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The role of leadership and collaboration as a catalyst for regional economic development: a grounded theory study

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The role of leadership and collaboration as a catalyst for regional economic development: a grounded theory study

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THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP AND COLLABORATION AS A CATALYST FOR
REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:

A GROUNDED THEORY STUDY

by

Stone James

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SOL PRICE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF POLICY, PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

December 2021

Copyright 2021 Stone James
ii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my daughter, Sierra. I have walked through fire to
protect, provide, and mentor you. As you grow to become a woman of virtue and achievement,
know I will always be cheering you on, expecting wonderful things, and lovingly supporting
you, whether in physical body or in spirit. Hold tightly onto your moral compass, believe in
yourself, set your sights high, and do not stop until you have reached your goals. You are capable
of incredible things, and even now at only 11 years old, you make the world a brighter place.
Keep being the blessing that you are, be sure to establish and maintain healthy boundaries, listen
to people’s actions over their words, and always be grateful for your blessings. If I had all the
daughters in the world to choose from, I would choose you! I love you sweetheart.
I also dedicate this work to my wife, Laura. Your love and support over the last five years
made this doctoral dream a reality. During the last sixty straight months, you supported,
encouraged, and tolerated all the trials and tribulations of this journey, and I am eternally grateful
for your sacrifice and love. Thank you for being one of the best women I know.
To the rest of my family, Brenda, Colleen, my parents, and Johnny, thank you for your
love and support. I would not be here without you.

iii
Acknowledgements
A doctoral journey is not undertaken or completed alone. It is difficult to articulate my
gratitude to all the individuals who supported me during this voyage. The first person with whom
I owe a debt of gratitude that I will never be able to repay is Dr. Deborah Natoli. I began
corresponding with Dr. Natoli in 2009. We remained in touch over the years on the status of the
Doctor of Policy, Planning and Development (DPPD) program. In late 2015, we reconnected
only a few weeks after the program had received university support to resume in the Fall of
2016. It has been a whirlwind ever since. Thank you for your strong commitment to higher
education, deep concern for and support of the whole person, and intense passion for the
profession. It was immediately and readily apparent that you threw your entire being into this
program, brought a remarkably diverse experience base to the classroom, and clearly cared about
helping your students develop into the best version of themselves. You lean into your work just
as Dr. Barbara McClintock leaned into her study of corn. For all of this, thank you so very much.
I had the privilege of meeting Dr. Christian L. Redfearn during my time in the Master of
Real Estate Development (MRED) program. Chris made real estate finance easy to understand,
could not have been more approachable, and ultimately went on to successfully lead and shape
the MRED program into a practical and nationally ranked program. Thank you for so many
stimulating conversations, your constant support, your endless patience, and your invaluable
perspective. As my dissertation chair, your impressive intellect and ability to thoughtfully
identify and address the core issues made getting through this research endeavor rewarding and
enriching. Thank you for your contributions to urban economics and the pivotal role you play.
While the typical DPPD journey does not normally intersect with the Executive Master of
Leadership (EML) program, I am profoundly grateful that mine did. I relished my time studying
iv
under Dr. Carol Geffner. The material, lessons learned, and friendships formed became a
wonderfully enriching component of my USC journey. I can genuinely say that the EML
program not only develops people into better leaders, but it also creates better spouses, parents,
and friends. Thank you for being such an integral part of my committee.
As the City of La Quinta has immeasurably benefited from the leadership and guidance
of Councilmember Dr. Robert Radi, so too has my doctoral experience. Despite a rigorous
teaching calendar, city council meeting schedule, and consulting agenda replete with cross-
country travel, Dr. Radi was always available and constantly provided tremendous and insightful
feedback. Thank you for sharpening my thinking and work product.
Also, a special thanks goes to Ashley Coelho and most recently Anna Parks. As DPPD
program coordinators, both Ms. Coelho and then Ms. Parks were always available and
immediately responsive as I navigated a sometimes-dizzying assortment of university and
program requirements and deadlines. Thank you for all the help and support.
The DPPD program has been a blessing and forever changed me. For this amazing
experience, I would be remiss if I did not mention the profound impact that Dr. Deborah Natoli,
Dr. Peter Robertson, and Mayor/Professor/Attorney Frank Zerunyan played in reshaping the
DPPD program into what it is today.
The Fall 2016 DPPD cohort consisted of nine professionals from a variety of fields and
professional backgrounds. The New Nine as we came to call ourselves became a close-knit
group and, in some cases, dear friends. I learned that the value of the doctoral journey is more
than copious reading, course work, and endless research and writing. The doctoral experience is
remarkably enhanced by the intellectual depth and diversity of the cohort. To this end, it was a
privilege working, studying, and growing alongside Michael Falkow, James Madia, Kevin
v
Williams, Luis Gutierrez, Hossein Pourmand, Sevan Benlian, Megan Goulding, Hazem
Elwassimy, and Apollo Emeka, who spent several semesters with us while he finished his
doctoral journey. Thank you all for being a valued part of my journey. Your perspectives,
backgrounds, and individual passions contributed to society’s greater good and made the entire
experience even richer.
A special thanks is owed to classmate and friend, Dr. Michael D. Falkow. You set the bar
high for intellectual curiosity, possess a super-human command of the written language, and
exemplify selflessness. You have helped me become a sharper “pracademic,” professional, and
most importantly, a better father. Your selfless care of your late wife, Janice, during her 8½-year
battle against breast cancer and your dedication to helping your daughter, Mikayla, become a
compassionate, grounded, and successful young woman is truly inspiring. You make the world a
better place.
Lastly, thank you to Tami Scott. Your professional mentorship and encouragement has
helped me take the skills and knowledge gained from this program and apply them to municipal
governance. On behalf of Cathedral City residents and Valley stakeholders, thank you for setting
the bar high within the city. Your knowledgebase, genuine concern for others, and your
commitment to the city is unparalleled. You have help make Cathedral City a better and more
financially sound place.

vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... xii
Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1: Establishing the Purpose ............................................................................................... 1
Introduction to the Coachella Valley ...................................................................... 1
What Does it Mean to Have an Older Population? ..................................... 7
Education Levels and Income ..................................................................... 9
A Growing Divide ..................................................................................... 10
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 16
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 16
Research Questions ............................................................................................... 17
Overview of Research Design .............................................................................. 17
Definition of Terms............................................................................................... 19
Assumptions and Limitations ............................................................................... 23
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 24
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 24
Important Distinctions .......................................................................................... 26
Community Development ..................................................................................... 27
Economic Development ........................................................................................ 28
Economic Growth ................................................................................................. 30
Economic Prosperity ............................................................................................. 30
The Mirage of an Equitable Tourism-based Economy ......................................... 32
Arts and Culture as an Economic Development Strategy ..................................... 33
Sources of Demand: The Traded Verses Non-Traded Sectors ............................. 36
Tourism: Traded Sector Strengths and Non-Traded Sector Weaknesses ............. 39
Clusters ................................................................................................................. 41
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 44
Research Questions ............................................................................................... 44
Types of Research ................................................................................................. 45
Basic Research .......................................................................................... 45
Applied Research ...................................................................................... 46
Choosing a Research Method ............................................................................... 46
Quantitative Research ............................................................................... 47
Mixed Methods ......................................................................................... 48
vii
Qualitative Research ................................................................................. 49
The Researcher ...................................................................................................... 57
Study Participants ................................................................................................. 58
Cities ......................................................................................................... 61
Tribal ......................................................................................................... 62
CVEP ........................................................................................................ 63
GPS CVB .................................................................................................. 64
Oliphant Enterprises.................................................................................. 64
Riverside County ...................................................................................... 65
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 65
Surveys ...................................................................................................... 65
Interview Protocol ..................................................................................... 66
Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................... 68
Ethical Concerns ................................................................................................... 69
Summary ............................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 4: Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 70
Question 1 ............................................................................................................. 72
Question 2 ............................................................................................................. 78
Question 3 ............................................................................................................. 85
Question 4 ............................................................................................................. 91
Question 5 ............................................................................................................. 93
Question 6 ............................................................................................................. 96
Question 7 ............................................................................................................. 98
Question 8 ........................................................................................................... 101
Question 9 ........................................................................................................... 101
Question 10 ......................................................................................................... 102
Question 11 ......................................................................................................... 103
Question 12 ......................................................................................................... 104
Question 13 ......................................................................................................... 105
Question 14 ......................................................................................................... 106
Question 15 ......................................................................................................... 107
Question 16 ......................................................................................................... 109
Question 17 ......................................................................................................... 110
Question 18 ......................................................................................................... 111
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 112
Chapter 5: Conclusion................................................................................................................. 113
Four Themes and Fifteen Categories .................................................................. 114
Shared Realizations ................................................................................. 116
Current Actions ....................................................................................... 117
Critical Needs.......................................................................................... 117
Future Goals ............................................................................................ 118
Next Steps ........................................................................................................... 119
Concluding Thoughts and Future Opportunities ................................................. 121
References ................................................................................................................................... 126
viii
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 138

ix
List of Tables
Table 1. 2019 Federal Poverty Guidelines .................................................................................... 12
Table 2. Participant Educational Attainment and Frequency ....................................................... 60
Table 3. Participant Years of Experience and Frequency ............................................................. 61
Table 4. Question 1: Most Common Response Categories .......................................................... 73
Table 5. Question 2: Most Common Response Categories .......................................................... 79
Table 6. Question 3: Most Common Response Categories .......................................................... 85
Table 7. Question 4: Most Common Response Categories .......................................................... 92
Table 8. Question 5(a): Most Common Response Categories ...................................................... 93
Table 9. Question 5(b): Most Common Response Categories ...................................................... 94
Table 10. Question 6(a): Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 97
Table 11. Question 6(b): Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 97
Table 12. Question 7: Most Common Response Categories ........................................................ 99
Table 13. Question 8: Most Common Response Categories ...................................................... 101
Table 14. Question 9: Most Common Response Categories ...................................................... 102
Table 15. Question 10: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 103
Table 16. Question 11: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 104
Table 17. Question 12: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 105
Table 18. Question 13: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 106
Table 19. Question 14: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 107
Table 20. Question 15: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 109
Table 21. Question 16: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 110
Table 22. Question 17: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 110
x
Table 23. Question 18: Most Common Response Categories .................................................... 111
Table 24. Macro Overview of all Research ................................................................................ 115

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1. Comparison of the Ten Largest Global Economies ........................................................ 2
Figure 2. Location of Coachella Valley within Southern California .............................................. 3
Figure 3. Coachella Valley Region Cities and Unincorporated Areas ........................................... 5
Figure 4. Map of the Coachella Valley ........................................................................................... 6
Figure 5. Income and Expenditures by Age Group ........................................................................ 8
Figure 6. Average Valley Household Income and Educational Attainment ................................. 10
Figure 7. Percentage of Homes Living at or Below 200% of the FPL ......................................... 11
Figure 8. Total Change in Valley Employment from 2010 to 2017 ............................................. 13
Figure 9. Change in Employment by Industry, Coachella Valley, Peak to Trough, 2016 ........... 15
Figure 10. Key Coachella Valley Stakeholders ............................................................................ 18
Figure 11. Direct Organizational Impact on Valley Residents ..................................................... 19
Figure 12. Research Methodology Spectrum................................................................................ 47
Figure 13. Constructing Grounded Theory ................................................................................... 57
Figure 14. Key Coachella Valley Stakeholders ............................................................................ 59
Figure 15. Direct Organizational Impact on Valley Residents ..................................................... 60
Figure 16. Summary of Tribal Land Holdings and Membership .................................................. 63
Figure 17. Overview of the USC IRB Process ............................................................................. 66
Figure 18. Good to Great Flywheel Concept................................................................................ 80

xii
Abstract

This grounded theory study evaluates the economic challenges of a small region located
on the periphery of a vibrant but distant economy. Despite this region’s distinctive
characteristics, its economic and social problems are not unique to this state or region. Referred
to as the Coachella Valley (Valley) and located in Southern California, the region is
economically fragile due to the dependence on one industry—an industry founded on the
discretionary purchases of luxury goods. This industry produces an abundance of low-skilled and
low-wage jobs, which offer little economic mobility, virtually no reward for advanced education,
and may be at significant risk of loss due to automation. After diagnosing the challenges facing
the region, tenured Valley leaders from the region’s most influential organizations were invited
to participate. These leaders came from highly dissimilar organizations, including municipal
governments, a tribal government, a quasi-governmental entity, and the non-profit and private
sectors. These professionals were engaged using a detailed and well-designed qualitative
interview tool designed to capture their in-depth perspectives on economic development,
strategy, and collaboration. The micro- and macro-analysis of all 234 interview responses
revealed previously unknown opportunities for regional collaboration, and through the alignment
of these dissimilar organizations, existing regional assets and resources can be more effectively
leveraged to produce better economic and social outcomes. In short, how can an economically
fragile region take steps to become economically resilient?

Keywords: economic development, community development, strategic planning, strategic
leadership, income inequality, equity, regional economic development, collaboration, tourism,
fragile economy, resilient economy, job loss due to automation, economic prosperity, disaster
recovery, COVID-19 pandemic recovery.

xiii
Executive Summary
This grounded theory research identifies the strategic priorities needed to transform a
fragile regional economy into a resilient economy. Leaders and stakeholders from a diverse
assortment of sectors throughout the Coachella Valley (Valley) were surveyed and interviewed.
From these surveys and interviews, theories emerged as to what is working, what has failed, and
what must change if the Valley’s economy is going to shift from fragile to resilient. These
theories, coupled with research into how to strengthen current collaborative relationships and
forge diffuse and diverse new ones, shed light on ways to create a more resilient and equitable
Valley economy.
In topographical terms, the Coachella Valley is defined by the San Gorgonio pass to the
west and the Salton Sea to the east and bounded by the San Bernardino and San Jacinto
mountains to the north and south, respectively. This research, however, addresses the collection
of political and economic units that cluster on the Valley floor. Together, the nine municipalities,
the County, and five tribal communities include a remarkable set of amenities and a long list of
challenges. The Indian Wells Tennis Garden, PGA Tour-designed golf courses, and the
Coachella and Stagecoach Music and Art Festivals are just a few of the world-renowned
attractions located within this desert oasis. Countless swimming pools, sweeping mountain
views, and perfectly manicured, destination-style resorts provide the backdrop to a region with
high poverty, underemployment, and limited economic mobility. While the Valley is an ideal
vacation destination for over six million visitors annually, the internal structure of the Valley’s
economy has become fragile and thoroughly dependent on this tourism. The goal of this research
is to better understand the details of the current economy and inform those who would design
and implement a more robust and upwardly mobile future. Much of the current context for the
xiv
Coachella Valley is predicated on decisions made long ago and under different circumstances.
With the modern economy rapidly and continually changing, one is motivated to ask if there are
different decisions that can be made today that will produce a better tomorrow. The specific issue
that inspired this topic was the apparent contradiction between the high level of success in the
Valley and the fact so many of its residents live on the edge of poverty. This dissertation is not a
strategic plan for the Valley. Rather, it is the culmination of a thoughtful and systematic
examination of the current context and a close look at the range of possible futures from the eyes
of key stakeholders in the Coachella Valley. Hopefully, through a deeper understanding of what
is possible, steps can be taken to realize something better. The five chapters of this dissertation
are organized as follows:
Chapter 1 provides a history of the region, its current demographics, and highlights of the
negative impacts of regional dependence on the tourism industry. These concerns are vital to
establishing the research questions needed to address the problems impacting the Valley. The
research questions identified in Chapter 1 are (i) What are the priorities needed to change a
fragile economy into a resilient economy? (ii) Do concepts like art and culture, traded vs. non-
traded sectors, industry clustering, and strategy play a role in transforming an economic desert
into an economic oasis? and (iii) What are the realities, beliefs, and priorities of key Coachella
Valley industry and governmental leaders who shape and set the regional priorities?
Chapter 2 establishes several key elements in framing the dissertation. A central focus of
the research is the role of collaboration and coordination in developing sound economic
development policy and doing more with Valley resources by using these resources more wisely.
As such, it is important to begin with a shared meaning of commonly used terms that are broadly
used but frequently misunderstood and often misapplied. It will also be crucial to examine and
xv
evaluate the foundation for the existing Coachella Valley economic development theory that is
responsible for both solid success and material socioeconomic shortcomings. Finally, it is
essential to couch what is happening in the Valley within the context of the large and mature
field of literature on economic development. The Valley is not the first region that has faced
challenges and tried to respond to them. Fortunately, scholars have been working on these issues
for decades. For collaboration, strategic planning, and problem-solving to be effective,
stakeholders must possess a realistic and shared understanding of the problem and a common
language to describe the difficulties and challenges. As such, Chapter 2 also establishes baseline
vocabulary and explores various economic development strategies.
The Valley resists simple analysis and narrative because of its unique characteristics,
diverse demographics, and numerous multi-sectoral stakeholders among the public, private,
tribal, governmental-sponsored, and not-for-profit sectors. The Valley economy is a complex
adaptative system that requires engaging the right stakeholders and employing thoughtful
analysis. In Chapter 3, there is a discussion on why Grounded Theory is the optimal
methodological approach to answering the research questions posed in Chapter 1. This chapter
also explains how study participants were chosen, and it discusses the interview protocol used to
standardize all interviews.
Chapter 4 provides an in-depth overview of the interview responses of the Coachella
Valley’s most influential municipal, tribal, quasi-governmental, and non-political leaders. The
interview protocol solicited and tested participant understanding of economic development,
organizational economic realities, and what, if anything, could be done to improve constituent
lives through strategic and collaborative economic development.
xvi
Chapter 5 evaluates the lessons gleaned from the macro analysis of all 234 interview
responses. While all participants had distinctly different professional backgrounds and
operational realities, responses converged on 4 central themes across 15 categories. Within these
themes and categories, the interviewees collectively identify concepts that, if implemented, will
improve the Valley’s economic resilience. The balance of the chapter discusses how the most
crucial concepts can be implemented to transform the Valley economy. The chapter concludes
with final thoughts on the study, what was gleaned from the research, and opportunities to build
on both the newly discovered and created momentum.

1
Chapter 1: Establishing the Purpose
The purpose of this grounded theory research is to identify the strategic priorities needed
to transform a fragile regional economy into a resilient economy. Leaders and stakeholders from
a diverse assortment of sectors throughout the Valley were surveyed and interviewed. From these
surveys and interviews, theories emerged as to what is working, what has failed, and what needs
to change if the Valley’s economy is going to shift from fragile to resilient. These theories,
coupled with research into how to strengthen current collaborative relationships and forge diffuse
and diverse new ones, shed light on ways to create a more resilient and equitable Valley
economy.
Introduction to the Coachella Valley
Founded in 1850, California is the most populous state within the United States.
(National Park Service, 2020; U.S. Census, 2020). The 39.5 million residents are responsible for
an annual GDP of $3.2 trillion or nearly 16% of the United States annual $20.5 trillion GDP.
Globally, California would rank as the fifth largest economy (Siebeneck & Wang, 2020; World
Data Bank 2018 Gross Domestic Product by Country, 2019). The following graph compares
California’s economy to the ten largest global economies.
2

Figure 1. Comparison of the Ten Largest Global Economies
Thirty-five miles east of Los Angeles, California, Riverside County begins. With 2.47
million residents, Riverside County is the tenth most populous county in the United States, the
fourth largest county in California, and 30% larger than the State of Connecticut (California
State Association of Counties, 2020; Enchanted Learning, 2020; U.S. Census, 2020).
Encompassing a portion of both Riverside County and San Bernardino County, the Inland
Empire is a 27,000-square-mile region with an annual GDP of $187 billion (Federal Reserve
Bank of St. Louis, 2020). Along the eastern edge of the Inland Empire is where the Coachella
Valley (Valley) is situated.
$21.4T
$14.3T
$5.1T
$3.9T
$3.2T
$2.9T $2.8T $2.7T
$2.0T
$1.8T $1.7T
0
5,000,000
10,000,000
15,000,000
20,000,000
25,000,000
Comparison of Ten Largest Global Economies
(State of California's Economy Inserted for Comparison)
3

Figure 2. Location of Coachella Valley within Southern California
With 350 annual days of sunshine, the Valley is home to nationally and internationally
recognized attractions. These attractions include the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival,
The Living Desert Zoo, the Palm Springs Air Museum, the Palm Springs Aerial Tram, the Palm
Springs Art Museums, the La Quinta Arts Festival, and Palm Springs Modernism Week. A short
drive away, Valley residents and visitors may access over 100 golf courses, nearly 1,000 tennis
courts, the Joshua Tree National Park, the San Jacinto State Park, the Santa Rosa National
Monument, and the Mojave National Preserve.
First mapped in 1853 by a government topographical surveyor working on behalf of the
railroad, the Valley was rediscovered by Hollywood elite in the 1930s (CVWD, 1968). The area
4
grew into a popular winter vacation destination for well-known millionaires, such as the
Vanderbilt and Hearst families; Hollywood’s top talent, such as Frank Sinatra, Bob Hope, and
Elvis Presley; and numerous United States Presidents, including Eisenhower, Nixon, Ford,
Reagan, and Obama (Black, 2017; Lamont, 2020). Bordered by the San Jacinto, Santa Rosa, and
Little San Bernardino Mountain ranges, the Valley covers approximately 410 square miles
between the Morongo Pass and the Salton Sea.
Once the Southern Pacific Railroad opened in 1876, the Valley's Non-Native American
population began to grow (Downs, 2015). In 1880, when the Valley was in its infancy, there
were 11,183 people living in the City of Los Angeles. By 1890, the population of Los Angeles
grew to 50,395 residents (U.S. Census Bureau, 1890). It would take the Coachella Valley 80
years, or into the 1970s, before the Valley reached a population of 50,000 residents (U.S. Census
Bureau, 1970).
The Valley consists of nine cities and five unincorporated communities. The cities, in
order of incorporation, are Indio (1930), Palm Springs (1938), Coachella (1946), Desert Hot
Springs (1963), Indian Wells (1967), Rancho Mirage (1973), Palm Desert (1973), Cathedral City
(1981), and La Quinta (1982). The cities, in order of population, are Indio (84,166), Cathedral
City (55,083), Palm Desert (52,988), Palm Springs (49,578), Coachella (44,247), La Quinta
(41,228), Desert Hot Springs (28,798), Rancho Mirage (19,217), and Indian Wells (5,683) (U.S.
Census, 2010). There are five unincorporated communities, with corresponding population
densities, Bermuda Dunes (10,322), Mecca (9,356), Sky Valley (2,078), Thermal (4,316),
Thousand Palms (8,806), and Vista Santa Rosa (2,926) (U.S. Census 2010). The following graph
orders the Coachella Valley cities and unincorporated communities by population and notes
corresponding year of incorporation.
5

Figure 3. Coachella Valley Region Cities and Unincorporated Areas
While the Valley boasts a year-round population of approximately 418,792 residents,
seasonal occupancy dramatically increases because of the mild winter weather. The Valley’s
“season” begins in October and runs through May, as temperatures range between 60 and 80
degrees. These mild winter temperatures attract so many travelers that some cities will see
population increases ranging from 20% to nearly 100%. In terms of long-term growth, the
Southern California Association of Governments estimates by 2040 that the total Valley
population will reach 601,000 full-time residents (SCAG Technical Report, 2020). This marks an
approximate 50% increase over today’s current population.
The Valley began experiencing significant changes in the 1950s. With a year-round
population of only 26,832 residents, improvements in air-conditioning technology made 122-
degree days bearable. Also, early in the 1950s, the region’s first interstate freeway (Interstate
84.1
55.1
53.0
49.6
44.2
41.2
28.8
19.2
5.7
10.3
9.4 8.8
4.3
2.9
2.1
‐
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
Population and Year of Incorporation for
Coachella Valley Region Cities and Unincorporated Area
6
10), was completed (California Highways Route 10, 2019; Challenger, 2019). The Valley now
had a direct link to the 4.4 million people living within Los Angeles County. During the ten
years between 1950 and 1960, the Valley's population grew 108% (U.S. Census Bureau, 1960).
Between 1960 and 2010, the Valley population grew, on average, 62% each decade (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2010; Worldpopulationreview.Com, 2020).
Despite encompassing an area of over 400 square miles, the bulk of the Valley’s
population is concentrated within an area approximately 10 miles wide and 25 miles long. The
balance of the Valley, approximately 140 square miles, is agricultural land. Presently, the
Valley’s agriculture industry contributes $1 billion to the Valley economy and is the second
largest single industry within the Valley (Darrel, 2021; Tudor, 2020).

Figure 4. Map of the Coachella Valley
7
As the Valley developed, growth centered around tourism. In 2017, direct spending from
tourism contributed $5.47 billion to the Valley economy(Tourism Economics, 2018). When
direct, indirect, and induced spending was combined, total tourism-related spending was
estimated at $7 billion, making the tourism industry by far the largest supplier of revenue and
jobs in the Valley (Tourism Economics, 2018). Tourism Economics, a tourism analytics firm
hired by GPS CVB, stated in the 2017 Greater Palm Springs Economic Impact Study that direct
tourism revenue between 2009 and 2017 increased by 53% (Tourism Economics, 2018).
As tourism grew, the Valley’s desirability as a retirement destination also grew.
According to the Buxton Companies, the number of residents 65 and older constituted 26.8% of
the Valley's population (Buxton Companies, 2020). See Appendix 1 for more detail. The Valley's
population of people 65 and older is 97% greater than the California average (13.6%) and 75%
greater than the national average (15.3%). In the cities of Indian Wells, Rancho Mirage, and
Palm Desert, the average age of city residents is 64.8, 64.3, and 57.1 years old, respectively.
Conversely, in the cities of Coachella, Desert Hot Springs, and Indio, the average age of city
residents is 26.5, 32.9, and 34 years old, respectively (Buxton Companies, 2020). This contrast
hints at the significant demographic-based socioeconomic diversity within the region.
What Does it Mean to Have an Older Population?
The 2013 Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Consumer Expenditure Survey illustrates the
financial impact of an aging population. As individuals age, their income and expenditures
follow a natural arc. According to this 2013 BLS survey, personal income and expenditures are
at their lowest for individuals under the age of 25. Individuals under 25, on average, earn
$27,914 per year and spend $30,373 per year. In these early years, spending outpaces earnings.
In the 25 to 34 age group, income and expenditures increase to $59,002 and $48,087,
8
respectively. This 25-to-34 age group is the second highest earning and spending age group. In
the 45 to 54 age group, income and expenditures peak at $78,879 and $60,524. In the 55 to 64
age group, income and expenses decrease to $74,182 and $55,892. In the 65 to 74 age group,
income continues to decrease to 53,451 and $46,757. In the 75 and older age group, income and
expenditures drop to $34,097 and $34,382. The 75 and older age group income and expenses
nearly match the 25-and-under age group. The following is a graph depicting income and
expenditures by age group.

Figure 5. Income and Expenditures by Age Group
Out of the seven BLS income and expenditure categories, the Valley has the highest
population (on a percentage basis) of the lowest wage earners and spenders. Further
compounding the economic reality of lower wage earners and spenders is the reality that as
adults age an increasing portion of disposable income is spent on medical care (Amaral, 2011;
Berkman & Plutzer, 2004; Cook & Settersten, 1995). As resident-based earned and disposable
income decreases, economic activity similarly decreases.
$27,914
$59,002
$78,385 $78,879
$74,182
$53,451
$34,097
$30,373
$48,087
$58,784
$60,524
$55,892
$46,757
$34,382
$‐
$10,000
$20,000
$30,000
$40,000
$50,000
$60,000
$70,000
$80,000
$90,000
Under Age 25 Age 25‐34 Age 35‐44 Age 45‐54 Age 55‐64 Age 65‐74 Age 75 and
Older
Income and Expenditures by Age Group (2013)
Income Expenditures Source: Bureauof Labor Statistics
9
Education Levels and Income
In addition to high populations of the lowest BLS wage earners, residents within the
cities of Coachella, Desert Hot Springs, and Indio have both the greatest number of residents
under retirement age and the lowest levels of educational attainment in the region (Buxton
Companies, 2020). Within these cities, 8%, 18.6%, and 21.8% of residents, respectively, have
associate, bachelor’s, or graduate degrees (Buxton Companies, 2020). Conversely, Indian Wells,
Rancho Mirage, and Palm Desert, cities with the highest number of retirement-age individuals,
have higher levels of educational attainment among their residents (e.g., 54.8%, 47.4%, and
44.2%, respectively) (Buxton Companies, 2020). The educational attainment of Indian Wells,
Rancho Mirage, and Palm Desert is two times to seven times the educational attainment of
Coachella, Desert Hot Springs, and Indio (Buxton Companies, 2020).
It should be no surprise that the cities of Desert Hot Springs, Coachella, and Cathedral
City also have the lowest average individual incomes. Within these cities, average incomes are
$46,887, $49,410 and $66,687, respectively. In the cities of Indian Wells, Rancho Mirage, and
La Quinta, average incomes are $151,671, $125,447, and $111,658, respectively, or between two
to three times higher than the cities with the lowest income earners (Buxton Companies, 2020).
10

Figure 6. Average Valley Household Income and Educational Attainment
A Growing Divide
Despite the luxury resorts, million-dollar homes, and a reputation as a premier
international vacation destination, in 2017, 20% of Valley residents lived at or below 100% of
the Federal Poverty Limit (FPL) (USC Price Center for Social Innovation, 2019). The number of
residents living at or below 100% of the FPL increased 21% from 2010 levels (USC Price Center
for Social Innovation, 2019). Additionally, approximately 45% of Valley residents live at or
below 200% of the FPL (USC Price Center for Social Innovation, 2019). The number of
residents living at or below 200% of the FPL increased by 11% from 2010 levels (USC Price
Center for Social Innovation, 2019).
The census tracts with the greatest number of residents living at or below 200% of the
FPL are highlighted in deep maroon in the following figure.
11

Figure 7. Percentage of Homes Living at or Below 200% of the FPL
To put FPL into perspective, a family of four living at 100% of the FPL would earn
$25,750 per year. As such, the same family of four living at 200% of the FPL would earn
$51,500 per year (Table 1). Individuals with incomes up to 138% of the FPL can qualify for
Medi-Cal (CDHCS, 2021). Compounding the problem of high poverty rates within the Valley,
California has (i) the highest state-level base sales tax rate (7.25%), (ii) the highest state income
tax rate (13.3%), and (iii) the highest cost of electricity across all energy categories (e.g.,
residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation) among the 48 contiguous states
(Cammenga, 2019; Federation of Tax Administrators, 2019; U.S. Energy Information
Administration: Average Price of Electricity to Ultimate Customers by End-Use Sector, by State,
2019). Beyond high taxes and high energy costs, in 2019, Valley residents contended with
median home values that were 27% above the U.S. median home values (e.g., $415,000 vs.
12
$327,400) (Cooper, 2019; Median and Average Sales Prices of New Homes Sold in the United
States, 2019). By April 2021, average Valley home prices increased to $559,750, or 61% above
the U.S. median home value of $347,500 (Median Sales Prices of Houses Sold for the United
States (MSPUS) (Q1 2021), 2021).

Table 1. 2019 Federal Poverty Guidelines
If low educational attainment, high poverty rates, and above-national-average living costs
were not enough, the Valley has not recovered the higher-skilled and higher paying jobs lost
during the global financial crisis of 2006-2008. The following figure, which captures 99% of all
Valley employment, illustrates the replacement of higher skilled and higher paying job
categories with lower-skilled and lower-paying job categories in the decade following 2008.
13

Figure 8. Total Change in Valley Employment from 2010 to 2017
Prior to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Valley’s unemployment rate (9.7%)
was 155% higher than Riverside County (3.8%), 131% higher than Los Angeles County (4.2%),
234% higher than San Bernardino County (3.4%), and 185% higher than San Diego County
(2.9%) (CA EDD Labor Market Info Div L.A., S.B., Riv, & S.D. Co Unemployment Rate,
2019). In a 2019 analysis, Claremont McKenna’s Rose Institute plotted total employment
changes for the Coachella Valley, Inland Empire, state of California, and the United States
following the global financial crisis of 2006-2008 (Table 1). Total employment surpassed 2008
employment levels in mid-2016 and has improved well above 2008 levels in the Inland Empire,
state of California, and the United States. In sharp contrast, Coachella Valley employment has
not had a stable recovery to 2008 levels and no substantial growth, unlike the growth
26.32%
20.72%
15.73%
14.29%
13.79%
9.76%
8.70%
7.95%
‐5.88%
‐10.29%
‐12.70%
‐15.15%
‐15.22%
‐15.79%
‐16.67%
‐22.22%
‐25.23%
$56,299
$45,027
$20,737
$40,036
$35,285
$81,799
$59,611
$38,308
$42,261
$26,861
$30,371
$56,052
$54,040
$76,859
$88,859
$61,301
$60,817
‐$10,000 $10,000 $30,000 $50,000 $70,000 $90,000
Manufacturing
Healthcare and social assistance
Accomodations, Food Service
Other service workers
Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting sector
Professional, scientific and technical service
Education service
Administration, support, Waste Management and remediation
Real estate, rental and leasing
Arts, entertainment, and recreation
Retail trade
Finance and insurance
Public administration
Information
Utility
Wholesale trade
Construction
Change in Total Coachella Valley Employment from 2010 to 2017
Sources: USC Neighborhood Data for Social Change & BLS
Annual Income by Job Type Percentage Increase or Decrease between 2010 and 2017 By Job Sector Linear (Annual Income by Job Type)
14
experienced by surrounding Metropolitan Statistical Areas such as San Diego-Carlsbad, Los
Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, Las Vegas-Henderson-
Paradise, and Phoenix-Mesa-Scottsdale.
The analysis below from ESRI
1
reflects the job market following the global financial
crisis of 2006-2008. The construction industry, historically comprising 6.1% of all Valley jobs,
lost more than 11,000 jobs. While the construction industry has regained approximately 3,000
jobs, this once-significant employment sector remains well below pre-2008 levels. The areas
shown in black in the following figure represent net employment gain over 2008 levels. While a
net employment gain in education and health services should be celebrated, caution must be
exercised since jobs gained in this sector are on the lower end of the skill and wage scale (USC
Price Center for Social Innovation, 2019).

1
ESRI or Environmental Systems Research Institute is a global supplier of geographic information system software
headquartered in Redlands, CA.
15
Figure 9. Change in Employment by Industry, Coachella Valley, Peak to Trough, 2016
While documenting the negative effects of poverty fall outside the scope of this research,
the suffering caused by poverty is profound and far-reaching. Systemic poverty is positively
correlated with poor health, positively correlated with child mortality due to child abuse, and
negatively correlated with children’s emotional, mental, and behavioral health (Brooks-Gunn &
Duncan, 1997; Farrell et al., n.d.; Kerr et al., 2017; Saunders & Davidson, 2007; Yoshikawa et
al., 2012). Children of unemployed parents have an increased prevalence of emotional problems
and chronic illnesses compared to children of fully employed parents (Frasquilho et al., 2016;
Reinhardt Pedersen et al., 2005). For working-age men, poverty and unemployment leads to
increased suicide risk, higher incidents of chronic illnesses, and lower levels of overall life
satisfaction (Dooley et al., 2000; Friedland & Price, n.d.; Kerr et al., 2017; Rehkopf & Buka,
2006).
In addition to the suffering caused by poverty, it is negatively correlated to property
values, taxable revenues, and community well-being. As poverty increases, property values
decrease, overall spending decreases, and resultant taxable revenues decrease. As a city’s taxable
revenues decrease, so does the city’s ability to provide essential services, such as fire, police, and
road maintenance (Scott, 2019). In Cathedral City’s 2018-2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial
Report, Tami Scott, Administrative Services Director, states, “Sales Tax and Use Tax is the
City’s lifeblood. In fiscal year 2018/19, it accounted for almost 44% of the City’s tax revenues
and over 34% of the City’s traditional General Fund (Fund 100) revenues” (Scott, 2019). As
economic activity declines, jobs are lost, and property values further decline, which accelerates
the decrease in taxable revenue. As essential services decrease, crime increases further
accelerating the decline in city revenues and economic health (Shafroth & Lawson, 2013).
16
Thankfully, increasing the quality and number of employment opportunities can help
decrease poverty, reduce geographic poverty traps, and improve city services (Baker, 2015; Jalan
& Ravallion, 2002; Jalilian et al., 2002; Partridge & Rickman, 2005). This research focuses on
improving the social, emotional, and physical health outcomes of Valley residents by generating
a greater number of intellectually and financially rewarding employment opportunities.
Statement of the Problem
Prior to COVID-19, the United States was enjoying the longest-running expansionary
period in U.S. history. Despite this national economic boom, the fragile state of the Coachella
Valley economy was painfully apparent. With pockets of unemployment as high as 16% before
COVID-19, the region was still thousands of well-paying jobs below 2008 employment levels
(ESRI Business Analyst data, 2019. Despite national unemployment levels being at the lowest
levels in 66 years pre-COVID-19 (Bureau of Labor and Statistics, 2013), the Valley's anemic
economic performance since 2008 forecasts that its economy will fall faster, go lower, and
recover more slowly during the next economic retraction.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this grounded theory research is to identify the strategic priorities needed
to transform a fragile regional economy into a resilient economy. Leaders and stakeholders from
a diverse assortment of sectors throughout the Valley were surveyed and interviewed. From these
surveys and interviews, theories emerged as to what is working, what has failed, and what needs
to change if the Valley’s economy is going to shift from fragile to resilient. These theories,
coupled with research into how to strengthen current collaborative relationships and forge diffuse
and diverse new ones shed light on ways to create a more resilient and equitable Valley
economy.
17
Research Questions
The primary research question is to identify the priorities needed to change a fragile
Valley economy into a resilient one. Additional research questions include questioning whether
concepts such as art and culture, traded vs. non-traded sectors, industry clustering, and strategy
play a role in transforming an economic desert into an economic oasis. What are the realities,
beliefs, and priorities of key Coachella Valley industry and governmental leaders who shape and
set regional priorities?
Being a geographically isolated region with dramatically different cities adjacent to one
another is not unique to the Coachella Valley. The broader contribution to practice will be to
create a generalizable model to improve the economic health of small-to-medium-sized
economies, which are capable of more but are not achieving their potential.
Overview of Research Design
This grounded theory research study interviewed non-elected leaders from the Valley’s
foundational organizations. There are many stakeholders who play important roles in
maintaining or growing the Coachella Valley economy. Several of these organizations are
outlined in the following figure:
18

Figure 10. Key Coachella Valley Stakeholders
Although each of these entities is valuable, this study focused on the organizations with
the largest direct impact on the Valley’s economy and residents. Accordingly, interviews focused
on leaders from all nine cities (e.g., city managers), the largest of the tribal nations (e.g., Agua
Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians [ACBCI]), the Valley’s only regional economic development
organization (e.g., the Coachella Valley Economic Partnership [CVEP]), and the Valley’s only
regional visitor and convention bureau (e.g., the Greater Palm Springs Convention and Visitors
Bureau [GPS CVB]).
The following chart analyzes organizational influence on the year-round residents within
nine cities and unincorporated areas.
19

Figure 11. Direct Organizational Impact on Valley Residents
Definition of Terms
Economic Development: The steps taken, strategies implemented, and investments made
to improve the economic well-being of a community through business attraction, retention, or
expansion. These activities will increase an area's overall economic activity, improve resident
and business quality of life, and expand the tax revenue received by governmental entities
(International Economic Development Council Reference Guide, 2021).
Economic resilience: The ability for a regional economy to withstand exogenous shocks,
recover quickly from shocks, or avoid shocks all together (U.S. Economic Development
Administration, 2021).
Economic Quality Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s economic quality pillar
“measures how well a state’s economy is equipped to generate wealth sustainably and with the
full engagement of its workforce (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
418,792
123,878
348,473
380,988
418,792
418,792
‐ 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
Oliphant Enterprises (Last 50 years)
Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians
Greater Palm Springs Convention and Visitors
Bureau
Cities
Coachella Valley Economic Partnership
Total Valley Population within City and
Unincorporated Areas
Direct Organizational Impact on Valley Residents
20
Education Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s education pillar “measures
enrollment, outcomes and quality across four stages of education (pre-primary, primary,
secondary and tertiary education), as well as the skills in the adult population” (Stroud, 2019, p.
13).
Enterprise Conditions Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s enterprise conditions
pillar “measures the degree to which regulations enable businesses to start, compete, and
expand” (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
Fragile economy: An economy in which economic conditions are easily disrupted by
minor endogenous or exogenous events. Consequences may include economic retraction that is
disproportionately greater or longer lasting than reasonably expected.
Governance Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s governance pillar “measures the
extent to which there are checks and restraints on power and whether governments operate
effectively and without corruption” (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
Health Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s health pillar “measures the extent to
which people are healthy and have access to the necessary services to maintain good health,
including health outcomes, health systems, illness and risk factors, and mortality rates” (Stroud,
2019, p. 13).
Investment Environment Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s Investment
environment pillar “measures the extent to which investments are adequately protected and are
readily accessible” (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
Living Conditions Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s living conditions pillar
“measures the degree to which a reasonable quality of life is experienced by all, including
material resources, shelter, basic services and connectivity” (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
21
Management of Companies and Enterprises: As described by the North American
Industry Classification System, the Management of Companies and Enterprises sector is
comprised of
(1) establishments that hold the securities of (or other equity interests in)
companies and enterprises for the purpose of owning a controlling interest or
influencing management decisions or (2) establishments (except government
establishments) that administer, oversee, and manage establishments of the
company or enterprise and that normally undertake the strategic or organizational
planning and decision making the role of the company or enterprise.
Establishments that administer, oversee, and manage may hold the securities of
the company or enterprise. Establishments in this sector perform essential
activities that are often undertaken in-house, by establishments in many sectors of
the economy. By consolidating the performance of these activities of the
enterprise at one establishment, economies of scale are achieved (Executive
Office of the President OMB, 2017, p. 485).

Market Access and Infrastructure Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s market
access and infrastructure pillar “measures the quality of the infrastructure that enables trade, and
distortions in the market for goods and services” (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction: As described by the North American
Industry Classification System, the Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction sector is
comprised of
sector comprises establishments that extract naturally occurring mineral solids,
such as coal and ores; liquid minerals, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such as
natural gas. The term mining is used in the broad sense to include quarrying, well
operations, beneficiating (e.g., crushing, screening, washing, and flotation), and
other preparation customarily performed at the mine site, or as a part of mining
activity (Executive Office of the President OMB, 2017, p. 105).

Natural Environment Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s natural environment
pillar “measures the aspects of the physical environment that have a direct effect on people in
their daily lives and changes that might impact the prosperity of future generations” (Stroud,
2019, p. 13).
22
Personal Freedom Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s personal freedom pillar
“measures progress towards basic legal rights, individual liberties and social tolerance” (Stroud,
2019, p. 13).
Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services Sector: As described by the North
American Industry Classification System, the Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services
sector is comprised of
establishments that specialize in performing professional, scientific, and technical
activities for others. These activities require a high degree of expertise and
training. The establishments in this sector specialize according to expertise and
provide these services to clients in a variety of industries and, in some cases, to
households. Activities performed include legal advice and representation;
accounting, bookkeeping, and payroll services; architectural, engineering, and
specialized design services; computer services; consulting services; research
services; advertising services; photographic services; translation and
interpretation services; veterinary services; and other professional, scientific, and
technical services (Executive Office of the President OMB, 2017, p. 461).

Safety and Security Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s safety and security pillar
“measures the degree to which war, conflict, terror, and crime have destabilised the security of
individuals, both immediately and through longer lasting effects” (Stroud, 2019, p. 13).
Shocks or economic disruptions: Events that impact a regional economy. These events
are demonstrated in the following three ways:
(i) Downturns or other significant events in the national or international economy
which impact demand for locally produced goods and consumer spending; (ii)
Downturns in particular industries that constitute a critical component of the
region’s economic activity; and/or (iii) Other external shocks (a natural or human-
made disaster, closure of a military base, exit of a major employer, the impacts of
climate change, etc.) (U.S. Economic Development Administration,
2
2021, para. 4).

2
https://www.eda.gov/performance/key-definitions/
23
Shallow economy: A regional economy predominately based on one industry. Retraction
of the one industry will result in an amplified retraction of the entire economy.
Social Capital Pillar: The Legatum Prosperity Index’s Social capital pillar “measures
the strength of personal and social relationships, institutional trust, social norms and civic
participation in a country or region” (Stroud, 2019. p. 13).
Assumptions and Limitations
While increasing educational levels improve individual and family incomes and overall
employment stability, the specific role of education in improving Valley resident incomes falls
outside of the scope of this research.

24
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 1 evaluated the signs and symptoms of an unhealthy economy. It diagnosed the
region’s economic fragility, discussed the profound and lasting negative impacts on residents,
and expressed concern that the Valley’s economic health would continue to decline without
strategic interventions. The Coachella Valley is not unique among urban areas around the world
that face these challenges. While unfortunate, it means that many people have tried to understand
the root causes and develop responses to them. The literature on economic development is
expansive and mature. The purpose of this chapter is (i) to review key research from this
literature that is relevant to the issues being addressed within this study, (ii) to think critically
about the Coachella Valley’s current organization considering its primary economic focus, and
(iii) to clarify frequently misunderstood and misapplied principles that may mislead or derail
important conversations. To be clear, the longer-term goal is to improve the Valley’s economic
future and the socioeconomic well-being of its residents. The goal of this chapter is to establish a
sense of what is possible and what is appropriate for the Coachella Valley by leaning on the
scholarship of others.
Introduction
In 1926, economic development began as a professional practice within the United States
(Denn & Webb, 2000). Since that time, economic development as a field has flourished.
Nationally ranked universities, such as the University of Southern California, the University of
Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania State University have dedicated economic development certificate
programs. In 2001, the 85-year-old American Economic Development Council and the 44-year-
old Council for Urban Economic Development merged to form the International Economic
Development Council (IEDC).
25
The IEDC administers the internationally recognized Certified Economic Developer
(CEcD) designation in addition to hosting annual conferences, conducting numerous workshops,
and supporting academic research. Over its 95-year history, economic development has become
a substantial and vibrant field. While not a precise measure, a recent Google Scholar search for
“United States economic development” returned 11.83 million results. A separate Google
Scholar search for “United States economic development and community development” yielded
11.37 million results. See Appendix 4: Google Search Results for more detail.
Despite a daunting volume of economic development-centric academic work, there
appears to be a gap as it relates to academically rigorous evaluations of the Coachella Valley
economy. Specifically, there does not appear to be any relevant research or analysis regarding
what is needed to transform the Valley’s fragile, tourism-based economy into a diverse,
equitable, and resilient economy. This research is an attempt to blend relevant academic research
with practitioner-driven, in-the-trenches experience to produce a meaningful and attainable plan
to improve a region.
Early Vision
While meaningful population growth in the Valley began in the late 1930s, it was not
until the 1970s that local stakeholders began to think more strategically. After moving to the
Valley in 1962, Richard Oliphant developed more houses, golf courses, and municipal programs
than any other individual over the next fifty years. In the 1970s, Mr. Oliphant realized that too
few people understood the Valley’s economics and potential. In 1975, Mr. Oliphant coordinated
the Valley’s first two-day economic overview. Despite drawing over 600 attendees, a remarkable
attendance even today, the annual event lacked long-term supporters and did not continue
beyond 1980 (R. Oliphant, personal communication, November 25, 2020).
26
While additional steps were taken to develop a strategic plan for the Valley, the most
significant event occurred in in 1994 when Mr. Oliphant, William Stiles, and Bill Powers created
the first regional economic development organization. These leaders realized long-term
economic resilience could only be achieved through thoughtful, strategic, and coordinated
regional economic development efforts (R. Oliphant, personal communication, November 25,
2020). It was this forward thinking that produced the Coachella Valley Economic Partnership
(CVEP).
Important Distinctions
Accumulated knowledge or “shared stocks of information” have enabled technological,
medical, and societal advances over the last century (Baumeister et al., 2018; Chataway &
Wield, 2000; Flexner, 1939). Accumulated knowledge, down to individual word choice,
improves shared understanding within and among groups (Baumeister et al., 2018; Farrow et al.,
2018). Individual words can become powerful behavioral motivators as was seen with Brexit
Referendum’s Leave campaign. Poorly chosen words can have disastrous results as was seen in
July 1945 when Japanese Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki used the word “mokusatsu”
3
in
response to the Potsdam Declaration (National Security Agency (b)(3)-P.L. 86-36, 1986). The
use of the word mokusatsu coupled with the Allies’ potential misinterpretation of the word led to
the bombing of Hiroshima (Farrow et al., 2018; Hatter, 2016; National Security Agency (b)(3)-
P.L. 86-36, 1986). Farrow et al. (2018) contends that “word choice offers policymakers an

3
“mokusatsu "'' •ir-suru, v. take no notice of; treat (anything) with silent contempt; ignore [by keeping silence];
remain in a wise and masterly inactivity. -Kenkyusha's )/New Japanese - English Dictionary, p. 1129” (National
Security Agency (b)(3)-P.L. 86-36, 1986).

27
underutilized, low-cost, and potentially powerful instrument that can be used to improve social
outcomes” (p. 571).
After nineteen years in real estate and economic development, the researcher notes that it
is no longer surprising that there is still confusion and misapplication of key concepts by many
industry professionals. Recognizing that human evolution is partly due to the development of
increasingly precise linguistics, prior to analyzing relevant economic development literature, it is
essential to establish thoughtful definitions of keys concepts (Baumeister et al., 2018).
While frequently used interchangeably, the terms community development and economic
development are fundamentally different. Like proper nutrition or diet is necessarily different
than exercise, the combination of diet and exercise is foundational to lasting personal health.
Economic development and community development are no different. Much like vigorous
exercise cannot undo the damage of a poor diet, the economic health of a region will suffer if the
region is only focused on enhancing a community’s attractiveness as a tourism destination
(Bushak, 2019).
Community Development
From the late 1800s, sociologists defined community as the way people are tied together
through tradition, interpersonal contacts, informal relationships, and particularistic affinities
(Storper, 2005). The International Association for Community Development (IACD) defines
community development as “promoting participative democracy, sustainable development,
rights, economic opportunity, equality, and social justice, through the organization, education,
and empowerment of people within their communities (International Association for Community
Development, 2018, p. 5). The United Nation’s definition of community development mirrors
the IACD’s definition (United Nations ESCO, 1956).
28
As Economic Development Director for Cathedral City, the researcher has seen firsthand
evidence of the impact of increasing trust and bonds between residents, non-profit organizations,
key businesses, and municipal leaders. As relationships between community stakeholders
improved and trust levels increased, the city operated more efficiently, commercial development
increased, and the social and economic health of community non-profits improved. These
dynamics have been observed by the researcher in other Valley communities over the last 15
years.
Unfortunately, the correlation of events does not establish a causal link. Due to the time
constraints of this study, links between closer community ties, improving levels of trust, and
improved socioeconomic outcomes are not explored. There is a large body of research on social
capital, community development, and economic development, including compelling articles by
Jessica Crowe (2006 and 2007) and Gary Woller and Robert Parsons (2002) as well as Robert D.
Putnam’s book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Crowe,
2006, 2007; Putnam, 2000; Woller & Parsons, 2002) .
For purposes of this analysis, community development shall be defined as: the
relationships and corresponding levels of trust within a community between and among
individuals, private, public, and the non-profit/NGO sectors; improved opportunities for higher
education, and improvements to the physical-built environment, which enhance residents’
physical, social, and emotional well-being (International Association for Community
Development, 2018; Storper, 2005; United Nations ESCO, 1956).
Economic Development
Like community development, economic development has a similarly broad but distinctly
different definition. According to a U.S. Economic Development Department white paper,
29
economic development focuses on “the generation of new ideas, knowledge transfer, and
infrastructure, and it depends on functioning social and economic institutions as well as on
cooperation between the public sector and private enterprise. Economic development requires
collective action and large-scale, long-horizon investment. Economic development addresses the
fundamental conditions necessary for the microeconomic functioning of the economy” (Feldman
et al., 2014, p. 1).
The California Association of Local Economic Development (CALED) defines economic
development as “the creation of wealth from which community benefits are realized. It is more
than a jobs program, it’s an investment in growing your economy and enhancing the prosperity
and quality of life for all residents” (CALED,
4
2021, para. 1).
The International Economic Development Institute (IEDC) defines economic development as:
The intentional practice of improving a community’s economic well-being and
quality of life. It includes a broad-range of activities to attract, create, and retain
jobs, and to foster a resilient, pro-growth tax base and an inclusive economy. The
practice of economic development comprises of a collaborative effort involving
industry, government and myriad community stakeholders (IEDC Council, 2021,
p. 2).

For purposes of this research, economic development shall be defined as the intentional
practice of improving a community’s economic well-being and quality of life. It includes a
broad-range of activities to attract, create, and retain jobs and to foster a resilient, pro-growth tax
base and an inclusive economy. The practice of economic development is comprised of a
collaborative effort involving industry, government, and myriad community stakeholders
necessary to improve the physical-built environment, and long-term economic and social
trajectory of a region (IEDC Council, 2021).

4
https://caled.org/economic-development-basics/
30
Economic Growth
Economic growth means different things to different organizations. The owners of a local
family-run business suggested that economic growth is increasing unit pricing. While increasing
revenues is a laudable goal for nearly all organizations, increased revenue due to increased
pricing is seldom sustainable. In the short run, revenues will increase. Since pricing is a function
of market conditions, small changes in market conditions, such as the addition of a new
competitor, a technological advance, or a shift in governmental policies can decrease or
eliminate pricing power (Liozu, 2019). When the pricing power of Under Armor, GoPro, and
Fitbit were eroded by lower-cost competitors, each organization saw significant decreases in
company revenues and stock values (Sun, 2018).
Economic growth should focus on increasing the value of manufactured goods or services
rendered and/or increasing the total volume of goods or services produced (Chappelow, 2019).
Through economic growth, additional revenue should allow continued organizational
improvement and more diffuse benefits among employees and within the region. While
economic growth must be part of the equation, economic growth alone is not a panacea.
Economic growth resulting from outsourcing or automation may inadvertently displace
employees and result in net harm to a region.
Economic Prosperity
Following the collapse of the stock market in 1929, Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt
were forced to make national policy decisions based on incomplete and fragmented economic
data (Samuelson & Nordhaus, 2000). Prior to the mid-1930s, no national measure of economic
activity or national income existed (Kuznets, 1934). In the mid-1930s, the Department of
Commerce commissioned Simon Kuznets of the National Bureau of Economic Research to
31
create national income measures. Presented to Congress in 1937, these measures ultimately
became known as Gross Domestic Product or GDP (Samuelson & Nordhaus, 2000). Since then,
GPD, or the total value of all finished goods and services produced within a country in a given
year, has become a valuable global measure of economic productivity (Dynan & Sheiner, 2018;
St. Louis Fed, n.d.). For his invention, Simon Kuznets was awarded the Sveriges Riksbank Prize
in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1971 (The Nobel Prize, 1971).
While GDP may be a useful tool to evaluate national productivity, GPD has its critics
(Dickey, 2010; Rosalsky, 2020; Stiglitz et al., 2009). A growing number of world leaders and
economists believe GDP fails to give weight to intangibles, which, while difficult to track or
quantify, are powerful predictors of residents’ quality of life (e.g., quality of national health care,
preservation or utilization of environmental resources, or individual economic wellbeing)
(Rosalsky, 2020; Stiglitz et al., 2009).
Created in 2007, the Legatum Prosperity Index (LPI) was designed to educate global
leaders and the residents who hold them accountable on creating pathways from poverty to
prosperity. The LPI “reaches into the political, the judicial, and the wellbeing and character of a
nation” (Stroud, 2019, p. 2). The LPI consists of 12 pillars, underpinned by 65 policy-focused
elements, used to evaluate countries’ performance in each area (Stroud, 2019).
The 12 pillars span 3 categories: societal, financial, and individual. The individual pillars
are: (1) safety and security, (2) personal freedom, (3) governance, (4) social capital, (5)
investment environment, (6) enterprise conditions, (7) market access and infrastructure, (8)
economic quality, (9) living conditions, (10) health, (11) education, and (12) natural
environment. Definitions for each pillar are provided in Definition of Terms section of Chapter
1. Through these pillars, the LPI creates a lens to diagnose societal problems, identify
32
opportunities, and establish broad priorities. While informative, the applicability of the LPI
pillars decreases the more narrowly-focused a governmental body becomes. For example, local
government’s discretionary policy window is limited to the legal and operational areas not
addressed by county, state, and federal legislation. Pillars such as (2) Personal freedom, (3)
Governance, (5) Investment environment, (6) Enterprise conditions, (7) Market access and
infrastructure, (8) Economic quality, and (11) Education are largely dictated by, at a minimum,
the state. While always informative, the LPI as a lighthouse loses applicability as the size of the
region decreases. Using all 12 pillars to identify opportunities and inform policy when working
with all 50 states in the U.S. makes the most sense. Attempting to use all 12 pillars to set policies
and priorities when focused only on the Coachella Valley region, a region subject to federal,
state, and county policies, makes less sense, but the LPI framework has helped identify key
priorities for the Coachella Valley.
For purposes of this analysis, economic prosperity within the Coachella Valley shall
include (i) the ability to obtain meaningful employment within a diverse array of industries, (ii)
being monetarily rewarded for advancing education and work experience, and (iii) creating a rich
professional social network. These elements are intended to translate into increased opportunities
for upward social mobility (Christensen et al., 2019; Stroud, 2019).
The Mirage of an Equitable Tourism-based Economy
Valley leaders from both the public and private sectors have invested substantial time and
money in building the non-traded or tourist economy. As a top-ranked tourism destination, these
investments have yielded substantial returns. On the surface, this near-exclusive focus on
enhancing the Valley as a tourism and retiree destination has served the Valley well. In less than
80 years, the Coachella Valley has transformed from an arid desert into a lush oasis.
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Within this oasis, there are now more than 120 golf courses, over 1,000 tennis courts, 240
miles of hiking trails, countless restaurants, 5 performing arts theaters, the nationally accredited
Palm Springs Art Museum, dozens of art galleries, several history museums, and numerous
public art projects (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2005; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006; Global
Tennis Network, LLC, 2020; REI Customer Base, 2020; Strege, 2014). Collectively, arts and
culture have been core components of the Valley’s development.
Arts and Culture as an Economic Development Strategy
As the Valley has developed, so has the Valley’s capacity to attract and support a rich
and vibrant arts and culture community. Within the Valley, there is a default assumption that
enhancing arts and cultural experiences is a sustainable economic development tool. In a 2003
article, Randy Cohen, William Schaffer, and Benjamin Davidson evaluated the economic impact
of nonprofit arts organizations and their audiences. The authors defined economic impact by
evaluating (i) full-time equivalent jobs, (ii) resident household income, and (iii) revenue to local
and state governments. The authors analyzed the American for the Arts’ June 2001 “Arts and
Economic Prosperity” study. At the time, this study was “the most comprehensive economic
impact study of the nonprofit arts industry ever conducted” (Cohen et al., 2003, p. 30). Currently,
the American for Arts organization is conducting its fifth Arts and Economic Prosperity Study.
Based on responses from approximately 2,988 organizations and 39,518 individuals from
the 2001 study, America’s nonprofit arts industry is estimated to have generated $134 billion in
economic activity, 4.9 million jobs, and $24 billion in total governmental revenue (Cohen et al.,
2003). Cohen et al. (2003) concluded, “economic development is perhaps the most persuasive
message when making the case for arts support to local, state and national leaders” (p. 31).
34
Fast forward to 2012, the Americans for Arts findings from its fourth Arts and Economic
Prosperity Study were published. The study pointed out that,
The nonprofit arts and culture industry generated $135.2 billion dollars of
economic activity—$61.1 billion in spending by nonprofit arts and culture
organizations, plus an additional $74.1 billion in spending by their audiences.
This economic activity had a significant impact on the nation's economy,
supporting 4.1 million full-time equivalent jobs, and generating $22.3 billion in
revenue to local, state and federal governments—a yield well beyond their
collective $4 billion in arts appropriations (p. 2).

The economic impact of arts and culture and the national economy is further reinforced in
a 2019 United States Bureau of Economic Analysis (U.S. BEA) report. In this report, the U.S.
BEA stated, “Arts and cultural economic activity accounted for 4.3 percent of gross domestic
product (GDP), or $804.2 billion, in 2016” (Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2019, p. 1). In a 2016
dissertation, Jarrod Nicholas Dortch described a once deteriorating Indianapolis, Indiana as a city
that was reshaped into a prosperous, socially, economically, and politically active neighborhood
through the use of cultural districts.
While there are often visible links between arts, culture, and a developing local economy,
others argue that the link between using arts and culture to build an economy are not causal links
(Delconte, 2013; Deskins et al., 2009; Dortch, 2016; Everitt, 2009; Fitzmahan, 2013; Lehman &
Reiser, 2014; Sterngold, 2004). In Arthur H. Sterngold’s 2004 article entitled, “Do Economic
Impact Studies Misrepresent the Benefits of Arts and Cultural Organizations?” Sterngold
explains that input/output economic modeling does not address substitution effects. While the
Americans for Arts economists use input/output modeling to track dollars spent on arts and
culture (Arts) as those dollars flow through an economy, the modeling does not and cannot
reasonably address the other uses or impacts those leisure-time dollars would have had if spent
within other sectors of the economy (Cwi & Lyall, 1977; Sterngold, 2004).
35
The downtowns in Palm Springs, Palm Desert, and La Quinta illustrate the interplay
between arts and economic activity. These downtowns are Valley-wide attractions. Their
respective designs and locations make these higher-density clustering of restaurants and retail
favorite places within the Valley to meet, socialize, and people-watch. These downtowns share
some of the characteristics that defined the successful downtowns of early 20
th
century America.
Early American downtowns were, “centers of highly concentrated activity, with streets and
sidewalks that pulsated with human activity, the highest land values in the city, and the full
spectrum of economic functions” (Robertson, 1995, p. 430).
While art studios and playhouses add to the diversity of activities, depth of character, and
experiential richness of Valley downtowns, art studios or playhouses are not the main engines
driving downtown success. This can be seen with the Indio Performing Arts Center located
within downtown Indio. Despite being led by talented performers, this valuable downtown
amenity has failed to reverse the decline of downtown Indio. Similarly, while the Coachella
Valley Reparatory Theater located in downtown Cathedral City is run by an experienced,
creative, and highly capable CEO and board of directors, downtown Cathedral City has yet to
reach its stride due to a lack of sustained foot traffic with moderate-or-above levels of disposable
income.
When consumers bookend a play with shopping or dinning, leaders cannot assume the
play was the causal factor for the shopping or dinning. Without routinely surveying play
attendees, leaders will never know the motivating factors behind that day’s purchasing behavior.
Was the play the catalyst for dinner or was the dinner the catalyst for the play? What other
activity(ies) did the attendees forego to attend the play? Correlation between activities (dinner
and a play) does not prove one activity caused another. Questioning whether there is a causal
36
link between arts activities and other economic events weakens the reliability of arts economic
impact studies (Everitt, 2009).
Stability of consumer demand is another important consideration when creating robust
strategic plans or investing public resources to create, support, or spur economic growth
(Alexander, 2006; Boeri, 1990; Ferber, 1955; Mahardika et al., 2019, 2020). While experiencing
arts and cultural events can be enjoyable and rewarding, cultural experiences by nature are
discretionary purchases. Spending on non-essential or luxury items is elastic (Tisdell, 2002).
When economic times are good, discretionary spending on luxury items increases. When
disposable income decreases, spending on non-essential items understandably also decreases
(Tisdell, 2002). While arts may positively impact a city’s economy, excessive reliance on the
sales of luxury goods and services leaves a region vulnerable to economic downturns (Adamou
& Clerides, 2010; Cárdenas-García et al., 2015; James, 2020; Tennant et al., 2007).
Beyond the demand elasticity for artistic goods, services, or experiences, input/output
modeling does not address the source of consumer demand. If the demand for arts arises from
local consumers, then the arts organizations are a part of the non-traded sector. Whether a good
or service is part of a traded or non-traded sector is a critical consideration in growing a resilient
regional economy.
Sources of Demand: The Traded Verses Non-Traded Sectors
Non-traded sectors produce goods or services consumed within a region. Non-traded
sectors provide for the daily needs of local residents, improve a region’s livability, and provide
valuable tax revenues for municipalities. Examples include, but are not limited to, local
restaurants, gas stations, education, real estate, health care, construction, government, dry
cleaning, auto repair, and gyms. Non-traded goods or services are generally not traded due to low
37
demand, impracticality of exporting, or costs to export ranging from high to infinite (e.g.,
bringing the Eiffel tower to a specific location is virtually impossible) (Hazari & Sgro, 2004;
Rauch, 1997). While the non-traded sector is the foundational economy for most regions, non-
traded sectors generally do not introduce new revenue into a region but instead circulate dollars
already present within the region.
Non-traded sectors typically employ low-skilled workers. Manager and executive level
professionals in the education, government, and health care industries are exceptions. Other
exceptions may include services like automotive or air conditioning repair, which may benefit
from junior-college-level technical training.
Beyond these exceptions, non-traded jobs generally do not require or materially reward
formal higher education. In an email interview with a corporate-level employee of a national
fast-food chain, this professional discussed an experience earlier in her career when she was a
casual dining restaurant manager. Her “general manager at the time strongly believed in track
record and experience to support demand for higher wages over an employee’s education. If an
employee lasted more than six months [in a position], it was a miracle. After the six-month mark,
the general manager generally only gave a one dollar an hour raise” (H. Boone, personal
communication, June 2, 2020). Even with a bachelor’s degree in management, this now
corporate-level professional “worked seven years for one restaurant, and even after being
promoted to a manager-in-training position did not receive a raise” (H. Boone, personal
communication, June 2, 2020).
Non-traded sectors face another challenge; they do not attract material amounts of outside
investment nor materially increase available capital within a region. Most small businesses
struggle to attract reasonably priced investment capital. This lack of affordably priced investment
38
capital is so widespread that the federal government has stepped in. To correct this market
failure, the Small Business Administration (SBA) guarantees private sector loans to small
businesses (www.sba.gov/funding-program/loans). With the strength of the federal government
as a backstop, lending risk has been reduced to the point where private lenders are more
comfortable providing affordable investment capital. The reduced risk in a high-risk environment
has freed up otherwise unavailable capital.
Lastly, organic growth in the non-traded sector does not translate to appreciable regional
economic growth unless local production efficiencies can be marketed to non-regional
consumers (Grimes, 2009; Rauch, 1997; Wacziarg & Welch, 2008). The selling of goods and
services within the boundaries of one country or to other countries opens up significant and
previously unavailable opportunities (Porter, 2003). Accessing traded markets allows firms to
respond to potentially greater levels of demand not present in the local market, and depending on
the circumstances, it generates more affluent buyers. Organizations serving only local markets
may reach peak consumer demand well before reaching its peak production limitations.
Conversely, organizations serving non-regional demand may find that demand far exceeds
current production capacities.
Capturing significantly greater product demand leads to significantly greater sales.
Increased sales lead to more revenue available for:
(i) Expanding into new sales territories,
(ii) Increasing current production capacities,
(iii) Improving product offerings, and
(iv) Employee development or expansion.
As organizations enter non-regional, national, or international markets, opportunities for
growth and competitive forces increase. As competition increases, companies must be more
strategic, improve operational effectiveness, and constantly innovate if they intend to remain
39
relevant. To meet these challenges, organizations must attract skilled, capable, and educated
employees.
Tourism: Traded Sector Strengths and Non-Traded Sector Weaknesses
Tourism is a notable exception acting both as a non-traded and traded sector (Hazari &
Sgro, 2004). With tourism, manufactured assets (e.g., resorts, golf courses, or museums) and
natural assets (e.g., mountains, bodies of water, or views) can be developed, maintained, and/or
enjoyed where they are located. Since the asset is immovable and thereby only experienced
locally (acting like the non-traded sector), the trading of tourism comes in the temporary import
of non-regional consumers and the export of experiences and memories (Hazari & A-Ng, 1993).
Accessing non-regional or even global tourism trade can yield significant financial and
social benefits. This access to global demand and greater wealth makes support of trade and
tourism liberalization financially beneficial for countries and regions (Adamou & Clerides, 2010;
Hazari & Sgro, 2004). In Portugal, tourism improved local standards of living and income per
capita (Soukiazis & Proença, 2008). Similarly, tourism within the Valley has fueled 80 years of
growth.
On a regional level, tourism provides the Valley with an economic impact of $7 billion,
$1 billion in tax revenues, and approximately 51,866 jobs (approximately 1 in 4 Valley jobs)
annually (Greater Palm Springs Visitor and Convention Bureau, 2017). Tourists and retirees
continue to finance the new developments and the continued operation of the golf courses, tennis
courts, restaurants, performing arts theaters, museums, art galleries, and numerous public art
projects (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2005; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006; Global Tennis
Network, LLC, 2020; REI Customer Base, 2020; Strege, 2014)
40
On a city level, the importance of tourism is apparent when analyzing the sources of local
tax revenues. During the city of Palm Springs’s 2018/2019 fiscal year, transient occupancy tax
(TOT) was the second largest revenue source contributing $36 million, or 17% of all city
revenues (Pauley, 2019). The city of Palm Desert, another popular tourist destination, received
$17 million of TOT, or 16% of all city revenues. Unfortunately, not all Valley cities are tourist
destinations. One growing Valley city reported in their 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial
Report a TOT of $143,216 or only 0.4% of their $35.1 million in city revenues (Pattison, Jr.,
2019).
On a small business level, the importance of tourism is similarly profound. In 2013, a
North Indio sandwich business tapped into the traded sector, and their business has never been
the same. “TKB” or “The Kid’s Business” is a 20-year-old, family-run sandwich deli and bakery
located on Golf Center Parkway immediately south of Interstate 10. Golf Center Parkway greets
weary Interstate 10 travelers arriving to the Valley after having completed a four-hour drive
through open desert from Phoenix, AZ. While TKB’s location is a small, leased space within a
dated industrial complex chosen entirely by chance, this North Indio location has dramatically
outperformed its former Palm Desert and La Quinta locations (e.g., poor sales forced the closure
of both locations). According to TKB ownership, Interstate 10 travelers and other Valley tourists
drive most of their sales. Since being featured on Yelp’s Top 100 Places to Eat in 2016, TKB has
had a difficult time keeping up with demand (P. Sippel, personal communication, April 2017).
While other restaurants are struggling to pay their landlords, TKB plans on moving out of their
current space and building a larger facility on recently purchased land (Dolan, 2019; P. Sippel,
personal communication, April 2017; Tucker, 2020).
41
Considering the way many companies responded to the pandemic, the Valley has a
chance to leverage current amenities to attract a new labor force that is high in human capital,
has more disposable income, and is looking for a better quality of life. With Los Angeles,
Orange, and San Diego counties less than one hundred twenty-five miles away, the Valley offers
a skilled workforce the ability to attend in-person meetings while residing in an area with a more
affordable and higher quality of life. This said, workforce and business attraction efforts should
be focused. In Good to Great, author Jim Collins discusses the Hedgehog concept and Flywheel
effect. Adhering to these principles will be critical to building sustainable and synergistic
economic momentum.
High-skilled employees and traded sector businesses think strategically and respond to
incentives (J. Roberts, 2010; R. Roberts, 2006). The clustering of interconnected businesses
within a region creates synergistic incentives for businesses, their employees, and the
communities in which clusters develop. Harvard Business School professor Michael E. Porter
discussed clusters in The Competitive Advantage of Nations in the 1990s.
Clusters
While vital for organizational performance and product advancements, clusters have an
equally impactful role on the geographic regions where they are based. Clusters are:
Geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a
particular field. Clusters encompass an array of linked industries and other entities
important to competition. They include, for example, suppliers of specialized
inputs such as components, machinery, and services, and providers of specialized
infrastructure. Clusters also often extend downstream to channels and customers
and laterally to manufacturers of complementary products and to companies in
industries related by skills, technologies, or common inputs. Finally, many
clusters include governmental and other institutions—such as universities,
standards-setting agencies, think tanks, vocational training providers, and trade
associations—that provide specialized training, education, information, research,
and technical support (Porter, 1998, para. 8).

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As described above, clusters are more than groupings of similar companies. The
Interstate 10 Auto Center located in Indio, California is a grouping of like companies (auto
dealers), but they lack the diversity and interconnectedness of related businesses. Most auto
centers consist of local big businesses requiring sizable capital investments, significant overhead
costs, and high annual sales volumes (in absolute dollars). Despite the size and capital-intense
nature of these businesses, they generally cater to local demand or the non-traded sector. The
Cathedral City Auto Center, on the other hand, is different. Due to the diversity of auto-related
businesses within the Cathedral City Specific Plan (e.g., parts, upholstery, fabrication, service,
autobody repair, and a future College of the Desert advanced automotive and transportation
logistics campus), the Cathedral City auto center is a business cluster on a small scale. Due to the
nature of the businesses (e.g., they generally only serve the local economy), the sales volume and
growth potential of the auto center is limited and subject to localized economic downturns.
A high potential business cluster within the Coachella Valley approaching traded-sector
status is the golf and tennis industry. With 120-plus golf courses and 900-plus tennis courts, the
volume of these amenities and supporting services, such as professional instructors, equipment
retailers, and orthopedic-focused medical clinics allows this business cluster to attract out-of-area
consumers.
From a macro perspective, regional direction can be taken from national-level strategy. In
Michael Porter’s The Competitive Advantage of Nations, competitive national advantage is
rooted in leveraging four environmental aspects. These four aspects are (i) Factor conditions, (ii)
Demand conditions, (iii) Related and supporting industries, and (iv) Firm strategy, structure, and
rivalry. Building a strong traded-sector comes where local firms that create or take advantage of
cost efficiencies, pricing power, and higher levels of non-regional demand open the door to
43
economic growth. As additional capital from traded-sector activity flows into a regional
economy, non-traded sectors benefit. As both traded- and non-traded-sector economic growth
occurs, additional capital is generated to fund for further expansion.

44
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 1 discussed the signs and symptoms of an unhealthy economy, and it described
the region’s economic fragility and the negative impacts on residents. Most concerning is that
without strategic interventions, it is likely that the Valley’s economic health will continue to
decline. The key research questions were borne from these concerns. Chapter 2 defined a shared
meaning of the common terms used in economic development with an emphasis on describing
key research efforts that speak to the issues in the Coachella Valley. Together, Chapter 1 and
Chapter 2 provide the larger contexts for this research endeavor—there are clear questions as to
what could be done to help the Coachella Valley, and there are clear analogs to previous efforts.
Chapter 3 lays out the approach inherent to the research efforts.
Specifically, this chapter discusses the methodological approach used to answer the
research questions posed in Chapter 1. Due to the Valley’s diverse demographics, core revenue
streams, and numerous multi-sectoral stakeholders (e.g., public, private, government-sponsored,
and not-for-profit sectors), the Valley resists simple analysis and narrative. The Valley economy
is a complex adaptative system that requires engaging the right stakeholders and performing an
in-depth, thoughtful analysis. Grounded Theory is the optimal methodological approach for a
complex and adaptive economic system. The interview protocol, which served as the basis for all
interviews, is discussed along with the methodology behind how the various interviewees were
selected.
Research Questions
This study identifies the priorities needed to change a fragile economy into a resilient
economy. Do concepts like art and culture, traded vs. non-traded sectors, industry clustering, and
strategy play a role in transforming an economic desert into an economic oasis? This qualitative
45
Grounded Theory analysis will explore the realities, beliefs, and exigencies of key Coachella
Valley leaders who set the regional goals which are shaping the Valley's future.
Types of Research
“Research is a type of systematic investigation which is empirical in nature and is
designed to contribute to public knowledge” (Trochim et al., 2016, p. 5). While there are
numerous research methods, all research falls into two categories. These categories are either
basic research or applied research.
Basic Research
Basic research is solely conducted to add to the body of human knowledge and may be
motivated only by intellectual curiosity (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Without specific and
potentially tangible benefits, some stakeholders may dismiss the value of basic research. In a
world with real problems and limited resources, research with no purpose seems like a waste at
first glance.
In a 1939 essay entitled, the Usefulness of Useless Knowledge, Abraham Flexner
discusses how “the pursuit of these useless satisfactions proves unexpected the source from
which undreamed-of utility is derived” (Flexner, 1939, p. 544). Flexner, who founded and led the
Institute for Advanced Study from 1930 to 1939 and was instrumental in bringing Albert
Einstein to the United States, discusses groundbreaking research by Professor Clerk Maxwell
and Heinrich Hertz. “Neither Maxwell nor Hertz had any concern about the utility of their work;
no such thought ever entered their minds. They had no practical objective” (Flexner, 1939, p.
545). The work of Maxwell and Hertz later became the foundation for modern-day radio
communications. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's Nobel Prize-winning physicist, Dr.
George Smoot, is quoted as saying, “People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict
46
what's going to develop from basic research. If we only did applied research, we would still be
making better spears” (emphasis added) (Witherell, 2011, p. 1).
Applied Research
The other main category of research is applied research. Applied research is conducted to
address problems or improve the practice within specific disciplines (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Research objectives may include identifying or clarifying known problems or identifying the
optimal solution(s) to identified problems so better operational or policy decisions may be made.
Examples of applied research could include the following: evaluating the impact of high fructose
corn syrup on childhood obesity; whether investments in public health education campaigns
within economically challenged neighborhoods measurably improve health outcomes; or
understanding the financial and social implications of short-term vacation rentals in residential
neighborhoods.
Whether research is conducted to explain a given situation, extend human knowledge, or
solve a specific problem or set of problems, researchers must choose how they are going to
conduct the research. Selecting the overarching research method, namely whether the study will
be a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods, involves several factors and even a little self-
reflection (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Choosing a Research Method
Concretely defining the research question will provide substantial direction on the
optimal research method. To illustrate, “Deaths and survivors in war: The Italian soldiers in
WWI,” published in 2016 by Fornasin et al., evaluated the lives of 62,000 WWI Italian soldiers
born between 1874 and 1899. Since all study subjects have long since passed, the only way
47
researchers could reliably (and practically) analyze the lives of 62,000 soldiers would have been
through an intense quantitative or data-driven approach (Fornasin et al., 2016).
Beyond the topic and availability of supporting data, the researcher’s theoretical or world
view has a material, if not dominant, hand in determining the chosen research method. While
researchers strive to limit personal views from influencing research, these personal views
influence everything (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Personal views influence what are seen as
problems, what are seen as contributing factors, and what are viewed as potential solutions.
Everything that is seen is filtered through one’s theoretical framework, including how one
approaches research.

Figure 12. Research Methodology Spectrum
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research lies on one end of the methodological research spectrum and
involves empirical observation, measurement, and theory verification. Quantitative research is
the core research approach in the natural sciences and is a foundational aspect of the scientific
48
method and deductive reasoning (Trochim et al., 2016). Quantitative research is ideally suited for
large sample sizes, clearly defined research questions, test theories, and investigation of causal
relationships (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Encyclopaedia Britannica Editors, 2020; USC
Libraries, 2020).
While quantitative analyses involve the mathematical analysis of numerical data, a
quantitative approach may also reflect the researcher’s worldview (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Muijs, 2011). The quantitative research method most often aligns with
the positivist, logical empiricism, or philosophical realism orientations, namely those who
believe in an objective, stable, and measurable reality (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Muijs, 2011; Trochim, 2020; Trochim et al., 2016). Positivists see the world
operating through cause and effect; they look for (and believe in) predictability and believe what
matters most are those things that can be observed and measured (Trochim, 2020). It is no
surprise that quantitative research or research designed to test theories identifies a-posteriori
truths and produces verifiable and repeatable results that resonate with positivists.
While quantitative research has the potential to produce meaningful results, the validity
of the results is predicated on adequate and reliable data. Unfortunately, the Coachella Valley is
a part of the Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario Metropolitan Statistical Area. Given the
significant economic and population differences between Western Riverside County, Ontario,
and San Bernardino compared to the Valley or even Eastern Riverside County, there is
insufficient data to conduct meaningful Valley-focused quantitative research.
Mixed Methods
The mixed-methods approach lies in the middle of the research method spectrum. In the
1950s, researchers discovered that combining the quantitative and qualitative approaches, such
49
as utilizing survey instruments and interviews, may allow for a more thorough exploration and
analysis of some topics (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These
pioneering researchers believed comparing and contrasting results from both approaches would
“neutralize the respective weaknesses” of each approach individually (Creswell & Creswell,
2018, p. 14).
Combining the two research approaches allows researchers to review large pools of
numeric data and test close-ended questions while asking the open-ended questions necessary to
understand and document the intangible (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To illustrate, “Theoretical development of servant leadership in a military context: A mixed-
methods research,” copyrighted in 2020 by Bahmani et al., interviewed eighteen (18) battalion-
level Iranian commanders and surveyed 570 general Iranian military personnel. The qualitative
portion of the analysis used Grounded Theory Method (GTM) for the 18 interviews. From the
interviews, the researchers produced a contextual model of servant leadership. This GTM-
derived model was tested and validated by the quantitative study of the 570 surveys (Bahmani et
al., 2020). By utilizing both qualitative and quantitative approaches, the study uncovered and
verified important servant leadership behaviors exhibited by successful battlefield commanders
(Bahmani et al., 2020).
While an effective research method, a mixed-methods approach was not used in this
study due to insufficient Valley-specific quantitative data.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research lies on the opposite end of the methodological research spectrum.
“Qualitative research is based on the belief that knowledge is constructed by people in an
ongoing fashion as they engage in and make meaning of an activity, experience, or phenomenon”
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(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 23). If quantitative research seeks to identify, measure, and verify,
qualitative research seeks to (i) discover and understand people’s intangible but real lived
experiences, (ii) understand the meaning behind these experiences, and (iii) inductively develop
generalized theories from their research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through inductive
reasoning, researchers construct theories based on observations and pattern identification to
formulate broader hypotheses (Trochim, 2020). Qualitative studies are more exploratory, work
with smaller populations, and should be designed to produce richly descriptive results (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Trochim, 2020).
To illustrate, a study published in 2018 by Kim et al. entitled, “Single Mothers’
Experiences with Pregnancy and Child Rearing in Korea: Discrepancy between Social
Services/Policies and Single Mothers’ Needs,” evaluated the lives of seven single mothers. Due
to the anonymity of single motherhood, the profoundly personal and differing individual stories,
and the likelihood that there are no public or private mechanisms for collecting highly personal
information on unmet needs, the only way to research the gap between services offered and a
mother’s needs is through thorough one-on-one or small focus-group discussions.
Qualitative approaches, like quantitative approaches, likely reflects the researcher’s
world view (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Trochim et al., 2016). The
qualitative research method most often aligns with social constructionist, phenomenological, and
transformative worldviews (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). “Social
constructionists believe individuals seek understanding of the world they live and
work…develop subjective meanings of their experiences…leading the researcher to look for the
complexity of views” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 46).
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Qualitative research is the dominant method within the social sciences. That said, there
are different approaches to conducting qualitative research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Some
researchers believe there are as few as five qualitative methods, while others claim that there are
as many as 45 methods (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This discussion
will highlight six qualitative research methods that could have been used for this study. These
methods include basic qualitative research, phenomenology, ethnography, narrative analysis,
case study, and grounded theory.
Basic Qualitative Research
“Qualitative research is based on the belief that knowledge is constructed by people in an
ongoing fashion as they engage in and make meaning of an activity, experience, or phenomenon”
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 23). Basic qualitative research is the most common of all
qualitative research undertakings, and it is routinely performed by everyday practitioners in the
administration, business, counseling, education, and health care fields (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Practitioners conduct basic qualitative research when they are interested in developing a
deeper understanding of how things work, generating new theories, or understanding phenomena
(Trochim, 2020).
Basic qualitative research includes interviews, observations, and document reviews.
Thankfully, basic qualitative research does not require sophisticated analytic software or
university-like settings. Basic qualitative research can be conducted by thoughtful non-
academics (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). An everyday application of basic qualitative research
could involve an analysis of short-term vacation rentals within residential communities. If city
staff were allowed to conduct a thorough qualitative study of relevant stakeholders rather than
52
relying on information received from the most vocal opponents, the results might surprise
everyone.
While a viable research method, the basic qualitative research method was not used for
this study due to the number of stakeholders, complexity of the Valley economy, and desire to
involve and derive workable strategies from key stakeholders.
Ethnography
Ethnography is another prominent qualitative research method. Tracible to
anthropologists from the late nineteenth century, ethnology is the study of behavioral patterns,
language, or other phenomena in the context of their culture (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Trochim, 2020). Initially applied in the context of studying cultural
groups in a natural settings over a period of time, the understanding and application of
ethnography have expanded to include the study of organizational culture (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). With participant observation and interviews as the primary
means of data collection, ethnographies are no longer reserved for studying semi-nomadic tribes.
The principles of ethnographical research can be used in everyday environments when looking to
understand and solve a potentially societal-based problem, optimize intradepartmental
operations, or change a company’s culture.
While a viable research method, the ethnographical research method was not used for this
study. Although potentially interesting, an in-depth and prolonged analysis of individual or group
cultures would not produce the data necessary to understand the perception of key leaders, nor
would it derive workable strategies that bridge key stakeholder interests.
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Phenomenology
Phenomenology is a philosophical school of thought focused on studying the lived
experience through the perspective of the individual or individuals experiencing the phenomenon
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Trochim, 2020). “Phenomenology
studies the conscious experience as experienced; the types, meanings, dynamics, and enabling
conditions of perception, thought, imagination, emotion, and volition and action” (Smith, 2013,
p. 2). The ardent phenomenologist attempts to strip away the rigid structure with which society
typically interprets the world in order to understand the real experience of an individual
immersed in a given situation (Trochim, 2020).
To illustrate, Petra Robinson, Barbro Giorgi, and Sirkka-Lissa Ekman published a study
in 2012 entitled, “The Lived Experience of Early-Stage Alzheimer’s Disease: A Three-Year
Longitudinal Phenomenological Case Study.” In this study, the authors “explored how one
person experienced the early years of dementia” (Robinson et al., 2012, p. 216). The study was
designed to “obtain a comprehensive set of data that would allow for critical, in-depth
exploration of one person's experiences” (Robinson et al., 2012, p. 218). By better understanding
the needs of a dementia patient in the early years of a diagnosis, health care providers and
policymakers could create programs that better address patient needs.
Despite being a viable research method, the phenomenology research method was not
used for this study. While interesting, research into the lived experiences of Valley leaders could
circuitously identify economic-related perceptions. Ascertaining the workable strategies to
improve the Valley’s economy that bridge multiple stakeholder interests would be challenging.
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Narrative Inquiry or Narrative Analysis
“Stories are the oldest and most natural form of sense-making…stories are the means by
which human beings give meaning to their experience,” and stories have been used to keep
cultures alive over the centuries (Jonassen & Hernandez-Serrano, 2002, p. 66). Narrative analysis
allows researchers to evaluate autobiographies, life histories, interviews, journals, letters, and
other documents for insight into a subject’s life, his or her attitudes, and the lived experiences in
the context of the subject’s life at a given time and place (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). When
studying written text, special attention is paid to interpreting the actual words used. “The
philosophy of hermeneutics, which is the study of written texts, is often cited as informing
narrative inquiry” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 34).
While a viable research method, the narrative inquiry or narrative analysis research
method was not used for this study. The goal of narrative analysis does not fit with the stated
research questions nor the intent of the overall study.
Case Study
Case studies are another qualitative research approach and are common in the business,
law enforcement, legal, medical, and social work fields (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Depending
on the case, a variety of both qualitative and quantitative research techniques may be utilized.
The defining characteristic of a case study is the in-depth analysis of a bounded system (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Case studies are focused on understanding one thing and understanding it well.
Case study research has a level of flexibility that is not readily offered by other qualitative
approaches such as grounded theory or phenomenology. Case studies are designed to suit the
case and research question(s) (Hyett & Dickson-Swift, 2014).
55
This research method was a potentially viable approach to answering this study’s
research questions. By virtue of this study’s sole focus on the Valley economy, the study could
be construed as a case study of small, geographically isolated tourism-based economies. Lessons
learned from a Valley-focused case study may have applicability to similar communities, such as
Sun Valley, Idaho, Truckee, California, and Sedona, Arizona. Ultimately however, there is a
superior analytical method, which would better equip one to lean into the data, to understand,
deconstruct, and identify important themes running across multiple stakeholder perspectives. The
case study approach provides an ideal tool to diagnose all that ails the Valley. For purposes of
this study, it is more important to go beyond identifying what is wrong and uncover the common
ground, new ideas, and more efficient ways to reorganize Valley resources to more effectively
transition a fragile economy into a resilient economy.
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that consists of “systematic, yet flexible
guidelines for collecting and analyzing qualitative data to construct theories from the data
themselves” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 1). Introduced in 1967 by Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L.
Strauss in “The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for qualitative research,” the authors
set out to identify how theories could be derived from data obtained from social research that
was systematically conducted and analyzed. This concept of discovering theories from
sociological research was a significant departure from the then gold standard of quantitative
research’s deductive reasoning approach. Prior to Glaser and Strauss, social scientists were
compelled to approach data collection and analysis with a priori theories.
5
Following Glaser and

5
A Priori: According to Webster’s Dictionary, A Priori is deductively reasoned, without examination or analysis,
formed or conceived beforehand. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/a%20priori
56
Strauss, researchers could approach sociological research with an open mind, free to interpret
and theorize about a given situation through the lens developed from that specific situation and
discover theories underpinning these events.
In the 1990s, Kathrine Charmaz, an early student of both Glaser and Strauss, began to
pull away from Glaser’s rigid interpretation of grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014; Mills et al.,
2006). Charmaz was one of several qualitative research experts who believed the original
application of grounded theory had become too mechanical, asserting that researchers did not
discover theories but rather constructed theories from the data through the filter of the moment,
the researcher’s previous experiences, and the totality of the research study (Charmaz, 2014;
Mills et al., 2006).
In 2000, Charmaz introduced constructed grounded theory (CGT). CGT entailed crafting
appropriate research questions, recruiting the right study participants, collecting the data (most
often through interviews), performing an initial data coding as the data is being collected, near
constant memo-writing throughout all stages of the process, performing detailed data coding and
categorization, and building theories from the researcher’s memos, coded, and categorized data
(Charmaz, 2014).
A unique characteristic of CGT is the use of the constant comparative method. The
constant comparative method involves frequently moving back and forth between the research
data, coding, categorizations, and memos throughout all stages of the interviewing and data
analysis process. This constant comparison occurs until the researcher reaches data saturation or
the inability to extract any additional insights from the data (Charmaz, 2014). The following
figure outlines both process and individual steps involved with CGT.
57

Figure 13. Constructing Grounded Theory
The Researcher
“Just as the research methods influence what we see, what we bring to the study
influences what we can see” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 27). The researcher has been immersed as a
student and practitioner in real estate and economic development for 18 years. Currently serving
as the City of Cathedral City’s Economic Development Director, the researcher holds a Bachelor
of Business Administration with a major in Accounting from Gonzaga University and a Master
of Real Estate Development from University of Southern California’s Sol Price School of Public
Policy. The researcher is a licensed California Real Estate Broker, the Chairman of the Board of
Trustees for Coachella Valley’s Palm Valley School (e.g., a pre-K through 12
th
grade
independent school), celebrating his 27
th
year as a certified Emergency Medical Technician, and
approaching his 20
th
year as a Reserve Deputy with the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s
58
Department. The researcher has been trained in interviewing techniques and has 25 years of
experience in corporate communications.
The researcher’s passion lies in serving others. Thanks to United States Fire Prevention
Ranger and Arson Investigator, George Geer, the researcher found his passion for serving others
at the age of 14 when he began volunteering for the United States Forest Service. Over the
ensuing 25 years, the researcher has come to believe there are few more important duties than
serving others. The researcher’s pursuit of this doctoral program and the desire to establish the
foundation of a strategic plan that could be used to improve the Valley economy is a
manifestation of these core beliefs.
Study Participants
Despite being a geographically small region, there is tremendous diversity among the
various sectors. In addition to nine separate cities, there are stakeholders in the private, not-for-
profit (NFP), government-sponsored entity (GSE), and tribal sectors (see Figure 14 below). Each
entity has a unique perspective and offers insight into what influences the Valley economy. In an
ideal world with unlimited time and resources, interviewing leaders from all public and private
organizations involved in driving the economy would produce intensely rich data. Practically
speaking, however, interviewing, analyzing, coding, categorizing, and theory building with over
100 participants is unreasonable and unnecessary (Charmaz, 2014). Reliable qualitative data is
obtained by asking the right people the right questions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
59

Figure 14. Key Coachella Valley Stakeholders
Understanding the practical limitations inherent within any study is critical; this study
focused on key leaders from the Valley’s most influential organizations. Influence was
determined by organizational reach and the number of residents impacted by the policy
decisions, actions, or operations of a given organization. To ensure maximum variation in the
research sample and thus improve transferability to other regions, it was determined that 13
organizations had the greatest impact on Valley residents. These organizations span the public,
private, NFP, GSE, and tribal sectors and include each of the nine cities, the Coachella Valley
Economic Partnership (CVEP), the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians (ACBCI), the
Greater Palm Springs Convention and Visitor Bureau (GPSCVB), and Oliphant Enterprises. The
following figure depicts the number of residents currently or historically (in the case of Oliphant
Enterprises) impacted by the aforementioned organizations.
GOVERNMENTAL
‐ Nine cities
‐ Riverside Co.
‐ State of
California
‐ Federal:
‐ SBA
‐ SBDC
KEY VALLEY
STAKEHOLDERS
TRIBAL
- Agua Caliente
‐ Twenty‐Nine
Palms
‐ Torres Martinez
‐ Augustine
‐ Cabazon
NGO’s
NFP:
● CVEP
● GCVCC
(Chamber)
● SCORE
● Berger
Foundation
YEAR‐ROUND
RESIDENTS
ACADEMIC
● College of the Desert
● UCR
● CSUSB‐Palm Desert
● PSUSD
● CVUSD
● DSUSD
PRIVATE SECTOR:
● Golden Voice
● Empire Polo
Grounds
● Various Medical
Groups
JPA’s:
● CVB
● CVAG
● SUNLINE
60

Figure 15. Direct Organizational Impact on Valley Residents
While all participants were accomplished senior leaders, educational attainment and
professional certifications varied. Below is a summary of participant educational attainment,
professional certifications and their frequency.
Educational Attainment Frequency
Doctoral Degree 2
Juris Doctorate 1
Certified Public Accountant 2
Master's Degree (any field) 1
Master of Public Administration 3
Master of Business Administration 2
Bachelor’s Degree 4
Associate Degree 1
Table 2. Participant Educational Attainment and Frequency
418,792
123,878
348,473
380,988
418,792
418,792
‐ 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
Oliphant Enterprises (Last 50 years)
Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians
Greater Palm Springs Convention and Visitors
Bureau
Cities
Coachella Valley Economic Partnership
Total Valley Population within City and
Unincorporated Areas
Direct Organizational Impact on Valley Residents
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The following table summarizes participant years of experience and frequency.
Years of Experience
(in given field)
Frequency
Less than 10 2
10 to 20 0
20 to 30 4
30 to 40 3
40 and beyond 4
Table 3. Participant Years of Experience and Frequency
Cities
The largest group of interviewees (nine) was from the city or public sector group.
Leadership within all nine cities consists of a five-member city council, city manager, and a
hundred or more city staff. For the purposes of this discussion, city staff refers to all city
employees regardless of department (e.g., from public works to police and fire to city planning).
From these three employee groups (e.g., city council, city manager, and city staff), city managers
have the unique position of leading, managing, and taking direction from five different
constituencies. These constituencies include the city’s (i) councilmembers, (ii) administrative
staff, (iii) community residents, (iv) business owners, and (v) other private, public, or non-profit
sector groups. This global exposure to a broad array of stakeholders affords city managers with a
fundamental understanding of their respective city’s internal strengths and weaknesses and the
opportunities and threats posed by the external environment. The city manager also comes to
understand the micro, macro, and regional legal, policy, and economic issues impacting city and
Valley stakeholders. Due to their global understanding, city managers are the exclusive focus
within the nine cities.
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Tribal
There are five tribes within the Coachella Valley. Membership within various tribes
ranges from a few as 6 members to as many as 806 members. Tribal land holdings, by tribe,
ranges from as few as 402 acres to as much as 31,610 acres. The Cabazon Band of Mission
Indians has almost twice as many members as the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians
(ACBCI), yet ACBCI has 21 times as much land. At 432 tribal members, ACBCI is the second
largest tribe (by membership) within the Valley, yet ACBCI’s land holdings (31,610 acres)
exceeds the land holdings of all other Valley tribes combined. Further, the location of ACBCI’s
holdings, namely 6,500 acres within the limits of the City of Palm Springs plus land in Rancho
Mirage and Cathedral City, yields a total land value that dwarfs all other holdings.
The ACBCI Economic Development department is staffed by seasoned professionals.
These professionals oversee the most diverse grouping of tribal assets within eastern Riverside
County. This team manages hundreds of residential and commercial leases and thousands of
acres of vacant land and most recently analyzed and oversaw the construction of the $30 million
Cathedral City casino. This team is solely responsible for diversifying, stabilizing, and
strengthening the tribe’s revenue streams for future ACBCI generations. For this reason, a
representative from ACBCI is an invaluable addition to this qualitative study.
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Figure 16. Summary of Tribal Land Holdings and Membership
CVEP
Founded in 1994, the Coachella Valley Economic Partnership (CVEP) is the Valley’s
only regionally-focused economic development organization. Beyond the county-wide focus of
Riverside County’s Economic Development Department, all other economic development
departments within the Valley are city-focused. CVEP’s regional focus, theoretically free of the
daily influences of local elected officials, allows for strategic long-term planning and execution.
Over the past ten years, CVEP has benefited from the knowledge and leadership of its current
leadership team. Prior to CVEP, a CVEP leader founded the Growth Alliance for Greater
Evansville (GAGE), a regional economic development and business incubation organization
located in Evansville, Indiana. This leader’s most notable GAGE incubation client is Ankur
Gopal, founder of Interapt. Prior to residing Indiana, this leader graduated from Stanford
University’s Master of Science in Engineering program, founded a computer hardware
Tribe
Land Area
(Acres) Members Primary Location
Agua Caliente Band of
Cahuilla Indians
31,610 432
Palm Springs/West
Coachella Valley
The Torres-Martinez Band
of Cahuilla Indian
24,800 140
Salton Sea &
Surrounding
Cabazon Band of Mission
Indians
1,459 806 Indio
Augustine Band of
Cahuilla Indians
510 6
Vista Santa Rosa
(U.I. Riv. Co.)
Twenty-Nine Palms Band
of Mission Indians
402 30 (est.)
Coachella
(Source:
AAANativearts.com)
64
manufacturing company, and then took that company public. This leader’s background is crucial
for this study.
GPS CVB
Established in 1989 as a joint powers authority, the Greater Palm Springs Convention and
Visitors Bureau (GPS CVB) is a critical public-private partnership intended to improve the
quality, frequency, and durability of tourism within the Coachella Valley. Participating cities
include Desert Hot Springs, Palm Springs, Cathedral City, Rancho Mirage, Palm Desert, Indian
Wells, La Quinta, and Indio. Current GPS CVB leadership is a hospitality industry veteran with
several decades of experience. This experience and strategic leadership has enabled the GPS
CVB to assist the hospitality and tourism industry improve visitor spending since 2009 by 52%
(Greater Palm Springs Visitor and Convention Bureau, 2017). GPS CVB’s perspective is crucial
for this study.
Oliphant Enterprises
Moving to the Valley in 1961, Richard Oliphant has developed more houses, golf
courses, and municipal programs than any other single individual (R. Oliphant, personal
communication, November 25, 2020). Oliphant helped found CVEP, GPS CVB, and was
primarily responsible for attracting and funding a $30 million California State University campus
located in Palm Desert (CSUSB, 2014). Elected to the Indian Wells City Council in 1976,
Oliphant helped transform the City of Indian Wells. In 1984, the city of Indian Wells had a
negative cash flow of $350,000 annually. When Oliphant left the city council, Indian Wells had
become the second wealthiest city per capita in California (PS Editor, 2015). While this
represents only a fraction of Oliphant’s accomplishments, his perspective was invaluable to this
study.
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Riverside County
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the District 4 County Supervisor was unable to
participate in this study. While the Supervisor is supported by a capable staff, it was believed
their perspectives may not necessarily reflect the supervisor’s viewpoint and opinion. For these
reasons, the County of Riverside was not included in this study.
Data Collection
All leaders were interviewed over the phone, or if technology allowed, via video
conferencing. Interviews were selected over other research tools such as surveys to optimize the
richness of the shared perspective, to gain as much insight into the leader’s thinking, and to allow
the leader to steer the conversation in the direction he or she believed most important.
Surveys
Initially, to reach a broader audience, data collection was going to include surveys.
Shortly after the pandemic-induced shutdown in March 2020, work demands for potential survey
recipients had significantly increased for all Valley economic development professionals.
Compounding the increased workload and the challenges of navigating previously unseen terrain
was the dynamic of working from home while facilitating any school aged children’s home
schooling. If this was not enough, the threat of job loss was real, and organizations faced unheard
of revenue decreases. In short, the last 16 months has been uncharacteristically challenging and
did not create an ideal research setting.
Survey instrument results gain reliability as the sample size increases (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). In a small region with a limited number of economic development
professionals, there was a concern that surveys would (i) not be completed, (ii) be completed by
someone other than the intended recipient, (iii) be rushed, or (iv) not be returned. While surveys
66
may be used in future research projects, the most reliable data would likely be gleaned from one-
on-one interviews.
Interview Protocol
This study was conducted in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Policy, Planning, and
Development degree at the Sol Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern
California. Accordingly, all research had to be conducted in accordance with guidelines
established by the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Human Research
curriculum and the University of Southern California’s Office for the Protection of Research
Subjects. As a part of USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) process, training was received
and exams passed through CITI on the following topics: (i) Defining research with human
subjects, (ii) The Federal regulations, (iii) Assessing risk, (iv) Informed consent, (v) Privacy and
confidentiality, and (vi) History and ethical principles. A copy of the CITI Program transcript is
included in Appendix 3: iStar Approval.
Following the successful completion of the required CITI training, all university
researchers must submit an iStar application, complete with interview questions, for IRB review.
The nature of the study and interview questions determine the extent of IRB’s evaluation. Below
is an overview of the IRB review process.

Figure 17. Overview of the USC IRB Process
67
After considering the study intent, targeted organizational positions to interview, and the
psychologically-safe questions to be asked, the interview protocol was deemed exempt and
approved for use on February 27, 2020.
The interview protocol consisted of 18 questions outlined in Chapter 4. The interview
questions were designed to be different but slightly repetitive. The potential for repetitive
answers was intentional since the researcher was interested in obtaining a complete
understanding of each interviewee’s working definitions of economic development.
Additionally, the repetition was necessary because the structure of the interview did not allow
interviewees an opportunity to revise previous responses. The researcher believed allowing an
interviewee the opportunity to review and augment previous answers would decrease the
authenticity of the initial responses. The researcher was not interested in which interviewees
were best at expanding answers either through additional reflection or outside research. The
interviewer was specifically interested in capturing the interviewee’s core understanding of the
subject matter (e.g., the understanding each carried around with them daily and use as a
foundation for decisions and actions).
Ten minutes before each interview, interviewees received an email with the IRB
Disclosure form and the interview protocol. The questions were sent ten minutes before each
interview to ensure (i) uniformity of receipt by each interviewee and (ii) interviewees did not
have time to research “textbook” answers. The latter of the two points is crucial. As discussed in
the design of the various interview questions, this study was designed to capture working
definitions of economic development, collaboration, and strategy. The researcher was not
interested in researched or textbook responses; rather, it was the understanding and definitions
the study participants used in their day-to-day management practices that were sought.
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Trustworthiness
With quantitative studies, research is judged in terms of internal validity, external
validity, and reliability (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Sound quantitative findings should be
reproduceable by future researchers using the same data and the same methods. Qualitative
research is fundamentally different (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Qualitative research is an attempt to capture an accurate understanding of reality at a given point
in time. Since reality is fluid being time, perspective, and filter
6
dependent, the exact replication
of qualitative research is impractical. Study participants, interviewers, and the environment are
continually changing. The inability to exactly replicate qualitative research findings does not
weaken its value or necessity. Validity and reliability or trustworthiness can be established
through multiple means including using rich, thick description to convey the findings,
triangulation of research results, clarifying research bias, presentation of negative or
contradictory findings, and spending prolonged time in the field (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
This study has established credibility, trustworthiness, and transferability through the (i)
thoughtful selection of research subjects, (ii) the uniform implementation of a comprehensive
interview protocol, (iii) the rigorous and consistent micro and macro analysis of all research data,
and (iv) the triangulation of research conclusions using data from all participants (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).

6
Filter refers to the political, social, and economic perspective of all involved in a situation, whether as a direct
participant, an observer, or a researcher.
69
Ethical Concerns
While the researcher has professional relationships with nearly all the study participants,
none of the participants were supervised by or in a contractual relationship with the researcher.
There were no conflicts of interests, which could have biased interview results. No moral, legal,
or ethical dilemmas were discovered during any stage of this study.
Summary
Chapter 1 established the purpose of this research project, namely identifying the
priorities needed to change a fragile economy into a resilient economy and answering questions
like does art and culture, traded vs. non-traded sectors, industry clustering, and strategy play a
role in transforming an economic desert into an economic oasis. Chapter 2 discussed the relevant
literature pertinent to this research endeavor. This chapter discussed why a qualitative research
approach and specifically a constructed grounded theory methodology was necessary to capture
and analyze the experiences of the professionals most in tune with current Valley economic
conditions. This chapter further discussed the strategic nature of the research questions, the
consistent and rigorous application of research procedures, and why study results are trustworthy
and transferable due to the thoughtfulness and rigor of the research.

70
Chapter 4: Analysis
This chapter provides an in-depth overview of the perspectives and responses of the
Coachella Valley’s most influential, non-elected, municipal and quasi-governmental leaders. The
interview process was an opportunity to go beyond merely cataloging actions and collecting
council or board-curated position statements. The bigger opportunity included (i) uncovering
actual operational understandings; (ii) identifying alignment in thoughts, actions, or goals among
stakeholders, and (iii) raising interviewee awareness of regional fragility and economic
opportunity.
The strength of interview protocols is established both by what was asked and what was
not asked. Improving the economic condition of the Coachella Valley, while interesting, is prima
facie intractable. For meaningful progress to be made, the broader question needs to be broken
down into manageable (and researchable) components. This study was an attempt to add to the
body of knowledge surrounding leader-based understanding of the current economic conditions,
what economic success in the Valley can look like, and what steps can be taken to improve
economic conditions. Relevant topics such as (i) the availability of quality education; (ii) food,
housing, and economic security; and (iii) environmental (CEQA) restrictions and their impact on
economic development, which all play into regional economic productivity. Despite the
researcher’s interest in these topics, entire dissertations could be written on each of these areas.
Out of necessary discipline and a sense of duty, the researcher stayed focused on addressing the
research questions outlined in earlier chapters.
To uncover actual operational understandings of economic development, the interview
protocol was given to the interviewees ten minutes before each interview started. This ten-minute
window was designed to allow the interviewee just enough time to become familiar with the
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questions, but not enough time to research or prepare potential answers. Obtaining unscripted
responses was a research priority. It was important to obtain and understand the authentic
perceptions and beliefs interviewees used to inform the many small decisions made daily. The
research was not interested in testing interviewee research skills or the ability to regurgitate
textbook-style answers. While many organizations set directional goals every year, two years, or
in the case of General Plan updates, twenty years, how leaders manage the thousands of small
decisions along the way shape the real character and direction of the organization.
Beyond the timing of protocol delivery, the questionnaire was divided into two sections.
The first section consisted of eight open-ended questions. The second section consisted of ten
yes/no, ordinal scale, and short-answer questions. Questions 1 through 8 focused interviewees on
economic development but were designed to allow the interviewees to direct the conversation.
This approach was not without risk, as interviewees could have treated these open-ended
questions designed to solicit rich dialogue like close-ended questions, making the researcher
work for any detail. Only one interviewee provided anemic responses on the first several
questions. This same interviewee became more responsive in later questions and provided some
of the more meaningful feedback received.
In retrospect, while there could have been greater diversity among questions 1 through 8,
the protocol was successful. Interviewees directed the conversation, spoke to what they believed
was important, and identified opportunities for strategy and collaboration. Additionally,
interviewees revealed either individual or organizational economic development-related blind
spots. This candor was important in both (i) gathering rich data to derive and base future
recommendations and (ii) identifying the knowledge or perception gaps that must be filled.
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Questions 9 through 18 were valuable for strengthening the researcher’s baseline
understanding of each participant’s position. Additional information was gathered, but the
information was necessarily limited compared to questions 1 through 8. Since only 13
individuals were interviewed, there were too few responses to provide meaningful quantitative
analysis. Even with limiting the number of open-ended questions, interview durations spanned
between 45 to 120 minutes with an average of about 80 minutes.
Despite the focused approach and narrowly defined research questions, asking 13
interviewees 18 questions produced 234 responses and a sizable volume of data. Since coding,
categorizing, summarizing, and conveying this volume of data was no small undertaking, the
researcher believed the framework utilized by Dr. Deborah Natoli in her own dissertation
research project entitled, “Phenomenological Investigation of Teacher Personality as Evidenced
in Advisory Relationships” was an optimal way to clearly convey a large volume of complex
information (2000).
Question 1
Question 1 of the interview protocol asked the following: “What does economic
development mean to you?” This question produced the most diverse array of responses of all 18
interview questions. Answers ranged from lengthy and broad to brief and focused. All responses
highlighted the crucial role economic development plays in supporting and improving the local
economy. All participants addressed at least one of the following categories: (i) need for
intentional and strategic focus, (ii) the diverse and far-reaching impact of economic
development, (iii) creation of jobs and wealth, (iv) the link between economic development, city
revenues, and city services, (v) political considerations, and (vi) retention of existing businesses.
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Question 1:
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Intentional and Strategic Focus 16 12 92%
Diverse and Far-Reaching Impacts of Economic
Development
14 11 85%
Creation of Jobs and Wealth 10 9 69%
Link between Economic Development, City
Revenue, and City Services
7 4 31%
Political Considerations 5 5 38%
Retention of Existing Businesses 2 2 15%
Table 4. Question 1: Most Common Response Categories
Intentional and Strategic Focus
Across virtually all participants, intentionality and strategy were dominant and
reoccurring themes. Ninety-two (92%) percent of participants either directly or indirectly stated
that economic development is a critical activity requiring intentional and strategic effort. One
participant explained that economic development occurred by “taking proactive steps to cause
job and wealth creation.” Another participant explained that economic development involved
“deliberate actions taken to stimulate responses in the business community that achieve regional
stakeholder goals.” A third participant explained how those people involved with economic
development must ask themselves:
How are we being strategic in creating an economy that will generate a
sustainable economy? How do we invest in the local economy through policy,
incentivizing certain opportunities, and investing into a particular area, for
example, the Highway 111 corridor? How are we going to make our economy
better going forward? How do we keep our economy sustainable now and in the
long-term?

One participant discussed how economic development goals “can be focused on a
neighborhood, city, region, nation, or can be as broad as multinational. Some goals may be best
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served by only focusing on one region...economic development is partly opportunity-driven,
planned strategy, and other activities and initiatives dealing with collaboration and relationship
building.” Another participant reinforced the importance of collaboration: “economic
development can and should consist of goals that stimulate and induce collaboration.”
In another comment, one participant discussed the need for strategic economic
development and how governing bodies have gotten away from proactive economic development
strategy. Given the backdrop of current societal ills, such as youth-based social media addiction,
state-wide housing shortages, and data privacy concerns, this participant hinted at the potential
for dire consequences of uncontrolled economic growth:
In the past, cities, counties, and the state set aside time to plan strategic
development and economic growth. In recent decades, the cart, in this case the
red-hot economy, has gotten in front of the horse leading the way (e.g., the city,
county, and state). The economy is putting things into motion that the government
has not even contemplated let alone planned for or prepared. Is this the best way
to do things?

Diverse and Far-Reaching Impact of Economic Development
One municipal interviewee pointed out the broad nature of economic development:
“economic development has a very broad definition… and includes land-use decisions, zoning
codes, incentive programs, and governance of development with a city. Economic development
even extends to building and development impact and the marketing of the city.”
Eleven responses, or 85% of the participants, either directly or indirectly discussed the
far-reaching impacts of economic development. One participant discussed the role economic
development can play in achieving goals ranging from neighborhood-level to multinational
goals: “economic development can be goals-focused only on a neighborhood, city, region, nation
or can be as broad as multinational, and…it can and should consist of goals that stimulate and
induce collaboration.” Another participant explained, “Economic development is not short-term,
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open, and closed. Economic development is a long-term, multifaceted process involving many
layers. Economic development is about impacting the way people work, live, play, operate, earn
their living, feed their families, and basically exist.”
Seven responses, or 54% of the participants, specifically discussed the role policy
decisions play in economic development. One participant discussed how general plan and zoning
decisions, down to their specific project approvals, could permanently impact the financial health
of a community:
Effective economic development also means maximizing the highest and best use
of available properties. If raw land becomes housing, the land will never be able
to be used for anything else. So, when at the raw land stage, this is the time to try
for some sort of economic development for the city's benefit.

Creation of Jobs and Wealth
As it relates to jobs and wealth, one municipal interviewee suggested, “Genuine
economic development means creating or bringing in wealth-creating businesses that lift the bar
for the entire population.”
Out of the 13 participants, 69% specifically identified job creation as one of the duties or
goals of economic development. Only six city managers, or 67%, indicated job creation was an
important economic development goal or duty. Three out of four, or 75%, of the remaining
participants (e.g., private sector, NPO, tribal, and JPA leaders) identified job creation as a
priority. All participants from cities with an average median income under $70,000 identified
jobs as a priority. Only one participant from a city with an average median income of over
$70,000 identified great jobs as an important outcome of economic development.
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One city manager stated,
Economic development is a way of providing higher-paying jobs and raising your
median income to a point where people cannot only live in the community, but
also work in the community. Economic development provides for the services
necessary to make your community a great place to live and to raise your median
income.

Another participant explained the vital role economic development plays,
Specifically, within the Coachella Valley, economic development is the third leg
of the stool. We have both agriculture and hospitality as our primary sources of
revenue. We need those third-leg, year-round industries. Hospitality and
agriculture tend to be seasonal. We need something that is not seasonal, and we
can only do that through economic development. We need the expansion of jobs
and businesses that are year-round.

Another city manager cautioned not to confuse the role of genuine economic development:
Economic development means creating wealth. Improving the quality of resident
lives by having the latest In-N-Out Burger or Chick-fil-A is great, but these
efforts should not be confused with genuine economic development. Genuine
economic development means creating or bringing in wealth-creating businesses
that lift the bar for the entire population.

Link Between Economic Development, Revenue, and City Services
One municipal interviewee mentioned the link between economic development
and revenue streams:
Economic development is the opportunity to grow your service delivery systems.
You cannot provide the services that are needed for a city unless you continue to
provide sustainable, renewable revenue sources. With economic development,
you are constantly looking for ways to bring in revenue that will sustain the
economy through the ups and downs, the ebbs and flows. Economic development
allows you to build up reserves so when key revenue streams fall short, the city
does not become service insolvent.

Four responses, or 31% of the participants, discussed the connection between economic
development and supporting city services. No non-city leaders and none of the tribal, NFP, JPA,
or private sector leaders specifically mentioned economic development supporting or enhancing
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city revenues. Of the four responses, two came from city managers who lead economically
challenged cities, and two came from city managers who lead two of the more affluent cities.
One participant discussed economic development in terms of “slowing down the daily
leakage of millions of dollars and…providing for the services necessary to make the community
a great place to live, and to raise your median income.”
One participant with a solid background in municipal finance reinforced the fundamental
role economic development plays in a city’s financial solvency:
Bringing a robust mix of revenues into the city, not just taxes, is critical. When
you dive into sales tax, it becomes having a good mix of businesses that will
support the economy during the good and bad times and will generate good wages
so that residents can spend their incomes back in your city. When I think about
economic development, I am thinking about the future.

Political Considerations
When discussing political considerations, one non-municipal interviewee suggested that
“Economic development requires very firm and focused political leadership on both the public,
elected side and with respect to the informal political structure, or the structure that actually runs
the communities, such as not-for-profits, chambers of commerce, etc.”
Five (5) participants out of 13, or 38%, specifically referenced the role politics plays in
economic development. How participants approached the political nature of economic
development differed. One participant strongly asserted the critical role politics plays in
successful economic development by saying, “Prior to taking corrective steps to fix holes in your
economy, you must build political will. Once you have the political will, you can create the
public/private partnerships necessary to achieve your goals. It is a tapestry.”
In a more middle-of-the-road response, one participant discussed the role politics plays in
economic development by establishing the end-game of economic development strategy: “Each
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city is unique and has unique economic development needs, and it should be able to define their
own destiny.” A third participant discussed the role politics should not play in economic
development, as “coordination, collaboration, and cooperation should not be something driven
by external, public, political agendas tied to political cycles.”
Retention of Existing Businesses
“Small businesses are the lifeblood of the U.S. economy: they create two-thirds of net
new jobs and are the driving force behind U.S. innovation and competitiveness”
7
(SBA Office of
Advocacy, 2018, para. 1). Despite these statistics, only two participants specifically discussed
the role economic development plays in business retention. One participant explained,
“Economic development means retaining the businesses you have and equipping them with the
tools, dedication, and resources they need to continue expanding so they can do well. The city in
turn benefits by having great jobs and businesses within the city offering great products.”
Many of the discussions with the interviewees were meaningful. As evidenced in this
chapter, many participants offered valuable insight. In a conversation that oscillated between
deeply intellectual and summarily dismissive, one participant stated, “Economic development is
the creation of something out of nothing.” This single comment resonates as a remarkable
distillation of economic development.
Question 2
Question 2 of the interview protocol asked the following: “In your current role, how do
you influence economic development within your organization?” This question produced a
combination of both predictable and surprising responses. All responses tended to be

7
https://advocacy.sba.gov/2018/12/19/advocacy-releases-small-business-gdp-1998-2014/
79
comprehensive, likely due to each participant's critical leadership and advisory role within their
respective organizations. All participants influenced economic development by acting in at least
one of the following categories: (i) Proactive and intentional action, (ii) Strategic planning, (iii)
Council education, (iv) Private sector collaboration, (v) Policy recommendations, and (vi)
Incentivizing development.
Question 2
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Proactive & Intentional Action 15 13 100%
Strategic Planning 14 11 85%
Council Education 9 9 69%
Private Sector Collaboration 6 6 46%
Policy Recommendations 5 5 38%
Incentivizing Development 5 5 38%
Table 5. Question 2: Most Common Response Categories
Proactive and Intentional Action
One city manager stated, “economic development is not something that happens by
accident. You have to focus on enticing businesses and the services that you would like to have
provided to the community and the revenue sources that you would like your community to
depend upon.” All thirteen participants either directly or indirectly stated that economic
development results from proactive and intentional action. Out of 13 responses, proactive and
intentional action was mentioned 15 times. “If we make the right changes to how we do business
and how we operate, we can achieve our greater potential. We work to create an environment
that is conducive to change.” Another participant sees economic development as “moving the
organization from being a passive recipient to a proactive participant.” One participant
explained, “To break free from the old way of thinking, we showed leadership in dealing with
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the barriers holding us back. We then went on to show them how to remove those barriers. Once
leadership began to see the light, small successes led to bigger success stories.” This participant’s
experience with intentional, strategic action over time resulting in small wins, which led to more
significant victories, parallels the Flywheel concept (shown in the figure below) introduced by
Jim Collins in his book Good to Great (Collins, 2001, p. 164).

Figure 18. Good to Great Flywheel Concept
This same participant went on to say, “If we make the right changes to how we do
business and how we operate, we can achieve our greater potential. We work to create an
environment that is conducive to change.” Another participant not involved in the day-to-day
work of economic development stated,
Since I am not directly involved with day-to-day economic development, my role
consists of facilitating development. I may help overcome obstacles within a
department, help the developer or business owner feel like they have support at
the highest level, and help shepherd a project through the council approval
process.

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One city manager stated, “One of my jobs is to work with [city] council to determine what
businesses they would like in their community and work to make that a reality.”
Strategic Planning
One participant mentioned that “We identify where our weaknesses are and develop a
strategic plan to overcome them.” The Cambridge Dictionary defines strategy as, “a detailed
plan for achieving success in situations such as war, politics, business, industry, or sports or as a
way of doing or dealing with something.”
8
It follows that strategic planning was mentioned 14
times, or 85%, by 11 of the 13 participants. One municipal interviewee said,
After earning the confidence of the city council by accomplishing key objectives,
I focused on a number of different activities. These activities included getting city
staff to think strategically…and attempting to provide strategic guidance and
direction to key groups in ways that harnessed their unique capabilities while
avoiding interference between the groups.

A non-municipal interviewee said, “We research, use data, and create strategic plans to visualize
the Valley 5, 10, 15, and 20 years from now.”
Council Education
One municipal interviewee said,
My role also involves helping policymakers understand that economic
development is not landing the new Car Max, the new Bed, Bath and Beyond, or a
new movie theater. While those have a lot of sex appeal, they have no substance
from an economic development standpoint.

Nine of the 13 participants, or 69%, discussed their role in educating city council
members. Curiously, only five of the nine city managers, or 56%, mentioned council education
as an element of economic development. One city manager explained, as an “advisor to the city
council, (we) evaluate the legitimacy of a project, funding source, and background of the

8
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/strategy
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developer. We also evaluate the fitness of the project and make recommendations to council but
through the lens of revenue generation.”
One non-municipal participant explained that his number one role as “visioning,
identifying and solving problems, and educating city council.” Another non-municipal
participant's chief goal in impacting economic development is by “Trying to educate [city
council] leadership…on what the destination could look like.” One city manager stated, “The
best part of my role is educating council on what businesses are doing well and what businesses
are struggling.”
Private Sector Collaboration
In discussing private sector collaboration, one municipal interviewee said,
Our economic and development team is reaching out to different resources
regularly in the hope of attracting businesses to our city. We make the
development process as easy as we can. When you are interested in doing a
project in our city, you sit down with staff members from planning, building,
public works, code compliance, and administration, and this team goes through
the entire process with you. We do not leave any landmines for you later in the
process. We want to get you where you need to be. If you are struggling during
the process, we help you get through that portion of the project by ensuring you
have someone to contact. That person is responsive and can provide answers to
you. Our philosophy here is ‘no city hall as usual.’

The central thrust of economic development is attracting, retaining, and expanding
private enterprises (CALED, 2020). Despite material reliance on tax revenues generated from
business activity, only five of the nine city managers (56%) mentioned collaborating with the
private sector to accomplish financial goals. Out of the thirteen participants, six of them, or 46%,
mentioned private sector collaboration a total of six times. One city manager explained that he
“helps the developers or business owners feel like they have support at the highest level.” From
an economic developer’s standpoint, this is an invaluable perspective. Business owners or
developers will often invest tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of dollars of personal
83
funds into projects during the initial due diligence and project entitlement phases without
knowing if they will obtain project approvals (e.g., the regulatory side of development risk).
Having a sense whether their idea will be supported by city leadership is critical in moving
developers from, “I am thinking about the opportunity” to “I am engaged and committed to
bringing X to your city.” Another city manager was less emphatic about his work with the
private sector: “I interface with the individuals looking to develop.” This perspective is
concerning. Does this city manager understand his opportunity to mitigate the regulatory side of
development risk?
Policy Recommendations
With respect to policy recommendations, one municipal interviewee pointed out that
We also evaluate the fit of the project and make recommendations to council but
through the lens of revenue generation and opportunity to the city. Want
something different from what we have now? We want to create opportunities for
our residents, good-paying jobs, and benefits.

The roles of council education and policy recommendations cannot be understated. One
especially accomplished and long-standing city manager responded to another interview question
with the following:
You must create public support for your economy. You must bring demand into
existence. Why has development moved somewhere else? Once you have
analyzed the situation, identified the deficiency(ies), you are then able to take
corrective action. Before taking any corrective action, however, you must build
political will. Once you have the political will, you can create the public/private
partnerships necessary to achieve your goals. It is a tapestry.

This city manager points out that building political will is instrumental in economic goal
accomplishment. When you consider that city councils direct the actions of city managers and
ultimately city staff, it was surprising that only three city managers out of nine, or 33%,
mentioned policy recommendations. From all participants, policy recommendations to governing
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bodies was mentioned a total of five times by five (38%) of participants. One participant who
supported this notion said, “I work with the council to help align short-term policy positions with
long-term goals.”
Incentivizing Development
One participant pointed out the need for incentives when he said that
Incentives can be thought of as welfare for the rich. Through incentives, our city
has significantly increased economic activity. Incentives were behind increasing
the jobs, the sales tax, and the property taxes, which now allow our city to provide
a much higher level of services compared to most other cities.

Incentivizing development was mentioned five times. Surprisingly, only five of the nine
city managers interviewed (56%) discussed the importance of incentives. One city manager
discussed the consequences of providing and not providing incentives: “Previously, we provided
development incentives to attract or retain important businesses. Because of these incentives, we
were successful in attracting major revenue generators.” This city manager went on to say, “One
day, council's position on incentives changed. Going forward, the council was no longer
providing incentives. Much to the surprise of the council, a major future revenue generator
relocated to another city that was willing to provide the requested incentive.”
A third city manager generally discussed the role incentives play in business attraction
when he said, “you have to focus on enticing businesses and the services that you would like to
have provided to the community and the revenue sources that you would like your community to
depend upon.”
Only one of the city managers discussed details of potential incentives. These potential
incentives included transit occupancy tax (TOT) rebates or the completion of off-site
improvements.
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Question 3
Question 3 of the interview protocol asked the following: “How would you describe the
Coachella Valley economy?” This question evoked strong responses, deep concerns, and a
universal call to action. All responses emphasized the Valley’s economic fragility, a Valley that
is singularly dependent on seasonal and discretionary luxury purchases (tourism). All
participants touched on at least one of the following categories: (i) Singularly dependent on
seasonal and discretionary luxury purchases, (ii) Diversifying the number of traded sector year-
round industries is a critical priority, (iii) Limited economic and education opportunities are
causing life-long harm and inequity, (iv) Economic and social conditions will stagnate or worsen
without improved job opportunities, and (v) Focus on improving core strengths (e.g., tourism,
events, regional amenities, transportation, and agriculture).
Question 3
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Singularly dependence on seasonal and discretionary
luxury purchases (tourism)
17 13 100%
Diversifying the number of traded sector year-round
industries is critical
11 9 69%
Limited economic and educational opportunities are
causing life-long harm and inequity.
10 8 52%
Economic and social conditions will stagnate or
worsen without improved job opportunities
7 6 46%
Focus on improving core strengths (e.g., tourism,
events, regional amenities, transportation, and
agriculture)
7 5 38%
Table 6. Question 3: Most Common Response Categories
Singularly Dependent on Seasonal and Discretionary Luxury Purchases
One non-municipal interviewee discussed the dependence on seasonal/discretionary
purchases:
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With COVID, all the air was let out of the balloon. We have nothing else of any
substance to fall back on, no industrial base, no business activities, and no
economic activities. Some Valley residents focus on various needs, such as more
housing, better educational opportunities, and deteriorating infrastructure, yet they
ignore the central problem underlying and impacting all other issues, namely
broadening economic opportunities beyond tourism. Unless we do something to
get ourselves out of the situation this lack of economic diversity has led us to, we
will continue to be plagued with the same problems.

The Valley’s singular dependence on tourism was mentioned a total of 17 times by all 13
participants.
The entire Coachella Valley economy is too tourism and service industry
dependent. We have an unhealthy reliance on low-wage jobs. The Valley
economy is not diversified enough to be truly healthy. It is strong in agriculture. It
is strong in tourism and is decent in health care, but it is not robust enough
because it is not diversified.

When asked Question 3, another applicant quickly replied, “the Valley is overly dependent on
tourism.” This participant went on to explain that the Valley
Evolved as Los Angeles's Pleasure Island (making a reference from the children’s
movie, Pinocchio), yet the failure in the evolution has been no real backfilling of
traded businesses. Everything has been non-traded. The Valley has become
hooked on tourism, and all money has and continues to go into perpetuating
tourism.

Diversifying the Number of Year-round Traded-Sector Industries
One municipal interviewee mentioned that
This is a service economy, and that is why when you run into a recession, we are
the first to fall because service economies are supported by discretionary dollars.
The last thing people spend are discretionary dollars. So, we are the last to come
back. That has always been the case and always will remain the case until we get
an economic development program that attracts businesses that operate on a 12-
month basis.

Diversifying the number of traded-sector, year-round industries was an overarching
theme throughout all thirteen interviews. Within Question 3, only nine participants mentioned
this critical need eleven times. All four non-city interviewees addressed this subtopic. Only five
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city managers (55%) discussed the importance of year-round industries. The interviewer
expected 100% of participants to address this critical need considering the region's (i)
socioeconomic challenges and (ii) the Valley's singular dependence on the tourism’s low-wage
jobs and high seasonal employment.
One participant stated,
The Coachella Valley economy is really lopsided across all sectors and across all
indicators. This region, for some reason, has developed into a very robust
internationally-know hospitality, tourism, and destination area. Unfortunately, the
seasonality still exists, even in normal years, despite efforts to shorten the
seasonality by extending the season, by adding more events and more tourism.
Unless we do something to get ourselves out of the situation a lack of economic
diversity has led us to, we will continue to be plagued with the same problems.

Another city manager pointed out,
The entire Coachella Valley economy is too dependent on inconsistent and
unsustainable resources. The problem is that you are not going to turn down the
auto mall, the latest and greatest hotel, or a new country club with a golf course
designed by the best golfers. The problem is when the Valley goes into a
recession, it is either feast or famine. When you go into a recession, all those
previously described great amenities fall into famine. The problem is that we have
set ourselves up as a tourist destination, but nothing else.

This participant further explained that not only is the Coachella Valley dependent on an
inconsistent and unsustainable resource, but it also is witnessing a decline in year-round
residents. “People used to flock here year-round; however, those people are beginning to move
away. We see less and less of our snowbird community.” While outside the scope of this
dissertation, the external migration of critical consumers poses a direct and immediate threat to
the Valley's long-term economic trajectory.
Limited Economic and Educational Opportunities
When discussing cost of living, one non-municipal interviewee pointed out that
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When you calculate the local cost of living, when you localize the cost of living,
we have the highest poverty rate in the United States. California has a worse
poverty problem than Mississippi when you calculate the cost of living.

Limited economic and educational opportunities were a dominant theme throughout all
discussions. While most participants did not expound on the nuanced and long-term impacts of
low-wage jobs and insufficient educational opportunities, eight participants, or 62%, mentioned
the dominance of low-paying jobs within the Valley. Participants frequently spoke of the
Valley's singular dependence on tourism, which produces “a lot of low-paying jobs” and creates
an “economic environment that is pretty dire.” As one participant said, “We have an unhealthy
reliance on low-wage jobs.”
Another participant explained, “the Valley economy is extremely limited due to its
geographic isolation and the lack of a four-year university.” The absence of a four-year
university concerned all participants interviewed. In 2019, Valley leaders formed “Priority One
Coachella Valley,” a 501(c)3 created to advocate for establishing a four-year California State
University campus within the Coachella Valley. While a critical initiative, the essential role
education plays in workforce development falls outside the scope of this dissertation.
Beyond the Valley leadership’s support for Priority One Coachella Valley, some
participants acknowledged that the four-year college experience is not an ideal fit for all
students. To this end, one participant stated, “community colleges need to do a better job of
preparing people to ensure that the labor force is capable of meeting the needs of expanding
businesses.”
Stagnating Economic and Social Conditions
When discussing the stagnating economic and social conditions, one non-municipal
interviewee said that
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Some Valley residents focus on (providing for) a variety of (community) needs, such as
more housing, better educational opportunities, and deteriorating infrastructure, yet
ignore the central problem underlying and impacting all other issues, namely broadening
economic opportunities beyond tourism. Unless we do something to get ourselves out of
the situation a lack of economic diversity has led us to, we will continue to be plagued
with the same problems (words added to clarify intent).

Like the harm caused by limited economic and educational opportunities, only sixof the
participants (46%) mentioned or alluded to the future economic and social conditions within the
Valley if the economic reality remains the same. “When we put all of our eggs in one basket…if
something catastrophic happens, like a pandemic or the prospect of mandated electric vehicles, it
is going to impact us greatly.” This participant was referring to a Valley city whose largest
source of taxable revenue is gasoline sales. Concern for the Valley's future was an undertone in
all discussions, regardless of a city's wealth. Four of the least affluent cities did not mention
concerns about the Valley's economic and social trajectory.
By comparison, three of the five more affluent cities were concerned about the Valley's
direction if nothing is done to improve the economy. A city manager from one of the more
affluent cities stated, “I would describe the Coachella Valley economy as tourism-reliant and
very seasonal—a very fragile economy. COVID-19 has exposed the danger of a singular
dependence on tourism.”
Focus on Improving Core Strengths
Looking at improvement, one non-municipal interviewee said, “We need to do things that
are organic to our destination. We do not want to turn into something we are not. We need to be
realistic about who we are and create an environment for it.”
While only five participants, or 38%, mentioned improving core strengths; the
conversations were rich and varied. “The significant opportunity comes not in comparing
ourselves to other U.S. cities, but rather evaluating how our destination compares with other
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destinations internationally.” Another participant said, “We need to look at education, medicine,
technology, and logistics.” Of the four city managers who discussed the need to focus on core
strengths, each suggestion varied. One city manager suggested, “the Valley should be spending
more time on supporting and developing agriculture.” Another city manager suggested the
importance of improving the Valley’s primary passenger airport as a catalyst for further growth
when he said, “our airport is a critical asset in the Valley and growing this asset should be a key
regional priority.”
Another city manager stated, “The millennials are driving the economy, especially with
the Coachella concert; we need to capitalize on this. Can we turn the Valley into a Spring Break
destination and promote it?” This city manager acknowledged the potential of Interstate 10, one
of the longest highways in the nation, and State Route 86, a four-lane highway connecting
Mexico to Interstate 10. In addition to Interstate 10 and State Route 86, two transcontinental
cargo rail lines bisect the Valley. “Logistics is going to be a huge thing given e-commerce.”
Additionally, trade with Mexico is going to be a big deal. Opportunities could include partnering
with Amazon or whoever is the next big online distributor. We need to take advantage of rail.”
Another participant suggested that improving core strengths can be more powerfully
achieved through reframing of stagnant long-held views. “The opportunity comes in breaking
from linear thoughts. The park in Palm Springs is a great example. They are in the process of
designing a park that is going to look like every other park in the United States. Why would you
miss an opportunity to do something that will stand out that people would be drawn to? Palm
Canyon is another solid example. The city should pull up all the asphalt and turn that downtown
into one long linear park. Create a destination that draws people. This Valley would become an
incredible tourist attraction and would draw remote workers.”
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Question 4
Question 4 of the interview protocol asked, “What do you believe are the ten biggest
opportunities for economic development within the Valley?” This question produced a wider
variety of responses and less consensus than anticipated. Despite being asked for their top ten
ideas, participants provided an average of six ideas. The most common number of ideas provided
(e.g., the mode) was also six. The fewest ideas provided were three, and the greatest number of
ideas was 15.
Surprisingly, no central theme was discussed by all participants. The two most frequently
mentioned ideas were (i) attract remote workers and (ii) improve educational opportunities.
These suggestions were mentioned by nine participants, eleven and ten times, respectively. The
subsequent two most common responses focused on improving core regional strengths and
strengthening the health care cluster. Eight participants mentioned these ideas ten and nine times,
respectively.
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Question 4
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Focus on attracting remote workers 11 9 69%
Improve educational opportunities 10 9 69%
Focus on improving core strengths (e.g., tourism,
events, regional amenities, including airports)
10 8 62%
Strengthen the health care cluster 9 8 62%
Capitalize on the potential for air, rail, and freight
logistics
7 6 46%
Need for regional strategic planning and execution 6 4 31%
Improve agriculture sectors (including cannabis) 6 6 46%
Diversifying the number of traded sector year-around
industries is critical
5 5 38%
Green energy research and development 3 3 23%
Revitalizing the Salton Sea 1 1 8%
Table 7. Question 4: Most Common Response Categories
The purpose of this question was to generate ideas. Accordingly, there was little dialogue
beyond the listing of priorities. One of the most experienced professionals interviewed prefaced
his responses with, “one of the bigger questions we need to ask is how we build from practically
nothing. How do you build major opportunity?” Another participant cautioned, “the Valley needs
to focus on a few sectors and see how they can develop those sectors. This is a holistic
approach.”
Another participant, who has spent her entire career in the Coachella Valley, offered a
particularly moving comment on the need for a four-year university and the life-long harm
insufficient educational opportunities are having on various populations.
Four-year, stand-alone university. We need this to stop losing our most-talented
youth because they are forced to leave the Valley to get a higher education and
may never return. Additionally, we must stop squandering the potentially brilliant
residents from the east Valley, which never have the opportunity to go to college
and flourish.

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Another participant emphasized the importance CVEP is having on the region and the
potential for significant gain, “The Digital iHub gives a material boost to startup businesses that
will pay living wages, will diversify the economy, and move the economy away from being
strictly based on the service industry.”
One of the eight participants emphasized the importance of growing the health care sector
when he said that “we need to improve the region's focus on the health care sector with a
particular focus on geriatric medicine, research, and practice.”
Question 5
Question 5 of the interview protocol asked the following: “According to the U.S.
Economic Development Administration, regional economic resilience is linked to an area's
ability to prevent, withstand, and quickly recover from major disruptions or ‘economic shocks.’
(a) Do you believe the Coachella Valley economy is a resilient economy, and (b) What do you
think could be done to create a resilient economy?”
With an unemployment rate peaking in May 2020 at 32%, the Valley’s poverty rate at
19.9%, and a land market that is still depressed 15 years following the global financial crisis of
2006-2008, the interviewer expected all participants to say that the Coachella Valley economy is
anything but resilient. To the interviewer's surprise, one city manager believed the Coachella
Valley was a resilient economy, and two city managers had a mixed opinion.
Question 5(A)
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Yes 1 1 8%
No 10 10 77%
Maybe 2 2 15%
Table 8. Question 5(a): Most Common Response Categories
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Part (b) “What do you think could be done to create a resilient economy” produced varied
but more anticipated responses. The two most frequently cited responses dealt with (i) the
Coachella Valley economy as fragile and singularly focused, and (ii) the crucial need to diversify
the number of traded-sector, year-round industries. Twelve participants (92%) mentioned a
fragile and singularly focused economy 13 times. Ten participants (77%) mentioned the crucial
need to diversify the number of traded-sector, year-round industries 11 times.
Question 5(B)
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Fragile, singularly focused economic environment 13 12 92%
Diversifying the number of traded sector year-round
industries is critical
11 10 77%
Economic and social conditions will stagnate or worsen
without improved job opportunities
5 4 31%
Political support and policy decisions focused on
improving the economy and building wealth is critical
4 3 23%
Table 9. Question 5(b): Most Common Response Categories
Fragile, Singularly Focused Economic Environment
When discussing the fragile economic environment, one non-municipal interviewee said,
The Coachella Valley is not a resilient economy because it is a service economy. Our
economy is too dependent on discretionary spending. If we are going to change our
economy, you have to build the third leg of that stool, which is essential for 12-month
businesses.

These separate categories are being combined due to their symbiotic relationship. Some
responses were more comprehensive than others. One particularly insightful response came from
a non-city professional who stated,
To become a more resilient economy, cities must evaluate themselves, understand
their General Plan and plan a path forward that builds on their core identity…a
plan that builds on their core strengths. Over the years, cities have gotten
distracted chasing the big revenue sources, and those tax revenue chases have
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pulled them off course. Cities need to ask themselves where they are allocating
their budget, where they are spending their time, where is their political focus, and
how do these areas compare with what they really need to be doing. There is no
silver bullet. There is only the consistent daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
unglamorous work of building the city's core business clusters.

Another participant simplified the steps to transform a fragile economy into a resilient economy:
The steps to change the economy could include the same steps taken to revive
tourism within the Coachella Valley following the 2008 market crash. These steps
included: (i) Identifying what is missing; (ii) Getting the right ingredients in
place, (iii) Securing more funding, (iv) Investing funding in consumer outreach,
and (v) Changing people's perspective through intentional and proactive effort.

The only participant who believed the Coachella Valley’s economy was resilient stated,
I do believe the Coachella Valley is a resilient economy. Since the 1980s, the
economy has ebbed and flowed and always managed to come back. Our economy
definitely has holes, and we have to fill those holes in another way. We need to
find other resources that are here to stay. We need to identify those businesses
that are here for the long haul and help us make up the difference in what we are
going to miss when our cars are not selling, our hotels are not filled, and our
restaurants are empty.

Stagnating Economic and Social Conditions
One municipal interviewee with a long history of municipal service discussed the realities of a
tourism-based economy:
Tourism is not resilient because so many things affect tourism. We know that
after ten years of growth will come to a recession. When recessions hit, people
stop traveling. In the last recession, when tourism stopped or slowed, some
businesses were forced to close permanently. Travel and tourism are one of the
things that recover last because travel and tourism are luxury goods. We need
more stable sectors. Agriculture is recession-proof, but the jobs are physically
demanding and low paying.

Improved Political Support and Policy Decisions
Building political support to produce the policy decisions needed to improve the
economy and build wealth is foundational in transforming a fragile regional economy into a
resilient regional economy. Surprisingly, only three participants (23%) mentioned this need four
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times. The most comprehensive response to Question 5 was quoted above in the first two
categories. This participant’s position that cities should “understand their General Plan and plan
a path forward that builds on their core identity, a plan that builds on their core strengths” rang
particularly true with the interviewer.
Another particularly mindful participant asked,
How does a city effectively identify its strengths and weaknesses, and backfill its
weaknesses and enhance its strengths? How do you retain those businesses that
are performing and help them expand? As they become more successful, the
(business cluster) environment becomes a more fertile ground for those
businesses, their competitors, and their supplies.

Another participant explained, “cities need to anticipant change. Cities should not make long-
term budget allocations on unproven revenue streams.”
Question 6
Question 6 of the interview protocol asked the following: “This next question deals with
the number of separate primary job-generating industries within the Coachella Valley. As an
example, the tourism industry generates jobs within the following areas: (i) hotels, (ii)
restaurants, (iii) transportation (plane, bus, automobile rental), (iv) golf and tennis, and (v)
support sectors such as legal, accounting, and real estate. The agriculture industry is another
primary industry generating jobs in the following area: (i) farming, (ii) farm management, (iii)
farm equipment and supply, (iv) packaging and distribution, and (v) support sectors such as
legal, accounting and real estate. (i) What other primary industries are operating within the
Coachella Valley? (ii) Do you believe the Coachella Valley economy would benefit from
additional industries entering or expanding within the Coachella Valley?
This question highlighted one of the Valley’s most significant weaknesses, which is the
unilateral dependence on the tourism industry and a lack of primary industries beyond tourism.
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All participants struggled with answering question 6. One participant responded with, “is this a
trick question.” Two of the most common responses were (i) healthcare as a primary industry
suggested by 62% (or 8 participants) and (ii) education as a primary industry suggested by 31%
(or 4 participants). Since the Coachella Valley does not have a rigorous, stand-alone, four-year
university, education is not a primary industry. The educational institutions that the Valley does
possess, while invaluable, are basically only built to meet the elementary and secondary
educational needs of the Valley's current population.
Beyond healthcare and education, the consensus among other answers significantly
decreased. On average, participants identified two other industries beyond tourism.
Question 6(A)
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Healthcare 8 8 62%
Education 4 4 31%
Renewable Energy 2 2 15%
Government 2 2 15%
Real Estate and Construction 2 2 15%
Cannabis Cultivation and Manufacturing 1 1 8%
Table 10. Question 6(a): Most Common Response Categories
Question 6(b): Do you believe the Coachella Valley economy would benefit from
additional industries entering or expanding within the Coachella Valley? All participants who
answered this question responded affirmatively.
Question 6(B)
Most Common Response Themes
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Yes 12 12 92%
No 0 0 0%
Did not respond 1 1 8%
Table 11. Question 6(b): Most Common Response Categories
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One municipal interviewee said, “Absolutely. Traded industries operate year-round. They
do not have seasonal demand. It is imperative that we expand and diversify.” This response
exemplifies the common sentiment of all participants.
One non-municipal participant believed the construction industry, which serves only the
regional community, is a primary industry.
Another primary industry is construction. The Valley has been dependent on
construction for the last 40 years. Construction during the recession went to zero,
and it has not really recovered. The lack of recovery in the construction industry
has had nothing to do with COVID but rather the 2006 recession. Back in 2007, 8,
and 9, construction within the Valley never come back. Land that was selling in
the Lower Valley for $100,000 an acre dropped to $25,000 an acre.

While residential construction can be a powerful economic generator, the interviewer
feels that local residential demand drives local residential construction activity. Once local
demand is satisfied, local residential construction stops. Accordingly, local residential
construction is the by-product of consumer demand generated by other economic forces. Other
economic forces could include a local employer significantly expanding operations, a large new
employer moving into an area, or an area’s retiree population begins to grow due to the
attractiveness of recreational (or other) amenities.
Question 7
When answering question 7, “If you were creating an economic development strategic
plan for the entire Valley, what would you do or include?” participants most frequently provided
no more than four suggestions. Four participants provided only one response, bringing the
average responses per participant to three. Despite the low number of responses per participant,
collectively, forty-three responses were generated.
Despite forty-three suggestions, there was less consensus among participants with this
question compared to all previous questions. The most frequently mentioned suggestion,
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obtaining a four-year university and improving educational options, was proposed by five
participants (38%). The next most-mentioned suggestion focused on transportation (e.g., air, rail,
or truck transportation) and logistics. This broad category saw only four mentions (in total) by
four participants. The consensus continued a linear decline to three participants and then two
participants for the remaining four topics (e.g., improving the health care sector, renewable
energy, improving digital infrastructure, and improving public transportation).
Question 7
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Four-Year University and Improved Educational Options
5 5 38%
Transportation (Air, Rail, or Truck Transportation) and
Logistics
4 4 31%
Improve the Health Care Sector
3 3 23%
Renewable Energy
3 3 23%
Improve Digital Infrastructure
2 2 15%
Improve Public Transportation
2 2 15%
Table 12. Question 7: Most Common Response Categories
In response to this question, one city manager interviewed offered the following
compelling response, “create a detailed economic development strategic plan that looks at the
broader economy and not individual cities. Once you create the plan, you must follow the plan. It
is following the plan that takes consistency and discipline over time. City managers frequently
are too willing to accommodate the current and transitory desire of policymakers.”
From a strategic planning sense, question 7 provided some of the richest responses
received in this study. Participants acknowledged the critical need for a “detailed economic
development strategic plan that looks at the broader economy and not individual cities.” The
participants acknowledged the critical need for collaborative and strategic economic
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development plans because (i) the participants realize that these plans are critical to the region’s
success, and (ii) this type of regional strategic planning is not taking place.
Another participant echoed similar sentiments by saying, “Work on policies that span the
region; uniformity and alignment make it easier for businesses to navigate their way through
things. Focus on being business-friendly. Is it possible to create one portal for different types of
licenses?”
One of the more experienced city managers interviewed inadvertently summarized the
purpose of this dissertation by stating,
Instead of focusing on the content of the strategic plan, I would focus on the
context. Find a way to thoroughly research and document the economic
development needs of the Valley away from political influences. Critically
analyze our situation and identify what is needed to move the Valley forward free
from political interference.

Another participant vocalized his concerns about the future of farming within the Coachella
Valley:
We need to expand on education, medicine, and technology. In time, agriculture
in the Valley will phase out. While CVWD says there is plenty of water now, it
might not be here in the future to serve all the Valley’s farms. The Valley will
have to figure out what we are going to do with all the farmland once farming
ceases.

Given this professional’s experience with agriculture and water supply issues, this is a
concerning admonition.
“Attracting newly formed companies, like companies who started in Silicon Valley but
are still pretty small, would benefit from lower real estate costs. Imagine if Oracle had been
attracted to the Valley before it became a giant,” was another participant's idea to increase the
number of well-educated, higher-income professionals within the Valley.
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Lastly, participants discussed that the amount of venture capital within the desert region
is insufficient to fuel entrepreneurial growth in the Valley. One participant stated, “95% of
venture capital flowing into CVEP’s iHub campus comes from out of the area. This causes
profits, once made, to leave the Valley.”
Question 8
When answering question 8, “What Valley organization(s) do you believe are key for
improving regional economic development?” 12 participants stated that the Coachella Valley
Economic Partnership (CVEP) was critical to improving regional economic development. Four
of the 12 responses listed CVEP as the only organization capable of improving the regional
economy. Ten participants listed CVEP as one of the top two organizations, and four participants
listed the Greater Palm Springs Visitors and Convention Bureau in the top two organizations. On
average, participants identified four organizations as critical to improving the regional economy.
The maximum number of suggested organizations was ten.
Question 8
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Mentions
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Coachella Valley Economic Partnership (CVEP) 11 11 85%
Greater Palm Springs Visitors and Convention Bureau 6 6 46%
CSUSB, UC Riverside, and College of the Desert 5 5 38%
Coachella Valley Association of Governments (CVAG) 4 4 31%
Greater CV Chamber of Commerce (GCVCC) 3 3 23%
Other 3 3 23%
Table 13. Question 8: Most Common Response Categories
Question 9
Question 9, which is “Do you believe the Coachella Valley has room for population
growth?” was a yes-or-no question. All participants answered yes; the Valley has room for
population growth. Six of the 12 participants responded emphatically with “absolutely, yes,” the
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Valley has room for population growth. Two participants cautioned that future growth should be
done sustainably. “Significant or poorly planned population growth will damage the very fabric
that makes the Coachella Valley the desirable place it is.” Another participant stated,
“Absolutely (yes). California is counting on it. There are challenges with growth, however, as
you cannot just build houses without the infrastructure that goes with it.”
Question 9
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Yes 13 13 100%
No 0 0 0%
Table 14. Question 9: Most Common Response Categories
Question 10
Question 10, which is “Do you believe collaboration between government entities,
private entities and not-for-profit/Government Sponsored Entities (GSEs) plays a role in the
diversification of the Coachella Valley economy?” was an ordinal-scale question. Potential
responses included: (i) No role, (ii) Little role, (iii) No effect, (iv) Some role, and (v) Major role.
Ten participants, or 77% of participants, believed collaboration between government entities,
private entities, and not-for-profit/Government Sponsored Entities (GSEs) played a major role in
the diversification of the Coachella Valley economy. The remaining three participants believed
public/private/NFP or GSE collaboration played some role.
One participant explained, “Collaboration between government entities should play a
major role. Currently, the collaboration among the cities plays little role.” Another participant
identified specific organizations that need to do a better job of collaborating when he said,
“CVEP, CVAG and the GPSCVB—these collaborations are absolutely important for us to
succeed here in the Valley.”
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Another participant believed that one's location within the Valley played a role in (i) how
critical collaboration is to diversify the economy and (ii) how you need to engage GSE and
NFPs, “(It plays) some role in the West. In the East, it plays a major role because of
unrepresented individuals. The GSE and NPOs are powerful, and we need to work with them. If
you get out of step with them, it will cause a lot of change. People want to be heard. Every
council meeting, they have community organizations calling in.”
Question 10
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Major Role 10 10 77%
Some Role 3 3 23%
No Effect 0 0 0%
Little Role 0 0 0%
No Role 0 0 0%
Table 15. Question 10: Most Common Response Categories
Question 11
Question 11, which asked, “Do you see collaboration and strategy playing a role in
diversifying the Coachella Valley economy?” was an ordinal-scale question. Potential responses
included (i) No role, (ii) Little role, (iii) No effect, (iv) Some role, and (v) Major role. All
participants believed collaboration and strategy played a major role in diversifying the Coachella
Valley economy. One participant exclaimed, “Major role. Oh my God, yes, of course.” Another
participant provided a more nuanced response, “If we work in silos, we may miss the bigger
opportunities like education, transportation, electricity, and public safety. We are going to need
to work together on these things because by doing it alone, we will not be as successful.”
Another participant explained, “Major role—there is no way nine that cities and five tribes can
all move forward without strategic planning and collaboration.”
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Question 11
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Major Role 13 13 100%
Some Role 0 0 0%
No Effect 0 0 0%
Little Role 0 0 0%
No Role 0 0 0%
Table 16. Question 11: Most Common Response Categories
Question 12
Question 12, which asked, “Do you believe the cannabis industry (e.g., cultivation,
manufacturing, and distribution) plays an important role in the diversification and growth of the
Coachella Valley economy?” was an ordinal-scale question. Potential responses included (i) No
role, (ii) Little role, (iii) No effect, (iv) Some role, and (v) Major role. Out of the four cities that
allow the cultivation, manufacturing, and distribution of cannabis-based products, only two of
the four cities believe cannabis would play a major role in the diversification and growth of the
Coachella Valley economy. One non-city participant believed cannabis would play a major role.
Another non-city participant did not respond. The remaining nine participants, or 69%, believe
cannabis would play some role in diversifying and growing the economy.
The future of the industry received mixed reviews. Some participants believe the industry
is “here to stay,” especially “as cities become more and more reliant on the taxes generated by
these businesses.” Others expressed concern about the industry's stability based upon federal
decriminalization. For example, "when cannabis is decriminalized federally, California will lose
its competitive edge.” One municipal participant explained:
The cannabis industry plays an important role. However, the jury is still out on the
industry. Someday cannabis could have a very stable role in the economy, but few
people know where it will end up. Eventually, major players, whether that be big
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pharma or other major players (e.g., Walmart, Amazon, etc.) will enter the
market, and that will cause tax rates to decrease.

Question 12
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Major Role 3 3 23%
Some Role 9 9 69%
No Effect 0 0 0%
Little Role 0 0 0%
No Role 0 0 0%
Table 17. Question 12: Most Common Response Categories
Question 13
Question 13, which asked, “What role do you see education playing in the diversification
of the Valley economy?” was an ordinal-scale question. Potential responses included (i) No role,
(ii) Little role, (iii) No effect, (iv) Important role, and (v) Critical role. Eleven participants
believed education plays a critical role in the diversification of the Coachella Valley economy.
One participant believes that while education plays a critical role, “currently education is playing
a little role.” Two participants believe education plays an important role in diversifying the
economy.
One municipal participant expressed concern about current educational programs:
The Valley has suffered with schools in general (e.g., CVUSD). It has been
reported that CVUSD has experienced significant turnover, faces massive deficits,
and the Board has undergone change. It will be critical that young students have a
solid educational foundation, and I believe it is being neglected at this point. I
think it is very important, if we are to improve the lives of constituents here; it
begins with education and attaining the highest level of education possible. It
starts at elementary and middle school.

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Question 13
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Critical Role 11 11 85%
Important Role 2 2 15%
No Effect 0 0 0%
Little Role 0 0 0%
No Role 0 0 0%
Table 18. Question 13: Most Common Response Categories
Question 14
Question 14, which asked, “Are you satisfied with the economic growth rate the
Coachella Valley is currently experiencing?” was a yes-or-no question. There was more variation
in the responses than anticipated. One participant skipped this question; two participants
answered yes, six participants (50%) answered no, and four participants offered a response, “it
depends whether you mean pre- or post-COVID.”
One participant who was happy with the current growth rate explained:
(I am) satisfied with the growth rate. It will take rooftops to change the diversity
of our sales tax portfolio. There is, however, a rate at which you change too
quickly, and the city cannot keep up, and then there is a lack of resources. Slow
and steady is ideal, such as 200 to 400 rooftops per year. If it is faster than that,
say 1,000 rooftops per year, retail could not keep up, and surrounding cities would
address the retail needs of the new residents.

Surprisingly, this participant was from a city in the lower half of the socioeconomic spectrum.
One participant believes that the Coachella Valley is on a severe downhill trajectory:
“The Coachella Valley is experiencing negative growth. The only question is how negative it
will get.” Another participant expressed similar concerns: “No, we have no growth rate. Three
months ago, before COVID, somewhat; but now, not at all.” Another participant stated, “If I
were looking at the growth pre-COVID, I would say no; I was not happy with the growth.”
Four participants provided a yes-and-no answer, such as the following:
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I am satisfied with our current housing growth. I am afraid if housing is built any
faster than it currently is, we will not keep up as a Valley. In terms of economic
growth and attracting the industries we need to prosper, then no, we are not
growing fast enough.

Another participant stated, “Maybe. It has the potential to go in the right direction due to the
pandemic. We are definitely benefiting from the new remote work environment.”
Question 14
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Yes 2 2 17%
No 6 6 50%
Split decision as to the pre-or post- COVID growth rate 4 4 36%
Table 19. Question 14: Most Common Response Categories
Question 15
Question 15, which asked, “What do you believe is holding the Coachella Valley
economy back from more rapid growth?” was a short-answer question. Some of the participant
responses were direct, addressing the core issues holding the Valley back. The most common
response offered by six participants, or 46%, focused on the lack of good-paying jobs affording
upward mobility. Five participants, or 38 percent, stated that the unilateral focus on tourism was
holding the Valley back. Distance from major economic hubs, insufficient regional cooperation
and collaboration, no four-year universities, and insufficient bus, rail, and air transportation were
the remaining most common themes mentioned by four, three, three, and two participants,
respectively.
One participant stated matter-of-factly that, “Appropriate investment in real economic
development and cooperation and collaboration between the government entities is needed. This
means regional action between the cities, without parochialism corrupting the effort.”
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Another participant discussed the importance of political will, the problems with
maintaining nine separate cities in a small region, which should have two to four, and the
importance of having professionals with strategic economic development knowledge and
experience leading the way:
The political will to diversify is key to growing the economy. The politicians do
not know what they are doing when it comes to strategically growing an
economy. I say that because it is too hard to strategically grow an economy when
they have to keep the tourism economy, what their cities currently depend on,
running. Perhaps they can build on it and make it stronger. The CVEP contract
between the cities is where it all just collapses. CVEP is going to have to do more
as a regional body. Cities are going to have to fund CVEP activities and put as
much focus on improving the regional economy as cities do on their own city's
economy. That is just a difficult thing to do. I believe that is what is holding
CVEP and the Valley back. It is the structural arrangement of nine separate cities.
Because at the core and you cannot forget this, you see it in the tourism sector, we
are still all competitors. So, this inherent structural arrangement of the nine cities
creates a bit of a drawback. It can be overcome, but it just takes a lot of political
will.

This was one of the most powerful statements made throughout all interviews.
Another participant pointed out the problems associated with doing the same thing and
expecting different results. This participant believes, “Continuing to focus on attracting feast-or-
famine businesses at the expense of attracting long-term, year-round stable businesses, which
provide residents meaningful employment and upward mobility” is holding the Valley back from
more rapid growth. This comment is in line with another participant's belief that “Lack of
diversification and limited populations are holding us back. We need better jobs and varied
jobs.” These factors likely lead to the observations made by a third participant who believes “The
Valley also struggles to find qualified people willing to move into the Valley. The Valley needs
to attract diverse and experienced people who have different ideas and want to think ‘outside the
box.’”
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Question 15
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Lack of good-paying jobs affording upward mobility 6 6 46%
Unilateral focus on tourism 5 5 38%
Distance from major economic hubs 4 4 31%
Insufficient regional cooperation and collaboration 3 3 23%
No four-year university 3 3 23%
Insufficient bus, rail, and air transportation 2 2 15%
Table 20. Question 15: Most Common Response Categories
Question 16
When responding to question 16, which asked, “Do you see any threats that might reduce
continued economic growth within the Coachella Valley?” 12 participants offered a total of 30
suggestions. One participant inadvertently skipped this question. Similar to question 7, there was
limited agreement among answers. On average, participants offered just over two suggestions,
the most common response (mode) was one suggestion, and the maximum number of
suggestions offered was five. The two most cited threats with four mentions each were (i) the
continued dependence on tourism and (ii) no higher education. Three participants expressed
concern about the sustained impacts of COVID-19. Finishing the list of threats that might reduce
continued economic growth was a city-centric focus and inadequate electrical infrastructure.
Two (different) participants mentioned these two concerns.
One participant stressed the importance of “resolving issues around attainable, affordable
housing, broadband, natural resource utilization and preservation, and improved educational
opportunities” as threats to continued economic growth. Another participant pointed out how
dependent the Valley is on air travel. “Lack of diversification is a major threat. If airlines start
leaving the Valley, that will be a major threat. We need to get a four-year college. If the airlines
110
leave us, if we do not get a four-year college, and if we do not diversify, we are facing
stagnation.”
Question 16
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Continued dependence on tourism 4 4 33%
No higher education 4 4 33%
Further COVID-19 socioeconomic impacts 3 3 25%
Continued City-centric focus from elected leadership 2 2 17%
Limited electrical infrastructure within the East Valley 2 2 17%
Table 21. Question 16: Most Common Response Categories
Question 17
Question 17, which asked, “How important is improving the regional economy within the
Coachella Valley to you?” was an ordinal-scale question. Potential responses included (i) No
importance, (ii) Little importance, (iii) Some importance, and (iv) Major importance. All nine
city managers believed that improving the regional economy is of major importance. Only one of
the 13 participants rated improving the regional economy as having “some importance.” One
participant explained, “Unless we are comfortable with the little place we have, growing the
Coachella Valley economy is of major importance.” A recent addition to the Valley explained,
“Cities live and die on the strength of the regional economy.” This paralleled the observation
from another participant who believes, “The regional economy affects all of us.”
Question 17
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Major Importance 12 12 92%
Some Importance 1 1 8%
Little Importance 0 0 0%
No Importance 0 0 0%
Table 22. Question 17: Most Common Response Categories
111
Question 18
Question 18, which asked, “What impact does an improving regional economy have on
your organization?” was an ordinal-scale question. Potential responses included (i) No impact,
(ii) Little impact, (iii) Some impact, (iv) Major impact, and (v) Critical to the survival of my
organization. Eighty-five percent of participants believed an improving regional economy has
either a major impact (62%) or is critical to the survival of their organization (23%). Two
participants, both city managers from two of the top five more affluent cities, believed an
improving regional economy had some impact on their organization.
One participant clarified the difference between an organization's survival and the
flourishing of the organization. An improving regional economy would have a “major impact.
Improving the regional economy is not critical to the survival of our organization, as we will
survive no matter what. Regional growth is critical for the flourishing of our organization.”
Another participant believed his organization was “joined at the hip to other Valley
organizations…We need to become a more vibrant, thriving, fun place to be. We need more
people to move here, invest here, come here, and recreate (vacation) here.”
Question 18
Most Common Response Categories
# of
Responses
# of
Participants
Mentioning
% of Total
Participants
Critical to the Survival of my Organization 3 3 23%
Major Impact 8 8 62%
Some Impact 2 2 15%
Little Impact 0 0 0%
No Impact 0 0 0%
Table 23. Question 18: Most Common Response Categories

112
Conclusion
This chapter provided a detailed overview of participant responses to the interview
protocol while maintaining strict confidentiality. A collective understanding of the economic
problems facing the Valley was revealed, along with potential solutions. Critical suppositions
were affirmed, such as the squandered potential and a lifetime of economic hardship for Valley
youth due to insufficient economic and educational opportunities.
Helpful affirmations were also gained, such as the verification from a city manager with
40 years of municipal government experience leading cities through challenging circumstances,
such as municipal bankruptcy, poverty, and economic decay. This professional unknowingly
affirmed the core purpose of this academic study with the following:
Instead of focusing on the content of the strategic plan, I would focus on the
context. Find a way to thoroughly research and document the economic
development needs of the Valley away from political influences. Critically
analyze our situation and identify what is needed to move the Valley forward free
from political interference.

These interviews also revealed misconceptions surrounding the purpose, techniques, and
outcomes of strategic economic development. When all answers were evaluated and categorized,
four distinct themes and 15 individual categories emerged. These themes and categories will
serve as the foundation for Chapter 5 when discussing what is needed to transform a fragile
economy into a resilient economy.

113
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Chapter 1 discussed the signs and symptoms of an unhealthy economy, and it described
the region’s economic fragility and its negative impacts on residents. Most concerning is the
likelihood that the Valley’s economic health will continue to decline without strategic
interventions. The core research questions emerged from these concerns. Chapter 2 defined a
shared meaning of the common terms used in economic development with an emphasis on
describing key research efforts that speak to the issues in the Coachella Valley. Together,
Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 provide the larger contexts for this research endeavor—there are clear
questions as to what could be done to help the Coachella Valley, and there are clear analogs to
previous efforts.
Chapter 3 discussed various methodological approaches that could be used to answer the
research questions posed in Chapter 1. In the absence of numerical data available for a valid
quantitative analysis, the right stakeholders had to be identified and engaged using a qualitative
method. Stakeholders were engaged by utilizing an optimized interview protocol and a grounded
theory methodological approach.
In Chapter 4, responses to each interview question were analyzed using a grounded
theory methodological (GTM) lens. Collectively, these responses answered the research
question, “What are the realities, beliefs, and priorities of key Coachella Valley industry and
governmental leaders who shape and set regional priorities? Ten interview questions out of the
18 were designed to provide responses capable of generating GTM categories. From these 10
questions 60 categories were generated. While valuable, 60 categories are too diffuse to produce
implementable next steps; this is the purpose of Chapter 5.
114
Chapter 5 collectively analyzes all interviewee responses, 60 categories, and research
notes in a search for overarching categories that answer the core research question
9
identified in
Chapter 1. From this macroanalysis, 15 categories emerged, which demonstrates the utility of the
GTM. Furthermore, these 15 categories naturally coalesce into 4 themes that address all 3 of the
study’s research questions.
10

The first two themes addressed the stakeholders’ current actions and perceptions of the
Valley economy. The latter two themes, critical needs and future goals, set the stage for a plan
that will enable the Valley to begin making different decisions, which over time should improve
the health and trajectory of the Valley economy.
Four Themes and Fifteen Categories
Out of the collective 234 interview responses, participants touched on at least one of the
15 categories a total of 491 times. These categories illustrate (i) shared realizations of the
Valley’s economic environment, (ii) current organization-specific actions being taken, (iii)
Valley-wide critical needs, and (iv) the future goals needed to transform a fragile economy into a
resilient and equitable economy. The first two themes relate to current perceptions and
operational practices. These two themes are a call to action. The last two themes identify what
must be done to transform the Valley economy from the perspective of those closest to it. The

9
The central research question identified in Chapter 1 was “What are the priorities needed to change a
fragile economy into a resilient economy?”
10
The three research questions identified in Chapter 1 are (i) What are the priorities needed to change a
fragile economy into a resilient economy? (ii) Do concepts such as art and culture, traded vs. non-traded
sectors, industry clustering, and strategy play a role in transforming an economic desert into an economic
oasis? (iii) What are the realities, beliefs, and priorities of key Coachella Valley industry and
governmental leaders who shape and set regional priorities?

115
latter two themes are the focus of this chapter. The following table summarizes the
macroanalysis results.
Macro Overview of all Interview Responses,
Chapter 4 Categories, and Researcher Memos
Fifteen Categories
Four Themes
Shared
Realities
Current
Actions
Critical
Needs
Future
Goals
1. Fragile economic environment. 33
2. Life-altering harm and inequity caused by
limited economic and educational opportunities.
17
3. Without more advanced employment
opportunities, economic and social conditions
will stagnate or worsen.
23
4. Intentional, organization-centric, strategic economic
development planning.
21
5. Perform organizational SWOT and PEST analyses. 13
6. Need to build political support and make complementary policy
decisions that enhance employment opportunities & build wealth.
49
7. Urgent need to diversify number of primary year-round industries. 48
8. Need for regional collaboration. 67
9. Need for regional strategic planning and execution. 48
10. Focus on improving core strengths (e.g., tourism, events, regional amenities,
and agriculture).
39
11. Strengthen the health care cluster. 21
12. Improve educational opportunities. 40
13. Improve technological infrastructure to attract tech-integrated companies and
employees.
28
14. Intentional efforts to support, leverage, or partner with private sector. 32
15. Attract upwardly mobile professionals into region. 12
Total direct or indirect references to the above categories 491
Table 24. Macro Overview of all Research
116
Shared Realizations
The first theme to emerge from the macroanalysis of all research data was shared
realizations. All 13 interviewees touched on this theme 73 times over the course of the 234
interview responses. The shared-realizations theme consisted of the following three sobering
observations of the Valley economy: (1) the Valley is a fragile economic environment, (2) life-
altering harm and inequity is caused by limited economic and educational opportunities; and (3)
without more advanced employment opportunities, economic and social conditions will stagnate
or worsen.
Eleven of the 13 interviewees directly acknowledged at least 2 of the 3 categories
throughout the course of their interviews. Nine of the 13 interviewees acknowledged all 3
categories. What makes these findings compelling is repeated acknowledgement of the Valley’s
fragility and the economic harm impacting residents by leaders whose job it is to understand and
respond to community needs. These observations and concerns were voiced by city managers
from both the Valley’s wealthiest and least affluent cities.
As a researcher and practitioner, it was clearly observable that participants were both
concerned and frustrated over the harm a singularly focused economy is causing their residents,
especially Valley youth. On more than one occasion, interviewees lamented that the Valley’s
college-bound youth are forced to leave the area to pursue higher education. Once those youth
complete college, there are limited employment opportunities in the Valley for these newly
college-educated youth to build an upwardly mobile career. As such, the Valley is losing
generations of its best and brightest to other regions better equipped to provide the education,
professional opportunities, and upward mobility these youth are seeking.
117
Current Actions
The second theme identified from the interview data was current actions. All 13
interviewees touched on this theme 34 times over the course of the 234 interview responses. The
current actions theme consisted of the following two organizational activities: (4) Intentional,
organization-centric, strategic economic development planning, and (5) Perform organizational
SWOT and PEST analyses.
All leaders recognized the importance of intentional focus and strategy and made these
activities a priority within their organizations. Despite the organizational importance of strategy
and intention, outside of CVEP, Palm Desert, and Indio, no organizations make material
financial contributions to regional economic development efforts. Several Valley organizations
spend significantly more on affordable housing and homelessness than on regional economic
development, which is an activity that impacts nearly all Valley residents.
Critical Needs
The third theme that emerged from the data were Valley-wide critical needs. All 13
interviewees touched on this theme 212 times over the course of the 234 interview responses.
The critical-needs theme consisted of the following four urgent priorities: (6) Need to build
political support and make complementary policy decisions that enhance employment
opportunities and build wealth, (7) Urgent need to diversify the number of primary year-round
industries, (8) Need for regional collaboration, and (9) Need for regional strategic planning and
execution.
The critical-needs and future-goals themes begin to address the study’s primary research
question, “what are the priorities needed to change a fragile economy into a resilient economy?”
These themes also demonstrate the utility of GTM. Furthermore, these themes and resulting
118
categories represent the collective realization of next steps as prescribed by the leaders who were
interviewed.
Future Goals
The fourth theme identified from the interview data was future goals. All 13 interviewees
touched on this theme 172 times over the course of the 234 interview responses. The future-goals
theme consisted of the following six steps necessary to strengthen the Valley economy: (10)
Focus on improving core strengths (e.g., tourism, events, regional amenities, and agriculture),
(11) Strengthen the health care cluster, (12) Improve educational opportunities, (13) Improve
technological infrastructure to attract tech-integrated companies and employees, (14) Intentional
efforts to encourage, support, or partner with the private sector, and (15) Attract upwardly
mobile professionals into the region.
This theme and its associated categories were uplifting and compelling. The future-goals
theme is uplifting from the standpoint that Valley professionals recognized achievable paths to
building a more resilient Valley economy. The future-goals theme is compelling from the
standpoint that there is consensus among a majority of the leaders on the best paths forward. A
Brookings Institute article entitled, “Setting the right economic development goals is hard work”
points out, “economies function as regions, but municipal strategies are not aligned with regional
goals” (Miller, 2016, p. 2). Economic development efforts are inherently long-range and often
intangible, requiring initial alignment and sustained collaboration between regional stakeholders.
Success comes from executing sound strategies, consistently executing the fundamentals, and
celebrating small successes along the way (Kotter, 2012). The high degree of consensus is
critical to building the support and commitment needed to consistently make the decisions that
will lead to diversifying the economy beyond tourism.
119
Next Steps
Shortly after its founding in 1998, Google set out to “organize the world’s information
and make it universally accessible and useful” (Gibbs, 2014; Google, 2021). While visionary
entrepreneurs, Larry Page and Sergey Brin were short on management experience (Doerr, 2018).
Armed with great ideas but no organization-wide framework for the young company to remain
focused, the young founders adopted a “sharp-edged tool” developed by Andrew Grove in the
early days of Intel (Doerr, 2018, p. 5). This sharp-edge tool remains a cornerstone of one of the
most valuable companies in the world (Doerr, 2018; Ross, 2021).
The hallmark of Andrew Grove’s approach is the collaborative identification of core
objectives or the “what is to be achieved” (Doerr, 2018, p. 7; Grove, 1995). Objectives are
achieved through the setting and monitoring of key results (Grove, 1995). Key results are
specific, aggressive, and realistic action steps to be taken to achieve an objective (Doerr, 2018).
In order to be successful, the number of objectives must be kept small—between two and five
(Doerr, 2018; Grove, 1995; McGinn, 2018).
Building on this philosophy of establishing clear collaboratively reached objectives and
straightforward, actionable key results linked to achieving stated objectives, the following
framework applies, based on this research:
1) Objective: Build and maintain community-level support for complementary policy decisions
that enhance employment opportunities and build wealth. For the Coachella Valley, this
means pursing the following:
a) Key result: Ensure that the regional economic development organization has a secure
and reoccurring funding source akin to the visitors and convention bureau.
b) Key result: Continue attracting upwardly-mobile professionals into the region.
120
i) Reevaluate efforts and performance measures quarterly. Dwelling unit sales,
residential rental rates, and dwelling unit starts can be an initial proxy. Search for
additional ways to attract and measure immigration of highly skilled workers.
c) Key result: Improve educational opportunities.
i) Allocate additional funds and staff time for Priority One Coachella Valley.
11
To use a
baseball analogy, usual economic development achievements are similar to scoring
points with line drives and runs batted in. Securing a full-time California State
University campus would be akin to hitting a home run with the bases loaded. Grand
slam opportunities this significant are rare. Valley leadership must fully commit to
pursuing this opportunity.
ii) Increase support of and transparency into One Future Coachella Valley.
iii) Increase private and public sector involvement in and support of Valley primary and
secondary education districts. If current graduates do not possess the skills that the
public and private sectors need, these sectors have a responsibility to partner with the
school districts and inform them about the needed skills and abilities.
2) Objective: Strengthen regional collaboration and strategic planning efforts.
a) Key result: Utilize the Coachella Valley Association of Governments as an initial model
for bringing the cities together. Look for what is working and what could be done better,
and then implement.
b) Key result: Public, not-for-profit, and tribal entities need to encourage and support
public-private partnerships whenever possible (Zerunyan & Meyers, 2010).

11
Priority One Coachella Valley: https://priorityonecv.org/
121
c) Key result: Improve technological infrastructure to attract tech-integrated companies and
employees.
3) Objective: Diversify number of primary year-round industries.
a) Key result: Strengthen the health care cluster.
b) Key result: After sufficiently funding the regional economic development organization
(EDO), equip the EDO with staff and resources to expand existing business clusters and
explore new clusters founded on existing strengths.
Strategic positioning and focus is competitive, complex, and dynamic, requiring leaders
to identify what, how much, and what not to focus on (Doerr, 2018; Grove, 1995; Pearce et al.,
2009; Porter, 1996). Despite the popularity of category 10 within the future-goal theme,
12

allocating funding to strengthen the tourism cluster should not be a part of a regional economic
development efforts. Valley organizations are working with limited resources, and these
resources should be directed toward diversifying the economy and building economic resilience.
The momentum that has spurred 80 years of favorable growth in tourism will continue. While the
Valley should embrace the region’s inherent competitive advantages (as an attractive
destination), intentionally growing tourism to combat the very problems brough about by tourism
does nothing to build resilience, improve economic opportunity, or provide pathways for upward
mobility.
Concluding Thoughts and Future Opportunities
This study began with two objectives. The first objective was to understand and
document the economic health of the Coachella Valley. While additional research can always be

12
Within the future-goals theme, category 10 focuses on improving core strengths (e.g., tourism, events, regional
amenities, and agriculture).
122
performed, in Chapter 1 I diagnosed the Valley’s major problem: The Valley is economically
fragile and that the status quo will likely increase this fragility. Market forces have produced an
economy centered around tourism, an industry founded on the discretionary purchasing of luxury
goods and an industry known for producing low-wage jobs. This tourism-based economy has
performed well-enough to fuel growth, but at the cost of volatility and durable progress for all
Valley residents. Possible responses to this fragility is my second objective.
The second study objective was to identify opportunities to improve what I believed to be
an ailing Valley economy. Going into this study, I believed that existing Valley assets and
resources could be used more effectively to produce better outcomes. I started my research with
this broad thesis, understanding that I would need to refine and expand on my preliminary thesis
as I learned more. In Chapters 2 and 3, I wrote at some depth about the various methods scholars
used to study regions and economic development within them. I chose to pursue a grounded
theory methodological approach and focused on select stakeholders. These tenured stakeholders
represented the key institutions and organizations that have shaped the Coachella Valley for
decades. With the COVID-19-induced economic freefall as the backdrop, conversations with
these key Valley leaders were rich and surprisingly consistent despite their varied roles within a
highly disparate set of cities and organizations (e.g., tribal, NFP, GSE, and private-sector) that
comprise the Valley: all participants recognized the dangers of, and harm caused by, a fragile
regional economy.
At some basic level, this may be the most relevant finding from the research. While some
of the communities represented among the interviewees do remarkably well under the status quo,
the pervasive belief that the Valley was fragile is a foundational element. Something needs to
change.
123
The primary and two follow-up research questions provided the necessary direction to
craft, implement, and analyze the results from what proved to a thorough interview protocol.
Despite dissimilarities between study participants, and in some cases dramatic dissimilarities,
there was remarkable convergence on core priorities. No person interviewed saw passive hope as
a strategy for strengthening an economy. All participants saw the evolution from a fragile
economy to a more resilient economy occurring through intentional effort and strategic
collaboration. Universally, participants believed regional economic development must be made a
priority. Eighty five percent (85%) of participants believed CVEP, the Valley’s only regional
economic development organization, was equipped to take on the challenge of attracting traded-
sector industries and the companies that require an educated workforce and offer year-round
employment.
One surprising outcome was the consensus among participants that additional resources
should be put into strengthening the Valley as a tourist destination. While the Valley should
maintain its attractiveness as a vacation destination, putting limited resources into accelerating
the Valley’s dependence on a volatile and low-wage industry was counterintuitive and contrary
to other research findings. I interpret this set of responses to mean that many want to see the
Valley build on its strengths while using new gains to support complementary investments
around and beyond tourism. The particulars of how this might be accomplished is left for future
research. The major contribution here is that interviewees recognize the need to improve and
want to strengthen the Valley’s economic resilience.
This is both surprising and hopeful. Amid a political climate where conflict is expected,
the common ground dominated the apparent differences among the stakeholders I interviewed.
Not all stakeholders were part of my dissertation research. Most notably, I chose to omit elected
124
officials and the public at large were omitted. This was a conscious decision to focus on
demonstrating the potential for collaboration and coordination. The interviewees have long and
active careers in making change in the Valley. While the elected officials and residents are not
active voices in my research, the interviewees were uniformly and professionally engaged with
both of the policy makers and community residents. Indeed, this is the reason the participants
who were interviewed were selected. The research benefited from each participant’s
understanding of both stakeholder groups while navigating change in their respective
organizations.
This raises several key issues. While important lessons were learned from this research,
this study was necessarily constrained. This study did not provide organizational-level policy
recommendations, nor did the study interview a population of Valley-based economic
development-influencing positions (e.g., elected officials, city- and county-level economic
developers, and some traded-sector employers). Exploring the specific role(s) education plays in
workforce development and prioritizing which educational tracks are most relevant given current
and anticipated market conditions were also not discussed. On the issue of economic
development, I discussed particular organizations, but did not articulate a plan for any one of
them.
That said, my results suggest several immediate and longer-term opportunities for
continued research, several of which I intend to pursue. Immediate opportunities include (i)
interviewing Valley-wide elected officials and understanding their recognition of the need for
strategic collaboration and properly funded economic development, (ii) identifying the amount
and source of stable funds CVEP requires to deepen its ability to make more meaningful
125
contributions to regional economic development, and (iii) determining the most effective
strategies and tactics to engage and build support among elected officials and their constituents.
Longer-term research opportunities include (i) exploring the role COVID-19 (or any
disaster) plays in aligning community leader recognition, acknowledgement, and prioritization of
regional issues, (ii) determining what it means to live at 200% and 100%, respectively, of the
FPL given California’s high cost of living, and (iii) establishing the next steps this region can
take to diversify its regional economy. Hopefully, future researchers can use this study as a
cornerstone for their scholarship. Answers to these questions will help round out our collective
understanding of the Coachella Valley.
My dissertation did not propose any particular policy change; rather, it showed that better
policies are likely to result if collaboration and coordination become inherent features of policy
formation both within and among the cities, tribes, and other key organizations. There are clear
legal borders and well-articulated policies in place that dictate the inward management of the
cities and reservations. The data showed that these rules and norms are incomplete, and more
intervention is needed to look at how best to manage the shared resources and outcomes from the
interactions that guide the region as a whole.
Collectively, the study participants provided a surprisingly robust set of results that will
inform my actions both as Cathedral City’s Economic Development Director and in efforts
beyond city limits to improve economic and social opportunities for Valley residents. Indeed, the
process of generating the research data – the interviews and the conversations – started to change
the way the group would consider interacting. How this unfolds over the next several years
remains to be seen, but the data showed both a shared confidence and broad consensus that more
was possible and more should be done.
126
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Age Demographic Comparison Report
Appendix 2: Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Completion Reports

Appendix 3: iStar Approval

Appendix 4: Google Search Results

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Appendix 1: Age Demographic Comparison Report

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Appendix 2: Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Completion Reports

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Appendix 3: iStar Approval

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Appendix 4: Google Search Results

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This grounded theory study evaluates the economic challenges of a small region located on the periphery of a vibrant but distant economy. Despite this region’s distinctive characteristics, its economic and social problems are not unique to this state or region. Referred to as the Coachella Valley (Valley) and located in Southern California, the region is economically fragile due to the dependence on one industryㅡan industry founded on the discretionary purchases of luxury goods. This industry produces an abundance of low-skilled and low-wage jobs, which offer little economic mobility, virtually no reward for advanced education, and may be at significant risk of loss due to automation. After diagnosing the challenges facing the region, tenured Valley leaders from the region’s most influential organizations were invited to participate. These leaders came from highly dissimilar organizations, including municipal governments, a tribal government, a quasi-governmental entity, and the non-profit and private sectors. These professionals were engaged using a detailed and well-designed qualitative interview tool designed to capture their in-depth perspectives on economic development, strategy, and collaboration. The micro- and macro-analysis of all 234 interview responses revealed previously unknown opportunities for regional collaboration, and through the alignment of these dissimilar organizations, existing regional assets and resources can be more effectively leveraged to produce better economic and social outcomes. In short, how can an economically fragile region take steps to become economically resilient?

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Asset Metadata

Creator James, Herbert Stone, IV (author)

Core Title The role of leadership and collaboration as a catalyst for regional economic development: a grounded theory study

School School of Policy, Planning and Development

Degree Doctor of Policy, Planning & Development

Degree Program Planning and Development,Policy

Degree Conferral Date 2021-12

Publication Date 11/02/2021

Defense Date 08/16/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag collaboration,Community development,COVID-19 pandemic recovery,disaster recovery,Economic development,economic prosperity,equity,fragile economy,income inequality,job loss due to automation,OAI-PMH Harvest,regional economic development,resilient economy,strategic leadership,strategic planning,tourism

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Redfearn, Christian L. (committee chair), Geffner, Carol J. (committee member), Natoli, Deborah J. (committee member), Radi, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email Stonejames@alumni.Usc.edu,Stonejames@me.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC16351276

Unique identifier UC16351276

Legacy Identifier etd-JamesHerbe-10193

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights James, Herbert Stone, IV

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu