University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

School-based support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms

(USC Thesis Other)

School-based support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content School-Based Support for Students With ADHD in General Education Classrooms
by
Sasily U`ilani Corr-Yorkman
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2021

© Copyright by Sasily U`ilani Corr-Yorkman
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Sasily U`ilani Corr-Yorkman certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Raymond Gallagher
Monique Datta
Kimberly Hirabayashi, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyze the support needed to effectively and positively educate
and work with students with ADHD in general education classrooms. The methodological design
of this study was a qualitative approach through interviews to collect data. The outcomes of this
study consisted of identifying ways to increase school-based behavioral support for students with
ADHD in general education classrooms. Recommendations include implementing yearly,
mandatory ADHD in-service training for teachers. Doing so will help to increase school-based
behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms. Another
recommendation is to create an ADHD “cheat sheet” consisting of strategies for addressing
negative behaviors and resources teachers can use if they need more support. Teachers often
have time constraints, and they may not contact others who can help them to best support
students with ADHD when they are struggling. A brochure or document that is simple to
understand and easy to navigate may be beneficial. Lastly, it is recommended to create an open
culture of communication specifically pertaining to ADHD among teachers, staff members,
students, and parents. Teachers often report not knowing how or not feeling comfortable with
trying new strategies and tools to best support their students with ADHD. The research found
that when teachers feel supported and are allowed to openly talk about supporting these students,
they are more willing to try and keep trying to implement new strategies.

v
Acknowledgements
“Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding; in all your
ways submit to him, and he will make your paths straight.” (Proverbs 3:5-6). Mahalo Ke Akua
for all that you have blessed me with. Without you, I am nothing. To my husband Josh, the love
of my life, my rock, my support, my confidant, my shoulder to lean and cry on, my ear to bounce
ideas off of and to vent, and my biggest supporter, thank you! You have seen me at my worst,
my best, and everything in between. You are always there to pick me up, follow me, walk beside
me, and lead the way when I just don’t have the strength to do so. My life would be empty
without you. Thank you for pushing me to always try harder and supporting me to reach all of
my crazy goals! I love, appreciate, and cherish you more than I could ever say. I look forward to
growing “older” together and loving you more and more each day. To my children, Waika,
Tevai, and Kamaha`o, thank you for all of the sacrifices you have had to make in order for me to
reach my goals. Quality family time, financial sacrifices, and going “without” for a little while
have not gone unnoticed. I appreciate all of your endless and unwavering love and I look forward
to all of the time we have to be together in the days and years ahead. To my mom, thank you for
being so driven and such a hard worker. All that you have, you have gained through diligence,
sacrifice, dedication, and discipline. Thank you for setting that example for me. To my dad,
mahalo for showing me what selflessness truly means. I will never forget the time you literally
gave the shirt off your back to a guy because he told you he liked it. I miss and love you so
much. If only heaven wasn’t so far away. To my dearest sister Lei and my favorite brother-in-
law Jay, the best role models anyone could ever ask for. Thank you for loving and supporting my
husband and I endlessly and without hesitation and thank you for always loving my kids as your
own. God has definitely blessed us with the both of you! To aunty Maria, Uncle Ricky, and the

vi
rest of my `ohana, thank you for taking my children and entertaining them on the many
weekends that I just had to stay home and do homework all weekend long. The time you spent
with my children helped me to feel less guilty about not being able to take them on outings
because of the demands this program brought about. I am forever grateful for all of you, your
love, and your support. To uncle Shawn, thank you for putting the bug in my ear. I will forever
remember you telling Josh, “Watch, you going be married to one doctor one day!” Thank you for
encouraging me to continue my education and to pursue a goal I never knew I had until you
instilled the desire in my heart! Thank you, aunty Ali, for helping me to navigate the world of
online learning at the beginning of my educational journey at KCC. You set me up for success in
all of my future online learning endeavors. Mahalo to the wonderful na `anake of
Haloalaunuiakea Early Learning Center. Mahalo for holding down the fort each and every day,
especially on Thursdays and the weeks I needed to travel for immersion weekends at USC. I am
forever grateful and cherish all of you more than words could ever express! Your hard work,
time, effort, and dedication to our kula are worth more than a million dollars an hour and your
friendships I will hold forever near to my pu`uwai. To my chair, “Dr. H,” mahalo for all of the
back and forths, the reminders, guidance, and endless amounts of repetition to my never-ending
questions. You have a heart of gold and your selflessness has gotten me through this program.
Mahalo to Dr. Datta and Dr. Gallagher for being a part of my committee. Mahalo Dr. Brady for
your patience, guidance, and time in diligently working with me on my revisions. I am forever
grateful to all of you. To Ke Ali`i Pauahi, mahalo for instilling in me a world class education and
a love of learning that has proven to be eternal. I am forever indebted as a pua a Pauahi.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................... 1
Context and Background of the Problem .......................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions ................................................................ 4
Importance of the Study ................................................................................................... 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ................................................... 6
Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Dissertation ...................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................................. 9
Difficulties Experienced by Students With ADHD .......................................................... 9
Teachers’ Awareness, Knowledge, Education, and Training .......................................... 11
School-Based Interventions ........................................................................................... 14
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................. 18
Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 19
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter Three: Methodology ..................................................................................................... 26
Overview of Design ....................................................................................................... 26
Research Setting ............................................................................................................ 27
The Researcher .............................................................................................................. 28
Data Sources: Interviews ............................................................................................... 28
Instrumentation.............................................................................................................. 29

viii
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................ 30
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 30
Reliability and Validity .................................................................................................. 31
Ethics ............................................................................................................................ 32
Chapter Four: Findings.............................................................................................................. 33
Findings for Research Question 1 .................................................................................. 34
Findings for Research Question 2 .................................................................................. 49
Findings for Research Question 3 .................................................................................. 52
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 55
Chapter Five: Recommendations ............................................................................................... 57
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................................. 57
Recommendations for Practice....................................................................................... 60
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................ 64
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 65
Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 66
References ................................................................................................................................ 68
Appendix A: Interview Script .................................................................................................... 78
Appendix B: Consent to Participate Form ................................................................................. 79
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................ 82

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Participants 33

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Graphic Representation of Framework 24

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
In the United States of America, millions of children have been diagnosed with attention-
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). According to a national 2016 parent survey, an estimated
6.1 million children in the United States have been diagnosed with ADHD. These are placed in
general education classrooms for learning, as ADHD alone does not qualify a child for special
education “pull out” or “smaller class size” services.
There are significant gaps in teachers’ knowledge of ADHD and effective classroom
management strategies (Poznanski et al., 2018). At the start of their careers, many teachers feel
unprepared to manage challenging behaviors that come with ADHD (Greenberg et al., 2013).
Many of these feelings can be attributed to a lack of focus on classroom management in teacher
education programs as well as a lack of training and education in ADHD, its symptoms, and best
ways to support students with ADHD in general education classrooms (O’Neill & Stephenson,
2011). The absence of or shortfalls in support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms creates impediments to effective student learning.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2021) report 9.4% of U.S.
children between the ages of 2 and 17 have ADHD as of 2016, a 43% increase since 2003. The
high number of diagnoses produced an equally high number of documented complaints.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, between 2011 and 2016 alone, the Office on
Civil Rights received more than 1,600 complaints that involved allegations of discrimination
against students with ADHD. The most common complaint involved academic and behavioral
difficulties when these students were not properly evaluated for a disability or did not receive
effective interventions or related aids and services (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
2

Analyzing the support needed to effectively and positively educate and work with students with
ADHD is important to address to increase effective school-based support for these students.
Context and Background of the Problem
The professional field of focus in this study was elementary education in Hawai`i. In
Hawai`i, approximately 7.6% of children 2–17 years old have been diagnosed with some form of
ADHD (CDC, 2021). HIDOE schools tend to see a fluctuation in ADHD diagnoses from year to
year and have seen a spike in these numbers over the last 10 years. Participants were teachers of
grades kindergarten through fifth at Cottonwood Elementary who serve students with ADHD in
general education classrooms. General education classroom teachers employed by the Hawai`i
Department of Education (HIDOE) working at Cottonwood Elementary were the population of
focus. HIDOE is the only statewide public school district in the United States. As the official
state education agency, it consists of 257 public schools and 37 charter schools enrolling about
180,000 students. The department employs approximately 22,000 permanent full-time staff,
including about 13,000 teachers.
The initiatives and programs of the HIDOE, comprised of 15 complex areas, are
integrated by a series of state-level teams and leaders focused on meeting the strategic plan’s
goals. Each of the 15 areas comprises two to four school complexes, consisting of a high school
and the elementary and middle/intermediate schools that feed into it. The strategic plan, which
runs through 2030, provides a common foundation of expectations and supports for public
education. The plan centers on closing the achievement gap to ensure equity and excellence for
each student. An implementation plan focuses on three high-impact strategies: school design,
teacher collaboration, and student voice. This plan was created based on the mission and core
values of the organization as well as on the General Learner Outcomes for all students.
3

Nā Hopena A’o (HĀ) is an organization-wide framework, preserved in the Board of
Education’s policy, to develop the skills, behaviors, and complexions that are evocative of
Hawaiʻi’s unique makeup and to honor the qualities and values of the native language and
culture of Hawaiʻi. HIDOE believes HĀ is essential in cultivating learning environments that
support belonging, responsibility, excellence, aloha, total well-being, and Hawaiʻi as a whole.
HĀ belongs not just to the HIDOE but to all of the communities that make up the organization,
including the global community.
Schools within the HIDOE use both Common Core standards and Hawai`i Content and
Performance Standards III (HCPS III) as markers for what students should know and be able to
do. The following are the content areas on which students’ learning is based:
 Career and Technical Education: Hawaii Content and Performance Standards III (HCPS
III)
 English Language Arts/Literacy: Common Core
 Fine Arts: HCPS III
 Health: HCPS III
 Mathematics: Common Core
 Physical Education: HCPS III
 Science: Next Generation Science Standards
 Social Studies: Hawaii Core Standards for Social Studies (aligned to C3 Framework)
 World Languages: HCPS III
Student support is grounded in the Comprehensive Student Support System. This system
provides focused and responsive tiered supports backed by data. The system is utilized to
strengthen all students’ academic, social, emotional, and physical well-being with the goal of
4

augmenting their achievement. Under this plan, students eligible for special education and
related services obtain specially designed instruction based on their individualized education
program (IEP). Students between the ages of 3 and 22 are placed in the least confining
environment to prosper from a free and pertinent public education. The department also serves
students who have special needs due to other disabilities. Student safety is at the forefront of
every HIDOE school. The organization believes children must feel safe and supported to
maximize their potential at all times. The system highlights that nutrition and physical activity
are foundational to effective learning. HIDOE has a number of programs and supports to
safeguard students’ nutrition by ensuring they receive and eat nutritious meals and take part in
appropriate age-level physical activities to strengthen their physical wellness.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this project was to research and investigate effective practices and strategies to
increase school-based behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms. Three research questions guided this study:
1. What knowledge do general education classroom teachers possess about strategies to best
support students with ADHD in general education classes?
2. What factors influence general education classroom teachers’ motivation to best support
students with ADHD in general education classes?
3. What resources do teachers feel they need to better support students with ADHD in
general education classes?
Importance of the Study
Increasing school-based behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms is crucial to ensure they receive proper and effective support and educational
5

opportunities. There are several reasons to solve this problem of practice. According to the
HIDOE Strategic Plan (2021–2030), the department believes in each student’s unique strengths
and potential. To fulfill the commitment to each student, Hawaiʻi’s public schools promise to
achieve equity and excellence so that all students can identify and fulfill their life goals after
graduation. State offices, complex areas, and schools will apply their resources to ensure all
students have equal opportunities for a high-quality education. The consequences of not
examining the problem of practice in this field and organization will prevent upholding,
implementing, and meeting every student’s needs according to the strategic plan. Failure to
increase school-based support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms will
negatively impact their educational outcomes.
In addition, according to the U.S. Department of Education (2019), because no two
children with ADHD are alike, teachers must educate themselves and gain as much knowledge
as possible on the symptoms, strategies, and needs of children with this disability. Teachers’
knowledge of and attitude toward students with ADHD are critical and a reason this problem is
important to study (Hawkins et al., 1991). Many teachers lack basic information about the nature
of ADHD and comprehensive classroom management strategies geared towards these students
(Pfiffner et al., 2006).
Another reason this is important to study is that many teachers are not consistently using
effective teaching strategies with students diagnosed with ADHD. School-related difficulties are
the primary effects of ADHD. Studies on effective teaching strategies and interventions with
children with ADHD show their success in controlling the main symptoms of the disorder as
well as controlling disruptive behaviors and off-task behaviors (Miranda et al., 2006).
6

Finally, it is important to study this problem because students with ADHD rely on
positive teacher-student and parent-student relationships for their success. Students who do not
share an emotional connection or bond with their teacher struggle academically, socially, and
emotionally in the classroom (Rogers & Meek, 2015).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework used to examine this problem is social cognitive theory (SCT).
This theory suggests that people learn by observing others through social interactions,
experiences, and factors that influence their environment (Smith & Hitt, 2005). Thus, SCT was
used to identify general education classroom teachers’ strengths and weaknesses in utilizing
strategies, differentiation, interventions, and accommodations for students with ADHD. Teachers
were interviewed, and interview data will be used to create a handout of strategies general
education classroom teachers can utilize to increase their use of school-based behavioral support
for students with ADHD.
A modified gap analysis framework was utilized to examine this problem. This
framework is a systematic problem-solving approach to improve performance and achieve
organizational goals by identifying the human causes behind performance gaps (Clark & Estes,
2008). Once the causes behind the gaps are identified, organizations can work to create and
initiate the changes needed. This modified gap analysis framework was used to identify the
knowledge and skills required to increase school-based behavioral support for students with
ADHD in general education classrooms. This framework was additionally utilized to identify the
knowledge and skills the participants already have for working with these students. Another
critical factor identified utilizing this framework is teachers’ motivation to increase these school-
7

based behavioral supports as compared to other goals they still must work to achieve. The final
factor was the barriers to the use of school-based behavioral supports.
Definitions
The following concepts appear throughout this study and are important to define.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), according to the American Psychiatric
Association (2000), is one of the most common mental disorders affecting children. Symptoms
of ADHD include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
Teacher Efficacy is a teachers’ confidence in their ability to promote student learning
(Hoy, 2000).
School-Based Behavioral Supports are provided to students to positively affect their
growth (Durlak et al., 2011).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation includes five chapters. Chapter One consists of an introduction, context
and background, the purpose, the research questions guiding the study, and an overview of the
theoretical framework used. A brief overview of the methodology and definitions closes out this
chapter. Chapter Two consists of a literature review covering difficulties students with ADHD
experience in general education classrooms, increasing teacher awareness and knowledge of
ADHD, and increasing school-based interventions for students with ADHD. Additionally, this
chapter consists of an introduction and explanation of the conceptual framework for this
dissertation. Chapter Two concludes with a graphic representation of the framework and a
summary of the main points from the literature review. Chapter Three consists of the
methodology, research questions, overview of the methodological design, and a brief discussion
8

of each data collection method used as well as a completed data resources table. This chapter
concludes with a discussion on ethics, limitations, and delimitations pertaining to this study.
Chapter Four discusses the findings for each of the research questions. This includes the answers
for each of the research questions backed with evidence from the data collection. Additionally
included is a summary of all of the findings that came about throughout the study. Chapter Five
concludes the dissertation. It includes a discussion of the findings, recommendations for practice,
limitations, delimitations, and recommendations for future research. This chapter concludes the
dissertation with a brief overview of the study.

9

Chapter Two: Literature Review
This review covers literature under three topic areas that emerged from the review
process. These topic areas are difficulties experienced by students with ADHD in general
education classrooms, increasing teacher awareness and knowledge of ADHD, and increasing
school-based interventions for students with ADHD. Although the literature presented here has
been applied to a variety of contexts, this review focuses primarily on the literature’s application
to the problem of the need to increase effective school-based support for students with ADHD.
Difficulties Experienced by Students With ADHD
According to Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(CHADD), the most commonly known symptoms of ADHD, inattention, impulsivity, and
overactivity have caused difficulties for students at school. Children with ADHD frequently
experience behavior challenges, lowered academic performance and abilities, and difficulties
building meaningful relationships with peers. Students with ADHD also have difficulty paying
attention in non-selective activities and are hyperactive and impulsive (Hill & Turner, 2016).
Behavioral and Attention Challenges
Children with ADHD generally display various behavior challenges in the classroom,
dependent on their symptom’s profile. They may demonstrate behaviors such as inattention,
hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity, and they may experience impairment in academic and
behavioral performance, family and peer relationships, and self-esteem (Power et al., 2017). A
child with mainly inattentive symptoms might have difficulty following instructions and rules,
staying on task, and completing assignments (Pfiffner & Barkley, 1990). On the other hand, a
child experiencing impulsivity might voice out in class without permission or talk with other
students at inappropriate times (Pfiffner & Barkley, 1990). An overactive child might experience
10

problems sitting still, may play with objects not related to the task at hand, and may repetitively
move their hands or feet (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003). Typically, most children with ADHD exhibit
behavior problems related to at least two of these core symptom groups (APA, 2000). Because of
these behaviors, difficulties that cause lowered academic performance and abilities are typical
for these students (Harrison et al., 2020).
Lowered Academic Performances and Abilities
For students with ADHD, their academic performance and abilities are often
compromised because of their inability to remain focused and on task (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003).
These students may have a difficult time remaining focused long enough to complete tasks;
therefore, academic performance may suffer because of disorganization, such as misplacement of
books, supplies, and other materials needed to effectively and consistently complete work (APA,
2000; DuPaul & Stoner, 2003). Being overactive and impulsive in the classroom can lead to
inattention to tasks and assignments, which may result in misunderstanding requirements to
complete said tasks, and ultimately lead to failing to complete them (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003).
Behavioral difficulties related to ADHD are disruptive in the classroom to both teachers and
other students (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003; Pfiffner & Barkley, 1990). Because of this, children with
ADHD tend to struggle with building and maintaining positive and healthy relationships with
their peers (Barkley, 1998).
Challenges With Building Relationships
MacMillan et al. (1998) report that up to 70% of children with ADHD experience
disconnected friendships with peers. In addition, typically developing children report not
wanting to be friends with their peers with ADHD (Wheeler & Carlson, 1994), specifically those
who experience difficulties with overactivity and impulsivity (Jenkins & Batgidou, 2003).
11

Research has noted several possible reasons for the difficulties children with ADHD experience
in creating and maintaining positive relationships with their peers.
One of these reasons may be that children with ADHD exhibit behaviors considered
controlling, aggressive, and non-rule following (Erhardt & Hinshaw, 1994). These behaviors are
typically perceived as negative and prompt peers to rejecting them and exclude them from play
activities. Second, children with ADHD may respond inappropriately to peers because of their
inability to read social cues (Atkinson et al., 1997). These children tend to have lower levels of
self-esteem (Wheeler & Carlson, 1994), report feeling sad and lonely about not being liked by
their peers, and long to fit in (Chipkala-Gaffin, 1998). Lastly, research has found that teachers’
attitudes and behaviors toward a student with ADHD can impact other students’ perceptions of
that child (Atkinson et al., 1997). However, these behavioral challenges can often be addressed
when children are allowed to take part in tasks that pique their interest, especially when the task
is easy or repetitive (Greene, 1995) and when the tasks are presented at a level they can
understand (DuPaul & Power, 2000). The increasing number of school-aged students diagnosed
with ADHD highlights the need for increased teacher awareness and knowledge of the diagnosis.
Teachers’ Awareness, Knowledge, Education, and Training
Bussing et al. (2002) suggest there are approximately two million school-aged children
who have been diagnosed with ADHD. With such high numbers of diagnoses, there is a need for
increased teacher awareness and knowledge. Teachers’ attitudes and knowledge of ADHD, lack
of in-service education and training, and lack of knowledge on behavioral profiles and
characteristics of students with ADHD all increase teacher knowledge and awareness.
Teachers’ attitudes and knowledge influence classroom routines that can affect the performance
of students with ADHD. Teachers’ attitudes, expectations, and behaviors could have a lasting
12

impact on these students’ academic self-efficacy and success (Mulholland et al., 2015).
Therefore, both pre-service and in-service teachers need to have realistic favorable attitudes and
knowledge based on facts about the disorder (Anderson et al., 2012) from the beginning.
Increasing teachers’ knowledge of ADHD requires an increase in in-service education and
training.
Poznanski et al. (2018) assert that teachers lacked information on the behavioral profiles
of ADHD as well as extensive plans of action for classroom management. Teachers may utilize a
wide range of techniques for addressing disruptive behaviors and/or underachievement, but not
all of these are effective in supporting students with ADHD (Moore et al., 2017). Bradshaw and
Kamal (2013) report the importance of teachers understanding the characteristics of ADHD
because of the growing number of students who are diagnosed with this disorder. Currently,
information on symptoms, causes, and treatment is not included in many teacher preparation or
professional development programs (Goldstein et al., 2013).
Liang and Gao (2016) report that both pre-service and in-service teachers had very little
training, education, and knowledge regarding ADHD. Despite this, most teachers surveyed
viewed it as a valid diagnosis with educational implications and wanted more training on it.
Zentall and Javorsky (2007) report that classroom teachers lacked an appropriate amount of
knowledge, self-efficacy, and awareness of ADHD. In-service education can provide teachers the
skills and knowledge to manage challenging behaviors and improve academic, social, and
emotional student outcomes (Zentall & Javorsky, 2007). ReThink Together (2019) reports that
teachers should learn, practice, and master the following critical stages of support when working
with students with ADHD:

13

1. Stage One: Stop and Listen
Remind students of the importance of listening. Learning and mastering listening skills
will help students better understand what they’re learning and keep track of any tasks and
assignments.
2. Stage Two: Look and Think
Ask students to value their peers as role models and examples for reminders of what they
should be doing. Also, teach them to look at schedules and visual cues for reminders of
what is coming up next, what task needs to be completed next, and what direction they
are headed into.
3. Stage Three: Decide and Do
Finally, teach children with ADHD to commit to making effective and meaningful
choices and act and respond appropriately based on these choices. Always encourage
them to ask you questions if they ever feel lost or alone. (Help everyone stay organized
with rules and routines section)
Once teachers master effective and meaningful strategies to best support students with
ADHD, they also need to assess their efficacy in using and implementing these strategies.
Successful use of strategies and teaching includes looking at the students and comprehending
their visual cues, such as facial expressions that show confusion, understanding, emotional
frustration, or enjoyment. Teachers must follow students’ leads when it comes to deciphering
whether what they are doing is effective in supporting their needs for the day. Teachers must also
remember that strategies that are effective one day may not be effective the next day. Strategies
will need to change based on the students’ needs, moods, the lessons being taught, and the tasks
the students are asked to do. Lastly, teachers need to remember that working with students’
14

strengths and weaknesses will help tailor each day, lesson, strategy, and task to best support
students with ADHD. Along with teacher awareness and knowledge comes the need for the
effective use of school-based interventions. With a lack of in-service education and training,
teachers tend to lack information on the behavioral profiles and characteristics of ADHD.
School-Based Interventions
Because children spend much of their time in school or in a school-type setting,
meaningful and effective school-based interventions for students with ADHD are important.
Pfiffner et al. (2015) conclude that given the high rate of academic underachievement and
inattentiveness in general and/or inclusive classrooms, school-based interventions for these
students are recommended as much or even more than clinically based interventions. Federal
regulations have increased the chances that school-based interventions are part of treating this
disorder even though it may not legally entitle students to classroom accommodations and/or
special education services. Being in the general classroom increases the need for school-based
interventions. Most students diagnosed with ADHD spend a considerable amount of time in
general education classrooms, which highlights the need for effective school-based interventions.
The fact that the disorder is not presently recognized as a category of disability under the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, and the reality that most students diagnosed with it
are taught in general or inclusive classrooms, supports an increased need for school-based
interventions. These interventions are an essential part of a comprehensive treatment for ADHD
(Abramowitz & O’Leary, 2019). DuPaul et al. (2011) report that school-related difficulties are
commonly associated with ADHD. Effective school-based intervention strategies such as
effective classroom strategies, behavioral interventions, modifications to academic instruction,
and home-school communication programs help to support students with this disorder.
15

Effective Classroom Strategies
Dendy (2021) suggests that next to parents, teachers are some of the most influential
people in children's lives. When teachers effectively develop ADHD strategies, they show and
help students feel capable and worthwhile. Dendy (2021) also suggests strategies teachers can
implement to establish a supportive, structured classroom that will encourage learning, enforce
discipline, and boost self-esteem for all students. Dendy (2021) categorizes these strategies into
categories, including student-centered activities and choices, rules and routines,
accommodations, and partnering with parents, other teachers, and staff members. Each category
includes subcategories that encompass various classroom strategies teachers can incorporate to
better support students with ADHD. Students with ADHD benefit from assignments that suit
their skill level, being offered choices, having visual reminders, and encouraging learning that is
hands-on (Dendy, 2021).
Following classroom rules and routines and sticking will support ADHD students’ needs,
as they will know what will happen next, what is to come, what they can expect, and what is
expected of them. Rules and routines are critical tools these students depend on daily to be
successful. Accommodations such as allowing extended time on tests and assignments, reducing
distractions, utilizing positive peer models, allowing for movement, focusing on the positives,
and asking questions rather than reprimanding are strategies teachers can include in their daily
teaching (Dendy, 2021). Lastly, Dendy (2021) noted that partnering with parents by providing
open communications, feedback, and student monitoring can be extremely beneficial and critical
to these students’ success.
However, classroom strategies need parameters to work effectively. Parrish (2018)
postulates that classroom teachers need to create a sense of urgency for students with ADHD. To
16

create this, these students need clear deadlines to provide the adrenaline necessary to complete
tasks while also providing them the chance to learn, grasp, and master time management skills
(Parrish, 2018). Timing tasks that could be monotonous and boring could turn into a competition
with themselves. This may encourage students to want to do better and try harder to beat their
personal best (Parrish, 2018). Activating students’ interest and engaging their passions
encourages them to be more responsible and accountable for their own learning and provides
them with a sense of purpose and belonging in general education classrooms (Parrish, 2018).
Along with classroom strategies and interventions, students with ADHD also need support
through behavioral interventions.
Behavioral Interventions
Graczyk et al. (2005) report an urgent need for classroom teachers and support staff to
experience greater success in implementing school-based behavioral interventions for students
with ADHD. Support staff and classroom teachers lacked confidence in effectively using
common classroom behavioral interventions and strategies for these students (Graczyk et al.,
2005). Behavioral support strategies such as reinforced self-evaluation increase appropriate
social behavior and decrease negative social behaviors (DuPaul et al., 2011). Anger management
training that teaches children to recognize their internal anger cues and redirect their anger is
another school-based behavioral support strategy tool teachers can utilize (Frazier & Merrell,
1997). Along with increasing school-based behavioral support, teachers must create
modifications to academic instructions for students with ADHD.
Academic Modifications
Students with ADHD need modifications to academic instructions directly related to
supporting academic skills (DuPaul et al., 2011). Direct teaching of skills such as note-taking
17

and test performance increases these students’ success (Evans et al., 1995). Academic
interventions can be delivered through technology and peers (DuPaul et al., 2011). Technology-
assisted instruction in math and reading leads to significant improvements in on-task behavior
and academic performance as opposed to traditional written instruction and activities (Mautone
et al., 2005). Peer tutoring in math, reading, and/or spelling can increase on-task engagement and
better test performance for all students (Pfiffner et al., 2015). Academic modifications such as
these and others will increase school-based behavioral support for students with ADHD. Along
with these modifications comes the need to create and nurture solid school-home
communications to support students’ needs.
Home to School Communications
Educational institutions alone do not provide constant and effective support for students
with ADHD. Therefore, creating and nurturing solid school-home communication is crucial in
building a solid school-home relationship that will support students’ needs. Mautone et al. (2011)
report that school-home communication is key to supporting students with ADHD. These
students often experience significant disruption at home and school in their relationships with
parents, teachers, and peers due to increased challenges in working with the child in the
classroom (Mautone et al., 2011). Psychosocial interventions often focus on either family or
school relationships but must focus on both to effectively support students in all aspects of life
(Mautone et al., 2014). It is often necessary for a third party to encourage the development of a
collaborative partnership to most effectively support the child’s educational growth (Sheridan &
Kratochwill, 2008). It is desirable that the third party assess and monitor the quality of the
family–school relationship over time if this type of support and outreach is available. Family
18

involvement at home with the help of school-home communication and collaboration appears to
be the most effective ways for parents to support students’ school success (Mautone et al., 2011).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework used to examine this problem is SCT. This theory suggests
people learn by observing others through social interactions, experiences, and factors that
influence their environment (Smith & Hitt, 2005). This theory hypothesizes that while learning
occurs in a social context, it additionally occurs through reciprocal interactions of the
person/people, environment, and behavior (LaMorte, 2019). A few general education classroom
teachers and administrators at Cottonwood Elementary already utilize this theory through teacher
mentoring programs, teacher observations, and administration feedback. Information gathered
through these methods and procedures allows teachers to learn, observe, and use best practices to
increase effective school-based behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms.
A dominant attribute of SCT is the emphasis on social influences as well as on external
and internal social reinforcement. This theory considers the creative way individuals learn and
maintain behavior while considering the social environment in which individuals perform the
behavior (LaMorte, 2019). Throughout this study, SCT was utilized to identify ways
administrators and teachers at Cottonwood Elementary can build an open culture of learning
through constructive mentoring, observations, feedback, and open practice without fear of failure
or consequences. Ensuring this type of open culture will eliminate fear amongst teachers to
implement new strategies in general education classrooms to increase school-based behavioral
support for students with ADHD.
19

Furthermore, this theory takes into account a person’s past experiences, which influence
whether learning and behavioral application will occur. These past experiences influence
reinforcement of learning, expectations, and expectancies, all of which outline whether a person
will engage in learning and applied behaviors (LaMorte, 2019). Cottonwood Elementary’s
general education classroom teachers’ past experiences vary. Therefore, SCT was utilized to
identify teachers whose past experiences have effectively influenced their learning and
behavioral application of effective classroom strategies to best support students with ADHD.
These teachers may then be utilized to mentor other teachers to increase the types of support
described herein. When people observe someone else modeling or performing an appropriate
behavior and the reactions of that behavior, they tend to remember what they see and learn and
the behavior that arises with it. Observing a model may encourage the learner to engage in
behavior they may have already learned.
Thus, SCT was used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of general education
classroom teachers in utilizing strategies, differentiation, interventions, and accommodations for
students with ADHD. Data were examined to find leaders who modeled desired and effective
behaviors. Once these leaders were identified, administrators were asked to utilize these teachers
to model appropriate behaviors for others to learn. Said leaders were then interviewed, and the
interview data were used to create a checklist for increasing school-based behavioral support for
students with ADHD.
Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework provides organizations with a greater
understanding and insight into their current performance compared to their goals. This approach
requires the researcher to focus on how to improve people’s effectiveness, aids in identifying
20

actions that will have the greatest impact, differentiates which actions or interventions are the
best fit for the organization, is data-driven, and minimizes mistakes and unintended
consequences (Clark & Estes, 2008). The core of this analytic approach is to gauge the essential
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational support that stakeholders have to achieve
the organization’s goals. The gap analysis framework can support organizations in developing
recommendations for change and improvement. This approach can be used in post-application
evaluation and may provide insight into the effectiveness of strategies and actions taken to close
performance gaps and improve goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This approach focuses on three key factors that contribute to potential gaps in knowledge,
motivation, and barriers in organizational change. Each is an essential mediator of goal
achievement. In this study, knowledge is what teachers need to know and the skills they need to
possess to effectively and positively support students with ADHD in their general education
classrooms. Motivation, in this environment, is commitment, persistence, and mental effort put
forth. Lastly, barriers in organizational change are the deterrents, structures, or lack of resources
that prevent goal accomplishment.
The gap analysis framework was utilized in a variety of ways. First, it was used to
examine teachers’ perceptions of school-based support for students with ADHD in general
education classrooms at Cottonwood Elementary. Second, this framework was used to identify
teachers’ knowledge and motivation for working with students with ADHD. Third, this approach
was used to identify both current assets and needs that teachers believe influence the use of
successful strategies for teaching students with ADHD. Utilizing this framework was beneficial
in identifying what teachers already know and what they need to learn, relearn, and/or put into
practice to support students with ADHD.
21

The rates of ADHD demonstrate there is at least one student in every elementary
classroom affected by this disorder (Froehlich et al., 2007). Most are placed in general education
classrooms (Schnoes et al., 2006) and display behaviors that are particularly stressful for their
teachers (Greene et al., 2002). As many as 80% of these children experience notable academic
problems, and up to 30% qualify for a learning disorder (Cantwell & Baker, 1991). With such
rates, teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influence how they work with
and best support these students in general education classrooms, so these must be sufficient and
effective. Teachers with greater knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources usually
have better attitudes and behave more positively toward students with ADHD (Bekle, 2004).
This evidence suggests the need for all teachers to be knowledgeable about ADHD and to be
motivated to identify and organized to best support these student’s behavioral and academic
needs in general education classrooms at all times.
Knowledge
In the United States alone, elementary teachers report a lack of knowledge and skills to
address their students’ mental health needs. Only 28% agree that they possess the appropriate
knowledge, and 34% agree that they have the skills needed to best support students with ADHD
in general education classroom settings (Stormont et al., 2011). There is considerable evidence
that general education classroom management strategies, such as rules, routines, consequences,
and rewards, as well as targeted interventions such as daily reports, are effective in improving
academic and behavioral functioning in children with ADHD (Owens et al., 2018). However, it
can be difficult to implement such classroom management strategies with high efficacy because
of a lack of knowledge on said strategies, an understanding of how to use them effectively, and
confidence in implementing them. Educators’ lack of knowledge on these as well as other
22

intervention strategies can be a significant problem in general education classrooms, as
inconsistent implementation can hinder student outcomes and increase the need for more
expensive special education services. These difficulties and struggles amongst teachers at
Cottonwood Elementary may make it difficult to increase school-based behavioral support for
students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
Motivation
Stress that causes a lack of teacher motivation can be a measure of the degree of
compatibility between a student’s capacities, motivations, and behavior style and the teacher’s
expectations and demands (Greene, 1995; Greene et al., 1997). Teachers’ beliefs about their
ability to perform a task constitute their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is a belief
about the level of competence a person expects to display in a given situation. Self-efficacy is
key to teacher motivation. Teachers with a high level of self-efficacy tend to exhibit greater
levels of planning and organization, are more open to new ideas, are more willing to experiment
with new ideas and strategies, tend to work longer with students who are struggling, increase
their efforts when their performance falls short of their goals, and persist longer (Thoonen et al.,
2011).
Organization
Research has found that organizational influences for teachers are important to student
success (Rosen et al., 1990; Winitzky et al., 1994). Creating efficacious instructional classroom
procedures requires an ongoing and up-to-date understanding of effective classroom processes,
differentiated instruction, and student needs that contribute to positive and constructive learning
environments. Teachers’ understanding of effective classroom processes and procedures and
differentiated instruction both require changes based on changes in students’ needs. School
23

administrators must offer teachers ongoing professional development and effective leadership to
support their ongoing growth. Educators report being unprepared for and reluctant to include
students with ADHD and other challenging behaviors in general education classrooms (Maag &
Katsiyannis, 1999). Given that students with ADHD spend the majority of their time in general
education classrooms without supplementary services (Zentall, 2006), this sentiment must be
explored.
Gaps in research identified the lack of teacher education and ongoing training in
classroom management and organizational approaches to best support students with ADHD in
general education classrooms. At Cottonwood Elementary, some general education teachers may
lack efficient and effective classroom management skills and organizational practices to best
support students with ADHD. This gap may cause these students to struggle with academic tasks
or with building positive relationships with peers. Ongoing professional development and
effective and positive leadership are key elements to providing effective resources and support
for these teachers.
Figure 1 represents the conceptual framework utilized to examine this problem. The goal
of increasing school-based behavior support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms at Cottonwood Elementary was achieved by identifying teachers’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support from administrators and the organization. Teachers’
knowledge and motivation were identified. Organizational influences on these aspects were also
identified. Then, these influences were modified, changed, or kept the same to increase school-
based behavioral support for these students.

24

Figure 1
Graphic Representation of Framework

Summary
Three main topics emerged in the literature. These topic areas were difficulties
experienced by students with ADHD in general education classrooms, increasing teacher
25

awareness and knowledge of this disorder, and increasing school-based interventions for these
students. Although the literature presented here applies to various contexts, this review focused
on its application to the need to increase school-based behavioral support for students with
ADHD.

26

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to analyze the support needed to effectively and positively
educate and work with students with ADHD in general education classrooms.”. This chapter
includes the research questions that guided the study and an overview of the study’s design. A
description of the research setting and the researcher is included as well. Data sources, collection
procedures, and analysis are reviewed in detail and cover participants and instrumentation as
well. Strategies for maximizing validity and reliability for this study are discussed here as well.
A discussion of ethics, limitations, and delimitations in this study conclude this chapter. The
following research questions guided this study:
1. What knowledge do general education classroom teachers possess about strategies to best
support students with ADHD in general education classes?
2. What factors influence general education classroom teachers’ motivation to best support
students with ADHD in general education classes?
3. What resources do teachers feel they need to better support students with ADHD in
general education classes?
Overview of Design
The methodological design of this study is a qualitative approach through interviews to
collect data. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
describe convenience sampling as a technique in which the researcher relies on people who are
convenient sources of data when selecting study participants. This type of sampling is a non-
probability sampling method that occurs when the researcher selects elements for the sample
(Black, 2010).
27

General pre-interview questions were utilized to identify full-time certified general
education teachers at a public elementary school for grades kindergarten through fifth.
Additionally, questions were used to identify teachers who were teaching at least one student
diagnosed with ADHD. Identifying teachers who specifically meet these criteria led to the
method of data collection: interviews.
The overall approach for this study was semi-structured. Semi-structured interviews
allow researchers to develop in-depth accounts of experiences and perceptions with interviewees
(Cousin, 2011). Semi-structured interviews allowed for preparing questions beforehand to help
guide conversation and stay on topic. This structure allowed for open-ended responses from
participants for more in-depth information and encouraged two-way communication between the
interviewer and the interviewee (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, this type of interview
allowed respondents time to open up and feel more comfortable sharing on a sensitive topic.
Interviewing these teachers allowed for identifying how efficacious they were in supporting
students with ADHD, strategies they were using to support these students, and the types of
assistance they needed to better support these students.
Research Setting
The setting in which this study occurred was Cottonwood Elementary School in Hawai’i.
There are approximately 450 students enrolled at this school in grades kindergarten to fifth.
There are approximately 30 teachers and approximately 20 support staff and faculty.
Cottonwood Elementary has seen a spike in the number of ADHD diagnoses amongst students
over the past 10 years. Additionally, there are students in grades kindergarten and first who have
already been or are currently being observed to be diagnosed with ADHD, which makes
Cottonwood Elementary an appropriate setting for this study.
28

The Researcher
In my previous role, I was employed as a teacher with HIDOE for five years. One
position I held was at Cottonwood Elementary. I was a general education classroom teacher who
worked with students with ADHD. However, I have not been employed by HIDOE for the past
seven years. Participants were teachers I previously worked with and teachers whom I had not
met prior to interviewing them. I do believe general education classroom teachers need to
increase school-based behavioral support for students with ADHD. These students do not always
get the support they need to help them succeed daily. Therefore, behavioral support for them
needs to be increased.
Children diagnosed with ADHD portray behaviors such as inattentiveness, interrupting,
trouble waiting their turn, emotional turmoil, fidgeting, unfinished tasks, lack of focus and
organization, forgetfulness, daydreaming, and avoidance. These children struggle with building
healthy reciprocated relationships with peers as well as with teachers. Because of these qualities,
teachers and other students may have a preexisting stigma towards these students. Questions and
conversations were purposefully not geared to any one specific student, situation, feeling, or
example.
Data Sources: Interviews
The target population for interviews consisted of general education elementary school
teachers currently teaching at least one student diagnosed with ADHD. These teachers were
appropriate for this study because they work directly with students with ADHD in a general
education classroom. Utilizing these teachers allowed for identifying how efficacious they are in
supporting students with ADHD, strategies they use to support these students, and the help they
29

need to better support these students. Eight teachers participated in this study. Each was
employed by HIDOE and teaching at Cottonwood Elementary.
Instrumentation
The interview questions were open-ended qualitative questions. These were categorized
into one of three groups: self-efficacy, teacher pedagogy, and teacher growth and development.
Each question was specifically related to one of the three research questions. The idea of self-
efficacy comes from SCT (Bandura, 1997). It refers to a teacher’s belief in his/her ability to deal
with and complete tasks, obligations, and challenges related to his/her professional role (Caprara
et al., 2006). Interview questions covered under this group were designed to identify participants’
knowledge, confidence, feelings, and efficacy in supporting students with ADHD in general
education classrooms.
Persaud (2018) reports that teacher pedagogy refers to how teachers teach. It is the
relationship between learning techniques and culture and is determined based on an educator’s
beliefs about how learning should, and does, take place. Pedagogy must include meaningful
classroom interactions and respect between educators and learners (Persaud, 2018). Additionally,
it must take into consideration the context in which learning takes place and with whom. It is
based on the process and the strategies used to achieve meaningful cognitive learning (Persaud,
2018). Interview questions covered under this topic sought to uncover participants’ feelings
about working with ADHD students, tools and strategies used to support them, views on
differentiation, and classroom management tools and strategies used to support these students.
For teachers, growth and development involve building up knowledge of their content area,
practical experiences, effective teaching strategies, and consistently identifying and
understanding what works best and what does not work for students (Weimer, 2008). Interview
30

questions covered under this topic focused on training and education participants had already
received what they felt they still need to receive to better support students with ADHD. Also
discussed were barriers and challenges that hinder their ability to support students with ADHD.
These questions also pertained to the resources and procedures needed to support participants’
growth and development in this area. An interview script was used during each interview
(Appendix A)
Data Collection Procedures
Data was collected during the workweek after school was finished and all students had
left. Teachers were asked to participate in the interviews if they were full-time general education
teachers and had taught students with ADHD. I interviewed teachers through online meeting
platforms. Teachers remained in their classrooms or homes, and I did not come into contact with
any of them. Interviews for teachers who gave permission to be recorded were recorded. Note-
taking was utilized for teachers who chose not to be recorded. I transcribed audio recordings
once all interviews were complete to ensure confidentiality and accuracy.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began during data collection. Analytic memos were written after each
interview. I documented my thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation
to the conceptual framework and research questions. Once interviews were complete, I
transcribed and coded them. In the first phase of analysis, I utilized open coding. I looked for
empirical codes and applied a priori codes from the conceptual framework. In the second phase
of analysis, empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third
phase of data analysis, I identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the
conceptual framework and study questions.
31

Reliability and Validity
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure or the extent to which a measure
produces the same answer however and whenever it is used. Psychologists typically categorize
reliability into three different categories (Price et al., 2013). These categories are over time or
test-retest reliability, across items or internal consistency, and across different researchers or
inter-rater reliability. Validity is the degree to which the results from a measure represent the
variable it was intended to (Price et al., 2013).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) partly define triangulation as data collected from follow-up
interviews with the same people (p. 245). To ensure the reliability of the findings, data were
compared and cross-checked between participants. Interpretations were taken back to
participants, and participants were asked to evaluate the extent to which it portrayed their views.
Interviews were conducted at the most convenient and comfortable time and place for
participants to create a less stressful experience and ensure that participation in this study was
not a burden added to their other responsibilities. Participants were asked to think strategically
about all questions and respond in the most meaningful way possible. Interview questions were
the same for all participants to ensure the reliability of their responses.
Triangulation may also be defined as interview data collected from people with different
perspectives or experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure the validity of the research,
participants portrayed a variety of perspectives. They held anywhere between one and over 15
years of experience teaching and taught at least one student diagnosed with ADHD in a general
education classroom.
Participants also held varying levels of knowledge on ADHD obtained through higher
education, professional development training, and/or personal experiences. To further ensure
32

validity, participants were not interrupted while answering interview questions, fieldnotes were
as exact as possible, and most interviews were recorded and later transcribed.
Ethics
The protection of human participants who take part in scientific research is a basic
responsibility of any investigator (Marshall, 2003). Working with human participants, it was my
responsibility to make sure they were protected at all times. Confidentiality of all participants’
information was held throughout the study. Information was not shared with anyone. I repeatedly
reminded interviewees that their participation was voluntary and not required. Considering the
audience for the research and re-envisioning the informed consent process can help avoid
confidentiality problems that might otherwise lead to not reporting the most detailed data
(Kaiser, 2009). Information forms were electronically distributed and reviewed with all
participants prior to interviews. When participants agreed to the terms stated on the informed
consent forms, they signed the form electronically and received a copy of the form. Participants
were asked if they were willing to participate after reading the information sheet. Furthermore,
they were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time for any reason.
Participants were asked to give consent to be recorded (Appendix B). Participants were told that
the information collected through the interviews would be kept in confidence for a term of one
year or less and then destroyed once the study was completed.

33

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to analyze the support needed to effectively and positively
educate and work with students with ADHD in general education classrooms. This was
important to address to increase effective school-based support for these students. Participants
were full-time certified general education elementary teachers employed at a public school. They
were currently teaching or had in the past taught at least one student diagnosed with ADHD. The
methodological design of this study was qualitative. As presented in Table 1, participants’
experiences and years of teaching varied from 2 to 15 years.

Table 1
Participants
Pseudonym Years of teaching
Sarah 2
Beth 3
Corrin 4
Monica 6
Jessie 7
Jay 12
Jane 14
Rose 15

34

Findings for Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What knowledge do general education classroom
teachers possess about strategies to best support students with ADHD in general education
classes?” Participants discussed their understanding of how to best support students with ADHD
in their classrooms, where they learned about these strategies, and which strategies/tools they
implement to support differentiation for students with ADHD. Participants also compared and
reported on how these changed from pre-COVID times and how they gauge the effectiveness of
the strategies they use both online and in person. Raw data was utilized to identify common
themes amongst participants to best identify general education classroom teachers’ knowledge
about strategies to best support students with ADHD. Common themes that emerged were
utilizing effective and up-to-date classroom management strategies, having the ability to seek
guidance and help from fellow teachers and support staff, and taking part in ongoing professional
development.
Teacher Understanding of How to Best Support Students With ADHD
Participants’ understanding of how to best support their students with ADHD consisted of
a variety of strategies. Five out of eight interview participants reported that teachers’ education
on understanding knowledge and becoming familiar with specific strategies is the first and most
important step. The remaining participants reported that incorporating clear rules and routines at
the beginning of the school year and providing more supervision for students with ADHD were
extremely successful tools to utilize. Sarah stated,
My understanding of how teachers can best support students with ADHD within our
classrooms means educating ourselves on how we accurately provide them with the
support that they need to be successful in the classroom. I believe having the knowledge
35

and becoming familiar with specific strategies that help students with ADHD is the first
step.
Jay mentioned the importance of staying on task,
To me, one of the best ways to support students with ADHD is to start at the beginning of
the year setting up very clear rules and routines. I spend a LOT of time making sure the
students are very familiar with what is expected of them. I feel like it really helps my
students with ADHD to stay on task when they know exactly what to expect in our day-
to-day routines.
Jessie mentioned, “Providing clear expectations and feedback, though that is for all students, not
just students with ADHD.” Rose stated, “Teachers can ask a school-level counselor, check
accommodations within the students IEP, seek out strategies through literature, proven research,
or request PDs.”
Teachers delineated seeking support from school-level counselors, understanding and
putting into practice accommodations outlined in the students’ IEPs or behavior plans, seeking
strategies through literature and online reviews, proven research, or requesting professional
development courses were also reported to be effective. Jessie said,
My understanding of how to best support students with ADHD is limited to the list of
accommodations, modifications, and suggestions provided to me by other school support
staff. I also often seek out PD classes to learn new strategies and/or practices to try out. I
find that it is super important to keep up to date with the latest research as well.
Jay stated, “If they have a formal 504 or something, then that’s a little bit easier because then I
can strategize with the whole team on how to best support these students, physically in the
classroom and virtually as well.” Rose added,
36

I have gone for PDs, whether it was my admin asking us, “Hey, there’s this PD. Who
wants to go?” Or whether it was me seeing something online: “Oh, well this is a great
PD. I should sign up.” I have done over the years a handful, I would say, half a dozen
maybe, PDs around accommodations or students’ triggers and identifications of things
and those types of things.
Participants also reported that talking with students’ families as well as with students
themselves about what works for them and where they need support are effective ways to build
trusting relationships. Getting to know students on a personal and meaningful level helps
determine what strategies to implement during daily routines and lessons. Corrin said,
This also means talking with the families of the student and the student themselves about
what works for them and what they may need assistance with. Getting to know your
ADHD students is very important because it will help you to determine what strategies to
implement within your daily routines or lessons.
Beth mentioned trust as an important factor:
Also, right away, when starting the school year, building a trusting and close relationship
with the students is extremely important to me. I have found that when they are
comfortable with me, they are also more willing to do the work and respect me while
teaching.
Jane said she talks to the students to get to know them better and to learn about what their needs
are:
So, sometimes I’m learning it from them, and I’m asking them, “Okay, so you had a
really hard time in math today, staying focused on what we were doing. What was
distracting you, what can we do differently to help you tomorrow? What can we do to
37

make it better?” And they kind of know, for themselves, even in first grade, what might
help them a little bit, or what we could try.
Participants reported offering choices, preferential seating, utilizing fidgeting tools,
implementing hands-on learning, utilizing visual aids, “chunking,” allowing frequent breaks, and
providing extended time on assignments. Jane provided an example:
In my classroom, I have found that students with ADHD respond really well when I give
them choices within choices. Instead of asking the student to show their learning in one
particular way, I like to offer them a bunch of things to choose from. It seems to help
them be more willing and excited to complete work. I also really try to make sure I’m
doing teaching that requires active participation of the students so that they stay engaged.
Hands-on learning is always a winner with ADHD students!
Sarah shared her strategies for helping students focus and remain on task,
So, in the physical classroom and online, I think some of the similarities of supporting
them is providing work in a chunked kind of format. So, there’s not 30 minutes of
something happening at one time, right? Because for early childhood, that’s kind of a
norm anyway, where you don’t want to go super long with curriculum or with teaching.
But for students that have trouble just functioning and focusing for a period of time,
that’s huge too, again, more so for them. So, to give them small chunks of things they can
accomplish and they can do.
Jessie said, “Offering breaks after extended learning time and chunking of assignments by
breaking into smaller, manageable parts so as not to overwhelm the students. When students are
in-person, I am also able to limit distractions through preferential seating.” Beth said,
38

I had a student and he told me he wanted to chew something at the top of his pencil. And
that was going to help him concentrate on his writing. So, we did. We got on one of those
little things from the counselor.
Monica shared her strategies for allowing movement to help students focus,
The movement is part of, for them, how they’re learning. They’re just learning through
that movement, in a sense of like, how I would blink my eyes. For them, there’s the “not
being able to be still moments” that are just part of who they are, in that way. And so,
trying to accommodate that ...give them something they can like, the squeeze thing or the
thing on their chair. I mean, those are some of the biggest things that can impact their
academics, because when their body is doing the motion, and they’re not even thinking
about it, they’re then focusing on the learning.
Jay shared about how breaks help his students remain on task and focused,
When I notice a student struggling with attention, I often try to seat them towards the
front of the classroom, and I am that teacher that practices using the zone of proximity.
Another strategy that was once only used for ADHD students, but now utilized with all
the students, is giving mini-breaks throughout the period. This can include a simple
restroom or water break, a stand and stretch, Go Noodle, dancing it out, or a quick brain
break game. Over the years, I have also collected items that help those students that often
fidget: hand fixtures, bands for their feet, or flexible seating even.
More importantly, participants reported that every student is different, so teachers must
understand that a strategy may work for one student but not work for another, and a strategy may
work one day but not the next. Participants also reported that educators must keep trying, never
give up, and remind themselves to be patient and flexible. Monica said, “Every student is
39

different, so a strategy may work for one of your kids, but not assist another. As educators, we
have to keep trying (often a variety at a time) and remind ourselves to be patient and flexible.”
Sarah shared ideas on trying different strategies at different times,
If something doesn’t work for one student, it doesn’t mean I’m not going to try it the next
time because it might work for that other student. And so there are kids, for example, for
even the fidgeters and the movers, some kids want the thing on their chair that they can
kick with their feet, and some kids don’t. That’s not working for them. And, so, I think,
strategy-wise, I may use some more or less, depending on who’s in the room and what
works with them, rather than a broad, oh, I’m not going to use that, because it didn’t
work this time.
Rose expressed how strategies may work one day, but not the next day,
I always try to remember that things like preferential seating, choices, chucking of
information, etc. that work on Monday for Sam may not work for Sam on Friday. The
biggest thing I think all educators must remember is that strategies that you implement
one day may not work again the next day so keep changing it up if it needs to be changed
to make sure that students are always being supported. Educators also need to remember
that you can never just say, “I’m done! That’s all I got.” Because you need to constantly
keep trying. Be patient and be flexible.
Sources of Strategies
Participants described a variety of sources that contributed to their inventory of strategies.
Higher education courses, personal experiences, professional development courses, fellow
educators, school counselors, school-based support staff, mentor teachers, and natural instinct
were key elements that lengthened their lists of effective strategies and tools for best supporting
40

their students with ADHD. Keeping abreast of the latest research through online and printed
materials was also reported as key. Mentor teachers and a natural instinct were key elements that
lengthened their lists of effective strategies and tools for best supporting their students with
ADHD. Corrin said, “Training would have been provided by the school’s student services
coordinator who provides teachers with strategies and resources that teachers can use when
working with students who have ADHD.” Beth said,
Any type of knowledge I’ve acquired about ADHD has come from classes I’ve taken
while getting my master’s degree in education, or professional development courses I
have taken independently. From my experience, the school-level counselors can also
provide a wealth of knowledge or strategies that can help assist when it comes to working
with students that have ADHD as well.
Jane shared where she learned how to best support students with ADHD,
I must have learned about it somewhere along lines in Queens College. I got my
bachelor’s and my master’s at Queens College. Because there must have been something
in class about differentiation and accommodating. Maybe it wasn’t labeled necessarily, or
maybe there wasn’t, but, I mean, there has to have been something. However, that being
said, I didn’t come out dual certified, so there wasn’t a super strong focus in that field of
supporting students, or extra services. But then I think it just comes from me. It’s on-the-
ground learning, watching others and some of their strategies, and at the same time, my
innate go-to place of teaching is to make sure that every student is learning in the best
way they can.
Monica shared some of her sources of learning,
41

I’ve learned these things from several sources over the years. Some in my education
program in college, some from my mentor teachers over the years, some from school
counselors offering tips for my ADHD students, and some just came naturally while
learning first-hand what works with ADHD students in my class.
Sarah shared sources of such strategies,
Many of these strategies could have come from having experience raising kids with
ADHD: my little brother and son. Seeing what things they needed to have in place in
order to be successful along the years helped me formulate ideas and try things out.
While getting my master’s degree, I took some courses that discussed reaching various
types of students in the classroom including those with ADHD.
Along with these, participants also reported strategies that worked well for providing
differentiated instruction for these students.
Strategies for Differentiating
All participants agreed that all students benefit from some level of differentiation.
Participants stated that strategies such as setting clear expectations at the beginning of the year,
utilizing small group instruction, consistently providing clear feedback, allowing for breaks
between lessons, extended time on assignments, “chunking” of work, and preferential seating to
lessen potential distractions were all effective tools.
Participants also reported other differentiation strategies, such as allowing students to
help create class rules and expectations, “short and sweet” instructions and feedback, using items
to help with fidgeting, getting to know their students on a personal level, and visual cues like
projecting lessons and key vocabulary on the board. Jay said,
42

Other things I implement to help with organizations like binders, dividers, use of Post-its,
planner, or checklists. I also try to avoid things that may cause distractions like posters
covering the walls, clutter on or in the desk (usually kept away in a cubby), etc. I often
try to chunk, shorten, or split up assignments to prevent them from becoming
overwhelmed.
Corrin shared her strategies for differentiating instruction for her students,
Having a short list of classroom rules and referring to them daily. The students come up
with five classroom rules that ensure we have a safe environment for learning and
positive relationships. I don’t do more than five because too many rules are too hard to
remember, are often broken, and cause anxiety.
Jessie shared effective classroom strategies,
Short and sweet works best and tends to be successful. I also make sure there is a regular
routine and always provide a visual schedule to the students, whether it’s a copy in their
binder, online in Google Classroom, or on the board.
Rose shared ways she personalizes differentiation for each student’s needs,
I definitely try to provide accommodations depending on each individual student and the
needs they display. Some examples of things I’ve had to use in the past are chunking up
assignments with more frequent breaks in between, extended time for certain activities or
tests, preferential seating to reduce distraction, movement breaks.
Jane said, “getting to know my students, what makes them ‘tic.’ By understanding their interests
and HOW they like to learn, it helps me to make choices that will benefit them.”
Monica attributed small group instruction to her differentiation success,
43

Small group instruction is probably the number one way I feel successful differentiating
to meet my students’ needs. Breaking into small groups allows me to teach what that
group needs specifically and helps diminish distraction because I am working with only a
few students at a time.
In addition, interviewees revealed having students repeat directions to them to check for
understanding, giving as much one-on-one time as possible, and maintaining “low-to-no” clutter
on the desk and classroom all proved successful in supporting differentiated instruction. Corrin
said, “During lessons, I often repeat important words or phrases, record key vocab on board, and
have students repeat directions back to me.” Beth said, “I have also found that meeting one-on-
one with them and providing short and specific feedback works best, as well as always following
up.” Sarah said, “Working with students one-on-one in small group settings or individually is
one of the most effective ways I have found to differentiate instruction. This has helped
tremendously in teaching and supporting students at the exact level they are at.” Although these
strategies were successful in the classrooms physically, COVID brought on new challenges and
lessened their effectiveness on online learning platforms.
Differences After COVID
Although COVID brought many changes to education, all participants concluded
utilizing the same classroom strategies and tools to teach students with ADHD online.
Participants reported utilizing strategies with online learning more often than with in-person
learning. However, participants also reported that utilizing these strategies were a struggle at
times because of the inability to control what goes on in students’ homes while online learning is
taking place. Corrin shared utilizing more body breaks with online learning as opposed to in-
person learning,
44

So, one of the other things online. I did it in the classroom too, but more so online, is
breaks, body breaks. After we finish calendar, everyone stand up, do five jumping jacks,
go, kind of things and just doing more of those in between things as we do the transitions
because they need it. They’re getting up, they’re moving, their brain is getting oxygen.
Beth shared utilizing all strategies more often with online learning as opposed to in-person
instruction,
I still practice all the strategies, if not more than before. I think now the entire class
benefits from these strategies and not just the ADHD students. Because of this, lesson
chunking, frequent breaks, repetition of key info, and many of these strategies used to
support students with ADHD happen more often and are beneficial for all the
students…some of these strategies are difficult to practice with “virtual learning” ...zone
of proximity is minimal and having many of the assignments in a digital format can be a
hard adjustment for these students.
Jane shared utilizing the same strategies online as she would with in-person learning but she did
report that they were a little harder to implement at times. She stated,
I am still able to use the same strategies as if students were in the classroom. Students
may not always have their cameras on during virtual meetings, so it can be a challenge to
support students if I am unable to see them.
However, they also outlined that these strategies were challenging to implement.
Obstacles such as a lack of proximity, distractions at home, and lower classroom management
control elements all contributed to the unsuccessful implementation of traditionally successful
strategies. Jay said,
45

Online, it is impossible to oversee both small groups and the whole group at the same
time. Often, I would be working beyond school hours to make the time to meet with my
ADHD students who needed one-on-one or small group support.
Jessie said, “I have no control on each students’ home environment and therefore, my ADHD
students are much more distracted and unmotivated.” Rose said,
It’s a lot more challenging post-COVID in a distance learning format because they’re in
an environment that’s not completely controlled. I have students in their households
where pots and pans are clanging and all kinds of things are happening in the
background. And there are students getting distracted.
To identify successful implementation, teachers identified that they must gauge the effectiveness
of each of these strategies.
Gauging Effectiveness
Teachers rely on various indicators to spot the efficacy of the strategies they use to
support students with ADHD. Participants described a variety of these indicators, and all agreed
that online learning has made it more difficult to rely on these indicators daily. Participants
reported utilizing identifying factors such as in-class discussions to check for understanding of
content, facial expressions, and completion of assignments. Students exhibiting on-task
behaviors like responding to prompts, completing assignments, and taking part in discussions, as
well as off-task behaviors like fidgeting, not understanding content, not completing assignments,
or disrupting others, are also signs of ineffective use of strategies. Monica said,
Participation in discussions to check for understanding and when I am able to see the
child’s face (either in-person or with their camera on) are ways I can determine if they are
focused/on task or need support in understanding their task.
46

Jay shared signs that he looks for to check for effectiveness of strategies being used,
I can see whether they are effective or not by observing the students’ on-task behavior.
By giving them a set routine, a schedule, checklists to redirect them, the goal is to keep
them on task without constant verbal reminders. So, if I have these in place, but the
ADHD student is still struggling to stay on task and is too distracted to redirect
themselves, then this tells me I need to try other strategies based on the individual’s
needs.
Jessie identified student inattentiveness as a sign of ineffective use of strategies,
If the student takes constant breaks but still can’t concentrate, I can try other strategies
like fidget toys or flexible seating. With online learning, it is difficult to get a true
analysis of the strategies in place and if they are ineffective or if it is just learning from
home and complications that come with that situation. This year, I have asked these
students what makes learning difficult from home and what they need to make it easier.
Rose said, “Are my students engaged? Are they looking at me? Are they responding to
discussion prompts? Can they explain back to me something I just read? There are lots of
verbally checking in with my ADHD students.” Beth said,
The biggest thing I rely on are discussions I have with students. This allows me to check
in with them individually to see if they are getting it or not. If they are showing signs of
on-task behaviors, this is another sign that the strategies are working for them. If they
look confused or frustrated, then this also tells me that the strategies we are using aren’t
working for them right now.
47

Participants also reported utilizing signs of student engagement like responding to
questions, assignment completion, conversations, feedback, and formative and summative
assessments to identify effective use of strategies. Jane said,
If I want to check for understanding, to me, the most effective way is to ask the students
questions and see what their responses are. Also, if they are able to accurately complete
assignments, I know that they are engaged and learning.
Sarah said, “Completion of assignments, including accuracy of responses on formative and
summative assessments, and now also adding more feedback from parents, if provided,
especially for students in distance learning.” Corrin said, “I also try to gauge how the students
are doing by formatively and summatively assessing. Are they growing from week to week on
universal assessments?” Monica said, “I assess students before, during, and after a new concept
that I am teaching to make sure that they are understanding it. I tweak my teaching and strategy
use based on these assessments. Strategies and the ability to gauge their effectiveness come from
a variety of experiences, professional training, and education.
Training/Education Received
Only a few participants credited their knowledge and education regarding supporting
students with ADHD to a variety of factors. They recognized that at one point or another in their
educational journey, there was a course or part of a course that taught them to work with students
with ADHD. Sarah said, “I may have had a college course when earning my bachelor’s degree
that might have covered students with ADHD, but it wasn’t the primary focus of the entire
course.” Jay said,
I took a class during my master’s program that focused on children with special needs.
That course covered a section on working with students with ADHD. That was the only
48

time I can remember getting formal information about working with students who have
ADHD.
Professional development training, school support staff, mentor teachers, and colleagues
were reported more as sources of training and education for participants. Jessie said, “My college
courses didn’t cover ADHD specifically, but I have taken PD classes that covered ADHD under
an umbrella topic of students with learning challenges.” Rose said,
I rely a lot on others at the school. Counselors, Mokihana staff, and other teachers are a
few people that I turn to when I need ideas, advice, or help for working with my ADHD
kids and even my other students.
Corrin attributed her learning to PD classes,
I just took an online PD that covered ADHD students and how to best support them. I am
finding that there are a few more courses offered now rather than like five years ago. I
still ask many seasoned teachers as well who have been around longer than I have. I feel
they have so much knowledge to share.
Participants identified a variety of strategies that they utilize to best support students with
ADHD such as smaller group size, differentiation, breaks, movement, and building meaningful
relationships. Participants discussed learning these strategies in college classes, PD classes, from
colleagues, and through personal experiences. COVID and online learning has definitely brought
on new challenges for both teachers and students, however, participants reported utilizing these
strategies even more so because it has been effective in supporting students with ADHD in
online learning as well. Common themes that emerged from the findings were utilizing effective
and up-to-date classroom management strategies, having the ability to seek guidance and help
from fellow teachers and support staff, and taking part in ongoing professional development. All
49

participants agreed that an open culture of communication, support, and dedicated time to
collaborate with other teachers and staff would be extremely beneficial to best support students
with ADHD. These experiences have also contributed to teachers’ confidence levels in working
with students with ADHD.
Findings for Research Question 2
The second research question asked, “What factors influence general education
classroom teachers’ motivation to best support students with ADHD in general education
classes?” Participants were asked to describe how confident they feel about working with
students who have been diagnosed with ADHD in general education classrooms. They reported
on what they feel contributes to their confidence level? Common themes that emerged from the
interviews were varying levels of teacher confidence in working with students with ADHD as
well as attributing personal and professional experiences to knowledge and understanding on
how to best support students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
Teacher Confidence Levels
Participants reported some level of confidence in working with students with ADHD.
Some stated being more confident than others, and some stated that self-doubt contributed to less
confidence. Others reported that having the support of other staff members as being crucial to
effectively supporting students with ADHD. Also, student attitude/personality also proved to be
factors to teachers’ confidence levels. Beth said,
On a scale of 1 to 10, I think it’s a good eight or nine, with the support of the whole team
that supports that student. For me, meeting with the whole team and discussing what
worked and trying some things out in the beginning and then meeting with the team to
50

adjust things based on what I felt was best for the student, because the student had certain
things in their 504 to get them to focus more, for example.
Jane shared having varying confidence levels when working with students with ADHD,
I feel mostly confident that I can work with students with ADHD in my classroom and
provide them a safe, comfortable, and fun learning experience. Of course, there are many
factors that play into the success of these students each year, as with any student, so
depending on the attitude and personality of each student, I feel more confident with
some than I do with others!
Monica reported being rather confident in working with students with ADHD,
I feel pretty confident about working with students that have been diagnosed with
ADHD. I have been working with students with this diagnosis for many years. The
strategies I have learned about have been implemented, adapted, tested, and adjusted
throughout the years within my classroom.
Sarah attributed her confidence levels to years of experience,
I feel confident in working with students with ADHD, I feel that I have built up a bank of
knowledge and materials that can support the students I have in my class. Additionally,
the training I have received, along with the support of my co-teachers and administration,
helps me feel supported.
Jay reported feeling unsure at times about working with students with ADHD,
I am always filled with self-doubt, constantly questioning whether the things I am doing
are correct. I always ask myself what I can do to better meet the needs of my students.
Not only those with ADHD, but all students.
Participants reported various factors that established their confidence levels in this regard.
51

Contributions to Confidence Levels
Experiences were reported as the most common contribution to teachers’ confidence in
working with students with ADHD. Personal experiences in and out of the classroom were key to
their confidence levels as well as training, or a lack thereof, support from other educators and
administrators, and self-reflection. A few participants also credited their parenting and past
experiences in building positive relationships with students as key to building their confidence.
Jessie said, “Knowing I have limited training and knowledge in this area contributes to my lack
of confidence. I also think it’s natural for any teacher to reflect on their practices, especially
when it directly impacts their students.” Rose said, “ I mostly feel confident in working with
students with ADHD because of the years of experience I have had. I also have a child who has
been diagnosed with ADHD so my parenting changes and style also helps me in the classroom.”
Corrin said,
I really take the time to get to know my students on a personal level as soon as the school
year starts. I ask their parents how they are at home, what their likes/dislikes are, etc. I
also take time to have super meaningful conversations with my students to really get to
know them.
Beth said, “I think my own experience of parenting high-energy boys helps to give me
understanding of what works and does not work with them.” Jane said,
Over the years, I have felt somewhat successful in building positive relationships with
ADHD students who had previously been labeled “difficult” by others. Those positive
relationships are the foundation of what has become great learning experiences between
those students and myself.
52

However, the majority of participants agreed and recognized there are still barriers that hinder
them from best supporting students with ADHD and all participants agreed that ongoing
professional development would help tremendously in breaking down these barriers.
Findings for Research Question 3
The third research question asked, “What resources do teachers feel they need to better
support students with ADHD in general education classes?” Participants were asked to identify
barriers that may hinder them from best supporting students with ADHD in their classrooms.
They were also asked to identify resources or supports they feel were needed to better support
students with ADHD in general education classrooms. Common themes that emerged from the
interviews included little to no time to collaborate with colleagues, lack of up-to-date
information on best practices, class size, and little to no ongoing support and resources for
teachers to best support students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
Barriers to Best Supporting Students
Many of the barriers identified were attributed to changes in learning due to COVID.
Participants reported that the online format and not being in the same room as their students were
barriers they faced. Lack of time, curriculum focused on test prep, lack of hands-on learning,
class size, and a lack of support from parents and other staff members were also reported as
barriers. Participants recognized that a lack of planning and preparation time, student attendance,
and little to no ongoing support and resources for teachers all hindered their abilities to best
support students with ADHD.
Monica stressed that time is one of the largest hindering factors for students with ADHD,
“Because students with ADHD sometimes need extended time on activities as well as extra time
in small groups or one-on-one learning, time is definitely a barrier.” Sarah reported not having
53

the ability to utilize hands-on-learning as much as she would like to, “with many schools’ focus
on test prep and book curriculum, I sometimes feel that it is really difficult to do more hands-on
learning, which is best for my ADHD students.” Jay attributed class size as a barrier to best
supporting students with ADHD, “Class size is definitely a barrier because of my ADHD
students’ tendencies to be distracted. the bigger the class size, the harder it is to minimize
distractions.” Jessie shared that the lack of zone proximity that online learning brings on is a
challenge for best supporting students with ADHD, “The online setting is a challenge, but mainly
for those students with ADHD that are struggling with distance learning. Not being in the same
room to intervene immediately is a definite barrier. And if students have their cameras turned
off, that limits my ability to see their struggles, and offer support, even more.” Corrin reported
that support from parents and other staff members caused challenges as well,
This year was even more challenging with not getting parent support. So, many parents
weren’t even at home when online learning was taking place because they needed to be at
work. Also, everyone here was kind of just thrown into online learning so it was hard
because it wasn’t like we had resource teachers or support staff that were experts in this
field that could help us when we needed it
Beth shared the increased amount of prepping requirements and student attendance were
challenges she faced most,
For me, I struggled with the prepping. It was so much more than if we were teaching
face-to-face full time. We needed to have an “A” group and a “B” group prep, online, and
face to face prep. Converting everything to digital format took a lot of time. I ran out of
time during the day and did a lot of things at night at home after my own children went to
54

bed. Then, some students wouldn’t even log on or wouldn’t show up to school because
everyone was on such high alert when it came to students being sick or not feeling well.
Resources Needed
Resources needed, as described by participants, included several that were already being
utilized and several they felt needed to be implemented. Participants mentioned needing ongoing
formal training, dedicated time for teacher and staff collaboration, reference reading materials,
and time to create, prepare, and plan for accommodations.
Rose shared needing more training for working with students with ADHD,
We have some formal training on ADHD but I really feel like we need more. We need
training that is specifically concentrated on best working with and supporting students
with ADHD, especially because we are seeing more cases of ADHD diagnosis now.
Corrin voiced that ideas and feedback from students’ previous teachers may help,
“Dedicated time built into the beginning of the year for current teachers to meet with the
previous year’s teacher who have worked with the specific student. While it is helpful to
receive information from support staff, it would be beneficial to hear from those that have
worked closely with the students in the classroom.”
Beth also attributed successful tools as training and teacher collaboration,
Resources that may help a teacher feel more supported would be the training of course,
reference materials like strategy flipbooks. For new teachers or those who have not
worked with ADHD students, they can benefit from modeling or having the opportunity
to observe in a class with an experienced teacher.
Half of all participants also identified funding as a much-needed resource to purchase movement
items like kicking bands for feet and fidget toys and to fund a position for a teacher’s aide. They
55

also mentioned needing creative seating options and rewards for students to earn through
different incentive programs. Jane said, “items that help with movement or fidgeting, funds to
purchase these items and small rewards, and even time to create, prepare, and accommodate
those lessons to best support that ADHD learner.”
Sarah shared that creativity and student choice may be powerful tools for teachers to
utilize to best support students with ADHD,
Being able to think outside the box as far as seating goes would come in very handy.
Being able to allow ADHD students the choice of where, how, and when to sit or stand
would be awesome and extremely beneficial to them as they do tend to move frequently.
Monica noted that an aide would be a much-appreciated resource,
Having a teaching aid would be a dream! An extra set of eyes and ears to support ADHD
students and to keep them on track while listening to whole-group lessons or while doing
independent work would be so beneficial.
Common themes that emerged through the interviews included needing resources such as
an extra person who is dedicated entirely just to students with ADHD in general education
classrooms. All participants also agreed on needing more ongoing formal training, dedicated
time for teacher and staff collaboration, reference reading materials, and time to create, prepare,
and plan for accommodations. Participants stressed that resources for students with ADHD and
for teachers who support them need to be ongoing which has sometimes proven to be a struggle
because of funding and allocating of time and resources.
Summary
Participants identified strategies to best support students with ADHD in general
education classrooms. These strategies include consistent rules and routines, chunking of
56

assignments, extended work time, preferential seating, trusting and meaningful relationships
between teachers and students, allowing choices, hands-on learning, visual reminders, and
movement breaks. Participants reported they learned these strategies in a variety of ways.
College courses, fellow educators, years of teaching, personal experiences, trial and error,
current literature, and resource support staff were a few resources participants identified as
sources of their learning. Participants agreed that resources for both teachers and students need to
be ongoing and increased to successfully support students with ADHD in general education
classrooms.

57

Chapter Five: Recommendations
Included in this final chapter is a discussion of the findings, recommendations for
practice, limitations, and delimitations. The chapter also provides recommendations for future
research.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of this study aligned with the findings of the literature reviewed in a variety
of ways. Interviewees reported that children with ADHD experience a variety of challenges in
the general education classroom settings. Challenges such as the inability to remain focused or
properly remain in their seats were causes of both behavioral and attention problems for these
students. Inattentive symptoms cause difficulties for students to follow instructions and rules,
remain on task, and complete assignments (Pfiffner & Barkley, 1990). According to Hill and
Turner (2016), students with ADHD struggle with paying attention in non-selective activities, are
hyperactive, and impulsive as well. These challenges caused lowered academic performance and
ability in students with ADHD. These behaviors are also proven to cause lowered behavioral
performance, disconnected relationships with others, and a lowered self-esteem (Power et al.,
2017). The repeated teacher redirection also caused challenges for these students in building
relationships with their teachers and their peers.
Participants expressed frustration and a lack of efficacy in working with and trying to
best support students with ADHD because of a lack of awareness and knowledge of ADHD.
Teachers’ attitudes, expectations, and behaviors can have a lasting impact on students’ academic
self-efficacy and success (Mulholland et al., 2015). Therefore, teachers need to have realistic
favorable attitudes and knowledge based on facts about the disorder (Anderson et al., 2012). The
literature reviewed and the findings of this study suggest that teachers’ education and training on
58

ADHD, its characteristics, symptoms, and behavioral profiles contribute to lowered levels of
self-efficacy when working with these students with ADHD. Teachers lack information on the
behavioral profiles of ADHD as well as extensive plans of action for classroom management
(Poznanski et al., 2018). Participants all wanted increased ongoing, in-service training to increase
their knowledge of ADHD and ways to best support students diagnosed with it. Currently,
information on symptoms, causes, and treatment is not included in many teacher preparations or
professional development programs (Goldstein et al., 2013). Because of the growing number of
students diagnosed with ADHD, Kamal (2013), reports the importance of teachers’
understanding the characteristics of the disorder. Ongoing in-service training would help to
support this and would be most beneficial if topics such as effective classroom strategies,
behavioral interventions, academic modifications, and creating open home-school
communications were up to date and intentionally covered.
The conceptual framework utilized in this study focused on three key factors contributing
to potential needs in knowledge, motivation, and barriers in organizational change. Each is an
essential mediator of goal achievement. In this study, knowledge was what teachers needed to
know and the skills they needed to effectively and positively support students with ADHD.
Motivation, in this environment, was commitment, persistence, and mental effort. Lastly, barriers
in organizational change were the deterrents, structures, or lack of resources that prevented goal
accomplishment.
The modified gap analysis framework was utilized in a variety of ways. First, it was used
to examine interviewees’ perceptions of school-based support for students with ADHD in
general education classrooms at Cottonwood Elementary. Second, this framework was used to
identify teachers’ knowledge and motivation for working with students with ADHD. Third, this
59

approach was used to identify both current assets and needs that teachers believe influence their
use of strategies for teaching students with ADHD. Utilizing this framework was beneficial in
identifying what teachers already know and what they need to learn, relearn, and/or put into
practice to support these students.
Knowledge in this study was what teachers needed to know and the skills they needed, to
effectively and positively support students with ADHD. Participants reported a lack of
knowledge in working with students with ADHD. Many participants reported not receiving any
type of professional training or higher education learning on ADHD and how to best support
these students. Some participants reported receiving some training or education on ADHD but
not enough to confidently effectively support students with ADHD in general education
classroom settings.
Motivation for participants included commitment, persistence, and mental effort.
Commitment, persistence, and mental effort are overarching indicators that drive and influence
teachers’ motivation for working with students (Dornyei & Ushioda, 2013). Participants reported
consistently trying intervention strategies for students with ADHD such as chunking of
information, mini-breaks, preferential seating, and getting to know students on a more personal
level. Participants showed commitment to these students as they also reported that teachers must
never give up and must consistently try new and different strategies to best support students with
ADHD in general education classrooms. Participants also stressed that teachers must be
persistent when working with these students. Persistence in holding themselves and students
accountable and to continuously challenge students to support their growth.
In this study, participants reported that barriers in organizational change were the lack of
resources, professional development, and higher education for teachers to help to better support
60

students with ADHD in general education classrooms. Participants reported feeling unprepared
to work with these students because they lacked knowledge and awareness of ADHD. Almost all
participants reported not having any type of specific higher education class or professional
development class on teaching students with ADHD. Some participants also reported not having
ample resources in order to implement strategies such as preferential seating, providing fidgeting
tools for students with ADHD and goal incentives and rewards.
The findings of this study revealed effective practices and strategies to increase school-
based behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms. They also
highlighted ways to increase teacher knowledge and awareness of ADHD and how to best
support these students. These findings elicited the following recommendations.
Recommendations for Practice
Included in this section are three recommendations for further research based on the
findings of this study. Recommendations include in-service training, a handout for teachers, and
creating an open culture of communication.
Recommendation 1: Increasing Communication Through Student Assistance Teams
The first recommendation is to create an open culture of support and communication
specifically pertaining to ADHD among teachers, staff members, students, and parents through
the creation of Student Assistance Teams. Participants reported wanting more time to have
conversations with fellow teachers, staff members, and parents pertaining to strategies and ideas
that work best for students with ADHD. Participants also reported the importance of having open
conversations with students to learn about them personally and what their likes and dislikes are
in order to implement strategies that will best support them in their learning. This study found
that when teachers feel supported and are allowed to openly talk about supporting these students,
61

they are more willing to try and keep trying to implement new strategies. This is critical to
supporting students with ADHD as teachers reported that what may work one day may not work
on another day for these or other students.
When teachers effectively develop ADHD strategies, they show and help students feel
capable and worthwhile. Dendy (2021) also suggests strategies teachers can implement to
establish a supportive, structured classroom that will encourage learning, enforce discipline, and
boost self-esteem for all students. Dendy (2021) categorizes these strategies into categories,
including student-centered activities and choices, rules and routines, accommodations, and
partnering with parents, other teachers, and staff members to get to know students with ADHD
and how to best support their growth and development. Teachers require knowledge to
continuously implement tools and strategies to best support students with ADHD. Creating
student assistance teams composed of teachers and support staff and giving them dedicated time
to meet weekly, monthly, or quarterly to discuss challenges, strategies, tools, triumphs, etc. for
students with ADHD in general education classrooms will help to create an open culture of
communication. Said teams could create a pre-referral support process for students with learning
challenges that teachers could utilize to identify student needs and strategies that may work best
to support them in general education classrooms. Administrators should consider formalizing the
pre-referral process as well as the dedicated time needed for collaboration amongst team
members. Doing so will also address any issues of time and resources needed to increase
communication through these Student Assistance Teams. An open culture of communication
among teachers, parents, students, and staff will motivate teachers to be patient, not give up, and
continuously seek and implement best practices to support students with ADHD. Creating
efficacious instructional classroom procedures within the entire organization requires ongoing
62

and up-to-date understanding of effective classroom processes, differentiated instruction, and
student needs that contribute to positive and constructive learning environments. This open
culture of communication will ensure an increase in effective school-based behavioral support
for students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
Recommendation 2: Provide Ongoing Training
The second recommendation is to implement ongoing mandatory ADHD in-service
training for teachers. Doing so will help to increase school-based behavioral support for students
with ADHD in general education classrooms. The findings of this study were that teachers desire
ongoing in-service training to learn of the latest, most up-to-date, and effective strategies.
Research has found that because no two students with ADHD are alike, teachers must remain
vigilant and informed on ways and strategies to best support them (U.S. Department of
Education,2019). Zentall and Javorsky (2007) reported that classroom teachers lacked an
appropriate amount of knowledge, self-efficacy, and awareness of ADHD, therefore, ongoing in-
service training would help to remedy this. Bussing et al. (2002) suggest there are approximately
two million school-aged children who have been diagnosed with ADHD. With such high
numbers of diagnoses, there is a need for increased teacher awareness and knowledge. Ongoing
in-service training would also help to support this. Liang and Gao (2016) reported that teachers
had very little training, education, and knowledge regarding ADHD, therefore, ongoing in-
service training would support increasing teachers’ knowledge. The conceptual framework posits
that knowledge consists of what teachers need to know and the skills they need to effectively and
positively support students with ADHD. Yearly, in-service teacher training will increase
knowledge of supporting students with ADHD and improve teachers’ skills and practices.
63

These trainings should require teachers as well as administrators and support staff to
participate and must include the most recent and up-to-date strategies that work best in
supporting students with ADHD in general education classrooms. Strategies that support
classroom management, time management, differentiated instruction, cool down techniques, and
organizational strategies for students and teachers are just some of the topics that should be
included in said training. These trainings should be incorporated into either the beginning of the
year training and/or added to a weekly staff meeting training. These trainings do not need to be
very lengthy, but it must include and cover all of the above topics as well as others teachers and
administrators may feel will help to best support students with ADHD in general education
classrooms. An online training module may be another alternative that teachers can go through at
their convenience or as often as they feel they need to throughout the year. This way teachers
will have an easily accessible training that they can utilize when more ideas or strategies are
needed. These trainings are feasible as teachers, administrators, and staff members already take
part in a variety of ongoing training. Administrators can customize these trainings specifically to
meet the needs of teachers in general education classrooms so they may increase effective
schools based behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
Recommendation 3: ADHD Handout
The third recommendation is to create an ADHD handout consisting of strategies teachers
can utilize and experiment with to best support students with ADHD in general education
classrooms. The handout should also include other resources teachers can utilize for more
support as well. Resources should include school-based sources, district level sources, literature-
based sources, and sources that are ongoing and periodically updated. Dendy (2021) suggests
that next to parents, teachers are some of the most influential people in childrens’ lives. Teachers
64

often have time constraints, and they may not contact others who can help them to best support
students with ADHD when they are struggling. A handout that is simple to understand and easy
to navigate may be beneficial. The document should present information on the types of
behaviors students with ADHD may exhibit, strategies teachers can implement, and tools to best
support these students. Such handouts may increase teachers’ knowledge and efficacy in best
supporting students with ADHD and other students as well. The conceptual framework included
teachers’ motivation because teachers’ commitment, persistence, and mental effort are all
required to support students with ADHD.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations and delimitations clearly define the boundaries, exceptions, and reservations
instinctive in every research study. However, these two concepts differ in the sense that
limitations are things that arise in a study that are unable to be controlled by the researcher.
Sometimes they limit the extent to which the study can proceed and may even affect the end
results at times (Simon & Goes, 2013). Delimitations are items that arise from limitations and are
results of specific choices the researcher has made (Simon & Goes, 2013). Contrarily, limitations
aim to identify potential weaknesses of a study and are beyond the researcher’s control (Price &
Murnan, 2004).
Limitations to this study included the small number of participants, the fact that the study
was done in one school only, and that this is not a generalizable study. Also, because I work in
education, and I do know some of the participants, some of them may not have answered
questions truthfully. They may have felt the need to answer in a particular way or include certain
types of information based on what they know about me as an educator. Some teachers may have
concealed personal feelings towards students with ADHD, positive or negative, that may have
65

affected their responses. Lastly, participants may have already been aware of strategies and best
practices, but they may not necessarily be implementing them.
Delimitations of this study included selecting participants based on criteria and the types
of interview questions asked, which were all based on the three research questions that guided
this study (Appendix D). Questions were specific to teaching students with ADHD in general
education classrooms. Questions asked at the start of the study identified teachers who had, in
the past, taught students with ADHD in a general education classroom. The theoretical
framework used to examine this problem was also a delimitation. SCT suggests that people learn
by observing others through social interactions, experiences, and factors that influence their
environment (Smith & Hitt, 2005). The choice to use SCT was a delimitation because it limited
the sources of learning and knowledge for areas of growth for participants.
Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research may include evaluation of the effectiveness of an
open school-based culture for teachers and staff members to best support students with ADHD.
This may include identifying practices that allow for open communication between teachers,
administrators, and parents to have conversations about what students with ADHD need and how
we can work together to best support these needs. Future research may also include evaluating
teacher certification programs in their effectiveness in teaching/training general education
classroom teachers to best support students with ADHD. Data collected through continuous
evaluation will allow teachers, administrators, staff, and support staff to identify strategies that
work, strategies that do not work, things that need to change in the classroom, and things that
need to remain the same or increase. This information will allow teachers to continuously self-
reflect on their practice. Evaluation of teacher certification programs in this area will prepare
66

teachers to work with students with ADHD. Teacher knowledge on ADHD and how to best
support students with this disorder through higher education programs will ensure these students
receive the most effective and meaningful support possible in general education classrooms.
Teachers who understand ADHD, behaviors students portray, and effective strategies in working
with these students will increase school-based behavioral support. Lastly, because of the changes
in education the COVID-19 pandemic has brought about, future research should also include best
strategies to support students with ADHD in an online setting. Identifying tools teachers can
utilize and implement online through virtual learning environments will help to ensure that
students with ADHD who are not able to attend class in person, will still receive the most
effective support they need.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to analyze the support needed to effectively and positively
educate and work with students with ADHD in general education classrooms. This was
important to address to increase effective school-based support for these students. The
recommendations derived from the findings of this qualitative study were mandatory training on
ADHD and strategies to implement when supporting students with ADHD as well as an easily
accessible handout for teachers to utilize outlining behaviors students with ADHD may portray
and strategies to utilize when said behaviors arise. Lastly, creating and maintaining an open
culture of communication between teachers, staff members, students, and parents will help to
ensure students with ADHD are being supported in general education classrooms.
Increasing school-based behavioral support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms will ensure these students receive proper and effective support and educational
opportunities. The HIDOE Strategic Plan (2021–2030), outlines the department’s beliefs
67

regarding each student’s unique strengths and potential. To fulfill the commitment to each
student, Hawaiʻi’s public schools promise to achieve equity and excellence so that all students
can identify and fulfill their life goals after graduation. State offices, complex areas, and schools
will apply their resources to ensure that all students have equal opportunities for a high-quality
education. Failure to increase school-based support for students with ADHD in general education
classrooms will negatively impact their educational outcomes.

68

References
Abramowitz, A. J., & O'Leary, S. G. (2019). Behavioral interventions for the classroom:
Implications for students with ADHD. School Psychology Review, 20(2), 220–234.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1991.12085547
Anderson, D. L., Watt, S. E., Noble, W., & Shanley, D. C. (2012). Knowledge of attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and attitudes toward teaching children with adhd:
The role of teaching experience. Psychology in the Schools, 49(6), 511–525.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21617
Atkinson, I., Robinson, J., & Shute, R. (1997). Between a rock and a hard place: An Australian
perspective on education of children with ADHD. Between a Rock and a Hard Place: An
Australian Perspective on Education of Children with ADHD, 14, 21–30.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy The Exercise of Control. W. H. Freeman.
Barkley, R. A. (1998). Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Scientific American, 279(3),
66–71.
Bekle, B. (2004). Knowledge and attitudes about attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD): A comparison between practicing teachers and undergraduate education
students. Journal of Attention Disorders, 7(3), 151–161.
https://doi.org/10.1177/108705470400700303
Black, K. (2010). Business statistics: Contemporary decision making. John Wiley & Sons
Canada.
Bradshaw, L., & Kamal, M. (2013). Teacher knowledge, training and acceptance of students
with ADHD in their classrooms: Qatar case study. Near and Middle Eastern Journal of
Research in Education, 5. https://doi.org/10.5339/nmejre.2013.5
69

Bussing, R., Gary, F. A., Leon, C. E., Garvan, C. W., & Reid, R. (2002). General classroom
teachers’ information and perceptions of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Behavioral Disorders, 27(4), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290202700402
Cantwell, D. P., & Baker, L. (1991). Association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
and learning disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(2), 88–95.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Steca, P., & Malone, P. S. (2006). Teachers' self-efficacy
beliefs as determinants of job satisfaction and students' academic achievement: A study at
the school level. Journal of School Psychology, 44(6), 473–490.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.09.001
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021, January 26). Learn about attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/index.html
Chipkala-Gaffin, J. A. (2009). Diagnosis and treatment of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity
disorder. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 34(4), 18–25.
Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. Information Age.
Cousin, G. (2011). Researching learning in higher education: An introduction to contemporary
methods and approaches. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Dendy, C. (2021). Teaching strategies for students with ADHD: Ideas to help every child shine.
https://www.additudemag.com/teaching-strategies-for-students-with-adhd/
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders:
DSM-IV-TR (4th ed.).
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Longman.
70

DuPaul, G. J., & Power, T. J. (n.d.). Educational interventions for students with attention-deficit
disorders. American Psychological Association, 607–635.
DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention
strategies (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
DuPaul, G. J., Weyandt, L. L., & Janusis, G. M. (2011). ADHD in the classroom: Effective
intervention strategies. Theory Into Practice, 50(1), 35–42.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2011.534935
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The
Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Emotional Learning: A Meta-Analysis of
School-Based Universal Interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
Erhardt, D., & Hinshaw, S. P. (1994). Initial sociometric impressions of attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder and comparison boys: Predictions from social behaviors and from
non behavioral variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(4), 833–
842. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.62.4.833
Evans, J. H., Ferre, L., Ford, L. A., & Green, J. L. (1995). Decreasing attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder symptoms utilizing an automated classroom reinforcement device.
Frazier, M. R., & Merrell, K. W. (1997). Issues in Behavioral Treatment of Attention-
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Education & Treatment of Children, 20(4), 441–461.
Froehlich, T. E., Lanphear, B. P., Epstein, J. N., Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., & Kahn, R. S.
(2007). Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
in a national sample of us children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine,
161(9), 857. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.9.857
71

Goldstein, P., Warde, B., & Rody, C. (2013). Students With Disabilities in General Education
Classrooms: Implications for Teacher Preparation Programs. Teacher Education and
Practice, 26(3).
Graczyk, P. A., Atkins, M. S., Jackson, M. M., Letendre, J. A., Kim-Cohen, J., Baumann, B. L.,
& Mccoy, J. (2005). Urban educators’ perceptions of interventions for students with
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A preliminary investigation. Behavioral
Disorders, 30(2), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290503000203
Greenberg, J., Putman, H., & Walsh, K. (2013). Training our future teachers: Classroom
management. Training Our Future Teachers: Classroom Management.
Greene, R. W. (1995). Students with ADHD in school classrooms: Teacher factors related to
compatibility, assessment, and intervention. School Psychology Review, 24(1), 81–93.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1995.12085753
Greene, R. W., Beszterczey, S. K., Katzenstein, T., Park, K., & Goring, J. (2002). Are students
with ADHD more stressful to teach? Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders,
10(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266020100020201
Greene, R. W., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Sienna, M., & Garcia-Jetton, J. (1997). Adolescent
outcome of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social disability:
Results from a 4-year longitudinal follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 65(5), 758–767. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.65.5.758
Harrison, J. R., Evans, S. W., Baran, A., Khondker, F., Press, K., Noel, D., Mohlmann, M.
(2020). Comparison of accommodations and interventions for youth with ADHD: A
randomized controlled trial. Journal of School Psychology, 80, 15-36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.05.001
72

Hawkins, J., Martin, S., Blanchard, K. M., & Brady, M. P. (1991). Teacher perceptions, beliefs,
and Interventions regarding children with attention Deficit Disorders. Action in Teacher
Education, 13(2), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.1991.10462773
Hill, V., & Turner, H. (2016). Educational psychologists’ perspectives on the medicalisation of
childhood behaviour: A focus on attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD).
Educational & Child Psychology, 33(2), 12–29.
Hoy, A. (n.d.). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching. Paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans
Jenkins, H. J., & Batgidou, E. (2003). Developing social strategies to overcome peer rejection of
children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Australian Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 8(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404150309546719
Kaiser, K. (2009). Protecting respondent confidentiality in qualitative research. Qualitative
Health Research, 19(11), 1632–1641. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732309350879
LaMorte, W. W. (2019, September 9). Behavioral change models.
https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/SB/BehavioralChangeTheories/
BehavioralChangeTheories5.html
Liang, L., & Gao, X. (2016). Pre-service and in-service secondary school teachers’ knowledge
about attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd) and attitudes toward students with
adhd. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 63(3), 369–383.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912x.2015.1123231
Maag, J. W., & Katsiyannis, A. (1999). Teacher preparation in e/bd: A national survey.
Behavioral Disorders, 24(3), 189-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299902400305
73

MacMillan, D. L., Gresham, F. M., & Bocian, K. M. (1998). Discrepancy between definitions of
learning disabilities and school practices. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(4), 314–
326. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949803100401
Marshall, P. L. (2003). Human subjects Protections, institutional review boards, and
CULTURAL anthropological research. Anthropological Quarterly, 76(2), 269–285.
https://doi.org/10.1353/anq.2003.0028
Mautone, J. A., DuPaul, G. J., & Jitendra, A. K. (2005). The effects of computer-assisted
instruction on the mathematics performance and classroom behavior of children with
Adhd. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9(1), 301–312.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054705278832
Mautone, J. A., Lefler, E. K., & Power, T. J. (2011). Promoting family and school success for
children With ADHD: Strengthening relationships while building skills. Theory Into
Practice, 50(1), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2010.534937
Mautone, J. A., Marcelle, E., Tresco, K. E., & Power, T. J. (2014). Assessing the quality of
parent-teacher relationships for students with ADHD. Psychology in the Schools, 52(2),
196–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21817
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). Langara College.
Miranda, A., Jarque, S., & Tarraga, R. (2006). Interventions in school settings for students with
Adhd. Exceptionality, 14(1), 35–52. doi:10.1207/s15327035ex1401_4
Moore, D. A., Russell, A. E., Arnell, S., & Ford, T. J. (2017). Educators' experiences of
managing students with adhd: A qualitative study. Child: Care, Health and Development,
43(4), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12448
74

Mulholland, S. M., Cumming, T. M., & Jung, J. Y. (2015). Teacher attitudes towards students
who exhibit ADHD-type behaviours. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 39(1),
15–36. https://doi.org/10.1017/jse.2014.18
O'Neill, S. C., & Stephenson, J. (2011). Classroom behaviour management preparation in
Undergraduate primary teacher education in Australia : A web-based investigation.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(10).
https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2011v36n10.3
Owens, J. S., Evans, S. W., Coles, E. K., Holdaway, A. S., Himawan, L. K., Mixon, C. S., &
Egan, T. E. (2018). Consultation for classroom management and targeted interventions:
Examining benchmarks for teacher practices that produce desired change in student
behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 28(1), 52–64.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426618795440
Parekh, R. (2017). What is ADHD? https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-
adhd
Parrish, N. (2018). Setting Students With ADHD Up for Success.
https://doi.org/https://www.edutopia.org/article/setting-students-adhd-success
Persaud, D. S. (2018). Portuguese-American parents' knowledge of attention deficit hyperactive
disorder (ADHD).
Pfiffner, L. J., Barkley, R. A., & DuPaul, G. J.(2006). Treatment of ADHD in school settings. In
R. A. Barkley (Ed.),Attention-deficit hyper-activity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis
and treatment (3rd ed.; pp. 547–589). Guilford.
75

Pfiffner, L., & Barkley, R. A. (1990). Educational placement and classroom management. In
R.A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis
and treatment (pp. 498–539). Guilford Press.
Pfiffner, L., & DuPaul, G. (2015). Treatment of ADHD in school settings. In R.A. Barkley (Ed.),
ADHD in children and adults: A handbook for diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (4th
ed., pp. 596–629). Guilford Press.
Power, T. J., Watkins, M. W., Anastopoulos, A. D., Reid, R., Lambert, M. C., & DuPaul, G. J.
(2017). Multi-informant assessment of ADHD symptom-related impairments among
children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 46(5),
661–674. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1079781
Poznanski, B., Hart, K. C., & Cramer, E. (2018). Are teachers Ready? Preservice TEACHER
knowledge of classroom management and ADHD. School Mental Health, 10(3), 301–
313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9259-2
Price, P. C., Jhangiani, R., & Chiang, C. A. (2013). Research methods in psychology.
Price, J. H., & Murnan, J. (2004). Research limitations and the necessity of reporting them.
American Journal of Health Education, 35, 66–67.
ReThink Together. (2019). ADHD resources & strategies for effective teaching with empathy.
https://xqsuperschool.org/rethinktogether/adhd-strategies-for-teachers/
Rogers, M., & Meek, R. (2015). Relationships matter: Motivating students with ADHD through
the teacher-student relationship. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 41(1), 21–24.
Rosén, L. A., Taylor, S. A., O'Leary, S. G., & Sanderson, W. (1990). A survey of classroom
management practices. Journal of School Psychology, 28(3), 257–269.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4405(90)90016-z
76

Schnoes, C., Reid, R., Wagner, M., & Marder, C. (2006). Adhd among students receiving special
education services: A national survey. Exceptional Children, 72(4), 483–496.
https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290607200406
Seymour, K. E., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Halldorsdottir, T., Stupica, B., Owens, K., & Sacks, T.
(2011). Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between ADHD and depressive
symptoms in youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(4), 595–606.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9593-4
Sheridan, S. M., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2008). Conjoint behavioral consultation: Promoting
family-school connections and interventions (2nd ed.). Springer Science + Business
Media.
Simon, M. K., & Goes, J. (2011). Dissertation and scholarly research: Recipes for success.
Dissertation Success, LLC.
Smith, K. G., & Hitt, M. A. (2005). Great minds in management: The process of theory
development. Oxford University Press.
Stormont, M., Reinke, W., & Herman, K. (2011). Teachers’ knowledge of evidence-based
interventions and available school resources for children with emotional and behavioral
problems. Journal of Behavioral Education, 20(2), 138–147.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-011-9122-0
Taylor, E. (2011). Antecedents of adhd: A historical account of diagnostic concepts. ADHD
Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 3(2), 69–75.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-010-0051-x
77

Thoonen, E. E., Sleegers, P. J., Oort, F. J., Peetsma, T. T., & Geijsel, F. P. (2011). How to
improve teaching practices. Educational Administration Quarterly, 47(3), 496–536.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161x11400185
U.S. Department of Education. (2016). U.S. Department of Education releases guidance on civil
rights of students with ADHD. https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-
education-releases-guidance-civil-rights-students-adhd
U.S. Department of Education. (2019). Guide to the individualized education program.
https://www2.ed.gov/parents/needs/speced/iepguide/index.html
Weimer, R. (2008). Using brain compatible assessment to obtain higher test scores as Compared
to multiple choice tests.
Wheeler, J., & Carlson, C. L. (1994). The social functioning of children with ADD with
hyperactivity and ADD without hyperactivity. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders, 2(1), 2–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/106342669400200101
Winitzky, N., Kauchak, D., & Kelly, M. (1994). Measuring teachers' structural knowledge.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(2), 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-
051x(94)90008-6
Zentall, S. S. (2006). ADHD and education: Foundations, characteristics, methods, and
collaboration. Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Zentall, S. S., & Javorsky, J. (2007). Professional development for teachers of students with
ADHD and characteristics of ADHD. Behavioral Disorders, 32(2), 78–93.
https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290703200202

78

Appendix A: Interview Script
To facilitate with note-taking, I would like to audio record our conversations today. Only myself
will be privy to the recording which will be eventually destroyed after they are transcribed. In
addition, you must verbally agree to criteria in our human subject documentation requirements.
Essentially, this document states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your
participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do
not intend to inflict any harm. Do I have your verbal permission and agreement? Thank you for
agreeing to participate.
I have planned for this interview to last no longer than one hour. During this time, I will have
several questions that I would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to
interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete this line of questioning.
You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been identified as someone
who has a great deal to share about teaching and working with students who have been
diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a general education classroom
setting. This research project as a whole focuses on increasing school-based supports for students
with ADHD in general education classrooms. Through this study we will be able to identify and
better understand self-efficacy of teachers in supporting students with ADHD in their
classrooms, strategies teachers are already using and can begin to use to support students with
ADHD in their classrooms, as well as supports teachers feel they need to better support students
with ADHD in their classrooms.

79

Appendix B: Consent to Participate Form
Increasing School-Based Behavior Support for Students with ADHD
Consent to Participate Form
Aloha! My name is Sasily Corr-Yorkman and you are invited to take part in a research study. I
am a graduate student at the University of Southern California in the Rossier School of
Education. As part of the requirements for earning my graduate degree, I am doing a research
project.
What am I being asked to do?
If you participate in this project, I will meet with you online for an interview at a location and
time convenient for you.
Taking part in this study is your choice.
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any
time. If you stop being in the study, there will be no penalty or loss to you.
Why is this study being done?
The purpose of my project is to increase teachers’ knowledge and awareness of strategies to
increase school-based support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
What will happen if I decide to take part in this study?
The interview will consist of 10 open-ended questions. It will take 30 to 45 minutes.
Refer to the interview protocol document for exact questions that will be asked.
Only you and I will be present during the interview. With your permission, I will audio-record
the interview so that I can later transcribe the interview and analyze the responses. You will be
one of about 8–10 people I will interview for this study. With your permission, I will also video-
record the interview because the platform we will be utilizing to conduct the interview is zoom.
80

What are the risks and benefits of taking part in this study?
I believe there is no risk to you for participating in this research project. If at any time you
become stressed or uncomfortable answering any of the interview questions or discussing topics
with me during the interview, you can skip the question and/or take a break. You can also stop
the interview and/or you can withdraw from the project altogether.There will be no direct benefit
to you for participating in this interview. The results of this project may help improve school-
based behavioral support provided to students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
Privacy and Confidentiality
I will keep all study data secure and encrypted on a password protected laptop. Only my
University of Southern California advisor and I will have access to the information.
After transcribing the interviews, I will erase or destroy the audio and video recordings. When I
report the results of my research project, I will not use your name. I will not use any other
personal identifying information that can identify you. I will use pseudonyms (fake names) and
report my findings in a way that protects your privacy and confidentiality to the extent allowed
by law.
Compensation
You will receive a $20 gift card to a local vendor/store/restaurant of your choice for your time
and effort in participating in this research project.
Future Research Studies
Even after removing identifiers, the data collected from this study will not be used or distributed
for future research studies.

81

Questions
If you have any questions about this study, please call or email me at (808)346-7928 or
corryork@usc.edu. You may also contact my advisor, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi, at
hirabaya@usc.edu or phone: 213 740 3470. You may contact the University of Southern
California Office for the Protection of Research Subjects at (323)442-0114 or
https://oprs.usc.edu/irb-review/contact/ to discuss problems, concerns and questions; obtain
information; or offer input with an informed individual who is unaffiliated with the specific
research protocol. Please visit https://oprs.usc.edu/hspp/ for more information on your rights as a
research participant.
If you agree to participate in this project, please sign and date this signature page and return it to
me by emailing it to corryork@usc.edu.
Keep a copy of the informed consent for your records and reference
Signature(s) for Consent
I give permission to join the research project entitled, “Increasing School-Based Behavioral
Support for Students with ADHD in General Education Classrooms.”
Please initial next to either “Yes” or “No” to the following: (note to researcher: include these
options only as appropriate to the study design described on page 1)
_____ Yes _____ No I consent to be audio-recorded for the interview portion of this
research.
_____ Yes _____ No I consent to being video-recorded for the interview portion of this
research.
Name of Participant (Print): ___________________________________________________
Participant’s Signature: _____________________________________________
Signature of the Person Obtaining Consent: _________________________ Date: ________
82

Appendix C: Interview Protocol
The following questions are specifically for teachers who have closely worked with or are
currently closely working with students who have been diagnosed with attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In all of the proceeding questions, “students” refers specifically
to students who have already been diagnosed with ADHD and “classroom” refers to general
education classrooms.
Please describe your general experience working with students with ADHD in your classrooms.
1. What knowledge do general education classroom teachers possess about strategies to
best support students with ADHD in general education classes?
● Discuss your understanding of how to best support students with ADHD in your
classrooms.
● Where did you learn about these strategies?
● What tools/strategies if any, are you utilizing to support differentiation for students
with ADHD in person and online?
● How are these different from prior to Covid-19?
● How do you gauge the effectiveness of the strategies you use (both online and in
person)?
● If you’ve had any, describe any training or education you’ve received for working
with students with ADHD in general education classrooms.
2. What factors influence general education classroom teachers’ motivation to best
support students with ADHD in general education classes?
● Describe to me how confident you feel about working with students who have been
diagnosed with ADHD in general education classrooms.
83

● What do you think contributes to your confidence level?
3. What resources do teachers feel they need to better support students with ADHD in
general education classes?
● What barriers can you identify that may hinder you from best supporting students
with ADHD in your classroom?
● What resources or supports do you feel you need to better support students with
ADHD in your classroom?
Are there any other thoughts you want to share about working with students with ADHD in your
general education class?

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Supporting learners with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a professional development curriculum for elementary teachers

PDF

Modeling collaboration in K–12 teacher professional development

PDF

Managing cyberloafing in the undergraduate business school's classroom

PDF

Perceptions of college students with ADHD and their learning strategies

PDF

Frontline workers serving students: a study on the well-being of student affairs professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic

PDF

Practices supporting newcomer students

PDF

Using restorative practice community-building activities to meet the social-emotional needs of students

PDF

Future educator programs in high schools: an evaluative study

PDF

Teacher perception on positive behavior interventions and supports’ (PBIS) cultivation for positive teacher-student relationships in high schools: an evaluation study

PDF

Improving first-generation students' sense of belonging at university

PDF

The knowledge, motivation, and organization influences affecting the frequency of empathetic teaching practice used in the classroom: an evaluation study

PDF

Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices used by teachers in kindergarten through second grade in Los Angeles County urban elementary schools

PDF

A cyclical approach to professional development: a case study of the San Bernardino School District

PDF

Administrators' role in supporting teachers through feedback

PDF

Improving instructor skills (IIS): a Needs analysis

PDF

An analysis of online engagement of secondary teachers at high need schools during COVID-19 shutdowns

PDF

Teacher management style: its impact on teacher-student relationships and leadership development

PDF

Beginning teachers’ perceptions of induction program support

PDF

Understanding the teachers' perception of impeding bullying in the middle school classroom

PDF

How can I help you? A study of onboarding and ongoing supports for new teachers

Asset Metadata

Creator Corr-Yorkman, Sasily U`ilani (author)

Core Title School-based support for students with ADHD in general education classrooms

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2021-12

Publication Date 09/23/2021

Defense Date 08/30/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag ADHD,ADHD handout,classroom management,education,elementary education,general education,OAI-PMH Harvest,teacher professional development,teaching strategies

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Gallagher, Raymond (committee member)

Creator Email corryork@usc.edu,sasilyc@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC15925677

Unique identifier UC15925677

Legacy Identifier etd-CorrYorkma-10093

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Corr-Yorkman, Sasily U`ilani

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu