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School-wide implementation of systems and structures that lead to increased achievement among students of color: a case study of a high-performing, high-poverty urban school

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School-wide implementation of systems and structures that lead to increased achievement among students of color: a case study of a high-performing, high-poverty urban school

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SCHOOL-WIDE IMPLEMENTATION OF SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
THAT LEAD TO INCREASED ACHIEVEMENT AMONG STUDENTS OF
COLOR: A CASE STUDY OF A HIGH-PERFORMING, HIGH-POVERTY
URBAN SCHOOL

by

Michelle Alessandra Rappino

_________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2008

Copyright 2008 Michelle Alessandra Rappino
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the people who have supported me throughout
my educational career. The last three years, although very fulfilling, have required
much time and dedication. Many have supported me in the attainment of a personal
goal.
“Education is the key to success,” my mother, Hazel Rappino, would reiterate
often times while I was growing up. She emphasized the importance of being
educated and its role in helping to define success. She taught me that being educated
not only meant being knowledgeable of literature and authors, paintings and artists,
historical events, scientific formulas and mathematical calculations but also making
informed decisions and asking all of the questions necessary to make those decisions.
She instilled in me that education would be one of the major indicators in how I, as
an African American woman, would be perceived by society. I still till this very day
hear those words, which have enabled me to accomplish all that I have. My mother’s
words were my motivation.
I thank my parents, Luigi and Hazel Rappino, wholeheartedly for making me
the center and focus of your world. I thank you for the sacrifices you both made to
keep me in the best schools. Your continued support and dedication has made me
who I am today. Words cannot express my gratitude and appreciation.
I am fortunate to have had the support of my fiancé, Amar Moseley, who
supported me through this journey. I thank you for your patience and understanding
iii
when I was focused on schoolwork. Thank you for letting me vent, listening intently
and offering advice.
To my best friend and colleague, Pamela Robertson, you are a superb
instructional leader. I thank you for the numerous hours of conversation regarding
educational theory and practice.
Deborah Neal I would like to express my gratitude for your encouraging
words. You offered support when times seemed bleak. I appreciate you.
I would also like to thank my Dissertation Committee Chair, Dr. Stowe, for
pushing me forward through this process. To the committee members, Dr. Stowe,
Dr. Rousseau and Dr. Picus, thank you for the learning that has taken place during
this journey. Your guidance and assistance is invaluable.
To my family, friends and sorority sisters I am grateful to have had your
support throughout this process. Thank you for understanding when I said I was
unavailable. It made the journey a little easier to complete.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……………………………………………………. ii
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………… v
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………... vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………… 1
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………… 25
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY …………………………………….. 66
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ………… 82
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, SELECTED FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……………………………………………… 146
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………. 164
APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………….. 171
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Learning Styles ……………………………………………………. 43
Figure 2.2: Analysis of Common Systems and Structures …………………….. 51
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework ……………………………………………. 69
Figure 3.2: Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………. 70
Figure 3.3: Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions ……………… 75
Figure 3.4: Range of Artifacts To Be Collected ……………………………….. 78
Figure 3.5: Process of Data Analysis …………………………………………... 80
Figure 4.1: Students by Ethnicity ………………………………………………. 85
Figure 4.2: Certificated Staff …………………………………………………… 86
Figure 4.3: Interviewees ……………………………………………………….. 87
Figure 4.4: API Data Trends …………………………………………………… 89
Figure 4.5: African American Subgroup Performances ……………………….. 90
Figure 4.6: Hispanic or Latino Subgroup Performance ………………………... 91
Figure 4.7: Socio-economically Disadvantaged ……………………………….. 92
Figure 4.8: Percentage of African Americans Scoring at Proficient or Above
in English Language Arts ……………………………………………………… 94

Figure 4.9: Percentage of African Americans Scoring at Proficient or Above
in Mathematics ………………………………………………………………… 95

Figure 4.10: Percentage of African Americans Scoring at Proficient or Above
in Mathematics ………………………………………………………………… 96

Figure 4.11: Special Education Program December 2006 ……………………. 97
Figure 4.12: Special Education Program December 2005 ……………………. 98
vi
Figure 4.13: Special Education Program December 2004 …………………… 99
Figure 4.14: Special Education Program by Ethnicity ………………………. 100
Figure 4.15: Truancy Rate …………………………………………………… 101
Figure 4.16: Suspensions and Expulsions …………………………………… 102
Figure 4.17: Professional Development Agenda ……………………………. 109
Figure 4.18: Average Class Size Comparisons ……………………………… 116
Figure 4.19: Teaching Credentials …………………………………………... 119
Figure 4.20: Core Values ……………………………………………………. 141
Figure 4.21: Teacher Ethnicities ……………………………………………. 144
vii
ABSTRACT
Historically, African American students have been associated with low
student achievement. Research documents an existing achievement gap between
students of color, specifically African Americans, and their White counterparts. The
achievement gap also represents other indicators of equity related to student
achievement such as grade point average, drop out rates, college
enrollment/completion rates and overrepresentation of some groups in special
education. In order to improve the instructional quality of the educational system,
practitioners have used research in providing structural and systemic practices that
have been proven to raise student achievement. Research has identified common
systems and structures in place within high performing schools such as a) leadership
b) curriculum and standards-based instruction c) professional development d)
assessment and data analysis e) discipline and f) parent involvement.

This study examined systems and structures that were perceived to lead to
school-wide effective instruction in high performing high poverty schools. This
study also examined how and to what degree systems and structures impacted
classroom instruction. The overarching framework for the study is based on
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Learning. Social and Cultural Capital exist
under the umbrella of the Socio-Cultural Theory of Learning. The study examines
the impact of systems and structures on experiences, relationships and beliefs within
the context of development and delivery of instructional content in the classroom
viii
thus making learning accessible for students of color. This study offers an
examination of best practices that increase student achievement at high poverty
schools among students of color. Existing practices and strategies for implementation
can be replicated to increase academic performance in low performing high poverty
schools, enabling schools to experience the same success by ameliorating their
instructional program.

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Historically, students in high poverty urban schools have been associated
with low student achievement. Research indicates that students of color lag behind
their white counterparts academically (Haycock, 2001). There are many explanations
for the existence of the achievement gap. Perspectives for poor school performance
range from a presumed lower IQ, low socio-economic status, cultural dissonance,
limited cultural and social capital to low teacher expectations, which postulates that
students of color are taught by teachers who do not believe they are capable of
learning (Ogbu, 2003). Limited research exists about the impact of racism on the
present day educational system.
Examining the history of education for students of color demonstrates how
inequities have contributed to the present state of education. During the time of
slavery, Africans were denied schooling (Franklin, 2000). Slave owners taught
slaves basic skills in order to run the plantation and nothing more because educating
slaves posed an overall threat to the institution of slavery. Formal education of
slaves was illegal in almost every state during the time of slavery (Stephan, 1980).
Some social theorists have postulated that the institution of slavery has
inevitably shaped the identity of the present day African Americans (Akbar, 2006;
Woodson, 2006). Akbar (2006) details the experiences of Africans that contributed
to the development of an inferiority complex; such as enslavement, public beatings
and humiliation, separation from family, limiting communication and controlled
socialization. Alexander et al. (2001) describe Africans as a people who were
2
bought and sold in Africa, shipped, bought and sold again, which ultimately
destroyed any sense of an indigenous culture, language and family traditions they
had. Eyerman (2001) explains “traumatic loss of identity and meaning, a tear in
social fabric, affecting a group of people that have achieved some degree of cohesion
is referred to as cultural trauma” (p. 2). Cultural trauma experienced as a direct result
of slavery has significantly contributed to how African Americans perceive
themselves.
Not only has the institution of slavery impacted how African Americans
perceive themselves, it has also impacted how the dominant culture perceives this
group as well (Woodson, 2006; Franklin, 2000). Woodson’s (2006) research
indicates slavery propagated disdain for the African. Africans were considered germ
carriers because of the increased presence of syphilis and tuberculosis, which were
new diseases to the African. Slave owners did not allow Africans to bathe regularly.
The belief was that Africans were a filthy people as well. Franklin (2000) reveals
Whites believed that Africans were slovenly and lazy because the level of production
was not high, but not correlating their level of production with the conditions in
which they worked. These sentiments perpetuated the notion of biological
inferiority.
Woodson (2006) believe today’s society reflects the views of the dominant
culture, Despite African contributions to society, such as science and mathematics,
most positive actions are void in educational literature. Educational textbooks focus
on the institution of slavery and two or three historical figures in describing the
3
history of African Americans. Socially, African American Language is not
acknowledged as a language, but regarded to as slang by the dominant culture. A
deficit belief regarding African Americans has evolved since the time of slavery.
Negative stereotypes and preconceived notions permeate in the minds of people of
the dominant culture. This literature review is grounded in theory that racism is at the
root of inequity in education.
As slavery was abolished, schools for African Americans were established.
Plessy v. Ferguson allowed segregation to continue providing that schools were
“separate but equal”. As time progressed, people of color reiterated sentiments that
are best summarized than by Thurgood Marshall’s comment, “There can be no
separate equality” (Stephan, 1980). Schools that were separate were not equal in
terms of the quality of education being offered. In 1954, the Brown v. Board of
Education case resulted in a court ruling to desegregate schools. There was hope
that integration would help to reduce prejudice and racism and offer equitable
learning opportunities for African Americans. Despite the Brown v. Board ruling
that indicated desegregation should take place immediately, schools remained 99%
segregated ten years later (Edelman, 1992). African Americans who were attending
segregated schools were receiving an education that was inferior to that of their
White counterparts.
Research shows that even within the last twenty years, equitable instruction
remains questionable (Kozol, 1991). According to Kozol (1991) the disparities in
the quality of education experienced by students of color in high poverty schools is
4
not comparable to the quality of education of White students in high poverty schools.
He details these differences in his examination of the public school systems in East
St. Louis, Chicago, New York City, Camden and Washington D.C, all of which were
attended by students of color. He describes the schools as overcrowded, unsanitary
and lacking the basic supplies needed for delivering instruction, which he argues is
an illustration of racial segregation at work. Kozol was not alone in his
documentation of inequity of resources for students of color, as nation-wide reports
began to surface regarding academic performance during the same time frame.
Several reports scrutinized the public educational system: A Nation at Risk
(1983) and A Nation Still at Risk (1998) and the Third International Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMSS) (1995). A Nation at Risk (1983) detailed an overall
decline in the level of performance, expectation and delivery of content information
in the public school system. This report painted a bleak picture by indicating that
the educational system was deteriorating. Fewer American citizens showed
academic promise. The findings also indicated that Americans would be ill prepared
academically to function in the world. Consequently, the nation would suffer as
children aged because they would be unprepared to handle everyday challenges.
America was falling short of educating its citizens. This report called attention to the
need to place greater emphasis on the quality of education.
A Nation Still at Risk (1998) and the TIMSS (1995) solidified the initial
findings of A Nation at Risk (1983). These reports indicated that despite the call for
attention to remedy the United States public educational system, its failures had
5
become increasingly more apparent. Findings further suggested that even a decade
later there was still little change despite the call to action. Unlike the initial report,
the subsequent reports focused on the public school system’s failure to educate
students of color by documenting the achievement gap between students of color and
White students. A Nation Still at Risk (1998) presented data that clearly maintained
students of color were the lowest performing. TIMSS (1995) revealed the
performance gap between students of color and their counterparts in the dominant
culture. A Nation Still at Risk (1998) and the TIMSS (1995) clearly illustrated the
achievement gap was an epidemic specifically affecting students of color further
solidifying the concept that race as a social construct is the root of inequity in
education.
Background of the Problem
Historically, African American students have been associated with low
student achievement. Research documents an existing achievement gap between
students of color, specifically African Americans, and their White counterparts
(Haycock, 2001; Johnson, 2002; Marzano, 2003). Studies indicate one of the main
barriers that contribute to the achievement gap is the majority of teachers have
limited knowledge on how to teach African American students (Ladson-Billings,
1994). A cause of the achievement gap is poor teacher preparation-specifically with
regard to the need of African American students (Ladson-Billings, 1994). In
addition, teacher preparation programs do not demystify beliefs regarding the
6
history, language or culture of African Americans. Thus, teachers bring their own
beliefs and misconceptions into the classroom (Spindler and Spindler, 1994).
Teacher Preparation Programs
Teacher preparation contributes to the inability of educators to teach African
American students effectively; most teachers report that their pre-service preparation
did little or nothing to prepare them for today's diverse classrooms (Ladson-Billings,
1994). Although most programs seek to prepare quality teachers to teach in high
poverty schools that serve predominantly African American and Latino students
(College of Education, 2006) few, if any, teacher education programs teach teachers
how to expressly meet the needs of students of color (Ladson-Billings, 2000).
George and Louise Spindler (1994) indicate that teachers bring their personal
cultural background, knowledge base, prejudices and misconceptions into the
classroom. When the personal or cultural knowledge of students and teachers differ,
uninformed teachers may lower their expectations for student success, which is
detrimental to students (Bennett, 2001).
History
Knowledge of African American history is important in knowing what values
and ideologies are brought into the classroom everyday (Gay, 2000). The history of
African Americans is documented based on experiences within the institution of
slavery. The experience of cultural trauma is the foundation for the basis of African
American identity (Eyerman, 2001). The cruel and inhuman treatment of Africans as
slaves led to the development of poor self-images (Akbar, 2006; Woodson, 2006).
7
To maintain the institution of slavery and instill the ideologies of the dominant
culture, negative images were constructed about Africans (Fredrickson, 1971; Akbar,
2006; Woodson, 2006). Conflict existed within the African as s/he attempted to
understand self in a culture that devalued and ignored their presence as an equal.
The dominant culture perpetuated notions of superiority through promoting
“Whiteness” (Woodson, 2006). This created a two-tier system, the preferred and the
unpreferred. The unpreferred were denied access and opportunity. Ogbu (1992)
suggests after experiencing years of oppositional treatment, Africans became
generally resentful of the dominant group based on doubt that they would be equally
rewarded through conventional means. They tend to oppose the cultural values of
the majority, hoping to prevent the conquerors, enslavers, and colonizers from
wiping out their indigenous cultures (Ogbu, 1993). He further proposes that the
history of African Americans suggests they are involuntary immigrants. Involuntary
immigrants are members of groups who reside in the host society and have a history
of oppression in that particular society. Moreover, involuntary immigrants not only
view their cultural frame of reference as different from that of the mainstream but
also in opposition to that of the dominant group.
Language
African families were separated to prevent communication among one
another (Woodson, 2006). In an attempt to communicate Africans developed
African American Vernacular English (AAVE), African American Language (AAL)
and/or Ebonics. African American Language is defined as having linguistic and
8
paralinguistic features which represents the communicative styles of the West
African, Caribbean and the United States slave descendants of African origin
(Williams, 1970).
Because characterizations of Ebonics as “slang,” “mutant,” “lazy,”
“defective,” “ungrammatical,” or “broken English” are incorrect and demeaning
(LSA, 1997), researchers propose African American Language be viewed as an asset
because it a rule-governed language (Gay, 2000; Rickford and Rickford, 2000;
LeMoine, 2001).
Teachers often correct African American students and therefore devalue their
home language (Gay, 2000). Constantly correcting a student may cause the student
to develop an inferiority complex and become less involved in participatory learning
(Delpit, 1995). Therefore, not knowing about the language structure of a particular
group can lead to a decline in academic achievement.
Culture
According to research, teachers should possess knowledge about the culture
of children in their classrooms (Gay, 2000). There are two distinct cultures within
the classroom for an African American child, that of the White dominant culture and
that which is brought with the African American child (Shade, 1982). Traditional
classroom environments focus on limited movement, where individual-competitive
structures and direct instruction are standard. In contrast, the African American
child becomes more proficient academically when the classroom is project based,
which allows him/her to be more involved, vocal and expressive (Shade, 1982;
9
Stanton-Salazar, 1997; LeMoine, 2001). Thus, incorporating the cultural learning
styles and strengths of African American children into the classroom routine will
actively involve students in their own learning process.
Socio-cultural Theoryof Learning
Vygotsky (1929, 1981) has theorized human cognition and learning are a
direct result of cultural and social experiences. Children bring with them funds of
knowledge or “historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of
knowledge and skills essential for household or individual functioning and well-
being” (Gonzalez et al, 2001, p. 133). Bourdieu (1986) and Salazar (1997) refer to
the same assets as social and cultural capital. Nonetheless, Vygotsky argues that
learning takes place in the social context in which children are reared. Children’s
learning is rooted in their history, culture and language that formulate their identity.
Vygotsky (1929, 1981) posits that connections must be made to students’ cultural
and social context for learning to take place. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Learning
Theory will serve as the theoretical framework for this literature review.
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy incorporates children’s culture into
classroom instruction to enhance the learning process (Gay, 2000). Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy is an ideology associated with the means of incorporating a
variety of teaching practices into a culturally diverse classroom (Irvine and Armento,
2001). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy means that “multiethnic cultural frames of
reference” are at the center of instructional practices for teachers (Gay, 2000, p. xix).
10
This implies that teachers are willing to explore their own prejudices, preconceived
notions and ideologies formed by the dominant culture and move past them to reach
the children cognitively. Understanding various aspects of historical, linguistic and
cultural backgrounds that African American students come to class with everyday,
while thinking of the best instructional strategies to ensure that learning is taking
place are essential components of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. The use of
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy by teachers is an attempt to bridge the disconnect
between students and schools. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy is a system used to
increase student achievement.
Systems and Structures
Current research concludes specific systems and structures contribute to
increased achievement at high performing high poverty schools with large
concentrations of students of color. Systems are the coherent use of resources (time,
personnel, students, parents, funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that
school visions, missions, and goals are met. Systems may include professional
development, teacher collaboration, parent involvement, leadership, use of
instructional time, school budgets, etc. Structures are the institutional mechanisms,
policies, and procedures put in place by federal, state or district policy/legislation.
Structures are widely accepted as the official structure of schools and are not subject
to change at the local school site. Structures may include funding mechanisms
(federal, state, district), personnel policies (hiring, evaluation, credentialing, etc.),
11
instructional time, class size, program regulations, such as special education and
bilingual education.
For the purpose of this study, focus is placed specifically on instructional
leadership, professional development and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy.
Research affirms the critical role of instructional leadership as a system that
leads to enhancing academic achievement for students of color in high performing
high poverty schools (Cawelti, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Carter, 2000; Reeves, 2000;
Johnson and Asera, 1999). An instructional leader is responsible for the formation of
the school vision (Blasé and Blasé, 1997). The vision keeps the staff focused on
student achievement. An instructional leader is also charged with carrying out
various instructional duties such as developing professional development
opportunities for teachers to build capacity, monitoring data, being visible in
classrooms, evaluating instruction and maintaining relationships with community
members (Lambert et al., 1995). Lastly, an instructional leader encourages
instructional conversations, encourages constant reflection and provides
opportunities for professional development to improve instructional practices (Blasé
and Blasé, 2004).
Research also asserts professional development is one of the main
components in high performing high poverty schools (Marzano, 2003; Izumi, 2002,
Barth, 1999; Johnson and Asera, 1999). According to Izumi (2002), professional
development is the time teachers use to prepare lessons, collaborate and make
connections to curriculum to facilitate effective instruction. Professional
12
development also allows for dialogue regarding standards-based instruction,
activities that align with standards, assessment and data analysis. According to
additional research, professional development increases content knowledge and
develops staff cohesion (Garet et al., 2001). Professional development is a specified
time for teachers to discuss various research based instructional strategies and share
best practices.
The last system that is explored is Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, which
has been mentioned previously. Just as a highlight, Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
serves as a means to ensure that learning takes place for all students. It is clear from
the Socio-cultural Theory of Learning, teachers must tap into the culture and
experiences that students bring with them to ensure learning takes place (Vygotsky,
1929, 1981). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy makes instructional connections for
students of color, thereby increasing attentiveness, participation and overall
achievement (Gay, 2000).
Statement of the Problem
Historically, students in high poverty urban schools have been associated
with low student achievement. Statistics show by the completion of high school,
African American and Latino students have skills in both reading and mathematics
that are the same as those of White students at the 8
th
grade level (Haycock, 2001).
Statistics indicate there is an achievement gap between students of color and
their non-minority counterparts. The achievement gap data details continuous
reporting of African Americans who are not performing at proficient levels
13
(Haycock, 2001). As students progress through the public school system, the gap
continues to reflect the growing disparity in achievement between Whites and
African Americans (Loveless, 2001). The achievement gap also represents other
indicators of equity related to student achievement such as grade point average, drop
out rates, college enrollment/completion rates and overrepresentation of some groups
in special education (Johnson, 2002; Williams, 2003).
In order to improve the instructional quality of the educational system,
practitioners have used research in providing structural and systemic practices that
have been proven to raise student achievement. Research states common systems
and structures in place within high performing schools are a) leadership b)
curriculum and standards-based instruction c) professional development d)
assessment and data analysis e) discipline and f) parent involvement (Cawelti, 1999;
Johnson and Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Carter, 2000; Reeves, 2000).
Despite all of the research that exists regarding common systems and
structures in high performing schools, little is known about how systems and
structures are implemented in high poverty high performing schools or to what
extent they are implemented. Limited research exists regarding the path that schools
follow to ensure systems and structures are in place to guarantee effective
instructional practices. The problem is there is limited research on how systems and
structures are implemented to specifically address the needs of African American
students.
14
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine systems and structures at high
performing high poverty schools that clearly impact the achievement of students of
color, specifically African American students. This study will focus on race and its
impact on the educational system. It will also explore common systems and
structures in place at high performing high poverty schools that directly impact
instructional practices ultimately increasing student achievement. The goal of this
study is to determine what systems and structures contribute to high performance for
students of color in high poverty schools. An additional aim is to determine how and
to what degree the systems and structures contribute to high performance. This
study will provide a body of knowledge for low performing high poverty schools to
help improve the performance of students of color, specifically African Americans.
Research Questions
The following is a list of the research questions that guide the study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
15
Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is that it will add to the general body of
knowledge regarding best practices that support students of color. This study
examines systems and structures that lead to effective instruction in high performing
high poverty schools. Understanding existing practices and the degree of
implementation at these schools can be replicated elsewhere to increase academic
performance in low performing high poverty schools. This research will add to a
general body of knowledge used to increase the opportunities for equitable
instructional practices. This study will contribute to the ongoing search for effective
instructional practices to close the gap that exists between students of color and their
non-minority counterparts. The use of successful instructional practices can help
low performing schools ameliorate their instructional program ultimately increasing
student achievement for students of color, specifically African Americans.
Improving the achievement of students of color will also have a long-term
effect on society. This study will contribute to increasing achievement for students
of color because it delineates successful systems and structures that work in high
poverty schools. The findings of this study can be replicated and generalized in
communities where there are large concentrations of students of color. Students of
color will then have access to more schools that emphasize better instructional
practices grounded in research-based systems and structures that increase student
achievement. Ultimately, access to research-based instructional practices will lead
16
to a better quality of life as researchers agree education is a key determinant to future
economic success (Weinstein, Gregory & Strambler, 2004; Morris, 2004).
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. A notable limitation is that data
collected for this study is from one particular elementary school within the Urban
Unified School District. The school is a high performing high poverty school with a
large concentration of students of color. The ability to generalize to other schools
may be limited based on the small size of the sample. The study was also done over
the course of a ten-week period. The longitudinal study is beyond the control of the
researcher given the constraints of the university timeline for the doctoral process.
Another limitation is the inability to know the level of honest reporting on behalf of
the participants during interviews. Participation in the study was voluntary and
therefore findings are limited to participants who agree to interview. There may be
bias on behalf of the participants causing them to report subjectively thus
compromising the findings of the study. Bias on behalf of the researcher should be
considered as it may impact the findings also. Access is also another limitation to be
considered, as the school principal established the parameters for the level of
involvement allowed to the researcher at the school site.
Delimitations
A group of doctoral candidates focusing on school-wide implementation of
instructional practices at high performing high poverty schools determined the
delimitations. The doctoral candidates also determined the definitions of terms to be
17
used basing the majority of the definitions from EdSource (2007). The school that is
chosen was based on selected criteria, which is within the control of the group. The
selection criteria included choosing an elementary school, in a high poverty area,
with at least 75% of the students qualifying for free/reduced lunch, making it a Title
I school. The school must also have a representation of 60% or more students of
color. Lastly, the school must also show academic gains as defined by the school’s
Average Yearly Progress (AYP) and the Academic Performance Index (API). The
gain must have been a minimum of two deciles within the past 3-5 years.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are operationally defined as
specified below according to the EdSource electronic glossary:
Academic Performance Index (API)
A number summarizing the performance of a group of students, a school, or a
district on California’s standardized tests. A school’s number (or API score) is used
to rank it among schools of the same type (elementary, middle, high, or small) and
among the 100 schools of the same type that are most similar in terms of students
served, teacher qualifications, and other factors.
In 2006-07 the API includes these components:
• For a typical elementary school serving grades K–5: Results from the
California Standards Tests (CSTs) in English language arts and mathematics for
grades 2–5 make up 89% of the API score. The CST in science (taken by fifth-
18
graders only) makes up 6% and English and math tests from the California
Achievement Tests, Sixth Edition Survey (CAT/6) account for the remaining 5%.
Accountability
The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an organization (e.g., a
school, school district, or state department of education) should be held responsible
for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or sanctioned for their
success or lack of success.
Achievement Gap
A consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between
certain groups of children and children in other groups.
Achievement Test
A test to measure a student’s knowledge and skills.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)
Adequate yearly progress is a set of annual academic performance
benchmarks that states, school districts, schools, and subpopulations of students are
supposed to achieve if the state receives federal funding under Title I, Part A of the
federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
Assessment
Another name for a test. An assessment can also be a system for testing and
evaluating students, groups of students, schools, or districts.
19
California Achievement Tests, Sixth Edition Survey (CAT/6)
A norm-referenced test of basic skills. Student scores are national percentile
rankings, which indicate the performance of each student relative to a national
sample of students.
California Standards Tests (CSTs)
Tests that are part of the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR)
program and are based on the state's academic content standards—what teachers are
expected to be teaching and what students are expected to be learning. CSTs are
criterion-referenced tests. The state goal is for every student to score at "proficient"
or above. Only California students take these standards-based tests so their results
cannot be compared to test scores of students in other states or nations.
Content Standards
Standards that describe what students should know and be able to do in core
academic subjects at each grade level.
Disaggregated Data
The presentation of data broken into segments, for example test scores for
students from various ethnic groups instead of in the aggregate, for the entire student
population.
Equity
The belief that state governments have an obligation to equalize students’
access to educational opportunities and thus life chances.
20
Highly Qualified Teacher
According to the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), a teacher who has
obtained full state teacher certification or has passed the state teacher licensing
examination and holds a license to teach in the state; holds a minimum of a
bachelor's degree; and has demonstrated subject area competence in each of the
academic subjects in which the teacher teaches.
National School Lunch Program
A federal program to provide food—typically lunch and/or breakfast—for
students from low-income families. The number of students participating in this
free/reduced price meal program is increasingly being used as a way to measure the
poverty level of a school or district population.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
The 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA). Originally passed in 1965, ESEA programs provide much of the federal
funding for K–12 schools. NCLB's provisions represent a significant change in the
federal government's influence in public schools and districts throughout the United
States, particularly in terms of assessment, accountability, and teacher quality. It
increases the federal focus on the achievement of disadvantaged pupils, including
English learners and students who live in poverty, provides funding for "innovative
programs" such as charter schools, and supports the right of parents to transfer their
children to a different school if their school is low performing or unsafe.
21
Organizational Structures
Institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by federal
state or district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of
schools; not subject to change at the local school site; i.e. Funding mechanisms
(federal, state, district), Personnel policies (hiring, evaluation, credentialing, etc.),
instructional time, Class size, Program regulations, i.e., special education, bilingual
education.
Organizational Systems
Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel, students, parents,
funds, facilities, etc.) at the school site to ensure that school visions, missions, and
goals are met; i.e. Professional development, Teacher collaboration, Parent
involvement policies, Use of instructional time, School budgets
Performance Standards
Standards that describe how well or at what level students should be expected
to master the content standards.
Professional Development
Programs that allow teachers or administrators to acquire the knowledge and
skills they need to perform their jobs successfully. Often these programs are aimed at
veteran teachers to help them update their skills and knowledge. Researchers have
found that effective professional development focuses on academic content and
requires adequate time, resources, and working conditions.
22
School- wide Programs
A program that uses Title I money to support comprehensive school
improvement efforts and to help all students, particularly low-achieving and at-risk
students, meet state standards at particular schools. To qualify as a Title I school-
wide program, at least 40% of a school's students must be considered low income.
School-wide programs can provide Title I services and support to all of the children
in the school, regardless of income level. School-wide programs have more
flexibility than targeted assistance programs (TAPs) when using Title I funds.
Socio-economically Disadvantaged
Students whose parents do not have a high school diploma or who participate
in the free/reduced price meal program because of low family income.
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program
A statewide testing system that was enacted in 1997 and required the State
Board of Education to select one nationally published test for second- through 11th-
grade public school students and to publicize school district and state scores on the
Internet in July every year.
Standards
Degrees or levels of achievement. The "standards movement" began as an
informal effort grown out of a concern that American students were not learning
enough and that American schools did not have a rigorous curriculum.
23
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
An international study conducted in 1995 and then revisited in 1999 that
collected data on the mathematics and science achievement of students from the
United States and other countries.
Title I
A federal program that provides funds for educationally disadvantaged
students, including the children of migrant workers. Funding is based on the number
of low-income children in a school, generally those eligible for the free/reduced price
meals program. Title I is intended to supplement, not replace, state and district funds.
The funds are distributed to school districts, which make allocations to eligible
schools according to criteria in the federal law. Schools receiving Title I monies are
supposed to involve parents in deciding how those funds are spent and in reviewing
progress.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One introduces and provides a rationale for studying systems and
structures within high performing, high poverty schools. Included in Chapter One is
the introduction, the background of the problem, the statement of the problem, the
purpose of the study, the research questions, the importance of the study, the study’s
limitations and delimitations and the definition of terms. Chapter Two reviews the
research that exists on the systems and structures of leadership, professional
development and the implementation of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. Chapter
Three provides a research methodology for the case study. Chapter Four includes an
24
analysis and discussion of each research question and the related findings. Chapter
Five summarizes the findings, draws conclusions about the meaning and what
implications the findings have for future research. To conclude the study, references
and appendixes follow the final chapter.
25
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This literature review will examine student achievement based on three
reports: A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (1983), A Nation
Still at Risk: An Educational Manifest (1998) and Third International Mathematics
and Science Study (1995). These reports serve as a basis for various educational
reforms that led to the No Child Left Behind Act. These reports also introduced
educational stakeholders to the achievement gap and what the gap data indicated
regarding the disparity between African American and White students. The review
will then present those barriers that affect student achievement for African American
students. In doing so, the literature review will provide a description of the
racialized historical context which contributed to the formation of African American
identity. This study is grounded in the Socio-cultural Theory of Learning as a
theoretical framework. Thereafter, the literature review will examine the quality of
education based on inequity and how students of color have been impacted by the
inequity consequently making an argument for the need for specific systems and
structures to narrow the gap. Subsequently, the chapter will explore research on
systems and structures in place in high performing high poverty schools. Lastly, the
scope of the study will be narrowed to focus on three specific systems and structures
of instructional leadership, effective professional development and the
implementation of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy to determine whether these
26
practices are effective for improving the academic improvement of African
American students.
It has been said that the public school system has failed to educate its
citizens. The A Nation at Risk (1983) report detailed the degree to which the public
school system failed its citizens and the implications for United States citizens as a
consequence of that failure. After the report was issued, there was an impetus to
push toward educational reform. However, 15 years after the initial report, it became
evident that under-education was still prevalent among many schools in the United
States citizens as revealed by the follow up report by A Nation Still at Risk (1998).
Additionally, the TIMSS (1995) confirmed that the American public school system
did not compare well on an international level either, specifically in the areas of math
and science. More importantly, the last two reports respectively indicated that
minority students lagged even further behind their White counterparts.
The implications of these studies for minority students were even more
discouraging. The achievement gap describes just how far behind African
Americans have fallen as compared to White students. The extant field research
does offer explanations for the disparity and reveals many of the possible barriers
that may slow success for African American students ultimately contributing to the
gap. Research focuses on the social, cultural, historical and racial barriers that
impact the daily lives of African American students. Barriers range in theory from
cultural dissonance, to social and cultural capital, low IQ, teacher expectation based
on race and/or perception of minority students (Ogbu, 2003).
27
The achievement gap between African American students and their White
counterparts has further implications for society. If the gaps in educational
achievement continue to grow unabated, African American students will be
unprepared to advance socially or economically. It will become increasingly more
difficult for them to compete in a world that is constantly progressing, both
technologically and economically, due to their lack of educational competence. The
lack of educational competence is a direct result of the existing disparities in terms of
equitable access to a quality education.
The federal government implemented the No Child Left Behind Act to
increase accountability measures and enhance academic achievement. Despite the
historical and social deficiencies that adversely affect public education, there are
schools that implement various reform and accountability measures that have yielded
high performance among students of color in high poverty areas.
Student Performance
Public schools in the United States have produced varying degrees of student
achievement levels throughout the past century. As stated in the introductory
sections of this chapter, the gap in educational achievement among student
populations is evidenced by three significant reports: A Nation at Risk: The
Imperative for Educational Reform (1983), A Nation Still at Risk: An Educational
Manifest (1998) and Third International Mathematics and Science Study (1995).
Although the goal of the public school system is to produce citizens that can be
28
productive, the reports indicate the public school systems are falling short of
educating its students.
A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform
A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (1998), written and
published by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, is a report that
examined the quality of America’s public school system. The report listed many
deficiencies within the public school system. According to this report, 23 million
Americans were considered functionally illiterate. The majority of Americans had
problems decoding and comprehending basic information. Looking at specific
student populations within the composite number of students was even more
problematic. In fact, 13% of 17 year olds in the United States were functionally
illiterate. This number could run as high as 40% in students of color, which
particularly implies that students of color were doing worse in comparison to other
students.
A Nation at Risk also indicated that United States did poorly on achievement
tests as well. Four indicators showed precisely where the United States students
ranked in comparison to students in other countries. The findings from the study
were:
*Americans ranked 12 out of 19 in academic achievement tests in an
international comparison study
*Average achievement on most tests was lower than 26 years prior, at the
time of Sputnik
29
* Scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) fell in both math and verbal
areas 40 and 50 points respectively
*The overall number of students who perform in the proficient range on the
SATs has decreased dramatically.
The report illustrated low rankings for the United States in several categories:
Gifted Students, Students in College and Graduating Students. Students who have
been identified as gifted, or high performing, were not doing as well as they could
have been according to standardized assessment scores. In the college student
category, the study showed enrollment in remedial mathematics courses increased
72% between the years 1975-1980. Even though students were accepted into
colleges, the level of skills they brought with them had dwindled. Lastly, students
graduating from various colleges were tested. Students demonstrated lower overall
academic achievement. In essence, the skills they learned and mastered decreased as
well, which again indicated the level of decreased skill mastery.
With the United States ranking low in several categories, it became
increasingly apparent that the public school system was sub par and falling short
when it came to educating its citizens. Other countries had not only matched the
educational level in the United States but also surpassed it according to A Nation at
Risk (1983). The study concluded that high expectations and regimented efforts to
meet those expectations had been lost over time, producing a country full of citizens
that value mediocrity.
30
The findings in A Nation at Risk predicted the United States would be a
country full of people who do not possess the skills, training, literacy or basic overall
competency to function efficiently and productively in a rapidly evolving society.
Hence, Americans would be disenfranchised from becoming productive citizens,
who reap the benefits of what was once referred to as the “American Dream”. A
Nation at Risk launched a nation-wide reform effort emphasizing “higher order”
skills and deemphasizing basic skills to prepare citizens to compete in the global and
more technologically advanced market economy.
A Nation Still at Risk: An Educational Manifest
A follow-up report called A Nation at Risk: An Educational Manifest (1998)
was generated 15 years later, yet mirroring similar sentiments as the original report
regarding the concern with academic achievement. The alarming aspects of this
follow-up report included, but were not limited to, the fact that even though 10
million Americans had gone through the public school system, by 12
th
grade they
were still unable to read at a basic level. In elementary and middle school, one in
four students was proficient in math. In high school, only one in six seniors were
proficient in math. Those students who struggled with school often dropped out.
The dropout rate in schools rose to over 6 million Americans, with even greater rates
among students of color. In 1996, 13% of African Americans within the 16-24 year
old age group were not enrolled in school nor did they have a high school diploma.
Approximately 17% of the first generation Hispanic population between ages 16-24
had dropped out of high school, including 44% of immigrants in this particular group
31
as well. Figures suggest students of color were falling well behind their White
counterparts.
The most alarming aspects of A Nation Still at Risk (1998) was the reiteration
that the state of education in America was still in jeopardy. The report indicated that
even though much time had passed, the gains had been minimal. Additionally, the
gains that had been made were not substantial enough nor did they compare
favorably to the rate of academic growth on an international level. Again, this
document revealed that the educational system in the United States was deteriorating
and failing its students. More specifically, this follow-up report illustrated the
alarming disparity between students of color and White students who attended public
schools. The findings further suggest that students of color would be ill prepared to
compete in the job market because their skills would be inferior to those of Whites,
implying they would be less productive than their White counterparts.
Third International Mathematics and Science Study
Performance in the 1990s did not improve. The Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (1995) yielded results that were dichotomous. On
one hand, fourth grade students performed above the international average. On the
other hand, the eighth graders fell below the international average. By the twelfth
grade, the US fell close to the bottom of the academic rankings (Education Trust,
2003). American students ranked 19
th
among participating countries and received a
mean score under the international average (Haycock, 2001). As students grew
32
older, it became more evident that they could not compete with the international
norm.
This study was similar to the findings in A Nation Still at Risk (1998);
Americans were not able to compete academically on an international level.
Moreover, the TIMSS report showed that American students scored poorly in all
areas. An area of specific concern was the achievement gap, which is still prevalent
between students of color when compared to White students (Haycock, 2001).
The TIMSS focused on an international comparison of instruction. Even
though teachers in the United States were covering more mathematical topics than
the international average, the performance of students in the United States was not
comparable. According to United States teachers, they teach 93% of total TIMSS
content as compared to 75% of their international counterparts (Gonzales, et al.
2004). An example of the disparity in content is that textbooks in the US addressed
175% more topics than did German textbooks and 350% as many topics as Japanese
textbooks (Marzano, 2003). Effective content instruction is a critical component of
academic achievement, yet the report indicated while the United States curriculum
was rich in content, teachers were not delving as deeply into content as other
countries, which suggests a reason for poor results. Lastly, the US was more likely
to focus on instruction through the actual use of textbooks and worksheets as
opposed to problem based learning (Haycock, 2001). Internationally, instruction
focused more on the thinking process and developing student cognition. Even
though teachers were covering more material in the United States, neither depth of
33
delivery was substantial enough to impact learning and mastery in comparison to the
international norm. Ultimately, students of color were affected most. Even though
the TIMSS study indicates that US public schools are substandard in comparison to
their international counterparts, it became increasingly evident there was an
achievement gap between students of color and White students.
Achievement Gap
Historically, high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students
of color have been associated with low student achievement. The Achievement Gap
describes the academic disparity between students of color and White students.
Traditionally, students of color particularly African American students score
significantly lower than White students on standardized tests in school districts
across the nation (Berlack, 2001).
In examining statistics over the last 40 years, the academic gains made by
African American students quickly diminished. In fact, overall academic
performance of African American students improved tremendously during the 1970s
and 1980s (Loveless, 2001). While examining reading achievement among 17-year-
old African Americans, scores climbed substantially through the 1970s and 1980s,
but the gaps separating them from other students widened somewhat during the
1990s. In math, the patterns look similar for 13 year olds, with the African
American and White gap reaching its narrowest in 1990 and the White gap
narrowing until 1992, and the gaps widening thereafter.
34
Problems exist at the secondary level as well. In 1999, by the end of high
school, only 1 in 100 African American 17-year-olds could read and gain
information from a specialized text—such as the science section in the newspaper as
compared to about 1 in 12 Whites. Less than one-fifth of African Americans could
read the complicated but less specialized texts that more than half of White students
could read. The patterns are true for math as well. About 1 in 100 African
Americans could comfortably do multi-step problem solving and elementary algebra,
compared to about 1 in 10 White students. Lastly, only 3 in 10 African American
17-year-olds have mastered the usage and computation of fractions, commonly used
percents, and averages, compared to 7 in 10 White students (Haycock, 2001).
Statistics show that African Americans are performing significantly worse than their
non-minority counterparts. The achievement gap is prevalent in elementary school
as well as high school. It is prevalent in both math and language arts. The
achievement gap represents a huge disparity between African Americans and their
White counterparts.
Barriers to Achievement
Various explanations exist for the achievement gap. Multiple deficit theories
range from low IQ, low socio-economic status, cultural dissonance, race and teacher
expectations (Ogbu, 2003). Causes span multiple contexts from the individual and
family to school and society. Researchers argue that African Americans are most
likely to live in poverty, which is directly correlated to student achievement (Barton,
2003; Manning & Kovach, 2003). Limited access to school resources (highly trained
35
teachers, quality of schools, limited supplies and materials), high transiency, family
education, family incarcerations are factors linked to poverty and the gap. Other
research indicates that motivation is a barrier. Students become very disconnected
from school resulting from various psychological and emotional reasons (Board on
Children, Youth and Families, 2003). Students tune out and narrow their focus.
Disengagement is associated with the gap as well.
Several attribution theories exist as well. Additional research suggests school
and teacher attitudes contribute to the gap also (Delpit, 1996; Cohen & Steele, 2002).
Teacher attitudes toward African American students are a direct result of their own
personal beliefs shaped by the dominant culture. African American students bring
their own funds of knowledge based on their cultural experience and identity
(Gonzalez et al., 2005). There is a divide between the home culture and the culture
within the classroom (LeMoine, 2001). Teachers are not prepared by their teacher
preparation programs to adequately bridge the gap in the diverse classrooms that
exist today. Specifically, teachers are ill prepared to teach to the specific needs of
African American students (Ladson-Billings, 2000, College of Education, 2006).
Teachers bring their own set of cultural beliefs, preconceived notions and
misconceptions to the classroom and often base their teaching practices on this belief
set. This mindset forms the premise of teacher expectations. If teacher expectations
are low, then student achievement will be low as well (Bennett, 2001). By setting
low expectations, teachers contribute the achievement gap by ignoring the
implementation of a rigorous curriculum.
36
Research postulates the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy challenges
low expectations caused by deficit thinking ultimately leading to a rigorous
curriculum (Gay, 2000). The use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy helps teachers
to develop the understanding of what is needed to help students of color succeed
academically (Delpit, 1995). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy provides teachers
with the history, language and culture needed to develop rigorous expectations (Gay,
2000). The lack of culturally responsive pedagogy and practice in teacher
preparation programs, causes teachers to resort to less effective measures in attempts
to meet the needs of their diverse students (Gay, 2000; Kober, 2001; Bennett; 2001).
Arguably, Culturally Responsive Pedagogy places an emphasis on teachers learning
African American history, language and cultural learning styles (Gay, 2000; Delpit,
1995; Shade, 1982). Therefore, Culturally Responsive Pedagogy is grounded is
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory of Learning.
History
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy places an emphasis on learning the history
of students of color, particularly African American students. Exploring the history
of African Americans helps teachers understand how the construct of race may
influence their perception of African American students. To justify the inhuman and
brutal treatment of this human labor pool, the concept of race was invented and it
scientifically and religiously ranked Whites as superior and Blacks as inferior,
justifying the manner in which slaves were treated (Foster, 2004). Because slavery,
in the eyes of some could have been perceived as cruel and unnatural forms of
37
punishment and degradation, it was necessary to provide a rationale in an effort for
people to “buy-in” or accept the system. Thus, the notion of Black inferiority was
based on Social Darwinism, which is the school of thought that implies that
individuals or groups achieve advantage over others as a result of genetic and or
biological superiority. In his research, Franklin (2000) refers to the “idleness and
laziness of slaves” and using words such as “dirty” and “slovenly” to describe
African Americans. Stephan (1980) indicates that stereotypical labels were one of
the cruelest legacies of slavery that eventually would constitute the basis for
discrimination against Blacks. These labels have been ingrained in the minds of
members of society and have been allowed to perpetuate within American culture.
The institution of slavery shaped the identity of the present African American
(Akbar, 2006; Woodson, 2006). Akbar (2006) discusses how various acts that
African Americans experienced during the course of slavery contribute to the feeling
of personal inferiority. He postulates the process of instilling inferiority was critical
in maintaining the institution of slavery. Akbar (2006) details just how public
beatings, showcasing unclothed Africans, inspecting them as cattle, separating them
from family, purchasing and selling them and preventing communication contributed
to the loss of self-esteem. Africans were kept filthy, as they were unable to bathe on
a consistent basis. Slave owners referred to the physical features and characteristics
of Africans, such as broad noses, kinky hair, dark skin and full lips, as undesirable
(Akbar, 2006). It is evident that various acts during the time of slavery contributed
to how Africans felt about themselves.
38
Woodson (2006) details how the institution of slavery served as a means to
imbed abhorrence of Africans by the dominant culture. He indicates slavery
propagated a hate for the African. Africans were considered germ carriers because
of the increased presence of syphilis and tuberculosis, as these were new diseases to
the African. Africans were also seen as slovenly and lazy because of the conditions
in which they worked (Franklin 2000). These aspects perpetuated the notion of
biological inferiority. According to Fredrickson (1971), Whites had a universal
understanding. Africans were physically, intellectually and temperamentally
different from Whites.
In contrast, the dominant culture reinforced “Whiteness” (Woodson, 2006).
The dominant culture depicted God as a White male. Slaves were also taught to hold
the White slave owner in high regard and treat him as a god. These perceptions have
been passed down through generational oral tradition. Hence, the African American
has been taught to value the dominant culture and devalue their own.
The institution of slavery has shaped the present day African American’s
personal identity as well as others’ perceptions of him/her (Akbar, 2006; Woodson,
2006). Researchers indicate that African Americans have experienced “cultural
trauma” which is the “traumatic loss of identity and meaning, a tear in the social
fabric, affecting a group pf people that have achieved some degree of cohesion”
(Eyerman, 2001, p. 2). Africans were bought and sold in Africa. They were shipped
to various lands were they were bought and sold again, ultimately destroying most of
their culture. Smelser (in Alexander et al 2001) indicates cultural trauma is based on
39
a collective memory that leads to identity formations, indicating that trauma links the
past to the present through connections. In essence, present day African American
identity is socially constructed based on the memory of slavery, their perceptions of
self and the dominant culture’s perceptions of them also.
According to Woodson (2006), present day society reflects the dominant
view originally instilled in slaves. He discussed how African contributions to
society, specifically science and mathematics, are ignored in educational literature.
African history is relegated to limited information and usually begins with the
institution of slavery in educational textbooks. African American Language is
laughed at and mocked. The dominant culture has come to despise African American
Language. This literature review is grounded in theory that racism is at the root of
inequity in education.
The rationale behind slavery impacts American society, teachers included
(Ogbu, 2003). Teachers’ beliefs are based on mainstream American culture.
Teachers bring these beliefs and preconceived notions about race, which are socially
constructed, into the classroom (Gay, 2000; Spindler and Spindler, 1994). Some
teachers perceive students with inevitable prejudice and preconceptions that they are
even sometimes unaware that they possess but have been constructed by the
dominant society.
Language
Research suggests having an understanding of African American history and
its impact on African American Language can counteract the social construction of a
40
deficit mindset (Gay, 2000; Akbar, 2006; Woodson, 2006). African Americans
speak the African American Language (AAL), which is recognized as an actual
language by the Linguistic Society of America (Rickford & Rickford, 2000). Most
Americans are unaware that AAL is the English vocabulary placed within the matrix
of a rule-based language of the Niger-Congo (LeMoine, 2001). Classroom conflicts
are created by this lack of knowledge about African languages and language origins
because the use of the African American Language is always negatively perceived in
favor of the use of Standard English. For example, in Standard American English,
multiple negation is frowned upon. In the Niger-Congo Languages, multiple
negation is part of the language structure (LeMoine, 2001). The more negatives
incorporated into the sentence the more powerful the impact. For example, “I ain’t
never going’ no where with no body,” which in Standard American English is, “I am
never going anywhere with anybody.” The more the negatives there are in a
sentence, the more powerful the statement within the Niger-Congo languages
(LeMoine, 2001). Nonetheless, African American children could quite possibly be
perceived as being ignorant or dumb as a result of not speaking Standard American
English or what teachers perceive as “proper English”. Research indicates that this is
how teachers relate to students in terms of attitudes and perceptions, which is one of
the critical factors in how students learn (Gay, 2000).
Teacher misconceptions can lead to students of color being misunderstood,
miseducated and possibly mistreated (White-Clark, 2005). Literature indicates that
African American language is often detailed as “sloppy or wrong” that often results
41
in a serious intrusion into classroom performance, often resulting in teachers’
lowered expectations and condescension toward the students who speak it (Taylor,
1991). Teachers, who are unaware of African American language, constantly correct
students and indicate what they are saying is wrong, as opposed to simply validating
the language and exposing them to Standard English (Delpit, 1995). Constant
correction has additional implications such as withdrawal, which may also lead to
poor achievement.
Research suggests that constant language correction increases cognitive
monitoring of speech, thereby causing a mental block and making talking difficult
(Delpit, 1995). It is evident by the Black students’ performance that constant
correction leads to a devaluation of culture, identity and self. Having a poor self-
image leads to a lack of self-confidence, which can lead to poor performance.
Culture
Although historic and linguistic factors deeply impact African American
student achievement, cultural factors cannot be neglected in the examination of
achievement as well. Culture determines who one is. Various beliefs, customs,
systems and patterns of one’s cultural background can influence decision-making
and the thinking process as a whole. In fact, research reports that African
Americans, as a group, have distinct ways of processing information, interacting,
communicating and learning (Dunn, 1990; Hilliard, 1976; LeMoine, 2001; Viadero,
1996).
42
In a study conducted in California, Hilliard (1976) contrasts African and
African American with European and European-American culture. He concludes
that there is a distinct African American core culture that can be empirically
described and specific cultural and behavioral styles, which obtain within this
culture. Traditional American schools are modeled on a style that imitates the
cultural expectations of most European Americans. This implies that the classroom
functions are in direct opposition to what is learned in African American homes.
Hilliard (1976) also found that African Americans view their environment as
a whole rather than in isolated parts; prefer intuitive rather than deductive or
inductive reasoning; approximate concepts of space, number and time; attend to
people stimuli rather than object stimuli; rely on nonverbal as well as verbal
communication. Research indicates that accommodating students’ distinct learning
and communication styles makes a difference in their learning (Viadero, 1996).
Ultimately, if teachers were aware of the research that exists regarding various
learning styles, they would be more apt to deliver instruction in a way that addresses
these learning styles, thereby increasing achievement in African American students.
Shade conducted a study in 1982 examining the notion that variance in
academic competence results from differences in culturally induced psychological,
cognitive and behavioral strategies. She looked at the cultural foundations and social
cognition of African Americans to explore the influences of socialization on
cognition. She investigated African American style of knowing, perceptual style,
conceptual style, personality style and cognitive style. Her theory was similar to
43
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983). People develop diverse cognitive
strategies for processing information. The findings show that the African
American’s well-developed social cognition may not be advantageous in the object-
oriented school settings. Traditional classroom environments focus on limited
movement, where individual-competitive structures and direct instruction are
standard. Her findings also reveal the classroom is almost contrary to the learning
styles and strengths of African American children (see Figure 2.1). Teachers must
be aware of the learning styles to design and deliver effective classroom instruction.
The delivery of effective classroom instruction will lead to increased student
achievement.

Figure 2.1: Learning Styles

Learning Styles Valued by the Traditional
School Culture:
Learning Styles Valued in African
Culture:
*standardized and rule driven
*Deductive, controlled, ego-centric
*Low-movement expressive
*View environment in isolated parts
*Precise concepts of space, number, time
*Respond to object stimulus
*Dominant communication is verbal
*Long concentration span
*Emphasis on quiet
*Emphasis on Independent Work
*Variation Accepting and
Improvising
*Inductive, Expressive, Socio-centric
*High-movement expressive
*View environment as a whole
*Approximate concepts of space,
number, time
*Respond to people/social stimulus
*Non-vernal as well as verbal
communication
*Shorter concentration span
*Emphasis on rich verbal interplay
(talkative)
*Responds to collaborate efforts
Source: LeMoine (2001).
44

In addition to lack of knowledge regarding the history, language and culture,
students in urban schools are affected by other factors as well. Predominantly urban
schools have more inexperienced teachers, poorly trained and uncertified; more
textbooks that are outdated; fewer computers; larger class sizes; and buildings that
are in worse repair and more marked by violence (Evans, 2005). These inadequacies
are a reflection of the racialized context for students of color, which stem back to
their historical experiences. Studies suggest that teachers sometimes have lower
academic expectations for Black and Hispanic children than they do for Whites or
Asians (Kober, 2001; Bennett, 2001; Ogbu, 2003). Kober (2001) warns that by
setting expectations low, teachers run the risk of perpetuating the achievement gap
since they do not encourage Black and Hispanic students to follow a rigorous
curriculum. The low expectations grow out of a history of segregation. The lack of
culturally responsive pedagogy and practice in teacher preparation programs results
in less effective measures like low expectations, less rigor and increased remediation
(Gay, 2000; Kober, 2001; Bennett, 2001). In fact, Evans (2005) indicates that
teachers’ methods fail to address individual and cultural differences and other factors
that affect learning styles, such as motivation and behavior of African American
students. It appears as though teachers do not understand the relationship between
culture and learning. Vygotsky’s (1929, 1981) Socio-cultural Theory of Learning
suggests students’ history, language and culture must be connected to classroom
instruction for learning to take place.
45
Systems and Structures in High Performing High Poverty Schools
Despite historical trends and the barriers that exist, research based systemic
and structural practices contribute to high student performance in high poverty urban
schools. Systems are defined as the coordinated and coherent use of resources at the
school site to ensure that school visions, missions, and goals are met. Structures are
institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by federal state or
district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of schools.
They are not subject to change at the local school site. This section will review the
findings of various researchers to determine what systems and structures are in place
in high performing high poverty schools. The scope of the study will narrow to
focus on the literature regarding three specific systems: instructional leadership,
professional development and the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy school-
wide.
Many studies have demonstrated the academic achievement of students of
color in high poverty schools where they would not be expected to perform at
appropriate levels (Cawelti, 1999; Johnson and Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi,
2002; Carter, 2000; Reeves, 2000). These finding were in contrast to the Coleman
Report, which was published in 1966. The Coleman Report (1966) indicated that
variations in test scores among students of color were strongly associated with
variation in social class. The report implied that the environment that the child came
from would make a greater impact on their educational achievement than the school
they attended. In 1979, two schools were identified that challenged the findings of
46
the Coleman Report (Lyman and Villani, 2004). Those two schools were in high
poverty areas with large concentrations of students of color. Students in those two
schools outperformed White students in the schools in more affluent communities.
The identification of those two schools prompted additional research.
Research in the 1980s indicated that student achievement could occur regardless of
environment as long as the following correlates were present, “safe and orderly
environment, a climate of high expectations for success, strong instructional
leadership by the principal, frequent monitoring of student progress, a clear and
focused mission, opportunities to learn, time on task and good home relations”
(Lyman and Villani, 2004, p. 100). This suggests that students of color could
achieve if certain systems and structures were in place. It also disputes theories that
suggest that environment, socio-economic status, IQ, race, etc. are factors that
promote low achievement.
Cawelti (1999) studied six schools that were high performing schools in high
poverty neighborhoods with high concentrations of students of color. The six
schools that he profiled were Fredrick Douglas Academy (New York, NY), Carl C.
Waitz Elementary (Madison, TX), Exeter High School (Ajax, Ontario), James
Madison Elementary (Pittsburg, PA) Clay Elementary (Clay, WV) and Dodge-
Edison Elementary (Wichita, KS). He focused on schools where students were
achieving regardless of social barriers such as the environment. He found five
common traits that contributed to the growth and success of these schools: a focus on
47
standards-based instruction, accountability, instructional leadership, teacher
commitment, emphasis on change to facilitate improvement.
A study conducted in 1999 entitled Dispelling the Myth (Barth) examined
high performing high poverty schools. Twenty-one states participated in the survey.
Approximately 1,200 elementary and secondary schools identified as high
performing high poverty schools received surveys. The data compiled was based on
the 366 rural and urban schools that responded and returned the survey. Low-
income students in the schools ranged from over 50% to over 75%. When analyzing
the schools, the study noted several common aspects. Standards based instruction
drives curriculum and instruction and is the basis for evaluating student work and
teacher performance. Additional emphasis was placed on reading and math to meet
standards, with time being increased. Schools highlighted professional development
to enhance instructional practices. The implementation of school-wide systems to
monitor students and provide immediate intervention was apparent in several
schools. The increased education and involvement of parents through parent
education seminars was of great importance. The schools also increased
accountability for all stakeholders. All of these systems contributed to the increase
in student achievement.
Izumi’s research (2002) was based on eight successful high performing, high
poverty schools. These schools are in urban areas in California. The criteria for
selecting the schools were based on several factors: 80% of students were in the free
lunch program, ranked seven or above on the Academic Performance Index scale of
48
1-10 and had a large influx of African American and/or Latino students. This study
indicates that the various systems and structures that promote high performance are:
research based curriculum and instruction, content standards, constant assessment
and data analysis, professional development, teacher content and quality, discipline
and increased flexibility in funding.
Carter (2000) profiled 21 schools to determine the systems and structures that
contributed to increased academic achievement. The parameters of Carter’s study
were based on schools with 75% of the students qualifying for the federal lunch
program and that scored above the 65
th
percentile on national achievement tests. The
study shows that eleven of the twenty-one schools scored at or above the 80
th

percentile. Carter found that there were seven common characteristics at high
performing high poverty schools: effective leadership, measurable goals, teacher
quality, assessment and analysis, discipline, parent involvement and effort.
In yet another study conducted by Reeves (2000), the general findings were
similar to the aforementioned studies. The study became known as the “90/90/90
Schools” study as a result of the parameters. The parameters of the study had the
following characteristics: 90% of the students were eligible for free and/or reduced
lunch, 90% of the students are students of color and 90% of the students met or
exceeded the academic standard. The five characteristics common to all “90/90/90
Schools” were emphasizing academic achievement, specific use of curriculum,
recurrent assessment, highlighting the importance of writing and external scoring for
validity.
49
Johnson and Asera (1999) investigated nine high performing schools in high
poverty areas to determine common systems and structures that lead to increased
achievement among students of color. The criteria for this study was based on the
following characteristics: the majority of students met the low-income criteria
meaning that they qualified for the federal reduced lunch program, the school was
located in an urban area and achievement in math and reading was higher than the 5
th

percentile on the national assessment. Despite the fact that these schools were
servicing students of color in low income areas, the schools scored higher than most
schools in their states or most in the nation. Based on this study, the following
systems and structures must be present: goal setting, professional development,
discipline, accountability, standards based instruction, parental involvement all of
which must be emphasized through effective leadership.
Analysis of Common Systems and Structures
Although research suggests there is a direct correlation between achievement
and social status (Coleman, 1966), the aforementioned case studies indicate
otherwise. These case studies reveal there are high performing high poverty schools
and these high performing high poverty schools share common systems. These
common systems are a) leadership b) curriculum and standards-based instruction c)
professional development d) assessment and data analysis e) discipline and f) parent
involvement (Cawelti, 1999; Johnson and Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002;
Carter, 2000; Reeves, 2000) (See Figure 2.2). It is evident by the research that some
of the structures must be in place for students of color to be successful. However, it
50
is unclear which ones must be present and to what degree they must be present to
guarantee academic success for students of color. It is also unclear by the research
how these systems function in relation to one another to produce the desired
outcomes.
Additional examination of the aforementioned studies indicate that some
systems and structures were mentioned only once. These structures and systems are
a) emphasis on change (i.e. culture or climate), maintaining effort and perseverance
c) the use of less astringent funding allocations d) emphasis on writing e) the use of
external assessments. Because these systems and structures were mentioned once,
additional analysis of this information suggests that these systems and structures are
not as critical to academic achievement in high performing high poverty schools with
large concentrations of students of color. The degree of impact of each of these
systems is unknown. Figure 2.2 reveals the frequency of systems and structures that
were apparent in each study.
The studies reveal that high performing high poverty schools have similar
structures and systems that help students of color reach high levels of academic
performance. It is evident that there are differences as each school and situations are
unique despite the initial parameters of each study. Yet, the most important aspect of
these findings is that certain systems and structures are in place to promote student
achievement in high poverty schools with large concentrations of students of color;
high frequency must be linked to achievement. What is unknown is how these
systems and structure are being implemented and to what degree. For the purpose of
51
this study, the focus will be on the systems of instructional leadership, professional
development and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy.
Figure 2.2: Analysis of Common Systems and Structures

Cawetli
(1999)
Barth
(1999)
Izumi
(2002)
Carter
(2000)
Reeves
(2000)
Johnson &
Asera
(1999)
Curriculum &
Instruction
X X X X X
Accountability X X X X X
Instructional
Leadership
X X X X X
Teacher
Quality/Commitment
X X X
Professional
Development
X X X
Parent Involvement X X X
Data Analysis X X X
Discipline X X
Flexible Spending X
Emphasis on Writing X
Effort X
External Scoring X
Emphasis on Change X

Instructional Leadership
The research indicates that leadership is a critical component in high
performing high poverty schools (Carter, 2000; Barth, 1999; Johnson and Asera,
1999; Cawelti, 1999). In a study by Fermanich, Mangan et al (2006), emphasis is
52
placed on instructional leadership, which is defined as focusing on instruction, with
less attention given to management factors. An instructional leader will focus on
teacher practice as a means for increasing student learning. An effective
instructional leader provides the staff with a vision, helps put things in motion and
builds teacher capacity and efficacy.
Research implies that an instructional leader must have a vision (Fermanich,
Mangan et al. 2006; Blasé and Blasé, 1997). An instructional leader should be
responsible for the school vision. It therefore becomes the principal’s priority “to
define a personally held vision for the school and refer to the number of data sources
to develop a clear picture of the current reality” (McKeever, 2003, p. 73). The
school vision should focus on the content, the delivery of content and the learning
that takes place. These aspects should be the foundation of a school vision.
Embedding these elements in a vision is critical because the vision provides the staff
with a constant reminder of what can be achieved, how it can be achieved and why it
is necessary. This keeps the staff focused on student achievement. Limited research
exists regarding an instructional leader’s beliefs about students of color. One could
assume the leader must believe that all students can learn regardless of race and must
convey this belief to staff.
Literature conveys the notion that instructional leadership is more effective
when more people are involved in the decision making process (Blasé and Blasé,
2004; Fullan, 2005; Elmore, 2000). Leadership is the responsibility of a leadership
team, which consists of various stakeholders, who make school-wide decisions
53
(Fermanich, Mangan et al. 2006). This encourages buy-in and allows for distributed
leadership. Distributive leadership is defined as “multiple sources of guidance and
direction, following the contours of expertise in an organization, made coherent
through a common culture” (Elmore, 2000, P. 15). This person must be visible and
begin the cohesiveness of a leadership team because s/he is the person who provides
the opportunities for the shared decision making process. This is often referred to a
Management By Walking Around (McKeever, 2003), being present makes a
difference. Blasé and Blasé (2004) conducted a study on a number of teachers who
worked with principals considered to be successful instructional leaders. According
to their data, they posit that an instructional leader does the following things:
communicates openly and frequently with the staff regarding instruction, provides
time to build capacity, empowers staff, emphasizes the benefits of change and
leadership. Communicating openly allows staff members to know that their
instructional leader is transparent. Allotting time to build capacity increases the
teachers’ opportunities for professional growth. Empowering the staff builds morale
on all levels and allows teachers to feel as through they are contributing to the whole
picture. Emphasizing the benefits of change reminds people of the direction that the
school is headed and reaffirms the belief that change is beneficial.
Research presented by Lambert et al. (1995) is similar to the above-
mentioned research by Blasé and Blasé (2004). The belief is that instructional
leadership is a primary contributor to student success. The principal carries out
various instructional duties such as developing professional opportunities for
54
teachers to build capacity, monitoring data and being visible in classrooms, on the
yard and in meetings as well. According to Blasé and Blasé (2004), the instructional
leader is responsible for: having instructional conversations, cultivating teacher
reflection and offering professional development. Teachers are exposed to various
strategies during instructional conversations. Also, these conversations challenge
existing perceptions, which leads to reflection. Reflection serves as the basis for
self-improvement. Improvement can also take place when opportunities for growth
are offered, such as professional development.
Professional Development
Literature indicates that one of the main components in high performing
schools is professional development (Marzano, 2003; Izumi, 2002; Barth, 1999;
Johnson and Asera, 1999). A study conducted by Izumi (2002) indicates that
professional development is the time in which teachers have the ability to prepare
lessons, collaborate and make connections to the curriculum, which facilitates proper
instruction.
Research shows there is a correlation between the amount of time spent on
professional development and the successful implementation of the curriculum. It is
a time to create standards-aligned activities in the classroom, a time to discuss the
implementation of standards and the rubrics associated with the implementation of a
standards-based curriculum. When asked what principals thought made their schools
successful, the overwhelming response was placing an emphasis on developing the
55
comprehensive use of standards during professional development to emphasize
subject matter (Izumi, 2002).
Professional development must be practical and adaptable (Blasé and Blasé,
2004). In essence, it must be something that teachers feel as though they need as
well as something they can take back to their classroom and apply. Teachers enjoy
demonstrations of new skills as well as the opportunities to practice the new skills.
Because teachers spend their days modeling for students, it can only be expected that
they would like to be provided with a model as well. Teachers would like research-
based strategies that have been proven to be effective to enhance their teaching
practice. Staff development must be meaningful to teachers in that the strategy that is
being offered can impact student achievement, otherwise it will be seen as a waste of
time (Marzano, 2003).
According to a research study conducted by Michael Garet and his colleagues
(Garet, et al. 2001), there are three essential factors used during professional
development that have a strong correlation to reported change in teacher behavior:
emphasis on content knowledge, opportunities for participatory learning and overall
consistency with the idea of professional development as professional growth.
The increase in content knowledge is directly correlated to increased student
achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2000). If a teacher is knowledgeable about the
content matter then there is an increase in self-efficacy. The teacher is better able to
clearly deliver instruction because there is a solid foundation. Professional
development is important because it enhances one’s knowledge base.
56
The second strategy, opportunities for participatory learning, implies that the
teacher will be engaged in the opportunities for learning (Garet, et al. 2001). When
students are active in the learning process, mastery occurs to a greater extent. For
professional development to be meaningful, teachers should be actively involved as
well. Often times, when teachers have participated in the learning process, they find
some value in what is taught. This suggests that the teacher will actually take the
strategy, go back to the classroom and implement it to see the immediate impact.
The last strategy presented by Garet et al. (2001) was to place an emphasis on
overall coherence. Staff development is significant and should continue to
sequentially build on an idea or a strategy. Activities and knowledge should all
revolve around a main topic, implying there is a direction that the staff is moving
toward. Professional development activities should be tied to a specific topic.
Teachers should be provided with opportunities to examine and dissect strategies that
are presented as well as be allotted time to apply strategies in their classrooms. There
is a great need for professional development to have purpose.
Although the purpose of professional development is critical, it is imperative
to examine the procedure for planning staff development as well. According to Webb
and Norton (2003), there are five operational steps for professional development: 1)
have a guiding philosophy in place 2) develop goals and objectives 3) plan the
appropriate programs and activities 4) schedule and implement programs and plans
5) revisit and evaluate the process.
57
The steps ensure there is a vision in place or a guiding premise to work from.
It is important that this vision is clear and that all stakeholders are focused on this
vision. Professional development should be directly aligned with a vision, making it
concrete, specific and meaningful. Secondly, preparing goals and objectives allows
for active members to feel as though they are working toward something in an effort
to ultimately enhance student achievement. It enables people to focus on their
individual needs to make the collective even stronger. The third step is planning.
When professional development is planned, teachers feel valued and respected.
Planning also creates opportunity for success. When programs are poorly planned,
people are more prone to experience failure and ambiguity. Step four, allows
program implementation to take place. Programs that are well planned can be
scheduled, delivered, monitored and adjusted to meet the needs of stakeholders,
ultimately benefiting the students. In fact, monitored and adjusted are aspects of step
5, which is evaluation. Assessing programs results in overall improvement.
According to the U.S. Department of Education (1998), there are several
aspects of a high quality professional development program. A high quality
professional development program should be focused on teachers as central to
student learning but includes other members of the school community. Teachers are
critical in the process of content delivery. Professional development is focused on
individual, collegial and organizational improvement. Professional development
nurtures the intellectual and leadership capacities of teachers, principals and others in
the school community because it provides opportunities for critical learning.
58
Professional development should be based on research to provide further expertise in
subject content, teaching strategies, uses of technologies and other essential elements
in teaching to high standards. This will promote continuous inquiry and
improvement in the daily life of schools. Because teachers are participatory learners,
they should be involved in the collaborative planning. These plans should also
reflect long-term goals directly aligned with the school vision. To make professional
development successful, it must be evaluated ultimately on the basis of its impact on
teacher effectiveness and student learning. This assessment will guide future
professional development efforts. These elements of a high quality professional
development program will lead to better teacher efficacy and will lead to better
classroom instruction.
In addition to the components that account for a high quality professional
development system, professional development can be used to raise cultural
awareness and help differentiate instruction for diverse learners as well (White-
Clark, 2005). This is the most appropriate time for the use of the Reflection-
Instruction-Collaboration-Supportive (RICS) professional development model. This
particular model provides a framework for the specific professional development in
the area of diversity. Reflecting allows for the process of introspection to take place.
It is the time for self-awareness and acknowledgement of attitudes, beliefs and
perceptions. Instruction focuses on the implementation of Culturally Responsive
Pedagogy into the everyday curriculum and how this affects their learning, as well as
their social and emotional development. The third element is collaboration.
59
Collaboration can help to build future aptitude for change, as collaboration is based
on communication between all stakeholders. The last element emphasizes support.
Providing a teacher with the necessary support or guidance can increase a teacher’s
likelihood for self-efficacy, therefore enhancing academic performance.
Professional development offers opportunities for teachers to participate as
learners. The practice is constantly evolving. Teachers must stay abreast of new
research and new practices. Provided that staff development is properly planned and
well organized, teachers can ascertain some of the most complex teaching strategies
(Joyce and Showers, 2002). This will help to improve their practice. In fact, the
environments that are supportive and foster creativity enable teachers to reach higher
levels of productivity (Phillips and Glickman, 1991).
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
Research cites instructional leadership and professional development as
systems that increase student achievement among students of color in high poverty
schools (Marzano, 2003; Izumi, 2002, Barth, 1999; Johnson and Asera, 1999; Carter,
2000; Cawelti, 1999). Research in this area more often than not omits the role of
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, while research by other authors places an emphasis
on its use (Gay, 2000, Delpit 1995; Irvine and Armento, 2001; Shade et al. 1997;
Bennett, 2001; Hollins, 1996). It is clear from the Socio-cultural Theory of
Learning, teachers must tap into the specific cultures and experiences of their
students for learning to take place (Vygotsky, 1929, 1981). Culturally Responsive
Pedagogy is the use of “cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference
60
and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters
more relevant to and effective for them. It emphasizes culture and language as an
avenue for learning. It teaches to and through the strengths of these students”
according to Gay (2000), “students who see their ethnic groups portrayed negatively
in literacy and trade books, television programs, movies, newspapers and
advertising, may not values themselves” (p. 144). Students of color often see
negative and stereotypical images of people who look like them via the media.
Culturally responsive pedagogy helps to correct those adverse images, while building
self-esteem. It validates and affirms culture.
Through the implementation of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, students
develop and preserve cultural competence. As culture becomes an avenue for
learning, they experience genuine academic success and the development of a strong
sense of self-esteem (Gay, 2000; Delpit, 1995; Irvine and Armento, 2001; Shade, et
al. 1997). It is important to incorporate Culturally Responsive Pedagogy into the
classrooms in order to develop a positive classroom environment, which can lead to
high performance. Otherwise, teachers’ prejudices and preconceived notions can
interfere with the desire and motivation to learn (Gay, 2000). For teachers, the
understanding of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy means moving from a deficit
mindset when teaching students of color, from the belief that “they can’t learn” to
“they can learn”.
To incorporate Culturally Responsive Pedagogy in the classroom, an
educator should be familiar with their audience (Gay, 2000). It is imperative that
61
educators be open minded and willing to learn about their students. They must learn
to value their students and their background. Put simply, perception or the values
and beliefs of teachers and administrators, contribute to high and equitable levels of
student achievement and positive inter-group relations.
Teachers’ awareness of African American history, language and culture can
directly impact instructional delivery and content. Teachers will adapt a different
perspective of history than what is conceived by mainstream American society. This
often involves teachers rethinking history and the history of any discipline through a
lens of race, ethnicity, culture, class and gender. Teachers cannot exhibit what is
referred to as cultural blindness. Cultural blindness is teaching students with the
approach that their culture and heritage should be absent from the classroom (Gay,
2000). Cultural blindness implies that teachers are unaware of how teaching reflects
a Eurocentric value system and how to incorporate cultures of various ethnic groups
to value cultural competence to increase student achievement.
According to research, bias can be detected in texts such as: character
portrayal, derogatory language, token references to history, absences of cultural
references about customs and lifestyles (Bennett, 2001, Gay, 2000). This will ensure
no one is marginalized, omitted or presented inaccurately or negatively.
Through a lesser utilization of a Eurocentric model, African American
students will develop a different self-image because their history and culture is being
validated. A truly centric education is different from Eurocentrism in that it is
nonhierarchical and recognizes and respects diverse cultural perspectives on world
62
phenomena (Bennett, 2001). According to Shade et al. (1997), “the teacher of
culturally diverse students becomes a cultural liaison and has the responsibility for
developing a connection between the culture of students and the culture of the
school” (p. 19). Students must experience high levels of academic success, including
literacy, numeracy and the technological, social and the political skills they need to
be active participants in a democratic society (Bennett, 2001). Presenting African
Americans with more positive historical aspects and acknowledging language and
culture will attribute to higher levels of academic success, which will enable them to
be more productive socially in the long run.
Irvine and Armento (2001) believe that culturally responsive teachers have
basic beliefs and values that contribute to academic achievement for students of
color. They believe that educators must have high expectations for each child.
Teachers must also provide equitable access to learning. This will help to ensure that
learning outcomes are meaningful, relevant and useful. In doing so, teachers are
building communities of learners. Learning is taking place because teachers are
building on students’ prior knowledge and experiences. Culturally Responsive
teachers promote classroom climates based on social justice, democracy and equity.
This environment endorses empowerment, self-efficacy, positive self-regard and a
belief in societal reform. Having these elements in place allows teachers to value
diversity and believe in their role as being able to positively influence, teach and
empower each child.
63
Other researchers share similar beliefs regarding teachers who are culturally
responsive. Culturally responsive teachers help to develop students on emotional,
political, social and intellectual levels by “using cultural referents to impart
knowledge, skills and attitudes” (Ladson-Billings, 1992, p. 382). Hollins (1996)
describes the opportunities that teachers must provide for students, “culturally
mediated cognition, culturally appropriate social situations for learning and
culturally values knowledge in curriculum content” (p. 13). Irvine and Armento
(2001) indicate that there are best practices that culturally responsive teachers use.
Some of the strategies that lead to student success are: connecting prior knowledge to
cultural experiences, setting high expectations, positive relationships with parents,
helping students find meaning in what is to be learned, using culturally familiar
speech and events, allowing students to participate in the preparing of instructional
activities, seizing “teachable moments”, using primary sources of data and aligning
assessment with teaching through various activities such as teacher observations,
student exhibitions and portfolios. Along with improving academic achievement,
these culturally responsive “approaches to teaching are committed to helping
students of color maintain identity and connections with their ethnic groups and
communities; develop a sense of community, camaraderie, and shared responsibility;
and acquire an ethic of success” (Gay, 2000, p. 30).
Conclusion
Historically, high poverty urban schools with large concentrations of color
have been associated with low student achievement. Data indicate there is an
64
achievement gap between students of color and their non-minority counterparts
(Haycock, 2001). Despite achievement gap data, there are high performing schools
in high poverty areas evidenced by studies by Cawelti (1999), Johnson and Asera
(1999), Barth (1999), Izumi (2002), Carter (2000) and Reeves (2000). Research
based systemic practices contribute to high student performance in these high
poverty schools. According to these studies, the common systems are a) leadership
b) curriculum and standards-based instruction c) professional development d)
assessment and data analysis e) discipline and f) parent involvement. These studies
did not include the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy.
There is limited research that explicitly links the Socio-cultural Theory of
Learning as a rationale for the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. Research
indicates structures and systems present in high performing high poverty schools
with large concentrations of students of color contribute to increased achievement
(Cawelti, 1999; Johnson and Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Carter, 2000;
Reeves, 2000). Yet, this research omits the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
as a system that contributes to increased achievement. Research by Delpit (1995),
Gay (2000), Irvine and Armento (2001) and Shade et al. (2004) suggest Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy helps to increase the achievement of African American
students. In studies used for the purpose of this literature review, none stated that the
schools placed an emphasis on the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy.
The literature review examined instructional leadership, professional
development and the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy to determine if there is
65
a relationship between these three systems that correlates to the achievement of
students of color in high performing high poverty schools. It is unclear as to whether
these systems function dependently or independently of one another. In addition,
additional research must be conducted on the use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
in high performing high poverty schools to determine if there is an impact on student
achievement for African American students.
66
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Historically, students of color have been deprived of an equitable education.
Research suggests that there is a gap in the achievement of students of color and
White students (Haycock, 2001; Johnson, 2002; Marzano, 2003). Students of color
have been exposed to poorly trained teachers. Many teachers teaching students of
color lack the knowledge base to properly educate these students. Studies show that
children of color require different teaching techniques in an effort to learn at the
same level as their non-minority counterparts (White-Clark, 2005). Lack of
knowledge regarding different needs contributes to the development of a deficit
mindset. A teacher with a deficit mindset decreases expectations and implements a
less rigorous curriculum (Bennett, 2001). Students in high poverty schools are
associated with low student achievement. In contrast to existing research, there are
students of color at high performing schools in high poverty areas that are achieving
(Cawelti, 1999; Johnson and Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Carter, 2000;
Reeves, 2000). This research study attempted to determine why certain schools are
successful given the few examples of success.
The purpose of this study was to examine the systems and structures in high
poverty schools that lead to the high performance of students of color, specifically
African Americans. The study looked at the barriers to achievement, how they have
contributed to the gap and the systems and structures that have helped to narrow the
gap.
67
Research concludes that leadership and professional development are key
systems that exist in high performing high poverty schools (Cawelti, 1999; Johnson
and Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Carter, 2000; Reeves, 2000). Other
studies indicate that use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy is critical in raising
student achievement of African American students (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Delpit,
1995; Shade, et al., 1997; Gay, 2000). The systems are examined collectively, based
on their dependant relations, as well as independently. The goal of this study was to
determine how instructional leadership, professional development and the
implementation of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy impact school-wide instructional
practices, ultimately affecting the achievement of students of color, particularly
African American students.
Formulated by the dissertation group, the following is a list of the research
questions that were used to guide the study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
The development process was designed by a thematic dissertation group at
the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. The group was
68
comprised of seventeen doctoral students who serve the urban school community as
teachers, resource specialists or site/district administrators. Initially, members of the
group discussed educational demise as evidenced by several studies such as A Nation
at Risk, A Nation Still at Risk and TIMSS. The group also discussed the federal No
Child Left Behind Act as a mandate to increase accountability on all levels. The focus
of the meetings then evolved into several discussions regarding the beliefs that exist
in schools that form the basis for the development of the systems and structures that
lead to increased achievement in high poverty high performing schools with large
concentrations of students of color. The cohort members decided to research schools
to determine what systems and structures exist and how they function to increase
levels of academic performance in students of color.
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework “defines the research problem” (Merriam, 1998,
p.44). According to Merriam (1998), a conceptual framework enables the researcher
to examine the literature to determine how the problem came to exist. The
framework is generated via the “concepts, terms, definitions, models and theories of
a particular literature base and disciplinary orientation” (Merriam, 1998, p. 46). The
conceptual framework for this study examines the role that historical and
contemporary societal and educational influences have on school sites and how this
influence helps to create systemic and structural influences, which increase academic
achievement in high poverty schools with large concentrations of students of color
(See Figure 3.1).
69
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework
The overarching theoretical framework that guides the study is based on
Vygotsky’s (1921), Socio-cultural Theory of Learning. Making connections to
culture and real life experiences facilitates the learning process for students of color.
Students bring to school “funds of knowledge” or Social and Cultural Capital
(Bourdieu, 1977). Teachers perceive these to be assets and guide instruction to
include students in the learning process. Students are more apt to learn in
environments that build on their experience and make cultural connections.
Systems and structures are environments in schools that directly impact
classroom instruction for students of color. Many systems and structures work
concurrently to establish a certain environment that has an underlying belief system
70
(Marzano, 2003). Belief systems require staff to examine their own perspectives,
challenging their view of race on which the deficit perspective is based. The
implementation of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy as an underlying belief system
supports high expectations and the implementation of instructional strategies that
draw on students’ history, language and culture.

Figure 3.2: Theoretical Framework

Research Questions Theoretical Framework
What are the trends and patterns of
performance among students of color?
Social and Cultural Capital
Bourdieu (1977)
What are the organizational structures &
systems that contribute to high student
performance in high-poverty urban schools
with large concentrations of students of
color?
Structures Working Together
Marzano (2003)
How are the organizational structures and
systems implemented to support school-
wide effective classroom instruction that
promotes student learning?
Socio-cultural Theory of Learning
Vygotsky (1921)
How is the construct of race reflected in the
school’s structures and systems?
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
Ladson-Billings (1994), Gay
(2002)

Sample and Population
The dissertation group set out to identify high-performing high poverty
schools that serve large concentrations of students of color in various school districts
throughout southern California. Schools met a specific set of selection criteria (as
71
agreed upon by the dissertation cohort) in order to be eligible to participate in this
study. The elementary school selected for this case study was chosen through
purposeful sampling based on the eligibility criteria established as follows:
1. preschool through twelfth grade
2. urban public school
3. school-wide Title I
4. 75% of student population are recipients of free or reduced lunch
5. at least 60% of students of color
6. demonstrates a school-wide trajectory of growth by API and AYP as
demonstrated by at least two positive deciles in movement in 3-5 years
time across ethnic subgroups.
Researchers used a variety of sources to gather information to select schools.
The cohort used the California Department of Education, Schools Moving Up, Just
for Kids and Great Schools websites to generate a pool of schools that met the
criteria; thus, identifying a preliminary list of schools. After a more in depth look,
the cohort concluded that each school met each aspect of the eligibility criteria.
Next, the cohort narrowed the search to determine what school met the achievement
targets as well as the other criteria. Members of the cohort attempted to choose
schools that best fit the needs of the study.
The selection of this particular school was based on a presentation by the
school’s principal at the Rossier School of Education. She discussed her role as a
leader in transforming her school from low performing to high performing. After
72
looking at the school’s scores and deciding that it met the required criteria, the
researcher ensured there was a large population of African American students as this
study looks specifically at the impact of systems and structures on this group of
students. The school is 47.7% African American.
This study focuses on Achievement Elementary School, which is part of the
Upcoming Unified School District in southern California. The majority of this
school’s students live in the low-income area of Upcoming City. The school
educates students predominately from the low-income area in Upcoming City.
During the 2005-2006 school year, there were 417 students enrolled, 49.6%
Hispanic, 47.7% African American and 2.7% other. One hundred percent of the
school’s population is socio-economically disadvantaged. Forty-two percent of the
student population was English Learners.
The Upcoming Unified School District serves several neighboring
communities. There are twenty-four elementary schools, eight middle schools and
three high schools, which offer classes for students in pre-kindergarten through
twelfth grade. There is also one continuation high school, one pregnant minors
program, one independent study program, one adult school, two community day
schools and a Regional Occupation Center (ROP). At the beginning of the 2005-
2006 school year, the total enrollment for the district was 30, 233 students in
kindergarten through twelve.

73
Data Collection Procedures
Access to Data
Prior to conducting research at the school, the researcher made contact with
the principal to obtain permission and set the foundation for a relationship based on
open communication and trust. The site administrator was more than willing to open
her doors to allow the researcher to become aware of the systems and structures that
are in place which have contributed to the achievement of students of color.
Collection of Data
The dissertation group agreed to use a qualitative research design because the
group was interested in the nature and the constructed meaning people have
developed in order to gain insight. According to Merriam (1998), qualitative
research examines parts of an organization to determine how they work together as a
whole. In this case, the researchers looked at systems and structures within a school
to determine how they increase student achievement in high poverty schools with
large concentrations of students of color.
This qualitative research design is a case study. The goal of a case study is
“to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved.
The interest is in the process rather than the outcomes, in context rather than a
specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation” (Merriam, 1998, p. 19). For
this study, the researcher looked at systems and structures in schools and the
correlation to effective school-wide instructional practices.
74
The strategy of purposeful sampling was used in this case study. Patton
(2002) identifies several benefits of using purposeful sampling. The school being
studied is “information-rich” and also offers a “useful manifestation of the
phenomenon of interest; sampling is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not
empirical generalization from sample to population” (Patton, 2002, p. 40).
According to Patton (2002), the researcher’s primary goal is to gather data,
analyze data and maximize the opportunities for doing so. The researcher interacted
closely with staff members, both certificated and classified, parents and community
members for four full days. The researcher, as the “primary instrument” (Patton,
2002, p. 20), collected accurate data based on those observations and interviews to
maintain the integrity of this case study.
Based on observations, the researcher collected data by using semi-structured
interviews (Appendix A-D), observation guides (Appendix E-G) and artifacts. After
collecting the data, the researcher triangulated the findings to answer the research
questions. The process of triangulation is described as the use of “multiple sources
of data or multiple methods to confirm the emerging findings” (Merriam, 1998, p.
204) as well as to bring validity to the study by decreasing the opportunities for error
(Patton, 2002). The researcher then described, explained and analyzed the collected
data to give meaning to the results.
Interviews
Patton (2002) describes an interview as “open ended questions and probes
that yield in-depth responses about people’s experiences, perceptions, opinions,
75
feelings and knowledge” (p. 4). The dissertation group decided on the use of semi-
structured interview questions to inquire about the participants’ experiences. Semi-
structured interviews included “a mix of more and less-structured questions”
(Merriam, 1998. p. 74) that guided the conversation.
The group generated a list of interview questions for the administrators
(Appendix A), parents (Appendix B), classified staff (Appendix C) and teachers
(Appendix D). The researcher interviewed the principal, assistant principal, parents,
staff and teachers. Various categories of teachers were interviewed: teachers on the
leadership team, veteran teachers, new teachers, experienced teachers, out-of
classroom teachers and grade-level chairs. The following chart (see figure 3.3) was
constructed to show the correlation of each interview question to the research
questions

Figure 3.3: Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions

Interview
Questions
Research
Question #1
Research
Question #2
Research
Question #3
Research
Question #4
Question #1 X X
Question #2 X X
Question #3 X X
Question #4 X
Question #5 X
Question #6 X X X X
Question #7 X X X
76
Observations
Patton (2002) indicates that observations are “fieldwork descriptions of
activities, behaviors, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational
or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience. Data
consist of field notes: rich, detailed descriptions, including the context within which
the observations were made” (p. 4). Observations will involve the researcher viewing
important school activities. Patton (2002) also indicates that observations can be
focused or open-ended. Focused observations imply that the researcher is looking
for something specific. Open-ended observations are less focused on a specific
topic.
The dissertation group developed an observation guide for the observation of
classrooms (Appendix E), professional development opportunities (Appendix F) and
leadership meetings (Appendix G). The dissertation group aligned the research
questions to the observation guides to enable the researcher to find and connect
themes easily. The group also ensured the guides had specific categories for the
researcher to observe, which allowed for flexibility.
The researcher made several observations. The researcher observed
classroom instruction in six classrooms, one at each grade-level beginning with
Kindergarten. The observation in the classroom took place during a core subject,
either Math or English Language Arts, as well as playground interaction. The
researcher observed one professional development meeting and two instructional
77
team meetings. The researcher also observed interactions among and between
students, parents, teachers and administrators.
The researcher examined the physical setting of the school. Some of the
aspects that were observed were the location of classrooms (main building,
bungalow, isolated, included), temperature in classrooms (too hot or too cold),
positioning and proximity of desks (to teacher, to one another), the walls (student
work samples, evidence of standards and rubrics, master calendars, daily schedule,
etc).
Artifacts
In addition to observations and interviews, the researcher examined artifacts
as well. The researcher collected evidence by examining agendas, sign-ins and
minutes from various meetings (See Figure 3.4). These artifacts are evidence of
meeting participants, detailed topics and commentary as well as future program and
instructional goals. The researcher gathered artifacts from professional development
meetings, instructional team meetings, grade-level meetings and parent meetings.
Other artifacts also included lesson plans, assessment data/test scores, school-wide
discipline plan, student portfolios and master schedules. These artifacts document
school plans, achievement scores and school culture.
78
Figure 3.4: Range of Artifacts To Be Collected

Artifacts Research Question
#1: Performance
Trends
Research
Question #2:
Systems and
Structures
Research Question
#3: School-wide
Instruction
Research
Question #4:
Constructs of
Race
Collected From
Administration:

Meeting Agendas X X X X
Master Calendar X X X
Classroom Configuration X X X X
School-Wide Discipline
Plan
X X X
School-Wide Schedule X X
Staff Profiles in School
Report Cards
X
Mission/Vision School
Site Plan
X X X
Parental Involvement
Plan
X X X
Professional
Development Agendas
X X X
School Site Council
Agendas
X X X
District Assessments X X
Referrals X X X X
Volunteer Schedule X X X
Grading Procedures X X X
Blank Report Card X X
Collected From
Teachers:

Assessments X X X X
Curriculum Materials X X X
Grading Rubric(s) X X X
Grading Procedures X X X
Classroom Discipline
Plan
X X X
Samples of standards-
based unidentified
student work
X X X
Collected from
Parents:

Volunteer Schedule
Parent meeting agendas
Student artifacts parents
provide voluntarily

79
Data Analysis
According to Merriam (1998), “Data collection and analysis is indeed an
ongoing process that can extend indefinitely” (p. 163). The researcher used data
analysis steps provided by Creswell (2002). First, the researcher organized the data,
which involved transcribing, sorting an arranging data. The next step entailed
reading through all of the data to get an overall picture. The third step was to code
the data, or commonly referred to as chunking the material. Then, the researcher
divided the data into meaningful segments by the use of symbols, descriptive words
and ultimately category names. The purpose of looking for patterns, formulating
categories and themes was to foster a description. This helped to create specific
categories used to identify themes and trends that were directly aligned with the
research questions. The researcher then communicated the findings in narrative
form. The final step involved analyzing the data to determine the actual implications
(See Figure 3.5).
This qualitative research study incorporated the use of triangulation to ensure
validity and reliability. Triangulation serves the purpose of strengthening the study
by the use of “combining interviewing and observations, mixing different types of
purposeful samples, or examining how competing theoretical perspectives inform a
particular analysis” (Patton, 2002, p. 248).
80

Figure 3.5: Process of Data Analysis

Source: Creswell, 2003.
Step 1 - Organize and
Prepare Data
Step 2 - Read Data
Thoroughly
Step 3 - Chunk Data
Step 4 - Design
Detailed Descriptions
of Data

Step 5 - Convey
Findings
Step 6 - Interpret and
Assign Meaning to
Data
Meaning to Data
81
Ethical Considerations
It is important to note that guidelines were followed to maintain ethical
consideration. All participants were willing to participate in the study free of
coercion. The participants signed consent forms to participate in the study with the
understanding that their opinions and thoughts were used in confidence. All names
were given aliases if included in the dissertation. After the interviews were
transcribed, the tapes were destroyed. In addition, this research study was submitted
to the University Park Institutional Review Board to ensure that human research
protocols were being followed.
82
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Historically, students of color have been associated with low achievement.
An achievement gap prevails between students of color and White and Asian
students. Various barriers have contributed to the gap, perceived low IQ, low socio-
economic status, cultural dissonance, limited social and cultural capital and low
expectation on behalf of teachers. Despite barriers, students of color in high poverty
schools are achieving. This study focused on systems and structures that were
perceived to contribute to achievement among students of color. It examined how
the implementation of various systems and structures impacted classroom
instruction. Lastly, the study examined beliefs about students and implication for
student learning.
This chapter represents an analysis and interpretation of data collection that
was acquired through a qualitative study. The findings presented in this case study
were directly related to the following four research questions:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
83
To understand which systems and structures bring about high performance in
a high poverty school, an urban elementary school was selected to be the focus of
this case study. The elementary school selected for this case study was chosen
through purposeful sampling. The school met the eligibility criteria:
a) a K-5
th
grade elementary
b) an urban public school
c) school-wide Title I
d) over 75% of students receive free and reduced lunch
e) 98.3% of population are students of color
f) The school-wide trajectory of growth by API and AYP has exceeded two
positive deciles in movement in 3-5 years time across ethnic subgroups.
School Profile
The school is located in an urban area characterized by poverty. Gangs,
drugs, violence, crime and unemployment plague the community. On several
occasions, while commuting into the city, graffiti was observed on the wall. Gangs’
names were scripted and crossed out, which in the inner city implies severe gang
warfare exists between one or more gangs. People were loitering on street corners,
some drinking from what appeared to be brown paper bags shaped in the form of a
cylinder. Various hand to hand exchanges took place on street corners, one person
looking paranoid while the other attempted to be as inconspicuous as possible.
Although Achievement Elementary sits right in the heart of this urban city, it
serves as a safe-heaven for students in this community. Emphasis is placed on
84
student success. When the researcher walked into the main office, the first thing that
was noticed was the wall display. On the wall display read, “We are not a Program
Improvement School!!!” Various graphs and tables were spread across different
sheets of paper underneath this sign. These tables graphed the school’s academic
progress over 7 years’ time. Data revealed scores had increased from 538 to 845.
Several awards were posted on the wall next to the data. Two leadership awards were
made out to the principal. A Title I award and an Equity award were mounted on the
wall as well. Clearly, this school is a place that focuses on academic success and
achievement.
The school is a small traditional school that serves approximately 404
students according to 2006-2007 data. The students are ethnically diverse reflecting
a makeup of 72% Hispanic, 27% African American and 0.7% other in student
population.
The data in Figure 4.1 represents the enrollment of students by ethnicity. The
numbers are directly proportionate to the District’s enrollment figures. The disparity
is no greater than ±1.8% in no more than one subgroup. The students enrolled in
school and in the surrounding schools are students of color in large proportions.
However, Achievement Elementary academic performance is surpassing the schools
in the district disproportionately.
85
Figure 4.1: Students by Ethnicity

School District
Enrollment Percent of Total Percent of Total
American Indian 0 0.0% 0.1%
Asian 0 0.0% 0.1%
Pacific Islander 1 0.2% 0.9%
Filipino 0 0.0% 0.1%
Hispanic 291 72.0% 73.2%
African American 109 27.0% 25.2%
White 1 0.2% 0.3%
Multiple/No Response 2 0.5% 0.2%
Total 404 100% 100%
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

Data provided in Figure 4.2 shows the Per Pupil Ratio of certificated staff at
Achievement Elementary in comparison to Upcoming Unified School District. The
figures suggest that the ratio is smaller district-wide. At Achievement Elementary,
there is only one administrator. The administrator per pupil ratio is 1:404 whereas
district wide it is 1:263 student. At other schools, it appears as though there would
be two administrators for every 526 students. However, the school’s number of
teachers per pupil ratio is less than that of the district’s by 2.4. The presence of
certificated staff suggests numbers are more than appropriate for adequate instruction
and supervision school-wide. Discipline is not a major issue at Achievement
Elementary as the needed presence of an additional administrator is less than the
district’s as suggested by the ratio.
86
Figure 4.2: Certificated Staff

School District
Number of
Staff
Full-time
Equivalents
Per Pupil
Ratio
Per Pupil
Ratio
Administrators 1 1 404 262.5
Pupil Services 1 1 404 365.9
Teachers 20 20 20.2 22.6
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

Research Methodology
Data was collected to determine the existing presence of structures and
systems that have enabled a high poverty school to become high performing. The
data collected for this study consisted of information gathered from interviews,
observations and artifacts. Interview questions were generated for the administrators
(Appendix A), parents (Appendix B), classified staff (Appendix C) and teachers
(Appendix D). The researcher interviewed the principal, coordinator, one parent,
staff and teachers 25-35 minutes. To ensure validity, various categories of teachers
were interviewed: teachers on the leadership team, a veteran teacher, a new teacher,
out-of classroom teachers and a grade-level chair (see Figure 4.3). Observation
guides were used for the examination of classrooms (Appendix E), professional
development opportunities (Appendix F) and leadership meetings (Appendix G).
The guides focused on specific categories. In addition to observations and
interviews, the researcher examined artifacts such as agendas, sign-ins and minutes
from various meetings. Artifacts from professional development meetings,
87
instructional team meetings, and grade-level meetings were also gathered. Other
artifacts also included lesson plans, grant applications, assessment data/test scores,
school-wide discipline plan, student portfolios and master schedules. The researcher
also gathered quantitative data from the California Department of Education Data
Quest web site.

Figure 4.3: Interviewees

Interviewees Years of Service
Principal 10
Coordinator/Resource 8+
Counselor 8+
Teacher on Leadership Team 5+
Veteran Teacher 8+
New Teacher 1
+

Out-of-Classroom Teacher 8+
Grade-level Chair 5+
Nurse unknown
Teacher’s Assistant unknown
Teacher’s Assistant unknown
Parent unknown

This case study incorporated the use of triangulation to ensure validity and
reliability. Because there were many sources of information, triangulation allowed
for the combination of these sources to offer an analysis of information. The findings
88
presented in this chapter directly correlate to the four research questions respectively
and were followed by analysis and discussion.
Data Findings
Research Question 1: What are the trends and patterns of performance among
students of color?
Findings for question one were based on the Theoretical Framework of Social
and Cultural Capital. Social and Cultural Capital Theories are used to explain
student access to curriculum. Social Capital is defined as the resources or tools that
relationships create. These relationships become the nucleus to provide access to
future possibility and promise, either financially, economically, academically,
socially, etc (Lin, 2000). Cultural Capital is described as “an indicator and a basis of
class position; cultural attitudes, preferences and behaviors are conceptualized as
“tastes” which are being mobilized for social selection” (LaMont and Lareau, 1988).
If students are receiving the same access to the same educational practices, trends
and patterns in achievement should mirror achievement in all subgroups. The
triangulation of data denotes students as a whole at Achievement Elementary School
are progressing regardless of the barriers to achievement that exist. According to the
research in Chapter Two, barriers range in theory from cultural dissonance, to
limited social and cultural capital, low IQ, teacher expectation based on race and/or
perception of minority students (Ogbu, 2003), limited teacher knowledge base
regarding students of color (Ladson-Billings, 1994) and contradiction between
dominant culture and students (Bennet, 2001; Delpit, 1995).
89
The Academic Performance Index (API) is used to rank schools on a scale of
200-1000. Students’ test scores based on their participation in the Standardized
Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program determine this ranking. This figure is also
used in the federal evaluation of schools known as Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).
The following numbers represent Achievement Elementary School’s API scores
from the 2000-2001 school year to the 2005-2006 school year (see Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: API Data Trends

Score Growth in Points
2000-2001 538
2001-2002 600 +62
2002-2003 647 +47
2003-2004 652 +5
2004-2005 723 +71
2005-2006 780 +57
2006-2007 845 +65
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

90
API trends reveal a constant yearly increase in overall growth for students at
Achievement Elementary School from the 2000-2001 school year. Since the 2000-
2001 school year, Achievement Elementary has made a 307 point gain.
Examination of data reveals African American students are consistently
progressing at a rate equivalent to that of the entire school as well as other
subgroups, which is contrary to data used to illustrate the achievement gap
(Haycock, 2001; Johnson, 2002). Systems and structures are in place to support the
instructional program, specifically African American students, as detailed later in the
chapter.
From the 2002-2003 school year to the 2006-2007 school year, all students
made positive gains of 198 points (see Figure 4.4). African-American students
gained 227 points as a subgroup (see Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: African American Subgroup Performances

Year Number of
students
Significant API Growth API Base Growth
2006-2007 60 Yes 849 762* +87
2005-2006 69 Yes 764 693 +71
2004-2005 77 Yes 693 634* +59
2003-2004 74 Yes 633 632* +1
2002-2003 131 Yes 622 582 +40
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

91

The Hispanic/Latino subgroup made gains as well. Academic performance
increased by 190 points during the same five-year period (See Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6: Hispanic or Latino Subgroup Performance

Year Number of
students
Significant API Growth API Base Growth
2006-2007 171 Yes 845 789 +56
2005-2006 183 Yes 787 735 +52
2004-2005 198 Yes 735 658 +77
2003-2004 205 Yes 660 657 +3
2002-2003 204 Yes 651 617 +34
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.
92

Lastly, the Socio-economically Disadvantaged subgroup excelled during the
same time frame. During the 2002-2003 school year, this subgroup scored 600
points. By the 2006-2007 year, this subgroup’s increased by 245 points (See figure
4.7).

Figure 4.7: Socio-economically Disadvantaged

Year Number of
students
Significant API Growth API Base Growth
2006-2007 233 Yes 845 780 +65
2005-2006 253 Yes 780 724 +56
2004-2005 276 Yes 724 652 +72
2003-2004 280 Yes 653 647 +6
2002-2003 336 Yes 640 600 +40
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

93
African American Achievement
Although the study examines achievement patterns of students of color, the
scope will be narrowed to focus solely on achievement patterns of African
Americans at Achievement Elementary. The trends disclose data that contradicts the
literature. The following data represents the percentage of African American students
scoring at advanced and proficient levels in the area of English Language Arts,
Mathematics and Science, which depicts increased scores from 2002-2006.
English Language Arts
From 2002-2005, African American students scoring at advanced and
proficient levels in English Language Arts significantly increased across all grade
levels (see Figure 4.8). From 2002-2006, the percentage of 2
nd
students who were
proficient and above increased from 31% to 50%, with slight dips in 2004 and 2005.
In the 3
rd
grade, 18% were advanced and proficient in 2002. That number doubled
and increased to 41% by 2006, with dips in 2004 and 2005. No data was available
for 4
th
graders in 2002 and 2003. In 2004, only 15% of African Americans were
proficient and above. By 2006, that percentage rose to 41. In 5
th
grade, the pattern
was slightly different. In 2002, 7% of African Americans were proficient and
advanced. In 2003, the percentage increased by 2. The following year, figures
dropped from 9 to 3%, only to rise significantly in 2005. During this year, the
percentage increased by 30, topping off at 33%. In 2006, the percentage decreased
to 29.
94
Figure 4.8: Percentage of African Americans Scoring at Proficient or Above in
English Language Arts

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 OVERALL GAINS
2002-2006
2
nd
Grade 31 35 29 24 50 +19
3
rd
Grade 18 23 15 20 41 +23
4
th
Grade * 0 15 42 38 +38
5
th
Grade 7 9 3 33 29 +22

Mathematics
From 2002-2005, African American students scoring at advanced and
proficient levels in Mathematics significantly increased across all grade levels (see
Figure 4.9). In 2002, 31% of African American students were proficient or above in
Mathematics. The percentage increased in 2003 to 35% and in 2004 to 59%. It
remained the same in 2005, only to drop to 56% in 2006. In the 3
rd
grade there was a
steady increase from 2002 to 2006. Thirty-nine percent of students were proficient
or advanced in 2002, 41% in 2003, 59% in 2004, 67% in 2005 and 71% in 2006. No
data was available for 4
th
graders in the 2002 school year. In 2003, 17% of African
95
Americans were proficient or above in Mathematics. In 2004, the percentage
increased to 30 but dropped to 27% in 2005. By 2006, thirty-eight percent of African
Americans scored proficient or above. In the 5
th
grade, only 3% of African
Americans were at proficient or above in 2002. There was a 3% increase in 2003,
another 4% increase in 2004, a 9% increase in 2005 and a 14% increase by 2006.
All percentages significantly increased from 2002-2006.

Figure 4.9: Percentage of African Americans Scoring at Proficient or Above in
Mathematics

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 OVERALL GAINS
2002-2006
2
nd
Grade 31 35 59 59 56 +25
3
rd
Grade 39 41 59 67 71 +32
4
th
Grade * 17 30 27 38 +21
5
th
Grade 3 6 10 19 33 +30

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Science
Data from 2004-2006, illustrates an increase in the percentage of African
American students that were proficient or advanced in the area of science (see Figure
4.10). Only 3% were proficient or above in 2004. By 2005, 19% scored in the
proficient or advanced range and by 2006 29% scored in that range. There was an
increase of 26%.

Figure 4.10: Percentage of African Americans Scoring at Proficient or Above in
Mathematics

2004 2005 2006 OVERALL GAINS
2004-2006
4
th
Grade 3 19 29 +26

Special Education
Data published in December 2006 revealed 39 students were enrolled in the
Special Education Program at Achievement Elementary School (see Figure 4.11).
Of those 39 students, 30 (76.9%) were Hispanic, eight (20.5%) were African
American and one (2.5%) was Pacific Islander. These percentages are similar to
97
enrollment figures by ethnicity, Hispanic 72%, African American 27% and other 1%.
Within the program, nineteen students had Mental Retardation eligibility. Of those
19 students, 14 were Hispanic and five were African American. One child, Pacific
Islander, had Hard of Hearing eligibility. Nineteen students were labeled with a
Specific Learning Disability, 16 Hispanic and three African American. There are
larger percentages of Hispanic students enrolled in the Special Education Program
than there are African Americans. These figures are contrary to literature that states
higher proportions of African Americans are enrolled in Special Education (Johnson,
2002).

Figure 4.11: Special Education Program December 2006

Native
American
Asian Pacific
Islander
Filipino Hispanic African
American
White TOTAL
Mental
Retardation
14 5 19
Hard of
Hearing
1 1
Specific
Learning
Disability
16 3 19
TOTAL 1 30 8 39
Source: Data Quest, 2008.

Data in December of 2005 revealed little overall change (See Figure 4.12).
Forty-five students were classified as receiving Special Education services. Thirty-
one students were Hispanic and 14 were African American. There were 21 students
98
with Mental Retardation eligibility. Of those 21 students, 13 were Hispanic and
eight were African American. Two Hispanic students had a Speech or Language
Impairment. One Hispanic student had Other Health Impairment eligibility. Six
students, three Hispanic and three African American, had a Specific Learning
Disability. Fifteen students had Autism, 12 were Hispanic and three were African
American. Again, Hispanic enrollment reveals twice the amount of African
Americans enrolled in Special Education, which differs from the literature.

Figure 4.12: Special Education Program December 2005

Native
American
Asian Pacific
Islander
Filipino Hispanic African
American
White TOTAL
Mental
Retardation
13 8 21
Speech or
Language
Impairment
2 2
Other Health
Impairment
1 1
Specific
Learning
Disability
3 3 6
Autism 12 3 15
TOTAL 31 14 45
Source: Data Quest, 2008.

The trend continues to reveal the enrollment of African Americans in Special
Education is far less than Hispanics/Latinos. Data published in December 2004
showed similar patterns as 2005 and 2006 (See Figure 4.13). Forty-nine students
were registered in the Special Education Program. Of the 49, 35 were Hispanic and
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15 were African American. Twenty-one students were labeled Mentally Retarded,
15 Hispanic and 6 African American. Two Hispanic students had Other Health
Impairment eligibility. Nine students were Specifically Learning Disabled, five
Hispanic and four African American. Of the 17 students who were Autistic, 13
students were Hispanic and four students were African American.

Figure 4.13: Special Education Program December 2004

Native
American
Asian Pacific
Islander
Filipino Hispanic African
American
White TOTAL
Mental
Retardation
15 6 21
Other
Health
Impairment
2 2
Specific
Learning
Disability
5 4 9
Autism 13 4 17
TOTAL 35 15 49
Source: Data Quest, 2008.

In examining Special Education data from 2003-2006, three trends emerge.
The overall number of students enrolled in the Special Education Program has
decreased. There were fewer African Americans than Hispanics identified. The
number of African Americans enrolled in the program decreased significantly.
Enrollment in the program during 2003, reflected 52 students. The following year,
only 49 students were registered. In 2005, 45 students were classified in Special
100
Education. Continuing the pattern of decreased enrollment, only 39 students were
enrolled in the program by 2006.
Examining the Special Education Program by ethnicity (see Figure 4.14)
illustrates the second and third trend more clearly. The second trend shows fewer
African Americans than Hispanics each year. In 2003, 34 Hispanics were enrolled as
compared to 18. In 2004, 35 Hispanics were enrolled as compared to 15 and so
forth. The third trend shows the number of African American enrolled decreased by
more than half over 4 years. In 2003, there were 18 African American students
identified. By 2006, only eight were registered.

Figure 4.14: Special Education Program by Ethnicity

2003 2004 2005 2006
Hispanic 34 35 31 30
African American 18 15 14 8
Other 0 0 0 1
Source: Data Quest, 2008.

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Truancy Rate
Attendance has been associated with high achievement (Johnson, 2002).
When students are in school, they have access to instruction. Achievement
Elementary School’s truancy rate remains below the district rate (see Figure 4.15).
Although data reveals inconsistencies over the last three years at the school site,
Achievement Elementary School’s truancy rate is still significantly lower than the
district’s average. During the 2004-2005 school year, the truancy rate was 6.44% as
compared to the district’s rate of 18.04%. During the 2005-2006 year, the school’s
rate decreased by half of the initial rate equaling 3.04%. The district’s rate decreased
approximately a third at an average rate of 11.68%. During the 2006-2007 year, the
school’s truancy rate doubled nearly approaching a rate of 8%. More students are
present on a consistent basis at Achievement Elementary than at district school,
which is a possible contribution to increased scores. In 2005, the year with the
lowest truancy rate, the API increased by 71 points, which represents the highest
yearly increase. Disaggregated data by ethnicity was not provided.

Figure 4.15: Truancy Rate

Truancy Rate School District
2006-2007 7.92% 17.56%
2005-2006 3.04% 11.68%
2004-2005 6.44% 18.04%
Source: Data Quest, 2008.
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Suspensions and Expulsions
While the suspension rates reveal variation, the expulsion rates reflect
consistency (See Figure 4.16). During the 2002-2003 school year, 64 students were
suspended while no students were expelled. In 2003-2004, 11 students were
suspended and zero were expelled. The pattern of decreased suspensions continued
in the 2004-2005 school year, as zero students were suspended and expelled. The
pattern, which illustrates decreased suspensions over the course of three school
years, also reflects an increase in attendance. Students are present and are in class
learning. Johnson (2002) suggests attendance correlates to achievement.

Figure 4.16: Suspensions and Expulsions

02-03 03-04 04-05
Suspensions 64 11 0
Suspension Rate 11.5% 2.2% 0%
Expulsions 0 0 0
Expulsion Rate 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

SUMMARY
The Theoretical Framework of Social and Cultural Capital explains student
access to curriculum. As previously stated Social Capital is defined as the resources
that relationships create. These relationships form the basis to access for future
possibility and promise, either financially, economically, academically, socially, etc
103
(Lin, 2000). Cultural Capital is described is indicator of class; as various like,
dislikes, cultural norms and behaviors are used to determine social progress
(Bourrdieu, 1984).
Progress can be defined by data, as data is used to determine student growth
and student need (Johnson, 2002). Trends and patterns in achievement have
increased during the last five years for all three subgroups, African Americans,
Latino and Socially Disadvantaged. For African Americans these positive trends
reveal something completely contrary to research, which substantiates the
achievement gap (Haycock, 2001). Special Education trends also reveal a decrease in
African American enrollment, which contradicts research as well (Johnson, 2002).
Low truancy and low suspension rates contributes to better attendance, which
according to research correlates to increased academic performance (Johnson, 2002).
Networks and relationships are formed between student and teacher, student
and student, student and administrator, etc. to promote social capital. Cultural
Capital is valued and appreciated at Achievement Elementary School. Children
bring in their own funds of knowledge which teachers build upon (Vygotsky, 1929,
1981). Achievement patterns suggest what is being done at the school is working.
Students are receiving the same access to the same educational practices as a result
of systems and structures that are in place.
104
Research Question 2: What are the organizational structures and systems that are
perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools
with large concentrations of students of color?
The theoretical framework that formed the basis for these findings stem from
Marzano (2003) who indicates several systems and structures must be in place and
work together concurrently to contribute to the learning process for students of color
at high poverty high performing schools. For students of color, the Socio-cultural
Theory of Learning suggests all stakeholders must play a critical role in defining the
interaction between child and environment (Vygotsky, 1929, 1981). Systems and
structures in schools provide the environment for the child.
For the purpose of this study, organizational systems and structures have
been defined. Organizational systems are the coordinated and coherent use of
resources at the school site to ensure that school visions, missions, and goals are met.
Although systems can vary from school to school, they work to ensure that structures
are implemented properly. Structures are institutional mechanisms, policies, and
procedures put in place by federal, state or district policy and legislation or widely
accepted as the official structure of schools. Less variation occurs between schools
because they are often federal, state or district mandates. Structures are not subject
to change at the school site.
Examination of Achievement Elementary School discovered several systems
and structures in place that are perceived to contribute to increased student
achievement among students of color. Data illustrated the implementation of
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systems simultaneously: Instructional Leadership, Professional Development,
Assessment and Accountability, Data-Driven Decision Making and a Positive
Behavior Support System. Various structures that are perceived to increased
academic achievement, class size and the implementation of standards based
instruction by highly qualified teachers. Systems and structures work together
concurrently and are perceived to contribute to academic achievement according to
research (Marzano, 2003).
SYSTEMS
Instructional Leadership
Instructional Leadership was paramount in the overall achievement gains that
have been made. This is the principal’s 10
th
year. She indicated, “The first three
years were spent trying to put my vision in place.” Fullan (2003) suggests it takes a
school 3-5 years to see overall change. Over the course of the last seven years, she
has led the school in increasing its overall achievement. The API score has climbed
from 538 to 845. This year’s target increase is 61 points, such that the API would be
906 when achieved. She indicated that achievement has been part of her overall
vision, “We are preparing these children for success.” An instructional leader must
have a vision because it provides the overall guidance for where the school is going
(Fermanich, Mangan et al. 2006; Blasé and Blasé, 1997).
As an instructional leader, she also leads the instructional team. The team
has instructional conversations based on her vision, per the interview with the
106
principal. The counselor, however, indicated the team plans based on feedback from
grade-level articulation and the dialogue that takes place during their meetings.
The principal also emphasizes constant communication with staff and parents
to perpetuate her vision. This happens during her dialogue with teachers during staff
meetings, professional development. Various professional development topics,
which are planned almost a year in advance, include Data Analysis, The Effects of a
Writing Course, Parent/Child Training, Accelerated Reader/Technology/EL Master
Plan, Impact of English as a Second Language, Parent Training/ Child
Abuse/Corporal Punishment, Culture Differences and Physical Education/Organized
Games evidenced by the artifact entitled Professional Development Calendar 2007-
2008. She provides opportunities to communicate openly and frequently with the
staff regarding her vision for instruction. The communication provides time to build
capacity, empowers staff, and emphasizes the benefits of change and leadership
(Garet, et al. 2001).
The principal also sends home weekly correspondence to parents evidenced
by copies of newsletters. Parents are “provided with tools (such as standards to be
mastered) to use to monitor their child’s progress at school” according to the 2008
Distinguished Elementary School application. The principal maintains
communication with parents by providing additional handouts such as “the school
handbook, copies of grade-level standards and promotion requirements. All of
which is translated for the convenience of our 70% Hispanic population.”

107
Professional Development
The purpose of professional development is to increase content knowledge.
According to staff, time and resources are allocated to provide opportunities for
collaborative planning and articulation. Several components provide the basis for
professional development: needs assessment, goals, activities, performance
indicators and evaluation. Per one of the artifacts, professional development is used
to improve teacher practice. Time is dedicated to the analysis of test data, the
effective use of curriculum and pacing guides for core subject areas, goal setting,
planning of grade-level assessment benchmarks, collegial collaboration discussions,
opportunities for model teaching and shared decision making groups. Practices are
aligned with research. Professional development allows teachers time to prepare
lessons, collaborate and make connections to the curriculum, which facilitates proper
instruction (Izumi, 2002).
The principal stated, “I use professional development as the opportunity to
promote growth among my staff.” Although the professional development schedule
is developed the previous school year evident by the school professional
development calendar, sessions are changed based on what the principal observes
when she walks classrooms. She said, “I determine the staff’s overall strengths and
weaknesses based on my observations and the close scrutiny of data.” Based on
what the counselor stated, the principal has dialogue with the leadership team, which
helps to plan for professional development. The professional development calendar
showed the staff meets two to three Wednesdays per month for the purpose of
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“Sharing ideas, reflecting on better teaching practices and developing new
approaches to instruction,” according to the Coordinator.
Reading and discussing literature increases content knowledge (Darling-
Hammond, 2000). During these meeting times, the staff presents and discusses
various pieces of literature. Teachers at different grade levels present according to
professional development schedules. Teacher #5 states, “We do a lot of reading of
articles and periodicals (related) to education to build a plan and mission statement
together.” Several books were read and discussed the previous year, which will be
addressed in question three.
The school provided the researcher with copies of agendas from the
beginning of the current school year. A snapshot of various agendas is provided (see
Figure 4.17).
109

Figure 4.17: Professional Development Agenda

DATE Professional Development Agenda Items
9/5/07 Introduction of Literature
Staff Development Reading
Grade Level Articulation with Focus Questions:
1. What are you doing to improve fluency? Make fluency folders that include
practice materials.
2. Benchmarks – Start planning 100 questions for math and language arts.
Address all standards.
3. Use the audit checklist to help your prepare and set up your classroom.
After School Program
Textbooks
Cums
9/12 Grade Level Articulation
Recommended Grade Level Projects
*Prepare for Back to School Night
*Beginning of the year Assessments
*Teaching Strategies and Practice
*ELD (grouping)
*100 Questions
*Weekly Benchmarks
*Install Easy Grade Pro 4.0
*Lesson Plans
*Classroom Management
*Field Trips
*CUMS
9/26 Easy Grade Pro
Walden University
CBEDS (Awards for teachers & students, World
Fair, Grade Level Luncheons, Checklist)
Explicit Instruction in Spelling
Nutrition/Walk/Literature
Festival
Distinguished School Process
After-School Program
Mentorship
10/3 Visual Arts Training
Benchmark Data
Writing Journals
Positive Action
Red Ribbon Week
After-School Program
Awards for September
Sweet Spot
10/10 Distinguished School Committee
Grade Level Articulation
Recommended Grade Level Projects
*Prepare for Back to School Night
*Beginning of the year Assessments
*Teaching Strategies and Practice
*ELD (grouping)
*100 Questions
*Weekly Benchmarks
*Install Easy Grade Pro 4.0
*Lesson Plans
*Classroom Management
*Field Trips
*CUMS
110

Figure 4.17, continued
10/17 En Route to College
EL Intervention Manual
Visitation Feedback
ELD
Positive Action/Character Building
Nutrition
Literacy Festival
10/24 Distinguished School Committee
Grade Level Articulation
Recommended Grade Level Projects
*Prepare for Back to School Night
*Beginning of the year Assessments
*Teaching Strategies and Practice
*ELD (grouping)
*100 Questions
*Weekly Benchmarks
*Install Easy Grade Pro 4.0
*Lesson Plans
*Classroom Management
*Field Trips
*CUMS
10/31 Memory Power for Kids
The Write Connection
(Bring Book 1 & TE Components)
Differentiating Instruction in the
Regular Classroom
Differentiated Instruction
Presentation/Las Vegas Conference
Positive Action
Nutrition
Detention Program
After-School Program
Awards for the month of October
11/07 Distinguished School Committee
Grade Level Articulation
Recommended Grade Level Projects
*Prepare for Back to School Night
*Beginning of the year Assessments
*Teaching Strategies and Practice
*ELD (grouping)
*100 Questions
*Weekly Benchmarks
*Install Easy Grade Pro 4.0
*Lesson Plans
*Classroom Management
*Field Trips
*CUMS
11/22 Discipline Action Plan
Visitations Presentations
Classroom Parents
CBEE Award Presentation &
California State Assembly Award
Differentiating Instruction in the
Regular Classroom
Differentiated Instruction
Presentation/Las Vegas Conference
Nutrition
After-School Program
11/28 Distinguished School Discipline Committee Meets
Grade Level Articulation
12/05 Celebration
ELD
Professional Development
Center Staff Awards
Distinguished School Application
Computers and Laptops
Playground/Recess
MUST DO
Discipline Committee Meet
Grade Level Articulation
12/12 Academic Program Survey
Discipline Committee
Nutrition
After-School Program
Computers and Laptops
Source: Professional Development Agendas 2007-2008.
111
Assessment and Accountability
Marzano (2003) indicated multiple systems must be in place and work
concurrently to improve achievement. In addition to instructional leadership and
professional development, assessment and accountability were determined to be a
much-needed system at the school site. The principal indicated, “Everyone is held
accountable, teachers, parents, students, administrators, the district.” The school
uses both state and local assessments to monitor student achievement and determine
best practices. According to data provided by the counselor, the following
assessments are used: STAR assessment, CELDT, CORE Phonics Survey, Aims-
web Reading Fluency, District Writing Prompts and quarterly writing assessment,
Saxon Math assessments, Open Court Reading (OCR) Diagnostic Assessment, OCR
Program Assessment, OCR Lesson Assessment, OCR Unit Assessment, Saxon
weekly assessment, and Math Step Pretest, mid-year, posttest and weekly benchmark
test. The annual STAR assessment identifies students by one of five categories
English Language Arts and Mathematics. These categories are far below basic,
below basic, basic, proficient and advanced. The CELDT test identifies and tracks
the language progress of English Learners. CELDT data enables the school to
homogenously group students according to ELD levels. Classrooms are generated
based on the placement of students who are no more than two ELD levels apart.
Additional scores reveal academic progress on a consistent basis which is monitored
and discussed.
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Teachers described the weekly test and the monthly benchmark test, referred
to as 100 Questions, as the school’s predictors of academic achievement. Teacher #4
stated, “We do benchmarks every week. We are big, big on benchmarks at our
school. So that’s a good way of gauging their comprehension, and you know, how
they are improving or not improving.” Another teacher stated, “Every Friday the kids
are tested in a high stakes form. It’s modeled right after the STAR test. So that
when the STAR test comes it’s no big deal. They are not surprised by the STAR
test. They know we are practicing test strategies. We inform them of what these
scores mean.”
The researcher noticed classroom assessments scores were posted for the
school staff to see. Teachers are held accountable via a report card. A respondent
stated regarding school accountability,
Oh (the teacher’s) name goes up on the board. We have report cards.
Accountability is really high here. So they just take your name and put it out
there. We get a point for everything we turn in. So if you don’t have it
turned in, oh my goodness, your name is getting called out. We have a
board…Everyone’s aware of what you are expected to do and you are going
to be graded on it. If you get a perfect (score), then you get a gift card.

Data-Driven Decision Making
In addition to the aforementioned systems, Data-Driven Decision Making is
another system that works concurrently at Achievement Elementary. Data-Driven
Decision Making is the process of analyzing data for the purpose of enhancing the
instructional program. The weekly assessments are scored on a regular basis. The
assessment scores are turned into the principal. The principal analyzes the data and
113
provides feedback. The benchmark assessments are administered and turned into the
principal weekly. The counselor stated, “She (the principal) always writes comments
on their test scores-‘Oh scores are increasing, Okay what happened to Devonte? He
did so well two weeks ago, now look at his grade. Is anything going on with him
that the counselors need to come see him? Would you let (the Counselor) know’.”
Data-Driven Decision Making essentially impacts the instructional program.
The data are posted for all teachers to see. In examining several data collection
sheets, the researcher determined that they are disaggregated by grade level, teacher,
subject, gender and ethnicity. The disaggregation of data enables the school to
analyze data in the manner as the data released after standardized testing because it is
disaggregated by performance level of each subgroup. It also enables the grade-level
to determine what content area the students did poorly in. The counselor indicated,
“The disaggregated data helps to determine what content areas need to be re-taught.”
This enables teachers to focus on specific standards that need to be reinforced.
According to an Interviewee, “Grade-levels meet together to review data and discuss
strategies that have been beneficial in teaching particular content areas.”
Positive Behavior Support System
The Discipline Policy has evolved over the last few years. Formerly, the
school had punitive consequences for negative behavior. That has since changed to
reward positive behavior according to the principal. The current Discipline Plan is
enables students to received “Hummingbird Bucks” when exemplifying model
behavior. Each teacher awards “Bucks” for positive behavior. Students accumulate
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Bucks and are then allowed to go to the school store on Friday afternoons. The
researcher observed the items in the store. Items ranged from pencils and rulers to
larger games and toys. The price range began at $5.00 and increased steadily.
The Counselor indicates she was instrumental in the initiation of the plan
seven years ago. However, she indicated, “Full implantation has gone up and down,
up and down, up and down.” She stated she was out this year for some time due to
personal necessity. She states, “That’s when the students noticed the inconsistency
and saying things like,’ Why are we not getting Hummingbird Bucks?” The
counselor then went on to note that consistency is important, “If we give them
Hummingbird Bucks now, we have to give them out all year long.”
In addition to developing a school-wide plan, the staff determined the need to
make more systemic changes. According to the interview with the Principal, the
staff saw an increase in fighting on the yard. She asked teachers to brainstorm, “The
teachers came up with a working plan. Let’s first control what happens at recess. If
we can structure recess then we would have nipped it in the bud. They came up with
a plan and put somebody in charge of it…They were able to draw up a schedule.
They created three or four different areas where kids could play. They had options
recess and lunch play.” The principal suggested the need for structured recess and
lunch by way of play areas cut down on the discipline problems on the yard.
The implementation of various systems working together contributes to
establishing a location and environment that promotes success. The theoretical
framework suggests that when systems and structures are in place and work
115
concurrently the opportunity for achievement becomes more prevalent (Marzano,
2003). The following section will discuss the school structures that contribute to
increased achievement.
STRUCTURES
Class Size
Class Size reduction was implemented in 1996 to improve the quality of
education specifically in the areas of reading and mathematics for students in grades
Kindergarten -3
rd
grade. Gains produced as a result of smaller class size are
particularly significant among students of color and socio-economically
disadvantaged (Bain, H. et al., 1989).
Total number of students divided by the number of classes determines
enrollment in each classroom (See Figure 4. 18). The average class size stays within
the California guideline provided by the Class Size Reduction mandate. In
Kindergarten-3
rd
grade district-wide, numbers are below 20. In grades 4-5, the
numbers approach but do not exceed 30 students per class.
116
Figure 4.18: Average Class Size Comparisons

School District
Number of Classes Average Class Size Average Class Size
Kindergarten 2 20 19.6
Grade 1 2 20 19.3
Grade 2 2 20 19.2
Grade 3 3 18.7 19.1
Grade 4 2 29 29.3
Grade 5 2 33.5 29.6
Schoolwide 16 22.5 29.5
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

Figure 4.18 reveals Achievement School maintain a higher class size than the
district in grades K, 1, 2, and 5. Keeping within the guideline of Class Size
Reduction for grades K-3, all those classrooms are no greater than 20 students with
the exception of grade 5, which is not mandated to be at a 20 student capacity.
117
Kindergarten-3
rd
grade classrooms are normed at 20 students based on the allocation
of space/rooms, which account for higher numbers at the school level. Grades 3 and
4 are below the district standard. Although there is no pattern across grade level,
Achievement School’s overall average class size is still less than the district’s class
size by an average of seven students.
Standards-Based Instruction
Research suggests a direct correlation exists between the implementation of
standards-based instruction and increased achievement for students of color in high
poverty schools (Cawelti, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2000; Johnson &
Asera, 1999). Achievement Elementary School places an emphasis on the
implementation of standards based curriculum. Several respondents indicated that
standards-based instruction was a practice they believed contributed to high student
performance. Even the school nurse made reference to the implementation of
standards based instruction. She said, “The standards are what have contributed to
increased scores over the years.”
A respondent indicated several texts and programs are used school-wide.
However, one criterion for purchasing various programs was that they would have to
be standards based. She goes on to elaborate, detailing how grade-levels examine
the materials based on the standard that need to be taught and plan the curriculum
together. One of the artifacts examined had a list of core instructional materials that
are being used at the school site. The data revealed Achievement Elementary uses
the following reading programs: Open Court Program, Write Connection,
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Vocabulary Connection, Grammar Usage and Mechanics, Accelerated Reader,
Sadlier-Oxford Vocabulary and Timed Reading Series. In the area of math,
Achievement Elementary uses the district adopted SAXON Math program in addition
to supplemental Math Steps and Strength in Numbers. The school also uses the
standard-based California Science by Scott Foresman. Standards-base curriculum is
used for the English Learner program. In K-3, Avenues is being used. In 4
th
and 5
th

grade, High Point is being implemented. According to the Counselor, all curricula
are directly aligned with the standards.
In seven out of eight classrooms observed, the researcher noticed standards
posted on student work. There were arrow post-its to illustrate the focus of the day’s
standards-based lesson. Teachers had various bulletin boards in their rooms: math,
reading, writing, science, social studies, etc. Most of the boards had a standard that
reflected what was learned and/or displayed. This is evidence that students are
producing work based on what they are being taught, the standards.
Highly Qualified Teachers
The federal mandate No Child Left Behind requires teachers to be “Highly
Qualified”. According to the EdSource electronic glossary (2008), a “Highly
Qualified” teacher is defined as a teacher who has obtained full state teacher
certification or has passed the state teacher licensing examination and holds a license
to teach in the state; holds a minimum of a bachelor's degree; and has demonstrated
subject area competence in each of the academic subjects in which the teacher
teaches. The law requires teachers to hold valid credentials for the position they
119
hold. The law also requires the school to inform parents of students who are being
taught by a teacher who is not “highly qualified”.
Of the twenty-one certificated staff members, fifteen are fully credentialed,
which equates to 71.4% of the staff. Three teachers (14.3%) are enrolled in a
university intern-credentialing program. Two teachers (9.5%) are District Interns.
One teacher (4.8%) has an emergency credential (See Figure 4.19). Figures are
consistent with literature provided by Johnson (2002) who maintains credentialed
teachers with ingrained content knowledge develop effective instructional strategies
that enhance academic achievement, particularly for students of color in urban areas.
Teacher quality does impact achievement.

Figure 4.19: Teaching Credentials

Number of Credentials Percent of Total
Full Credential 15 71.4%
University Intern 3 14.3%
District Intern 2 9.5%
Emergency 1 4.8%
Total 21 100%
Source: Ed Data-Education Data Partnership, 2008.

Summary
Triangulation of data suggests that several systems and structures are in place
at Achievement Elementary School. According to findings, instructional leadership,
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professional development, assessment and accountability, data-driven decision-
making, culturally responsive pedagogy and a positive behavior support system are
the systems that are present at the school. In comparison with the literature provided
in chapter two, all systems mentioned above with the exception of culturally
responsive pedagogy were found to be significant in raising achievement by the
following researchers: Cawelti (1999), Barth (1999), Carter (2000), Izumi (2002),
Reeves (2000) and Johnson & Asera (1999). Culturally responsive pedagogy was
determined to be an isolated system certain researchers deemed necessary (Delpit,
1995; Gay, 2000; Irvine and Armento, 2001; and Shade et al., 2004. Parental
involvement as a perceived system that contributes to student achievement by
researchers (Barth, 1999; Carter, 2000; Johnson & Asera, 1999) did not stand out at
Achievement Elementary. Although the systems can vary from school to school,
they seem to support the instructional program at this school-site. In contrast,
structures are less flexible and are based on legal mandates. The structures that are
prevalent are class size, standards-based instruction and highly qualified teachers.
Literature states that these systems and structures must work concurrently to support
student learning (Marzano, 2003).
Research Question 3: How are the organizational structures and systems
implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?
Vygotsky’s (1998) Socio-Cultural Theory of Learning provided the
framework for the findings of this research question. According to Vygotsky (1998),
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The child is a part of the social situation, and the relation of the child to the
environment and the environment to the child occurs through the experience
and activity of the child himself; the forces of the environment acquire a
controlling significance because the child experiences them. (p. 294)

Question three examines how systems and structures at Achievement
Elementary enable children to internalize and make meaning out of context in the
process of learning. Specific systems and structures directly contribute to sustaining,
informing and guiding instructional practices, which correlates to increased
achievement.
Instructional Leadership
The principal has been at the school for a total of ten years, which would
include the present year 2007-2008. She is a visionary. According to Picus (2006)
an instructional leader must have a vision. She is leader with a vision. She stated
herself, leader, “I have a vision. I emphasize standardized test scores. I believe all
stakeholders must be involved in the process of educating students”. One of her
strategies is symbolic which, according to Vygotsky (1998), helps to shape the
world. She believes in the power of displaying the API /numerical figure in which
the school is striving to meet/exceed. When the researcher came into the office,
testing data over several years were exhibited. Above the data, “906” was posted in
large font and in color. It was not revealed how the school came to consensus on
this particular numerical goal. In all classrooms observed, with the exception of one
906 was posted at the front of the board. This particular score is the target score for
the following year. While observing a classroom that had just begun discussing a
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reading comprehension strategy, the teacher stated, “This activity will help us get to
906.” The children focused, sat up and waited for directions; “906” has meaning for
the students.
The principal shared that teachers post the number and refer to the number so
that students know what they are working toward. The principal stated, “I keep
parents informed also. I talk to them during assemblies. We send our newsletter
home. It’s right there. We have our goal (of 906) on every newsletter. This is our
goal for the year. This is what we are doing. We constantly look at our data so that
we will get there.” She elaborates, “Kids have so many different goals…goals for
fluency, goal for this, goal for that.” Students have a symbolic representation of the
goal for which they are striving; “906” is validated school-wide. The principal goes
on to state, “If students believe and can clearly articulate their goal, then I know they
will be able to deliver.” Her leadership in this area enables the school to move
toward a particular goal. She uses a symbol, which impacts the cognitive process
accordingly and allows students to internalize and attach meaning to the numerical
goal according to Vygotsky (1999).
The principal’s main focus was the instructional program and content
delivery. She has certain expectations of her staff and instructional delivery. She
states:
I expect to see very clearly written out objectives; standards being projected,
because students need to know what it is they’re learning. And you know
every time a teacher is ready to teach, I don’t care if it’s for 10 minutes, 12
minutes, any aspect, any content, any skill, they need to categorically state,
“This is the purpose of this teaching. This is what I expect to get out at the
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end of this, and this is how we’re going to do it.” I’m looking for explicit
(instruction).

It has to be explicitly explained to them. I’m looking for direct instruction,
somebody standing at the board making demonstrations, giving our children
opportunities to respond; to answer questions; to ask if they want to, if that’s
going clarify things for them. I’m looking for small group instruction at
some point, because everybody is not going get it. So at some point I’m
looking for when the teacher will pull a small group together and say, “Let
me explain this over.”

The principal has clear knowledge of what she wants to see when she walks
into a classroom. She knows exactly what explicit instruction looks like and how it
should be delivered. Not only does she check for instructional delivery and
engagement, she checks for mastery as well. She states:
You know, I’m looking at some kind of check and assessment time, checking
for understanding. Some form of, you know, question and answer. It could
be in the form of having people to put up fingers or answer questions or use
clay – some kind of quick assessment to help teachers know that they know.

Plus I expect that the teacher will model whatever it is they want them to be
able to do. And also, you know, give the children to practice.

When asked how she communicates her expectations to the staff, she
responded, “Through professional development and the feedback that I provide my
teachers with upon every visit.” She visits classrooms, and then offers constructive
feedback to guide the instructional component in the classroom.
One teacher indicated, “She makes her rounds daily. She also provides
extensive instructional feedback after classroom observations in the form of notes”.
When the researcher asked another teacher about the leadership on campus that
teacher stated, “The principal is always in classrooms. She always leaves something
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constructive. Feedback is immediate and the expectation is that it is implemented
immediately. We (as a staff) appreciate it.”
The principal said, “They call me a teacher of teachers. I will say to (my
teachers). ‘Okay, let’s sit down. Let’s look at these scores. Let’s go over your
lesson. This is what I want you to teach. If you try it this way, you will get better
results. Tomorrow, I am going to revisit your class and I will be looking for this’.”
She provides her staff with instructional support. If she notices more support
is needed, she offers additional strategies. She said she may tell her teachers:
You know what I think, it would be nice for you to visit another room to go
look at a particular aspect. And sometimes I will have another teacher work
with them, demonstrate a lesson…for some people it may not require much.
For others, it does require it. Some people just need more help. Then I will
request someone mentor that teacher and someone will come in to help.

The principal is providing teachers with the instructional support needed for
them to be successful by being present in classrooms. Management by Walking
Around (McKeever, 2003) appears to be her instructional style. The California
Distinguished School Application states, “(The Principal) spends 60-75% of her day
in classrooms.” Clearly the principal is directly impacting instruction based on her
visits. Specific instructional strategies she looks for and expects to be in place are
direct and explicit instruction, engagement, modeling, opportunities to respond and
clarifying misconceptions. According to Marzano (2003), these strategies are
considered to be best practices in the classroom and are directly linked to increased
achievement (Marzano, 2003).
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Professional Development
Professional development is an opportunity to enhance content knowledge,
allow for participatory learning and promote professional growth (Garet, et al, 2001).
According to one of the teachers:
I think most schools are usually as good as their administration. You know, I
totally believe that the tone of any organization is set at the top. If it’s a
ministry; if it’s a corporation; if it’s a school, that’s the leader. And the
administration here is big on professional development. You know we meet
weekly and we don’t just meet and sit around and chit chat, there’s always a
piece or two or three pieces there that can help us be better teachers.

In examining the professional development agendas, the researcher noted an
academic focus each week. While being interviewed, a teacher stated, “Professional
development is used to give teachers different instructional strategies that can be
taken back to the classroom.” This statement reflects research by Blasé and Blasé
(2004) who concluded professional development should be practical and adaptable.
Figure 4.17 shows professional development based solely on topics that
directly impact classroom instruction. The agenda for 9/5 asks teachers to begin
planning for their monthly assessment based on all standards. The 9/26 agenda
offers professional development on how to deliver explicit instruction in spelling.
The 10/3 agenda offers professional development on the use of writing journals. On
10/17, the session focused on English Language Development.
In addition to enhanced content knowledge through various professional
development sessions, the school engages in participatory learning. Teachers partake
in the reading of academic literature and conversations that follow. Mastery of
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content for the teacher occurs to a great extent. The teacher is then able to transfer
that knowledge directly into classroom instruction (Garet, et al. 2001). Several books
were mentioned in research question number two. Those books were: The Courage
To Teach (Palmer); No Excuses (Thernstroms), Differentiated Instruction in the
Regular Classroom (Heacox), Teaching Gifted Kids in the Regular Classroom
(Winebrenner); The Seven Laws Of The Learner, How to Teach Almost Anything to
Anyone (Wilkinson) and excerpts from A Classroom That Works (Marzano) and
Results by (Smocker). According to a teacher, “We’re encouraged to read and
continue our education beyond and so forth and so on. We are a community of
learners too.” According to Darling-Hammond (2000), increased content knowledge
is directly correlated to increased student achievement.
Grade-level articulation took place every two weeks according to the
calendar. There were specific tasks assigned during grade-level meetings as
evidence by the calendar. On 9/12, 10/10, 10/24, 11/7, 11/28, etc grade levels
partook in several different activities. In the California Distinguished School’s
application, the school referred to these activities as times when:
Standardized testing data is reviewed; specific areas are targeted where there
is a need to improve teacher practice such as the analysis of test data, the
effective use of curriculum and pacing guides for core subject areas, goal
setting, planning of grade-level assessment benchmarks, collegial
collaboration discussions, opportunities for model teaching and shared
decision making groups.

Grade-level articulation enables each grade level to examine the data per
grade, per ethnicity, per gender, per content area. As previously mentioned the
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weekly tests were disaggregated by those subgroups. Data-Driven Decision Making
usually takes place during grade-level meetings. Teachers examined data. The
researcher observed teachers having critical conversations about how lessons were
going to be retaught, which teachers were successful at teaching those lessons and
what strategies were used. According to Garet et al. (2001), professional
development should be purposeful and focus on developing one idea or topic, which
in this case is examining data school-wide.
Professional development supports the instruction delivered in the classroom.
The opportunity for teachers to feel comfortable sharing experiences and practices
enhances collegiality among professionals. Professional development is used as a
time to enhance content knowledge, offer additional teaching strategies and share
best practices among colleagues, which directly impacts classroom instruction.
According to Darling-Hammond (2000), an increase in content knowledge is directly
correlated to increased student achievement.
Assessment, Accountability and Data Driven Decision Making
Assessment, accountability and data driven decision-making appears to be
the system that stands out the most. Achievement Elementary places a school-wide
emphasize on assessment. According to the counselor’s documentation, multiple
measures are used to track academic performance:
...such as weekly, Open Court Reading (OCR) Diagnostic, OCR Program and
OCR Unit assessments, CORE, our district’s Quarterly Benchmark, end of
unit, alternate Month Mock Tests. There are weekly spelling tests, word
knowledge, beginning, mid and end of year, formal and informal
assessments, fluency tests every six weeks, annual STAR tests, annual
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CELDT test, as well as monthly writing assessment to ensure student
progress. Performance goals in Math (are) also tracked through using daily
and weekly basic facts test, our district’s Quarterly Math Benchmark,
alternate Month Mock Test, Saxon beginning and end of year assessments,
anecdotal records, annual STAR tests, Math Steps unit tests, as well as
writing in Math to ensure student progress.

According to one teacher,
We test the kids every Friday.Once a month they take a 100 item benchmark.
It used to be that they took a 100 item in math and language arts in the same
month, but it became too much and some of the kids were just kind of losing
it. Except that they were just – after a point, just bubbling anything and it
was counterproductive. So we do one subject once a month. So this month
was math, 100 item, and so you have your smaller benchmarks building up to
that 100 item test.

Performance charts were observed in every classroom visited. Each teacher
had one in spelling, fluency, science vocabulary, mathematics, comprehension and
attendance. These charts were posted right above boxes of student portfolios. One
teacher informed the researcher, “Scores are posted on the wall. Children are
conscious of their grades, what they have improved in and what they need to
improve in. We talk about their performance.” According to another teacher, “If
(students) score above 80%, their names are put in the newsletter. This is also a way
of not only holding students accountable but parents too. If their child’s name is not
in the newsletter, then they did not score above 80%.” Students are being held
accountable for their own learning. They know they must master the material. They
have an understanding of when they will be assessed and in what area. Also, they
are aware their parents will be looking for their progress on a weekly basis as
opposed to quarterly when report cards are made available. According to Marzano
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(2003), holding students accountable for their learning impact how they perform
academically.
Not only are students held accountable but teachers are too. The principal
posts classroom assessment scores in the teachers’ lounge. The principal said,
“Teachers are able to see grade-level scores for themselves. Then they will look at
the data and look for patterns and ask each other how did you teach this content
standard? Oh, I should have tried that. Posting the scores helps them talk and
improve instruction.”
Both teachers and students are cognizant of their performance and what needs
to change, but it is the decision making that follows the assessment which has the
biggest impact on instruction.
The use of data in making decisions is one of the most critical elements in
improving academic achievement specifically with students of color (Johnson, 2001;
Izumi, 2002; Carter, 2000; Reeves, 2000). As previously stated the students are
given assessment after assessment. However, professional development sessions are
structured so that teachers can sit together as a grade-level and examine data. The
data is disaggregated giving teachers various categories to examine. Data is
constantly being monitored. According to the counselor, “Assessments provide the
basis for differentiated instruction.”
Per the researcher’s observation, teachers discuss the content taught that
week, how many students reached the 80% mark and in what areas. Teachers also
discussed the challenges they had teaching lessons, shared their successes, discussed
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content that needed to be retaught and what strategies would be used to reteach it.
One teacher openly stated, “If I know the content is an area of weakness for me and
an area of strength for my colleague, we team teach. She will take my class and I
will take hers. We work as a team. Her children are my children and vice versa.”
Teachers are not working in isolation. Ultimately, teachers are having dialogue and
sharing their knowledge to help all grade-level members increase capacity, which
has a direct impact on instructional delivery.
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy serves as the basis for the Theoretical
Framework: Socio-cultural Theory of Learning. For instruction to be internalized,
teachers must reach children by incorporating their cultural experiences into the
classroom (Vygotsky, 1921, 1981). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy is a belief
system that uses “cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference and
performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more
relevant to and effective for them. It emphasizes culture and language as an avenue
for learning. It teaches to and through the strengths of these students,” according to
Gay (2000). Achievement Elementary School focuses on best practices that are
culturally responsive. Researchers argue there is a disconnect between the dominant
culture’s expectations of a classroom and what actually happens in the classroom for
a student of color (Gay, 2000; Delpit, 1995). Teachers at Achievement Elementary
made cultural connections for students of color. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
will be discussed at great length in research question number four.
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Irvine and Armento (2001) indicate there are best practices that culturally
responsive teachers use. Some of the strategies that lead to student success are:
connecting prior knowledge to cultural experiences, setting high expectations,
positive relationships with parents, helping students find meaning in what is to be
learned, using culturally familiar speech and events, allowing students to participate
in the preparing of instructional activities, seizing “teachable moments”, using
primary sources of data and aligning assessment with teaching through various
activities such as teacher observations, student exhibitions and portfolios.
Again, setting high expectations is a component of Culturally Responsive
pedagogy. Observations did reveal high expectations school-wide. Achievement
Elementary places great emphasis on instruction and achievement. The researcher
noticed the notion of “Scholar” was implemented school-wide. In several
classrooms that were observed the teacher referred back to the idea of what a scholar
does. In classroom #5, a board was posted entitled, “What Does It Mean to be a
Scholar?” Several responses followed: only scholarly materials in classrooms, stay
on task, exercise self-control, respect everyone, and take responsibility. When the
teacher overheard talking, she stated, “I hear too much talking, please stay on task,
expectation number two.” Students were redirected. The researcher noted she made
the connection between what scholars do and what she expected of her students
based on the classroom’s understanding of student conduct.
The image of a scholar contrasts the negative images which students of color
often see of themselves in “literacy and trade books, television programs, movies,
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newspapers and advertising” (Gay, 2000, p.144). Culturally responsive pedagogy
helps to correct the adverse images, replacing them with positive ones that promote
self-esteem.
When observing the other fifth grade classroom, the researcher noted
additional examples of high expectations. The work posted on the walls
exemplified rigor, writing was attached to each assignment. On the English
Language Development board, work was posted with a rubric. The writing board
featured various students’ work as they went through the writing process with a
rubric attached. Even the math board, had a thought provoking question that
required a written response. Posted work was not in the form of dittos but in the
form of question/explanation such to determine whether mastery of subject matter
had occurred.
Marzano (2003) describes a need for self-discipline and responsibility
through a system of rewards and consequences. Teacher and student relationships
influence rules, procedures and disciplinary actions. What is clear at Achievement
Elementary is that effective instruction is being delivered. Students are focused on
tasks at hand and are not bored. Clear expectations are set and the children are
mindful of the expectations. In all classrooms visited, class rules were posted.
Posters varied. Some rooms had “classroom rules” and some rooms had “scholarly
rules.” It appeared as though the school was making a transition toward the thematic
used of a scholar and what it represents.
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During another classroom observation, the teacher was facilitating a small
group activity. Two students in the back were distracting their classmates by arguing
over a pencil. The teacher said, “There are two people not following scholarly
expectation number three.” The two students immediately stopped, one relinquished
the pencil and both began their work. Expectation number three is exercise self-
control. It is clear that the notion of a scholar forms the basis of high academic
expectations. This symbolic notion of a scholar enabled the teacher to continue with
the lesson. She was interrupted for less than 5 seconds and the students were
redirected, which suggests when there are clear expectations, discipline is minimal
and instructional disruptions are minimized.
Having high expectations is an aspect of Culturally Responsive pedagogy.
Being clear about classroom expectations is just as important as being clear about
expected playground behavior. Otherwise, the principal would spend more time
disciplining students than being in classrooms and providing instructional feedback.
According to a parent,
The Discipline Policy is getting better. The school just formed a committee
and developed a system. And consequences were developed and rewards
were developed; a certificate system. We have the “Hummingbird Bucks.”
When the students behave, they get one of these. And teachers have these all
over. There are tons of them. So, when they behave, they keep it. When
they have 10, they come and get a prize.”

To the researcher’s surprise, even the nurse knew about the Hummingbird
Bucks. She stated, “If students are good, they receive little blue coupons
(Hummingbird Bucks). You collect and save as many as possible and then come to
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the store and trade them in for an object”. The “Hummingbird Bucks” are given out
when students are good.
Forming positive relationships is another aspect of Culturally Responsive
pedagogy. The teacher student relationship is paramount in classroom instruction.
Teachers and students clearly had positive relationships. Teachers were mindful of
student engagement. During one of the 1
st
grade observations, the researcher noticed
just how often the teacher checked for engagement. Students were actively involved
in the learning process. There was a prompt written on the board, “How do you
know what the weather will be? She asked predicting questions, such as, “It is
cloudy right now, thumbs up if you think it will rain, thumbs down if you think it
won’t.” She allowed for wait time then quickly gazed around the room. She stopped
and said to a little boy, “I don’t see your thumb.” He then responded by putting his
thumb up in the air.
At a later point during the lesson, she showed the students a thermometer and
asked then to repeat the word after her. She said, “Thermometer.” They replied,
“Thermometer.” She said it again. All students repeated except for Xavier. She
said, “Xavier, I do not see your lips moving. I need you to repeat the word. Please
repeat it with me.” Xavier repeated the word with the teacher and the lesson
continued. She was connected and very in tune with her students. She was clearly
aware of all of her students. Participation was non-negotiable during the lesson.
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Standards-Based Instruction
According to documents, the staff attended the AB466 and the AB75 training
offered in August, which enabled them to master the English Language Arts and
Mathematics standards. Training was also provided to teachers on “interpreting and
embedding standards into daily instruction” according to the professional
development agenda. The school’s focus is the state standards. Most schools
purchase one reading program, one math program, one science program, etc.
Achievement Elementary has purchased several instructional programs in
each curricular area. Most schools have the Open Court Reading Program.
Achievement Elementary has the Open Court Reading program. The school has
purchased additional programs such as: The Write Connection, Vocabulary
Connection, GUM (Grammar Usage and Mechanics), Accelerated Reader, Sadlier-
Oxford Vocabulary, and Timed Reading Series to support their Language Arts
program. In addition to the District’s adoption of SAXON Math, the school has also
purchased Math Steps and Strength in Numbers. The school has also purchased and
emphasized the use of manipulatives along with the textbook.
On teacher shared her sentiments regarding instructional practices she
believed contributed to the school’s high performance. She stated:
I think one of the things that we’re allowed to do is to experiment a lot with
the curriculum. We’re allowed to bring in supplemental materials. We’re
not so rigid and strict to following that descriptive programs that are set up,
because it doesn’t meet everybody – it doesn’t meet every kid in my
classroom needs. So Open Court, it has a lot of positives, but it’s a research-
based, you know, program. But it’s geared towards kids who are reading
level on – sometimes you just have to pull in a lot of different supplemental
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things that we are allowed to do that here. Without the necessarily like the
stress that like being policed.

Another teacher said, “We look at the data on each standard, figure out what
needs to be retaught based on how the students performed and then talk about how to
reteach it. We look at different materials. We really focus on standards not
programs.” The Resource Teacher indicated, “Staff spend much of their time
collaborating. There is a lot of grade-level collaboration. Teachers plan together,
teachers talk about lessons, instructional strategies and best practices that will have
the students meet standards.”
Clearly, the focus is standards-based instruction. Out of the six research
studies, five revealed standards-based instruction to be a major structure that helped
high poverty schools become high performing schools (Cawelti, 1999; Johnson and
Asera, 1999; Barth, 1999; Izumi, 2002; Reeves, 2000). Standards-based instruction
provides the framework for what students are expected to know. At Achievement
Elementary, standards guide the planning of classroom instruction. The foundation
for what should be taught and assessed each week is based on the standards not the
program. All teachers are on the same page regarding the delivery of content. There
is no ambiguity. Standards form the basis of instructional content in the classroom.
SUMMARY
Several systems and structures were implemented to support school-wide
effective instruction that promotes learning. According to Vygotsky (1921), learning
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is a social endeavor. Therefore, systems and structures must be in place to promote
learning within the social context.
A summary of question three suggests the following systems contribute to the
instructional program in the following ways: The instructional leader directly
impacts instruction by observing, modeling, offering feedback and expects
immediate implementation of feedback. The instructional leader aligns professional
development with the school’s vision to support the instructional program, by
increasing content knowledge and offering opportunities for articulation.
Assessment and Accountability measures the level of instruction. Data Driven
Decision Making determines the students’ level of mastery of instructional content.
When teachers engage in this collaborative process, they determine what needs to be
retaught, to what groups of students and how it should be delivered. Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy is the umbrella that forms the basis for the Socio-cultural
Theory of Learning. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy is the foundation for the
thought-processes of staff members so they can reach children on a cultural level and
support their learning.
Research Question 4: How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s
structures and systems?
Research question four explores race, a concept that has been void in
conversations about the undereducation of African Americans. Historically, African
Americans have been marginalized in the area of education. African Americans
have had a range of educational experiences: from being denied schooling, being
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able to attend “separate but equal” schools to having opportunities to attend
desegregated schools. Yet, the quality of education for African Americans was
unequal to that of their White counterparts, as evidence by the disproportionate
numbers of African Americans not scoring in the same range, graduating, attending
college, etc.
The Socio-Cultural Theory of Learning (Vygotsky, 1921) provides the
framework for this research question. It provides an understanding for how students
of color learn. This approach examines child development and learning based on the
interactions between the child and the social environment, while also looking at the
role of parents, teachers, friends and community in defining those interactions. The
Zones of Proximal Development is considered to be the “metaphoric space” where a
child makes meaning of what is taught to him/her by an external force such as
teachers and what s/he has come to understand by way of socialization. Learning
takes place when connections are made and a child is able to draw upon his/her
experiences to solidify those connects. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy enables
teachers to help make that connection as previously mentioned.
According to research (Irvine and Armento, 2001), Culturally Responsive
educators have basic beliefs and values that contribute to the overall achievement of
students of color. Culturally Responsive educators do not subscribe to the deficit
beliefs and negative images that have been perpetuated throughout history. In fact,
they have high expectations.
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High Expectations
Upon walking into Achievement Elementary, it is clear the school has high
expectations. As previously mentioned the office was a showcase of the upward
trajectory of standardized test scores from 538 to 845. This year’s goal 906 was
posted as well as a sign that read, “We are not a Program Improvement School!”
The theme posted on walls in classrooms is “Achievement Elementary School
Students En Route to College.” Several classrooms had students seated in groups.
The groups were labeled by college names such as USC, UCLA, Stanford, Harvard,
Yale, etc. One teacher said, “We label our students early and tell them they will go
to college. We talk about college regularly.”
Because students of color often see so many negative images of themselves
particularly on television, in movies, in newspapers and in advertising, it may be
difficult for them to value themselves (Gay, 2000). Culturally Responsive educators
seek to provide more positive images and build self-esteem. Every morning, the
school hosts a brief assembly to help build self-esteem. The assembly starts with the
Pledge of Allegiance. It is followed by the Champion’s Creed. The school as a
whole recites the Champion’s Creed, which reads:
I am a winner. A winner never quits and a quitter never wins.
I always smile because I look and feel better.
I am always polite and friendly.
I am always clean.
I am a success in reading in math in my school and on my playground.
I say good things to others.
I say only good things about others.
I pay no attention to things others say about me and my family.
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When I believe in my success, I know I can do what I want to do, be what I
want to be, have what I want to have.
I am a helper at home and at school.
I have a voice: The spirit inside of me tells me the right thing to do and say.
I never fight. I know it takes courage not to fight.
I am a winner, a champion!
The assembly ends with the Victory Shout, “Achievement Elementary School
Students En Route to College!” Again, the Victory Shout was posted in all
classrooms observed.
The school embeds the notion of success in its students, regardless of race.
Staff expects students to be successful and will settle for nothing less. A strong
belief system is in place that contributes to these high expectations.
Belief System
There is a disconnect between home and school for students of color.
Traditional schools expect certain behavior and language, which for students of
color, particularly African Americans, is different from that, which is valued in the
home (Delpit, 1995; Gay, 2000). At Achievement Elementary, the expectation is
everyone is “En Route to College.” Great emphasis is placed on the success of its
students. The school’s mission statement is as follows: To provide all students the
highest quality education, with emphasis on student performance, life-long learning
skills and excellence in teaching. The school also places an emphasis on core values.
Figure 4.20 is indicative of the school’s core values:
141
Figure 4.20: Core Values

The core Values framework indicates “Every child can learn,” “On
Time….On Task….On a Mission. Eagerness to Learn” and “Desire to teach and
reach all students. Community...working for every child.” The idea that “every
child” and “all students” is stressed to emphasize success that Achievement school’s
students will obtain, as evidenced by looking at the school’s ranking and/or positive
trajectory of scores regardless of race or socio-economics.
Certain supports in place emphasize success. For example, the school-wide
out-of-classroom reading program entitled “One Million Minutes of Reading.” As a
Every
child
an
lear
n.
On Time….On Task….
On a Mission.
Eagerness to Learn
Desire to teach and reach all students.
Community….working for every child.
142
whole, students are encouraged to read 1 million minutes during the school year.
Each student is expected to read 250 minutes a month or at least a total of 2000
minutes during the school year. Students have a reading log that must be filled in
with the title of the book and the length of time spent reading at home. The log is
monitored in each classroom on a daily basis under the premise the task is complete.
Students can access books at the school library. The library houses approximately
10, 000 books and has 14 computers. The belief is that all children will be
successful. In order for children to be successful, supports need to be put in place to
facilitate the process.
Support through Intervention
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy emphasizes building relationships. Various
school-wide programs focus on the success of African American students through
partner relationships. The school has a partnership with one of the most prestigious
universities in southern California. Students from this university would volunteer
their time on Saturdays to tutor African American students specifically. According
to the principal, additional programs on campus were implemented to support the
emotional and social needs of African American students. The school has an on-site
counselor that allows students the opportunity to discuss various situations. In
addition, an organization by the name of Kedren provides psychological services two
times a week for students. The only drawback to this is parents must authorize
student participation and according to the principal, “Parents may not want to
because they know the ramifications of (personnel) getting involved.” Despite what
143
some believe may not be in place to offer support, the program has its benefits for
African American students.
The aforementioned programs provide opportunities for students to
encourage academic success regardless of possible barriers. Research indicates
barriers such as drugs, crime, poverty and environment can negatively impact
students academically (Kozol, 1991). The belief system in place at Achievement
Elementary supports the notion of future success. Staff believes that African
American students can succeed regardless of obstacles. There is an awareness that
obstacles exist. There is a need to provide support through interventions.
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy is a way of thinking about students.
Teachers use the students’ “cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of
reference and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning
encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (Gay, 2000, p.144). What the
researcher noticed was the staff was a direct reflection of the students. School
demographics reveal 20.5% African American students, 76.9% Latino students and
<1.0% other. The staff is composed of 34% African American teachers, 46 % Latino
and 16% Filipino teachers and 4% Asian. The staff is composed of people of color
as is the school. The staff is completely aware that students mirror the staff. When
an interviewee was asked about the school’s progress, she replied:
Yeah. 906. So we came a long way. And of course, you know whenever
there’s change, of course you’re going to have resistance. But you know it
has to come from here. And so I do believe that 100% of the teachers would
do whatever is necessary to succeed. They may grip. They may say, “Um
(sound),” whatever, but they’re still going to do it. Because I – my praise to
144
any teacher that I talk to who is a little stressed and want to kind of vent to
me, and I say, “You know by any means necessary you know you have to
move forward and remember that these babies are a reflection of us.”

Teachers are well aware the students reflect the staff (see Figure 4.21) Although the
belief is, “Schools are not socially neutral institutions but reflect the experiences of
the “dominant culture” (Lamont and Lareau, 1988), this particular staff reflects the
experience of people of color who have succeeded. The school’s belief system
revolves around success for students of color who have had the same experiences.

Figure 4.21: Teacher Ethnicities
Teacher Ethnicity
Pre-K Hispanic
Pre-K African American
Kindergarten Hispanic
Kindergarten Hispanic
Kindergarten Hispanic
Kindergarten/1
st
Combo Hispanic
1
st
Grade African American
1
st
Grade African American
1
st
Grade Hispanic
2
nd
Grade Hispanic
2
nd
Grade Hispanic
2
nd
Grade Hispanic
3
rd
Grade Filipino
3
rd
Grade Filipino
3
rd
Grade Hispanic
4
th
Grade Hispanic
4
th
/5
th
Grade Combo Hispanic
5
th
Grade Filipino
5
th
Grade African American
SDC African American
SDC African American
SDC African American
SDC Filipino
Resource Teacher Hispanic
Counselor African American
RSP African American
145
SUMMARY
Students of color are more apt to learn material when it is presented in a
manner that draws on their experiences according to the Socio-cultural Theory of
Learning (Vygotsky, 1921). Students make meaning out of context. Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy forms the basis for cultural connection. A teacher who is
Culturally Responsive has an understanding of the culture, history and language of a
child. He/She builds upon the assets that children come to school with. Teachers
have an understanding that allows them to see students in a positive light reframing
the deficit perspective that has been perpetuated throughout history.
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy combats negative images and asserts the
success of students of color. Achievement Elementary School’s staff represents the
students. The belief is such that these children will succeed just as they have. The
staff set high expectations and puts supports in place to ensure students of color have
all the tools needed for success.
146
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, SELECTED FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
Historically, students in high poverty urban schools have been associated
with low student achievement. Inequities in education have contributed to the
disparities that exist between students of color and their non-minority counterparts.
However, additional research suggests there are high performing schools in high
poverty areas, with high concentrations of students of color. Practitioners have used
research to suggest specific structural and systemic practices to increase student
achievement. Common systems and structures are in place within high performing
schools. They are a) leadership b) curriculum and standards-based instruction c)
professional development d) assessment and data analysis e) discipline and f) parent
involvement. These systems work together simultaneously to contribute to
academic achievement (Marzano, 2003).
Summary of the Problem
Despite existing research regarding common systems and structures in high
performing schools, little was known about their implementation in high poverty
high performing schools and the extent of implementation. Limited research exists
about the course that schools follow to ensure systems and structures are in place to
promote effective instructional practices. Lastly, there was limited research on how
systems and structures were implemented to specifically address the needs of African
American students.
147
Purpose of the Study
This study examined systems and structures were perceived to lead to school-
wide effective instruction in high performing high poverty schools. The goal of this
study was to add to the general body of knowledge regarding best practices that
increase student achievement at high poverty schools among students of color.
Existing practices and strategies for implementation could be replicated to increase
academic performance in low performing high poverty schools, enabling schools to
experience the same success by ameliorating their instructional program. The
researcher intended to add to the research ultimately increasing access to equitable
instructional practices for students of color who have historically been associated
with low student achievement. This study would contribute to the ongoing search
for structures and systems that lay the foundations for best practices to close the gap
that exists between students of color and their non-minority counterparts.
Improving the achievement of students of color would benefit society in the
long run. By exploring systems and structures that directly impact achievement and
provide schools with a roadmap for implementation, more low performing schools
could offer better access to education specifically for students of color. As a result
of this study and the reproduction and generalization of findings in communities
where large concentrations of students of color reside, more students of color would
have access to better instructional practices grounded in research-based systems and
structures that increase student achievement.
148
The study examined four research questions to determine what factors lead to
academic achievement among students of color at a high performing high poverty
elementary school. The following is a list of the research questions that were used to
guide the study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the organizational structures and systems implemented to support
school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and systems?
Connection to Prior Research
The findings for this research project were based on Vygotsky’s (1921)
Socio-cultural Theory of Learning, which was the overarching theoretical
framework. The Socio-cultural Theory of Learning states that connections must be
made for students to learn. Learning is a social endeavor that occurs when teachers
build upon the students’ knowledge base and experiences and make connection to
the classroom to facilitate the learning process. The experiences are believed to be
assets for students. Literature regards these assets as the Cultural and Social Capital
(Bourdieu, 1977) that students bring into the classroom.
Social and Cultural Capital exist under the umbrella of the Socio-Cultural
Theory of Learning. Student experiences, relationships and beliefs are thought to be
149
beneficial to the learning process. Considering these aspects in the development and
delivery of instructional content within the classroom makes learning accessible for
students of color.
Factors outside of the classroom must be considered when examining the
impact on student achievement. These factors are known as the systems and
structures that work concurrently to yield positive trends in academic achievement
for students of color (Marzano, 2003). Several systems and structures are
implemented simultaneously but directly impact classroom instruction in their own
way.
Literature reveals that specific systems and structures are present in high
performing schools. Research on mass scale did not detail the extent to which
school-wide beliefs about students of color impacted the learning process. Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy responds to the need for instructional strategies that support
the learning of students of color. Culturally Responsive Pedagogy also challenges
the deficit mindset held by some teachers encouraging high expectations and student
excellence. The findings of this study suggested that the presence of Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy as a school-wide belief system directly impacts learning for
students of color, specifically African American students.
Summary of Findings
The theoretical framework that formed the basis for this case study is the
Socio-cultural Theory of Learning (Vygotsky, 1921). The following discussion is a
summary of findings and analysis based on the theoretical framework.
150
Research Question 1
Research question number one examined the trends and patterns of
performance among students of color. Students of color have been associated with
low student achievement. Certain systems and structures have been perceived to
contribute to an increase in academic achievement among students of color.
Achievement Elementary School’s implementation of various systems and structures
show growth trends and patterns of upward trajectory in various areas.
During the 2000-2001 school year, Achievement Elementary School’s API
score was 538. The school’s API grew consistently every year, ending with 845 by
the 2006-2007 school year. All subgroups showed consistent growth also. African
Americans scored 582 in 2001-2002. By 2006-2007, they scored 849 showing an
increase of 227 points as a subgroup. The Hispanic/Latino subgroup depicted 190-
point increase during the same period. The Socio-economically Disadvantaged
subgroup revealed a positive increase of 245 points.
The findings are notable because trends in achievement for African
Americans are higher than other subgroups. The achievement gap focuses on
African Americans who fall far behind their non-minority counterparts. Yet the
findings suggest that African Americans are achieving at a rate that is inconsistent
with data used to illustrate the gap (Haycock, 2001; Johnson, 2002). Analysis of the
data suggests the increase in achievement is based on the presence of a belief system
that revolves around effective classroom instruction.
151
Prominent changes took place in Special Education as well, when examining
the program from 2003-2006. The overall number of students enrolled in the
program decreased from 52 to 39. There were fewer African Americans enrolled in
the program than Hispanics/Latinos. Lastly, the number of African Americans
enrolled in the program decreased considerably. In 2003, there were 18 African
American students identified in the program. That number decreased by more than
half in 2006.
These findings are significant because they contrast with the literature that
states higher proportions of African Americans are enrolled in Special Education
(Johnson, 2002). The decrease in enrollment of African American students suggests
the staff does not perceive African American students in the manner that other
schools/staff do. Teachers are not thinking from a deficit perspective, which
encourage the referrals into the special education program.
Another outstanding accomplishment is the suspension and expulsion rate.
Data reveal suspension rates at 11.5% in 2002-2003, 2.2% in 2003-2004 and 0% in
2004-2005. There were no expulsions at any point over the course of those three
school years. These findings are remarkable because they also contrast existing
research on disproportionate number of suspensions and expulsions among students
of color. The lower suspension and expulsion rate serves as a major indicator of how
the staff perceives their students. It reflects the construct of race. Teachers and staff
have expectations for students and their behavior is a manifestation of the
152
expectations. The data reveal a downward trend which may be attributed to the
presence of a strong belief system based on high expectations for students of color.
In conclusion, Achievement Elementary School’s trends and patterns show
the progress of students of color. Trends and patterns illustrate growth over time.
The data reveal a positive trajectory in several key areas: academics, attendance,
decrease of students in special education and a decrease in suspensions and
expulsions. Using this data to examine various aspects of student involvement,
suggests the systems and structures being implemented are effective in supporting
the instructional program. Various systems and structures are explored in the next
research question.
Research Question 2
Research question 2 examined the organizational systems and structures that
were perceived to contribute to the high performance of students of color in high
poverty urban schools. Systems were defined as the coordinated use of resources at
the school site. Structures were defined as federal, state and/or districts
policies/procedures implemented that were not subject to change.
Literature indicates certain systems and structures are perceived to contribute
to achievement among students of color at high poverty schools. Those systems and
structures cited in research are a) leadership b) curriculum and standards-based
instruction c) professional development d) assessment and data analysis e) discipline
and f) parent involvement.
153
Findings suggest instructional leadership, professional development,
assessment and accountability, data-driven decision making and a positive behavior
support system were the perceived systems in place at Achievement Elementary.
The structures present included reduced class size, standards based instruction and
highly qualified teachers. These findings were included in the literature to a minimal
degree. Several systems and structures were in place and worked simultaneously to
ensure the success of students of color.
The findings were significant because they support the literature.
Instructional leadership, professional development, assessment and accountability,
and data-driven decision-making stood out. These were school-wide efforts. All
stakeholders were involved in the implementation of these systems. The
instructional leader saw her role as setting the stage. Professional development was
planned to increase competency. Staff participated willingly in endeavors such as
decisions to drive instruction based on data generated from assessments. Although
the findings did reveal the presence of each system, the degree of implementation
varied at Achievement Elementary. The parent involvement component was present
on campus but was not perceived to be as influential as other systems per the
interviews and observations.
Systems and structures form the basis of the environment for the child. The
findings are noteworthy because they indicate which systems and structures work to
provide the capital necessary for students of color to be successful within the context
154
for the school environment. The environment and the existing relationships within
the environment contribute to learning for students of color.
Question Number 3
Instructional leadership was perceived to be a structure that directly impacted
classroom instruction. The principal had been there for ten years, but in her first
years developed a vision, which was “We are preparing these children for success.”
She communicates this vision to all stakeholders. Her vision is also communicated
in her actions. She is in classrooms daily, monitoring instruction, offering feedback
and checking for implementation of suggested strategies. As the instructional leader,
she looks for content delivery. She gauges students’ interaction to determine the
level of engagement. She critiques and offers constructive feedback on how the
lesson and/or the instructional delivery can be improved. She revisits classrooms to
determine if progress is made. If not, she provides additional supports: modeling
lessons, coaching, mentoring and/or observing other teachers. Her presence in the
classrooms supports effective instruction.
The principal leads the instructional team, which helps to plan professional
development. Professional development is an opportunity for teachers to examine
data, discuss instructional strategies, examine curriculum as it relates to standards
and develop assessments. The principal ensures that teachers have opportunities to
collaborate.
Assessments are teacher-generated and are distributed on a weekly basis.
Assessments are scored and used to guide the instruction. As a grade-level, teachers
155
are focusing on students that did not score above the 80
th
percentile. After
examining which students did not meet the 80
th
percentile or which content areas
yielded low mastery, the grade-level discusses additional instructional strategies
and/or supplemental material that would guide further classroom instruction.
Teachers are using the data to make informed decisions, which drives the
instructional program.
Another system that contributed to effective classroom instruction was
Culturally Responsive pedagogy. Culturally Responsive pedagogy served as the
premise for making cultural connections in classrooms. This discovery was
particularly significant because Culturally Responsive pedagogy was not discussed
in the body of research on high performing high poverty schools. However, the
presence of Culturally Responsive pedagogy could not go ignored at Achievement
Elementary.
The findings for research question three are significant because they show
how various systems and structures impact classroom instruction. Either the
system/structure helped to guide instructional practices, informed teachers or
sustained the instructional program. The systems and structures worked
collaboratively to impact teacher content, instructional delivery, student engagement,
perceptions and beliefs; which ultimately impact how well students achieve.
Information gathered based on question number three can be replicated and
generalized at other schools to achieve the same results for students of color.
Although various systems and structures are in place, the degree of implementation
156
was critical in determining the impact on the instructional program. No system or
structure could have functioned alone and yielded the same results. They worked
concurrently and significantly impacted classroom instruction by either supporting,
guiding or informing classroom instruction.
Question Number 4
Research question four examined how the construct of race was reflected in
the school’s systems and structures According to the Socio-cultural Theory of
Learning, (Vygotsky, 1921). Students of color are more apt to learn material when it
is presented in a manner that draws on their experience. Culturally Responsive
teachers make connections for their students. They draw on their prior experiences
and incorporate them into the classroom. This engages and enables students to
participate in the learning process. Students make meaning out of context because
the cultural connection is forming the basis for learning.
Culturally Responsive Teachers are mindful of culture, history and language
of a child. In a teacher’s mind, these are seen as assets not deficits. He/She builds
upon the assets, making children feel comfortable with school, despite the disconnect
that may exist between home and school culture. Teachers at Achievement
Elementary mitigate the disconnect by encouraging success and setting high
expectations.
Achievement Elementary School’s staff represents the students. All teachers
are people of color. Because the staff represents the students culturally, there are
shared cultural orientations. Teachers share similar experiences with students.
157
Because experiences are shared there is common understanding of situations,
emotions, perceptions, etc. This forms the basis of the relationship that exists
between the student and the teacher. There is a reciprocal relationship based on
shared cultural beliefs that allows for common understanding. Teachers also serve as
models for students. The staff represents people of color who have completed
Bachelor programs at minimum and are working class citizens who contribute to
society. The staff has high expectations for its students because of the relationships
that have been formed.
The school-wide belief is the students will succeed just as the staff has.
There is a belief system in place, which embraces and expects the success of students
of color and nothing less. This can be described as the socio-cultural context of the
adults. The socio-cultural context of adults permeates throughout the school
evidenced by beliefs and expectations Adults believe children will learn what is
being taught, complete assignments, participate in class, put forth effort, etc.
Teachers and staff expect students to act in a certain manner which exhibits respect
for themselves, respect for others and respect for the staff. The school-wide belief
system is that children will be successful, ultimately attending the college of their
choice and choosing a future career. Therefore, findings are noteworthy because
they confirm the presence of a school-wide belief system about students of color has
the greatest impact of student achievement.
158
Conclusions and Observations
The triangulation of data collected for this study suggest the following
conclusions:
• Instructional leadership, with a vision that focused on student success,
formed the basis for moving the school toward achievement.
• The presence of an instructional leader in classrooms regularly,
holding teachers accountable, offering feedback, modeling and
expecting implementation of feedback was paramount in the delivery
of effective classroom instruction.
• Planning professional development that increased content knowledge
and allowed for opportunities to discuss best practices and strategies
were found to be effective in enhancing instructional delivery.
• Reading research-based literature school-wide increased the overall
content knowledge of teachers and was a means to offer additional
instructional strategies to help deliver standards-based instruction.
• Implementation of standards-based instruction that details what must
be taught and opportunities to dialogue regarding best practices
formed the basis for delivering instruction.
• Grade-level assessments that focused on standards-based instruction
were administered to students on a weekly basis. These assessments
helped to gage students’ learning and mastery of concepts.
159
• The weekly data analysis of assessments disaggregated by gender,
ethnicity, language proficiency and by standard was used to determine
the content that must be retaught. Data analysis guided the
instructional program as teachers used concrete information to make
informed decisions.
• A numerical goal was set for all stakeholders. This served as a
constant reminder of the school-wide vision that all stakeholders were
working toward. This numerical goal served as a symbol and was
constantly ingrained into the minds of students, parents and teachers
through newsletters, posters, meetings, assemblies, etc.
• There was a belief system in place that represented student success
school-wide. High expectations were paramount. Emphasis was
placed on the future success of students, as students were referred to
as scholars and table groups were labeled with college names.
• Culturally Responsive pedagogy was implemented school-wide.
There was evidence that teachers were making cultural connections,
reflecting positive images of students of color in the classroom, either
through literature, art or music. Teachers found value in students,
their culture, language and history they brought to school.
160
Implications for Practice and Policy
Based on the finding of this case study in conjunction with prior research on
the performance of students of color in high poverty high performing schools,
consideration should lend itself to the following:
• Instructional leadership was a pivotal structure that supported an
effective instructional program. School-site administrators must
make the classroom the focus of their day. Spending a great deal of
time in classrooms, observing the instructional program, and offering
instructional feedback would lead to improved instructional practices.
Administrators should offer constructive feedback and expect/monitor
the implementation of suggested strategies.
• Professional development should be used as opportunities for teachers
to enhance their content knowledge. Research-based literature should
be read and discussed. Professional development should be structured
to ensure time for dialogue, sharing best practices and reflection to
foster and allow for collegiality.
• Students were assessed weekly. They should be assessed consistently
so staff can monitor the learning. The data obtained should form the
basis for guiding the instructional program. Teachers should analyze
the data in disaggregated form to determine student need. There
should be a discussion regarding what concepts need to be retaught
and what students must be targeted for reteaching as well.
161
• Studying Achievement Elementary unveiled a collaborative group of
teachers who were willing to be open and transparent about their
practice. The staff had regular dialogue and was very much open to
constructive feedback from the instructional leader, instructional team
and/or colleagues during professional development and grade-levels.
Staff should be willing and open to self-reflection about instructional
practices and strategies.
• All stakeholders focused on attaining an API of 906. Everyone was
aware of the value in and the importance of attaining 906 the
following year. Although schools should set goals, administrators
should be willing to examine whether a numerical value becomes an
intrinsic or extrinsic motivator. Administrators should also be
mindful of the balance that exists between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation so as not to develop an environment that may negatively
impact students. In this examination, administrators must be
reflective in determining whether there is a price to pay for focusing
on numbers such as students losing their desire to learn or a reduction
of effort put forth by teachers if the numerical value is not met.
• The staff held certain beliefs about the children that revolved around
their success. Success is non-negotiable at Achievement Elementary.
Success is ultimately based on the school-wide culture of setting high
expectations. The findings suggest a school-wide belief system in
162
place regarding students of color. Another recommendation for
practice is for educators to examine their own preconceived notions
and challenge the beliefs they hold about students of color in an
attempt to dispel a deficit-perspective they may not even know they
possess. Set expectations high and demand students meet those
expectations regardless of color of skin. Educators must begin to see
themselves as teachers who make connections for students of color
and provide opportunities for learning to take place.
Recommendations for Future Studies
The findings and analysis of the data from this case study yielded suggested
recommendation for future studies. Conducting additional research will ensure the
systems and structures discussed directly impacted classroom instruction, ultimately
leading to increased academic achievement at other schools.
• Achievement Elementary School has a staff that reflects the students
and the community. The staff is composed primarily of people of
color. School demographics reveal 20.5% African American
students, 76.9% Latino students and <1.0% other. The staff is
composed of 34% African American teachers, 46 % Latino and 16%
Filipino teachers and 4% Asian. None of the staff represents the
dominant culture. Recommendations for future study include
performing the study at a high performing high poverty school with
staff that represents the dominant culture, to determine if and how a
163
staff reflective of the dominant culture impact the achievement of
students of color.
• This study was done at a small traditional calendar school with less
than 500 students. The staff was relatively small, which may have
contributed to the positive relationships and the willingness to be
open and transparent. Additional recommendations include studying
larger schools, with more students and a larger staff to determine the
level of collegiality and opportunities for dialogue and transparency.
• During interviews, parent involvement did not reveal itself to be a
critical component. The school did show evidence of active parents,
as sign-ins revealed participation in several events and meetings.
However, it was not perceived school-wide to be a system that
impacted student achievement. Yet, literature states that it is integral
in the achievement of students of color. An additional
recommendation is to determine the effectiveness of parent
involvement as a system, while conducting a similar study.
164
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171
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR ADMINISTRATORS
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe contribute
to high student performance.
a. If so, how did the school overcome them or maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last 3-5
years to improve student performance?

2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all students
and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers/students/parents?
a. How do you monitor student progress?
b. What assessment tools do you use?
4. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-wide Plan?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of all students?
b. What is your role in helping teachers provide effective instruction?

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, beside assessment scores, that demonstrate
high student performance?
b. What is your role as a school leader in guiding the use of data to improve
the school climate and classroom instruction?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students of color?
a. Does your discipline policy help students adopt behavior that contributes to
their learning?
172
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR PARENTS
1. What is the school doing to help all students succeed?
2. How would you describe the atmosphere at the school?
3. How do you know what your child needs to learn?
4. How does the school communicate that information to you?
5. How does the school address the needs of all sub-groups of students?
6. How do you describe a good or effective teacher?
7. What are some of the ways the school lets you know how your child is doing?

8. Describe the school’s discipline policy.
a. How does it support the learning of all students?
b. Do you consider the discipline policies fair to all children? Can you give
an example of its fairness?
173
APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR CLASSIFIED STAFF
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe contribute
to the high student performance.
a. Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these practices
and policies? If so, how did the school overcome them or maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you (the school or the person?
have done over the last 3-5 years to improve student performance?

2. How would you describe the school climate here?
In what ways does the school engage/involve all students and respect cultural
diversity.
a. What do you think your role is in contributing to the school climate?

3. What are the expectations for meeting academic achievement goals here?
a. Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
b. What indicators let you know how they are doing?

4. How are the needs of students of color being met at your school?
a. What is in place to support these students?
b. What is in place to support the staff?

5. How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?

6. How do you know when a teacher is doing a good job?

7. How do you see teachers and administrators using data?
a. Do you know when testing will occur?
b. How do the students react to testing?
c. How do teachers react?
d. Is it known throughout the school what is done with the data? How is it
made known?

8. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impact students?
a. What happens when a student breaks a rule or makes a bad choice?
b. Does the discipline policy help students engage in behavior that
contributes to their academic success?
174
APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS
1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe contribute
to your high student performance.
a. (Probe) Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
(practices and policies)? If so, how did the school overcome them or
maintain them?
b. Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last 3-5
years to improve student performance

2. What role do teachers play in maintaining a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity?

3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are made
clear for teachers.
a. For students
b. Parents
• How do you monitor student progress?
• What assessment tools do you use?

4. How familiar are you with the School Plan?
a. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-Wide Plan?
b. How have you modified your instructional practices to reflect the school-
wide plan for students of color?

5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet the
needs of:
• All students
• Students of color if the school is highly diverse

6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores that demonstrate
high student performance?

7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students?
175
APPENDIX E: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDE
Are there a range or variety of instructional practices /strategies used? Are they
appropriate for the content and students?
Examples of instructional practices/strategies:
1 Cooperative grouping
2 Use of time
3 Differentiated instruction
4 Feedback to students

What visuals, symbols and items posted in the classroom?
Examples of items:
1 School wide discipline policy
2 Images of people of color
3 Classroom library

Physical Class Environment
Example of things to observe:
1 Seating arrangement
2 Teacher student interaction student
o discipline
3 Student work posted
o Feedback/rubric
o Standard based
4 Student Engagement
176
APPENDIX F: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION GUIDE
1. Does collaboration occur during and after professional development?
2. Is there engagement among the staff?
3. What types of data are being used? How is data used?
4. How professional development is aligned to the vision?
5. How are students discussed?
6. If they teach master goal or performance?
7. Is the professional development practical and adaptable?
8. What are the expectation and implementation of the professional development?
9. How are teachers held accountable for the professional development provided?
10. Is an evaluation tool used for the professional development?
177
APPENDIX G: LEADERSHIP MEETING OBSERVATION GUIDE
To what extent was the meeting focused on the implementation of the team's plan?
Does the staff analyze student achievement data in order to take informed actions?
Did (or does) the staff discuss and plan for diversity-sensitive learning
environments?

How are/is the roles/work distributed among members of the leadership team?
Structure: information or strategic planning?
Operational or instructional meeting?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Historically, African American students have been associated with low student achievement. Research documents an existing achievement gap between students of color, specifically African Americans, and their White counterparts. The achievement gap also represents other indicators of equity related to student achievement such as grade point average, drop out rates, college enrollment/completion rates and overrepresentation of some groups in special education. In order to improve the instructional quality of the educational system, practitioners have used research in providing structural and systemic practices that have been proven to raise student achievement. Research has identified common systems and structures in place within high performing schools such as a) leadership b) curriculum and standards-based instruction c) professional development d) assessment and data analysis e) discipline and f) parent involvement.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rappino, Michelle Alessandra (author)

Core Title School-wide implementation of systems and structures that lead to increased achievement among students of color: a case study of a high-performing, high-poverty urban school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/27/2008

Defense Date 05/13/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American,belief systems,high-performing,high-poverty,OAI-PMH Harvest,structures,students of color,systems

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member), Rousseau, Sylvia G. (committee member)

Creator Email mrappino@aol.com,rappino@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1616

Unique identifier UC1154371

Identifier etd-Rappino-2360 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-96133 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1616 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Rappino-2360.pdf

Dmrecord 96133

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rappino, Michelle Alessandra

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu