment trip. She visited Duke
on an off weekend where there was no fanfare. She did not see any African

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American students or any female tenured professors in the math department. After
this visit to Duke Kerry had no desire to attend. Along with Duke’s reputation she
received a pone call that changed her mind. Kerry notes that, “Once I returned home
I received a call from one of the professors. He was on sabbatical at that time and he
his is the only Black, well he is from Belize, professor with a joint appointment in
both math and physics at Duke. We talked and he said I know you, like others, do
not want to come here but we have to start somewhere. If you come I will mentor
and help you through your program. In order to get others Black students to come we
have to start with one. I promise you it will get better.”
Climate and Peer Interactions. Although Kerry knew that adjusting to Duke
would be difficult she had know idea that it would be this tough. She describes her
first year as being “totally alone”. Her first year experience is something she never
experienced or would not wish on any one, both socially and academically. “I was
already frustrated with that (academically), and then I did not have any sort of social
life. No one would speak to me face to face. I did not work with anyone, I don’t
know, well, it was a racial thing. They (peers) just assumed that I did not have
anything to contribute. No one acknowledged me. I have never experienced people
looking straight through me. It was as if people did not know how to interact with
me.” While many did not even acknowledge Kerry’s presence others tried too hard
and made her feel even worse. Kerry recalls that “People were trying to be extra
sensitive and they would say crazy stuff. I had the Director of Graduate Studies (at
that time) call me in his office; I just want to check on you and see how you are

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doing. Then he said this is really your first time being around White people. It kind
of rubbed me the wrong way but said no, I have been around White people before.
He tried to clean it up and say well; I guess you have been in stores and stuff, you’re
right.”
Academic Preparedness. Kerry was confident and she excelled academically
at Howard but when she began Duke Kerry was not as confident and she considered
herself to be an average student. “Duke is not supper competitive but it attracts very
good students, I did not realize that my first year. I was so frustrated with how I was
doing compared to my counterparts. I felt like I was not being competitive enough,”
Kerry notes. She also states “I just had a really strange experience. The math alone
was frustrating because I felt like I was struggling so much. The lack of technology
and the lack of intensity at Howard: we were challenged every once in a while but in
grad school you can read the book for the basics, but it is as if people were creating
exams in order to make you fail.”
It was not until she took a retrospective view and realized 1) that she was not
the only person struggling and 2) she was actually learning and doing well.
You don’t realize when you’re in it but everyone, not everyone, was
struggling. Dealing with the amount of work and everything that went with it.
There were people who talked about leaving. I was thinking, are you crazy,
they actually know this. I think the first year is to see if you’re really
committed.

Over the summer I got to meet other students from other schools, that are just
as good as Duke, I was either above or at their level. So I was, like, average. I
‘m okay.

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Strategies for Success. Kerry definitely had a difficult time adjusting to Duke.
There were three things that kept her going. Those things are her faith, the way
others see her, and the way she sees herself. Kerry’s faith has always been an
important part of her life and it proved to be quite strong during this time of
difficulties. ‘Reading the Bible encouraged me to not give up. I just knew,
spiritually, it was not going to be forever. I knew that God had bought me here, the
fact that I had the fellowship, it’s for six years, and I got to go to Duke. It’s a great
school. I felt like it was testing my faith and all that sort of stuff. I went through a
period of fasting. If I did not have that, I don’t know. I found a church close to here
and started getting involved. I went to the pastor and said I’m in school but I need
something else to do with my life. Put me to work.”
The way others view Kerry is important to her. She knows that others look up
to her and she refuses to let them or herself down. “It was bad but there were also my
peers watching me. I know they were going through their own thing but they would
say ‘ I have a friend who is getting a PhD in math’, that was a little extra pressure.”
The frustrations that Kerry was experiencing affected her self-image. Kerry
made a conscious effort to stay positive. “I had to be very proactive in preventing it
from damaging my self-image. I mean; I definitely can see how it could have had
negative affects on my self-image, just because of my initial experiences of being
sort of invisible. That could have done it. I felt like at Duke I’m always trying to
prove myself. It’s just a very different experience.”

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She also received some advice over the summer that was really beneficial.
Both her mentor at Duke and a scientist at NSA told Kerry that she needs to be
visible. “I got some advice from someone, to make my presence known and not
shrink away. One thing I did was to volunteer to coordinate the weekly graduate
student seminars. This made me kind of there. If people have an idea for a speaker
they have to go through me. It made them have to acknowledge me. I also started
playing basketball, intramurals. This is something I really do not want to do. I do not
want to hang out with them. But I force myself to fit in. There are definite
connections between the social and the academics. If I am in there socially maybe
they will talk to me about the academics. That’s how it’s been,” she states.
Kerry’s second year was a welcomed change. Now that Kerry is more visible
and people have to deal with her, people speak to her. “It’s kind of weird because
now, people in the department talk to me.” She continues to be the only Black female
in the graduate department but four additional women were also admitted. “There is
another African student and we took a class together, last semester. We worked
together on everything in that class and probably did the best.” Now there were 43
students, 8 of whom are women, with Kerry continuing to be the only African
American in the program. Even though these numbers would not seem to make much
of a difference the minor increase in women and student diversity mattered, “it made
the department more social.”
Future Outlook. It is obvious that Kerry has had unpleasant experiences that
can be based on her experiences as an African American woman. But beyond that,

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some of the unpleasantries are a result of a disconnect between culture, values, and
expectations because this department, and the people that make up this department,
are not use to seeing and working around higher achieving African Americans.
I have to force myself; I have to convince myself to be successful at this. You
are trying to be a mathematician, so I am trying to change or shape the way I
think about things, to just be concerned about the mathematics. As far as
motivation in pursuing any problem that I’m going to be working on for my
dissertation whatever that is you have to get into this whole really academic
mode of thinking that is completely independent of anything else. I can’t get
caught up in, I mean this is what I’ve been telling myself, in order to really
go at this and dig into this and really be successful with this problem and
even in this field. I can’t get caught up in the context. Why am I doing this?
What good is it? Because the people that are successful publish the papers,
get the recognition and all that. I mean they’re pursuing math for math’s sake.

I wrestle with this all the time, like; I’m an intelligent person and is what I’m
going to be doing going to be helpful to anyone in any kind of way? The
reality is that studying stochastic PDE’s is probably not going to be helpful to
anyone. (Laughing). So I have to think about what else I’m going to do. I’m
still struggling with this to be totally honest. Is this important and why am I
doing this? At times it just seems kind of selfish. I really try to think of this
in the grand scheme. I think when I get this degree it’s going to give me the
credibility I need to do other things. That’s kind of how I’m thinking about it.
I haven’t really decided if I’m trying to become a really famous
mathematician. If that’s even what I want, but, first things first, I’ve got to
graduate.

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Figure 4.9: The Academic Transition - Shavanna

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Shavanna
Tennessee State University. Both of Shavanna’s parents attended college and
they instilled the value of education in their family. And having done well through
out school, attending college was a normal progression. After having visited several
Black colleges and with the support of both of her parents Shavanna’s selection to
attend Tennessee State University (TSU) was also fairly simple. “It was important
for me to go to a Black college. My mother really encouraged it and she would take
us (Shavanna and her sister) on college tours and we would go to Black college
fairs,” Shavanna said. She also mentioned the reasons why she specifically chose to
attend TSU. “I visited several schools and I liked the city. They gave me a full
scholarship (academic and athletic) and my sister was only four hours way in
Atlanta.” Shavanna’s father attended Mississippi Valley State College, a HBCU, and
her mother attended Marquette University, a PWI, although she would have
preferred to attend a HBCU.
My mother always said to us, "Culturally the majority institutions do not match
with us."
My mother attended Marquette University in Milwaukee because that was the
only place she could afford; she was awarded a scholarship. My father went to
Mississippi Valley State University. My mother and father had very different
experiences in college. Especially during the time my mother attended Marquette
socially she did not believe the school matched with her. Meaning the social
events and activities they sponsored were all catered toward the majority
population and she did not necessarily have those same interests. However, she
believes she received an excellent education. She believes the nurturing,
education, academic support and professional training, and social life an African-
American experience at an HBCU is much greater than they would receive at a
majority institution. So she encouraged my older sister and I to attend HBCUs
for undergrad.

155
Climate. Shavanna thrived while at TSU. Socially, the Black experience was
what she expected. “Socially, being a majority Black environment was something
that I was interested in. At TSU I felt as if I had an impact and a say in how the
school was ran.” Academically, she believed that “what you put into it is what you
receive out of it.” Even during tough times Shavanna excelled both in and out of the
classroom. In her statement, “I did very well at TSU. I received awards in math and
tennis. My junior year I considered not playing tennis because I was taking a lot of
upper division math classes. That was my best year.” It is obvious that she thrived
even beyond her own expectations.
Faculty Interactions. The effects of such a positive environment and personal
outlook were shown in other areas as well. As she progressed through school her
relationships with faculty members also grew. “There were faculty that noticed that I
was serious and they sought out other opportunities in order to increase my
knowledge and exposure to the field.”
Image and Identity. This experience, which she describes as “encouraging and
supportive” also helped Shavanna shape her self-image and become the person is
today. “I am definitely a role model and an example for setting and achieving goals.
It helped my to develop character and enhance who I am and understand how I fit.”
As Shavanna got further along in her studies at TSU she also become
involved in other outside opportunities. She attended conferences, she attended
EDGE – Enhancing Diversity in Graduate Education program, and she participated
in a NSF – National Science Foundation internship. Through these opportunities

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Shavanna was exposed to field of Mathematics. She increased her support system
through the people she met, and as a result of her internship at NSF she seriously
began to think about attending graduate school. “I never thought about a PhD until
NSF. It was not promoted as widely and nor did I see people that looked like me. I
was not exposed or aware. When I seriously thought about it I said why not,”
Shavanna explained.
North Carolina State University
Climate and Peer Interactions. Shavanna choose NCSU because of its
program, faculty research, and its location. She likes the city it is in and it
surroundings and it’s close to family members. Shavanna also did her research and
got a chance to speak with current graduate students to get a feel for their
experiences. So, when Shavanna began her studies at NCSU she was one of six
African Americans graduate math students. Shavanna began NCSU feeling very sure
and confident about her school choice, this and her personality aided her in her
transition.
I had a good first semester of graduate school. I think I made a smooth
transition partially because of my personality, but mainly because of the
helpful, kind people I have met who have supported and encouraged me in
my studies. Some of these individuals are other grad students, others are
faculty members, and others are mentors from undergraduate experiences as
well as relatives and friends. I believe my professors will be willing to assist
me with any topics I do not understand. Also, I have classes with some of
my study partners, which is always beneficial at this level. It helps to be able
to meet and discuss class material with other students for clarification and
reinforcement of ideas covered in class.

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Shavanna also knew that graduate school would have different people with
different backgrounds. Fortunately for Shavanna “It is not hostile and the people
within the department are friendly. The other grad students are helpful and the
provide feedback about teachers and materials. It [just] takes more time to get to
know people and but you are not made to feel inferior.”
Academic Preparedness. NCSU is really a good place for Shavanna but that
does not mean that there was not any adjustment for her. She knew that graduate
school would be different and more academically focused. Shavanna’s stated that,
"Everyone is intelligent with different backgrounds and knowledge. I did have to
catch up in order to get the some of the material. It is imperative that I study
independently and with study groups on a regular basis and sometimes I also go to
see my professors for additional assistance. I must keep up with the assignments and
make sure I have a good understanding of the topics that are discussed in class.
There is a lot more covered in a shorter amount of time. You are also more
accountable for you own learning,” shows that her determination and outlook has
definitely benefited her both academically and socially.
Faculty Interactions. Faculty members are essential to the success of
graduate students. Fortunately for Shavanna, where she is one of a few African
Americans, faculty did not have any expectations of her that differed from any other
students. Being in such a welcoming environment, a different structure, a different
thought pattern, and with a greater level of difficulty it helps that Shavanna knows
that her professor will assist her, if and when in need of additional assistance. “I

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definitely feel like my professors have done their part in teaching/explaining the
material that will be covered on the exams; I just have to make sure I do my part. If
you do your part they are willing to help,” Shavanna explained.
Strategies for Success. Shavanna paints quite a rosy picture of her experience
at NCSU but she has had to adjust. Based on her statements,” You have to adjust.
You have to make the effort to allow people to get to know you. Being the only
African American first year student I go to events and put myself out beyond
academics,” it is obvious that Shavanna has taken responsibility of her actions and
her adjustment. One of the biggest adjustments for Shavanna has been going from
being super involved at TSU to being so academically focused at her new insittution.
In order to combat this she began to participate in various activities around campus
and in her department. “I have been spending a lot more time on campus making
myself more visible in the department and in the community. I am a part of the
Association for the Concerns of African America Graduate students. This is a group
that offers an opportunity for African American graduate students to network with
each other, participate in campus activities, socialize, and discuss issues that affect us
on campus and in society. This is a great way to connect with others who understand
what you go through on a daily basis in some form or fashion. I also tutor two
undergraduate students in math. I would like to do more to recruit more African
Americans to NCSU.” She made herself known with the hope of becoming even
more involved next year.

159
Future Outlook. “Overall, I am very pleased with the outcome of my first
year and I am looking forward to doing even better next year as well as being well
prepared for my qualifying exams, which I plan to take next summer. Thank God I
have successfully completed my first year and I am embarking on more new and
exciting opportunities to grow, learn, and mature in my field as well as in my life.”
Such statements of strength and responsibility are particularly important and
encouraging from a person whose goal is to be an educator and enlighten others who
are to follow her footsteps.

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Figure 4.10: The Academic Transition - Paulette

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Paulette
Hampton University. “This is where I ‘m going to school. It was like
something off of TV almost. I had never seen people step before.” These were
Paulette’s first words and thoughts of Hampton University when she and her family
attended orientation. Paulette had no particular expectations of Hampton. She noted,
“I really, I had no idea, I did not know. I was just excited because I had never, I
guess, been in an atmosphere where [it was] all Black people. I guess I had seen A
Different World on TV, so I guess in my mind it was going to be something like
that.”
From the very beginning Paulette was just excited to be at an all Black
college. “I remember like the first, well, week of freshman orientation when I got
there. We drove u p together and they have this big, you know, you go in the
auditorium for like this welcome and they had people come down the aisle steppin’
and stuff. The fraternities and sororities were just doing all these dances and stuff
and it was just so exciting. It was unreal. It was just a room full of Black people,” she
recalls.
Climate. Being the quiet person Paulette is she does not just walk up to people
and start talking. Fortunately for her, her roommate does talk and they immediately
became friends. This provided her with an initial sense of comfort that grew over
time.
I met my roommate and she was from North Carolina. I’m kind of quiet, I don’t
go up to people and start talking but she was more talkative than I was. She was

162
cool, so we became friends, so I had a friend. My roommate’s parents met my
parents and my roommate’s aunt and uncle lived close by and they’d watch out
for me, that type of thing. Although they didn’t know me from Adam, I just felt
comfortable, like it was going to be all right.
Once Paulette got settled she met more people but was really concerned
about her grades. She was on a full scholarship and she did not want to lose it so
Paulette studied all of the time. But as time passed she made more friends and really
felt comfortable and was happy.
Well like I said, I was on scholarship so I felt like I had to study all the time
cause I was not going to lose my scholarship. So I went to classes and at night I
would study, I mean I kind of met people, but I didn’t like go to a lot of the
activities or parties and stuff like that I wasn’t usually outgoing, but I was happy.
It didn’t bother me. I don’t think I like started to get homesick until
Thanksgiving, you know the holidays coming up and I didn’t know if I was
going to be able to go home or not. But I did make it home. I met this guy when I
was doing my freshman orientation, he was in my group, and he was from
Tallahassee. But he was going home for Thanksgiving and him and his friend
were renting a car and they told me I could ride with them. I mean, it’s like you
met people and if people were from areas close to you and they had this kind of,
you know, relationship. You need a ride, I got a ride, there was always somebody
looking out for you.

Faculty Interactions. This feeling of comfort and that everything was going to be
okay also spilled over academically. The faculty members were approachable and
they assisted her. She also studied with her roommate and that helped academically.
“I tested out of one of my pre-calculus classes so it was like the second half of that
class. I thought it was a little hard for me, because I probably should have taken the
class I tested out of because I didn’t have that in high school, I was studying you
with people from class just trying to fill some gaps and stuff. Chemistry class was
hard, but the teachers were really good, you didn’t feel distant from your teachers,

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you really felt that you could talk to them. You could go ask them questions. My
general chemistry teacher, I loved her. She was really good and she required a lot of
studying. My roommate and I, she was a biology major, studied together and stuff,
[that] made it a little bit easier. This feeling of comfort also provided Paulette with
confidence. Armed with confidence Paulette knew that she could control her future.
Graduate school was something Paulette had not given much thought to until
her senior year. When she thought about her options she knew that she wanted to
command her own future and she felt that graduate school was a continuation of
undergrad. Another factor in Paulette’s decision was funding. Like undergraduate
school there is no way she and her family could pay for it. The thought that she could
go to graduate school and get paid to go was great,” she explained.
It was probably; I think it was the beginning of senior year. Because my
teachers, well I guess the advisor, the head person in my department, Dr. -----
--, he, we had a class with him freshman year the first semester and they
really pushed us to go to graduate school or something, and there were only
twelve, at the time. I think seven of us, seven chemistry majors so it was a
close-knit thing. They got to know us kind of personally and then really
actually half of them wanted to go to medical school. Yeah there were four of
them that wanted to go to medical school and two of them eventually
changed their minds and decided to go to grad school also, but all of us
wanted to do something else. That, I guess it just, I kind of got on the
bandwagon and I was like yeah I don’t want to go to work and have
somebody else tell me what to do because I only have a bachelors. It didn’t
sound hard, you know go to graduate school, graduate school is like a
continuation of college. I’ll go, they pay you to go. Why not?

Image and Identity, and Social Responsibility. The undergraduate experience
is more than academics. It is also about becoming a leader. Being a leader is directly
related to a person’s self image and their sense of responsibility beyond just their

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own needs. The positive experiences that Paulette had at Hampton influenced both
her self-image. “I think it made me stronger in a lot of ways because I had never
been in that environment you know where I was the majority, where I met smart
Black people everywhere. In all of my classes they were, well in my department
there were no majority Black professors, but I did get to see a lot of Black
professors. When growing up I can count you know, on my hands the number of
Black teachers that were in my county. So it did do a lot, I think, to help my self-
confidence and what I felt about people as a whole, which helps you think of
yourself and what you can do. And then in Carolina I think that helped me as far as
coming to Carolina. Because you know, I don’t see that as much here and since I had
that experience, I can still feel that I can achieve greater things, although I don’t see
as many people doing it,” Paulette states.
Paulette left Hampton University with so much more than she came with. She
left Hampton with knowledge that can never be taken away from, a strong sense of
self and her abilities, and an understanding that she is and can be a change agent for
so many others.
I did leave my undergrad with a sense of social responsibility, not necessarily
because it was taught at my school but because that's always how I have felt.
My personal and religious views reinforce that attitude. I can say that my
attitude was strengthened during undergrad because of my interactions with
others who opened my eyes to things that are going on that I had not realized
before, especially in the Black community. I kind of realized that there was
some substance to the “Talented Tenth” theory, which I did not agree with
before. If the people who are able to get an education don't feel some sense of
responsibility to help others nothing is ever going to change. However, for
me this has also caused some stress because I feel like I'm not doing enough
sometimes or I should be doing something that has a more direct impact on
people's lives. It would be much easier to change society if everyone felt they

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should give back or help others but some people just don't feel this way so it
falls on the shoulders of a few.

The University of North Carolina
When Paulette entered UNC she was one of two African American females
out of the 60 students, in all five divisions. This surprised her, as she expected more.
As mentioned, Paulette is quiet and does not initiate conversations with people she
does not know. So, the first were few weeks were difficult for Paulette. She did not
make friends and she studied all of the time. Paulette recalls that, “During your first
year you interact with all of the new students. But, it was hard for me to make friends
because I was studying all of the time. My classes were pass and fail and if I did not
pass I would be dropped to the masters track and it was hard. There was a lot of
information and I was struggling. The first few weeks I did not talk to anyone. I just
slept all of the time.”
Climate and Academic Preparedness. Paulette was struggling with the
thought of whether or not she should be there although she knew she felt
academically prepared to be in graduate school. She knew that graduate school
would be a bit difficult but she never expected it to be down right hard. Paulette said,
“I just thought it would be an extension of college. School has never been a problem,
so I just thought well, whatever, more of the same, a little bit harder, no big deal. I
guess that was the first thing that caught me off guard. How hard it was. It’s a
change.”
Academically, I think the things, the classes I’ve taken [at Hampton] were
beneficial, but also I wasn’t thinking about grad school when I was at
Hampton I wasn’t preparing when I was in undergrad. I mean I took the

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classes, I made the grades, but I didn’t retain anything. I studied for tests and
I think that was a big problem for me. Also, since we did have such a small
department, we didn’t have advanced classes, but a lot of the small schools
don’t have advanced chemistry courses. We had maybe one or two and
whenever my year they changed it and like made us take biochemistry also.
So I don’t know, it was like I’d have all the required things that I would need
to go to grad school, but if I was at a bigger school, I would have had those
more advanced courses that I guess would have made me more prepared.
When I got here because you have to relearn all that stuff. It was like, you
have a mix, it’s a big mix of people that you’re in the class the first year and
you’re seeing stuff that you’ve never seen before and then you have people
that have already taken that class and don’t have to study for. Here you have
to learn it and know it and not just memorize it for a test anymore. I think that
happened with a lot of people, no matter what schools they went to. I
struggled and I felt as if I was at the bottom but I am still here and others are
leaving.

Along with Paulette struggling academically she did not receive any support
form the department. The department’s perceived lack of support also caused
Paulette to isolate herself and she also considered leaving. “They did not do anything
to make me want to stay here. But I eventually realized that there was no extra
support for anyone.” Fortunately for Paulette she refused to give up. She knew she
was suppose to be there. Paulteet said, “I knew that I was suppose to be here and this
(chemistry) is what I like to do. I am not going to quit just because it is hard.”
Strategies of Success and Faculty Interactions. Unfortunately Paulette
struggled for a while. When she had initially taken her cumulative exams she did not
pass; however, she had the opportunity to retake them and she was successful. This
time she passed them but it was not before she had gotten so frustrated that she
finally broke down and spoke with her advisor. It is highly likely that Paulette could
have received the help she needed had she reached out to her advisor before hand.

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Due to her pride, isolation was to not be in her best interest. It was when she
demolished the walls around her that she got what she needed.
Well on Tuesday I finally broke down and asked for help. It was a very
humbling moment for me. I don’t know why it took me so long to go to my
advisor. Well, yes I do. Because I don’t like to ask anyone for help. Too
much pride. I have been struggling with my work and everything else since I
got here and I have kept saying that I was going to go talk to my advisor and
get some suggestions from him on ways to study and that type of thing. But
did I ever do what my good sense told me and go talk to him. Nope! Why
not? Cause I’m crazy I guess. I would rather struggle on my own to prove to
myself that I can do something instead of asking for help that is there for the
taking then I must be crazy. Anyway, so I failed another cume. I only have
one more to go and that would have been it but it wasn’t. I saw my grade on
Monday so I was pissed at myself all day. I didn’t even talk to anybody in
lab. They knew something was wrong so they just left me alone. I was so
stressed. Then I went to the class that I sit in on with my advisor. On
Mondays we get in groups and do problems, which is cool because it’s very
helpful to see how others work out the problems. Well, for the 1
st
2 of 3
problems I told my group the correct answers. Do you think they even
acknowledged me? Hell no! I was so pissed. They didn’t even consider my
answers. They called the professor over, who is also my advisor, and asked
him and he told them the exact same thing I had already said. Do you think
that they acknowledged that I was right? Nope. One of them even took credit
for saying one of the answers, which he definitely did not. I didn’t say
anything else for the rest of the class period. I tried not to be mad but I
couldn’t help it. I was already in a bad mood before I went to the class. Well,
that night I couldn’t sleep that well that night. Kept thinking about what I was
going to do. Finally decided that I had to talk to my advisor. So the next
morning talked to the other girl in my lab and asked her if she had ever gone
to our advisor and asked about her progress and so forth. She told me she had
and that she had cried in front of him and everything and it was fine. This
was good news to me because I knew I was going to cry when I talked to
him, and I did. But it was ok. He said he understood why I was frustrated and
he did think that I was working hard. He also said that he had seen a lot of
improvement in my work but there were still some areas that I needed to
work on. He said that he could work with me and we could figure out
something together. To make a long story short, well shorter, I feel better
about the whole school situation now. My body even feels better. I am so
glad I finally talked to him. Wish I would have done it a year ago.

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Future Outlook. Paulette is fortunate in that she has performed research in the
areas of pharmaceutical and biotech. As a result her goal is to conduct research in a
pharmaceutical environment.

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Figure 4.11: The Academic Transition - Victoria

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Victoria
Southern University. Whether or not to attend college was not something
Victoria gave thought to. Her mother made the decision as to both her attendance in
general along with what school she would be attending. Southern University, was a
given. Victoria’s mother, uncles, a host of cousins, had attended, and her
grandmother works for the Southern University system.
I wasn’t really big on what school to go to or when I was going to go. I just
wasn’t worried about those types of things. So, when college came around
she (her mother) decided for me and stuff like that. I actually didn’t apply to
any, my mother applied for Southern University for me because my family
went to Southern University my grandmother works for the system and my
mom and all her brothers and cousins went there. So that’s where I went.

Climate. Although Victoria did not have a choice in attending Southern she
did expect Southern to be like what she had seen on television. “I expected college to
be fun like “A Different World”, playful and full of extracurricular activities. I also
had been told that Southern was a cool school to attend. When I was thinking of
going I didn’t have any preconceived motions I just thought it was going to be like
regular high school,” she mentioned. Since she had grown up in a mixed
environment and many of her classmates where not Black she also expected a more
diverse surrounding where her interactions with faculty and staff were less than
personal. “I thought it was going to be like all the rest of the schools I attended yeah
the 50/50, real comfortable, laid-back atmosphere, everybody just goes to class and it
was totally the opposite.”
(Laughing) Southern is completely different it’s like stepping into another
world. It’s strictly Black culture. It’s an experience every African American
should go through. When you go and attend Southern you are living where

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everyone is Black. They have it has like 9% foreigners or whatever and I
mean, everyone is Black, the teachers are Black, the president is Black, the
people in the registrars office are Black, so everybody you interact with are
Black and you can actually go a whole day without seeing a White person.
When you go to a school that’s mixed its, its comfortable laid back the
Caucasians or White people they wear pajamas to class or they didn’t wash
their hair this morning or comb it, when you go to a SU or a Black school and
we call it fashion show, the girls are get up and have their hottest outfit on,
name brands, high heels. It’s fashionable all the way down to the backpacks
like if your backpack isn’t Jansport or a briefcase that goes over one shoulder
you’re not in style and people are looking at you crazy. The guys are really
big on their hair there is a lot of braids different styles, or their doing a fro, its
curls, or their faded or their bald and, they worry about their tennis shoes. Its
really not to be ugly it’s a material world and its all about what you have and
not about what you’re studying or what how your grades are. It’s just about
how you’re presented to the university society, and you what organizations
you’re part of. So, going to Southern I call it a culture shock because I
wasn’t really used to that. I wasn’t from that kind of environment where
those things really mattered. I am a jeans and T-shirt girl and when I say T-
shirt like it’s a large regular t-shirt you wouldn’t see my figure in it unless
you pulled it tight. Going to Southern I interacted with a lot girls that asked
me what’s wrong with you why don’t you own any clothes that first semester.
I remember it was extra hot I remember and when you’re a freshman at
Southern you’re not allowed to have a car so I went from driving my mothers
car to not having any transportation, being four hours away. When I went to
Southern I didn’t have a cell phone so I could only call my mother on a
calling card. I had worked; I had a job since I was 14 so when I went to
Southern it was my first time not having income of my own. I went from
Wow, I didn’t have a car, I didn’t have any money so I left my comfortable
environment and everyone here was different. I had to make new friends and
it was just a real big culture shock for me, even the teachers were even
different.”

Despite the culture shock that Victoria initially experienced she adjusted. She
made friends and her mother made her stay. As Victoria put it, “I adjusted, I made
friends easy. One of my closest friends was my kind of fallback. She was from
Shreveport, but we didn’t know each other back then, so she was my roommate so
she was my saving grace. She was going through the exact same thing I had,
someone to go through it with. I knew people that were older than me that took me

172
under their wing. I had friends who would come take us out to eat if we were tired
of cafeteria food and then I had friends I could talk to like female girls who had been
at Southern for awhile and they explained to me that you just have to be strong in
your self esteem and don’t let them wear you down and don’t worry about those girls
who were real materialistic. [And my] mother made me stay because I really begged
to go home and she was like you stay down there and you make it. So it was forced
and I had a lot of people to fall back on to help me through it.”
Faculty Interactions. Academically, in regards to course work, things were
fine. “Academically, starting off you know freshman year it was basic courses it was
very boring and I just wasn’t enthused because I felt everything I saw I had already
seen before and its was a little distracting because then I had to find something to
occupy my time with. The first year was a little dull but when I started actually
getting in with my chemistry courses, people teaching new things then it actually
sparked a little interest and I could get into class more.” Victoria’s conflict came as a
result of the professors taking a personal interest in their students. This was quite
different from what she was used to, teachers that teach and leave. They had no
interest in the personal lives of their students. “In high school when I dealt with most
of my teachers were White and they weren’t personal, they just came they lectured
maybe they helped you with your homework, were not friends I’m your teacher you
do the work you get your grade you move on.” Victoria explained, “At Southern the
teachers they know, they want to know your business they’ll reprimand you for not
showing up in class, even though they don’t take attendance things like that, they tell

173
you how they feel about you. They would stop class if someone’s giggling or acting
crazy it was even different experience dealing with the teachers, I went from teachers
giving me straight independence, where what ever grade you earn is the grade you
got to teachers that are like, “Victoria you didn’t go to class they were like where
were you” and in my mind frame I was like its none of your business and my not
answering is giving an attitude and making it worse and we had even more problems
so I had a small conflict with teachers being personal with you, um you know it was
like going off to college for real you went off and its like make yourself and I just
wasn’t prepared for that. Its like someone was saying is if you can graduate from
Southern you can make it anywhere. Like if you can come in and get out I promise
you’ll never done anything harder.”
But it was not all bad. Victoria also had some good teachers that understood
her. Basically “I had some really good ones [teachers] sometimes some really bad
ones. The good ones they realize you’re battling more than just school they’ll take it
a little easy on you, you can go talk to them, they’ll explain work over, they’ll tell
you ok you’re slipping you need to catch up.” One of those teachers was Dr. Walker,
who cared about her future. He shared his graduate school experiences and explained
to Victoria that the best way to control your future was with a doctorate degree.
“He’s a great mentor and he talked to me about what I’m interested in doing once I
finished school. He suggested graduate school and told me about his experiences, the
industry, and financial gain when having a PhD. The best way for you to be in
control of what you do instead of being a lab rat is to go to graduate school.”

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Image and Identity. Victoria’s experiences were less than rosy at Southern.
But, Victoria persevered and made the best of her situation. Considering the
development that takes place during this time in a person’s life it is expected that
Victoria’s resolve to continue is a result of her strong identity, sense of self, and a
push from her mother.
At Southern I felt like I was kind of hidden. I’m a smart person, I’m active
and fun, I’m always doing something and involved, but I wasn’t part of the
“it” crowd. I was known, but I wasn’t popular you know and that’s ok with
me cause I don’t like a lot of people around me. My experience at Southern
taught me that you have to still play the politics and I wasn’t a politic player.
So, the person that I am now coming from Southern, Southern helped me
mature a lot. Southern helped me accept, become more open to ideas and
decisions that I wouldn’t have been and it also taught me I can be myself and
not present that completely to people I don’t want to.

All of the people I’m still in contact with we’re professional people. We have
moral and character because growing up in America I feel that you’re always
introduced to the Caucasian world, you’re always introduced to what their
doing and you really don’t know that there’s a completely different world for
Black people unless you’re always in it. Going to Southern helps you balance
those and it’s a talent that most people have to treasure and most people don’t
have it.

Social Responsibility . Attending Southern was a wake up call for Victoria.
She left Southern with a deep appreciation for her education and how it can assist
others as well as her self. Victoria also knows that everyone does not easily have her
education and skill set. “I left my undergrad institution knowing that I must now do
something using my education. Attending a predominately Black school and being
Black provides the experience and falsehood of being an all Black community,
which operates differently from the American workforce/environment. I do not
believe I have a " better than-thou" attitude, but a confidence and strength in

175
knowing I am Black, smart, proud of my heritage, and blessed/privileged. I also
know that I must succeed because all the tools to do so have been provided, and it is
wrong to abuse such a rare opportunity,” Victoria concluded.
University of Missouri
Climate. When Victoria decided to attend graduate school her mother could
not have been happier for her. She has a Master’s degree and really values education.
Her mother was ecstatic when Victoria chose to attend the University of Missouri
since that is where she attended graduate school. Victoria said, “We even argued
about this one night and she was like I did not dream of this, I did not pray for you to
follow my path, this all just fell into place and I was like whatever.” They also gave
her a great financial package, which was key to her selection. “I applied to 10
schools and the University of Missouri offered the best stipend and the best package
to come to school so this is where I ended,” Victoria recalls. However, the school did
not meet her immediate expectations of what she imagined a major research
university to be.
It is majority White institution. I thought the department would be more, that
there would be constant important research going on in the bldg.;
conferences, publications, and activity. Now I have learned those things
happen every once in awhile (graduate school) is largely research and
repetitive.

Faculty Interactions and Academic Preparedness. The first semester was
enlightening for Victoria. During this time she became familiar with the area, the
people (specifically her advisor), and how things are done.
The first semester I was getting familiar with a new place, new people, and
their styles and methods. Now I know how teachers teach and the grading

176
scale. All are pretty laid back except for my actual advisor. She is pretty anal.
Let me tell you the nitrogen story.
I was put in charge of changing the nitrogen tanks. I have done this before in
other labs I worked for. What we’ve done is remove the old tank and get a
new one from the chem. store, every chemistry department has one. The
chem. store is where they keep the chemistry supplies. Well, I changed ours
and when I told her about it she freaked out because it was not the right
nitrogen tank. Her nitrogen tank is only ultra pure but no one told me. So, she
is going off, you got to get that other one off there, you’re messing up data,
and this and that. She is just really having a fit and everyone in the room is
hush mouth because she is really going off. I’m just like no one told me how
to get the nitrogen tank and no one told me there were special tanks. I thought
I had done good.

Despite feeling prepared and having taken all of the needed courses while
attending Southern in order to attend graduate school she was also challenged
academically. It became clear that one person’s attitude, teaching method, and
interest has and effect on how the student may learn the next level of the same
subject. Unlike the faculty at Southern,” The faculty at graduate school is tense,
serious, absorbed in chemistry. They believe everyone is the same or you wouldn't be
there.” Victoria also said that the “Teachers do not teach, they lecture and leave. If
you need any help you have to go to a TA. If you do the work the teachers know
whether or not they are going to fail you and make you repeat the course.”
Since the faculty is responsible for the knowledge that graduate students
acquire, which is so important to the success of the student, it is understandable that
Victoria would be concerned about her grades. But instead of struggling in silence
she took responsibility for her learning and obtained help.
Originally I was stressed about grades because you can only have an A or B
and there were a few courses that I struggled with the whole time. [As a
result] I got a tutor. He was from Thailand and he was really good. He
worked with me a lot. I spoke with the professor about my concerns and he

177
never seemed to be worried. He just said keep working with the tutor. I ended
up getting a “B” out of that class. The way I figure, if you do the work they
know whether of not they are going to fail you and make you repeat the
course. You may not get an A but they know if they are going to pass you.

This semester my grades are better and the teachers are the same. He has a
PowerPoint that looks like he’s been using for the last four years with
mistakes. What I realized is that every professor has something special that
they are interested in. Teachers tend to over view those areas they do not care
about. It is about what the teachers like. So, in my first semester I was
slightly behind I had to work really hard to get it. Now I am slightly ahead
while other students are still taking undergraduate courses.

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Peer Interactions and Strategies for Success. Just as important as being able to fit in
academically is being able to fit in socially with both faculty and her peers. For
Victoria everything is department driven and this results in her not being available to
spend as much time with people outside of the chemistry department as she would
like. This is bothersome to Victoria because “My closest friends are not in chemistry
and it gets stifling sometimes. No one seems to know anyone outside of the
chemistry department.” She has also felt the need to alter her behavior in order to
progress. “At this school I try to carry myself like I’m smart and I’m determined and
prove that I can do anything anybody else is doing, but I also don’t share everything
about myself. I’m automatically more independent, or abstract or pulled away from
being personal in trying to be more professional with people. I feel that they respect
you more if they have a professional relationship with you rather than having a
personal one,” Victoria notes. Having to change her behavior in order to fit in has led
to Victoria believing that she has to work twice a hard, often being misunderstood,
and feeling like she is alone.
I am feeling like I have to bust my ass to get some prominent data collected. I
don't want anyone, especially my research advisor feeling like I am not
working hard enough. I have a slight fear of being labeled the lazy,
unintelligent, or rude/angry Black girl from the HBCU. But after a while you
realize that those things don’t matter. Just because they went to a majority
white school doesn’t meant that they learned anything different from you.

I had an experience today where you realize that you talk to these people but
they don't know you and ever will be able to know you. I get tired of what I
call playing polite with the people I interact with on a daily basis. I am
learning to think before I act, that’s what this is. This is a great practice to
think before I act and just realizing these people, they’re different people.

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I feel most of the time that I am soo different from everyone here and really
alone. There is a difference between being lonely and alone, reminded by my
mom, the speech pathologist. You are never alone because God is always
with you.

Future Outlook. Fortunately Victoria is a highly determined person and she
has resolved to complete her program at the University of Missouri and make her
mark in consumer products. Being jaded about higher education Victoria believes
that industry is the right place for her.

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Figure 4.12: The Academic Transition - Rachelle

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Southern University
Southern University was the first all Black school Rachelle ever attended.
Since Rachelle was always one of a few African American students in all of the
White schools had attended, she wanted to attend a Black college so that she could
be inconspicuous. Rachelle recalls,” I wanted to go to a Black school regardless,
because I wanted to see how it would be to go to a school where everybody looks
like me and you don’t necessarily stick out as much. So I was just like, yeah I’m
going to go to a Black school and I don’t care which one. I was like Clark Atlanta or
Morgan State, where ever, it did not matter.” When Rachelle discussed her college
interests with her mother is become evident that her mother did not want her to
attend Southern. “But I picked Southern just because my mom didn’t want me to
go.” Since Southern was the only school she applied to it was fortunately that she got
accepted and she received a full scholarship.
I applied to one school because my mom made me mad and she said, “You
just aren’t going to Southern”, but that was the only school I applied to so,
was Southern. I applied for one scholarship and that was the one I got, full
paid to Southern University, so…I said yes, I guess, I’m going to Southern.

182
Climate. Southern was a good place for Rachelle. It was all that she imagined
it to be. Rachelle flourished both socially and academically. As Rachelle puts it,”
Going to an HBCU, for an African-American, is the greatest feeling in the world, no
longer feeling out of place and knowing that there is always someone like you, and
you learn more about yourself, mainly stuff that only African-Americans or other
minorities can relate to.”
Socially it’s a fun university. It’s not all one type of Black person socially,
they have the real thuggish type, and they have the New Orleans boys, and
they have the preppy type that came from White schools and then they have
the punk type of Black people. It’s just like regular Black people who are like
other White people so we’re just as different as a White school. It’s just that
everybody is Black and that is probably the only thing we have in common.
At a Black school it is easier to find more people that are like you and more
people who have been in your situation than at a White school. This is what it
means to go to a Black school instead of a White school. Socially it is like a
fun school. You know, like we partied a lot but you have to have discipline if
you want to get through this school because it’s so easy to get caught up in
Southern University, there are the football games, and being so close to the
water and stuff.

Southern academically, it was, compared to the schools I’ve been to; it was
easier than I thought it would be. Southern wasn’t like college. It probably
had a couple of courses that I actually had to study. I don’t know if that was
just me, cause I’m not use to studying. I don’t like to study but I managed to
still get A’s and B+’s.

Rachelle paints a picture full of fun without any worries but that was not the
case. Rachelle's frustrations came from outside of Southern University, her family.
There was so much animosity between her and her relatives that she thought about
transferring. Had it not been for the support of the person, who is now her husband,
she would have left Southern.
I wanted to transfer schools. I wanted to transfer to the University of Huston
after like my first year but during my freshman year I had met Carlos who is

183
my husband now and so he got me through most of it. He said you know, all
you have to do is pray, you going to get through it and when it’s all over
they’re going to be the ones looking stupid. As long as you do what you have
to do and you succeed it makes them look stupid and you don’t even have to
say nothing to them because your actions speak louder than words and so that
was the case when I graduated; they didn’t have nothing to say. We became
closer over the whole process. I remember many times when I was crying
and he was the one there because I didn’t have my brothers with me, they
were in Texas and he was the only one I had. If it wasn’t for him, Lord
knows I would have transferred somewhere.

Faculty Interactions. While Rachelle was dealing with her family issues she
was doing well in school. Her relationships with faculty members were thriving.
They encouraged her a great deal and provided recommendations for different
programs and fellowships.
The ones (professors) in my major, they’re wonderful to me. They saw me
during my calculus class because I was getting super high grades in class and
I would only be in the class for 10 minutes at a time, so they were like, so can
you tutor and whatever and I was like, okay, I can tutor. So then I started
tutoring for money and having people pay me or whatever. Then they started
getting worried about it, like she’s a good tutor and whatever, who is this?
She’s a math majors and an honors scholar. Once they found out I was real
good in math the math department just sucked me in. Everybody knew me
and like when I applied for scholarships they said we would love to help you
with a recommendation and they would write it because I had applied for so
many scholarships and like I would apply get their recommendations and
they would nominate me for stuff like I was outstanding student of the year.
And, they, they like, they nurtured me and made me love school because I
never had teachers that were so involved with me and who wanted to know
what was going on with me and how I was doing in class and I had an
academic advisor who was always looking out for me and then I had another
lady who worked in the computer lab who was the one to find me in the
calculus class and asked me to start tutoring, she’s been looking over me
since freshman year. Then the Department Chair like emails me and all of
them are just great all of them. When I would take a class the teacher would
be like oh, you are Rachelle T_______. And so now that I’ve graduated and
have been applying to schools, they’re like, oh we can’t wait to write the
recommendation. So I applied for fellowships and stuff and they don’t mind
writing the recommendations for me because they know like I’ll do good in

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graduate school because they said they are so proud of me and stuff. I miss
Southern just because of the math part.

Identity and Image, and Social Responsibility. Southern provided Rachelle a
safe place to be herself. After growing up in turmoil the environment and people at
Southern were instrumental in building her self-esteem. This allowed Rachelle to
“feel more comfortable being around people who have very similar interests, who
look like you.”
Attending Southern also expanded Rachelle’s view of the Black community.
“ SU has many programs that involve reaching out to the community to help those
around you, mainly people who are unable to help themselves. Since it seems that
almost every HBCU is surrounded by a majority Black inner-city neighborhood, you
ARE helping other African-Americans.“ This new sense of self and extended view
illustrated to Rachelle that others and their problems reach beyond her immediate
circumstances.
Rachelle gradated a semester early and at that time she was unsure if graduate
school was for her. Since there was indecisiveness about this option Rachelle
decided to work for a few months before she decided that graduate school was the
place of her.

As soon as I graduated I didn’t know if grad school was for me or not. I
needed to get a taste of the industry to determine that I’m making the right
decision. So after working in the industry for a couple of months I said, yeah,
time to go to graduate school.

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University of Texas – Arlington
Climate and Faculty Interactions. After working a few months Rachelle was
ready to attend graduate school. Since she did not have a choice o the location she
attended the University of Texas at Arlington (UTA). Prior to attending UTA
Rachelle thought the department would be nice and the people helpful. The only
concern she initially had was about being the only Black student. But going from
Southern to UTA was more of an adjustment for her than she had expected. Despite
her initial impressions, the department’s culture was not welcoming. The professors
were not as open and she has not seen many students of color, at all.
It feels like I do not belong a UTA. No one really pays attention to me. They
probably don’t know that I am a graduate student. I went from open,
concerned and caring professors to not as opened and friendly. My instructors
did not notice me until they saw my test grades and knew that I could do the
work. I also have not seen any other African Americans in the math
department.

University of Arizona

All the while, even as she was attending UTA Rachelle’s goal was to attend
the University of Arizona (UA). Not only is UA a good school with a good
mathematics program it will also allow her to be close to her husband. He will in the
Air Force for another three to four years and stationed in Tucson, AZ. She
researched the required courses and took those at UTA.
I really want to go to UA, because it’s my chance to go back to school and
get my PhD so that I can teach. It’s a great school with very helpful faculty
members and graduate students.

My husband and I have been apart since we got married, because I was in
school and he was in the Air Force (S. Korea). Going to UA while he is
stationed there will be out first time actually living together since being

186
married. My plan for the next 3-4 years is to go to UA in their Applied Math
program while he is finishing out his enlistment in Tucson, AZ.

Climate (first impression). Rachelle was accepted to UA for the fall of 2006.
Prior to that she was initially invited to the recruitment weekend. She knew this
invitation was a bringing her a step closer to being accepted. “Well on Monday I
finally heard from the University of Arizona and I was invited to the Recruitment
Workshop in March. YESS!! I am so relieved. I have been a nervous wreck since the
deadline passed, since they usually start inviting people between the deadline for the
domestic applicants and before the deadline of the international applicants,” Rachelle
recalls. During the weekend she got a chance to meet professors, other graduate
students, and get a feel for the both the school and the department. Based on this visit
Rachelle says that, “It was very informal. They are laid back. I tried to meet with
three particular professors but I got two out of three and they signed me up for two
other people I didn’t know. But everybody was cool. It wasn’t like they were
showing off their intelligence or anything.”
Shortly after the recruitment visit Rachelle was officially accepted to UA
with funding. She explains, “The school gave me a ten thousand dollar fellowship
plus a math TA for the first year. Then they are [also] paying for my tuition and out
of state fees. I was also offered the GEM (National Consortium for Graduate
Degrees for Minorities in Engineering and Science, Inc.) fellowship.” Having
applied for employment in Arizona at Raytheon as a backup, she received an offer
from them as well. Rachelle recalls,” Raytheon called me last week trying to offer
me a job. I was like no. You know, this was like probably my only opportunity to

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actually go back to school and get my Ph.D.” As wonderful as this opportunity was
for Rachelle to attend the University of Arizona she decided to defer her acceptance,
in order to work, for a year.
I had to change my plans to defer school for a year so that I can work and
they’re going to pay for they have like this fellowship where as long as
you’re in school they give you half your salary and pay tuition fees and
everything. So, I am like deferring grad school till next year so we could like
get our money together since yeah we still have car payments. And so yeah,
Raytheon is going to pay for my school.

Strategies for Success. Preparation is important to Rachelle. Breaking the
cycle of a lifestyle of uncertainly and havoc is what Rachelle is trying to prevent.
Applying for school and work was her way of protecting herself. She had know idea
that both would happen, especially school.
I didn’t think it was going to happen. I was prepared for the worst. Its like,
with me, you know, I can always say I want to go and get my Ph.D. and I want to
become a doctor, but in mind I really didn’t think it was going to happen. But it was
just something nice to say. I wanted it to happen. But in my mind I was like naw, it’s
never going to happen. But hey it was nice to dream. But now that it is actually
happening. It’s like so its like it seems like it is not happening to me because I never
thought it would. You know, in my family the highest degree we got is a bachelors
and that is just me and my momma. So the fact that I am going like one step further
and getting a Ph.D. and be the first person on both sides our family, out of my family
and my husband’s family so.

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Conclusion
This dissertation examines the experiences of six African American, first and
second year female graduate students in the mathematics and chemistry. All of these
women came from working class families. Two of the six are first generation college
students. Also all of these women received quite a bit of funding (a combination of
financial aid and scholarships) from their respective institutions, which was a very
important factor as to which school they attended, for many of the women.
All of these women have the same belief that attending a HBCU was a
wonderful experience and something that every Black person should do. Despite
them saying that the black college environment is not reality although it provided
them with a sense of empowerment that comes with being a majority and a voice.
This particular experience made them stronger. Stronger inside, as a person, it
provided them with such a “can do” attitude that they left their respective institutions
with the belief that they would conquer what ever came their way. Attending a
HBCU also provided them with a sense of accountability for themselves and others
to come. Basically, their education was more than academics it was personal.
Personal in that the school’s mission and also imbedded in the course work is a sense
of cultural pride and what it means to be Black.
The choice to attend graduate school for these women was career driven.
None of them wanted to be “lab rats”. They want to have control over their futures.
They all believe that education is imperative for their future success as scientists,
mathematicians, and as professors. All of these women began graduate school

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believing that they were prepared and ready for the challenges of graduate school.
They had taken the required courses, participated in science / math related programs,
and had participated in internships. The women in this study all received a great deal
of funding for their graduate education, which was essential to them attending school
and the school of attendance. They also knew that they were entering environments
(schools) that were different (in terms of people, research, and institutional funding)
from what they had been use to. What they did not expect was the level of challenges
that they faced. The first being academically. They all felt that they were behind and
was not grasping the material as easily as they would have liked to. Although some
professors were more helpful than others, on some level, they felt that disconnect
between their professors and themselves that caused many of them to not ask for
help and just study in isolation by themselves. Their interaction with their respective
peers ranged from non-existent to helpful. Research has proven that relationships and
the acquisition of knowledge within the first two years is crucial as to whether or not
a student completes their program and to what kind of career they have there after.
Having considered to the possibility of leaving school they decided to make their
presence know, speak with their instructors, TA’s, and hire tutors in order to
understand the course work. They all made a conscious decision to curb their
behavior towards their peers and become more business like and interact in such a
manner that they get what they needed to survive.
Goal commitment and determination are imperative for these women in
completing their doctorate degrees. The women in this study express so much

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fortitude about receiving their doctorate that they continue to forge ahead in spite the
obstacles they have faced (Schwartz et al., 2003). Basically, they refused to give up
despite not fitting the perceived norm of what it is to be a scientist or a
mathematician. They know that their long-term goals and future is so much more
than the discomfort that they are feeling while attending graduate school. It is not
just the commitment to obtain their degrees that keeps them; it is also their respective
personal pledges to broaden the fields of math and chemistry. Beyond just increasing
the sheer numbers of Black female women in these fields they want to change the
perception that African Americans cannot do math as well challenge how people
view African American women in general.
At a recent speaking engagement Dr. Freeman Hrabowski, President of the
University of Maryland - BC, remembered being told, “You Do Not Have Time to
be a Victim”. Although these ladies were not explicitly told this they made a
conscious decision to continue on their chosen path. They all, at some point, had
self-doubts and withdrew but in order to move on they knew that they had to take the
first step. They responded by becoming involved in activities on and off campus that
provide an alternative means to connecting with their peers that resulted in them
being visible and making their presence known. They have also gravitated to and
spend time with other graduate students, in varying disciplines, which have provided
them a safe space to express their thoughts and concerns. These women also risked
their vulnerability and asked faculty members for help, became involved in
departmental activities, and took the time to get others. They simply did not give up.

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The one thing that these women recognize is that in order to increase the
number and the perception of Black females is that women need to be exposed to
math and science. Basically, math and science is what the women in this study enjoy
doing and they are not going to quit just because their journey has been difficult at
times. These women are being agents of change in just this matter. The women tutor
and mentor undergraduate students of color other women of varying ages introducing
them to their field and sharing their experiences, thoughts, and outlooks on their
future.
Another thing that plays a tremendous part in their resilience is that they
frequently look back (metaphorically) and recall that can do spirit from their
undergraduate years that was so inspirational in their attending graduate school in the
first place.
You cannot expect these women or anyone to separate their undergraduate
experience from their graduate experience. The one thing that has influenced their
resilience is their reflection of their undergraduate experiences, which provided them
with a strong sense of security. Being able to recollect their interactions with so
many positive African America people (on all levels) and the can do spirit from their
undergraduate years that was so inspirational in there attending graduate school in
the first place. This is a quite dissimilar to the feeling that many of these women feel
at their graduate institution. Graduate education is based on mastering the techniques
of the discipline without regard to how to apply this knowledge out side of academia
(Ibarra, 2001; Herzing, 2004). This environment has challenged the identity of these

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women and caused them to feel boxed in by what their chosen field and the
respective behavioral norms (Ibarra, 2001). Fortunately for these women they have
their undergraduate experience to recall and reflect upon. On more than one occasion
these women have had to refer to that recent past in order to strengthen their sense of
self so that they can continue on.

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CHAPTER 5:
DISCUSSION and IMPLICATIONS

From the beginning, the purpose of this dissertation was to examine the
transitional experiences of six African American female students from undergraduate
study at Historically Black Colleges and Universities to graduate education in math
and chemistry at Predominantly White Institutions. As a result of the stories told to
me by these young women the information presented in the previous chapter
provides an account of life experiences of this select group of students. The insight
provided by these women accomplished the initial purpose of answering the two
research questions, which are:
1) What are the experiences of female African-American HBCU graduates
in their transition to a graduate program in a discipline and environment
dominated by whites?
2) How do such experiences affect their persistence to obtain their degrees?
Each of the women in this study has individually answered these questions
with their words. But if we were to assess these stories, as they pertain to the
questions, it could be concluded that the transition to graduate school, for these
women, has been problematic at best. The departmental cultures on the campuses
that these women attend have been described as cordial to isolationist. This was
further complicated by their sterile interactions with faculty members. Faculty, at
times, did not acknowledge these women nor subsequently, did they value any of
their prior knowledge of the subject matter. Not only was graduate school a culture

194
shock for them, in many cases, these women became culture brokers of Black culture
to many of their peers. Beyond what they saw on television many of their peers had
no prior interactions with African Americans on a regular basis.
At some point many of these women admit that they had thought about
leaving school. Many had laid awake, more than a few nights, and wondered if this
school or this degree was what they were supposed to be doing. At the same time
they realized that their academic experiences were opportunities that are only
afforded to a few.
The purpose of this chapter is multifaceted. A brief summarization of the
outcomes from the research question will be discussed. A brief discussion of the
other study and how it relates to the literature, implications for higher education, and
suggestions for future research will also be presented.
Answers to the Research Questions

The experiences of female African-American HBCU graduates in their transition to a
graduate program in a discipline and an environment dominated by whites
In different ways and for different reasons these women enjoyed and
considered their undergraduate years to be very positive. Their undergraduate years
were filled with encouragement and support, as opposed to the perceived
competition and pretense present in graduate school. Such positive outlooks, during
their attendance at the HBCU, do not mean that they did not have difficulties along
the way. It means that each woman knew that she was not alone. It was the “Can Do”

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environment of the HBCU that allowed them to proceed with confidence in the
pursuit of a doctorate degree.
So, when these women completed their undergraduate studies they all
believed that they were prepared for graduate school. They expected graduate school
to be an academic challenge, requiring focused discipline, and they expected
interactions with people of different backgrounds and interests. However once they
entered graduate school that they realized that they were not as prepared as they
would have liked to be. Although the individual stories differ they all mention that
socially and academically they were floundering. Meeting people and finding their
place in the department was difficult. It took a great deal of time and effort for them
to get to know people. They did not know that the lack of advanced courses, the lack
of sophisticated equipment at their undergraduate institution, their gender and the
color of their skin would place them in a precarious spot in graduate school. This
was a reality check for the women and was totally different than the caring and
nurturing treatment they had experiences at their respective HBCU. But these
women refused to give up. As Paulette put it, “ I refuse to give up just because it is
hard.” The women recollected the feelings of pride, confidence, and strength that
their undergraduate experiences left them with on many occasions. They also made
known their concerns to faculty, worked with the teacher’s aid, and studied more
than they ever had just to get basic information that they were lacking. Despite
feeling that they were either at the bottom or the middle of the scale of knowledge
they are still progressing while many of their peers that began the graduate program

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with them are not. Kerry said it best when she stated: “ The faculty may not be
impressed with my performance but they respect me for my resilience”.
The affect of their experiences on their persistence to obtain their degree
It was the initial absence of community, in graduate school, that made these
women feel beaten down and begin to question their abilities, their identity, and their
direction. As Kerry said it, “They did not know how to deal with me”. The other
graduate students and faculty members did not even attempt to bring them in to the
fold. The women believe that they had to prove themselves in order to receive even
the slightest amount of recognition and respect. In order to overcome these obstacles
they changed their behavior and attempted to build relationships, which today, are
working relationships at best. For these women of color the nature of many
conversations were impacted, and at times stalled, because social constructs like race
were either not discussed (Ellis, 2001) or discussed in such a manner that made the
women feel like “tokens.” In order to move beyond these formal relationships the
female students in this study also created their own support system with their family
members and others that share similar cultural values. This provided the women with
support and added confidence (Schwartz et al., 2003).
One thing that these students realize is that by choosing to pursue careers in
the sciences, their decisions go against societal norms. These women have indicated
that their attendance at their respective PWI could have a negative effect on their
identity in many ways. To avoid this they have stayed connected to their culture of
origin that has provided them with so much support and encouragement. The need to,

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figuratively, breathe and, at times, move beyond the “stifling“ environment of the
department has caused them to gravitate to other African American undergraduate
and graduate students. They did this through either one on one relationships or by
participating in organizations whose purpose is to bring other African American
graduate students (regardless of discipline) together whereby they discuss their
experiences and by engaging in social activities outside of school. Some of the
women in this study also seem to gravitate to other HBCU alumni on their respective
graduate campuses. Through all of these activities they have created a safe place
where these women can share and be supported and be encouraged to continue on.
Despite the challenges these women have faced during their first and second year of
graduate school, what keeps them going is their determination and awareness that
their presence in graduate school alone not only increases the numbers of African
American women in math and chemistry they also give hope to others.
Discussion
The acculturation framework used for this study, as presented in chapters two
and four, presents acculturation as an ongoing process, which can be lost when
acculturation theory is used as an instrument of measurement (Berry, 1997; Cabassa,
2003). This framework is of value because it parallels the emotional, cognitive, and
behavior patterns students take as they progress through graduate school in order to
become colleagues of the very professors that taught them. The framework considers
the affects of the person’s previous background and experiences, their coping skills
and tactics, which are so important to the student’s success while in graduate school,

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and their outcome as a result of both acculturation process and the graduate school
experience. This acculturation framework does all of this by providing a space for
exploring the study participant’s emotions, the manner in which they acquire
knowledge by their use of reasoning, and behavioral changes as a consequence of
their first hand contact with persons and engagement within a cultural structure
different from what they are familiar with.
This model is specifically relevant to the women in this study because they
all have similar education backgrounds (on a collegiate level) and motivations but
their experiences are unique. The distinction in their experiences and their
interpretations of those experiences are based on a culmination of their intimate
family structure, academic choices, previous exposure to both graduate study or their
chosen field of study, demographics, and their individual reasons for attending
graduate school. Upon review of the data presented in the preceding chapter it is
evident that the material results of these women’s experiences are:
1) Similar goal commitments
2) A strong sense of self
3) Community membership
4) Participation in one’s culture of origin
Goal Commitment
Goal commitment is a personal factor that is directly related to graduate
student development and the persistence toward a degree for the women in this
study. The intensity of a person’s goal commitment affects a person’s locus of

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control, their sense of self-efficacy, and the student’s ability to interact and make
connections with people and opportunities (Austin, 2002). The commitment to
accomplish a goal is instrumental in determining whether or not a person even
decides to cope with adversity, the manner in which they cope with the adversity,
and the level of persistence to see a task through. A fervent dedication to their goals,
as portrayed by these women, demonstrates that they are confident in their abilities
and involved in their leaning. Both their commitment to receiving their degree and
the value they place on graduate school is seen by their determination to work hard
and persist (Schwartz et al., 2003).
Strong Sense of Self
Identity is a salient factor in acculturation. It evolves and changes as a result
of both developmental and contextual factors, which vary over time (Phinney et al.,
2001). Individuals are not autonomous units of mental analysis. Their thoughts and
behaviors are reflective of a membership in a collective group of influences. The
notion of identity is two fold in that individuals have a need to be distinct and
differentiated and simultaneously need to be affiliated and associated with a group
(Padilla & Perez, 2003). In graduate school being Black and a women may be a
challenge despite the expectation that graduate school would be a respite from the
traditional social constructs of race and gender (Schwartz et al., 2003).
Community Membership
A sense of belonging or membership to a community is a central attribute to a
feeling a sense of concern for one’s culture. This sense of belonging to a one group

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over another can be described by the exclusion of and contrast one feels within
another group. Students, such as these women who are not accepted by community
members and perceived to be lacking in confidence, skills, and abilities have fewer
opportunities to build successful relationships with peers and faculty members that
are so important to a person’s persistence and overall experiences (Herzig, 2004).
Even as a person identifies with one group or many groups (African American,
women, and scientist), they may have both positive and negative attitudes toward
that group. The assessments of positive aspects of that group or groups are found in
the contentment, pleasure, and cultural pride with that group(s) (Phinney, 1990).
Also related to ethnic identity and a sense of belonging to a group is the process of
enculturation. This process refers to conforming to the values, beliefs, and behavioral
standards of one’s ethnic culture. Coupled with acculturation, a sense of belonging
assists in the understanding and perseverance of ethnic identity (Torres & Phelps,
1997). The ability to stay connected to one’s cultural heritage as well as the people
and things that provide them internal strength and pride assists people when they are
in difficult situations (Anderson & Jack, 1991).
Participation in One’s Culture of Origin
Whether it is an integrated identity or a separated identity both levels of
identity deal with the level of intensity that a person strives to retain their identity of
origin. As a person attempts to proceed in unfamiliar territory they may be pressured
to give up or compromise their sense of identity. Pressure of this nature may result in
to depression, anger, low self-esteem, and at times, violence. In such an atmosphere

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were the positive self-image of a person may be deteriorating they seek to hold on to
those favorable comparisons between an ingroup and relevant outgroup that allow
the person to maintain a positive identity (Phinney et al., 2001). In order to combat
the feelings of discouragement many individuals, like the women in this study,
become involved in activities out side of their department that were related to their
culture of origin. Such activities and other department involvement provides them a
safe place to strengthen their identity which in turn renews and reinforces their
commitment to their goals and positively affects their persistence towards their
degree.
The common dynamic across the theory of acculturation and the experiences
of these women is choice and the freedom to choose their own acculturation patterns.
Applying acculturation theory to the stories of these women suggests that there were
purposeful choices about the “society of settlements” and the pathways that were
selected in order to pursue their academic dreams. But the notion of free choices is
challenged when people are forced or highly discouraged to take pathways that are
selected for them without their input (Cabassa, 2003; Berry, 1997). As acculturation
theory suggests, it is necessary to distinguish between those moderating factors that
existed prior to the acculturation process taking place because the moderating factors
that existed prior have an effect on those moderating factors that arise during the
acculturation process. Both the pre-acculturation moderating factors and the
moderating factors that arise during the acculturation process influence the course of
adjustment for these women (Berry, 1997). Moderating factors, collectively and

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individually, also affect the coping strategies that these women applied. Moderating
factors that link stressors and stress reactions can be viewed as both risk and
protective factors.
Noted in the literature, the model, and throughout this dissertation is the
notion that every person intentionally entered her respective transition process with
particular demographic and social characteristics. These characteristics include
gender, education, expectations, and cultural distance. All of these factors have
variable influences on both the acculturation process and the identity formation of
these individuals (Berry, 1997; Phinney, 2001). In this study the women have been
experiencing graduate level academic acculturation for either one or two years. The
one and two year length of time of the acculturation process for these women in
pertinent. They are simultaneously going through two important processes. They are
transitioning from being undergraduate students to graduate students and undergoing
the process of ethnic identity formation as women and scientists. It is worth noting
again that each woman’s graduate experience is crucial to her academic and career
success. During this socialization process values are the salient concept in the
multiple roles that these women play and the questions they must answer: Can I do
this? Do I want to be a graduate student? Do I want to do this work? and Do I belong
here? (Austin, 2002; Tinto, 1993; Teske & Nelson, 1974). This is particularly
important since graduate school experiences are unique in that throughout the
progression and persistence of the person’s program the student transforms from a
student to a colleague at the time of completion. As their professor becomes their

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colleague their relationships with their professors becomes very instrumental in
determining the kind and type of work the student attains. Over time as
psychological and contextual factors change the answers to these questions and each
person's ethnic identity may also change. This dynamic construct of ethnic identity
and change evolves based on the socializations experiences of the choices, behaviors,
beliefs, values, and norms that characterize the community that the person belongs to
(Phinney, 2003).
Coping strategies, like those used by the women in this study, are classified
as either problem focused strategies or emotion focused strategies. We see in this
dissertation that both kinds of strategies were used in order to manage their academic
and social stressors. Problem focused strategies were used to combat their lack, or
perceived lack of knowledge. Each solved this problem by studying hard and long,
joining study groups, and hiring tutors to ensure that they understood the material
they were being taught. Some of the women in this study purposefully, although
unwillingly, became more active in their department. They became more visible and
made sure that they were being recognized by peers and faculty alike. Usually
considered a negative resolution to dealing with adaptation because it shows a
positive attitude toward maintaining the person’s original culture, these women
intentionally focused on controlling their emotions and the manner in which their
frustrations were expressed. Coping strategies of avoidance and passivity were also
used to progress toward and accomplish their goals. This type of behavioral change,
although the extent for each person may differ, is common when individuals go from

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one culture to another and where the learning curve is greatest in the beginning
(Coleman, 1995).
This study resembles Gondura’s 1995 study of the educational experiences
another minority group. Like that study the women in this study believe that
education is an essential tool to a better life. Fortunately, for the women in this study
they proceeded through their educational endeavors with a great deal of success. It
was when they reached graduate school that their academic abilities were severely
challenged. At this time their effort and self-efficacy, like those in Gondura’s study,
became pertinent factors in their persistence.
It is evident by the findings that each person’s journey is unique. As a result
of this there is no one program, coping strategy, or practice change that would lead to
the success of all students. But, it is evident that resilience and identity are the two
dynamics that all of these women share.
These women showed that with belief in their mathematical or chemistry
abilities, hard work, and a strong sense of resilience the results equal success in their
academic endeavors. This is consistent with Gandura’s study and other literature that
shows that persistence is very powerful and combined with high intelligence great
achievement is eminent (Gandara, 1995; Pajares, 1996). Resilience is shown when
people, like the women in this study, draw from inner strengths, skills and support to
keep them from derailing from their goal when faced with adversity (Johnson &
Wiechelt, 2004). Resilience is a result of the interplay between the individual
(culture, race, gender, and relationships), the event, and the environment. Because of

205
the difference in people and their respective changing context capturing and
measuring resilience is difficult in an individual and in a group (Johnson & Wiechelt,
2004).
Resilience is commonly looked at in terms of risk and protective factors but
in this case resilience is described of as the “in spite of” factor. In spite of being
African American, women, from and HBCUs and not being as prepared as their
peers they are successful. The quality of their resilience is dependent on how they
deal with both life changes and complex life situations (Bachay & Cingel, 1999).
These women could not be resilience without being able to recognize their own
thoughts, stay true to their beliefs, be flexible in the way they think, and manage
their emotions and behaviors. All of this could only be done because of their strong
belief in who they are and their abilities – their identity that was fostered largely
through family and the HBCU they attended (Jackson & Watkin, 2004; Pajares,
1996). Future research may want to use concepts of resilience in order to better
understand the success of African Americans in higher education.
Identity plays a crucial role in both a student’s acculturation process and their
level of resilience within the acculturation process. Per Bandura the level of
resilience, as shown by these women, is the result of their strong identity of who they
are and what they can do. It is this identity that will be a determining factor in how
much effort they will put forth in order to persevere (Bandura, 1990 in Gandura,
1995). Identity, which has been conceptualized as progression, particularly in the
academic setting (Phinney et al., 2001), is based on the person’s interpretations of

206
the results of their experiences (Pajares, 1996). These experiences are usually made
up of a person’s mastery of skills, their behavior, interactions with others,
encouragement of capabilities, and prior academic attainment. All of these things are
also strong factors in their future success and how their values, beliefs, and
worldviews are shaped (Gandura, 1995; Pajares, 1996; Phinney et al., 2001; Stanley,
2006). In the midst of the feelings of isolation and lack of initial knowledge
acquisition these women recalled their undergraduate experiences and their strong
sense of identity connected with that experience in order to sustain their identity and
the complexity of being women, African Americans, and scientists.
As relevant and helpful as the theory of acculturation and its use is in this
study it may not have been an ideal theory for process this dissertation examines.
Another way to observe the experiences of these women may be via the theory of
communities of practice. In brief, the community of practice literature states,
“organizations are both constituted by and participate in social learning systems”
(Wenger, 2000). This is based on the belief that learning is a social process and
within a social learning system competence and experience are key with varying
relations with each other. As a new comer into a different environment they want to
feel like “one of them” and there is a pull to align their experiences with what it
means to be competent in that environment. With the interplay of a person’s
experience and social competence there is a two way dynamic that shapes either the
person, the structure or both (Wenger, 2000; Wenger et al., 2002).

207
In this study the HBCU is the society of origin and the PWI is the society of
settlement. Through communities of practice the HBCU and the PWI, particularly
the department of study within the PWI, would be separate, distinct communities of
practices. In regards to the HBCU, the women felt connected. They built strong
relationships with faculty and peers, which increased their interactions with one
another, level of academics attainment, and confidence within themselves. The
HBCU experience also bounded the students to other HBCU students as well as the
African American community at large. This was because the HBCUs fostered and
encouraged f self awareness through the development of a wider life perspective that
offered them greater possibilities for their future through a sense of social capital in
how their actions contribute to a broader community, of which they are a part
(Petrone & Ortquist-Ahrens, 2004; Wenger, 2000; Wenger et al., 2002).
At the PWI many of the women fell as if they were not a part of the
community. These women felt uncomfortable in their new environment. This
discomfort strained the interactions with their faculty and peers and their ability to
initially acquire the needed knowledge. The lack of engagement and alignment of
skills affected their view of themselves within their new community of practice.
Other than being bound by their respective disciplines there was very little
connection and mutual regard for each other within the department (Petrone &
Ortquist-Ahrens, 2004; Wenger, 2000). This level of isolation challenges the
community of practice theory where one of the outcomes is the relationship
dimension that balances the task with positive motivation and high quality out comes

208
(Petrone & Ortquist-Ahrens, 2004). For many of the women in this study their
respective PWI (community of practice) has not created a safe space where they can
engage their ideas and feelings. Just as community of practices can be described as
“cradles of human spirit, they may also be cages” that keep others out.
Implications for Higher Education
It is easy to assume that the people who do well in math and science either
“just fit” or are able and willing to adapt to the cultural norms. For these students,
despite their interest and skill level in the sciences, they needed to learn how to
participate in both social and cultural practices of the department in order to succeed.
The loss of people within academia because they do not “fit in”, which appears to be
common phenomena, does not create a diverse university. Students that are not well
socialized, socially and academically, into their respective departmental communities
and cultures are likely to leave graduate school (Herzig, 2004). Institutions of higher
education are distinct establishments of history and culture. It is the particulars of
their respective culture, history, and reputation that attract students. However, it is
that same culture and history that may not be conducive to all of the students in
attendance. So, increasing the participation of minority groups in the sciences also
involves increasing their positive experiences, which occurs by making changes on
all levels, including the attitudes of the scientific community and society,
employment practices, and the attitudes and perception of minority women scientists
on all areas of higher education (Sakai & Lane, 1996). Unfortunately, in this study
the institutions did not change and the acculturation process results in being a non-

209
mutual process. This research has implications for both HBCUs and PWIS that could
enhance the overall experiences of all of the students in graduate school and those in
the sciences.
It is well known that HBCUs are teaching institutions. Many HBCUs lack
strong research ties and favorable relationships with industry, other research oriented
institutions, and government agencies. With increased research and accompanying
research dollars the institutions could update their facilities, scientific instruments,
and provide advance courses for their students. HBCUs with integral relations with
major research institutions could also provide a seamless transition from undergrad
to graduate school for their students who will continue on to pursue doctoral degrees.
The graduate institutions (PWIs) need to consider the affects of the campus
and department cultures on the female students of color. Being either the only
women or the only African American, and at times the only member of both groups
may initiate feelings of discontent and isolation from the very beginning.
Departmental in-service workshops would be enabling where the issues that these
and other underrepresented students may face would be discussed. Workshops of this
nature could provide both administrators and faculty insight into the preconceived
ideas these students have about graduate school. In turn faculty could be motivated
to take a more proactive role in creating a more welcoming atmosphere for the
students and thus foster a smoother transition.
Because of the underrepresentation of students of color and women in the
STEM disciplines there are many organizations that work to expose potential

210
students and increase their participation in these fields. Graduate schools that build
relationships with such organizations can identify and subsequently recruit
outstanding students of color.
Mentorship is very important. Each woman mentioned that her relationship
with a mentor while at undergraduate school had the greatest effect on her graduate
school attendance. But it was very rare for these same students to express strong
mentorship relationships during this crucial period of graduate school. Each new
student should be assigned to a peer mentor, a higher-level graduate student with
faculty oversight, to assist him or her in his or her adjustment. This mentor should be
properly trained and willing to share their insight and tidbits about the program, the
school and how to navigate both.
A bridge program that acclimates both students and faculty to one another
and their mannerisms would also assist in a smooth transition during those crucial
moments. A bridge program of this kind would allow all of the new students to get to
know each other and build peer relationships that tend to be crucial to a successful
outcome. A bridge program would also permit the students the opportunity to
become familiar with the faculty members’ research and expectations, which at this
time they only know on paper and may have met for a moment. Being able to
navigate the program is just as important as being able to acquire knowledge and
build strong relationships with both peers and faculty. In addition to this bridge
program, a graduate student of color organization would also benefit the students.

211
This organization would create a network of students across discipline and in turn
will provide support and encouragement for all students of color.
Lastly, having peers of similar backgrounds and cultures, and who share
similar interests to go through this journey with is very important to these women.
Being able to discuss their academic and social issues provides them an outlet and a
learning environment for all that is equitable. An increased enrolment of one of two
persons at a time may seem to be very minute but it is a tremendous difference for
those that find themselves alone.
All institutions should recognize the complexity of the issues that hamper the
success of minority graduate students (Fields, 1998). According to the National
Research Council Study the persistence of minorities in graduate science programs is
dependent on a supportive learning environment where there is a shared
understanding of faculty, students and administrators alike of the purposes of the
program (Anonymous, 1999). Recognizing that changes and programs that work at
one institution may not work in another, diversity, no matter the institution, should
be considered a resource and not a problem. But, as human nature has it,
administrators may not have fully considered the challenges and solutions that could
best assist these students, who begin with a deficit since racial and gender biases
render them less powerful than other graduate school students from the dominant
culture (Beoku-Betts, 2004).

212
Suggestions for Future Research

This dissertation examined the adjustment of African American graduate
students who attended HBCUs as undergraduates. It explores the concept of culture,
which consists of transforming differences into essence, and it operates to impose
separation that carries a sense of hierarchy (Brunamm, 1999). Throughout the study
it is argued that the relationship between culture and communication is more
reciprocal than casual; culture may influence communication, but is also constructed
and enacted through communication (Brumann). Sadly time did not permit me to
conduct this study from the first day that these women stepped foot on their
respective campuses until the competition of their second year. This would have
allowed me to receive first hand information of their experiences as supposed to their
recollection of experiences. In terms of future research, a longitudinal study that
revisits these women in 10 years would provide a wide portrait of both their
academic and career successes. A study of this nature would also allow for the
participants to discuss how their graduate school experiences shaped their ideals,
behavior and socialization into the workplace. A longitudinal study would also
provide additional information and understanding on how the acculturation process
changes over a longer period of time and how a person may or may not take the same
acculturation or coping strategies and transfer them from one environment to
another. Another study that is inclusive of both African American women and men
would provide the voices of both genders to be heard and compared. A study of that
nature would not only provide additional insight to the experiences that minority

213
have in the science it may also highlight gender issues within this subculture of
students.
Future research should examine the difference between stated policy values
and actual applied values. Values, individual and institutional, are a salient factor
related to understanding the acculturation process (Teske, Nelson, 1974), are also
essential to the educational process. They determine who is admitted, who is hired,
what is taught and how, the type of research that is conducted, and students conduct
(Astin, 1993). Despite the rhetoric about diversity and increasing the number of
minorities in the STEM discipline so many graduate departments are homogeneous.
There is an obvious disconnect between what policy states and reality. For students
of color whose identity is a defining characteristic of who they are, the pressure to fit
into the idealized view can be very stressful. Research that compares policy to reality
would shed light on the contradictions and hopefully cause institutions to make
conscious decisions in their efforts to increase diversity on all fronts.
Final Remarks

This study was therapeutic for both the students and myself. Being able to
discuss what they have been feeling for so long lifted a proverbial weight off their
shoulders. It was quite clear from all of these women that they expect greatness.
Each of these women is very appreciative of the chance to attend graduate school
and opportunities that come with having a doctorate degree. But, they believe that
their greater impact will be on the many other women who come behind them and
follow their footsteps.

214
While conducting this study it became very apparent that these women are
more than intelligent (book smart). They are also socially savvy and aware of where
the social constructs of race and gender place them. Despite the many contributions
women and people of color have made to the sciences, the scientific community
possess a culture that tends not to reach beyond race and gender.
Unfortunately, in the areas of science it is human nature to associate success
with those that look and think like those that are at the forefront of their respective
field. Eternal vigilance needs to be taken in order to increase the number of African
American women in the sciences. Attention must also be paid to the perception of a
successful scientist so that it is an inclusive concept. It is not until a critical mass has
been reached that the addition of women in these fields can have an effect on the
male behavioral traits, that are so dominant, the negative views of Black women
being mad and angry, and the preconceived thoughts that HBCUs are inadequate and
do not prepare their students for a rigorous graduate education. Before a critical mass
has been reached and opinions changed the addition of one or two students of color
and the increase in the number of African American women at the faculty level can
change the social dynamics for the many African American women that tend to grace
the halls of higher education where a few, if any, have walked before.
“The Talented Tenth of the Negro race must be made leaders of thought and
missionaries of culture among their people. No others can do this work and
Negro colleges must train men for it. The Negro race, like all other races, is
going to be saved by its exceptional men [and women] (Du Bois, 19003).”

215

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Appendix A

Interview Protocol

Background Information

1) Do you consider your family and life as one of middle, working, or upper
class?

2) How did you become interested in this discipline (math, science, or
engineering)?

Undergraduate Information

3) What undergraduate institution did you attend and why?

4) What did you expect of the institution prior to enrolling?

5) How would you explain the culture (socially and academically) and its affect
on your matriculation?

6) Tell me about any stressful moments (academically and socially) and how
you dealt with them?

7) Explain your courses that were directly related to your discipline (their rigors,
your impression of them, and whether or not they prepared your for your
future)?

8) Were there any experiences or events that either strengthened or made you
question your readiness for graduate school and a career in this area?

9) Tell me about your relationships with peers and faculty members?

10) What did your advisor do to encourage you in your endeavors to attend
graduate school and pursue your career?

11) How would your undergraduate advisor describe you and your fitness for the
field or math and science (socially and academically)?

12) Were you encouraged to conduct research and what was the procedure to go
about securing research experience?

Graduate School Information

228
13) Why did you choose to attend graduate school?

14) Why did you choose this particular school?

15) What were / are your expectations of this institution prior to attending it?

16) What is / was the culture like on and around campus?

17) Do you know the percentage of graduate students that are African
American?

18) Describe your department and its culture?

19) What has been some of the most stressful moments for you since you have
been here?

20) Did you choose your advisor or was your advisor assigned to you?

21) How do you feel about that advisor and his/her interactions with you?

22) Are you performing any type of TA or RA, if so, what kind?

23) If working in the lab, who is your lab director?

24) Is your lab director and advisor the same person?

25) How did you obtain the position?

26) What level of lab work are you performing?

27) Are you the only student in the lab?

28) What is the atmosphere like in the lab?

Undergraduate v. Graduate

29) What are the similarities and differences in the culture and the way students
treat each other on campus and within your department?

30) Explain how the system (at both your undergraduate and graduate
institutions) work (how to go about getting things done) and the pros and
cons of each?

229
31) How were you treated by faculty and staff at your undergraduate institution
and what about that treatment is the same or different at your graduate
institution?

32) Are there any social images you feel that you have to either live up to or
disprove?

33) Have you faced any instances of discrimination, if so, how did you deal with
it?

34) Where you involved in any student organizations as an undergraduate and
are you / have you been involved in any as a graduate student?

35) How has those organizations assisted you in the transition from one
institution to the other as well as going from undergrad to grad student?

36) Are the ways of coping with stressful situations different in graduate school
than they were while you were attending your undergraduate institution?

37) Do you notice a difference in attitudes and behaviors in the African American
students at your undergraduate and graduate institutions?

38) How has (do you see) your attendance at both institutions as being beneficial
to your future as a person and as a scientist?

Future

39) How do you view your future career choice and path?

40) What is your perception of the social aspects of the career path chosen?

41) Do you believe that you can fit into the social aspects of this career?

42) What advice what you provide to other students that would like to follow
your path?

230
Appendix B

Original Email and Reponses
5

5
The names are blacked out for confidentiality

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239
Appendix C
Thematic Codes
Coding Categories Codes
Society of Origins –
The HBCU the student attended
• History
• Campus Culture
• Program of study
• Course Availability
• Condition of Equipment and Labs
• Individual Financial Support
Society of Settlement – The graduate
discipline and program of study
• History
• Faculty Research Interest
• Faculty expectations of the
students
• Research that is being pursued in
the department
• Research opportunities for
students
• Program of study
• Condition of Equipment and Labs
• Individual Financial Support
Characteristics of the Individual • Age
• Education Level

240
• Discipline
• Personal Background
• Expectations
• Research Experience
• Coping Strategies
Characteristics of the Situation • Life Changes
• Support System
• Interactions with faculty and staff
• Cultural Distance
• Time
Stress and Skills Deficit • Academic deficiencies (ability)
• Missing courses
• Family responsibilities
• Financial situation
Coping Strategies • Behavior modification
• Avoidance strategies
• Regulate Emotions
Responses • Behavior
• Amount and kind of Interaction
• Change in perspective (thought
pattern)

241
Outcomes • Stay in school
• Leave School

242
Appendix D
Integration of Research Methods, Data Collection, and Data Analysis
Data Gathering
Methods
Relevance to
Study
The Relationship to
Acculturation Reference
Interviews
To study and
capture the
changes and
influences that
occur
throughout
this process
To understand the society
of origin and settlement,
stress and skill deficits,
characteristics of the
individual and the
situation, responses, and
outcomes
Cabassa,
2003
Observations
To document
the behavior,
facial
expressions,
and other
nonverbal
indicators
To understand the society
of settlement, cultural
factors, characteristics of
the situation, responses,
and outcomes
Polkinghorne,
2005; Berry,
1997a
Researcher Reflective
Notes
To document
my
understanding
of the
responses and
observations
immediately
after the
interaction
A means of understanding
and combining the factors
of acculturation
Polkinghorne,
2005
Participant Journals
To capture the
richness of the
experiences,
feelings, and
personal
understanding
of the student
while apart of
this
acculturating
process
To understand the
characteristics of the
students, their stress,
coping strategies,
responses, and outcomes
Polkinghorne,
2005
Documentation
Review
To provide a
contextual and
cultural view
of the
To understand both the
society of origin and
settlement
Ward, 1996;
Redfield,
Linton &
Herskovits,

243
undergraduate
and graduate
institutions
and their
respective
programs
1936

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) have long been an intellectual resource for the African American community. HBCUs have provided and continue to provide an educational pathway for many Black students, particularly women who seek graduate and advanced degrees.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Joseph, Joretta Bernice (author)

Core Title The experiences of African American graduate students: a cultural transition

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/09/2007

Defense Date 05/16/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag graduate students,minorities,OAI-PMH Harvest,sciences

Language English

Advisor Kezar, Adrianna (committee chair), Rueda, Robert S. (committee member), Venegas, Kristan M. (committee member)

Creator Email joretta_joseph@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m781

Unique identifier UC1476468

Identifier etd-Joseph-20070809 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-543928 (legacy record id),usctheses-m781 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Joseph-20070809.pdf

Dmrecord 543928

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Joseph, Joretta Bernice

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu