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An analysis of underwater habitats a development of the outline for aquatectural graphic standards
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An analysis of underwater habitats a development of the outline for aquatectural graphic standards
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AN ANALYSIS OF UNDERWATER HABITATS A DEVELOPMENT OF THE OUTLINE FOR AQUATECTURAL GRAPHIC STANDARDS by Daniel Riggin _______________________________________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE May 2009 Copyright 2009 Daniel Riggin ii DEDICATION To my wonderful fiancé Tracey who I love so much. And Mom and Dad who stuck with me and supported through this thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii List of Tables v List of Figures vii Abstract xiii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1: Hypothesis Statement 2 1.2: Explanation/Elaboration: Terms 4 1.3: Study Boundaries 5 1.4: Scope of work 6 1.5: Conducted Research 6 Chapter 2: Previous Research on Underwater Developments 10 2.1: The Submergible Bell by Alexander the Great 10 2.2: Bathysphere by C.W. Beebe 12 2.3: Bathyscaphe by A. Piccard 14 2.4: Conshelf II by Jacques Cousteau 16 2.5: Sea Labs I, II, and III by the U.S. Navy 17 2.6: Tektite I and II by NOAA- NASA 19 2.7: Hydrolab by NOAA and NURP 20 2.8: Chalup –Jules L. and KLUP 22 2.9: MRUL by KLUP 23 2.10: Aquarius by UNCW – NOAA 25 2.11: Divescope by Vincent Lovichi 29 2.12: Hydropolis 30 2.13: Hydrosphere 31 Chapter 3: Understanding the Background of Underwater Habitats 41 3.1: Materials Analysis of Bathysphere 42 3.2: Materials Analysis of Bathyscaphe 46 3.3: Materials Analysis of Hydrolab 51 3.4: Materials Analysis of Marine Lab 55 3.5: Materials Analysis of Tektite I and II 56 3.6: Materials Analysis of Sealab I 62 3.7: Materials Analysis of Sealab II 67 3.8: Materials Analysis of Sealab III 72 3.9: Materials Analysis of Conshelf II 77 iv 3.10: Materials Analysis of Chalupa-Jules Underwater Lodge 84 3.11: Materials Analysis of Aquarius 91 Chapter 4: Background of Other Types of Submersibles 101 4.1: Materials Analysis of Divescope 101 4.2: Case Study Data 112 4.3: Some Rules of Thumb 115 4.4: Relationship to Size 115 4.5: Aquatectural Guidelines Layout 117 4.6: Outline for the Aquatectural Graphic Standards 118 4.6: Final Deliverables 126 Chapter 5: Structural Data of Six Studies 128 5.1: Aquarius Structural Data 128 5.2: Chalupa Jules Structural Data 131 5.3: Hydrolab Structural Data 133 5.4: Sealab I Structural Data 135 5.5: Sealab III Structural Data 138 5.6: Hydrosphere Structural Data 140 Chapter 6: Analysis 142 6.1: Analysis of the Aquarius 142 6.2: Analysis of the Chalupa-Jules Laboratory 143 6.3: Analysis of the Hydrolab 144 6.4: Analysis of Sealab I 145 6.5: Analysis of Sealab III 145 6.6: Analysis of the Hydrosphere 146 Chapter 7: Conclusion 148 Bibliography 151 Appendix: Structural Data 158 v LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1: Foundation Specifications 34 Table 4-1: Case Study and Criteria Chart 1 113 Table 4-2: Case Study and Criteria Chart 2 113 Table 4-3: Case Study Measurements 114 Table 4-4: Shape Variation Measurements 114 Table A-1: Displacements (Aquarius) 162 Table A-2: Member Actions (Aquarius) 163 Table A-3: Max Actions (Aquarius) 164 Table A-4: Member Stresses (Aquarius) 165 Table A-5: Max Stresses (Aquarius) 166 Table A-6: Displacements (La Chalupa Lab) 169 Table A-7: Member Actions (La Chalupa Lab) 170 Table A-8: Max Actions (La Chalupa Lab) 171 Table A-9: Member Stresses (La Chalupa Lab) 172 Table A-10: Max Stresses (La Chalupa Lab) 172 Table A-11: Displacements (Hydrolab) 176 Table A-12: Member Actions (Hydrolab) 177 Table A-13: Max Actions (Hydrolab) 178 Table A-14: Member Stresses (Hydrolab) 179 Table A-15: Max Stresses (Hydrolab) 180 Table A-16: Displacements (Sealab I) 184 vi Table A-17: Member Actions (Sealab I) 185 Table A-18: Sealab I Max Actions 186 Table A-19: Sealab I Member Stresses 187 Table A-20: Sealab I Max Stresses 188 Table A-21: Sealab III Displacements 192 Table A-22: Sealab III Member Actions 193 Table A-23: Sealab III Max Actions 194 Table A-24: Member Stresses (Sealab III) 195 Table A-25: Sealab III Max Stresses 196 Table A-26: Hydrosphere Strain 200 Table A-27: Hydrosphere Member Actions 201 Table A-28: Hydrosphere Max Actions 202 Table A-29: Hydrosphere Member Stresses 203 Table A-30: Hydrosphere Max Stresses 204 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: "Early Manuscripts at Oxford University" 1 Figure 2-1: The Submergible Bell 11 Figure 2-2: C.W. Beebe 12 Figure 2-3: The Bathysphere 13 Figure 2-4: Bathyscaphe 14 Figure 2-5: Bathyscaphe Section 15 Figure 2-6: Conshelf Underwater Habitat 16 Figure 2-7: Hydrolab 21 Figure 2-8: Chalupa Jules Plan 22 Figure 2-9: MarineLab 24 Figure 2-10: Aquarius 26 Figure 2-11: Aquarius Floorplan 27 Figure 2-12: Aquarius Starboard Elevation 27 Figure 2-13: Aquarius Port Elevation 27 Figure 2-14: Wedding in Divescope 29 Figure 2-15: Shell and Exoskeleton of the Hydrosphere 31 Figure 2-16: Hydrosphere Entry Diagram 32 Figure 2-17: Foundation Detail - Base Plate 33 Figure 2-18: Foundation Detail - Ground Anchor 34 Figure 2-19: Hydrosphere Sections 35 Figure 2-20: Hydrosphere Sections 36 viii Figure 2-21: Hydrosphere First Floor Plan 37 Figure 2-22: Hydrosphere Second Floor Plan 38 Figure 2-23: Hydrosphere Third Floor Plan 39 Figure 3-1: A close up photo of Otis Barton 44 Figure 3-2: Bathysphere Scheme 45 Figure 3-3: Beebe, William 45 Figure 3-4: Jacques Piccard 49 Figure 3-5: General Arrangement Drawing and Marianas Trench dive 50 Figure 3-6: Hydrolab – Artist View 52 Figure 3-7: Aquanauts inside Hydrolab Underwater Habitat 53 Figure 3-8: Hydrolab Underwater Habitat 53 Figure 3-9: Aquanauts performing underwater activities outside Hydrolab 54 Figure 3-10: Tektite Model 59 Figure 3-11: Tektite – Artist View 60 Figure 3-12: Aquanauts diving near Tektite 60 Figure 3-13: Tektite's Female Aquanauts Team 61 Figure 3-14: Sea Lab I 63 Figure 3-15: Sea Lab I 64 Figure 3-16: Aquanauts aboard SEALAB I at a depth of 192 feet below 64 sea surface Figure 3-17: Photo Date: 1964 Credit: OAR/National Undersea Research 65 Program Figure 3-18: Interior of SEALAB I 65 ix Figure 3-19: Walt Mazzone and Dr. George Bond at the topside 66 communication center for SEALAB I Figure 3-20: SEALAB I on the deck of its transport vessel 66 Figure 3-21: Aquanaut-Astronaut Scott Carpenter 68 Figure 3-22: Sea Lab II 69 Figure 3-23: Sea Lab II 70 Figure 3-24: Sea Lab II 70 Figure 3-25: SEALAB II being submerged 71 Figure 3-26: Sealab II Interior Arrangement 71 Figure 3-27: Sea Lab III 75 Figure 3-28: Sea Lab III 75 Figure 3-29: Sea Lab III – surface support 76 Figure 3-30: Sea Lab III – surface support 76 Figure 3-31: Aquanauts inside of Conshelf 79 Figure 3-32: Sir Jacques Cousteau 81 Figure 3-33: Calypso 81 Figure 3-34: Conshelf Underwater Habitat 81 Figure 3-35: Underwater Colonies 82 Figure 3-36: Conshelf Underwater Habitat 82 Figure 3-37: Calypso 83 Figure 3-38: Conshelf Underwater Habitat 83 Figure 3-39: La Chalupa moored 86 x Figure 3-40: Interior – La Chalupa 88 Figure 3-41: Interior Distribution – La Chalupa 89 Figure 3-42: Aquarius Location 92 Figure 3-43: Aquarius 93 Figure 3-44: Aquarius Interior Distribution 95 Figure 3-45: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location and Interiors 97 Figure 3-46: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location 98 Figure 3-47: Aquanaut outside Aquarius 99 Figure 3-48: Interiors of Aquarius Habitat 100 Figure 4-1: Engineer Vincent Lovichi and Divescope 105 Figure 4-2: Divescope Underwater 106 Figure 4-3: Divescope 107 Figure 4-4: Wedding in Divescope 108 Figure 4-5: Divescope entrance 108 Figure 4-6: Aquastation 109 Figure 4-7: Aquastation Underwater Habitat 110 Figure 4-8: Aquastation Underwater Habitat 111 Figure 4-9: Relationship to Size 116 Figure 4-10: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location and Interiors 117 Figure 5-1: Aquarius Autocad Model 129 Figure 5-2: Aquarius Wire Mesh Representation 129 Figure 5-3: Aquarius Deflection Diagram 130 xi Figure 5-4: Aquarius bending stress Diagram 130 Figure 5-5: Chalupa Jules Autocad Model 131 Figure 5-6: Chalupa Jules Wire Mesh Representation 131 Figure 5-7: Chalupa Jules Deflection Diagram 132 Figure 5-8: Chalupa Jules Moment Diagram 132 Figure 5-9: Hydrolab Autocad Model 133 Figure 5-10: Hydrolab Wire Mesh Representation 133 Figure 5-11: Hydrolab Shear Diagram 134 Figure 5-12: Hydrolab bending stress Diagram 134 Figure 5-13: Sealab I Autocad Model 135 Figure 5-14: Sealab I Wire Mesh Representation 136 Figure 5-15: Sealab I Shear Diagram 136 Figure 5-16: Sealab I Bending Stress Diagram 137 Figure 5-17: Sealab III Model 138 Figure 5-18: Sealab III Wire Mesh Model 138 Figure 5-19: Sealab III Axial Pressure Diagram 139 Figure 5-20: Sealab III Bending Stress Diagram 139 Figure 5-21: Hydrosphere Model 140 Figure 5-22: Hydrosphere Wire Mesh Model 140 Figure 5-23: Hydrosphere Shear Diagram 141 Figure 5-24: Hydrosphere Moment Diagram 141 Figure A-1: Load Diagrams 158 xii Figure A-2: Shear Diagrams 158 Figure A-3: Bending Stress Diagrams 159 Figure A-4: Aquarius Data Points (Overall) 159 Figure A-5: Aquarius Data Points (A) 160 Figure A-6: Aquarius Data Points (B) 161 Figure A-7: La Chalupa Data Points (Overall) 167 Figure A-8: La Chalupa Data Points 168 Figure A-9: Hydrolab Data Points (Overall) 173 Figure A-10: Hydrolab Data Points (A) 174 Figure A-11: Hydrolab Data Points (B) 175 Figure A-12: Sealab I Data Points (Overall) 181 Figure A-13: Sealab I Data Points (A) 182 Figure A-14: Sealab I Data Points (B) 183 Figure A-15: Sealab III Data Points (Overall) 189 Figure A-16: Sealab III Data Points (A) 190 Figure A-17: Sealab III Data Points (B) 191 Figure A-18: Hydrosphere Data Points (Overall) 197 Figure A-19: Hydrosphere Data Points (B) 198 Figure A-20: Hydrosphere Data Points (B) 199 xiii ABSTRACT In addition to many forms of land-based architecture in this world, there are several instances of underwater habitats. These habitats have implications for space exploration and extreme climates. Based on the research conducted for this thesis, twelve of these habitats are examined in the following chapters. Their uses range from allowing divers to spend more time underwater, studying the effects of global warming, and examining changes to underwater conditions which can effectively be examined near the oceanic shelf. Furthermore, ocean tide could provide energy of infinite sustainability. The reason it is sustainable is that tidal waves provide energy without pollution, and energy without limit. What these underwater habitats could do is facilitate constant monitoring of tidal action, and the savings on the cost of energy may be able to justify the cost of underwater habitats, especially since studies demonstrated that there is enough potential tidal wave energy for all needs. In the following case studies of underwater habitats, their uses have already been defined. What will be looked at in regards to the case studies is how they were built to sustain themselves under such conditions. In order to guide the field effectively, this expertise should be organized in the form of a book. This book will be called The Aquatectural Graphic Standards. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Figure 1-1: “Early Manuscripts at Oxford University” (1999) Ever since Alexander the Great's first oceanic exploration in 300 B.C., man has had a desire to explore new boundaries that have never been seen by the human eye. Whether it is life on Mars or deep sea diving, it has been in the human nature as predators to move to different areas in order to hunt for more game or enjoy a new setting whether it be on land, water, or some other phenomena. Since space shuttles were not invented until the latter part of the 20 th Century, the closest accessible boundary Alexander the Great had to discover was below the surface of the earth and into the ocean. His primitive version of the submarine was designed to attack, however, rather than explore due to his expanding of Greece. 2 However, even with all the expeditions that have taken place under water, people have yet to find a way to claim water as a viable place to live. This is much in part due to the extreme conditions that are the nature of such an endeavor. Furthermore, As the cost of sending someone into space is tens of millions of dollars, it does not make much sense to send someone to outer-space every time an extreme environment is needed to be explored (Associated Press, 2008). It is much more practical to prepare for interstellar habitats by practicing how to live underwater on planet earth. In the outside environment of an underwater habitat, one is forced to deal with the same kind of issues as in outer-space. These issues outside the habitat include feelings of reduced weight, increased pressure, and the necessity to breath compressed air from the oxygen tanks strapped to one’s back. Transitioning between habitat and environment is similar in space and underwater. Living inside an underwater habitat would be much the same as living on earth in terms of gravity and temperature; assuming normal pressure is provided. But living in a confined environment is again similar to conditions in space. In order to prepare oneself for some of the outside issues of living on other planets, one may need to practice first with what similar situations one has on earth. 1.1: HYPOTHESIS STATEMENT 1.1.1 With all that has been invested in underwater explorations, it may be beneficial to employ some expertise in underwater architecture to help guide the field as the need for alternative habitats may become apparent. 3 1.1.2 This subject needs to be explored in depth, because there has been an increase of production in submarine architecture in recent years with the increase of technology that has come to light. For instance, in more recent habitats, there is a single shape that these structures are based on – that being the lozenge. 1.1.3 This thesis explores 12 structures that are prefabricated in-house and brought to the site. None of them are assembled on site from pieces, and none are built from scratch underwater. 1.1.4 There have been numerous instances of habitats, particularly in the 20 th and 21 st Century where they begun as research laboratories, and transformed into habitats as their use has changed over time. One such habitat is the Aquarius built off the coast of Florida. Here one sees where a structure was built out of steel, also in this lozenge shape, to study marine life operated by the National Undersea Research Center. 1.1.5 With the knowledge gained from submarine habitats, one can perhaps better prepare oneself with living on other planets. Obviously, human civilization does not yet know whether or not living in outer-space will come to pass. However, with the expertise compiled by this thesis, the knowledge gained from underwater habitats could be useful as a guide for such an architectural transition. 4 1.2: EXPLANATION/ELABORATION: TERMS 1.1.1 Definitions 1.1.1.1 Websters’ Dictionary defines submergible as, “having the quality of being put underwater (Websters, 2008).” 1.1.1.2 The term, “science-fiction” could be used to describe how one may think of an underwater habitat when it is first thought of as an idea. It is something that is theoretical, because it is a fabrication of what may or may not take place. However, if it is introduced effectively into a society, it may behave as a paradigm shift for the vast majority, and change people’s ways of thinking about living. When this facet of science-fiction is first seen by the public it may initially be thought of as impractical. But sometimes, such experiments prove otherwise through the process of time – but others may not. An underwater habitat falls under the genre of science fiction, and involves many different criteria that impact its usefulness as an alternative living space. This thesis will try to identify how plausible this type of habitat is or may be in the future. But until it is realized how effective they are as habitats, the notion of these underwater dwellings being feasible for specific need will be regarded as “science-fiction.” 1.1.1.3 Habitat is a place of living or dwelling. A habitat can be self- sustaining or dependent on outside systems. Most depend on outside systems. 5 1.1.1.4 A mooring line or hawser is a thick rope used to fasten a vessel to a fixed object such as bollards, rings, or cleats (Mooring (watercraft), 2009). 1.3: STUDY BOUNDARIES The marine environment can be quite lovely and engaging with a great deal of marine life flowing around. However, there are certain parameters of which one must be aware in the environment. Underneath a 100-foot depth it becomes virtually impossible to see anything in the darkness of the ocean without the constant use of artificial light. But above this depth, the environment can actually be quite nice (Lupkus, 2008). The range needs to be accessible by free-swimmers and scuba- divers. So, for all intents and purposes, with most depths offshore not being more than 100-feet, within about 5-miles or less off the coast, the work done here will focus on submarine habitats built just offshore. Also, pressure increases at a rate of one atmosphere or 14.7 pounds per square inch for every 33-feet of depth. Therefore, one must be cautious in terms of pressure for each increased depth submerged underwater. More than likely, it would be more feasible to have a structure 33-feet underwater as opposed to 60-feet or more, unless internal and external pressures are equalized. 1.1.1 Some examples of the work not included in the scope are by the Italian Naval architect Giancarlo Zema. His floating structures, although they may resemble a space-ship design, float on top of water. Therefore these 6 buildings would not be practical case studies for design as they do not need to consider the fact that water conducts heat faster than air, the fact that fixing or constructing things underwater is more challenging than at the surface, and difference in pressure that underwater habitats may experience. 1.1.2 Floating structures are not included because they do not prepare for exploring the conditions of inter-stellar living. 1.4: SCOPE OF WORK 1.1.1 Research has been conducted on the history of underwater habitats. This includes previous work done on submersibles, their intended uses, and their architecture. There is a detailed understanding of how certain shapes work in terms of their size, material, surface area, etc. 1.1.2 The “deliverables” of this thesis include an independent evaluation of what works and does not work with certain shapes built underwater. Little is known about this sector of the field, and the thesis expands on that. 1.5: CONDUCTED RESEARCH 1.1.1 The background study covers twelve underwater habitats. For each habitat, a brief description is given in Chapter 2 followed by a more categorized analysis of each one in Chapter 3. The groups for each 7 habitat in Chapter 3 are categorized by Entry, Light, Air in, Air out, Power, Foundation, Background, How Long Can One Stay Down There, Layout, Material, Cost of Material, Use, and Architect. These groups organize findings and are referenced to various literature that highlights and details the fine lines of each of these projects. 1.1.2 The method used to obtain data was by gathering excerpts found within the literature referred to in the bibliography. A simplified description was then laid out through a variety of charts that became more and more defined with each successive revision. To become more familiar with the layout, sizing, and structure of underwater habitats, five examples of these were converted into 3-dimensional computer models. In addition to these five real-life examples, was another 3-dimensional model of the hydrosphere – an un-built habitat developed by the author. 1.1.3 As the data charts began to take shape, each case could be grouped by similarities found within the criteria. To visually display these similarities, a color-coding method is used to make certain categories stand out more. The colors chosen signify intensity, (ie. blue means less, yellow means average, and red means more) regarding cost of material. 1.1.4 The analysis consists of two parts: the first part was to choose three main elements about these underwater habitats that could be looked at and compared to other objects found in the world, and the second part was to study the impacts of load on the structures. 8 1.1.4.1 The three elements in the first part are size, weight, and cost. For the size and weight elements, the habitats were closely compared to that of a space shuttle. Space shuttles were used because they have similar characteristics to underwater habitats in terms of their use for exploration and discovery, typically not having ambient pressure inside of it, as well as being made to withstand unfamiliar environments not found on land. For the cost component of the underwater habitats, they were compared based on the platonic solids. Obviously, these solids vary in terms of surface area for every volume of measurement enclosed inside of them. If a crew were to live inside of a platonic structure, rather than the structure of the twelve case study examples, a factor of how large the structure would need to be came into play, affecting the outlying surface area, and ultimately the cost. These criteria were also laid out in a chart in Chapter 3. 1.1.4.2 For the second part, six models for the Multiframe computer program were defined to reflect the six 3-Dimensional case study models described at the end of section 1.5.2. These models are visually outlined in Chapter 5 by their diagrams showing load capacity, stress, moment, and deflection. 1.1.5 The conclusion is a summary of these findings. For instance, a cube does not use as much material as a lozenge for a predetermined amount of 9 inhabitable space, but its structure is more impacted by water pressure at a certain depth. Then a list of options is given for how one can reduce the affects of water pressure on the shell to make it feasible at a 30-foot depth underwater. Future work is defined by how much knowledge, data, and accuracies are missing from these charts. Any of the blanks found next to a certain criteria are due to missing information on the topic for that case study. It is recommended, that any future thesis should begin relatively early at filling in these blanks with any new information that has come to fruition since this thesis. Any additional data and diagrams of the structural shells may also be of interest, as well as more 3- dimentional physical representations of case studies. 10 CHAPTER 2: PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON UNDERWATER DEVELOPMENTS 2.1: THE SUBMERGIBLE BELL BY ALEXANDER THE GREAT “Submergible” means that something has the capability to be put under water or submerged. This term would relate to anything except objects that can only float on top of water until something about the object changes, for example if a boat were to overflow, or the density of an object changes. “Submersibles” are also submergible. Submersibles are underwater vehicles, intended for exploration while completely immersed in water. Their design as rigid diving machines and airtight device allow for these underwater vehicles to possess a wide-range of versatility in design and function while maintaining sustainability in structure. Underwater vehicles can either be directly operated inside the submersible or from a remote location. Their design is especially useful for warfare purposes. When the submersible is designed for warfare they are called submarines. Streamlined frames are constructed from materials such as titanium or steel allow for the submarines to be self-contained underwater vehicles. Submarines have a propulsion system powered by electric batteries and diesel fuels or sometimes nuclear energy with their own internal air stores. However, it should be noted that these internal air stores have to be constantly replenished from surface air, or charcoal filtered, with CO2 and O2 added. These underwater vehicles used in warfare also possess weapons such as 11 torpedoes as well as mines, ballistic missiles containing nuclear warheads. They use periscopes to see oncoming enemies from the inside of the vessel (Werner, 2007). Alexander the Great first used the submersible in the fourth century B.C. when he enhanced his design for the “diving bell” so that it could underwater. Since then other various types of submarines have been used by such people as Dutch engineer Cornelius Drebbel in 1620. Contrary to Alexander the Great’s vessel, Drebbel’s submarine allowed maneuverability. His submersible took the form of two rowboats layered vertically. Stretched over the frame of the boat was grease- soaked leather, and waterproofed holes for sticking the oars through (Atkins, 2007). There is no indication on whether this ever worked. Figure 2-1: The Submergible Bell (Atkins, 2007) 12 2.2: BATHYSPHERE BY C.W. BEEBE In the early twentieth century, two explorers by the names of William Beebe and Otis Barton wished to study deep-sea life, so they developed a spherical diving apparatus called the bathysphere, intended for this very purpose, which could be lowered from a ship into the depths of the ocean by a cable. The term bathysphere originates from the Greek word for “deep” which is bathys. This spherical diving apparatus was constructed out of a hollow steel ball, approximately 4,500 pounds and five feet in diameter. The oxygen system of the bathysphere was powered by electrical connections and comprised of the interior oxygen tanks, which supplied the air inside the apparatus, kept in circulation by hand-held woven palm-frond fans. The oxygen tanks supporting the air supply were also fitted with trays containing powdered chemicals which absorbed carbon dioxide and any moisture inside the bathysphere. Figure 2-2: C.W. Beebe (Uscher, 2005) 13 In 1934, Beebe and Barton traveled to an ocean off the coast of Bermuda in order to explore and study the deep-sea life in that region. They used their bathysphere to drop down nearly 3,000 feet into the depths of the ocean. There, the two explorers recorded all the deep-sea life that they observed through their portholes. They discovered fish and invertebrates which had never before been seen. They were able to relay news of their findings down under by a telephone cable connected from their bathysphere to the ship on the surface. However, one problem with the bathysphere was that it had limited maneuverability due to the fact that it was connected to a steel cable and winch, so that it was only able to go up straight up to the surface where the ship was anchored and straight back down again into the depths of the ocean (Uscher, 2005). Figure 2-3: The Bathysphere (Hines, 2004) 14 2.3: BATHYSCAPHE BY A. PICCARD A bathyscaphe or bathyscape is a submersible vessel ideally designed for the purpose of deep-see navigation and exploration with a separate overhead cabin or chamber filled with gasoline or water for buoyancy and also iron or steel weights for ballast. Invented by Auguste Piccard, the term bathyscaphe comes from the Greek words bathys (“deep”) and skaphos (“ship”). In 1953, August Piccard and his son Jacques engineered petroleum liquid for this purpose, and several smaller tanks filled with tiny steel bullets. By 1957, they were able to reach a depth of over 10,000 feet. Figure 2-4: Bathyscaphe (“bathyscaphe” 2008) 15 A year later, the bathyscaphe ‘Trieste’ was purchased by the US-Navy for warfare. In 1960, Piccard and Don Walsh were on board the bathyscaphe ‘Trieste.’ This vessel was 49 feet in length, 7 feet in diameter, and contained a steel ball partially filled with petroleum liquid for this purpose, and several smaller tanks filled with tiny steel bullets. By 1957, they were able to reach a depth of over 10,000 feet. A year later, the bathyscaphe ‘Trieste’ was purchased by the US-Navy. In 1960, Piccard and Don Walsh were on board the ‘Trieste’ when it reached its deepest point on earth, the Challenger Deep in the Marianas Trench in the Pacific Ocean; it submerged 35,800 feet deep into the depths of the ocean. This was done using a new steel ball from Germany, provided by Krupp steelworks. The area was originally discovered by the British research vessel ‘Challenger II’ in 1951. The new bathyscaphe enabled scientists to do some true research of the deep seas as well as becoming of great use to the navy (Bjoern, 2003). Figure 2-5: Bathyscaphe Section ("General Arrangement Drawing of Trieste,” 1959) 16 2.4: CONSHELF II BY JACQUES COUSTEAU Conshelf II – In 1963, Jacques Cousteau ran an underwater habitat experiment at this site where five men were chosen to live here for one month. This site is located just on the outskirts of the entrance to the Sha’b Rumi lagoon. All that remains of this habitat constructed for this experiment is a large mushroom-shaped space, which has a complete underwater toolshed and some shark cages, along with its own airspace (Scarsbrook, 2005). North Plateau – The plateau is approximately 40 meters more deeper than Conshelf II located at the south end of the reef with a north-going current about half a knot on the west and east sides of the reef (Scarsbrook, 2005). Southwest side – This side has a gentle drift north along a coral, beginning at the beacon all the way near the Conshelf (Scarsbrook, 2005). Figure 2-6: Conshelf Underwater Habitat (National Geographic) 17 2.5: SEA LABS I, II, AND III BY THE U.S. NAVY In an attempt by the U.S. Navy to study saturation diving, a technique that allows divers to remain submerged great depths underwater for an extended period of time, Sea labs I, II, and III were developed as experimental underwater habitats in order to test those living conditions in which a diver is isolated and deep underwater a considerable length of time. In 1964, Sealab I was the first of the experimental underwater habitats to be launched. It was set off the coast of Bermuda and submerged into the depths of the sea at 58 meters below the surface. The apparatus comprised of two converted floats supported by axles from railroad cars. Four divers (LCDR Robert Thompson, MC; Gunners Mate First Class Lester Anderson, Chief Quartermaster Robert A. Barth, and Chief Hospital Corpsman Sanders Manning) were involved in this experiment and they were led by Captain George F. Bond. For 21 days, they were to remain underwater, however after a tropical storm was reported to be nearing the area, the experiment came to a stop only after 11 days. Shortly after Sealab I, Sealab II was set to launch a year later, equipped with more luxuries such as refrigeration and hot showers inside the underwater habitat. This time, the experiment took place off the coast of California instead of the Carribean at a location in the La Jolla Canyon area. Sealab II was lowered in the sea to a depth of 62 meters. Three teams of divers were the first to be involved in this experiment and on August 28, 1965, they entered the habitat. A porpoise named Tuffy delivered supplies to this underwater habitat during the course of the 18 experiment. He had been trained by the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. Each of the three teams spent a total of 15 days in Sealab II. Only one of the men, astronaut as well as aquanaut Scott Carpenter spent a record of 30 days underwater. Various elements of the experiment were testing, including physiological testing, new tools, salvage methods, and an electrically heated drysuit [SEALAB (United States Navy), 2008]. On February 15, 1969, Sealab III was the last of the three underwater habitat experiments to be launched, also off the coast of California’s San Clemente Island. It was engineered using a refurbished Sealab II habitat and was lowered into the sea at a record depth of 185 meters, three times as deep as the other launch. For this part of the Sealab project, the experiment involved five teams of nine divers who were to remain submerged in the underwater habitat for 12 days each. They were to test new salvage techniques and conduct oceanographic and fishery studies. Before the actual deep diving experience took place, the U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit in Washington D.C. Navy Yard conducted work-up dives in order to simulate the diving that would be done out in the open sea. A special hyperbaric chamber was utilized. This chamber was able to produce the pressures at depths of as much as 312 meters. From the beginning of operations, Sealab III was beleaguered by many strange failures. One of the first was a leak in the underwater habitat. Six divers attempted to repair the leak but failed. When another attempt at repairing the leak was made, an aquanaut Berry Cannon died. It was suspected by John Craven, head 19 of the U.S. Navy’s Deep Submergence Systems Project that several attempts to sabotage the operation were made because the air supply for the divers kept being disrupted by someone on board the command barge. A guard was later put on board to monitor the decompression chamber and the divers were able to recover safely from their deep sea dives. Eventually, the Sealab program came to an end. Some parts of the research were continued by certain classified military programs but no new Sealab underwater habitats were made thereafter [SEALAB (United States Navy), 2008]. 2.6: TEKTITE I AND II BY NOAA-NASA Tektite I and II programs were carried out at the Tektite habitat, an underwater laboratory engineered by General Electric Company Space Division in Pennsylvania. Brooks Tenney, Jr. was the Project Designer of the underwater habitat as well as the underwater habitat engineer for the final part of the program’s mission. Coordinated by the U.S. Office of Naval Research, Tektite I was launched on February 15, 1969 with four U.S. Department of Interior researchers, Ed Clifton, Conrad Mahnken, Richard Waller, and John Vanderwalker, on board. They were lowered onto the ocean floor in Great Lameshur Bay in the U.S. Virgin Islands in order to start the Tektite I diving project. The scientists set a new world record for saturated diving by a single team on March 18, 1969. The four aquanauts resurfaced on April 15, 1969 having completed over 58 days of marine scientific studies and 20 more than 19 hours of decompression therapy was required to help the men return from their underwater mission. Tektite II was coordinated by the U.S. Department of the Interior and NASA, who took part in providing funds for the project. NASA’s interest in the project was the psychological study of the team of scientists in an isolated underwater habitat, which would be a similar environment to that of a spacecraft. In 1970, Tektite II was launched. This project was carried out over a series of ten missions with each mission lasting approximately ten to twenty days. Each mission involved the cooperation of four scientists and an engineer. One of the ten Tektite II missions included the very first all-female aquanaut team of scientists. This all-female team of aquanauts was directed by Dr. Sylvia Earle Mead and included Dr. Renate True, Ann Hartline, Alina Szmant, and Margaret Ann Lucas. Lucas, an engineering graduate from Villanova, worked as the Habitat Engineer. These missions by Tektite II were part of the first in-depth ecological studies underwater (Tektite I and II, 2008). 2.7: HYDROLAB BY NOAA AND NURP In 1966, an underwater habitat named Hydrolab was built and utilized as a research station in 1970. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) partly funded the project. The underwater laboratory could accommodate up to four people. Nearly 180 missions were conducted on this research station and many of them were in the Bahamas during the early and mid 1970s; others took 21 place in St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands during the later 1970s. Later in 1985, this underwater habitat was withdrawn from active service and then exhibited at the National History Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Today, Hydrolab can be found at the NOAA headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland (Hydrolab, 2008). Figure 2-7: Hydrolab (OAR/National Undersea Research Program, 2007) 22 2.8: CHALUP-JULES L. AND KLUP Figure 2-8: Chalupa Jules Plan (JULES’ UNDERSEA LODGE, 2008) La Chalupa research laboratory was built and operated in the early 1970s. It was developed and managed by Ian Koblick, the president of Marine Resources Development Foundation and also one of the principal authorities on underwater habitation. La Chalupa became the leading and most technologically prestigious underwater habitats of the time. It was used to explore the continental shelf off of the coast of Puerto Rico (La Chalupa Research Laboratory, 2008). In the mid 1980s, this underwater habitat was altered into an underwater hotel called the Jules’ Undersea Lodge. The co-developer and design engineer of this lodge was Dr. Neil Monney, who was a former Professor and Director of Ocean Engineering at the 23 United States Naval Academy. He had a wide-ranging background as an aquanaut, a research scientist, as well as a designer of undersea habitation. The Jules’ Undersea Lodge in Key Largo, Florida has been in operation for nearly 20 years and accommodated over 10,000 guests (Jules’ Undersea Lodge, 2008). 2.9: MRUL BY KLUP MarineLab underwater laboratory is the world’s longest operating underwater research facility in history and also the world’s most comprehensively utilized habitat. It has been in continuous operation since 1984 under the management of aquanaut Chris Olstad at Key Largo, Florida, same area as the Jules’ Undersea Lodge. In 1973 at the start of this project, MarineLab was originally known as MEDUSA (Midshipman Engineered & Designed Undersea Systems Apparatus), and it was designed and developed as part of an ocean engineering student program at the United States Naval Academy. Dr. Neil T. Monney was head of this program. Later in 1983, the underwater habitat was donated to the Marine Resources Development Foundation (MRDF). A year later, it was redistributed onto the seafloor at Key Largo, Flordia in the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park. 24 Figure 2-9: MarineLab (Marine Resources Development Foundation, 2008) This habitat was 8 x 16 feet, to accommodate up to 4 individuals. The layout of the habitat was divided up into a laboratory, a wet-room, and a transparent observation sphere. Originally MEDUSA was utilized by students for research, observation, and instruction. It was given a new name MarineLab in 1984, as this habitat was transported to a deep mangrove lagoon in Key Largo, Florida at the MRDF headquarters. At a depth of 27 feet and a hatch depth of 20 feet, this lagoon houses artifacts and wreck, placed on display for educational and training purposes. Recently during 1993-1995, MarineLab was used by NASA to study a Controlled Ecological Support Systems (CELLS). 25 When MarineLab is not in use as a research facility, it also serves as an underwater hotel. The features of the hotel include a long list of regular hotel amenities such as a large movie selection as well as specialty menus. Even pizza can be delivered to this underwater hotel by a diver. Tourists who wish to be guests of the underwater hotel must dive down to get there. Diving lessons nearby on a land- base are offered for those individuals who are not acquainted with diving and wish to learn the activity (MarineLab, 2008). 2.10: AQUARIUS BY UNCW – NOAA In 1986, Aquarius was designed and built in Victoria, Texas. The first of the underwater operations started in the U.S. Virgin Islands, but due to Hurricane Hugo in 1989, it was moved to NURC for repairs and refurbishment because it had been damaged by the storm. In 1992, it was redistributed in the Florida Keys for operation almost 20 meters underwater at the base of a coral reef in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Now located in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Aquarius is an underwater habitat owned by the NOAA and operated by the National Undersea Research Center (NURC) at the University of North Caroline in Wilmington. This underwater research facility is the only one in the world that is solely dedicated to science and is frequently utilized by marine biologists to study the coral reef and underwater life including fish and aquatic plants. This laboratory is equipped with all kinds of research tools included up-to-date lab equipment, computers, and other 26 devices which allow scientists to carry out their research without ever having to leave their underwater facility. Aquarius can house up to four scientists and two technicians for approximately ten days and the scientists on board are usually referred to as aquanauts. In general, the dives from Aquarius can take up to nine hours at any given time, whereas the surface dives take much less time of approximately one to two hours at a time [Aquarius (laboratory), 2008]. Figure 2-10: Aquarius (Uscher 2001) 27 Figure 2-11: Aquarius Floorplan (Potts, 2008) Figure 2-12: Aquarius Starboard Elevation (Potts, 2008) Figure 2-13: Aquarius Port Elevation (Potts, 2008) 28 The underwater habitat is comprised of three compartments: the wet porch, the main compartment, and the entry lock. A chamber called the wet porch contains a moon pool, which gives access to the water. This chamber keeps the air pressure constant inside the wet porch as well as the water pressure at depth or ambient pressure via hydrostatic equilibrium. The main compartment is able to hold up its own normal atmospheric pressure, as well as be pressurized to ambient pressure, but is usually maintained somewhere in between the two pressures. The entry lock is the smallest of compartments and is between the other two compartments, serving the purpose of an airlock. The overall design of Aquarius allows for individuals to resurface without a decompression chamber. The divers can remain inside the main compartment for 17 hours before ascending to the surface, allowing for the pressure to be slowly minimized so that they do not experience decompression sickness after they surface on land. In 2001, Aquarius was used by NASA for one of its programs. The program called NEEMO (NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations) studies various sides of human spaceflight because being in an underwater habitat is similar to living in a spacecraft for a period of time. However, Aquarius provides a safe shelter for research for living and working in such an environment for an extended length of time [Aquarius (laboratory), 2008]. 29 2.11: DIVESCOPE BY VINCENT LOVICHI Vincent Lovichi of the Compagnie d'Ingéniérie et d'Ecotourisme designed the Divescope, an underwater transparent observation component or module that allows for an individual to obtain panoramic views. It is anchored 8 meters below the surface in the Pacific in New Caledonia. The module can house 4 persons at a time and is a new kind of underwater tourist activity in the Pacific. A new kind of undersea activity for the Divescope, the wedding for a Japanese couple was performed as pictured here: Figure 2-14: Wedding in Divescope (Undersea Observation Module in Pacifique, 2002) 30 2.12: HYDROPOLIS The Hydropolis Underwater Hotel and Resort is to be the world’s first underwater luxury hotel and resort. 66 feet below surface of the Persian Gulf, it is located off the coast of Jumeira Beach in Dubai. This hotel is reinforced by concrete and steel with plexiglass walls and bubble-shaped dome ceilings, allowing hotel guests to observe underwater life. Hydropolis contains three main sections: a land station, 220 suites situated within the submarine leisure complex, and the connecting tunnel. The land station is where the guests first enter and will be welcomed into the hotel. The connecting tunnel functions as the area where guests can be transported into the main hotel area. The resort will is estimated at approximately £300 million and is set to be a 10-star hotel. It is to be constructed over an area of nearly 260 hectares. Hydropolis was originally scheduled to have its grand opening in late 2006, but due to the cancellation of the Land Lease Contract of the Hydropolis-Project Dubai by the Dubai Development and Investment Authority (DDIA) in October of 2004. In July 2005, Joachim Hauser developed a brand new company “Cresent- Hydropolis Resort” in the Isle of Man to offset the cancellation. Since that time, he attempted to sell shares of his company on the Stock Exhange London. After experiencing major delays, the hotel is presently set to open in 2009. Crescent Hydropolis Holdings LLC is the owner and developer of many sister projects including this hotel. The firm was specifically establish for this hotel project. 31 Proessor Roland Dieterle is the lead designer of the Hydropolis project in Dubai (Hydropolis, 2008). 2.13: HYDROSPHERE Shell Figure 2-15: Shell and Exoskeleton of the Hydrosphere The Hydrosphere is a fictitious housing development intended for use as an offshore study. It is a planned single-family residence for a typical family of five people. The Exoskeleton is formed by taking Buckminster Fuller’s diagram of a geodesic sphere and wrapping it around a central shaft. The structure’s spherical design is based on previous studies of underwater structures, and the fact that water pressure acts as an equal distribution of force. However, if the device is within a few feet of the surface, as shown below, the pressure on the bottom is different than the 32 top. The habitat’s foundation will be securely anchored onto a solid surface about 30 feet below grade. Figure 2-16: Hydrosphere Entry Diagram Inhabitants can reach the sphere by way of a docking bridge linked to its connection tunnel from the core under sea level to grade. There are only a few advantages to entering the habitat from a tunnel above. One of them is that one can enter in and out of the habitat rather freely without having to put on scuba gear or equalize his or her body. This means one can get a quick view of the ocean without ever touching the ocean. The disadvantage of this method of entry is that the shell would need to be more heavily reinforced in order to resist the water pressure outside of it. The previous examples of underwater habitats are equalized to the water pressure around them, therefore their structures are much more capable of withstanding this force. In addition to the shell needing to be stronger on the 33 Hydrosphere, the foundation would need to be reinforced as well. Figures 2-17 and 2-18 are details of a possible foundation for the Hydrosphere. These details reflect the connection of the Hydrosphere to the ocean floor through the use of a base plate which is strengthened by ground anchors. A final difference between the Hydrosphere and the other habitats is, in the other habitats, one could go in and out at depth without adding an air lock. However, in the Hydrosphere, one would need an air lock in order to go in and out. Figure 2-17: Foundation Detail - Base Plate (FDOT Specifications and Estimates, 2009) 34 Figure 2-18: Foundation Detail - Ground Anchor (GME Supply Co., 2009) Table 2-1: Foundation Specifications (FDOT Specifications and Estimates, 2009) 35 Figure 2-19: Hydrosphere Sections 36 Figure 2-20: Hydrosphere Sections 37 2.13.1: ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS There are three main zones to the Hydrosphere: the Wet Porch and Access Area, the Common Main Lock, and the Private Zone. Figure 2-21: Hydrosphere First Floor Plan In the Wet Porch, the user arrives into the area climbing down a ladder. For basic need of sanitation, there is a toilet, along with a sink that has hot and cold water supply, and a shower area on the first floor. There is natural and artificial light along with a panoramic view of the ocean through viewports. The floor has 18-inch high 38 raised steps to allow for comfortable seating or a place of gathering. The hidden features mostly contained in the ovular cells of this floor are the storage, life-support back up systems (air/water/energy-dry cells), and emergency systems for suppressing fire. Figure 2-22: Hydrosphere Second Floor Plan The Common Main Lock includes all the public features needed for a house. The kitchen has a pantry which contains storage, a sink, electrical stove, and microwave. There is a dining room adjacent to it. There are two work stations on this level for use of computers and cabinet storage. One of the stations doubles as a 39 Control Desk for logistical support. It includes all the data/telecommunications systems (radio, telephone, sonar, wireless telemetry, microwaves, and satellites), and the capability of reading the instruments needed for monitoring. Underneath the other work station is the library area with manuals, and user guides. There are also two science stations used for data collection. There is a lounge with a TV screen, DVD storage, and stereo system. An infirmary/emergency room is next to the kitchen for quarantining, medical care, and surgery purposes. And next to the infirmary is the medicine chest in its own room for emergency medical supplies. Figure 2-23: Hydrosphere Third Floor Plan 40 The Private Zone is where the family sleeps inside the house with space for six individual rooms. Each room has its own storage and closet, and view ports inside the area. The support system for telecommunications also supplies this floor. 2.13.2: INFRASTRUCTURE There are several systems requirements one must be cognizant of if designing such a building with this very unique site context. Other than the various types of construction and materials required with such a project is how the building would be put into place, as well as the need for keeping the structure and equipment level. Its very foundation requires specific ways of lifting it from the seabed, handling, anchoring, and also a certain type of equipment. In addition, it must be decided if the work-platform is to be self-propelled or self contained. Along with these issues are factors such as air supply, distribution, air-conditioning, exhaust, revitalization in terms of carbon dioxide scrubbers for purification, and direct oxygen extracting from the seawater. In the water itself, any salt must be removed and provide realistic means of how to distribute, discharge, and store it. Energy supply and distribution also needs to be thought of as we well as sanitation and waste disposal, and telecommunications. Some scientific support must also be acknowledged such as forecasting, weather conditions, and external environment. 41 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING THE BACKGROUND OF UNDERWATER HABITATS In this chapter each of the twelve existing underwater habitats will be described in light of the following criteria. Entry, Light, Air in, Air out, Water in, Water out, Power, Foundation, Background, How Long Can One Stay Down There, Layout, Material, Cost of Material, Use, and Architect. The descriptions under each listing are based on specific excerpts found in the reading, and cited by their source. These descriptions are either a paraphrasing to simplify the description or directly from the literature. Included in each breakdown of the case study are several photographs, and/or drawings. Every drawing that was found from the research was included in these case studies, and none were left out. The 3-dimensional models to follow in later chapters used these drawings as a base to get the correct sizing for the habitat’s accurate representation. In cases where the cost of material is determined by weight, a few standard calculations were used. First, 2200 lbs is equal to 1 tonne. This is useful when the weight of the habitat cited in the literature is given in terms of metric tonnes (or a tonne). However, in the case of imperial measurements, 1 ton is equal to 2000 lbs. According to MEPS steel prices (Steelonthenet.com, 2009a) from 2007-2008, a medium steel section is equal to $1234 per metric tonne. This amount will simplified into $0.56/lbs in the following calculations. However, it should noted that 42 this price of steel seems lower than what it should be. Lastly, the final weight of the habitat in metric tonnes multiplied by $1234/metric tonne gives one the final cost of material. This calculation will be shown repeatedly in the following case study examples. 3.1: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF BATHYSPHERE • Entry: Based on the photograph of this habitat in Figure 3-1, the entry is on the side. • Light: Electrical connections powered a searchlight (Uscher, 2005). The bathysphere was “raised and lowered from a ship by a cable. Electrical connections powered its oxygen system and searchlight.” (Uscher, 2005) • Air: “Electrical connections powered its oxygen system.” (Uscher, 2005) “Air came from oxygen tanks fitted to the interior, with trays of powdered chemicals to absorb moisture and carbon dioxide. The oxygen was kept circulating by hand-held woven palm-frond fans” (Uscher, 2005) • Power: The cable above contains an electrical power line and telephone wire (See Figure 3-2). • Foundation: N/A • Background: On June 11, 1930, it reached a depth of 400 m, or about 1,300 feet, and in 1934, Beebe and Barton reached 900 m, or about 3,000 feet. “In 1934, Beebe and Barton dropped 3,028 feet down into the ocean off the coast of Bermuda, relaying news of their finds by telephone cable to a ship on the 43 surface. They recorded every animal that passed before their portholes, including fish and invertebrates never before seen.” (Uscher, 2005) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: No Information • Layout: A hollow spherical volume with these elements inside: a central observation window, a barometer, a thermometer, humidity recorder, observation window, two oxygen tank valves, two oxygen tanks, a telephone recorder and a battery box, a telephone, an entrance, a cable containing an electric power line and a telephone wire, a stuffing box, a switchbox, a control for a blower and a searchlight, a searchlight window, a searchlight, an oxygen tank valve (See Figure 3-2) • Material: “It was a 4,500-pound hollow steel ball about five feet in diameter.” (Uscher, 2005) “Because of the attached steel cable and winch, the bathysphere wasn't very maneuverable; it could only go straight down and straight back up again.” (Uscher, 2005) • Cost of Material: Given that it is a hollow steel ball weighing 4500 pounds – the cost is estimated as: 4500 lbs. x $0.56/lbs. = $2,524. Surface Area of Steel: 4 x (5 ft./2)^2 x (3.14) = 78.5 sq. ft. • Use: Exploration • Architect: “The bathysphere -- bathys is Greek for "deep" -- was developed in the early 1930s by William Beebe and Otis Barton, two explorers from the New York Zoological Society.” (Uscher, 2005) (See Figure 3-1) 44 Figure 3-1: A close up photo of Otis Barton (November-December 1934 NYZS Bulletin) 45 Figure 3-2: Bathysphere Scheme. (Hines) (National Geographic Soc.) Figure 3-3: Beebe, William (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.) 46 3.2: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF BATHYSCAPHE • Entry: An entrance tunnel on top of the Trieste leads through a hatch into the Observation Gondala. • Light: “The water pressure outside was more than 6 tons per square inch., and even a slight fracture in the hull would have meant certain death. It proved to be only an outer Plexiglas windowpane which had splintered under the pressure. The inner hull remained watertight.” During the Mirianas Trench Dive, it was determined that sunlight was not visible unless 7 miles above (BJSOnline.com, 2006). “The Trieste stayed on the bottom for 30 minutes, but Piccard and Walsh could use its powerful lights for only short periods because the heat they generate made the water around them boil violently.” (BJSOnline.com, 2006) • Air: The only information on air supply is the fact that there is a snorkel inside the bathysphere that one can use when close enough to the surface. • Power: “The float contained gasoline, which is lighter than water, as well as several tons of iron or gravel ballast. If the bathyscaphe lost power, electromagnetic doors would automatically release the ballast, sending the submersible bobbing to the surface.” (Eisenstein, 2003) • Foundation: None • Background: “Piccard's first bathyscaphe, the FNRS-2, was referred to as the "submarine balloon" because its heavy-metal ballast, attached by electromagnets, allowed it to sink to a desired depth when engaged and rise 47 to the surface when released. It had greater maneuverability than the bathysphere, though it did not perform well in tests. Piccard and his son Jacques later designed and built a new bathyscaphe, the Trieste.” (Uscher, 2005) "In 1953, they descended in it to a depth of 10,330 feet in the Mediterranean. The Piccards sold the Trieste to the U.S. Navy in 1958. On January 23, 1960, the Trieste set a new world record of 35,800 feet when it touched bottom in the Marianas Trench near Guam. When the American submarine Thresher sank off the coast of New England in 1963, the Trieste was used to find and photograph the remains at the bottom of the sea." (Uscher, 2005) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: No Information • Layout: This submersible was similar to the first bathyscaphe in that it was a hollow ball that the crew sat in. In addition to the steel ball, there was a cylindrical metal float that allowed it to control its depth under water (Eisenstein, 2003). • Material: 3.5” thick steel was used for the sphere. Metal was also used for the free floating tank which was in the shape of a cylinder. This tank weighed 50-tons without gas (Eisenstein, 2003). • Total Cost of Material: 50 tons x 2000 lbs/ton x $0.56/lbs.= $56091 Surface Area of Steel Ball: 4(3.14)(7’/2)^2=153.86 sq. ft. Cost of Steel Ball: 153.86 sq. ft. (144 in./sq. ft.) x 3.5” ft. thick x 0.283 lbs./cu. in. steel x $0.56/lbs. = $12,309 48 Cost of Free Floating Tank=$56,091-$12,309=$43,782 Surface Area of Free Floating Tank= ($43,782/$0.56/lbs). x 1 cu. in/0.283 lbs. / 1” thick x 1 sq. ft./144 sq. in. = 1915.38 sq. ft. Total Surface Area: 1915.38 sq. ft. + 153.86 sq. ft. = 2069.24 sq. ft. • Use: Exploration • Architect: The bathyscaph was designed by Belgian scientist Auguste Piccard who lived from 1884-1962. “The Piccards sold the Trieste to the U.S. Navy in 1958.” (Uscher, 2005) 49 Figure 3-4: Jacques Piccard (BJSOnline.com, 2006) 50 Figure 3-5: General Arrangement Drawing and Marianas Trench dive. (BJSOnline.com, 2006) 51 3.3: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF HYDROLAB • Entry: Based on Figure 3-6, the entry is from the bottom into a human-sized container. • Light: No Information • Air: No Information • Power: No Information • Foundation: No Information • Background: “Underwater research, requiring extended diving times is often carried out from stationary underwater habitats. A study to test a collapsible fish trap was conducted in 1981 from the Hydrolab habitat, located in the Salt River Canyon (47' water depth), St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.” (National Marine Fisheries Service - Galveston, 2004) "Dr. Earle also participated in the first dual use of an underwater habitat and diver lockout submersible. In 1975, a Johnson-Sea Link submersible took Earle and others from their Hydro-Lab habitat in the Bahamas to a point 76 meters down. There, Earle exited the sub and dived on the edge of a blue abyss. Hydro-Lab was one of the longest running and most successful undersea laboratory projects." (Valencic, 2001) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: No information • Layout: See Figure 3-6 • Material: Steel Surface Area of Material: (8')(3.14)(12') + 2(3.14)(4) 2 = 402 Sq. Ft. 52 • Cost of Material: (402 Sq. Ft.)(12 in./ft.)^2 x (0.283lbs/cu. in.) x $0.56/lbs. = $9,188 • Use: “The purpose of the experiment was to develop a fish trap in which fish could be tagged and released underwater. This would prevent the over expansion of their gas bladder and damage to their internal organs when they are rapidly raised to the surface.” (National Marine Fisheries Service - Galveston, 2004). See Figures 3-7 - 3-9 • Architect: NOAA and NURP Figure 3-6: Hydrolab – Artist View (NOAA/NURP) 53 Figure 3-7: Aquanauts inside Hydrolab Underwater Habitat (NOAA/NURP) Figure 3-8: Hydrolab Underwater Habitat. (NOAA/NURP) 54 Figure 3-9: Aquanauts performing underwater activities outside Hydrolab. (NOAA/NURP) 55 3.4: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF MARINE LAB • Entry: No Information • Light: No Information • Air: No Information • Power: No Information • Foundation: No Information • Background: “Underwater research, requiring extended diving times is often carried out from stationary underwater habitats. A study to test a collapsible fish trap was conducted in 1981 from the Hydrolab habitat, located in the Salt River Canyon (47' water depth), St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.” (National Marine Fisheries Service - Galveston, 2004) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: Marinelab can support 3-4 people, but no information is found on how long they can stay (MarineLab, 2008). • Layout: The 8 x 16 – foot shore-supported habitat is divided into a laboratory, a wet-room, and 5’ 6” transparent observation sphere (MarineLab, 2008). • Material: Steel and Acrylic • Cost of Material: Surface Area of Steel: (16)(8)(3.14)+(2)PI(4)^2=502=72,288 sq. in. (Wood, 2009) Surface Area of Acrylic: 4PI(33)^2=13678=95 sq. ft. 56 cost of steel: 72,88 sq. in. x 1" x 0.283lbs./cu. in x $0.56/lbs. =$11,484 Total: $16,233 3.5: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF TEKTITE I AND II • Entry: “The main entrance was in the floor of the "wet room", a laboratory and storeroom for scientific and diving equipment. A submerged ladder led down into the sea through an open well. Pressure was maintained at 2.5 atm, sufficient to keep water from rising through the entry-well. An atm is defined as the force per unit area acting on a surface by the weight of the air above it at any given point in the Earth’s atmosphere (Atmospheric Pressure, 2009). The wet rooms served primarily for pre- and post-diving operations but also housed a clothe dryer and a hot freshwater shower.” (Collette, 1996) Below the bridge is the crew-quarters with four fixed bunks. See Figures 3-10 - 3-11. On the floor of the room is an emergency escape hatch. (Collette, 1996) • Light: “Large hemispherical ports enhanced each room, as well as scientifically.” (Collette, 1996) • Air/Power/Waste Removal: “Two white metal cylinders 4 m in diameter, 6 m high, joined by a flexible tunnel and seated on a rectangular base in 15 m of water (Fig. 3-10). Multiple cords extended from the Habitat to the shore for air, water, and electric power. A flexible pipe led seaward for 300 m to a site in 22 m where sewage was pumped from the Habitat.” “During Tektite 57 II, we utilized General Electric Mark 10 Mod III rebreather units.” (Collette, 1996) • Foundation: “The Tektite Habitat was designed and constructed by the General Electric Company. From the outside, the Habitat looked like a pair of silos: Two white metal cylinders 4 m in diameter, 6 m high, joined by a flexible tunnel and seated on a rectangular base in 15 m of water.” (Collette, 1996) • Background: “This was a joint effort between NASA, the Department of Interior and the US Navy. It began operation on 15 February 1969 in Greater Lameshur Bay at St John, Virgin Islands.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: “Decompression was completed on 15 April 1969. Four divers from the Department of the Interior spent this time at 43 feet doing biological studies on the reef life and being spied upon by the behavioural scientists. After the failure of SEALAB III some of the SEALAB crew were sent to provide support and I ended up being a watch officer for several weeks. Living conditions were primitive and there was little to do because of the isolation of the site. About the only fun was to call an emergency drill in the wee hours of the morning and get the camp commander excited.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “1970: The macho image of underwater exploration has its chest hairs tweaked when marine biologist Dr. Sylvia Earle leads a highly publicized mission in the Tektite habitat. Earle's all-female team of aquanauts successfully completes a two-week saturation 58 stay at 42 feet, providing researchers with much valuable data.” (Dorfman, 2009) • Layout: “The habitat consisted of two cylinders joined together and placed on end.” “Above the wet room was the engine room containing essential life- support systems, a freezer for food storage, and a small but private bathroom with sink and toilet. The third room, the control room or bridge, was reached by crossing through the tunnel connecting the two cylinders. Communications and monitoring systems were located there. This room also served as a dry laboratory, library, and was the primary domain of the Habitat engineer who even slept there on a folding cot.” (Collette, 1996) • Material: "These were ballasted to be 10 tons heavy.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Cost of Material: 10 tons x 2000 lbs./ton x $0.56/lbs. = $11,218.18 Surface Area of Material: (2 cylinders)(3.28ft./m.)(4m)(3.14)(6m.)(3.28 ft./m.)+(4)(3.14)[(2m)(3.28 ft./m.)]^2=1621.51 sq. ft. + 540.50 sq. ft.=2,162.01 sq. ft. Volume of Material= ($11,218.18 / $1234/tonne) x (2200 lbs./tonne /0.283 lbs./cu. in.)/(12in.ft)^3=40.89 cu. ft. Thickness of Metal=40.89cu. ft./2,162.01 sq. ft. x 12 in./ft.=0.227 in. or about !” • Use: “Prolonged time in the water is the most obvious advantage of saturation diving from a habitat, but it is not only the number of hours per day that is significant for some research. It can be important to make 59 observations throughout a 24-hour cycle to gather information on diurnal and nocturnal behavior.” “Nine studies conducted during Tektite I and II dealt with some aspect of coral-reef fish ecology.” (Collette, 1996) “Basic studies were designed to study small crew behavior during isolation over an extended period of time, and the use of nitrogen-oxygen for long exposures.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Architect: The United States Office of Naval Research Figure 3-10: Tektite Model (NOAA) (NASA) 60 Figure 3-11: Tektite – Artist View (NOAA) (NASA) Figure 3-12: Aquanauts diving near Tektite (NOAA) 61 Figure 3-13: Tektite’s Female Aquanauts Team (NOAA) 62 3.6: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF SEALAB I • Entry: No Information • Light: No Information • Air: No Information • Power: “It was located about 26 miles off Bermuda near Argus Island, a man-made tower from which the operation was supported.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Foundation: “The habitat reflected the level of funding for the project, as it was constructed of two salvaged harbor security net floats and ballasted with railroad car axles.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Background: “The first US Navy habitat operation, SEALAB I, began shortly afterwards, in July 1964.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “In contrast to the earlier experiments this was planned as a full scale investigation of human physiology underwater. Unfortunately, it had to be terminated after 11 days because of an approaching tropical storm. Decompression was to have been done by raising the habitat with the divers in it. At a depth of 81 feet they had to leave the habitat because the increasing sea state made it impossible to continue to handle the habitat safely. They swam out to the SDC, which was raised to the deck of the tower and completed the remaining 56 hours of decompression in the extremely tight and uncomfortable quarters provided by that equipment. One can only imagine the state of hygiene of the divers and the SDC when the hatch was finally opened!” (Vorosmarti, 1997) 63 • How Long Can One Stay Down There: 11 days, “This was a scheduled three-week stay for four divers, Barth, Manning, Anderson and Thompson, at a depth of 193 feet.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Layout: 32 ft. long, and 7 ft. diameter lozenge shape • Material: Steel • Cost of Material: Surface Area= (2 sides)(2"r 2 ) + (l) " (d) = 4(3.14)(3.5’x12”/ft.) 2 ]+(32’x 12”/ft.)(3.14)(7’x12”/ft)=123,439.68 in 2 • Cost = SA x Thickness x 0.283 lbs/in 3 x $0.56/lb. = (123,439.68 in 2 )(1)(0.283)(0.56)= $19,563 • Use: Physiological underwater study • Architect: U.S. Navy Figure 3-14: Sea Lab I (NOAA) 64 Figure 3-15: Sea Lab I (NOAA) Figure 3-16: Aquanauts aboard SEALAB I at a depth of 192 feet below sea surface (U.S. Navy Photo by Barth, Qumc USN) Sea lab I (ONR) 65 Figure 3-17: Photo Date: 1964 Credit: OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP) Figure 3-18: Interior of SEALAB I (photo by Walt Mazzone) 66 Figure 3-19: Walt Mazzone and Dr. George Bond at the topside communication center for SEALAB I (photo by Walt Mazzone) Figure 3-20: SEALAB I on the deck of its transport vessel. 67 3.7: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF SEALAB II • Entry: No Information • Light: No Information • Air: No Information • Power: Electric power • Foundation: No Information • Background: “Three unusual events occurred during his stay. A conversation was held between Carpenter and astronaut Gordon Cooper who was circling the globe at the time in the Gemini space capsule. Later aquanauts Griggs and Sheats spoke to oceanauts Cousteau and Lebon in Conshelf II. As part of the public relations effort, it had been arranged that Scott would speak to President Johnson. Dr Bond was speaking to a White House operator setting up the call and explained to her that Scott was in a chamber filled with helium gas, and therefore, his voice would sound very funny. The operator said that the President did not speak to persons in gas chambers and immediately hung up! The connection was finally made, but it was obvious that the President had no idea what Scott was saying in helium speech. However, the PR people were happy!” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “1965: U. S. Navy Sealab II team leader Scott Carpenter, living and working in the habitat at a depth of 205 feet, speaks with astronaut Gordon Cooper in a Gemini spacecraft orbiting 200 miles above the surface. No longer will humanity be able to view space, sea, and land as separate entities. Instead, we 68 are learning to view Spaceship Earth as a single system. This is the real dawning of the Age of Aquarius.” (Dorfman, 2009) Figure 3-21: Aquanaut-Astronaut Scott Carpenter (NASA / JSC) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: Beginning on August 28, 1965, three teams of divers spent 10 -16 days each at a depth of 205 feet in the La Jolla canyon off Scripps Institute of Oceanography in California.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Layout: No Information • Material: No Information • Cost of Material: No Information • Use: “This was a much more ambitious programme than any up to this point, involving even more physiological testing and a busy underwater programme 69 testing new methods of salvage, new tools, an electrically heated dry suit, porpoise training and work, and behavioral studies. One of the aquanauts, Scott Carpenter, ex-astronaut, stayed on the bottom through two team shifts.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “A completely new habitat was built with all modern conveniences and an adequate support ship was provided.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Architect: U.S. Navy Figure 3-22: Sea Lab II (NOAA) 70 Figure 3-23: Sea Lab II (NOAA) Figure 3-24: Sea Lab II (ONR) 71 Figure 3-25: SEALAB II being submerged (Walter Mazzone’s archive/ US Navy) Figure 3-26: Sealab II Interior Arrangement (Walter Mazzone’s archive/ US Navy) 72 3.8: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF SEALAB III • Entry: “The support craft was the USS Elk River which carried the new double Mk2 saturation diving system and which had been reconfigured to include a moon pool. This was an opening through the centre of the ship allowing the PTC to enter the water in a protected area and thus cut down on the problems of handling a large pendulum in rough seas.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Light: No Information • Air: “Because of all the different experiments to be done, a lot of bottom time was needed and an umbilical had been designed which was neutrally buoyant to allow the divers to work up to 600 feet away from the habitat.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “Tragically, during the second attempt aquanaut Berry Cannon died. It was later found that his breathing apparatus was missing baralime, the chemical necessary to remove carbon dioxide. According to Craven, while the other 5 divers were undergoing the week-long decompression repeated attempts were made to sabotage their air supply by someone on board the command barge. Eventually, a guard was posted on the decompression chamber and the men were recovered safely. The culprit was never caught.” (SEALAB, 2008) • Power: “The habitat began to flood through what was later found to be an improperly installed electrical hull penetrator.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “NCEL of Port Hueneme, CA (now a part of NFESC), was responsible for the 73 handling of several contracts involving life support systems used on SEALAB III.” (SEALAB, 2008) • Foundation: No Information • Background: “The habitat used in this experiment was that of SEALAB II, which was refurbished.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) “The habitat began to flood through what was later found to be an improperly installed electrical hull penetrator, and on a dive to attempt to get into the habitat to solve the problem one of the aquanauts, Barry Cannon, died of carbon dioxide poisoning. The grand experiment came to a halt. The habitat was salvaged with the help of lots of air from a submarine's high pressure air banks only to be later scrapped. The Navy never again attempted further experiments of this kind, although Navy saturation diving continued until recently. Unfortunately the US Navy, the pioneer in saturation diving, no longer has this capability in the fleet.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: “Five teams of eight divers were to spend 12 days each on the bottom at a depth of 610 feet doing all sorts of tasks including testing new salvage techniques, oceanographic studies, fishery studies, and so on.” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Layout: “Two vans on the deck were completely outfitted as medical and command vans. The medical van was in fact an up-to-date medical laboratory in which we did almost every test that a major hospital could do and then 74 some, plus all the atmosphere monitoring for the chambers, PTCs and habitat. Diving sets were semi-closed mixed-gas rigs. • Material: “The overall length is 62 1/2 ft; its width, 19 ft; its height, 38 ft; and its weight, 299 tons.” (Peterson, 1969) • Cost of Material: 299 tons x $1234/tonne x 1 tonne/2200 lbs. x 2000 lbs./ton=$335,423.64 Not Accurate • Surface Area of Material: (62.5 ft.)(3.14)(19 ft.) + (2)(3.14)(19/2)^2=4,295.52 sq. ft. • Cost by Surface Area of Material: 4,295.52 sq. ft. (144 sq. in./sq. ft.)(1” thick)(0.283 lbs./cu. in) x $0.56/lbs. = $98.187.71 • Use: “This was the most ambitious of the habitat programs, with work-up dives and biomedical studies, beginning in 1966. These dives were done at the US Navy Experimental Diving Unit in the Washington DC Navy Yard and ranged in depth from 250 to 1025 feet. Most dives included studies of the divers' medical status. For example, there were respiratory studies using high density gases at pressure to simulate heliox at much higher pressures, exercise studies, behavioural studies and work on overcoming the problem of helium speech. Even the studiers were studied” (Vorosmarti, 1997) • Architect: U.S. Navy 75 Figure 3-27: Sea Lab III (NOAA) Figure 3-28: Sea Lab III (NOAA) 76 Figure 3-29: Sea Lab III – surface support. (NOAA) Figure 3-30: Sea Lab III – surface support. (NOAA) 77 Moored to the USS Elk River, the SEALAB III habitat is fitted with umbilicals for air, electricity, and communications before it is lowered to a depth of 620 feet in waters off San Clemente Island. Official US Navy photo. Photographed by J. P. Munsie PHAM from Richard Blackburn's collection. 3.9: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF CONSHELF II • Entry: The Calypso was a research ship that served as a “garage” for the Conshelf the diving saucer that ferried Cousteau and his team between their research ship, Calypso, and an underwater research station. (Middleton, 2009) “With an open bottom, it was the air pressure which kept the water out.” (Middleton, 2009) • Light: No Information • Air: “Starfish House - so named because of its radiating legs, was an air- conditioned central base." (Middleton, 2009) • Power: No Information • Foundation: “The Deep Cabin was a large yellow diving bell anchored at 26m.” (Middleton, 2009) • Background: “Yellow paint gleaming against the cobalt hues of the Red Sea, a sci-fi dome squats 33 feet (10 meters) below the surface.” (National Geographic, 2000) • How Long Can One Stay Down There: “It was a luxury operation in two parts. Firstly, five divers would spend a month underwater in the main habitat 78 called Starfish House and secondly, another two would spend a week at a much greater depths.” (Middleton, 2009) ”Wine and ideas flowing, Captain Cousteau meets with colleagues in Starfish House, a metal lodge on the floor of the Red Sea. Five “oceanauts” lived and worked there in the summer of 1963. Gazing out the window is Mme Simone Cousteau, whom crews fondly called La Bergére (the shepherdess). She died in 1990.” (National Geographic, 2000) Starfish House, which was the central base, “contained sleeping quarters for 8-people.” (Middleton, 2009) The Deep Cabin was composed of the “wet cabin” and “dry cabin. “This was the habitat in which two divers would spend a whole week.” (Middleton, 2009) • Layout: “Conshelf II comprised four main buildings and eight additional ancillary structures.” “This contained sleeping quarters for 8 people, kitchen, dining room, laboratory and dark room.” “Thirdly, there was a domed hangar for use as a garage for one of the underwater diving saucers which was normally based on Calypso. Finally, there was a wet hangar in which tools and scooters were housed when not in use. The ancillary structures comprised mainly of a ring of shark cages strategically placed so that divers could take refuge inside should they ever feel threatened.” (Middleton, 2009) 79 Figure 3-31: Aquanauts inside of Conshelf (National Geographic) • Material: No Information • Cost of Material: No Information • Use: “Albert Falco spent over a month searching for the ideal site in the Red Sea and eventually settled for Sha’ab Rumi about 25 miles north of Port Sudan. It was perfect. Meanwhile Cousteau was selecting the Oceanauts more for their social skills and less for their diving or scientific abilities. What was needed was a clear demonstration that a colony of divers could live together underwater without becoming wholly intolerable of each other.” (Middleton, 2009) 80 • Architect: “French naval officer and ocean explorer, known for his extensive under seas investigations. Cousteau became a capitaine de corvette in the French navy in 1948 and president of the French Oceanographic Campaigns and commander of the ship Calypso in 1950. He became director of the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco in 1957.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009) “Cousteau was the founder of the Undersea Research Group at Toulon and of the French Office of Undersea Research at Marseille, Fr. (renamed the Centre of Advanced Marine Studies in 1968). The inventor of the Aqua-Lung diving apparatus and a process for using television underwater, he became head in 1957 of the Conshelf Saturation Dive Program, conducting experiments in which men live and work for extended periods of time at considerable depths along the continental shelves. His many books include Par 18 mètres de fond (1946; “Through 18 Metres of Water”), The Silent World (1953), The Living Sea (1963), Three Adventures: Galápagos, Titicaca, the Blue Holes (1973), Dolphins (1975), and Jacques Cousteau: The Ocean World (1985). He also wrote and produced films concerning the oceans, which attracted immense audiences both in motion- picture theatres and on television.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009) 81 Figure 3-32: Sir Jacques Cousteau (Lefcowitz) (Infoplease) Figure 3-33: Calypso (Cousteau Society) (Buchanan) Figure 3-34: Conshelf Underwater Habitat (Deas, Jean & Walt) 82 Figure 3-35: Underwater Colonies (Lefcowitz) Figure 3-36: Conshelf Underwater Habitat (National Geographic) 83 Figure 3-37: Calypso (Cousteau Society) Figure 3-38: Conshelf Underwater Habitat. (Deas, Jean & Walt) Yellow paint gleaming against the cobalt hues of the Red Sea, a sci-fi dome squats 33 feet (10 meters) below the surface. It served as a “garage” for the diving saucer that ferried Cousteau and his team between their research ship, Calypso, and an underwater research station. (National Geographic, 2000) “Cousteau was convinced that our survival is dependent on the oceans of the world and he strove to raise people's awareness of our fragile ecosystem. He believed that we could meet the world's growing energy needs by channeling 84 the force of the tides and temperature changes of the seas. He also believed that we can feed the world with underwater farming.” (MotivationalQuotes.com, 2009) 3.10: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF CHALUPA-JULES UNDERWATER LODGE • Entry: Just to enter the Lodge, one must actually scuba dive 21 feet beneath the surface of the sea. Entering through an opening in the bottom of the habitat, the feeling is much like discovering a secret underwater clubhouse. The cottage sized building isn’t short on creature comforts: hot showers, a well stocked kitchen (complete with refrigerator and microwave), books, music, and video movies. And of course there are cozy beds, where guests snuggle up and watch the fish visit the windows of their favorite underwater “terrarium”. Jules’ Undersea Lodge manages to reach a perfect balance of relaxation and adventure. A five by seven foot “moon pool” entrance in the floor of the building makes entering the hotel much like surfacing through a small swimming pool. Divers find themselves in the wet room, the center of three compartments that make up the underwater living quarters. The wet room, as the name implies, is where divers leave their gear, enjoy a quick hot shower and towel-off before entering the rest of the living area. • Light: The Chalupa Jules Research Laboratory is enhanced by large 42-inch diameter windows allowing whatever daylight that surrounds the structure to enter inside (DivingFinder.com, 2009) 85 • Air: The flow of air to the Lodge constantly adds oxygen to the entire surrounding body of water, creating a symbiotic relationship between the technology of man and the beauty of nature.” (Jules' Undersea Lodge, 2008) • Power: Habitat operations are monitored by the Mission Director from the land-based “Command Center”, located at the edge of the Emerald Lagoon. The control center is connected to Jules’ Undersea Lodge by an umbilical cable which delivers fresh air, water, power, and communications. “The entire facility is monitored 24 hours a day by our staff”, says Koblick, “the Lodge has independent support systems as well as redundant backup systems. We’ve taken every step to ensure a safe yet exciting adventure for our guests”. Guests of the Lodge explore their marine environment with limitless air supplied by 100 ft. long “hookah” lines, instead of heavy scuba tanks. The hookah lines are actually a remnant of La Chalupa’s deep ocean exploration, where high pressures required much more air than a normal scuba tank could supply. (RetreatsAndSeminars.com, 2003) • Foundation: The entire structure of Jules’ Undersea Lodge is underwater, sitting up on legs approximately five feet off the bottom of the protected lagoon. There are four pre-leveled, adjustable legs. (Jules' Undersea Lodge, 2008) They rest on concrete pads (or sand, or ocean bottom.) “One habitat that survives is La Chalupa. This was built in 1972 and used for undersea research until 1974. It now is part of the Marine Resources Development Foundation and is known as the Jules Verne Lodge. It is fitted out as an 86 underwater hotel room where one can spend 23 hours at about 30 feet whether an aquanaut or not.” (Vorosmarti, 1997). See Figure 3-40. Figure 3-39: La Chalupa moored. (Jules) (NOAA) 87 • Background: Jules’ Undersea Lodge was originally built as La Chalupa mobile undersea laboratory, the largest and most technically advanced in the world. The Lodge has been completely remodeled to provide guests with approximately 600 square feet of luxury living space for up to six people.” (Jules' Undersea Lodge, 2008) La Chalupa research laboratory is an underwater habitat used to explore the continental shelf off the coast of Puerto Rico. • How long can you stay there for: Jules’ Undersea Lodge is a dream come true for dive enthusiasts who are looking to log a seemingly limitless dive. Guests who complete one of the luxury packages can log 22 hours of diving in one night. This is means that one can expand on their open water certification by adding hours to their log book without the hassle of continuous resurfacing and decompressing as would be the case if one were to shore dive or dive off of a boat. Also, there is no limit to the number of nights they can stay which makes it possible to log a few months worth of intensive surface-based diving within a week. Even at 21 feet, dive times like these are not covered by the dive tables. Guests actually complete a “saturation” dive, which is when divers spend extended time underwater, resulting in a saturation of the gases in their blood, as long as proper surfacing intervals are followed allowing the saturated gases to pass slowly back out. For the shallow water saturation dives of Jules’ Undersea Lodge, guests are required to abstain from flying and must 88 adhere to restrictions on further diving for 24 hours after they surface. Some packages at Jules’ offer the opportunity to earn an Aquanaut Certificate, which qualifies certified divers for an optional Underwater Habitat and Aquanaut dive specialty certification. Figure 3-40: Interior – La Chalupa (Jules) 89 Figure 3-41: Interior Distribution – La Chalupa (Jules) • Layout: The interior has two living chambers, each 20 feet long and 8 feet in diameter. One chamber is divided into two 8 x 10 foot bedrooms; the other is an 8 X 20 foot common room with dining and entertainment facilities. Between the two chambers is a 10 X 20 foot “wet room” entrance area with a moon pool entrance (similar to a small swimming pool), a shower and bathroom facilities.” (Jules' Undersea Lodge, 2008) Based on these dimensions, the steel surface area may be calculated as (see Figure 3-41): A common_room = A B1+B2 = !dl + !r 2 = ! (dl + r 2 ) = (3.14)(8)(20) + (3.14)(16) A wet_room+entry = 2wl + 2hl + 2wh = (2)(10)(20) + (2)(8)(20) + (2)(10)(8) 90 • A total = A common_room + A B1+B2 + A wet_room+entry A total = 2(3.14)[8x20 + 16] + (2)(10)(20) + (2)(8)(20) + (2)(10)(8). The cost for the steel having this surface area with 1-inch thick steel is $45,380. ”Designed for comfort, the air conditioned living space has two private bed rooms and a common room. The eight by twenty foot common room is a multi-purpose room providing the galley, dining and entertainment areas. Each of the bedrooms and the common room is equipped with telephone, intercom, VCR/DVD and a stereo sound system. But the main focus of attention is the big 42 inch round window that graces each room. “Waking up to view a pair of angelfish looking in your bedroom window is a moment you'll never forget”, states Koblick. (Jules' Undersea Lodge, 2008) • Material: It is made out of steel and acrylic. It has 300,000 pounds of “dry weight” and 44,000 pounds “negative” wet weight. The price of steel is 1234 USD/Metric Tonne. (Steelonthenet.com, 2009a) Based on this weight measurement, and 2,200 pounds equaling one metric ton, the cost of steel material would be $168,272. • Use: La Chalupa research laboratory is an underwater habitat used to explore the continental shelf off the coast of Puerto Rico. • Architect: In the early 1970s, Ian Koblick, president of Marine Resources Development Foundation, developed and operated the La Chalupa research laboratory, which was the largest and most technologically advanced underwater habitat of its time. Koblick, who has continued his work as a 91 pioneer in developing advanced undersea programs for ocean science and education, is the co-author of the book "Living and Working in the Sea" and is considered one of the foremost authorities on undersea habitation. In the mid 1980s La Chalupa was transformed into Jules' Undersea Lodge. Jules' co-developer Dr. Neil Monney formerly served as Professor and Director of Ocean Engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy, and has extensive experience as a research scientist, aquanaut, and designer of underwater habitats. Jules' has had over 10,000 overnight guests in its 20 years of operation. (Underwater habitat, 2009) Credit for developing this venture must go to both Neil Monney and Ian Koblick. With over 50 years of combined ocean research and industry experience the two principal developers named their undersea retreat in honor of Jules Verne, author of “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”. Jules’ Undersea Lodge is a tribute to the human quest for exploration and adventure. ! 3.11: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF AQUARIUS • Entry: The entry sequence begins through the top of the entry lock and flows into the wet porch where the inhabitant, who has just been scuba diving, gets his/her first chance to take off the scuba gear. Once changed, the inhabitant goes through a door to the main gallery where there is a kitchen, and table for working. In the very back is the private zone for sleeping. 92 • Light: Light gets in through the main portal which is located at the side of the dining table in the gallery, and through the portal at the end of the cylinder facing the bunk. There is a track of artificial lighting from above. Figure 3-42: Aquarius Location (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) • Air: The level of Construction for the basic steel fabrication is most likely not too difficult other than the cost of the base plate, because the basic shell can be factory-made. But there are even more features which add difficulty and cost to the project overall. For instance, it has “all the comforts of home: six bunks, a shower and toilet, instant hot water, a microwave, trash 93 compactor, and a refrigerator even air conditioning and computers linked back to the shore base, located in Key Largo, by wireless telemetry!” (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009a) Figure 3-43: Aquarius (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) 94 • Power: These amenities are supplied by a semi-autonomous life support buoy on a 52-foot by 34-foot life support barge feeds power and data through a conduit – a technological element that adds to the complexity of the project. (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009a) • Foundation: It is raised 13-feet from below and attached to a baseplate on the seafloor. • Background: Construction began in the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1986 in St. Croix’s Salt River Canyon, and, in 1988, it was relocated to Wilmington, North Carolina where it was refurbished until moving its location in 1992. (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009b) This location is “a sand patch adjacent to deep coral reefs in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, at depth of 63 feet.” (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009a) • How Long Can One Stay There For: Aquarius is still currently situated in the Florida Keys, and is available for use by research scientists. Teams of scientists enter the habitat for 10 day periods, and the entire program has been a critically acclaimed success.” (Wood, 2009) • Layout: In the interior, this structure is divided into an entry lock, which contains the wet porch, and a main lock, which contains the bunk and the gallery. 95 Figure 3-44: Aquarius Interior Distribution (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) “AQUARIUS "Pappa Topside." (Before re-fabrication), AQUARIUS 1986, AQUARIUS 1998 96 • Material: The Aquarius is essentially a 33-foot long horizontal cylinder with a diameter of 9-feet. Connected to the end of it is a wet porch that is a 13- foot by 10-foot by 9-foot box. This creates a rough total surface area of steel around the cylinder equaling 996-square feet, and a surface area of 577- square feet for the attached box. The total area would be about equal to 1573.18-square feet. (See Figure 3-44.) The primary material of construction for this habitat is steel for the cylindrical form. However, it is mounted on four legs of 25-tons each which are fixed to a 81-ton steel baseplate. Based on the cost per weight of lead (1,765 USD/ton) and the 1573.18-sq. ft. x 3/4 inch thick steel (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009c), the density of low grade steel (0.283 pound/cu. in) (WikiAnswers.com, 2009a), and the unit price of steel is 1234 USD/ton (Steelonthenet.com, 2009b). Then the cost of only the materials looks like this: 1 Steel Baseplate: $63,000 Lead Legs: $165,000 Steel Cylinder and Box: $26,970 Total: $241,988 1 These numbers are based on Hernandez’s claim that Aquarius is a “81-ton, 43 x 20 x 16.5 - foot underwater laboratory” 97 Figure 3-45: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location and Interiors (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) 98 Figure 3-46: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) • Use: Although funding limitations have closed most undersea habitats worldwide, this particular laboratory has been able to withstand budget pressure, The Aquarius hosts saturation diving programs for teams of 5 scientists. It is a vital base for studying the effects of today's environmental pressures on coral reefs. Professor Valencic at Saddleback College said, “ironically this habitat was scheduled to reside at the USC Marine Center at Catalina Island until East coast senators pulled some strings to have it moved to Florida.” (Valencic, 2001). At its depth of 50-feet, it would need to withstand about 44 pounds-per-cubic foot of water pressure (NOAA Ocean Explorer, 2009). However, the internal pressure of the habitat is equalized to withstand the outside water pressure pushing in on it. Internally, the main and entry lock can be independently pressurized with life support controls. 99 And the whole entity’s pressure capability is up to an ocean depth of 120 feet deep. (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009a) • Architect: Consequently, the interior design for the underwater habitat was done by the Space Architect John Spencer in 1984. He is also a former student from the School of Architecture of the University of Southern California and the Southern California Institute of Architecture. His design was for a more flexible and technologically advanced habitat system. “It has replaced the Hydrolab as NOAA's principal seafloor research laboratory." (NOAA/NURC/UNCW, 2009a) Figure 3-47: Aquanaut outside Aquarius (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) 100 Figure 3-48: Interiors of Aquarius Habitat (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) 101 CHAPTER 4: BACKGROUND OF OTHER TYPES OF SUBMERSIBLES Chapters 2 and 3 discussed a type of submersible that is defined as an underwater habitat. The main feature of these structures is that one can spend an extended amount of time in these habitats and they provide accommodations for sleeping, eating etc. The next chapter will cover the following submersible that is free-floating underwater. This submersible is the Divescope, which can only used for a relatively short amount of time, and is smaller than a typical underwater habit. Specifically, the following section will cover the same data (entry, light, air, power, etc.) as Chapter 3 did for the previous types of submersibles. There may be other types of submersibles, but this one was particularly appealing because it is more technologically advanced than anything else found in the research. 4.1: MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF DIVESCOPE • Entry: One can enter the submersible through the entry point about five meter (16.5 feet) off the ocean floor. One can then enter the hull through the bottom of the Divescope and emerge into the cabin. (Pacific Islands Report, 2000). Upon arrival into the Divescope, one leaves their diving equipment near the entrance. Because it has aunique world certification it became deemed the first pressurized underwater habitat available to everyone. (Oceanaute, 2006). Although it is not technically a habitat, as discussed in Section 4.0. 102 • Light: The Plexiglass windows are made differently than the window types that were discussed in Chapter 3. This is because they are specially made to offer the same refraction index as seawater. In other words, it corrects the problem of objects appearing closer than they really are underwater so whatever is being seen underwater appears as it would if it were in air. This newly perfected process is also used in several fields other fields (defense, research…) because it has this distinct advantage of not distorting scenery.” (Hernandez, 2002, p. 80) • Air: The cabin itself (about 2.7 meters or about 9 feet in diameter) is similar to a submarine if it were to be stationary and moored to weights. The main difference between the two is that Divescope is pressurized and a submarine is not. (Oceanaute, 2006). “The Divescope will serve a double purpose. It will offer air-conditioned rooms for people willing to discover underwater wonders in the world’s most beautiful lagoons, in New Caledonia. Everything was designed to offer optimum safety conditions.” (Hernandez, 2002, p. 80) Air is supplied by a manual security sweeping by compressed air block: 5 minutes each, 4 hours capacity. And the CO 2 is extracted by standard cartridge which lasts 20 hours each for each cartridge. (Hernandez, 2002, p. 82) • Power: Divescope is powered by gas feeding 1 MDAT (14 cubic meters at 200 bars) • Foundation: The mooring cables are fixed to a weighted basket. 103 • Background: Divescope is an underwater station settled between ten and thirty feet depending on how long wants the mooring line off the bottom of the ocean. It is mostly used as a small training center or resting place. The teacher can talk with his clients and explain the environment, sea life and oceanology, with adapted documents. • How Long Can One Stay There: This structure is meant to hold 7 adults for 7 hours. However, tourists usually only stay for 30 minutes (British Sub- Aqua Club Branch 854, 2009). • Layout: The layout is composed of two areas. The hull is where one enters. The bulb is where the main cabin is. The total interior volume is 40,619 cu. ft. Based on the cost of polyacrylate (WikiAnswers.com, 2009b) at 1” thick being $50/sq. ft., the total cost of the material would be: Surface Area of semisphere = 4 ! r 2 /2 = 4 ! (4.5) 2 /2 = 177 sq. ft. Plexiglas cost = (177 sq. ft.) ($50/sq. ft.) = $8,850 (used for semisphere) Cylinder surface area = ! dh = ! (4)(9) = 113 sq. ft. Cylinder weight = (113 sq. ft.) (312 lbs/sq.ft.) = 35,257 lbs. Cylinder cost = (35,257 lbs) ($0.56/lbs) = $19,744. • Material: The Bulb consists of 22mm polymétacrilate, the highest strength plexiglass using a special polymerization process. The Hull is made of superaustenitic or stainless steel (MEPS, 2009). • Use: Aside from its obvious use of being able to provide for ecotourism, the Divescope was used for training, as well as a place to rest while still being in 104 the underwater environment. Other events such as a wedding took place there (See Figure 4-4). Aside from recreational and teaching purposes, a later addition to the Divescope, the “Aquastation’, provided a purely scientific aspect to the project. This 2001 established observation base is used to test new alloys in their tropical conditions, to work on the inventorying of reef resources, to carry ethological research, to study fish behavior, and of course to provide humans with a place to occupy under the sea. (Hernandez, 2002, p. 83) • Architect: A young French engineer named Vincent Lovichi was the developer of what is now called “Divescope.” He created the original prototype for it. When the task of its undertaking became seen as an incredible challenge he receives support from various groups. These groups were the ASSAR (Association Subaquatique de Recherches), the European Union, of the IRD (Institute Recherché et Developpement – R & D Institute), the French Navy, as well as the Minister of Defense. It took the French engineer six years to perfect his project originally started in 1974. The reason for that was that it took that long for a serious proposal of his project could be made. (Hernandez, 2002, p. 79) 105 Figure 4-1: Engineer Vincent Lovichi and Divescope. (Oceanaute) 106 Figure 4-2: Divescope Underwater (Oceanaute) 107 Figure 4-3: Divescope (Oceanaute) 108 Figure 4-4: Wedding in Divescope (Undersea Observation Module in Pacifique, 2002) Figure 4-5: Divescope entrance (Oceanaute) 109 Figure 4-6: Aquastation (Oceanaute) “Aquastation is our first certified research station. It has been mostly used in the past three years to test new materials, welds, computerized breathing systems, clime, gas exhausts captors, new melted stainless steels... in order to prepare our future underwater hotels. From now on Aquastation will be opened to university biological research programs and also to allow tourism pros who want to test our underwater leisure program. (Guadeloupe, French Antillas)” (Oceanaute, 2006) “A three-year program has been necessary to adapt this underwater professional station to audit certification. This station is the results of high tech French undersea innovations used in defense and strategic components. 110 Civil use is now allowed and brought immediate benefits out of these innovations.” (Oceanaute, 2006) Figure 4-7: Aquastation Underwater Habitat (Oceanaute) “Aquastation is now the first sea room module of 18 cubic meters dedicated to all divers. It is settled by 12 meters in Guadeloupe island (French Antillas) depth on a sandy bottom between corals and two wrecks (-20 and - 40m). Aquastation is entirely computerized and backed-up. Full tests undertaken by VERITAS Company lead to administrative agreement for leisure use.” (Oceanaute, 2006) 111 Figure 4-8: Aquastation Underwater Habitat (Oceanaute) 112 4.2: CASE STUDY DATA The purpose of this section is to list the case studies in a chart that is a comprehensive showing of how they relate to various criteria. The cells that are highlighted indicated interesting data, which are each individually color coded by their extremity (i.e. blue indicates low values, yellow indicates average values, and red indicates high values). In addition to the criteria charts, Table 4-3 shows a list of case study measurements to show their physical attributes in terms of maximum width, length, height, weight, etc. The purpose of this data is to provide hard dimensions for the aquatect, so he or she can visualize a more numeric format in regards to the case study examples. Lastly, the shape variation measurements in Table 4-4 give similar data to Table 4-3, but it gives the sizing for the six basic platonic solids. This chart gives the aquatect a basis for comparison for the case studies as a whole. The platonic solids are sized, in this chart, to an actual set of dimensions that would be able to house a realistic amount of aquanauts, if it were to be an underwater habitat. 113 Table 4-1: Case Study and Criteria Chart 1 Table 4-2: Case Study and Criteria Chart 2 114 Table 4-3: Case Study Measurements Table 4-4: Shape Variation Measurements 115 4.3: SOME RULES OF THUMB • Cheaper (per cubic foot) to Design Big • Pressure Equal to Outside Water Pressure • Separate Zone for Entry • Florida, Bermuda, and US Virgin Islands are very good places to build • Heavy Structures are most expensive • The Icosohedron is an efficient platonic shape for material cost • The Lozenge is an efficient underwater shape for material cost Method: • Build computer models of a few of the case studies • Test how they perform under water pressure under a given load • Translate the data into a chart and put into The Aquatectural Guidelines 4.4: RELATIONSHIP TO SIZE Underwater habitats provide access to an environment which is useful to prepare for outer-space exploration. This feature of underwater habitats was discussed earlier in Chapters 1 and 2. By dealing with water resistance in a pool or ocean, the aquanaut is essentially practicing for the issues of reduced weight and balancing concerns of being in space. Additionally, one is forced to deal with limited and portable air sources not normally experienced on land. Because of these relationships between underwater habitats and space stations, it may be beneficial to analyze them in terms of shape and size. In Figure 4- 116 9, one starts to see some the comparable size and weight data from the two habitats. Harmony, (See Figure 4-9) is the closest to the range of size seen in Aquarius, Sealab, and Chalupa-Jules at 2,666 cubic feet. But it weighs significantly lighter than all three habitats at 16 tons, perhaps due to the issue of having to launch it from land. but they can also be comparable in size and shape to some Space Stations or Modules. It also holds roughly the same amount of crewmembers as the underwater habitats hold at 7 people. Figure 4-9: Relationship to Size (aerospace-technology.com; International Space Station; Mir-kvant; Skylab (SL-4)) What is unique about this module is that there are fewer of this type than of the bigger stations, as illustrated above in Figure 4-9 with the International Space Station and Skylab. They are 12,626 cubic feet and 330 tons and 10,000 cubic feet 117 and 85 tons respectively, yet they only are designed for a 3-person crew. One can determine that for an exploration as expensive as a space launch, a crew of this size needs a significant amount of space for their instruments for testing, as well as accommodations and living requirements that can uphold a long period of time. It is not as easy in these kinds of habitats to return to land, as it is in an underwater habitat to resurface and return to land to get supplies, equipment, etc. The exception in large size for space stations is the Harmony, only because it is made for shorter missions and is launched from a larger space craft. 4.5: AQUATECTURAL GUIDELINES LAYOUT Figure 4-10: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location and Interiors (NOAA/NURC/UNCW) 118 Section 4.6 is the final product of this thesis which is the Outline for Aquatectural Graphic Standards. It consists of the basic considerations and procedures for building a habitat, and it includes a glossary of terms that pertain to this topic. This outline may be expanded upon even more as more breakthroughs in underwater habitats become more evident. 4.6: OUTLINE FOR THE AQUATECTURAL GRAPHIC STANDARDS Aquatectural Guidelines Outline Introduction o Why do I want to know this: o Scientists often need to make long-term observations of plant and animal life to get the answers to scientific questions. Limitations on diving time due to decompression problems make this impossible in many cases. By living and working underwater, scientist may have as much time as they need to make their observations. Still, living underwater is not a simple task. Designing a safe, convenient environment to live in underwater can solve many of these problems. o Objectives ! These standards will help the aquatect be able to identify the basic needs for human life support in a non-terrestrial environment. It will challenge the aquatect to make the optimum use of a limited space which must 119 provide for research and day to day life. Students must also identify and mitigate safety risks. o Key Words ! Underwater habitat, life support, saturation diving, decompression o Background ! An aquatectural design requires aquatects to satisfy a large number of needs with their designs. Providing some historical information on underwater habitats are helpful to start. ! Large habitats require a huge amount of ballast, which is hard to get in place, so the aquatect should be encouraged to make their habitats as small as is practical. The following list of requirements may be presented to students for inclusion in their designs. o Life Support Considerations ! Wet Porch & Access • Entrance from above. • Shower area; hot & cold water supply; fan and air exhaust. (2 units) Dresser with seating devices (retractile) • Natural & Artificial Light (viewport) • Toilet (private room, 1 unit) • Sink (double) • Storage 120 • Life Support Back Ups (air/water/energy-dry cells-) • Emergency Systems (fire suppress) ! Common Main Lock • Kitchen / Pantry (Storage / sink / electrical stove / microwave). • Eating / Dinning / Storage. • Working Stations / Computer Terminals / Cabinets. • Science Stations / Data Collection. • Control Desk (Logistic Support) / Communication Systems (Radio- Telephone - Sonar- Wireless Telemetry- Microwaves – Satellites) / Monitoring (all instruments reading) / • Library / Manuals / User Guides. • Lounge / TV Screen / Video / Stereo. • Medicine Chest (near but separated from the Infirmary – Emergency Room). • Infirmary - Emergency Room / Quarantine / Medical Care / Surgery. ! Private Zone • Sleeping Dorms / 6 Individual Rooms • Personal Storage / Closet • Book stack / Table / Communication Systems • View Port 121 ! Supply of oxygen (air supply) • Air compressor • Direct oxygen extracting from the Seawater ! Distribution ! Removal of CO 2 (exhaust) ! Conditioning ! Revitalization • Carbon Dioxide Scrubbers • Purification ! Food storage and preparation ! Fresh water, bathroom needs • Desalinization • Distribution • Discharge • Storage ! Energy Supply & Distribution ! Sanitation & Waste Disposal ! Logistic Support (Telecommunications) ! Sciences Support ! Forecasting, Weather Condition & External Environment ! Decompression Plan & Equipment 122 ! Emergency plans & equipment ! Rest and recreation o Work considerations ! Wet and dry storage spaces ! Diving equipment to be used ! Computers and other instruments ! Communications with the surface ! Inside work space ! Observation capabilities (monitored worksites?) ! Needs for Construction • Construction Techniques & Methods. • Materials-Specification & Certification. • Positioning-Emplacement & Leveling Methods & Equipment. • Foundation & Anchoring Methods & Equipment. • Lifting Methods and Equipment. • Material Handling Equipment. • Self-propelled & Self-contained Work Platforms. Procedure o Discuss the needs for extended observations when performing field research. Comparing underwater observation with work in outer space may give the aquatect perspective on life support design as well as capture his/her interest 123 o Study the basics of decompression needs and nitrogen absorption. Videos or other materials used in scuba classes may be helpful in learning the physics of diving. o Use the website and virtual tour of the Aquarius to begin getting familiar with background information o Use the requirements for the design to think of possible materials to use. Establish a timeline for the project. The aquatect may choose to do a brief sketch or abstract of the design before starting the final product. Use a checklist before beginning construction of the final product o Always have someone else check over the design o Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of various designs, pointing out that there is no perfect solution or design, but rather different ways to address a variety of needs. o How to “Assess” the design o Look for designs which satisfy the basic needs of life support in the smallest possible space, with adequate safety considerations. How to “Assess” the design o Look for designs which satisfy the basic needs of life support in the smallest possible space, with adequate safety considerations. 124 Ask these Questions: o How do they get out if there’s a problem? o How do they communicate with the topside support crew? o Is there practical space for living and working, without too much attention to recreation or play? o The aquatect can design a rubric and supply it for him/herself ahead of time to help him/her include all important design features Other Considerations o Design methods for production of food and oxygen involving plants underwater Internet Resources: o http://www.dive.noaa.gov/ for background on scientific diving o http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/blowballast/people/default.htm for background on the US Navy Sealab program and Saturation diving Resources: o Books on diving: ! Koblick, Ian and James Miller (1984). Living and Working in the Sea. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. ! Richardson, Drew (2007). PADI Open Water Diver Manual. PADI. 125 Glossary o Term or Phrase: underwater habitat Function: Noun Date: circa 1960 : Underwater Habitat: Underwater habitats are underwater structures in which people can live for extended periods and carry out most of the basic human functions of a 24-hour day, such as working, resting, eating, attending to personal hygiene, and sleeping (Underwater habitat, 2009). o Term or Phrase: life–support Pronunciation: \-s#-!po rt\ Function: adjective Date: 1965 : providing support necessary to sustain life ; especially : of or relating to a system providing such support <life–support equipment> (Merriam-Webster Online, 2009) o Term or Phrase: sat·u·ra·tion div·ing Pronunciation: \"sa-ch#-!r$-sh#n\ \!d%v\ing Function: noun Date: circa 1554 :Saturation diving is a diving technique that allows divers to remain at great depth for long periods of time. (Saturation diving, 2009) 126 o Term or Phrase: de·com·press Pronunciation: \"d&-k#m-!pres\ Function: transitive verb Date: 1905 1: to release from pressure or compression 2: to convert (as a compressed file or signal) to an expanded or original size intransitive verb: to undergo release from pressure ; especially : RELAX <need a week off to decompress> — de·com·pres·sion \-!pre-sh#n\ noun (Merriam-Webster Online, 2009) 4.7: FINAL DELIVERABLES ! All 3D Case Study Models ! The six case studies are inputted into the Autocad computer program into a 3-dimensional representation. ! Camera shots are taken from different angles to give the aquatect a good understanding of what is happening inside and outside of the structure. ! Built a Multiframe Models of certain shells ! Again, the shells depicted are of the six case study examples seen in Chapter 5 and analyzed in Chapter 6. 127 ! Structural Diagrams ! The diagrams are typically shear, moment, and deflection. ! There would also be exact numbers to go with the data showing the maximum conditions for each criteria. ! Formatted this data in a case by case scenario, in a way that was easy to understand, and laid it out in The Aquatectural Guidelines for the Aquatect. ! Inputted this data into this thesis document. 128 CHAPTER 5: STRUCTURAL DATA OF SIX STUDIES The following figures and tables are constructed using the Autocad2009 and Multiframe 4D computer programs. As one can see, the same six case study models that were shown in early chapters of this thesis have been stripped purely of their architectural and interior features and simplified into a structural form. The reason these models have been made are to show the relationship of these underwater shell forms to their structural capabilities in terms of bending stress, shear stress, and deflection. Also, along with all the preceding computer models and tables that define expense and weight, one will be able to see, through full-body diagrams, which members are affected and how. This better understanding of the structural properties could help the aquatect drive certain methodologies, such as where to put portals, how to layout the foundation, how to space certain members, and the required thickness of the members. This chapter will visually attempt to display an overview of the case study data, whereas Chapter 6 will reference specific data and attempt to analyze the results. The tools used to interpret and analyze this data will be the numbers from the tables, as well as highlight areas in the full-body diagrams. 5.1: AQUARIUS STRUCTURAL DATA Aquarius is a horizontal tube and box assembly supported by four lead legs. See Figure 5-1. Multiframe requires joint locations in three dimensions. Aquarius’ 129 data points are given for these joints as shown in Tables A-1 through A-5 in the Appendix. Figure 5-1: Aquarius Autocad Model Figure 5-2: Aquarius Wire Mesh Representation 130 Figure 5-3: Aquarius Deflection Diagram Figure 5-4: Aquarius bending stress Diagram 131 5.2: CHALUPA JULES STRUCTURAL DATA Chalupa Jules is an underwater research laboratory that is a conglomeration of a trapezoidal box with a lozenge on either side. See Figure 5-5. Chalupa Jules’ data points are given for these joints as shown in Tables A-6 through A-10 in the Appendix. Figure 5-5: Chalupa Jules Autocad Model Figure 5-6: Chalupa Jules Wire Mesh Representation 132 Figure 5-7: Chalupa Jules Deflection Diagram Figure 5-8: Chalupa Jules Moment Diagram 133 5.3: HYDROLAB STRUCTURAL DATA Hydrolab is a lozenge structure connected to legs and a baseplate. See Figure 5-9. Multiframe requires joint locations in three dimensions. Hydrolab’s data points are given for these joints as shown in Tables A-11 through A-15 in the Appendix. Figure 5-9: Hydrolab Autocad Model Figure 5-10: Hydrolab Wire Mesh Representation 134 Figure 5-11: Hydrolab Shear Diagram Figure 5-12: Hydrolab bending stress Diagram 135 5.4: SEALAB I STRUCTURAL DATA Sealab I is more lozenge that is more cylindrical in shape than the Hydrolab and is connected to two diagonally braced legs. See Figure 5-13. Multiframe requires a 3-D model defined by a grid of joints connected by members. Sealab I’s data points are given for these joints as shown in Tables A-16 through A-20 in the appendix. The red framed numbers indicate areas of highest and lowest value under each category. They may appear more than once. See Table A-16. Figure 5-13: Sealab I Autocad Model 136 Figure 5-14: Sealab I Wire Mesh Representation Figure 5-15: Sealab I Shear Diagram 137 Figure 5-16: Sealab I Bending Stress Diagram 138 5.5: SEALAB III STRUCTURAL DATA Sealab III is a cross configuration of cylindrical shapes with a lozenge shape connected on top. See Figure 5-17. Multiframe requires joint locations in three dimensions. Sealab III’s data points are given for these joints as shown in Tables A- 21 through A-25 in the Appendix. Figure 5-17: Sealab III Model Figure 5-18: Sealab III Wire Mesh Model 139 Figure 5-19: Sealab III Axial Pressure Diagram Figure 5-20: Sealab III Bending Stress Diagram 140 5.6: HYDROSPHERE STRUCTURAL DATA Hydrosphere is a hollow spherical shape with a narrow cylinder vertically oriented through the center. See Figure 5-21. Multiframe requires a 3-D grid of joints. Hydrosphere’s data points are given for these joints as shown in Tables A-26 through A-30 in the Appendix. Figure 5-21: Hydrosphere Model Figure 5-22: Hydrosphere Wire Mesh Model 141 Figure 5-23: Hydrosphere Shear Diagram Figure 5-24: Hydrosphere Moment Diagram 142 CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS The following analysis explains and interprets the results from the data in Chapter 5. The results explained in the next section are based on the tables in the Appendix which relate to the corresponding figures also found in the Appendix. Figures A-1 through A-3 in the Appendix show the diagrams for Load, Shear, and Bending Stress respectively. Each action is shown in the context of all the case studies. A few key data points are also delineated in these figures. The remaining sections in Chapter 5 are analyzed by subsections containing a few paragraphs about each case study. The subsections are marked by the case study heading. 6.1: ANALYSIS OF THE AQUARIUS The displacements range from -0.003 in. to 0.001 in (See Table A-1). The minimum and maximum angles are -0.013 degrees to 0.006 degrees. The maximum pressure is 1.648 kips (See Table A-3). The maximum shear is 1.715 kips. The maximum moment is 0.446 kip-ft. The maximum stress is on the top and bottom of the structure at 0.983 ksi (See Table A-5). What is most interesting about this structure, as reflected by the blue diagram (See Figure 5-3), is the deflection and, as indicated by the red diagram, the bending moments. The area of highest strain is in the rectangular shaped top. This is because there should be cross members wrapping around the perimeter of the box, but there was a computing error when those members were applied to the structure. 143 Therefore, the cross members had to be taken off. But the knowledge from the lozenge shape does reflect accurate data. The point of highest strain was in the center of the tube shape. What is interesting is that the area where the disc shape intersects the inside of the tube, acts as an endpoint that segments the tube and gives it more strength. Therefore, because the Aquarius is segmented into two main compartments within the lozenge, it actually provides more strength in addition to acting as an opportunity for independent pressurization. The moment diagram shown in red (See Figure 5-4). There are plates holding the underside of the structure which transfers its weight to the four outer legs. It should be noted that there is almost no moment on the front leg which carries mostly the gravity weight of the tube, whereas the legs representing the anchoring near the box have to resist the pressure applied from both the box and about half of the tube. 6.2: ANALYSIS OF THE CHALUPA-JULES LABORATORY The displacements vary from 0.013 to as low as 0.004 inches (See Table A-6) and 0.008 to 0.017 degrees. The maximum pressure is 3.643 kips (See Table A-8). The maximum shear in the “y” direction is 2.239, and 1.416 in the “z” direction. Its maximum tension is 0.183. The maximum moment is 0.663 kft. The maximum stress is 1.459 ksi (See Table A-10). This diagram does not show much interesting data (See Figures 5-7 and 5-8). This is either due to an error in the construction of the model or incapability of the 144 program to analyze this structure. Only the moment diagram shows any values of interest in Figure 5-8 indicating the red stripes along the sides of the trapezoidal shape. This means it is either a very efficient shape in the vertical direction, or there was a computing error. 6.3: ANALYSIS OF THE HYDROLAB The displacements range from -0.005 to 0.008 (See Table A-11). Most of the displacements of each of the members are 0.003 to 0.004. The maximum pressure is 0.631 kips (See Table A-13). The maximum shear in the “y” direction is 0.068. The maximum shear in the “z” direction is 0.224. The maximum moment is 0.105. The maximum stress is 0.263 ksi in the right direction (See Table A-15). The structure we have here is basically a lozenge (See Figure 5-9). The cases shaded green indicates the shear force. As it can be seen, the shear is highest in the center of the structure. This is due to the strength of this structure basically being centered on the semi-sphere incasing both ends. Therefore, the shear is greatest resisted by these two vertices reflecting the structure’s horizontal center of gravity. The area in red shows the distribution of moment. Everything previously discussed about the shear goes for this diagram, which is basically determined by half the length of each member multiplied by the amount of shear force impacting it. 145 6.4: ANALYSIS OF SEALAB I The displacements range from -0.048 in. in the “y” direction to 0.003 in the “z” direction (See Table A-16). The displaced angle ranges from -0.020 in the “x” direction to 0.016 in the “y” direction. The maximum pressure is 0.797 kips (See Table A-18). The maximum shear is 0.780 kips in the “y” direction and 0.350 kips in the “z” direction. The maximum moment is 0.249 kip-ft. in the “y” direction and 0.409 kip-ft. in the “z” direction. The maximum stress is is 0.901 which takes place both on top and on the bottom of the structure (See Table A-20). This structure is another lozenge shape, but with a different foundation (See Figure 5-13). In the shear diagram, one can see the greatest shear being near these two legs. There is some shear radiating out from the centre of the half-domed shapes, but not much. Again, the maximum shear, is along the length of the tube. The moment diagram shown in Figure 5-16 shows basically the same trend as the shear in the members. The area of greatest magnitude, however, for the moment diagram is along the cross bracing of the legs, contrary to almost no shear in this area. This is most likely due to the strength of the 12” diameter steel represented by these areas, but the fact that the global force is directed towards these footings means that there will be a significant amount of overturning impacting the legs. 6.5: ANALYSIS OF SEALAB III The displacements range from -0.027 inches to 0.006 inches (See Table A- 21). In terms of angle, they vary from -0.014 to 0.009 degrees. The maximum 146 pressure is 0.866 kips (See Table A-23). The shear in the “y” direction is 0.100 kips, and -0.275 in the “z” direction. The maximum moment is 0.112 in the y direction. The maximum stresses found are in the left and right direction at 0.247 ksi (See Table A-25). The diagrams shown in Figures 5-19 and 5-20 are of pressure and moment because these are the most interesting cases to analyze. Moments are fairly evenly distributed. Since this structure basically is a composition of five cylindrical shapes, the moments are fairly evenly distributed along each cylindrical section. A large moment would only be seen if there were unbalanced members with a long overhang lever arm. However, the graphs for both pressure and moment show that this is a very efficient structure because of the distribution of force. The areas where an arrow is shown, reflects the vertical reaction from where the structure is fixed and where it resists the downward forces. 6.6: ANALYSIS OF THE HYDROSPHERE The displacements range from -0.47 in the “z” direction to 0.39 in the “x” direction (See Table A-26). The displacement of angles range from -0.015 in the “z” direction to 0.24 in the “x” direction. The maximum actions consists of a pressure of 0.681 kips, a shear of 0.034 kips in the “y” direction, 0.018 kips in the “z” direction (See Table A-28). The maximum moment would be 0.054 in the “y” direction and 0.045 in the “z” direction (See Table A-29). The maximum stress is 0.299 ksi on top of the structure (See Table A-30). 147 The diagram shows that the greatest moment is indeed on top as the data indicates (See Figure 5-24). The only members that show any sign of red indicating moments is on top and bottom. This is most likely where the sphere meets the vertical column going through the sphere. The same concept would apply to the shear shown as green-shaded area in the diagram. 148 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION Based on the findings, the concept of an underwater habitat is in the realm of possibility for various reasons. For instance, people can have special needs to venture out over the ocean to harness tide energy as part of a sustainable solution to use it as a constant renewable resource. It is also quite evident that a diver can go on continuous dives over a longer period of time when living in an underwater habitat. However, the fact still remains that, despite the numerous reasons to live in them, it is really quite difficult to design a shell that can withstand the forces impacting the structure underwater. There will almost certainly be a weak point on the shell that is constantly under a high amount of stress. Unlike in the dry regions of the earth, one is dealing with currents coming from all different directions. Also, there are extra atmospheres of water impacting a gravitational load on the structure which is nearly of equal distribution on all sides of the structure. That fact is a major dilema unless, of course, the interior of the habitat is equalized to the pressure of the outside. In every case study examined, that technique was exactly used. But even so, if one is planning on harnessing wave energy, the habitat will certainly be impacted by even more extreme lateral forces than what it is already under. Based on the structural analysis, it seems infeasible to resist the shell with anything more than what was needed in the case of equal pressurization. Almost all the shell members in the computer model had 6-inch thick steel for its primary members, and 24-inch diameter steel for foundation elements. The loads impacted 149 on the six case studies were about four times the atmosphere found on the surface. This load was chosen because it is the pressure that would be applied to the structure at a depth which was fairly common based on the case study habitats. In typical land-based heavy steel construction, this would most likely be over the limit one could build without the structure collapsing under its own weight. However, whether or not this would actually happen is yet to be determined as well as the answer to whether or not a non-equalized habitat would be practical. Either way, there are many additional considerations the aquatect must have in his or her design for underwater habitats, those include but are not limited to human comfort, life support, and consumption. There are many considerations when one does a consumption analysis on a typical building on land. For example, a very common analyses people study in building is energy consumption. If one is looking at reducing energy for the purpose s sustainability, one could also look at other sustainability factors such as water supply and disposal, and waste management. These factors may be a concern for people building underwater habitats as well. But in addition to these basic examples of sustainability factors one can look at other factors that may bear a significant influence to underwater habitats in particular. In addition to the supply of water, for instance, other analyzable factors may be the supply of food, and supply of air. The reason why air is unique to underwater habitats is because it is in seemingly limitless abundance on land, yet it is not under water. But also there is the fact that nitrogen increases as one reaches a greater depth 150 underwater. Although nitrogen is in the atmosphere on land, it is seemingly harmless to human beings. However, as nitrogen levels increase underwater, it could possibly be quite dangerous to the human bloodstream over a long period of time. For this very reason, it may be a safe assumption that the air in underwater habitats should always be closely monitored both in terms of content and balance of concentration. If one is ascending to the surface after being in an underwater habitat, adequate safety measures should be used to avoid decompression sickness. In light of these sustainable factors, one can look at how much energy is needed to provided the equipment to run these operations that may end up being essential for underwater habitats, as well as an analysis of how one can communicate with land. As one can see, there are many more factors that can be analyzed thoroughly and added to the Outline for the Aquatectural Graphic Standards. This procedure can be used as future work for this thesis. 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY aerospace-technology.com (2009). "A New Discovery." URL: http://www.aerospace-technology.com/features/feature1438/ (Accessed 29 March, 2009). Aquarius (laboratory) (2008). Wikipedia. URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarius_(laboratory) (Accessed 28 August, 2008). Archinect. "Underwater Studio, Extreme Environments Design Class." (Sep 08, 2008). URL: http://archinect.com/features/article.php?id=77867_0_23_0_M Atkins, William Arthur (2007). Submarines and Submersibles. Water Encyclopedia. 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URL: http://my.fit.edu/~swood/History_pg5.html (Accessed 29 March, 2009). 158 APPENDIX: STRUCTURAL DATA Figure A-1: Load Diagrams Figure A-2: Shear Diagrams 159 Figure A-3: Bending Stress Diagrams Figure A-4: Aquarius Data Points (Overall) A B 160 Figure A-5: Aquarius Data Points (A) 161 Figure A-6: Aquarius Data Points (B) 162 Table A-1: Displacements (Aquarius) 163 Table A-2: Member Actions (Aquarius) 164 Table A-3: Max Actions (Aquarius) 165 Table A-4: Member Stresses (Aquarius) 166 Table A-5: Max Stresses (Aquarius) 167 Figure A-7: La Chalupa Data Points (Overall) Data points 168 Figure A-8: La Chalupa Data Points 169 Table A-6: Displacements (La Chalupa Lab) 170 Table A-7: Member Actions (La Chalupa Lab) 171 Table A-8: Max Actions (La Chalupa Lab) 172 Table A-9: Member Stresses (La Chalupa Lab) Table A-10: Max Stresses (La Chalupa Lab) 173 Figure A-9: Hydrolab Data Points (Overall) B A 174 Figure A-10: Hydrolab Data Points (A) 175 Figure A-11: Hydrolab Data Points (B) 176 Table A-11: Displacements (Hydrolab) 177 Table A-12: Member Actions (Hydrolab) 178 Table A-13: Max Actions (Hydrolab) 179 Table A-14: Member Stresses (Hydrolab) 180 Table A-15: Max Stresses (Hydrolab) 181 Figure A-12: Sealab I Data Points (Overall) B A B 182 Figure A-13: Sealab I Data Points (A) 183 Figure A-14: Sealab I Data Points (B) 184 Table A-16: Displacements (Sealab I) 185 Table A-17: Member Actions (Sealab I) 186 Table A-18: Sealab I Max Actions 187 Table A-19: Sealab I Member Stresses 188 Table A-20: Sealab I Max Stresses 189 Figure A-15: Sealab III Data Points (Overall) A B 190 Figure A-16: Sealab III Data Points (A) 191 Figure A-17: Sealab III Data Points (B) 192 Table A-21: Sealab III Displacements 193 Table A-22: Sealab III Member Actions 194 Table A-23: Sealab III Max Actions 195 Table A-24: Member Stresses (Sealab III) 196 Table A-25: Sealab III Max Stresses 197 Figure A-18: Hydrosphere Data Points (Overall) B A B 198 Figure A-19: Hydrosphere Data Points (B) 199 Figure A-20: Hydrosphere Data Points (B) 200 Table A-26: Hydrosphere Strain 201 Table A-27: Hydrosphere Member Actions 202 Table A-28: Hydrosphere Max Actions 203 Table A-29: Hydrosphere Member Stresses 204 Table A-30: Hydrosphere Max Stresses
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
In addition to many forms of land-based architecture in this world, there are several instances of underwater habitats. These habitats have implications for space exploration and extreme climates. Based on the research conducted for this thesis, twelve of these habitats are examined in the following chapters. Their uses range from allowing divers to spend more time underwater, studying the effects of global warming, and examining changes to underwater conditions which can effectively be examined near the oceanic shelf. Furthermore, ocean tide could provide energy of infinite sustainability. The reason it is sustainable is that tidal waves provide energy without pollution, and energy without limit. What these underwater habitats could do is facilitate constant monitoring of tidal action, and the savings on the cost of energy may be able to justify the cost of underwater habitats, especially since studies demonstrated that there is enough potential tidal wave energy for all needs. In the following case studies of underwater habitats, their uses have already been defined. What will be looked at in regards to the case studies is how they were built to sustain themselves under such conditions. In order to guide the field effectively, this expertise should be organized in the form of a book. This book will be called The Aquatectural Graphic Standards.
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Riggin, Daniel
(author)
Core Title
An analysis of underwater habitats a development of the outline for aquatectural graphic standards
School
School of Architecture
Degree
Master of Building Science
Degree Program
Building Science
Degree Conferral Date
2009-05
Publication Date
04/02/2009
Defense Date
03/11/2009
Publisher
University of Southern California
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University of Southern California. Libraries
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Tag
aquanaut,aquanauts,Aquarius,Aquatectural Graphic Standards,aquatecture,Architecture,Bathyscaphe,Bathysphere,Conshelf,Hydrolab,Hydrosphere,MarineLab,OAI-PMH Harvest,Sealab,submergible,submersible,sustainability,Tektite,tidal wave energy,Trieste,underwater,underwater exploration,underwater habitats,wave energy
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English
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Schierle, G. Goetz (
committee chair
), Bartelt, Kara (
committee member
), Spiegelhalter, Thomas (
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)
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Dan122180@aol.com,riggin@usc.edu
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2049
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UC1185531
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Riggin, Daniel
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Tags
aquanaut
aquanauts
Aquarius
Aquatectural Graphic Standards
aquatecture
Bathyscaphe
Bathysphere
Conshelf
Hydrolab
Hydrosphere
MarineLab
Sealab
submergible
submersible
sustainability
Tektite
tidal wave energy
Trieste
underwater
underwater exploration
underwater habitats
wave energy