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Gifted Spanish speaking English learners' participation in advanced placement programs

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Gifted Spanish speaking English learners' participation in advanced placement programs

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GIFTED SPANISH SPEAKING ENGLISH LEARNERS’

PARTICIPATION IN ADVANCED PLACEMENT PROGRAMS

by

Luz Adriana Torres

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Luz Adriana Torres

ii
DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to my husband, without his dedication and support
this doctoral journey would have never come to fruition. To my parents, who instilled
in me the love for school, a strong work ethic, and the importance of a good education.
To my children, to whom I bestow my legacy of success through hard work and
dedication; may they follow on the path left to them, and excel in their own endeavors.
To my brother and sister, to all my family and fellow peers, for their encouragement,
love, and support. I also thank the good Lord for all his blessings and for giving me
the perseverance to make it this far.
Dedico esta tésis doctoral a mi esposo, sin su dedicación y apoyo esta jornada
jamás hubiera llegado a su destino. Para mis padres, quien inculcaron en mí el amor
hacia el estudio, una ética de trabajo insuperable y la importancia de una buena
educación. Para mis hijos, a ellos les dejo el legado del éxito a través del trabajo y la
dedicación; espero que sigan en el camino que les dejo y que sobresalgan en sus
propios empeños. Para mi hermano y hermana, para todos mis familiares y
compañeros, por su aliento, amor y apoyo. También le doy las gracias a Dios por todas
sus bendiciones y por darme la perseverancia de llegar hasta aquí.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii

List of Tables v

Abstract vi

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Conceptual Framework 7
Purpose and Importance of the Study 9
Methodological Overview 11
Assumptions 12
Limitations 13
Delimitations 13
Definition of Terms 14
Summary 15

Chapter 2: A Review of the Literature 17
Introduction 17
History of the Education and Achievement of English Learners 18
in the United States
High Stakes Tests and Accountability 38
Institutional Factors Impacting the Education of English Learners 48
English Learners and Gifted Education 54
Social and Cultural Capital in the Education of English Learners 60
Perceptions of English Learners Toward the Schooling Process 63
English Learner Interest and Participation in AP Courses 67
Conclusion 77

Chapter 3: Methodology 79
Introduction 79
Research Design 81
Research Sample 83
Sampling Strategies 84
Data Collection 86
Methodology 91
Data Analysis 94
Expert Panel 95
Pilot Study 95

iv
Chapter 4: Results 96
Introduction 96
Methodology 97
Results: Students 99
The Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process 107
Personal Perceptions and Interest in AP Classes 135
Results: School Personnel 148
The Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process 153
School Personnel Perceptions of EL Students,
Peers, and Parents 171
Results: Relationships Between Student and
School Personnel Responses 182
Summary of the Findings 189

Chapter 5: Conclusions 194
Summary of the Problem 194
Overview of the Methodology 195
Research Question #1 198
Research Question #2 214
Implications of the Study 222
Limitations of the Study 229
Suggestions for Further Research 229

References 232

Appendices:
Appendix A: Student Survey and Interview Protocol 245
Appendix B: Teacher Survey and Interview Protocol 251
Appendix C: School Personnel Interview Protocol 255

v
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Demographic Data of Student Participants 100

Table 2: Academic History of Student Participants 104
by Past Semesters and Years

Table 3: Academic History of Student Participants 105

Table 4: Academic History of Student Participants 106

Table 5: Academic History of Student Participants 107

Table 6: Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process: 133
Summary of the Findings

Table 7: Personal Perceptions and Interest in AP Courses: 147
Summary of the Findings

Table 8: Background Information of Teacher Participants 149

Table 9: Training Received for Meeting the Academic 151
and Language Needs of English Learners

Table 10: Strategies that Had Been Found to Be Successful 151
With English Learners

vi
ABSTRACT
This qualitative study sought to uncover the contextual factors of the schooling
process that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners (ELs)
in Advanced Placement (AP) courses. In addition, this study investigated the
perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking ELs toward AP courses and how these
perceptions might affect their participation in AP courses. Six student participants and
two teachers of EL students completed a short survey and responded to questions that
asked specifically about what students and their parents know about AP courses,
college requirements, financial aid, and how they accessed this information. One
school counselor participated in the interview, but did not participate in the survey.
English learners and other ethnic minorities are underrepresented in AP
programs. AP enrollment criteria such as teacher recommendation, tracking practices,
and low academic achievement have kept EL students out of AP courses. ELs are also
underidentified in programs for the gifted and talented. This study investigated the
schooling experiences of gifted Spanish speaking EL high school students as well as
their perceptions toward AP courses that might affect what they know about AP
programs and the extent to which they enroll and participate in AP programs.
The research findings of this study revealed that gifted Spanish speaking ELs
and their parents had high aspirations for college attendance, but had limited
information or misconceptions about AP programs. This information, coupled with
how students perceived themselves as learners affected their enrollment and
participation in AP classes. In addition, the data revealed that teacher

vii
recommendation was a decisive factor with respect to which students were perceived
to be qualified to participate in AP courses.
Common themes emerging from the study identified a variety of contextual
factors of the schooling process as well as student and school personnel perceptions
that affected the extent to which gifted EL students participated in AP courses. Some
themes dealing with the school process included: teachers were sources of
information and of academic support, there was a lack of integration of the students’
language and culture in the school curriculum and on campus, and school personnel
were perceived to be influential in students’ decisions to enroll in AP classes. The
data uncovered the following themes regarding students’ perceptions: parents had
limited influence on their children’s decisions to take AP courses because they lacked
information about AP programs, students’ reasons for choosing to participate or not
participate in AP classes were varied and inconsistent, and students’ peers served as
the social capital needed to learn about AP courses. The findings of this study call for
districts, schools, and policymakers to examine the current school processes and how
they affect the overall achievement of gifted ELs and their enrollment, participation,
and success in AP programs.

1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
The Advanced Placement (AP) Program has expanded significantly since its
introduction into high schools in 1955-1956 (Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). Its
main purpose, according to the College Board (2002), is to provide a rigorous
academic program that will challenge and prepare students for college through
engaging experiences with college level work. All AP courses are modeled after
comparable college level courses. The AP Course Audit reviews course syllabi in
order to ensure that course design meets college level standards. Only syllabi
approved through the auditing process receive authorization to be labeled AP Classes.
The College Board supplies colleges and universities with a roster of AP courses at
each school, thus, allowing for a unified interpretation of the weight and value of AP
courses listed on student transcripts. Through the auditing process, the quality and
rigor of AP courses is preserved to ensure that all enrolled students are provided with
quality college level work. Therefore, “On the AP Course Audit form, teachers and
administrators attest that their course includes elements commonly taught in effective
college courses” (Guice & Miller, 2007, p. xi).
The College Board (Guice & Miller, 2007) reiterates throughout their
published literature the importance of allowing all students, regardless of background,
the opportunity to participate in AP courses if they are “willing to accept the challenge
of a rigorous academic curriculum” (p.viii). The AP Course Audit is done
conscientiously to ensure that secondary schools do not exclude students from the
2
courses or from taking the exams. The College Board audits all schools regardless of
their AP Exam results in order to prevent schools from denying any student admission
into the AP program, especially if they are low performing schools (College Board,
2002; 2004; Guice & Miller, 2007). Auditing only schools who demonstrate low
performance on AP exams might prompt such schools to be more selective about who
is admitted into their AP programs, thus undermining the College Board’s efforts to be
more inclusive in their admission process.
The College Board (2004) recognizes that there are many “silent gate-keeping
mechanisms embedded in the school’s culture that are preventing certain groups of
students from accessing the AP courses” (p.1). Gate-keeping mechanisms include
specific criteria that have been traditionally used to admit students into AP courses.
Such criteria include grade point average, a grade required in a prerequisite course,
recommendation from a teacher, AP teacher’s discretion, standardized test scores, and
course-specific entrance exams or essays (Guice & Miller, 2007). The College Board
discourages the use of such screening practices, and recommends that high schools
adopt an open door policy in order to expand access to students who have been
underrepresented in AP courses. The College Board (2002) advocates equal
participation for all students as illustrated in the following College Board Equity
Policy Statement:
The College Board and the Advanced Placement Program encourages teachers,
AP Coordinators, and school administrators to make equitable access a guiding
principle for their AP programs. The College Board is committed to the
principle that all students deserve the opportunity to participate in rigorous and
academically challenging courses and programs…The Board encourages the
elimination of barriers that restrict access to AP courses for students from
racial, and socioeconomic groups that have been traditionally underrepresented
3
in the AP program. Schools should make every effort to ensure that their AP
classes reflect the diversity of their student population.

Another prevalent gate-keeping practice is the concern over AP course rigor
and passing rates on the AP exam (College Board, 2002; 2004). In addition to
discouraging limiting entrance requirements, the College Board cautions schools
against simplifying the quality of the AP curriculum upon expanding its entrance
opportunities (Guice & Miller, 2007). It acknowledges that there will be an initial
drop in AP Exam scores; however, the College Board recommends that educators look
at raw numbers of individual students receiving a 3 or higher versus percentages of
students passing the tests. As more students enroll in AP courses and take AP exams,
educators should examine and compare the number of students receiving a 3 or better
on a yearly basis to ensure that the quality of the AP courses remain rigorous as
intended by the College Board (Guice & Miller, 2007).
The College Board highlights schools and programs that have opened their
doors to all students with successful outcomes in student achievement as evidenced by
their satisfactory grades and AP Exam results. The success of these schools illustrates
the College Board’s effort to end barriers that have frequently denied access to all
students. The College Board is confident that administrators, educators, and
coordinators working together to provide the necessary support, collaboration,
professional development, and teacher incentives, will result in successful AP
programs as demonstrated by a steady increase in academic achievement for all
students, thus eliminating barriers that have traditionally kept underrepresented groups
of students out of AP programs.

4
Efforts to make AP programs more inclusive have not ensured the participation
of underrepresented students in AP classes. In its AP Report to the Nation, the
College Board (2009) reported that in the year 2008, 14.4 percent of African American
students enrolled in AP courses, Hispanic or Latino 15.4 percent, Asian, Asian
American, or Pacific Islander 5.3 percent, American Indian or Alaska Native 1.1
percent, and White 62.8 percent. Although the Board indicated that there has been a
rise in student participation from ethnic, racial, and low socioeconomic minorities, the
percentages do not reflect the diversity present in many high schools. Therefore,
“True equity is not achieved until the demographics of AP participation and
performance reflect the demographics of the nation” (College Board, 2009, p.7)
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan (2008) conducted research on gifted students’
perceptions of Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Programs (IB).
This study found that for the majority of the participants, their experience in these
programs was positive and they felt that they were more challenged than if they had
enrolled in regular classes. The researchers recognized the absence of
underrepresented minorities in the AP and IB programs they studied. Nevertheless,
they found that for those few students in their study who were from rural, low-SES,
and/or minority students participating and succeeding in AP and IB classes was
significant for many reasons: “disproving racial stereotypes, being the first in a family
to graduate from college, and the opportunity to escape a lifestyle they did not wish
for themselves” (p.208). The authors concluded that “ironically, these students for
whom the stakes seem to be the greatest are those who are most frequently
underrepresented in AP and IB classes-students from low-SES, minority, and rural
5
backgrounds” (Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008, p.209). This study illustrates that
although the College Board recommends equal access to all students, many students
remain left out of experiencing the benefits of AP classes.
Absent from the College Board literature is the extent to which students who
are representative of linguistically diverse backgrounds participate in AP programs.
Specifically, the literature does not address the enrollment of English Learners in AP
courses at the high school level. A study conducted by Rebecca M. Callahan (2005)
on tracking and high school English Learners found that “systemic tracking of English
learners results in a lack of access to high-quality content-area instruction, which in
turn has linguistic, academic, and programmatic consequences” (pp.306-307). ELs
who have been unable to meet the criteria for moving out of less rigorous courses
continue their academic path in courses that challenge them very little and deny them
access to college preparatory courses such as those found in AP programs (Callahan,
2005). English learners are placed in low-level classes due to educator’s beliefs about
their linguistic and cognitive abilities. Many educators associate limited English
proficiency with limited intelligence and ability (Callahan, 2005; Bernal, 1994) and
thus, keep students from participating in content rich classrooms. These content rich
classrooms may include those found in AP programs as well as gifted programs.
There are similar patterns of exclusion in the literature regarding the
identification of ELs as gifted students and their participation in gifted programs
(Bernal, 1994; Ford, Grantham, & Whiting, 2008; Matthews, 2006). The literature
indicates that few ELs are identified as gifted or considered for identification (Bernal,
1994; Matthews, 2006). This is due to the identification criteria traditionally utilized to
6
identify gifted students (Bernal, 1994; Ford, Grantham, & Whiting, 2008; Matthews,
2006). These criteria include the use of intelligence tests that are administered in
English as well as teacher referral for testing to participate in gifted education (Bernal,
1994; Ford, Grantham, & Whiting, 2008; Maker, 1996; Matthews, 2006). The
literature on gifted education indicates that teachers do not refer culturally and
linguistically diverse students for gifted education to the same extent as other students
due to numerous factors: bias against certain groups; lower expectations;
unfamiliarity with characteristics of giftedness unique to diverse populations; and lack
of consideration for circumstances affecting behaviors and attitudes toward school
(The Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement, 2008). In addition,
the use of biased and inappropriate tests such as intelligence and achievement tests
limit the extent to which culturally and linguistically diverse students are able to
demonstrate their strengths, learning styles, and the many different ways in which they
are gifted (Cohen, 1990; The Center for Comprehensive School Reform and
Improvement, 2008).
Identifying ELs as gifted has implications for their participation in Advanced
Placement and honors courses. High achieving and gifted students are more likely to
be strong candidates for participating in rigorous academic programs like AP and
honors classes (Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen, 1990; Gandara & Contreras,
2009). Many students who are culturally and linguistically diverse are often
overlooked for gifted education due to their underachievement in school, a condition
resulting from not meeting their unique academic needs in the classroom (The Center
for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement, 2008). Excluding ELs from
7
gifted programs limits their opportunities for accessing rigorous college level courses
in high school (Gandara & Contreras, 2009). In keeping with the College Board’s
efforts for a more inclusive AP program, the identification of ELs as gifted would
open the doors to gifted programs that may prepare them more adequately for the
challenges and rigors of AP coursework.
“English Learners benefit from curriculum and instructional materials that are
academically challenging, possess age-appropriate content, and include subject
matter that is at grade level; this includes culturally responsive methodologies and
materials” (California Association for Bilingual Education, 2009, p.1). Overall, the
literature in relation to AP access, gifted education, and ELs corroborate to inform and
mobilize educational institutions to make necessary adjustments for improving the
academic experiences and outcomes of students who are English Learners.
Conceptual Framework
Social Capital and Institutional Support
Stanton-Salazar (2001) unveils the institutional and ideological forces that he
believes “make access to social capital and institutional support within schools and
other institutional settings so problematic for minority children and adolescents” (p.6).
Pierre Bourdieu (1986) first introduced the notion of social capital to describe groups
or networks to which an individual belongs. Social capital may be represented by the
family name, class, tribe, school, or party, etc. to which an individual belongs
(Bourdieu, 1986). The value of the social capital is dependant on the size of the
network connections the individual possesses and the amount of material profits (in
the form of services) or symbolic profits (profits by association) the individual may
8
acquire from that network. Building on Bourdieu’s (1986) work, Stanton-Salazar
defines social capital as the supportive relationships developed by young people and
their institutional agents which include teachers, counselors, and middle class school
peers who have access to social networks that working class youth do not. In
particular, these supportive relationships are crucial for informing students about the
benefits of AP courses, thus encouraging their participation in the culture of AP course
taking.
Stanton-Salazar (2001) has identified five specific overlapping problems that
he perceives to have been institutionalized in society, one of which is the most
relevant to the purpose of this study. Stanton-Salazar (2001) poses that there are
“evaluation and recruitment processes by which school-based agents evaluate and
select minority students for sponsorship; such selection processes largely entail
perceptions of the student’s ability and willingness to adopt the cultural capital and
standards of the dominant group;” (p.7). In other words, minority students are valued
based on their ability to conform to dominant definitions of acceptable behaviors,
abilities, and attitudes, thus making them worthy of the social networks and
institutional support that might ensure their academic and social success in school
settings as well as in rigorous academic settings such as those found in AP classes.
Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for Intervention
Jim Cummins (1986) proposes an educational framework “…for examining the
types of personal and institutional redefinitions that are required to reverse the pattern
of minority school failure” (p. 19). Cummins’s theoretical framework is founded on
the premise that “…Students from ‘dominated’ societal groups are empowered or
9
‘disabled’ as a direct result of their interactions with educators in schools” (p.21).
These interactions are based upon four institutional characteristics of schools and the
extent to which they demonstrate the following: 1. The use of students’ language and
culture 2. Encourage minority community participation 3. Utilize pedagogy designed
for intrinsic motivation on the part of the students to use language actively to construct
their own knowledge 4. Educators are advocates for minority students. Further,
Cummins recognizes “The variability of minority students’ performance under
different social and educational conditions” which is an indication of the “many
complex interrelated factors at work” (p.21). This involves taking an honest look at
institutional structures that prevent students from succeeding in school despite the
language or academic program students participate in.
Purpose and Importance of the Study
Research has documented the underrepresentation of students from ethnically,
racially, and SES diverse students in Advanced Placement courses (Guice & Miller,
2007; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). This study investigated the specific
contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of gifted EL
students in AP classes. The results of this study are important for informing
educators, program coordinators, and administrators about the contextual factors of the
schooling process that hinder EL access to appropriately challenging curricula such as
those found in AP courses. The results of this study have the potential to inform and
support the College Board’s efforts to make AP courses more accessible to a wider
range of students including English Learners
10
Much of the research on gifted education and Advanced Placement Programs
discusses gifted students’ perceptions of their teachers, AP classes, the schooling
process, and themselves as learners (Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008; Casserly,
1986). Research exists that exposes the perceptions of high school teachers and their
ability to teach ELs (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007). However, there is an absence of
research that focuses on the perceptions of gifted ELs of AP classes and how these
perceptions affect their personal interest and participation in Advanced Placement
programs. Oftentimes policymakers make decisions as to what the best instructional
programs should be for ELs. For example, when Proposition 227 was enacted in 1998
it reduced the number of ELs in bilingual education programs by mandating their
enrollment in structured immersion classrooms or mainstream classrooms (Crawford
2004; Parrish et al. 2006). Along the same lines, teachers and school officials make
decisions about where students belong and the type of instruction and programs they
need (Callahan, 2005; Parrish et al. 2006). This study examined the perceptions of ELs
in order to develop a better understanding of how they interpret their academic
experiences, particularly in regards to Advanced Placement courses and the personal
reasons for choosing whether or not to enroll in these courses.
Research Questions
1. What are the contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the
enrollment of gifted Spanish Speaking English Learners into Advanced
Placement classes?
2. How do the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners affect
their personal interest and participation in Advanced Placement classes?
11
Methodological Overview
This qualitative study focused on high school students, grades 9-12, who were
designated as gifted, Spanish speaking English Learners and who were, or were not,
enrolled in honors courses that might lead to future enrollment in AP courses. Ninth
grade students were included because eighth grade teachers recommend many
incoming ninth grade students for honors classes. Furthermore, in many high schools,
students begin taking honors courses as early as ninth grade. In addition, students in
grades 9 and 10 might more than likely still be designated as gifted ELs while gifted
EL students might be reclassified as English Proficient by the time they enter eleventh
and twelfth grade.
Qualitative methodology was utilized in order to uncover factors that affect the
enrollment of gifted, Spanish speaking English Learners into AP classes.
Furthermore, a qualitative study allowed an in-depth analysis of student interest and
perceptions about their participation into AP classes. Equal access to AP courses is an
issue that must be addressed given the increasing number of linguistically diverse
population of students present in our public schools (Callahan, 2005; Matthews, 2006;
Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007). Specifically, approximately one-third of all EL students
are found to be in grades 7-12 (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007). Through qualitative
interviews and surveys the study gathered information on what students know about
AP courses and their ability to enroll and excel in AP classrooms. In addition, through
surveys and interviews, the study gathered information that shed light on what the
ELs’ perceptions are about AP courses and how those perceptions affected their
participation and interest in AP courses.
12
In addition to interviewing students, this study interviewed two teachers of
gifted Spanish speaking EL students and one counselor for the purpose of determining
their attitudes and perspectives regarding the participation of gifted Spanish speaking
EL students in AP classes. Teachers were asked to complete a short survey in order to
collect background information on training received and credentials held that may
have prepared them to teach and support ELs in the classroom. Teachers were
interviewed in order to collect accounts of the extent to which academic programs
designed for EL students, such as English Language Development and Sheltered
Immersion classes, have prepared EL students for the academic rigors of AP courses.
Teacher accounts were used to document their role in preparing students for college
level work and their perceptions as to the extent to which the school recruits, prepares,
and supports EL students in higher-level academic courses such as AP courses. In
addition, teacher interviews informed this study on the specific district and school
policies that contribute to, or hinder, the participation of gifted Spanish speaking EL
students in AP classes. The same process and interview protocol was utilized for the
counselor that participated in the study; however, the counselor did not complete a
survey.
Assumptions
It was assumed that students, teachers, counselors, and program coordinators
would respond honestly to the survey and interview questions provided. It was
assumed that students would be willing to participate and engage in open discussions
given that the researcher was able to speak in Spanish to clarify questions and
facilitate the discussion if needed. Respondents differed in the nature and depth of
13
their responses which were based on their personal experiences. Furthermore, it was
assumed that local high schools would be willing to allow the researcher access to
student information on gifted status and language designation in order to identify those
students who met the criteria to participate in the study. Finally, it was assumed that
the school sites would be open to welcoming the researcher on campus to conduct
interviews and conduct surveys.
Limitations
One limitation of this study was the limited number of school sites that offered
AP courses, that enrolled a high number of gifted Spanish speaking ELs, and that
allowed the researcher to conduct surveys and interviews on campus.
Another limitation of this study is the small number of gifted Spanish speaking
English Learners and school personnel that participated in this investigation.
Furthermore, the participants in this study attended a high school complex that had
been divided into six small individual schools, each with its own student population,
staff, and administrators. This school setting is not typical of high schools in
California. This fact, coupled with such a small number of student and school
personnel participants, does not allow for a broad generalization of the results in this
study.
Delimitations
Limits to the generalizability of the final results include the following factors:
• High schools have different criteria for allowing student participation in
AP courses.

14
• School sites have different criteria for identifying ELs as gifted.
• Gifted students are not commonly identified at the high school level.
Definition of Terms
English Learner (EL). In California, “An EL is a student who, based on objective
assessment, has not developed listening, speaking, reading, and writing proficiencies
in English sufficient for participation in the regular school program” (California
Department of Education, 2006). English Learners are also referred to as Limited
English Proficient (LEP) (California Department of Education, 2006) or as English
Language Learners (ELLs) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2004).
Academic Rigor. The following course pattern has been defined as rigorous by
various organizations and programs such as the State Scholars Initiative, High Schools
that Work, College Board, and ACT, Inc:
• Four years of English
• Four years of Mathematics – including Algebra
1 and 2, Geometry, and preferably at least one other
advanced Mathematics course such as Trigonometry,
• Pre-Calculus, Calculus, or Statistics
• Three years of Laboratory Science such as Biology,
Chemistry, and Physics
• Three years of Social Studies
• Two years of a World Language (Pathways to College Network, 2007)

Gifted Learners. Gifted learners are “Students, children or youth who give evidence of high
achievement capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity,
or in specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by
the school in order to fully develop those capabilities” (No Child Left Behind, 2002)
Reclassification/Redesignation. According to the California Department Education (2009),
“When English learners have demonstrated that they are able to compete effectively with
15
English-speaking peers in mainstream classes, students then are reclassified as fluent English
proficient (RFEP). The reclassification process is based on guidelines approved by the State
Board of Education (SBE).” Multiple criteria are utilized to determine the reclassification of
students. The criteria may include performance on the California Standards Test (CST),
performance on the California English Language Test (CELDT), teacher evaluation, parental
opinion and consultation, and student academic performance in basic skills (California
Department of Education, 2009).
Summary
Given the absence in the College Board literature of the participation of
English Learners in AP courses at the high school level, a qualitative study that
examined the factors that affect the enrollment of gifted, Spanish speaking, English
Learners in AP classes was valuable given that Spanish speaking ELs are the largest
number of linguistically diverse students in our public schools (Callahan, 2005;
Matthews, 2006; Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007). It was also significant to examine the
perceptions of EL students towards AP courses and how their perceptions affected
their interest and participation in AP classes. The results of this study will provide
teachers, administrators, AP program directors, and policymakers with valuable
information on the factors that facilitate or hinder EL students’ enrollment in AP
courses. This information will help decision makers plan for future coursework that
might better serve EL learners and encourage their enrollment in AP courses.
Becoming aware of EL perceptions that affect their interest and enrollment will also
inform school personnel about the experiences that have shaped student perceptions,
16
whether negatively or positively, about AP courses and aid future efforts for program
improvement and accessibility for all students.

17
CHAPTER 2
A Review of the Literature
Introduction
Advanced Placement courses are designed to prepare students for the rigor of
college level work and have been found to be predictive of college completion
(College Board, 2002; Dougherty et. al, 2005). Further, a passing score of three or
more on an AP exam has been found to be indicative of students’ level of
preparedness and is a strong predictor of persistence towards college completion
(Dougherty et al., 2005; Kyburg et al., 2007). Other benefits to taking AP courses
include receiving college credit for courses completed with a passing grade, thus,
reducing college tuition costs and the amount of time spent in college (Casserly, 1986;
College Board, 2002; Kyburg et al, 2007; Lewin, 2006). Finally, satisfactory
completion of numerous AP courses and high passing rates on AP exams is
representative of the accomplishments of the students as well as the quality of the high
school and programs that students attend, therefore, the successful performance on AP
courses and exams may increase the chances of admission into college (Casserly,
1986; College Board, 2002; Kyburg et. al, 2007; Lewin, 2006).
English Learners (ELs) are students whose first language is not English and
who are first-generation immigrants to the United Sates. However, ELs are most
commonly born in the United States to parents who are immigrants (Matthews, 2006).
Historically, there has been a lack of participation on the part of ELs in Advanced
Placement programs as well as in gifted and talented programs due to a myriad of
factors which include a lack of understanding of their academic, cognitive, social and
18
psychological abilities and needs (Ochoa, 2003; Olsen, 1997; Ortiz, 2003; Sharkey &
Layzer, 2000). Numerous studies have pointed to the misconceptions educators and
administrators hold as to the abilities and needs of English learners, which in turn
affect educators’ ability to effectively teach them (Karabenick & Noda, 2004; Olsen,
1997; Sharkey & Layzer, 2000).
Given the cited benefits of taking AP courses and the value placed upon AP
programs in the United States (Casserly, 1986; College Board, 2002; Lewin, 2006),
this study examined the institutional factors that may negate or facilitate access to AP
programs for Spanish speaking ELs who are also identified as gifted. In addition, this
study examined how Spanish speaking ELs perceived AP courses and how such
perceptions affected their interest and participation or lack of participation in AP
classes. The review of the literature in regards to the educational attainment of ELs in
the United States, and their participation in AP and gifted and talented education
programs to date will provide a framework for understanding the research questions
this study aims to explore. This study offers new insights on the participation of gifted
ELs in Advanced Placement courses in order to better inform school personnel and
policymakers about the factors that currently affect the participation of gifted Spanish
speaking ELs in AP courses.
History of the Education and Achievement of English Learners in the United States
Demographics and Historical Trends
“Secondary English Learners are the fastest growing segment of the limited
English proficient student population…approximately one-third of all EL students are
found in grades 7-12” (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007, p.3). Parrish et al. (2006) have
19
reported that 25.4% of the students enrolled in California in the 2003-2004 school year
were English Learners. Of this population, 85.1% were Spanish speakers, followed by
Vietnamese at 2.2% (Parrish et al., 2006). Nationally, Spanish speaking ELs represent
approximately 80% of the total number of English Learners (American Federation of
Teachers, 2006). These numbers are supported by the fact that Hispanics from all
races are the largest minority group in the United States based on the 2000 Census
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 as referenced by James Crawford, 2004). Another fact is
that Hispanic students in American schools have the highest dropout rates in the
country. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2010), the most
recent Hispanic drop out is recorded to be 21.4 percent in 2007 while the drop-out rate
for African-Americans is 8.4 percent and 5.3 percent for White youth.
English Learners have a history of poor academic achievement in U. S. public
schools (American Federation of Teachers, 2006; Gandara & Rumberger, 2007;
Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007). Gandara & Rumberger (2007) have reported the
following seven conditions as contributing to the lack of academic progress for ELs:
1. Inequitable access to appropriately trained teachers.
2. Inadequate professional development opportunities to help teachers address
their instructional needs.
3. Inequitable access to appropriate assessment to measure their achievement,
gauge their learning needs, and hold the system accountable for their
progress.
4. Inadequate instructional time to accomplish learning goals.
5. Inequitable access to instructional materials and curriculum.
20
6. Inequitable access to adequate facilities.
7. Intense segregation in schools and classrooms that place them at
particularly high risk for educational failure (pp.8-10).
In addition, the American Federation of Teachers (2006) identified the following
factors contributing to the low academic achievement of ELs: high mobility rates; low
enrollment in early childhood education; little or non-existent formal schooling in their
native country; lack of health services; disproportionate attendance at resource-poor
schools; lack of access to specialized instruction and staff; lack of participation in
rigorous, college preparatory coursework; and families who are unfamiliar with the
educational system in the U.S. and who live in poverty.
Of relevance to the present study is the fact that a disproportionate number of
ELs have limited access to rigorous academic programs such as AP courses. This
condition is due to the placement of ELs in courses that are not academically
challenging, not informing EL students about the existence of such rigorous courses,
and not holding ELs to high academic standards (American Federation of Teachers,
2006; Haycock, 2001). These practices have implications for the educational
attainment of ELs and for the rate to which ELs attend college. The college going rate
for ELs is presently low in comparison to their native English-speaking peers
(American Federation of Teachers, 2006).
Proposition 227
Historically, many educational programs have been created to meet the
language and academic needs of English learners. One such program is bilingual
education. Bilingual education may be defined as an educational program where
21
literacy in the primary language and subject matter is taught before the introduction of
English literacy development (Rossell, 2002). Further, students receive daily English
instruction through English as a Second Language (ESL) or English Language
Development (ELD) (Crawford, 2004). Those who support a true model of bilingual
education believe in the cognitive and language acquisition theories supporting the
model (Cummins 1980a, 1980b as cited in Rossell, 2002). The ultimate goal of
bilingual education is to facilitate learning of subject matter through the primary
language while learning English. In this way, students are not deprived from learning
academic content at the cost of learning English first (Rossell, 2002).
Proposition 227 was enacted in June of 1998 as a response to the apparent
failure of bilingual education programs to teach language learners English in
California public schools (Crawford, 2004). Prop 227 requires the placement of EL
students in structured English immersion programs, for no more than a year, in order
to help ELs transition into mainstream English. Research has shown that the passage
of Proposition 227 impacted Spanish speaking ELs more than other language
minorities, particularly those who were enrolled in bilingual education programs
(Parrish et al., 2006; Rossell, 2002).
Parrish et al, (2006) under the sponsorship of The American Institutes for
Research (AIR) and WestED, presented a report of a five-year study of the impact of
Proposition 227 on the learning of ELs. Parrish et al. (2006) reported that various
factors are crucial in the effective education of ELs. Those factors include: staff
capacity, staff characteristics, and training to address EL needs; school-wide focus on
ELD and standards-based instruction; shared expectations and priorities in regard to
22
educating ELs; systematic, ongoing assessment and data driven decision making.
Each of these factors has specific areas that require careful consideration in order to
address the needs of language learners.
One of the most pressing concerns expressed in Parrish et al.’s study was the
rigor and appropriateness of the instructional approaches utilized to teach ELs.
Through interviews and surveys completed by teachers and administrators, Parrish et
al. (2006) discovered that many ELs received a less rigorous curriculum than native
speakers and that these students received the “last of the last” and “watered down
programs” (Parrish et al., 2006, p. II-24). Furthermore, the authors found that many
schools had a lack of resources, materials, and qualified teachers who actually had the
knowledge, skills, and training to work with ELs. Rossell (2002) found in her study of
California classrooms that many administrators interpreted Prop 227 to mean that as
long as ELs were being instructed in English they were in compliance. Consequently,
many ELs were placed directly into mainstream classrooms or structured English
immersion classrooms without differentiated instruction or language support.
The five year report conducted by Parrish et al. (2006) draws attention to
having educational leaders and policymakers engage in discussions that focus not on
which educational programs are better for ELs, but on a critical analysis of the
programs that are in place and how they might be improved in order to ensure the
academic success of English Learners. The report calls for critically examining
programs that are absent or unpopular, such as bilingual education, in order to
determine their potential for supporting the educational needs of language minority
students. Parrish et al.’s five year study brings to light the fact that ELs continue to
23
receive a less than adequate academic and rigorous instruction, thus reinforcing other
findings on the poor quality of instruction that ELs receive (American Federation of
Teachers, 2006; Callahan, 2005; Gandara & Rumberger, 2007; Haycock, 1998;
Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007).
Program Placement for English Learners
In keeping with Proposition 227, the program placement for ELs in California
schools includes Structured English Immersion (SEI) and English Language
Mainstream classrooms (California Department of Education, 2006). SEI classrooms
are specifically designed for students with “less than reasonable fluency” as measured
by the California English Language Development Test (CELDT), this means scoring
at the beginning to intermediate levels of language proficiency (California Department
of Education, 2006). English language mainstream classrooms are designed for
students with reasonable fluency or those students who scored at an early advanced or
advanced level of proficiency on the CELDT (California Department of Education,
2006).
Structured English Immersion (SEI) includes the following components: 1.
English Language Development (ELD) 2. content instruction that includes specially
designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) whenever needed to make core
content more accessible, and 3. may include primary language support (California
Department of Education, 2006). Parents have the right to request that their child be
taken out of SEI classrooms and placed into mainstream classrooms. Parents also
have the right to request an exception waiver for their child to be placed in an
alternative program which may include a form of bilingual education such as a Two-
24
Way Immersion Program, Transitional Bilingual Education, and Maintenance or
Developmental Bilingual Education (California State of Education, 2006; 2009).
Regardless of the instructional program, ELs must be taught in accordance
with the state developed English Language Development (ELD) Standards. The ELD
Standards were developed to compliment the English Language Arts Standards (ELA)
in order to ensure that all ELs develop proficiency in both the English language and
the content knowledge and skills outlined in the ELA standards (California State
Department of Education, 2006). The ELD standards were used to develop the
CELDT. The ELD standards serve as a roadmap to guide teachers in moving ELs
along in their acquisition of English and proficiency in the ELA content standards
(California Department of Education, 2006). All teachers of EL students must have
the appropriate authorization to teach ELs in accordance to California law (California
Department of Education, 2006). This is done to ensure that such teachers have the
knowledge and skills needed to address the needs of English Learners. The challenges
of preparing highly qualified teachers of ELs to aid in their academic success has been
emphasized in much of the literature on the academic achievement of ELs at all levels
including the secondary level (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007).
Curriculum and Instruction for English Learners
Surrounding the inception of Proposition 227 is the controversy regarding the
role of the primary language in the instruction of language learners. As stated earlier,
Spanish is the dominant minority language in California. For this reason, Rossell
(2002) asserts that bilingual education is really for Spanish speakers, the group most
affected by Proposition 227. She criticizes San Diego school district’s structured
25
English immersion programs for teaching their students Spanish literacy during the
30% allowed for Spanish instruction or support. This, according to Rossell, is in clear
violation of Prop 227. At the same time, she validates Los Angeles Unified School
District’s Structured English Immersion programs for their use of Spanish to clarify
and explain concepts during their 30% allowed for primary language because they are
not using it to instruct students in Spanish literacy, which is then in compliance with
Prop 227.
According to Cummins (1986), the extent to which the primary language and a
student’s culture are integrated into the classroom experience will have implications
on the success experienced by language minorities in schools. He suggests that
teachers need to redefine their roles to be accepting of and valuing students’ language
and culture in order to empower minority students. Cummins perceives the resistance
against bilingual education as an effort on the side of the dominant group to keep their
status as dominant while preventing that this power be shared with minority groups.
This is done by keeping students’ language and culture out of the classroom and by
having students mainstream and learn in English while learning English. These
actions place policymakers, politicians, and even educators in the role of subtractive
agents versus additive agents because they are choosing to ignore the assets of a
primary language and culture that students bring into the classroom, and which may
lead them to more status and power in society by making them more marketable when
seeking employment (Cummins, 1986).
Other studies have also demonstrated the value of primary language instruction
on the literacy development of minority students (Au, 2006; Jimenez, Garcia, &
26
Pearson, 1996; Rueda & Garcia, 1996). Literacy development of minority students
includes, not only students whose first language is not English, but also those students
who speak a different version of English and whose cultural background differs from
that of the dominant group (Cummins, 1986). Kathryn Au (2006) describes her work
on the literacy development of Hawaiian children who are speakers of Hawaiian
Creole English in the following way, “…my focus here is students’ access to the kind
of literacy achievement that opens doors to opportunities in the larger society. This
kind of literacy achievement includes what Delpit (1988) calls the codes of the culture
of power. The common theme among the research is that explicitly teaching students
cognitive structures in their primary language, a language they are familiar with and
which is valued, will then transfer to their literacy development in the second
language, the dominant language in society. Students may be explicitly taught to
determine which language should be used in different contexts and situations.
Nevertheless, ELs in California are placed in SEI classrooms where they must
be taught overwhelmingly or nearly all in English (California Department of
Education, 2006). Districts are left with the responsibility of defining what
overwhelmingly or nearly all actually means “in order to determine how much primary
language instruction or support is permitted” (California Department of Education,
2006, p.6). In light of this, many instructional models have been developed in order
to meet the needs of ELs in the SEI and English mainstream classrooms. Two of these
models include The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) and
The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) Model.
27
The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) was
developed by Anna Uhl Chamot and J. Michael O’Malley (1994) “to meet the
academic needs of students learning English as a second language in American
schools” (p. 4). This approach is largely based upon Jim Cummins’s (1980; 1981 as
cited in Chamot & O’Malley, 1994) research and theories on second language
acquisition and the improvement of academic instruction for minority students. The
CALLA approach stresses the importance of developing the academic language
needed to succeed in the regular classroom; thus, it is intended for second language
learners at the intermediate and advanced levels of English proficiency. “CALLA is
designed to assist ESL students to succeed in school by providing transitional
instruction from either standard ESL programs or bilingual programs to grade-level
content classrooms” (Chamot & O’Malley, p. 9, 1994). The authors build upon
Cummins’s construct of Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) from
which the title for CALLA was conceived. The authors cite Cummins’s findings that
language learners acquire the social language much quicker than the academic
language which may take five to seven years to develop (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994).
The CALLA model emphasizes the explicit instruction of learning strategies
through meaningful content topics. Learning strategies are defined as “…thoughts or
activities that assist in enhancing learning outcomes” (Chamot & O’Malley, p. 60,
1994). Learning strategies include metacognitive strategies such as planning,
monitoring, and evaluating; cognitive strategies such as note-taking, summarizing, and
making inferences; and social/affective strategies such as questioning for clarification,
cooperation, and self-talk. The CALLA model has three basic components, which
28
include content topics, academic language skills, and learning strategy instruction.
CALLA lesson plans are required to have content objectives, language objectives, and
learning strategy objectives to make subject matter meaningful.
Cognitive Theory is the major influence behind the explicit instruction of
learning strategies using modeling, extensive practice, and eventual independent
application of the strategies by the students (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994). The works
of John Anderson (1976; 1980; 1983) and Michael Pressley et al. (1990), among
others, contributed to the authors’ work on the teaching of learning strategies to
improve student learning. Further, Chamot & O’Malley conducted research on the
strategies that effective language learners use versus less effective language learners
through observations and interviews in multiple language tasks, including listening
comprehension tasks. The authors also conducted research on whether such learning
strategies can be taught and found that indeed they can be taught in an explicit
systematic contextualized way (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994).
The authors of the CALLA model also found (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994) that
the role of the teacher changes as the students become more proficient in the use and
monitoring of the learning strategies. The teacher becomes a facilitator and guide
rather than the communicator or transmitter of knowledge. Other research on the
reading strategies of successful bilingual Latina/o readers has found that the more
effective readers use metacognitive and cognitive strategies effectively to monitor
their reading comprehension (Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996), thus supporting the
importance of explicitly teaching learning strategies to help language learners make
sense of content and aid their language and literacy development.
29
The CALLA model emphasizes the need to provide many opportunities for
students to interact with each other and actually coach each other on the learning
strategies. The program is based on the premise that the teacher will model the
learning strategies, provide opportunities for practice, provide feedback, assess and
encourage the transfer of the learning strategies across content areas toward
independent practice much like the gradual-release-of-responsibility model (Gambrell,
et al. 2007). The CALLA model recognizes each student as an individual and allows
for students to move at their own pace and use the strategies that they believe are
meaningful to their own learning experience (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994).
The Sheltered Immersion Observation Protocol (SIOP) Model is the result of a
seven year research project (1996-2003) entitled The Effects of Sheltered Instruction
on the Achievement of Limited English Proficient Students. Dr. Jana Echevarria and
Dr. Deborah Short were co-project investigators and were involved with working with
middle school teachers in order to “…identify key practices for sheltered instruction
and develop a professional development model to enable more teachers to use
sheltered instruction effectively in their classrooms” (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short,
p.214, 2004). Similar to the CALLA model, the SIOP model is a systematic
instructional model that aims to bring consistency to instructional practices from
classroom to classroom and across schools and districts. The authors of the SIOP
model noticed many inconsistencies in the way “sheltered instruction” was being
taught and aimed to identify practices that would make it more consistent. In the
process, the SIOP model has now become a tool with which teachers and
30
administrators may evaluate lesson delivery and instruction by using an observation
protocol to evaluate the effectiveness of the sheltered lesson.
According to Echevarria et. al (2004), sheltered instruction is defined as “…an
approach for teaching content to English learners (ELs) in strategic ways that make the
subject matter concepts comprehensible while promoting the students’ English
language development” (p. 2). This model of sheltered instruction includes the
following components for teaching content: preparation, building background,
comprehensible input, strategy instruction, interaction, practice/application, lesson
delivery, and review/assessment (Echevarria et al., 2004). Like the CALLA model,
the SIOP model emphasizes the need for careful preparation, careful selection of
materials, the importance of building on students’ prior knowledge, building
background, quality interaction, plenty of practice and authentic opportunities for
application, and student assessment in a variety of formats that are appropriate for
language learners.
Similar to the CALLA model, the SIOP model also requires that all lessons
integrate both content and language objectives for optimal lesson delivery and
effectiveness. In addition, the “strategy instruction” component of the SIOP model
deals specifically with the explicit modeling and teaching of learning strategies as
outlined by Chamot & O’Malley in their CALLA model. The CALLA model then
becomes an essential component of sheltered instruction. Along with the teaching of
the learning strategies, the SIOP model also identifies two types of scaffolding
techniques based on Lev Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) (Echevarria et al., 2004). By providing verbal and instructional
31
scaffolding, teachers are sensitive to the language levels of their students and use
different techniques such as paraphrasing, “think-alouds,” and graphic organizers to
help facilitate learning. These scaffolding techniques are encouraged by the CALLA
model as well.
Both the CALLA and SIOP instructional models have as their components a
protocol or checklist for observing and determining the effectiveness of lesson
preparation and delivery. They both provide ample examples for developing
appropriate lessons that meet the language and academic needs of students. They both
provide sample lessons and lesson planning templates. Both may be used as a staff
development tool to improve the quality of instruction of all teachers. Further, both
models emphasize the use of alternative formative and summative assessments that
would more adequately demonstrate the language and academic development of the
students.
Unlike the CALLA model, however, the SIOP model recognizes the need for
culturally responsive teaching and the importance of infusing sociocultural awareness
based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory by recognizing that learning takes place
through “social interaction and contextualized communication”(Echevarria et al., p.
12, 2004). The SIOP model also emphasizes the importance of the “…explicit
socialization of students to the often implicit cultural expectations of the classroom
such as turn-taking, participation rules, and established routines” (Echevarria et al.,
p.11, 2004). The SIOP model recognizes and values, not only the diverse knowledge
and language that students bring with them, but also the richness of their culture and
32
the experiences that teachers may capitalize upon to make instruction relevant and
aide in the transition from a sheltered classroom to a mainstream classroom.
Both the CALLA and SIOP models support the use of the native language to
facilitate learning and reduce anxiety that may hinder confidence, motivation, and
ultimately, learning. The use of the primary language is supported by research on
effective teaching strategies for language-minority students conducted by Rueda &
Garcia (1996) where more effective teachers were found to use constructivist teaching
strategies and techniques versus the transmission model. Further, Kathryn Au’s
(1998) call for a diverse social constructivist orientation for teaching linguistically and
culturally diverse students includes the use of the primary language as a tool for
developing, not only English literacy, but to encourage literacy in the home language
as well. Both the CALLA and SIOP models call for a social constructivist approach to
learning that has students actively engaged through strategies that allow and facilitate
participation and interaction, not only with their peers and teachers, but with the
content as well. Both models require that teachers rethink the way they deliver
instruction and the way they think about their second language learners as capable of
learning if given plenty of authentic, challenging, yet language appropriate
opportunities for success.
Other literature on the best practices for English Learners compliments and
provides support for the instructional strategies advocated in the CALLA and SIOP
models. For instance, in the synthesis of research for promoting academic literacy
among secondary English Learners, Maxwell-Jolly et al. (2007) found the following
instructional strategies to benefit ELs: making connections to students’ lives, using
33
the primary language to support learning and as a tool for academic literacy, providing
abundant opportunities for students to interact with each other and with the text,
specific attention to improving reading comprehension, more time for students to read
and write, more attention to metacognitive skills, and flexible grouping.
Another example is the study conducted by Lucas, Henze, & Donato (1997) on
the effective instruction of language-minority children in six high schools, which
found similar elements for helping ensure the success of these EL students. Those
elements include: valuing the students’ languages and cultures, holding high
expectations, making the education of ELs a priority, staff development geared
towards helping teachers develop the knowledge and skills necessary to serve ELs
more effectively, offering a variety of courses and programs that support the various
academic backgrounds and language support of ELs, availability of counselors who
are able to support the education, language, and socio-emotional needs of ELs,
encouraging parents to become more involved in their children’s education through
various means, and the presence of staff members who are committed to helping
language-minority children succeed academically.
Teacher Preparation Programs and ELs
In spite of the research on best instructional practices for ELs, much of the
research thus far has indicated that schools are not meeting the academic, linguistic,
and socio-emotional needs of English Learners. Cochran-Smith & Fries (2005) use
the term demographic imperative to describe “disparities in educational opportunities,
resources and achievement among student groups that differ from one another racially,
culturally, linguistically, socioeconomically, and geographically” (p.41). This issue is
34
exacerbated by the fact that, according to the National Center for Education Statistics
(2010), the racial and ethnic composition of students enrolled in public schools is 55
percent non-Hispanic White, 22 percent Hispanic (regardless of race), 16 percent non-
Hispanic Black, 4 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1 percent American
Indian/Alaska Native. These numbers indicate that the school population represents a
41 percent ethnically and racially diverse group of students. In addition, about 83
percent of all public school teachers were non-Hispanic White, 7 percent were non-
Hispanic Black, and 7 percent were Hispanic (National Center for Education Statistics,
2009). This data has implications for the ways that prospective teachers are being
prepared to educate a diverse student body, including students who are increasingly
linguistically diverse in our schools (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007; Parrish et al., 2006).
Other research points to the importance of a solid foundation in professional
knowledge and content knowledge needed in order to become effective teachers
(Cochran-Smith, 2001; Darling-Hammond, 2000). The literature has shown,
however, that very little is being done in teacher education programs to prepare
teachers for meeting the academic, linguistic, and social needs of diverse student
populations whose demographics have changed rapidly throughout the years (Dee &
Henkin, 2002). As a result of the lack of knowledge, skills, and attitude needed to
teach in settings where students are disadvantaged, marginalized, and culturally
diverse, many teachers become frustrated and tend to blame the students and their
families for the lack of student achievement and for their own inability to reach the
students ( Jenks, Lee, & Kanpol, 2001; Wheatley, 2002). Thus, preparing teachers
35
who are responsive and willing to question their own values, attitudes, and
dispositions towards culturally and linguistically diverse students begins in the teacher
preparation program (Jenks, Lee, & Kanpol, 2001).
Admissions officials in teacher preparation programs are encouraged to select
people who have the dispositions towards critical reflections of their own values and
“…to understand how what they are taught--the knowledge that schooling offers--has
been shaped historically, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically” (Jenks, Lee, &
Kanpol, 2007, p. 97). This is in light of the literature on preservice teacher
dispositions, which suggests that applicants to a teacher education program be
surveyed for their dispositions towards participating in multicultural learning
experiences (Dee & Henkin, 2002; Denner, Salzman, & Newsome, 2001; Hill-
Jackson, Sewell, & Waters, 2007; Larkin, 1995). These multicultural learning
experiences may be designed to increase teacher awareness about the diversity that
exists in urban school settings and the challenges that come with that diversity, thus
equipping prospective teachers with the tools, skills, attitudes, and knowledge to
overcome those challenges in order to better educate ELs and other ethnically diverse
populations.
Changing the way teachers think about their ethnically diverse students in
general, and Latino students in particular, and the way they teach them requires A New
Curriculum Discourse for Achieving Equity according to Rudolfo Chavez Chavez
(1997). Chavez (1997) has proposed constructing a new curriculum discourse that
might better serve the academic achievement of Latinos. This curriculum discourse
includes the curricular constructs of to be, to know, and to know how to do the right
36
thing. Chavez impresses on teachers of Latino students that they should serve as active
change agents for their students and that they actively seek for their students to be by
allowing them to form their own identities and thus respecting and aiding in their
identity development rather than forcing their students to be other than who they are or
forcing them to be like everybody else (p.2). The construct of to know
…asks of teachers, teacher educators, and teacher education institutions to
understand the complexities of ethnic stereotype markers. These markers are
socially constructed to lead to low expectations; to result in over reliance on
testing by school districts and universities; and to make unimportant teacher
preparation in first and second language acquisition, bilingual education, and
multicultural education” (p. 5).

Finally, the curricular construct of to know how to do the right thing brings
teachers and other stakeholders together in solidarity as the united we to create
curriculums and schools where their students are accepted, respected, and genuinely
cared for and loved. This includes knowledge, respect, and inclusion of their students’
language, culture, histories, family, and community. Chavez (1997) contends that “To
care, to make connections with, and to identify with the Latino/a students that we
serve requires moral imperative. Achieving educational equity requires no less” (p.8).
Under this light, the research points to the importance of teacher preparation and staff
development that allows educators of linguistically and culturally diverse students to
provide a curriculum that will ensure the success of their students. For gifted Spanish
speaking ELs at the high school level, this requires teachers who are aware of their
needs and who will provide them with the rigor and care necessary to help them move
along and encourage their successful participation in AP courses. This will in turn
support their access to colleges and prepare them to successfully complete their
college careers.
37
Nevertheless, finding qualified teachers who are knowledgeable in utilizing
instructional strategies that benefit the academic achievement of ELs at all proficiency
levels continues to be a challenge (Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Maxwell-Jolly et al.,
2007). Effective teachers of mainstream students have been found to not always be
effective teachers of English learners (Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1997). Consequently,
quality teacher preparation programs that prepare future teachers to address the needs
of culturally and linguistically diverse students is an essential component of a
teacher’s early development along with effective staff development at the inservice
level (Delpit, 1988; Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1997).
Teacher Preparation and Advanced Placement Courses
Prepared and effective teachers appear to be crucial at all levels of a child’s
education. At the high school level, effective and prepared AP teachers are essential
for providing students with the rigorous and challenging curriculum AP courses were
intended to offer all students (Burton et al., 2002; Klopfenstein, 2002; 2004; Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis, & Callahan, 2007). Burton et al.’s (2002) study of successful
teachers of minority students in AP classes reported that good AP teachers of minority
students held all their students to high standards, had strong content knowledge and
teaching skills, ensured that the most fundamental content and skills were adequately
and completely covered, used a variety of teaching techniques, provided parents and
students with information about college work and about college itself, and had a
strong AP program based on high passing rates on the AP exam. Burton et al. (2002)
noted that less successful teachers did not participate in AP staff development
opportunities and were reluctant to do so. These teachers were also less enthusiastic
38
about teaching AP, and felt that the school did not support their work teaching AP
classes.
Although Burton et al.’s (2002) study does not specifically address the
instruction of ELs in AP courses, it is evident from the literature that teachers who
lack the content and practical knowledge to teach a rigorous and enriching AP course,
added the missing skills and knowledge to integrate strategies such as those in the
CALLA and SIOP models, the quality and effectiveness of AP courses becomes
questionable for EL students who are already at a disadvantage in schools (Fry, 2003;
Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Gandara & Rumberger, 2007; Klopfenstein, 2004).
Collectively, the literature on the preparation of teachers at the pre and in service level
give attention to the heavy burden that teacher preparation programs carry towards
preparing teachers to be effective instructors of culturally and linguistically diverse
students at all grade levels and in all educational settings, including AP programs.
High Stakes Tests and Accountability
Another factor affecting the education of culturally and linguistically diverse
students are policies at the federal, state, and local level that have made it increasingly
difficult to adequately educate English learners. Policies, such as the overreliance on
high stakes tests have been found to serve as barriers to the academic achievement of
culturally and linguistically diverse students as illustrated in the following section of
this review.
High Stakes Testing
The present era of accountability has seen an increased use of standardized
testing, or high stakes testing, “to make critical decisions about students, teachers, and
39
schools” (American Evaluation Association, 2002, p.1). Critical decisions about
students, teachers, and schools include promotion/retention, graduation, classification,
certification, and monetary rewards/sanctions (American Evaluation Association,
2002; Horn, 2003). When describing the positive and negative effects of high stakes
tests Stecher (2002) makes the following observation:
On the positive side, one might expect to find changes in school policies that
are designed to make schools more effective, changes in teaching practice that
will enhance student achievement, and changes that result in increased
motivation on the part of the students. However, one might also find changes
that most would consider negative, such as narrowing of the curriculum to
tested topics to the exclusion of other domains of learning, inappropriate test
preparation, or even cheating (p.85).

In California, high stakes tests include the California Standards Test (CST) for all
students in second to eleventh grade, the California English Language Development
Test (CELDT) for all ELs grades K through 12, and the California High School Exit
Exam (CAHSEE) for all students in grades 10-12 (California Department of
Education, 2008).
The literature on high stakes tests has uncovered overwhelming evidence of the
adverse consequences of high stakes testing on all students, teachers, and schools in
general, and ELs and disadvantaged students in particular. For example, according to
Smith & Fey (2000), the validity of a test may be highly compromised by high-stakes
testing and the severe accountability climate presently experienced in education.
Excessive test preparation at the cost of meaningful learning may contribute to some
of the apparently favorable test results, particularly for language learners. Smith &
Fey (2000) argue that students are cheated from meaningful learning due to these
practices and that, since it is the low-income, usually minority and language learners
40
who tend to score the lowest, they receive the most test preparation, the least effective
teaching, and the least rigorous curriculum. The authors assert that, “Focusing on high
test scores for the sake of high scores…diminishes the validity of the test and makes it
less useful in tracking real gains and losses in the construct generally” (p. 340).
Kathryn Au (2006) makes the same argument, “Efforts to raise scores may
actually work against bringing students from diverse backgrounds to high levels of
literacy, because time and instruction are taken away from developing students’ ability
to make personal responses or to think critically about texts” (p.3). Our present
accountability measures may be viewed as positive in that everyone vested in
children’s education are responsible for the achievement of all children. However, the
literature encourages educators and policymakers to be careful, reflective, and
thoughtful of the practices utilized to instruct linguistically and culturally diverse
students and the way high stakes tests are used to make educational decisions that
affect their academic success (American Evaluation Association, 2002; Coltrane,
2002; Horn, 2003; Smith & Fey, 2000).
High Stakes Tests and English Learners
The American Evaluation Association (2002) has posited that many high
stakes testing programs “assume that all children, including English Learners and
special education students, learn in the same ways at the same rate and that they can
all demonstrate their achievements on standardized tests” (p.2). Other research
supports this claim (Coltrane, 2002; Garcia & Gopal, 2003). Coltrane (2002)
acknowledges that the use of high stakes testing has brought attention to the needs of
ELs whose academic progress had been previously ignored and who had also been
41
excluded from testing. The inclusion of ELs in standardized test taking has
contributed to raising the level of awareness to their poor academic achievement.
Nevertheless, high stakes tests are administered in English, thus, the results may not
be an adequate indication of ELs’ true knowledge and skills due to the “linguistic
difficulty of a test” (Coltrane, 2002, p.3). In this case, the validity of the test becomes
questionable in providing accurate information about what ELs know and are able to
do (Coltrane, 2002).
The inclusion of ELs in test taking has been found to create problems for ELs
who are unfamiliar with the culture of test taking as well as with the types of
knowledge and skills tested which may be foreign to their own culture (Coltrane,
2002). Coltrane (2002) recommends various accommodations and modifications that
may be helpful for ELs to facilitate the test taking process. The author also makes
recommendations for what educators can do when making decisions regarding ELs
and high stakes tests. This includes ensuring that the test reflects the curriculum
taught, that educators teach the discourse of the tests and test-taking skills, and that
educators use and interpret test data with caution when making decisions about ELs.
Coltrane (2002) encourages the use of multiple criteria to aid educators in the
decision-making process.
One of the many high stakes tests used to measure the achievement of ELs is
The California English Language Development Test (CELDT). The CELDT is
primarily used to identify who is limited English proficient; to determine the level of
English proficiency of all ELs; and to monitor the progress of ELs in developing
English proficiency in the categories of listening, speaking, reading, and writing
42
(California Department of Education, 2009). Students score at a proficiency level in
each category and then are assigned an overall proficiency level which may be one of
the following: Beginning (Level 1), Early Intermediate (Level 2), Intermediate (Level
3), Early Advanced (Level 4), or Advanced (Level 5) (California Department of
Education, 2009).
The CELDT test is critical for the placement of students in the appropriate
level of English Language Development (ELD) and other academic programs. The
CELDT scores are used to determine whether a student may be eligible for
reclassification from English Learners, or Limited English Proficient (LEP), to Fluent
English Proficient (RFEP). Students are said to be eligible for reclassification if they
achieve an overall score of early advanced or advanced on the test and a score of
intermediate or higher in each of the four domains tested, listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. State law also requires that three other criteria be met in order to
reclassify a student. This criteria includes performance on the CST, teacher
evaluation, and parent opinion and consultation (California Department of Education,
2009)
In their studies of Prop 227 and programs for ELs , Parrish et al. (2006) and
Rossell (2002) have found that the reclassification process and criteria differs from
district to district within California. Both reports agree that, due to the inconsistencies
in criteria across the board, the number of reclassified students is not always a strong
indication of the success of one instructional program versus another. Many ELs have
remained at levels 1 and 2 far too long to be reclassified, therefore, limiting their
opportunities to exit ELD classes in order to enroll in more rigorous academic courses.
43
This has implications at the high school level for ELs who might be interested in more
challenging coursework, but are bound to ELD classes in order to learn English first.
This condition is only one of the many ways ELs are tracked into lower level courses
(Callahan, 2005; Garcia & Gopal, 2003).
In his statement on the results of the 2008-2009 CELDT, State Superintendent
of Public Instruction noted the failure of ELs to achieve academically, “Although the
percentage of English learners achieving at the higher levels of CELDT is increasing,
there still is a significant gap in academic achievement between students learning
English and their native English-speaking peers” (California Department of Education,
2009, p. 1). High performance on the CELDT appears to not have an overall positive
impact on the academic performance of students on the CST, grades, and other
measures (Garcia & Gopal, 2003). For example, Garcia & Gopal (2003) found that
ELs who have high levels of English Language proficiency as indicated by the
CELDT did not have the academic skills necessary to pass the California High School
Exit Exam.
One study examined the extent to which the California High School Exit Exam
(CAHSEE) has contributed to “existing inequalities among language-minority
children” (Garcia & Gopal, 2003, p.127). Garcia & Gopal (2003) arrived at the
following conclusion: “After two years of implementation, CAHSEE has not
demonstrated to be an effective instrument to increase student achievement, improve
educational reform, or close the achievement gap between language-minority and
language-majority students” (p. 127). What the CAHSEE has done, instead, is
assigned students to programs that are remedial in nature and less rigorous with the
44
intention of providing the knowledge and skills needed to pass the CAHSEE while at
the same time limiting students’ opportunities to access more rigorous curriculum.
The implications of this practice for ELs is that they are limited to taking courses for
the learning of English rather than the learning of academic content, thus limiting their
opportunity to adequately prepare for the CAHSEE and enroll in rigorous courses.
Garcia & Gopal (2003) indicate that, although ELs are deferred from passing the
CAHSEE for up to 24 months, and until having received at least six months of English
reading, writing, and comprehension, it is not sufficient time to master content
knowledge in English language arts and mathematics well enough to pass the exam.
Such practices have been found to be in conflict with theories of second language
acquisition, which pose that it takes four to seven years to gain English language
proficiency (Cummins, 1989 as cited by Garcia & Gopal, 2003).
Upon examining the passing test scores on the CAHSEE, Garcia & Gopal
(2003) discovered that passing scores were not meaningful indicators of high
academic skills and preparedness, and that “Wide differences in achievement between
ethnic/racial and language minority students may cause many students who passed the
test to be ill prepared to succeed in institutions of higher learning” (p. 135). The
authors go on to assert that, language proficiency as cultural capital has been used as
an exclusionary device that works against ELs to keep them out of higher level
courses, and through the use of the CAHSEE, is used to reproduce educational
inequalities for ELs (Garcia & Gopal, 2003). Finally, Garcia & Gopel (2003)
concluded that
The potential implication is that factors that contribute to student achievement
may be related more to access to content standards more than poor academic
45
skills. The academic focus may be better suited by increased access to college
preparatory classes rather than increased remediation” (p.138).

This statement supports the College Board’s (2002) equity statement and efforts for
more inclusive AP programs that may benefit all students who are interested and
willing to take the challenge of college level work. This equal opportunity should
encompass ELs who are currently limited by high stakes tests that track them into less
rigorous courses and which do not give them much choice for selecting college level
courses (Coltrane, 2002; Garcia & Gopal, 2003; Horn, 2003; Katz, 1999).
Advanced Placement Examinations
Concerns have emerged over the expansion of AP courses and the over
reliance on AP Exam scores to gauge the preparation of students for actual college
work (Klopfenstein, 2002; Lewin, 2006; Oxtoby, 2007). David W. Oxtoby (2007),
president of Pomona College, published an article expressing his concern over
incoming students who have taken too many, usually ten or more, AP Exams, but lack
understanding of the basic concepts found in each of the subjects tested. Oxtoby
expressed the following concern, “I worry that advanced-placement programs are
rapidly becoming the latest way in which schools are ‘teaching to the test,’ rather than
using creativity to excite and challenge students” (p.44). These sentiments are
supported by the research conducted by Klopfenstein (2002) on the AP programs in
Texas where AP exams are being used overwhelmingly to determine the quality of the
AP programs and the quality of the teachers who teach AP classes. Texas publicly
ranks schools based on test performance and student participation. Publicly ranking
schools makes the taking of an AP exam a mandatory requirement for all students,
which in turn prompts school officials and teachers to be more selective about who is
46
allowed to enroll in AP courses (Klopfenstein, 2002). This practice is counter to the
College Board’s (2002) equity policy for allowing all students who are interested and
motivated to participate in AP courses.
The expansion of AP programs in Texas, a direct result of the Texas Advanced
Placement Incentive Program, has unwittingly brought a “…decline of the quality of
the AP experience for many Texas students” (Klopfenstein, 2002, p.2). Klopfenstein
asserts that AP exam scores are a poor measure of school and teacher quality for the
following reasons: AP exams are administered once a year in May; students may take
two exams for the price of one, even if students have never taken the actual AP course;
students enter AP courses with a diverse range of skills, experiences, and preparation
making their success on AP exams more challenging; and, teachers cover the course
material to varying degrees in depth, complexity, and instructional approaches. While
some teachers cover less material in depth, others feel pressured to cover more
material on a superficial level, while trying to prepare students to achieve on the AP
exam. Klopfenstein argues that AP exam scores are unfair towards those teachers who
make efforts to teach their subject matter thoroughly and who engage students in
meaningful experiences. The author suggests alternate ways to measure the quality of
teachers and AP courses that might serve as more adequate indications of the actual
competency and quality of teachers and AP courses than AP exam scores alone.
Furthermore, Adelman (1999) reports that the intensity and quality of academic
programs such as AP are strong indicators of bachelor degree completion, even more
so for African-American & Latino students. This finding supports Klopfenstein’s
47
(2002) arguments in favor of examining ways to improve teacher quality and
competence that go beyond how their students fare on AP exams.
English Learners and Tracking
Policies such as high stakes testing have lead to a different form of tracking in
the name of equity (Oakes, 2008). In particular, EL students continue to be tracked
into lower level classes based on their language proficiency level or lack of academic
achievement on standardized tests (Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1997; Oakes, 2008).
Even the bilingual classes or ESL/ELD classes designed to support the language
development of EL students have been found to be less than satisfying in helping EL
students develop the academic language necessary to succeed in advanced level
courses and later in college (Callahan, 2005; Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1997).
Tracking is problematic at the high school level because research has found that even
within schools that offer AP courses and other honors and advanced courses, ethnic
minorities such as Latinos tend to be placed into lower level classes (Geiser &
Santelices, 2006; Klopfenstein, 2004). According to Geiser & Santelices (2006),
“…even within the same schools, low-income and underrepresented minority students
tend to be tracked into non-college preparatory work and thus enroll in AP and
honors-level courses at much lower rates than other students” (p.77). This pattern
continues even at the college level where EL students are tracked into remedial
courses based on their placement test scores, Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT)
scores, and Grade Point Averages (GPAs) (Crisostomo & Dee, 2001).
Katz (1999) poses that the educational system must uncover the “structural
conditions within schools that institutionalize racist attitudes among teachers” (p.
48
817). One of the most prominent structural conditions is that of utilizing standardized
test scores as the sole measure of a student’s intelligence and worth; also, using test
scores to track students into “rigid and often racially divided hierarchical groups” (p.
817). Katz calls on teachers to reverse these conditions by going against the grain
through building quality relationships with students and providing better opportunities
for student success and access to quality programs within the school setting.
Institutional Factors Impacting the Education of English Learners
Many studies have documented the failure of public schools to adequately
educate English Learners (Conchas, 2001; Olsen, 1997; Katz, 1999; Suarez-Orozco,
1987; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco,
2009). There are various institutional factors that the literature on the education of
ELs. Institutional factors include federal and state policies and mandates, such as high
stakes standardized tests and Proposition 227, which in turn determine the policies and
practices that districts and schools choose to enact (Cummins, 1986; Gandara &
Contreras, 2009; Katz, 1999). Institutional factors also include school factors such as
teacher and administrator perceptions and expectations of their students, courses
offered, student placement, tracking, rigor and quality of coursework, segregation,
quality and effectiveness of teachers, student means of assessment, supportive
networks, student services, community and parent outreach, campus safety, and the
physical characteristics of the school itself (Cummins, 1986; Gandara & Contreras,
2009; Katz, 1999; Olsen, 1997; Stanton-Salazar, 2001). Another factor when
discussing the education of ELs is the extent to which their culture and language is
49
incorporated into the school campus, the curriculum, and the instructional pedagogy in
the classroom (Au, 2006; Bennet, 2001; Cummins, 1986).
In Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for Intervention (1986), Jim
Cummins addresses issues of race and institutional discrimination as well as barriers
to equal educational opportunities for minority students: “…legislative and policy
reforms may be necessary conditions for effective change, but they are not sufficient.
Implementation of change is dependent upon the extent to which educators, both
collectively and individually, redefine their roles with respect to minority students and
communities” (p.19). Cummins goes on to propose an educational framework “…for
examining the types of personal and institutional redefinitions that are required to
reverse the pattern of minority school failure” (p. 19). Cummins’s (1986) theoretical
framework is founded on the premise that “…Students from ‘dominated’ societal
groups are empowered or ‘disabled’ as a direct result of their interactions with
educators in schools” (p.21). These interactions are based upon four institutional
characteristics of schools and the extent to which they demonstrate the following: 1.
The use of students’ language and culture 2. Encourage minority community
participation 3. Utilize pedagogy designed for intrinsic motivation on the part of the
students to use language actively to construct their own knowledge 4. Educators are
advocates for minority students.
One study that illustrates the significance of Cummins’s (1986) framework
was conducted by Susan Roberta Katz (1999) of eight Latino immigrant youth from
Las Palmas, a barrio in Northern California. These students were bused into Coolidge
Middle School, located in a middle class Asian and European American
50
neighborhood. These children had been successful in elementary school where they
had attended bilingual programs and were supported in meaningful ways. However,
their transition to Coolidge was difficult, not only because of the busing and forced
integration, but because of the neglect, prejudice, discrimination, and low-expectations
they experienced. Although they were enrolled in an English Language Development
program and were receiving instruction in English, they were alienated from the rest
of the student population as well as from their teachers. These students were
physically removed from the main campus having to take courses in bungalows
referred to as the “cottages” (Katz, 1999). The administrator finally closed the
“cottages” for many reasons, which included safety, health, socialization, and
language acquisition issues. Due to their isolation, ELs were not interacting with
students fluent in English nor were they embraced as part of the school community,
thus minimizing their opportunities to access social capital due to the lack of
institutional support.
Nevertheless, the administrator moved the ELD classes to the basement of the
main building along with the special education department. It should be noted that the
main floor was reserved for the GATE program, thus emphasizing the blatant
discrimination against particular programs and students on campus. The students in
Katz’s (1999) study found themselves in an institution where their language and
culture were not accepted; where only one of their teachers advocated for his students;
where the pedagogy did not lead to any type of intrinsic motivation; and where there
existed an absence of the minority community participation. Ultimately, the absence
51
of these crucial characteristics disabled these students and led to their eventual
dropping-out or being “pushed-out” of school (Katz, 1999).
Teacher & Administrator Perceptions and Expectations
The work of Kati Haycock (1998) and Linda Darling-Hammond (2000) has
demonstrated that effective, caring, culturally responsive teachers do make a
difference in the educational attainment of all students, especially for language and
ethnic minorities. For English learners, this means well trained teachers who
understand the theories of second language acquisition, who practice culturally
responsive pedagogy, who embrace ethnic and language diversity, and who will serve
as agents for institutional change (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ford & Moore III, 2004;
Haycock, 1998). Haycock (1998) emphasizes the need to refuse the crumbs of the
teaching force for our under serviced school age children. Children who are from poor
and minority backgrounds deserve high quality teachers. Haycock affirms that, “In
the hands of our best teachers, the effects of poverty and institutional racism melt
away, allowing these students to soar to the same heights as young Americans from
more advantaged homes” (p. 11).
This is in sharp contrast to what has historically taken place in regards to
teacher-student relationships and teacher perceptions and expectations of ELs. The
seminal work of Laurie Olsen (1997) has documented the deficit model of thinking
that teachers and administrators have in regards to ethnically and linguistically diverse
students. In her study of immigrant students in public schools, Olsen (1997) captures
the beliefs and attitudes of teachers in one high school towards ELs and Latinos in
general. Many teachers abide to the stereotypes that hold that Latinos do not value
52
education, do not aspire to too much, do not work hard, and need to learn how to
speak, read, and write English fluently before they can enroll in academic track classes
(Olsen, 1997). A teacher who refused to allow EL students into her class because they
did not read English well enough illustrates this point. By doing this, the teacher felt
that she was upholding the academic standard for her class and the type of student that
should be in her class (Olsen, 1997). In response to this act, Olsen (1997) notes, “But
this teacher, like others, does not view it as her job to help students learn to read well
in English. She reflects the pervasive ignorance among many teachers about how to
help students learn literacy in a second language” (p. 183).
Another example of how teachers and administrators perceive the learning of
ELs and ethnically diverse students is illustrated by the principal of this same high
school who felt that ELs, or any student from any group, did not require a
differentiated curriculum or programs to support their learning (Olsen, 1997). This is
documented in his response to creating a college outreach program specifically for
Latino students: “‘I’m against all that stuff that tells kids that if you’re of one skin
color or another you get to have some kind of special privilege or attention…We don’t
believe in it. We treat all our kids the same’” (Olsen, 1997, p.183). This statement
has implications for the students in this school, as Olsen (1997) points out, “Pereira
does not see that treating all students the same, when their needs are different,
produces inequitable access and outcomes” (p.183). In general, the teachers in this
school, including the principal, felt that they did not need additional training to meet
the needs of ELs or that they needed to teach differently in order to provide them with
an equitable, quality education. These teachers saw their students as deficient and
53
found them to be a threat to the status-quo at their school (Olsen, 1997). Other studies
have found similar patterns in the perceptions and low expectations of teachers and
administrators towards the education of ELs (American Federation of Teachers, 2006;
Delpit, 1995; Sharkey & Layzer, 2000; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001).
Successful Educational Programs for ELs
Other work has examined and documented schools and programs that have
successfully educated ELs (Haycock, 2001; Garcia, 1991; Gehrke, 2005). All these
studies have found that successful teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse
students have high expectations for their students and hold them to high standards.
Such teachers do not feel sorry for their students nor do they lower their demands on
the rigor of academic tasks regardless of their students’ backgrounds or limitations
(Gehrke, 2005). In addition, successful teachers have a strong knowledge base about
the community and the students they work with and perceive their students highly
capable of learning, thus rejecting the notion that their students are “academically or
intellectually disadvantaged” (Gehrke, 2005, p. 5).
Further, effective teachers of ELs allow for high levels of functional
communication between students and between students and teachers; teachers utilize
an integrated and thematic curriculum to teach basic skills and academic content while
still teaching to the school district’s grade level objectives; teachers use effective
collaborative learning strategies; and students are allowed to use their primary
language to communicate and negotiate meaning as needed for student understanding
of concepts and assignments (Garcia, 1991). These strategies have the potential to
54
support the learning of ELs in AP courses given that ELs are provided the opportunity
to enroll in AP classes.
Overall, a deep understanding of what the literature has documented on the
perceptions of teachers, administrators, and other school personnel hold towards the
abilities of ELs may inform present school personnel at all education levels as to the
barriers that have kept ELs out of rigorous academic settings that other students who
are not ELs or ethnic minorities continue to benefit from. This information may incite
educators and stakeholders towards change that will support the College Board’s
efforts to include and support all students who are interested and motivated to take AP
courses and ensure their success.
English Learners and Gifted Education
The Underrepresentation and Identification of Gifted
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Ernesto Bernal (2007) poses that students who are culturally or linguistically
different (C/LD) have, for the most part, been unidentified, underidentified, or
misidentified for participation in gifted education programs. The lack of identification,
referral, and placement of ELs into gifted programs, according to Bernal (2007) is due
to “The continuous belief-part of the institutional culture, actually-about the cultures
that C/LD children and their parents represent, assumes that they are inherently
inferior morally, physically, psychologically, educationally, artistically, and/or
motivationally” (p.27). Teacher beliefs about C/LD students have made it difficult for
teachers to refer students for testing, thus resulting in the unidentification and
underidentification of C/LD students. C/LD students are misidentified when teachers
55
nominate only those students from diverse backgrounds who have acculturated to the
White culture (Bernal, 2007). These students have been found to underachieve in the
long run, thus reinforcing the negative stereotypes of the underachievement of
students from diverse backgrounds (Bernal, 2007).
A common thread throughout the literature on gifted education is the need to
redefine giftedness and our perceptions of what a gifted student looks like (Baldwin,
2007; Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 1998; 2008; Kaplan, 2008; Kitano, 2008). Kaplan
(2008) captures the essence of this task, “Redefining giftedness and the characteristics
that demonstrate giftedness with regard to the contemporary composition of the
diverse population in the schools would enhance the opportunities to identify more
students as gifted” (p. 22). Programs for gifted and talented youth have traditionally
included White, middle- or upper-middle class students (Castellano, 1998; Cohen,
1990). Gifted students were identified using measures that were said to be tailored to
middle- and upper-class students who were given enrichment and linguistic
opportunities that allowed them to do well on standardized tests that identified them
more readily as gifted (Castellano, 1998). Now, with the changing demographics in
our public urban schools, researchers are encouraging districts and schools to adopt
the use of multiple criteria for the identification of culturally and linguistically diverse
students (Castellano, 2002; 2008; Cohen, 1990; Feldhusen, 1989; The Center for
Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement, 2008;).
Castellano (2002) suggests that a combination of qualitative as well as
quantitative criteria be used in order to “... provide a ‘thick picture’ of a students’
giftedness or potential giftedness” (p.108). Qualitative criteria may include a
56
characteristics checklist, student portfolio, and teacher anecdotes while quantitative
criteria may include nonverbal performance measures, achievement test scores, and
language screening results among others (Castellano, 2002). Castellano (2002)
recommends making sure that the identification instrument is used during the
appropriate stage of identification and for the appropriate type of student, whether the
student is a language learner, living in poverty, or an underachiever.
Ford, Grantham, & Whiting (2008) pose that deficit thinking denies access and
opportunity to students who are culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) such as
African-Americans, Hispanic/Latino, and American Indian students. Ford, Grantham,
& Whiting (2008) define deficit thinking as “negative, stereotypical, and prejudicial
beliefs about CLD groups that result in discriminatory policies and behaviors” (p. 2).
Such policies and behaviors have been found to keep ELs out of gifted education as
well as out of AP programs (Elhoweris et al., 2005; Ford, Grantham, Whiting, 2008;
Maker, 1996).
The literature on ELs and gifted education recommend moving away from the
traditional instruments used to measure intelligence for ELs and culturally diverse
students who are currently underrepresented in gifted education (Bernal, 1994;
Castellano, 2002; Ford, Grantham, & Whiting, 2008; Maker, 1996; Matthews, 2006).
For example, Ernesto Bernal (1994) recommends observation, authentic assessments,
and tryouts in gifted programs may more adequately help identify ELs for
participation in gifted programs. Further, Castellano (2002) recommends more
inclusionary assessments such as nonverbal standardized tests as well as checklists
57
such as the Hispanic Bilingual Gifted Screening Instrument (HBGSI) that teachers
may utilize to identify Hispanic students for gifted programs.
Castellano (2002) calls for the use of multiple criteria, which he defines as “the
process of obtaining comprehensive information about a student’s abilities by
gathering and analyzing results…” (p. 107) from a variety of formal and informal
identification procedures. Such procedures may include standardized tests in the
child’s native language as well as in English, nominations from teachers, parents, and
others with whom the students identify, performance based products such as
portfolios, observations, past school performance, and parent interviews (For a more
thorough description of multiple criteria, please see Castellano, 2002). The use of
alternate criteria has been found to identify more Hispanic and bilingual students for
gifted programs than the traditional criteria (Castellano, 2002).
Mills & Tissot (1995), however, caution the use of alternate measures for
identifying gifted students who are culturally and linguistically diverse claiming that
such measures are subjective and inadequate in measuring the skills and aptitudes
necessary for high levels of achievement. In addition, Mills & Tissot (1995) posit that
minority students under-perform on standardized tests not as a result of test bias or
inappropriate testing practices, but rather as a result of the lack of skills and the
limited knowledge of students during testing. Therefore, Mills & Tissot (1995)
recommend that students who are under-represented in gifted programs should be
identified and provided with interventions that will “…help them develop their
potential by strengthening their academic skills and higher-level reasoning” (p. 210).

58
The Education of Gifted Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Identifying more culturally and linguistically diverse students into gifted
programs does not always mean that they are receiving an equitable education that
meets their particular needs. Many classroom practices may hinder or aid the
achievement of gifted students once they have been identified and placed in gifted
programs. Bernal (2007) asserts that those C/LD gifted children who have been
identified or selected for participation in gifted and talented programs have, for the
most part, been underserved, misserved, or deracinated, while many others have
elected to drop out of gifted education programs. Simply admitting more C/LD
students into gifted programs does not make it equal for these students if teachers are
not prepared to meet their academic, psychological, social, and emotional needs
(Bernal, 2007). How C/LD students are being educated is just as important as how
many students are being admitted. Bernal (2007) asserts that programs are
deracinating C/LD students when their languages and ethnic backgrounds are not
respected and when multicultural perspectives are not incorporated into the gifted and
talented curriculum
In order to address these issues, Bernal (2007) suggests that “…four conditions
need to be met if we are ever going to provide quality education to all gifted children
in our multicultural society” (p. 28). The four conditions are as follows: 1. Children
should not be deracinated in an attempt to admit more children into gifted programs 2.
Teacher education programs must prepare pre-service teacher for teaching their
subjects in a multicultural format and for teaching students of diverse backgrounds 3.
Teachers must genuinely like their students and respect the individual differences they
59
bring with them into the classroom 4. More C/LD teachers of color should be placed
in gifted programs, especially on campuses where the majority of the teachers are
White. The integration of staff from diverse backgrounds might serve to help teachers
learn from each other and come to learn more about and understand their C/LD
student population (Bernal, 2007). After these conditions have been met,
Maybe then we can have a gifted program that can model as well as produce
the kind of critical thinking that will ensure the rigor that gifted education
presentlyonly dreams about, that it presently only finds in rigid prescriptions
about what not how to study and whose perspectives to bring to bear” (Bernal,
2007, p. 29, italics in the original).

The literature on the identification of ELs as gifted acknowledges that such
students are more likely to be strong candidates for participating in rigorous academic
programs like AP and honors classes (Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen, 1990;
Gandara & Contreras, 2009). This fact has implications for ELs and their participation
in Advanced Placement and honors courses. Excluding ELs from gifted programs
limits their opportunities for accessing rigorous college level courses in high school
(Gandara & Contreras, 2009). In keeping with the College Board’s efforts for a more
inclusive AP program, the identification of ELs as gifted would open the doors to
gifted programs that may prepare them more adequately for the challenges and rigors
of AP coursework. As demonstrated by the literature, providing effective teachers and
programs that successfully maximize the educational experience of gifted ELs is just
as important as identifying and admitting gifted EL students into advanced and gifted
programs.

60
Social and Cultural Capital in the Education of English Learners
Pierre Bourdieu’s Social and Cultural Capital
Pierre Bourdieu (1986) defines the concept of social capital as “…the
aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a
durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance
and recognition-or in other words, to membership in a group” (p. 248). Social capital
may be represented by the family name, class, tribe, school, or party, etc. to which an
individual belongs (Bourdieu, 1986). The value of the social capital is dependant on
the size of the network connections the individual possesses and the amount of
material profits (in the form of services) or symbolic profits (profits by association)
the individual may acquire from that network. Bourdieu (1986) poses that members of
the group serve as custodians of the group, thus ensuring that group members are as
homogenous as possible in order to maintain the status of the group. Social capital is
firmly connected to economic capital, which may come in the form of money as well
as in the form of property rights (Bourdieu, 1986). Thus, economic capital influences
the types of social capital a particular individual has access to or is entitled to.
According to Bourdieu (1986), cultural capital represents all the goods and
resources available depending on the degree one possesses social and economic
capital. Cultural capital exists in the following three forms: the embodied state, the
objectified state, and the institutionalized state. The embodied state is described as
“…long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body” (Bourdieu, 1986, p.243). The
embodied state deals with the individual and his/her capacity to accumulate cultural
capital through the amount of time provided by family to invest in him for self-
61
improvement. The embodied state of cultural capital is non-materialistic and thus may
not be inherited as objects and properties may be, but can be transmitted and acquired
through the family and the amount of time biologically invested on that person.
The objectified state is found in the form of cultural goods such as books,
dictionaries, paintings, and instruments. Such cultural goods may be obtained,
materially, through the presence of economic capital; and/or symbolically through the
direct access of cultural capital. Having the economic means, for example, to
purchase machines requires economic means, but the ability to access and use them
appropriately and for their intended purpose requires access to the embodied form of
cultural capital for self-improvement or self-advancement (Bourdieu, 1986). Finally,
the institutionalized state is a form of objectification, which deals with academic
qualifications derived from academic institutions that may differ from individual to
individual dependant again on their economic capital and the institution that
recognizes the extent of cultural competence through the certificate granted to the
individual (Bourdieu, 1986).
The relevance of social capital and cultural capital on the education of
ethnically and linguistically diverse students deals precisely with the amount of social
and cultural capital present in the family of the students and which determines the
extent to which students may or may not be successful in school and have access to
high quality rigorous programs such as those in AP programs. Building on Bourdieu’s
work, for example, Stanton-Salazar (1997) has developed a Social Capital Framework
that aims to explain the socialization of minority children and youths in our public
schools. Stanton-Salazar defines social capital as the supportive relationships
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developed by young people and their institutional agents which include teachers,
counselors, and middle class school peers who have access to social networks that
working class youth do not. When students and their families do not have access to
social capital in the U.S. they are dependent of others to provide them with the
information and the emotional support needed to succeed in school, both socially and
academically (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006; Klopfenstein, 2004; Stanton-Salazar,
1997).
At the high school level, and even as early as the middle school level,
supportive relationships and social networks are crucial for informing students and
their families about the benefits and challenges of AP courses, how to enroll, who to
speak to about enrollment, where and when to attend information meetings, and where
to get tutoring and assistance if needed to do well in class. The existence and
availability of supportive social networks may be a factor that hinders or aids the
participation of EL students in the culture of AP course taking that may lead them to
becoming more informed and prepared for a future college career (Oakes, Mendoza, &
Silver, 2006; Klopfenstein, 2004; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). In sum, “The problem of
establishing and institutionalizing trusting relations between minority children and
adolescents and school agents cannot be underestimated, since it represents a root
cause for why the former disengage (psychically or physically) from the school”
(Santon-Salazar, 1997, p.17).
Similarly, other studies have pointed to the effects of family cultural capital on
the education of culturally and linguistically diverse students. A family’s cultural
capital has been found to determine the extent to which families are able to provide
63
their children with the resources in the form of time, money, and education necessary
to support their children’s educational attainment (Valdes, 1996). An examination of
the literature might bring insights into the many family factors that contribute to the
degree of achievement of culturally and diverse students in public schools. The
literature might help explain how social and cultural capital combined have
contributed to the way ELs perceive the schooling process and the degree to which
their family, peers, and school agents affect children’s interest and participation in
school programs such as AP classes.
Perceptions of English Learners Toward the Schooling Process
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2010), the over all
Hispanic drop out rate has fallen from 35.2 percent in 1980 to 21.4 percent in 2007.
Fry (2003) contends that the improvement in the drop out rates of Latino youth is an
indication that “…U.S. schools, on average, have improved their performance in
assisting Latino youth to stay in school and graduate” (p.13). Nevertheless, the
literature thus far has indicated that, although many instructional programs have been
developed and recommended for culturally and linguistically diverse students, there
continues to be a lot of ground to cover before Latino youth in particular are able to
fully enjoy a solid educational experience that will result in high educational and
career outcomes (Portales & Portales, 2005). The literature on the perceptions of ELs
is limited to nonexistent; therefore, this review will examine the literature on the
perceptions of Latinos in general on the schooling process, their teachers, and other
school agents.

64
Student Perceptions of School, Teachers, and Other School Agents
Conchas’s (2001) study on the variability of Latino school engagement
examined the school structures that contributed to the failure or success of Latino
students in one urban high school. As in the Katz (1999) study discussed earlier,
Conchas found that students who attended the urban high school in his study were
ethnically and racially segregated according to the academic program they belonged
to. The majority of the students enrolled in the Advanced Placement program, for
example, was Asian or White and were also part of the Graphics Academy, a magnet
program specializing in computer-assisted graphics technology. In Conchas’s (2001)
study, students expressed how the educational programs are based on race and on
societal expectations and perceptions of race. One student explained that if Latinos
are seen as lazy and dumb, then they are more than likely to be in the low academic
classes while Asians and Whites who are perceived as the smart and best students are
in the highest academic classes such as AP. Another student in the study explained
that teachers themselves were both passive and aggressive in perpetuating different
forms of inequality. They were passive in being accepting of such practices without
questioning them, and were active in reinforcing them by their sheer silence and lack
of action to change such practices (Conchas, 2001).
Stanton-Salazar (2001) has identified two factors that contributed to the
formation of “…caring, supportive, and resource-ful relationships between school
personnel and minority youth” (italics in the original, p. 191). Those factors include
the social structure of the school and students’ help seeking orientation (Stanton-
Salazar, 2001). These factors are present in Conchas’s (2001) study where teachers’
65
reinforcement of inequality lies within the social structure of the school and affects
student relations and their academic engagement. Thus, “Latino students’ experiences
and perceptions of schooling differed according to the programs in which they are
enrolled, and the subsequent sociocultural processes to which they were exposed”
(Conchas, 2001, p.487).
Conchas’s (2001) study also illustrates the tracking of students into academic
programs based on teacher perceptions and the unchallenged institutionalized racist
assumptions of children’s academic abilities. In general, the Latino students in this
study felt that they did not have access to good programs and good teachers. These
students felt invisible and alienated from their teachers and other peers, which in turn
led to experiencing “…a lack of motivation, failure to plan for college, and pessimism
about lifelong career goals” (Conchas, 2001, p.490).
The Latino student participants in the research conducted by Portales &
Portales (2005) expressed similar sentiments. Students cited in their research
expressed discontent and reluctance to attend school where they received “more of the
same” (p. 128) day after day and year after year. These students had lost interest in
school and did not view school as an exciting and supportive place to attend (Portales
& Portales, 2005). The authors contend that Latino youth have lost interest in school
due to curriculum that was not challenging, exciting, creative, or relevant to their
everyday lives and experiences. Eventually, these Latino youth stop attending classes
and turning in homework assignments until they eventually drop out of school. Such
student perceptions of school are found to be a result of the institutional structures that
66
fail to support the education of Latino students in public schools (Portales & Portales,
2005).
Portales & Portales (2005) and Conchas’s (2001) work illustrate how a lack of
institutional support and a lack of positive relationship between school agents and
their students may lead to unfavorable results in the educational attainment of Latino
students. In particular, Portales & Portales (2005) emphasize the relationship
between teachers and students as being one of the most important factors contributing
to the success or failure of Latino students. The authors recognize that time
constraints and school structures often prevent the development of strong productive
relationships between students and their teachers as well as between parents and the
school. Their work supports Stanton-Salazar’s (1997) work on the effects of
institutional support and social networks on the academic success of Latino students.
In their study of immigrant students and their education in the United States,
Vernez & Abrahamse (1996) found that immigrant students and their parents have
positive attitudes towards schooling and have higher expectations for a college
education than native students and their parents in spite of the institutional or cultural
norms present in the U.S. These positive attitudes and higher expectations have led to
overcoming the challenges experienced in school and have been found to result in higher
college-going rates for immigrants than for native students. Unfortunately, for
Hispanic students, both immigrant and native Hispanics rated the lowest on almost all
indicators of educational attainment which includes course-taking, educational
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expectations, and college-going. Factors that contribute to low educational attainment
of Hispanics include family resources, education of parents, and attitudes toward and
expectations for education of students and their parents (Vernez & Abrahamse, 1996).
Many factors, whether institutional, peer, or family oriented, contribute
greatly to a Latino students’ perceptions of the schooling process, their teachers, and
other institutional agents. Whether a student is first generation immigrant, second
generation immigrant, or third generation or more native to the U.S., their school
perceptions and attitudes are influenced by their interactions and experiences with
family, peers, and institutional agents as well as the school structures that support or
hinder such interactions (Conchas, 2001; Katz, 1999; Portales & Portales, 2005;
Stanton-Salazar, 1997; 2001). The complexity of such interactions and influences
from peers, family, and school agents is documented in the literature.
English Learner Interest and Participation in AP Courses
Influences of School Personnel
Stanton-Salazar (2001) asserts that school personnel such as teachers and
counselors “…are often key participants in the social networks of low-status children
and adolescents, and play a determining role in either reproducing or interfering with
the reproduction of class, racial, and gendered inequality” (italics in the original, p.161).
He poses that such school personnel play a dual role as agent-advocates and
gatekeepers (2001). In other words, school personnel may serve as advocates for their
students, providing emotional as well as social support, and serving as sources of
68
information for students to access when in need so that the role of teacher or counselor
served to transform the experiences of students from working-class and low-income
family backgrounds. The importance of school personnel as institutional agents is
emphasized in Stanton-Salazar’s (2001) study of the supportive relationship between
students and institutional agents at Auxilio High school in San Diego, which resulted in
the emergence of four categories that describe how students defined their experience
with a particular agent. The first category dealt with the qualities attributed to the
agent and the interactions with that agent; the second category dealt with qualities and
competencies attributed to the agent’s professionalism; the third category dealt with
how effective the agent was in providing trustworthy supporting through a problem or
crisis; and, the fourth category dealt with specific narratives of the ways in which the
agent was supportive and the nature of the student-agent relationship (Stanton-
Salazar, 2001).
Other literature also illustrates the importance of supportive school personnel
as institutional agents and mentors. University of California’s All Campus Consortium
on Research for Diversity’s (UC ACCORD) work on the development of California
Opportunity Indicators that measure “…conditions in K-12 schools that affect the
quality of education students receive and their access to college preparation and
admission” (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006, p.28) identified the following seven
critical conditions for student achievement and college access: safe and adequate school
facilities; college- going culture; rigorous academic curriculum; qualified teachers;
69
intensive academic and social supports; opportunities to develop a multicultural
college-going identity; family-neighborhood-school connections around college-going
(Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). All seven critical conditions call for caring adult
advocates who work to support students in and out of school by providing students
with programs, tutoring, and services to ensure they are successful in school and to
ensure that they are on a college track that will prepare them for eventual enrollment
and success in college (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006).
Negative student-agent relationships may leave a long lasting negative
impression and may have adverse effects on the academic experiences of high school
youth. Stanton-Salazar (2001) found that students held aversions and resentment
towards counselors who they perceived did not help them achieve as they expected.
They held low expectations of them and assigned them to lower track classes. In spite
of continually seeking the counselors’ help, students began to feel a sense of
disappointment for the counselors’ lack of support in creating a solid academic
program.
Stanton-Salazar (2001) reports that many students who felt invisible and
isolated on campus used the strategies of face-saving and selective avoidance as means
of avoiding humiliating interactions with school personnel. Students found ways to
withdraw and/or avoid school agents, even those who tried to help so as to avoid
failing in their eyes, thus confirming the deficit thinking that students perceived
teachers to have. As a form of social capital, immigrant and native born students
70
sought Spanish speaking counselors and teachers with whom they could easily connect
and talk to more confidently (Stanton-Salazar, 2001). Gonzalez & Padilla (1997)
support Stanton-Salazar’s findings in their study of the academic resilience of
Mexican-American high school students. In this study, Gonzalez & Padilla found that
a supportive school environment and a sense of belonging to school helped students
develop resiliency and influenced academic achievement outcomes.
The interactions and influences of school personnel may be perceived in a
negative or positive light depending on the value students place on those interactions
and experiences. Institutional agents then have been found to be a strong influence on
a child’s academic choices, course enrollment, school engagement, and educational
attainment (Conchas, 2001; Olsen, 1997; Katz, 1999; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; 2001). In
the case of EL students’ access to AP courses, the support of institutional agents is
translated into informing students and parents about the program, encouraging their
participation in rigorous coursework that will lead to their enrollment in AP courses,
and providing them with the motivation and support needed to successfully complete
and achieve in these courses (Burton et al., 2002; Klopfenstein, 2004; Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis, & Callahan, 2007).
Parent Influences
Past studies have documented that Latino parents’ involvement in the
education of their children influence their children’s academic achievement (Delgado
& Gaitan, 1992; Duran & Weffer; Fuligni, 1997; Horn & Chen, 1998; Kao & Tienda,
1995). This same research has found that, contrary to what many people in the
71
educational community and others might believe, Latino parents value education and
expect their children to be successful in school, thus, taking advantage of the
educational opportunities in the United States (Arellano & Padilla, 1996). Many
Latino parents aspire to having their children go on to college and become somebody
in life (Fuligni, 1997; Kao & Tienda, 1995; Suarez-Orozco, 1987).
In his study of Central American immigrants in U. S. inner-city schools,
Marcelo Suarez-Orozco (1987) reports that parents of Central American youth have
high expectations for their children’s education and for taking advantage of the
educational opportunities found in the U.S. and which were not available to them in
their native countries. The children of Central American parents felt that they had a
responsibility to do well in school due to their parents’ sacrifices in coming to the
United States to improve their quality of life and felt responsibility towards those
family members they left behind. Thus, escaping the turmoil and economic hardships
of their native countries, immigrant parents expected their children to do better for
themselves by working hard to attain an education that will allow them to enjoy status
mobility in their new country (Suarez-Orozco, 1987).
Studies have found that Latino parents are involved in their children’s
education in different ways depending on their immigrant status and length of
residency in the United States (Kao & Tienda, 1995; Delgado & Gaitan, 1992; Valdes,
1996). For example, the longitudinal study conducted by Kao & Tienda (1995)
utilized eight grade participants from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of
1988 and followed them through their high school years to twelfth grade. Students
were divided into three generational groups according to immigration status where
72
first generation students were those who, along with their parents, were born outside
of the U.S. Second generation students were those who were U.S. born, but whose
mothers were born outside the U.S. All other U. S. born students of U. S. born parents
were considered members of the native generation. Other studies have used similar
criteria to describe the generational status of their student participants where first
generation describes students and parents who are both foreign born; second
generation are native born students of at least one foreign born parent; and third
generation or greater describes those students and their parents who are both native
born (Fuligni, 1997; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001).
Kao and Tienda (1995) found that first generation parents had limited
involvement in school activities due to language limitations, limited educational
background, and limited knowledge of the school culture. These parents did,
however, attend parent-teacher conferences, provided their children with a place to
study, talked to their children’s teachers, and had visited their children’s classes. First
generation parents, nevertheless, were found to talk less to their children about school
experiences, but did communicate their high aspirations for the educational attainment
of their children (Kao & Tienda, 1995). Kao & Tienda (1995) concluded that the
immigrant status of parents rather than that of the children determines the educational
outcomes of children.
Other factors affecting the involvement of Latino parents depend on the extent
to which parents have acculturated to the U.S. school system and learned English,
thus, their access to cultural capital. Furthermore, Kao & Tienda (1995) found that
second generation students had a better chance of experiencing positive academic
73
outcomes because they were more proficient in English and were still influenced by
their parents’ optimist educational aspirations. Other research found that students
whose parents frequently discussed school related matters with their children were
more likely to enroll in a four year college or other postsecondary education than those
students whose parents did not discuss school matters with them (Horn & Chen,
1998). Also, parents who had more frequent interactions with their children on
school-based activities were found to hold and communicate higher expectations for
their children than those parents who didn’t (Hao & Bonstead-Bruns, 1998).
Nevertheless, the high expectations that parents have for their children may be
undermined by the poor school environment and lower expectations found in public
schools where low-income minority and immigrant students are more than likely to
attend (Hao & Bonstead-Bruns, 1998). This fact has implications for the education of
ELs in public high schools where, in spite of parental aspirations and effort, the school
setting may not be providing the ingredients found to make the education of culturally
and linguistically diverse students a successful experience.
Kao & Tienda’s (1995) study reinforces what many other studies have found,
that schools need to be more aggressive in actively seeking the participation of Latino
parents, particularly immigrant parents, in school activities that go beyond the parent-
teacher conference (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). This means breaking down
language barriers and negative perceptions of Latino parents that have also served as
barriers to allowing the confident and full participation of Latino parents in the school
education process. Lacking the social and cultural capital experienced by native born
Latinos, parents are not aware of how they can help their children or the many
74
resources, if any, available to assist their children. Latino parents’ interest in their
children’s education can be nurtured by school agents who invite them to be more
active participants of the school process and who give parents the tools and the
information necessary to make a difference in their children’s education.
The studies on Latino parent involvement point to the importance of keeping
parents informed about all the school processes and inviting them to participate in
school activities. At the high school level, parents of EL students should be actively
sought out to inform them about the importance of AP courses and what the criteria
are for participating in such courses (College Board, 2002; Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver,
2006). This action is supported and encouraged by the College Board who has
prepared pamphlets and other materials for parents in Spanish to better inform parents
of the AP program (College Board Web Site).
Understanding what the literature says about how much first and second
generation immigrant parents value and care about their children’s education is a first
step to providing them with the resources and information for getting more involved
and knowing exactly what to talk to their children about, which questions to ask, and
to whom. This is a step closer to getting EL students to participate in AP courses, thus
encouraging their future application, admission, and attendance to four-year colleges.
By law, schools must invite parents of ELs to a monthly English Learner
Advisory Committee (ELAC) to keep them informed about programs, policies, exams,
courses, support available, and involvement in school (California Department of
Education, 1999; 2008). This is only one venue for informing parents about their
children’s educational options in high school. Other venues may include seminars,
75
workshops, and other outreach programs (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). If
parents begin to hear this information as early as in the middle school years, they
might become more familiar with the AP process before their child is promoted to
high school. Parents may serve as a positive resource for EL students to get ahead and
succeed academically. Nevertheless, schools and districts are prompted to be more
aggressive in recruiting parents and encouraging their active participation in school
processes and programs.
Studies on parents’ level of education and the level of educational attainment
of their children have mixed findings. One study (Vernez & Abrahamse, 1996) found
that “The higher the education of either the mother or father the higher the educational
attainment of youths of such parents, regardless of immigration status or racial/ethnic
group” (p.52). The effect of parents’ level of education was found to be greater for
college attendance and completion. On the other hand, Fuligni (1997) found that a
child’s academic success may be attributed to other factors: “Only a small portion of
their success could be attributed to their having highly educated and professional
parents. A more significant correlate of their achievement was a strong emphasis on
education that was shared by the students, their parents, and their peers” (p.360). The
significance of these findings lies in the complexity of the familial factors that
contribute to the achievement of culturally and linguistically diverse students. As
evidenced by the research reviewed on parental influences, parents’ value and
importance placed on education is a strong determinant of a child’s academic
achievement.

76
Peer Influences
Peer groups have been found to have both positive and negative influences on
young people (Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992).
One study found that “…although parents are the most salient influence on
youngsters’ long-term educational plans, peers are the most potent influence on their
day-to-day behaviors in school” (Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992, p. 727).
Day-to-day behaviors include time spent on homework, how they behave in the
classroom, and whether they enjoy coming to school (Steinberg, Dornbusch, &
Brown, 1992). Although parents have been found to have a stronger influence on
Hispanic youth, overall, minority youngsters have been found to be more influenced
by their peers than by their parents in matters of academic achievement (Steinberg,
Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992).
Due to the major influence of peers, the friends students socialize and associate
with is just as important to children’s daily behaviors and choices as parent influences
(Fuligni, 1997). Research has demonstrated that students who socialize with low-
performing peers tend to perform at lower levels as well (Gandara & Contreras, 2009).
Furthermore, students who hang out with friends who are dropouts are at high risk of
dropping out themselves (Gandara & Contreras, 2009). Latino students in particular
are reportedly more likely to hang out with low-performing students or dropouts
resulting in pressures to not perform well in school. Such pressures result from peers
who make fun of friends who do well in school and who accuse their high achieving
peers of “‘acting white’” or “acting like a schoolboy” (Gandara & Contreras, 2009,
p.75). Other studies have found that Latina high school students are more likely to
77
want to be known for being a good student than Latino males who have expressed
their dislike and disinterest in school (Gandara & Contreras, 2009). Other research
supports the fact that students who fraternize with peers who have goals of going to
college do apply and attend four year colleges at higher rates than those who don’t
(Horn & Chen, 1998).
Conclusion
“For minority children and youth, the ability to cross borders, overcome
barriers, and resist the violent effects of exclusionary forces has much to do with
developing resiliency through supportive ties with protective agents within the home
and community” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997, p. 25). The literature on the enrollment of
English Learners in rigorous programs such as gifted and talented education and AP
courses has documented that their participation is limited as a result of policies and
institutional structures that have served as barriers to block their access to these
programs (Ochoa, 2003; Olsen, 1997; Ortiz, 2003; Sharkey & Layzer, 2000).
In spite of the documented benefits of AP courses, many culturally and
linguistically diverse students and their parents are not receiving the information or the
guidance needed that will lead towards enrollment. The literature does not address the
plight of gifted Spanish speaking ELs specifically, therefore, this study has added to
the present literature and has confirmed the findings here reported. In particular, the
lack of identifying students as gifted at the high school level is problematic in
particular for students who are more recently labeled as English Learners and who may
have the strong academic qualifications to be designated as gifted. Being identified as
78
gifted has been found to aid in accessing rigorous programs more readily for students in
general (Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen, 1990; Gandara & Contreras, 2009).
In respect to the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking ELs towards AP
courses, the literature was nonexistent, thus, this study has shed new light on how
these students perceived AP courses and their ability to enroll and do well in these
classes. Furthermore, this study has contributed to the literature on the various
elements that helped shape gifted Spanish speaking ELs’ perceptions and how these
perceptions affected their knowledge and interest in AP classes. This study’s findings
have the potential to add to the current literature on the enrollment of EL students in
AP courses as well as support the College Board’s efforts to make AP courses more
accessible to all students.

79
CHAPTER 3
Methodology
Introduction
There is an absence of research that focuses on the perceptions that gifted ELs
hold towards AP courses and how these perceptions affect their interest and
participation in Advanced Placement courses. Family, peers, and school figures such
as teachers, counselors, administrators, and coaches may influence student perceptions
and interest (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Fuligni, 1997; Gandara, 1982; Stanton-Salazar,
2001). This study investigated the many factors that influenced how gifted ELs
perceived AP courses, how they perceived themselves, and how they perceived the
schooling process as a whole. Further, this study has uncovered how these factors
combined to influence gifted Spanish speaking ELs’ decision to enroll and participate
in AP courses.
Just as important was to investigate the specific contextual factors of the
schooling process that affected the enrollment of gifted EL students in AP classes.
Investigating how gifted ELs feel about their ability to participate in AP courses will
inform educators, program coordinators, administrators, and policymakers about the
instructional and institutional practices that deter or support their academic preparation
and access to appropriately challenging curricula such as those found in AP courses.
This study aimed to examine policies and practices that were in place that might serve
as barriers or opportunities for the enrollment and participation of gifted ELs in AP
courses.

80
In addition, this study examined the attitudes and perceptions of two teachers
and a counselor towards EL participation in AP classes and the school processes that
might support or hinder EL participation in AP classes. The results have helped
determine whether such attitudes and perceptions were similar to student perceptions
about school processes that affect EL student enrollment and participation in AP
classes.
The results of this study have the potential to inform and support the College
Board’s continued efforts to make AP courses more accessible to a wider range of
students, including English learners, as well as provide information about the support
structures that are in place to ensure that EL students succeed in these classes (Guice
& Miller, 2007). In addition, this study has reinforced what past studies have found
about the institutional structures that impact the number of Latino students,
specifically ELs, which are able to participate in academically rigorous and
challenging programs such as AP and gifted education programs (Arellano & Padilla,
1996; Conchas, 2001; Coulter & Smith, 2006; Katz, 1999).
Research Questions
3. What are the contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the
enrollment of Spanish speaking gifted English Learners into Advanced
Placement classes?
4. How do the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners affect
their personal interest and participation in Advanced Placement classes?

81
Research Design
This study was considered applied research and its aim was to uncover
contextual factors that affect the enrollment of gifted EL students into AP classes.
According to Patton (2002), “The purpose of applied research is to contribute
knowledge that will help people understand the nature of a problem in order to
intervene, thereby allowing human beings to more effectively control their
environment” (p. 217). This study served to contribute knowledge that will help
districts, schools, and policymakers understand the problem of EL underrepresentation
in AP courses in order to aid them in making more informed decisions regarding
student accessibility to AP classes.
This study utilized qualitative methods, including the use of a short open-
ended survey and a semi-structured informal interview, or the Interview Guide
Approach (Patton, 2002) that allowed an in-depth analysis of student interest and
perceptions about their participation in AP classes. “An interview guide is prepared to
ensure that the same lines of inquiry are pursued with each person interviewed”
(Patton, 2002, p.343), but still gave the interviewer freedom to explore topics in a
conversational tone that may be appropriate for communicating with high school
youth. Equal access to AP courses is an issue that must be addressed given the
increasing number of linguistically diverse population of students present in our public
schools (Callahan, 2005; Matthews, 2006; Maxwell-Jolly, Gandara, Benavidez, 2007).
Through qualitative interviews and questions, this study has gathered information on
what students know about AP courses and their ability to enroll and excel in AP
classrooms.
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Student participants were selected using purposeful sampling based on specific
criteria (Patton, 2002). These criteria required that students be Spanish speaking
English Learners and identified as gifted. Initial contact with school personnel such as
principals and EL program coordinators was done through e-mail in order to gather
information on the number of gifted EL students at each site. This information
allowed for the selection of school sites based on the highest numbers of participants
that met the criteria for this study. Approximately twenty different school sites were
contacted over a period of a year. Not all the sites responded to the investigator’s
queries. Of those who did respond, some reported that they had large numbers of
English learners, but were not gifted or not Spanish speaking students. One school
had as many as eleven gifted Spanish speaking EL students at the time of the initial
contact, but the school administrator did not grant the investigator permission to
conduct the study on his campus due to limited time and resources. This was true of
two other school districts, which turned down the investigator’s application to conduct
the study on their school campuses.
According to Patton (2002), “The validity, meaningfulness, and insights
generated from qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information richness of
the cases selected and the observational/analytical capabilities of the researcher than
with sample size” (p.245). It was the intent of this study that through structured
surveys and well documented semi-structured interviews the results would make it
possible to logically generalize the results with confidence and ascertain the validity of
the results.
83
Research Sample
This qualitative study focused on high school students, grades 9-12, who were
designated as gifted, Spanish speaking English Learners and who were not necessarily
enrolled in honors courses that might lead to future enrollment in AP courses. Ninth
grade students were included in this study because in many high schools, students may
begin taking honors courses as early as ninth grade pending teacher recommendation.
Furthermore, ninth grade students might have resulted in higher numbers of gifted
Spanish speaking ELs that have not yet been reclassified as Fluent English Proficient
(RFEP).
This study was first submitted to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for
approval in November 2009. The IRB application was returned and the investigator
was asked to make revisions and to create the appropriate consent forms, youth assent
forms, and other documents. At that time, the investigator was informed that it was
necessary to receive school site approval to conduct the study before resubmitting the
application. The investigator continued to search for school sites with students that
met the criteria for this study.
In February 2010 two school districts granted the investigator permission to
conduct her study at one of their school sites. After the school sites and districts
granted their approval, the researcher asked the school administrators and district
personnel to write a letter in which they expressed their consent to have the
investigator conduct the study on their school campus. At that time, one school site
had six gifted Spanish speaking EL students enrolled on their campus while the other
had five. This was a total of eleven prospective student participants, and it was
84
estimated that a total of nine school personnel participants would be recruited to
participate in the study from the two school campuses. The IRB application was
resubmitted in February 2010, but was returned once again for additional revisions.
After a total of five submissions and numerous revisions, IRB approved the study and
its application on March 24, 2010.
The investigator contacted school administrators after receiving IRB approval.
At this time, the investigator was informed that, on one school campus, two of the
students had left the school, and one of them had been misidentified, therefore, only
two students out of five remained to participate in the study. Due to such a small
number, these two students and the school personnel on this campus did not
participate in the study. The other school site had six identified gifted Spanish
speaking ELs all of which agreed to participate in the study. In addition to the
students, this study included two teachers of Spanish speaking EL students in AP and
ELD classes who participated in the interview and the survey. Another interview
included the school counselor who was available and was willing to participate in the
interview. The counselor did not participate in the survey. After an extensive
recruitment and IRB process, only six of the original eleven students, and only three of
the original nine school personnel participated in this study.
Sampling Strategies
The most appropriate purposeful sampling strategy for this research study was
critical case sampling (Patton, 2002) because the study was limited to one school site.
This was due to the small number of participants that took part in the study and the
small number of school sites that responded to the investigator’s recruitment efforts
85
and who were willing to participate. The data gathered in this investigation resulted
in a case study. In a case study,
The purpose is to gather comprehensive, systematic, and in-depth information
about each case of interest. The analysis process results in a product: a case
study. Thus, the term case study can refer to either the process of analysis or
the product of analysis, or both (Patton, 2002, p.447; italics in the original).

The present case study provided in-depth information about the participants and the
school context they represent.
Patton (2002) explains, “While studying one or a few critical cases does not
technically permit broad generalizations to all possible cases, logical generalization
can often be made from the weight of evidence in studying a single, critical case” (p.
236). For this study, the researcher attempted to find various school sites that offered
AP courses and which had a high Spanish speaking EL student enrollment in order to
be able to identify a critical case sample. However, only one available site with the
highest number of gifted Spanish speaking ELs took part in the study. This site and its
participants were the critical case sample used in this study.
Bogdan (1992) defines rich data as “…fieldnotes that are well endowed with
good description and dialogue relevant to what occurs at the setting and its meaning
for the participants” (p. 121). In the case of interviews, rich data are “…filled with
pieces of evidence, with the clues that you begin to put together to make analytical
sense out of what you study” (Bogdan, 1992, p.121). Rich data was collected at this
site that might make it possible to apply a logical generalization of the results to gifted
Spanish speaking EL high school students in California who are enrolled in similar
schools with similar demographics as the one that participated in the study.

86
Data Collection
This study researched the contextual factors of the schooling process as well as
personal factors that may affect the enrollment of EL students in AP courses. School
personnel were contacted in order to determine the number of gifted ELs attending
various local, urban high schools that qualify to participate in the study. The initial
data collected for this study came from school personnel involved with EL students.
School personnel were informally interviewed to determine program qualifications
and criteria for being identified gifted and for enrollment into AP classes. These
interviews served to gather background on the school culture the school site
represented and the school norms regarding EL, GATE, and AP programs already
established and which may be potential determinants of access to AP courses and
Honors programs for ELs.
Using the information provided by school personnel at multiple high schools, the
researcher determined which sites enrolled a significant number of gifted Spanish
speaking ELs. All school principals and appropriate district personnel were contacted,
all Institutional Review Board (IRB) procedures were followed at each district where
participating school sites were located, and all guidelines and protocols were followed
accordingly.
Once the IRB process was complete, the researcher contacted the school
principal for access to student names, grade levels, and course schedules. The
researcher contacted the school principal to discuss possible ways to approach student
participants in order to explain the study to them. The investigator asked the principal
to assist her in coordinating the first meeting with student participants. The
87
investigator requested that all participants meet with the investigator in a public place
on campus such as the school library or an office during the participants’ lunch time,
after school, homeroom period, or other appropriate time. Due to the fact that the
school site was located over 100 miles from the investigator’s place of residence, the
principal asked the investigator to e-mail all the parent consent forms, youth assent
forms, and parent letters, in English and Spanish, and volunteered to meet with the
prospective student participants, explain the study to them, and distribute the forms the
week before the investigator visited the campus to conduct the interviews. The
investigator did not have to return to the campus more than one time due to the
principal’s assistance with distributing all the necessary documents before the
scheduled interviews.
The investigator conducted all the student and school personnel interviews on
the school campus where student participants were enrolled. Interviews took place in a
spare office on campus that was easily accessible, yet private enough to ensure the
confidentiality of all the participants. Interviews with school personnel took place on
the school campus where they work and in the same office as the one used for the
students. All six student participants returned their completed consent and youth
assent forms. Two teachers and a counselor agreed to participate in the study.
Upon meeting with the student participants, the purpose and importance of the
study was explained to them again. The investigator answered any questions they still
had about the study. Student participants were asked to complete an open-ended
survey to gather basic demographic information on family and academic background.
The first part of the survey asked students about home languages, parents’ amount of
88
education, participants’ grade when they first began to attend school in the United
States, and participants’ and parents’ place of birth, and ethnic background. The
information gathered through this part of the survey was useful in establishing whether
the first language spoken at home was Spanish and to determine other languages
spoken in the home. Furthermore, the generational status of the participants was
determined based on the participants’ and their parents’ place of birth.
The parents’ educational background was important because it provided insight
on whether the amount of education received by parents was a factor that affected
their children’s decision to enroll in AP courses or other college track courses.
Research has demonstrated that the amount of education received by parents impacts
their future educational goals and aspirations for their children, the extent to which
they are involved in their children’s education, and their children’s level of academic
achievement (Arrellano & Padilla, 1996; Stanton-Salazar, 2001; Suarez-Orozco &
Suarez-Orozco, 2001; Vernez & Abrahamse, 1996).
Parents’ and participants’ place of birth was important in light of research that
has found that it is not immigration status alone that influences students’ ability to
achieve, but their level of proficiency in English, prior schooling in the native country,
academic track placement, and participation in bilingual/ESL programs (Conchas,
2001; Padilla & Gonzalez, 2001; Rumberger & Larson, 1998). This aspect of the
survey was crucial due to the fact that not all ELs are immigrants, the majority are
children born in the United States of immigrant parents (Matthews, 2006). The place
of birth and grade first attended in the U. S. helped to construct a portrait of each
89
participant that told a story of his/her academic experiences up until the time of the
study.
The second part of the survey asked participants to list AP or Honors classes
that they had taken or planned to take in the following academic school year. In
addition, the participants were asked to list any ELD, bilingual, and/or sheltered
instruction courses they may have taken in the past or in which they were enrolled in
the current school year. This information helped determine the amount of time that
each participant had spent in any of the three types of courses, thus providing
information about their academic background based on language proficiency status.
The intent of these questions was to provide students with the opportunity to reflect
upon their past coursework experience and future academic plans in order to prepare
them for the interview.
After completing the survey, the participants engaged in a semi-structured
informal interview using the Interview Guide Approach (Patton, 2002). In this
approach “topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in outline form;
interviewer decides sequence and wording of questions in the course of the interview”
(Patton, 2002, p. 349). A set of questions and topics were predetermined, but the
interviewer had the flexibility of making adjustments to the sequence and wording as
well as elaborating on questions based on the responses of the participants. Through
semi-structured informal interviews the researcher was able to gather information that
shed light on what the EL students’ perceptions were about AP courses, about
themselves as students, and about the schooling process, and how those perceptions
affected their participation and interest in AP courses. Furthermore, the interview
90
questions were designed to unearth specific contextual factors of the schooling process
as well as personal factors that contributed to students’ decisions to enroll in AP
courses. The data was transcribed and coded by the principal investigator. Through
the coding process, the investigator identified themes that dealt with institutional and
personal factors as well as student perceptions that affected their interest and decision
to enroll in AP classes.
In addition to interviewing students, this study also utilized the Interview
Guide Approach (Patton, 2002) to interview teachers of gifted Spanish speaking EL
students and a counselor for the purpose of determining their perspectives on the
participation of gifted Spanish speaking EL students in AP classes. Teachers were
asked to complete a short survey in order to collect background information on
training received and credentials held that might have prepared them to teach and
support ELs in the classroom. Teachers were interviewed in order to collect accounts
of the extent to which academic programs designed for EL students, such as English
Language Development and Sheltered Immersion classes, have prepared EL students
for the academic rigors of AP courses. Teacher accounts were used to document their
role in preparing students for college level work and their perceptions as to the extent
to which the school recruits, prepares, and supports EL students in higher-level
academic courses such as AP. In addition, teacher interviews informed this study as to
the specific district and school policies that contributed to, or hindered, the
participation of gifted Spanish speaking EL students in AP classes. The same process
and interview protocol was utilized with the counselor that participated in the study,
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with the exception of the survey. The counselor was not asked to participate in the
survey.
The investigator requested permission from the principal to attend a faculty
meeting in order to explain the purpose of the study and to recruit school personnel
volunteers who were interested in participating in the investigation. The intent was to
distribute consent forms during this initial visit and collect them during a second visit.
However, due to time constraints, the principal chose to inform school personnel that
the investigator was coming and that she was recruiting staff members to participate in
the study. Those who were interested in participating in the study read and completed
the consent form at that time. The investigator answered any questions they had about
the study. It was then that the study was conducted with school personnel.
Methodology
This study attempted to uncover the contextual factors of the schooling process
that affected the enrollment of Spanish speaking gifted English Learners in AP classes
as well as the perceptions that affected their personal interest and participation in AP
courses. Both the survey and interview protocol were structured in order to obtain
similar types of information from the participants. The survey contained questions
that were used to collect background on the courses taken by the participants as well
as to collect personal and family background information that might be relevant to the
choices students make in course selection. The interview questions aimed to ask about
personal and institutional factors that affected student enrollment and which may have
contributed to students’ personal decisions to participate in AP courses. The interview
protocol included twenty-three questions based on categories developed from the
92
theoretical frameworks utilized in this study. The theoretical frameworks utilized
included Stanton-Salazar’s (2001) research on social capital and institutional support
and Jim Cummins’ (1986) work, Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for
Intervention. The interview questions asked about what students knew about AP
courses and how important they were to them, their family, and school personnel.
Questions asked about what specific factors of the schooling process existed that
influenced students’ decisions to enroll in AP courses and about their perceptions
regarding their confidence to do well in AP courses and on the AP Exam. The two
teachers and the counselor responded to nineteen questions organized into similar
categories. The counselor was not asked to participate in the survey.
The purpose of this research project was to gather information that would aid
educators, program coordinators, administrators, and policymakers to develop an
understanding of the different personal factors that influenced the decisions of high
school students who are gifted and Spanish speaking ELs to enroll in Advanced
Placement courses. Furthermore, the data gathered would inform educators, program
coordinators, administrators, and policymakers as to what schools are doing to
facilitate or hinder the enrollment and participation of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in
AP classes. This information is important because it will inform school communities
about what they can do to attract, and support, more gifted, Spanish speaking ELs to
participate in AP level courses, thus, addressing the issue of under-representation of
ELs in AP programs (Guice & Miller, 2007; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008).
The school principal asked the investigator to e-mail him all the parent consent
forms, youth assent forms, and parent letters, in English and Spanish, and volunteered
93
to meet with the prospective student participants, explain the study to them, and to
distribute the forms the week before the investigator visited the campus to conduct
interviews. The principal coordinated the meeting between the investigator and the
study participants, and provided an appropriate place that was private enough to
protect the privacy of all the participants, yet public enough to ensure their safety and
the safety of the investigator. In addition, all participants’ names remained
anonymous at all times as indicated in the prefatory remarks and in all the letters to
parents, students, and school personnel. Pseudonyms were used to protect the
confidentiality of all study participants.
The participation of EL high school students and school personnel in this study
was voluntary. All information was confidential and was used solely for the purpose
of this study. Participants were explained their right to decline from responding to any
survey or interview question. The student participants first completed a short survey
that gathered background information about the participants and his or her family.
The student participants were given the option to respond to the survey in Spanish or
English and it took no longer than ten minutes to complete.
After completing the survey, the interviewer asked participants a series of
interview questions. The interviewer wrote down all responses and tape-recorded
them for future reference in case any important, relevant information was left out
while writing. Tape recordings of interviews were transcribed in order to facilitate the
coding of data. The interviews lasted 30-45 minutes depending on the depth and
complexity of the participants’ responses. All participants were encouraged to answer
freely and honestly and to ask the interviewer to clarify any question that was
94
confusing to them. As with the surveys, participants were able to choose to respond in
English or Spanish, whichever language they felt more comfortable having a
conversation in. The interviewer made every effort possible to make the participants
feel comfortable and willing to respond openly. The same procedure was utilized with
the school personnel participating in this study with the exception of the language
option. Both teachers and the counselor responded to surveys and questions in
English.
Data Analysis
All survey and interview responses were transcribed and coded for recurring
themes that specifically addressed the research questions. All interviews were
transcribed and responses were coded based on common themes that arose across all
interviews: student to student and student to school personnel. Of importance to the
study were the responses that illuminated on the specific contextual factors dealing
with the schooling process and perceptions that affected the personal interest and
participation of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in AP classes. Responses were matched
to relevant literature and conceptual frameworks that supported the findings or which
required further research. The investigator looked for how responses were similar and
how they diverged from each other. Relationships between responses were based
upon the students’ grade levels, length of stay in the U.S.(immigrant versus
nonimmigrant), place of birth (parents and participants), enrollment in AP classes,
participation in ELD, bilingual, or structured immersion classes, parents’ educational
background, and amount of education received in the native country. This information
was taken from the surveys that the participants completed before the interviews.
95
In addition, student responses were related with those of the two teachers and
the counselor in order to examine the extent to which each group’s perceptions of the
schooling process or personal factors contributed to EL participation in AP classes.
Expert Panel
All survey and interview questions were shared and discussed with a panel of
experts in various fields of education in order to determine the study’s content
validity. The panel of experts included teachers of gifted students, Language Arts
teachers, administrators at the school and district level, staff developers, teachers on
special assignment at the district level, and experts in the Models of Teaching and
Depth and Complexity. The panel reviewed the survey and interview questions and
provided suggestions for revisions to improve the clarity, length, quality, and the
content validity of all survey and interview questions.
Pilot Study
The student survey and interview protocol used in this study were piloted with
two male students that attended two different high schools, one was a junior and the
other a senior. Both participants were native speakers of English, born in the United
States of immigrant parents. The responses to the survey and interview questions
varied in both cases perhaps due to their different school contexts and their varied
academic experiences. The pilot study resulted in rich data that lead to rich data
gathering during the actual study, which in turn helped to answer the research
questions this study addressed.

96
CHAPTER 4
Results
Introduction

The purpose of this study was to identify specific contextual factors of the
schooling process that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English
Learners (ELs) in Advanced Placement courses (AP). In addition, this study
investigated the personal perceptions that gifted Spanish speaking ELs hold towards
AP courses that might influence the extent to which they enroll and participate in these
courses. The study aimed to answer the following research questions:
1. What are the contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the
enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners into Advanced
Placement classes?
2. How do the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners affect
their personal interest and participation in Advanced Placement Classes?
In order to answer these questions, the investigator researched and contacted high
schools with a high enrollment of Spanish speaking English Learners. Approximately
twenty high schools from various local school districts were contacted over a period of
one year, but not all responded to the initial contacts. School administrators were
asked for the number of gifted Spanish speaking high school students enrolled in their
schools. A large number of schools indicated that they had a significant number of
English Learners, but they were not identified as gifted. One school that had as many
as eleven identified gifted Spanish speaking ELs did not grant the investigator
permission to come on campus to conduct the study due to time and resource
97
limitations. Finally, in February 2010, two high school administrators from two
different districts granted the investigator permission to conduct the study on their
campus. One campus had six gifted Spanish speaking ELs enrolled in their school,
while the other initially had five. By the time the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approved the investigator’s study, two of the five students had left the school, and it
was discovered that one other had been misidentified. Only two of the original five
students remained. These two students did not participate in the study. A total of six
high school students who were identified as gifted Spanish speaking English learners
on one campus participated in this study. The challenge of finding participants who
met the criteria for this study is due largely to the lack of English learners who are
identified as gifted at the high school level, and to the school sites or districts denying
the investigator permission to conduct the study on campus.
Methodology
A survey and an interview protocol were developed to gather the data for this
study. The student participants were asked to respond to a short survey that asked
questions regarding their demographic information. This survey took five to ten
minutes to complete. The subjects then participated in an interview that lasted 30 to
45 minutes depending on the length and depth of the responses of each of the
participants. All interviews were conducted one on one on the school campus where
students were enrolled. The interview questions were organized into the following
general topics:
1. Students’ affiliation to the school
2. Students’ knowledge of the AP Program
98
3. College-going culture on campus
4. Peer influences
5. Parent/guardian influences and knowledge of AP courses
6. Influences of and relationship to school personnel.
The results of this study are reported according to these topics. The responses were
analyzed according to the conceptual framework utilized in this study. The conceptual
frameworks include Stanton-Salazar’s (2001) research on social capital and Jim
Cummins’s Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for Intervention (1986).
The interview questions were organized according to general topics that emerged from
Stanton-Salazar and Cummins’s research. All student responses are reported using
pseudonyms to protect the confidentiality of each participant.
School teachers and other school personnel such as counselors and school
coordinators of Advanced Placement (AP), Gifted and Talented Education (GATE),
and programs for ELs were also invited to participate in the study. The teachers that
were recruited were teachers of English learners in numerous subject areas such as
English Language Development (ELD), sheltered instruction, or AP courses. The
purpose for their participation was to identify relationships between their perceptions
and responses to those of the students as well as to verify information provided by the
student. A survey and interview protocol was also developed for the teachers and
school personnel. The interview questions for teachers and school personnel were
similar to those of the students. Only one interview question was different for school
personnel. Teachers were asked to respond to a short survey to gather information on
their credentials and qualifications as well as information on the strategies they used to
99
teach ELs in their classrooms. Other school personnel did not complete a survey. As
with the student participants, all school personnel interviews were conducted one on
one and took place on campus where the participants were employed. All school
personnel responses are reported using pseudonyms to protect participants’
confidentiality.
Results: Students
Six gifted Spanish speaking English learners participated in this study. These
included four 9
th
graders, one 10th grader, and one 11
th
grader. The demographic
survey revealed that all six students had parents born in Mexico, while only one of the
students was born in Mexico. The other five students were United States born
citizens. One of the students was born in the U. S., lived in and attended school in
Mexico until 4
th
grade, then moved back to the U. S. where she has attended school
since the 5
th
grade. Four participants had been attending school in the U. S. since pre-
school or pre-kindergarten, while one of the participants had been enrolled in school in
the U. S. since 1
st
grade.
The student that attended school in Mexico was the only one of the six
participants that chose to complete the survey and the interview in Spanish. The
others chose English although they all expressed they were able to respond in either
language, but opted to respond in English. Five out of six student participants
indicated that Spanish was their first language, while only one stated that English was
his first language. Participants’ mothers’ educational level ranged from not attending
school to 12
th
grade; fathers’ educational level ranged from sixth grade to college
completion. One participant did not provide the education level for his mother; thus,
100
this data is not available for that student. It is not clear whether the student was
unaware of the education level of his parents or whether he chose not to respond to
those items on the survey. This participant shared that his father left him when he was
a child, therefore, he was unable to respond to the items regarding his father’s place of
birth or education level. Table 1 summarizes the demographic data of the student
participants.
Table 1
Demographic Data of Student Participants
Participant Age Grade
Level
Gender Ethnicity Primary
Language
Other
Languages
Spoken
First Year
of school
attendance
in the U.S.
Participant
’s
Birthplace
Attended
school in
country of
origin
Rosario 14 9
th
Female Mexican Spanish English 5th U. S. A. Yes
Up to 4
th

grade
Reynaldo 14 9
th
Male Mexican-
American
English Spanish Pre-school U. S. A. No
Margarita 14 9
th
Female Mexican-
American
Spanish English Pre-
kindergart
en
U. S. A. No
Ronaldo 14 9
th
Male Mexican-
American
Spanish English 1st U. S. A. No
Magdaleno 16 11
th
Male Mexican Spanish English Pre-
kindergart
en
Mexico No
Maximo 15 10
th
Male Mexican-
American
Spanish English Kindergart
en
U. S. A. No
102
Table 1, Continued
Demographic Data of Student Participants
Participant Mother’s Birthplace Father’s
Birthplace
Mother’s Education
Grade Level Completed
Father’s Education
Grade Level
Completed
Rosario Mexico Mexico 6
th
6
th

Reynaldo Mexico Mexico 9
th
11
th

Margarita Mexico Mexico 12
th
12
th

Ronaldo Mexico Mexico Did not attend school. College
Magdaleno Mexico Mexico 11
th
10
th

Maximo Mexico Not
Available
Not
Available
Not
Available

The second part of the survey asked participants to list the AP or Honors
courses they had taken in the past, the AP or Honors courses they were taking in the
current school year, and the AP or Honors courses they planned on taking in the
future. This part of the survey sought to capture a snapshot of the extent to which the
students were involved in AP or Honors courses and their plans for future enrollment.
In addition, students were asked to list the English Language Development (ELD),
sheltered, and bilingual courses they had taken in the past or that they were taking in
103
the current school year. Due to the 4 x 4 block schedule that was in practice at the
school site, courses taken in the past refers to courses taken in previous school years
as well as in the 2009-2010 fall semester, and which had been completed for credit.
The heading courses enrolled in during the spring semester, 2009-2010 refers to the
semester that was taking place at the time the study was conducted.
Three of the 9
th
grade participants had not taken any AP or Honors courses in
previous years or in the previous fall semester. The fourth 9
th
grader had taken two
Advanced courses; one student, an 11
th
grader, had taken four Honors courses, and the
10
th
grader had previously taken one Advanced course. In the current spring semester,
all, but one student, a 9
th
grader, was enrolled in an AP course, an Honors course, or
an Advanced course. Of the six participants, three stated that they planned on
enrolling in AP classes, two did not state, and one expressed that he would like to
participate in AP classes, but did not specify a particular course. It is uncertain as to
the reasons for the selection in courses, or as to why two of the participants did not
state any intentions to enroll in AP in the future. Tables 2 to 4 summarize the
academic history of the students as stated in the survey and as confirmed by their
course schedules.

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Table 2
Academic History of Student Participants by Past Semesters and Years
Participant Grade Level AP or Honors Classes Taken in the Past
Including the Fall Semester, 2009

Rosario 9
th

None
Reynaldo 9
th
None
Margarita 9
th
None
Ronaldo 9
th
Advanced English
Advanced History
Magdaleno 11
th
Honors Chemistry
Honors History
Honors Math
Honors English
Maximo 10
th
Advanced Geometry

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Table 3
Academic History of Student Participants
Participant Grade Level AP or Honors Classes Enrolled in
During the Spring Semester, 2010

Rosario 9
th
AP Spanish Language
Reynaldo 9
th
None
Margarita 9
th
AP Spanish Language
Ronaldo 9
th
AP Spanish Language
Magdaleno 11
th
Honors History
Maximo 10
th
Advanced Biology

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Table 4
Academic History of Student Participants
Participant Grade Level AP or Honors Classes Planned on Taking
in the Future

Rosario 9
th
None Stated
Reynaldo 9
th
Not Sure
Margarita 9
th
AP Spanish Literature
AP English
Ronaldo 9
th
AP English
AP History
Magdaleno 11
th
AP Economics
Maximo 10
th
None Stated

In regards to ELD, sheltered, and bilingual classes, only three participants
stated participation in ELD or bilingual classes in the past. One student’s response,
her participation in English did not specify the nature of the class; the other two stated
that they had not participated in any of the three programs. For the 2009-2010
academic school year, five of the six participants reported that they were not
participating in any of the three programs. One student reported English and Spanish,
but it was unclear exactly which type of program she was referring to unless perhaps
the question was not clear to her. Table 5 summarizes the academic history of the
students as stated in the survey.

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Table 5
Academic History of Student Participants
Participant Grade Level ELD/Sheltered/Bilingual Classes Taken
Past Years School Year
2009-2010

Rosario 9
th
English Spanish
English
Reynaldo 9
th
None None
Margarita 9
th
ELD in Elementary School None
Ronaldo 9
th
7
th
Grade ELD None
8
th
Grade ELD None
Magdaleno 11
th
None None
Maximo 10
th
Bilingual Classes in None
Grades 3 to 5

The Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process
When discussing contextual factors it is necessary to provide a description of the
context in which the six student participants attended high school at the time the study
was conducted. This particular high school was divided into six smaller schools:
Media, Visual, and Performing Arts, LEADS (Lead, Explore, Achieve, Discover,
Serve), Science and Technology (SciTech), International Studies (International
Baccalaureate-IB), Communication, and Business. Students chose the small school
they wanted to attend prior to beginning their high school career. All six participants
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of this study attended the School of Business. The student enrollment in the School of
Business was approximately 451 students and approximately twenty-three teachers
were on the staff. The school had a counselor and one pupil advocate for the whole
student body. The ethnic make up of the student population in this school was 75
percent Hispanic, 15 percent Black, 6 percent White, 4 percent combination of
Filipino, Vietnamese, and Pacific Islander (personal communication, May 7, 2010).
According to the principal of the school, all students in the School of Business
received free lunch; on the last year students completed applications to qualify for free
lunch, 93 percent of the student population qualified for free lunch. This data was
utilized to gauge the socio-economic status of the students and families who attended
the School of Business.
The School of Business, as do schools within the district, provided two
program options for gifted students. The program options were 1. The Seminar
Program for the highly gifted and 2.The Cluster Program for gifted and high ability
students. According to the principal of the School of Business, the Seminar program
is for students at the top one percentile and the Cluster program is for the top five
percentile based on the assessments utilized to determine qualification for gifted
programs. All six participants took part in the Gifted Cluster program. Students were
identified as gifted in elementary school. According to information gathered from the
school website (April 15, 2010), a district psychologist tested students for potential
gifted status beginning in 2
nd
grade and to new students in grades 3 through 5. Results
of the evaluation determined Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) placement
through 12
th
grade. The school district abided to the state definition of giftedness,
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“…gifted students are pupils who possess a capacity for excellence far beyond that of
their chronological peers. This capacity includes many and varied characteristics that
require modifications of curriculum and instruction. These modifications form the
basis of gifted and talented educational services” (School Web-Site, April, 15, 2010).
In a 2009-2010 leaflet describing each school, the School of Business is
described in the following way:
The School of Business offers a college-prep program with strong post-
secondary connections, a full complement of Advanced Placement (AP)
courses and an unparalleled level of “real world” business experience.
Students can explore a variety of elective paths, including Finance,
Entrepreneurship, and Culinary Arts, and earn up to 20 college credits through
articulated courses and Advanced Placement offerings.

The leaflet listed an offering of eight AP courses of which only four were offered
during the 2009-2010 school year. The AP courses offered included: AP English
Literature, AP Spanish Literature, AP Spanish Language, and AP Economics. These
are two less AP classes than the previous year when AP History and AP
Environmental Science were also offered. According to the school counselor, the
reduction in number of courses was due to teacher retirement and turnover; these
classes had not been filled with new teachers.
The requirements for AP enrollment in the School of Business included
satisfactory scores on the California Standards Test (CST), teacher recommendation,
and an evaluation of their reading skills (School counselor, personal communication,
April 20, 2010). During the time the study was conducted, spring semester, twenty-
eight students were enrolled in AP economics, twelve students in AP Spanish
Language, and fifteen students were enrolled in AP English.
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The school was on a 4 x 4 model block schedule where students took four
classes in the fall semester and four new classes in the spring semester. If courses
were successfully completed, students may end their high school career with as many
as four extra course credits. According to the school counselor, the schedule was
designed to allow students to accrue as many credits as possible towards earning their
high school diploma.
The school counselor shared that meeting the class requirements for graduation
took precedence over taking AP courses. Students were not allowed to continue in an
AP course the following semester if all of their course requirements for obtaining a
diploma were not met. This may result in an increase or a drop in the number of
students enrolled in AP courses in the second semester of the school year. For the
2009-2010 school year, meeting diploma requirements resulted in a drop in enrollment
in AP courses. For instance, according to the AP English teacher, there were thirty-
five students enrolled in the AP History class during the fall semester, but that number
dropped to twelve students in the spring semester when she taught the AP English
course. Students enrolled in AP History in the fall were unable to take AP English in
the spring because they had to take an Arts requirement for obtaining their diploma.
According to statements by the counselor and the AP English teacher, the staff at this
school made a concerted effort to ensure that their students satisfy the Subjects
Requirements, or A through G requirements, for high school graduation.
The Subjects Requirements are course requirements to qualify for admissions
to the University of California (UC) or California State University (CSU) school
systems. In order to meet the Subjects Requirements, students must complete fifteen
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units by the end of their senior year. In addition, seven of the fifteen units must be
completed in the last two years of high school, and must be passed with a C- or better.
The Subjects Requirements include courses in English, Mathematics, History/Social
Science, Laboratory Science, a Foreign Language, Visual and Performing Arts, and
Electives. One unit is the equivalent of a one-year course (California Department of
Education, 2010).
Data Analysis
The findings reported in the following section aim to answer the first research
question in this study: 1. What are the contextual factors of the schooling process that
affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners into Advanced
Placement classes?
“Classifying and coding qualitative data produce a framework for organizing and
describing what has been collected during fieldwork” (Patton, 2002, p. 465). The
investigator transcribed and coded all the interviews in this study. Transcriptions were
coded by reading the data numerous times and writing down shorthand notes on a
separate sheet of paper as Patton (2002) suggests. Responses were then tallied to
determine the number of times a specific response was given to each of the questions
under each category. All responses were organized according to the number of times
the participants reported them and the number of participants that provided the same
type of response. This step was necessary for reporting the data in order to capture an
accurate picture of the number of students that responded in a particular way. For
example, two students stated…one student responded… This procedure was feasible
in this study due to the small number of students that participated in the study.
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During the interviews, students were asked questions that sought to uncover
specific contextual factors that might hinder or support their enrollment in AP classes.
Questions were organized according to the following categories: student affiliation to
their school, their knowledge of AP programs, the college-going culture present at
their school, peer influences, parent/guardian influences and knowledge of AP
courses, and influences of and relationship to school personnel. These categories
emerged from the conceptual frameworks utilized in this study. Having the questions
already organized into categories facilitated the coding process.
Common themes emerged within each of the categories that shed light on how the
school context may affect, or not, the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English
Learners in AP classes. The themes support the general categories and the theoretical
frameworks utilized to develop the interview questions (Stanton-Salazar, 2001;
Cummins, 1986). The data revealed the following common themes:
• Teachers were sources of information and of academic support.
• Students sought academic help when they felt they needed it.
• There was a lack of integration of the students’ language and culture in the
school curriculum and on campus.
• Students lacked knowledge and/or had misconceptions about AP courses.
• Parents lacked knowledge about AP classes.
• Students aspired to attend college after high school.
• Parents had high aspirations for their children to attend college after high
school.
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• Students felt they were well informed about college requirements and
financial aid.
• School personnel were perceived to be influential in students’ decisions to
enroll in AP classes.
• Parents’ SES was perceived as a barrier to four year college enrollment.
• The Achievement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program is a
source of information about college requirements and financial aid
opportunities.
Students’ Affiliation to their School
The Role of Teachers
All six participants expressed satisfaction with their school, particularly their
teachers. They all found their teachers to be good teachers given that they were
available to help them after school, through e-mail, and through advisory meetings.
At this site, all teachers were assigned to a specific number of students to meet during
advisory meetings on Friday afternoons. All six participants felt that their teachers
taught them well, gave lots of examples, and had high expectations for them.
Margarita, expressed that the teacher advisors were supportive and helpful in making
sure she did well in school and/or in AP Classes, “Advisors help us every Friday.
They tell us what we got on our grade so far; they check with us to see if we’re doing
really good; they check our progress. The teachers there make sure that we are not
failing classes and if we are they try to help us out. When we need help we go to
teacher advisors.” According to this data, the small number of students enrolled in
this small school allowed for a smaller teacher to student ratio, thus making it possible
114
for students to be consistently in contact with their teachers for guidance, help with
assignments, and for motivation.
Magdaleno’s ability to relate to his teachers was attributed to the following
descriptors: they spoke Spanish, they were Hispanic or of Mexican background, they
were young, and they lived close to the school where they were employed.
Magdaleno offered the following explanation:
What I like about teachers at my school is they’re local; they’re not very
different as we are; they all came to [this high school], you know. Some live
here in my neighborhood. I feel comfortable; our connections like…it’s not
like when I see a blonde teacher…oh, she lives I don’t know where. But I see
them, they’re young, in their thirties or twenties, I don’t know. It’s
comfortable talking to them ‘cause they’re not very older than you; they’re
from your era, so they understand you a lot. They’re like, “I understand you. I
was like that in high school, but this is what I did to change.” So that’s the
way they are supportive, you know.

Although all participants expressed feeling comfortable with their teachers,
Magdaleno is the only one who made specific references to teacher traits that he
valued besides their ability to teach him well.
Stanton-Salazar’s (2001) research on social capital has found that minority
students, immigrant and native born, seek out Spanish speaking counselors and
teachers with whom they connect and feel comfortable speaking to. Magdaleno’s
positive relationship with his teachers and the counselor who spoke Spanish supports
Stanton-Salazar’s findings on the importance of supportive networks.
Magdaleno’s comments about feeling comfortable with Spanish speaking
teachers and school personnel also reinforces what the literature has stated about the
importance of preparing all teachers, regardless of ethnicity, to teach students who are
culturally and linguistically diverse (Jenks, Lee, & Kanpol, 2001). Given the growing
115
numbers of ethnically diverse students in public schools, about 41 percent (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2010), and the large numbers of non-Hispanic White
teachers in the teaching force, about 83 percent (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2009), teacher preparation programs are left with the responsibility of
preparing prospective teachers to educate an increasingly ethnically and linguistically
diverse student body (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007; Parrish et al., 2006). All teachers
need to be able to reach students like Magdaleno in the absence of educators who do
not speak their students’ language or who do not come from their culture.
Darling-Hammond (2000) and Haycock’s (1998) research emphasizes the
importance of quality, caring, and culturally responsive teachers for the achievement
of language and ethnic minorities. The importance of holding high expectations for
their students has also been well documented (Haycock, 2001; Garcia, 1991; Gherke,
2005). The participants in this study have expressed their satisfaction with the
teachers they’ve come in contact with in their small school.
The students’ positive feelings of affiliation to their school reinforce the
literature on the importance of having minority students feel a sense of belonging to
their school (Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997). Research has found that minority students
need to feel supported by their teachers and other school personnel in order to
experience academic success (Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997).
Seeking Academic Assistance
All students expressed that they did not seek after school help as often as they
would like, but rather on an as needed basis. They cited many reasons for this. One
student stated that after school obligations kept him from staying after school. Three
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students expressed that they tried to get the help they needed during the school day, in
class. One student said she e-mailed her teachers with questions or relied on
classmates for help. Magdaleno acknowledged the benefits of after school tutoring,
That’s one of my problems right now. As soon as the bell rings in school, I go
do my sports, I go home, do this. I’ve tried staying because it’s really helpful.
When I go home I already have my homework done; I understand what I did;
I’m prepared for tomorrow. I try to take advantage as much as I can, but I
don’t. I do get help from teachers, but when I do get it it’s during the school
day, or right after school, but I don’t stay that long.

The data revealed that students sought help when they needed it, were aware of
when they needed the help, and where they could find it. Ronaldo commented the
following, “Well, not this semester, but last semester I needed help with math so I
stayed like two times a week or when there was a test. This semester I’m not taking
math so I don’t need to stay.” Similarly, Ashley stated, “Los busco dos veces a la
semana cuando necesito ayuda con los cuestionarios. Me ayudan a mejorar en los
quizzes porque los tests no se pueden retomar [I seek them out twice a week when I
need help with the questionnaires. They help me improve on the quizzes because the
tests cannot be retaken].” Although the school had a Student Center on campus that
provided after school tutoring for all students, none of the participants mentioned it as
a source of academic support.
The work conducted by the University of California’s All Campus Consortium
on Research for Diversity (UC ACCORD) has identified seven critical conditions for
student achievement and college access (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). One of
the seven critical conditions include intensive academic and social supports to help
minority students at the high school level achieve and support their efforts toward a
college education. This critical condition calls for schools to provide their students
117
with academic programs, tutoring, and services that will support their academic
efforts. The data in regard to after school programs and academic support does not
provide enough information about the extent to which after school tutoring supported
the students in this study. The school’s sole source of academic support for students
was the Student Center, the teachers, and the teacher advisors. The Student Center
was not mentioned by any of the students, but it is not clear why they did not mention
it. The students in this study relied on their teachers and teacher advisors for help and
support.
The Integration of the Students’ Language and Culture
Into Classroom and School Activities

Four of the students shared that Spanish was mostly spoken in their regular
Spanish or AP Spanish classes, and that their culture was integrated into the
curriculum of the AP Spanish class through book or author studies. Students did not
indicate the integration of Spanish or their cultural experiences in their other courses.
One student expressed that AP Spanish was easy because he already knew Spanish,
but other than that, the students did not state other instances where Spanish or their
culture was integrated into the curriculum.
Maximo expressed the following in regards to speaking Spanish: “I think it’s
only in the school campus that I speak Spanish; ‘cause in class I don’t talk Spanish
‘cause the teachers don’t talk Spanish, they talk English.” When asked about the
integration of Spanish and their culture into campus activities, Maximo stated, “I don’t
really know what they do.” This was the general response from the students; four
respondents stated that they did not know or couldn’t think of a way that their culture
and language was integrated into school activities. One student, however, did mention
118
the presence of a Folkloric dance group on campus and that a mariachi band played on
campus on occasion.
This data revealed that there is a lack of integration of the Spanish language
and Hispanic culture within the small school where approximately 75 percent of the
total student population is Hispanic or Latino. Cummins (1986) has emphasized the
importance of incorporating the culture and language of language minority students
into the classroom experience for ensuring the academic success of these students.
How much an educational institutional empowers or disables its students depends on
the interaction between the school and its student population. Cummins has identified
the following two institutional characteristics: 1. the use of the students’ language and
culture and 2. the extent to which the school utilizes pedagogy designed for intrinsic
motivation on the part of the students to use language actively to construct their own
knowledge. The data did not find evidence of these two institutional characteristics in
this school site.
In addition, the literacy development of language minority students appears to
be more effectively developed when the primary language of the students is utilized
and supported (Au, 2006; Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996; Lee, 1995; Rueda &
Garcia, 1996). Garcia (1991) found that successful teachers of ELs allow their
students to use their primary language to communicate and negotiate meaning as
needed in order to understand lesson concepts and assignments. The student
responses in this study revealed that the use of their primary language was not
integrated into the classroom curriculum.

119
The AP Program
Students’ Knowledge of AP Programs
The data revealed that students had limited knowledge of the AP program.
Specifically, students had limited knowledge of the requirements for enrollment, the
purpose of AP, and the advantages/disadvantages of taking AP courses. Three of the
six students had a general idea about the benefits, stating that they were advanced
courses, that you can get college credit, and that they looked good on your college
application. But even as the students were discussing the benefits, they were not
completely sure about them as illustrated by Margarita’s statement, “AP classes it’s
like a credit, I think. It’s like a college class kinda; and it helps you, it looks good on
your…when colleges see them; some colleges require you; we take the exams and if
we pass them we don’t have to take it in college; it’s like an opportunity.”
Ronaldo, a ninth grader, seemed to know the most about AP due to the fact that
he had an older brother and sister that have taken AP courses; the older sister was a
graduate from the School of Business. Consequently, Ronaldo had the following to
say about AP classes, “They’re weighted; if you got a B you raise it to an A, and be
counted as college credit.”
In the same way, Magdaleno, an eleventh grader, stated, “They’re advanced
placement; they’re college credits. I don’t know if you get full college credits or if it’s
partial, but I know you get some credits towards college and it just looks good on your
resume when you want to apply to college.” The other three participants, all in the
ninth grade, had no information about the advantages, disadvantages, or the purpose of
120
AP classes; their only response was that the courses were more challenging or more
advanced.
When asked about how students enrolled in AP courses, two students
responded that students probably had to apply for it, or teachers selected the students
based on how well they were doing in their classes or how smart they were. In regards
as to how they obtained information about AP classes, one of the ninth graders said he
didn’t get information from anyone and had no idea; two others stated that they heard
it from their teachers or teacher advisors, while another got information from his older
brother and sister who have both been in the program. Student responses revealed that
they had limited knowledge of how to enroll in AP classes, or where they got
information about AP classes.
Most students had the general impression that AP classes were important to
prepare them for college, or for the future. Margarita stated the following about
taking AP classes: “It’s important. I think AP classes are really helpful too; AP
classes are important because they are an opportunity because if I get this done,
I’ve accomplished a lot; I’m ahead of the game. There are so many kids that want
to take them and can’t, so I have to take advantage and do good on it.”
In spite of the perceived importance of taking AP courses, Magdaleno
believed he would not be able to reap the benefits due to his legal and socio-economic
status,
I don’t know. It’s important, but not so so much to me. It’s like I do want to
go to college, but it’s hard for me; me being born in Mexico, as a foreign
student; it’s a lot of money; I can’t apply for financial aid; I can’t get
scholarships; I can’t do very much, you know? And speaking of my parents’
income, it’s not all that great; they can’t afford for me to go to a four year
university, so it’s something that really not motivates me; I don’t have it; I
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kinda give up; I don’t give up, but I don’t have too high hopes; it’s like a wall,
so it’s what holds me back from all that stuff; so when I think of college and
all that stuff, I remember that and there’s a barrier.

Maximo shared that he had never taken an AP class and always assumed that
the teachers or the counselor selected the students for AP. He shared that he was
going to ask the teachers how to get into AP and if they would recommend him for
AP. This student expressed aspirations to attend UCLA or USC and became
interested in AP to help him accomplish his college admission goals.
Stanton-Salazar’s (1997) work has emphasized the importance of social
networks that allows working class students and their families to access information
about the benefits and challenges of AP classes, the enrollment process, who to speak
to about enrollment, when and where to attend information meetings, and where to get
the tutoring or assistance necessary to do well in AP classes. Research has
documented the importance of AP courses in the United States (Casserly, 1986;
College Board, 2002; Lewin, 2006), yet the students in this study, although gifted and
enrolled in the Gifted Cluster program, were unsure of the benefits of AP classes and
how to enroll in them. Therefore, the students in this study appeared to lack the
information needed to fully benefit from the AP classes offered on their school
campus.
Parents’ Knowledge of AP Courses
The data has revealed that most of what parents know about AP classes comes
primarily from their children. Magdaleno’s experience illustrated the ways in which
parents relied heavily on their children for information as in the following statement:
I don’t think they know nothing about it ‘cause I don’t tell them
nothing; ‘cause they don’t understand… I could tell them, but they don’t…it’s
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like explaining a lot, like into depth. Like this program, advanced placement,
it’s gonna help me. Give them the five W’s you know? How? Where? Who?
What are you going to do? Why? Maybe? That’s all they know.

For one participant, his parents knew about AP classes because his brother and sister
had taken them and had passed on the information to his parents and to himself. His
parents expected him to take advanced or AP courses like his siblings had. For others,
their parents knew very little about AP classes. Some participants mentioned that they
had taken information about AP courses home, in English and Spanish, for their
parents to read. Due to the limited amount of information that parents had, the
majority of them had little direct influence on their children’s decision to enroll in AP
classes. Parent influences uncovered in the data were general and indirect; parents
supported their children’s involvement in anything that benefited their educational
career.
Parents’ cultural capital may determine the extent to which students will do
well in school (Bourdieu, 1986; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Also, a family’s cultural
capital determines the extent to which parents may provide their children with the
time, money, and educational resources for them to do well in school (Valdes, 1996).
The parents of the student participants in this study lacked cultural and social capital,
thus, they depended on their children for information about school and college
preparation and requirements.
Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver (2006) have found that strong Family-
neighborhood-school connections around college going should be a critical
component of any school that wants to help empower parents to help their children.
This may be done by providing parents with crucial information about college going
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and financial aid, as well the benefits of AP programs. “Going beyond the annual
parent-teacher conference, successful urban schools engage parents in seminars,
workshops, and other outreach efforts to help parents gain knowledge about a wide
range of education issues” (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006).
Parents’ College Aspirations for their Children
All six participants shared that it was extremely important to their families that
they attend college for a better life and for a good career or job. With the exception
of Ronaldo’s father, none of the parents of the participants attended college, therefore,
they expected their children to take advantage of the opportunities they never had in
Mexico. Rosario explained, “Ellos dicen que como ellos no tuvieron educacion que
aproveche porque yo tengo mas oportunidades que ellos.” [They say that since they
did not have an education I should take advantage because I have more opportunities
that they did.] Similarly, Margarita shared her parents’ aspirations, “For my dad it’s
really important. He doesn’t tell me, ‘you have to go,’ no, but he does encourage me
to go. He didn’t go, so it’s something big for him to go to college. And my mom too,
she always says that whatever I want to be education is really important.”
For Magdaleno, however, the prospect of going to college was dampened again
by his legal and socio-economic status in this country. In spite of encouragement from
the counselors, Magdaleno shared that he and his parents were aware of how
expensive college was and that he might have to go to a community college or a trade
technical college. Due to these perceived barriers, Magdaleno’s parents encouraged
him to try his best and to at least finish high school.
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The data revealed that, for these gifted Spanish-speaking ELs, the extent to
which their parents were involved in their children’s education and how they
influenced their participation in AP courses had to do with their immigrant status and
length of residency in the United States. This supports previous research on the Latino
parent involvement in their children’s education (Kao & Tienda, 1995; Delgado &
Gaitan, 1992; Valdes, 1996). In the case of first generation parents like those of
Rosario and Magdaleno, their involvement in their children’s education and their
knowledge of AP courses was found to be limited; in the case of the second-
generation parents, the results were varied. For Maximo and Reynaldo, their parents
had limited involvement in his education and had limited knowledge of AP courses.
For Margarita and Ronaldo, their parents were more involved and had a higher degree
of information about AP courses than the others.
Based on the demographic data provided, Margarita and Ronaldo’s parents
appeared to have the highest level of education. In Ronaldo’s case, his father’s
college education seemed to offset his mother’s lack of education. Margarita and
Ronaldo’s parents’ level of education support Vernez & Abrahamse’s (1996) findings
that the higher the education of parents, the higher the educational attainment of their
children. On the other hand, the amount of encouragement and high aspirations shared
by the parents of the other participants seemed to support Fuligni’s (1997) research.
Fuligni found that the academic success of a child may be attributed to the emphasis
parents place on education as well as the educational expectations shared by the
parents, the students, and their peers. Regardless of the educational background of the
parent, the data collected in this study revealed that the participants’ parents, having
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left their native countries, expected their children to do better for themselves by
attaining an education that would allow them to enjoy status mobility in the United
States (Suarez-Orozco, 1987).
The Preparation of ELs for the Rigors of AP Classes
Students were asked how their previous ELD, bilingual, and sheltered courses
prepared them for the rigors of AP work. Students did not respond specifically in
regards to how ELD, bilingual, and sheltered classes prepared them for AP level work,
but spoke of their preparation in terms of their general courses. Students mentioned
that teachers in their Honors or AVID courses reviewed the subject matter, taught
them different ways to study, gave them more advanced work or work from the higher
grade, and had high expectations for them. One respondent expressed that, although
teachers gave them work from higher grades, he wasn’t sure that work prepared him
for AP level work. Another respondent expressed that he did not feel prepared for AP
work, and was scared and worried about taking AP classes because he did not have the
right study habits or study skills necessary to succeed in an AP class. Three students
felt generally prepared for AP classes although none made the connection to their
previous experiences in ELD, sheltered, or bilingual classes. Two students stated that
their level of preparation depended on the subject area, for example, AP English
versus an AP math course. One student expressed that working hard every day would
help that student do well in AP classes.
In California, English learners are placed in Structured English Immersion
(SEI) courses that include English Language Development (ELD), Specially Designed
Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE), and which may include primary language
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support (California Department of Education, 2006). Students may also participate in
alternate programs such as bilingual education (California State Department, 2006;
2009). These programs are meant to support ELs in their English language fluency as
well as instruction of academic content. Research has found that these courses have
not helped students develop the academic language necessary to succeed in advanced
level courses and later in college (Callahan, 2005; Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1997).
The data does not indicate the extent to which ELD, bilingual, and sheltered classes
prepared this group of participants for the rigors of the AP curriculum. Furthermore,
the data does not provide enough information to explain why respondents did not
attribute any of their academic preparation to previous ELD, sheltered, or bilingual
classes.
School and District Policies
Student responses revealed that they were not aware or certain of any school or
district rules or regulations that would allow or prevent them from participating in AP
classes. The examples cited included GPA, grades, a pretest in math and English, or a
test to qualify. Three students had no information about any regulations the school or
the district might have; these were the same students that consistently responded that
they had little or no information about AP classes. To one student, the need for a high
GPA would serve as a barrier to AP because he had not done very well the previous
year and was failing most of his classes. To another student, the math and English
tests served as a way to prepare her for AP classes. If she did not do well, the teachers
would help her prepare, and then she’d be able to take the test again. Another said the
test might keep him out, but wasn’t sure because he had passed the California High
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School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) on the first try, so he took this as an indication that he
might do better on the pretest to qualify for AP.
A one to one interview with the school counselor revealed that the criteria for
AP courses at this school site included California Standards Test (CST) scores, teacher
recommendation, and a test to evaluate reading skills. None of the student participants
cited any of these as criteria for enrollment other than perhaps one student who
mentioned that teachers picked the students, and other students who mentioned a test,
however, they were not specific about the requirements. The counselor explained that
ELs were enrolled in AP classes, but that enrollment depended primarily on teacher
recommendation and CST scores. Further, she explained that students were not turned
away if they were really interested in taking an AP class. They were given a chance to
participate, but were taken out if they were struggling in the class. Only the most
motivated and hard working student might try to persist and keep up with the rest of
the class.
Research has uncovered certain factors of the schooling process that might
serve as barriers for the participation of ethnic and linguistic minorities in AP classes.
Factors might include tracking practices, teacher and administrator perceptions and
expectations of their students, courses offered, student placement, quality and rigor of
the coursework, quality and effectiveness of teachers, heavy reliance on standardized
test scores, or AP entrance criteria such as teacher recommendations, grade point
average, placement tests, or prerequisite course work (Guice & Miller, 2007;
Cummins, 1986; Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Katz, 1999; Olsen, 1997; Stanton-
Salazar, 2001). The data revealed that the students in this study were unaware of
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specific school or district policies that might have affected their enrollment in AP
classes. Students mentioned teacher recommendation, GPA, and placement tests as
criteria, but their answers were varied and inconsistent. Therefore, the student data
did not provide enough information as to the specific school or district policies that
affected the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking EL students in AP classes in this
school site.
The College-Going Culture
Students were asked questions dealing with their college aspirations as well as
what they knew about college requirements, college field trip opportunities, college
fairs, and financial aid. Most students said that they were well informed about college
related events and requirements. They were aware of the college fieldtrips and college
fairs the school organized; the school had guest speakers from different colleges that
have come to share information about their college campuses. Students mentioned
that the school sponsored yearly College Trips where students got to visit different
college campuses in southern California. The school invited students and parents to
an annual college fair where they were provided with information about college
opportunities.
Generally, respondents cited required credits, good grades, passing all your
classes in high school, and passing the CAHSEE as determinants of whether or not
you were admitted to college. Not one of the participants mentioned A through G
requirements; two students mentioned that you had to do well on the SATs (SAT
Reasoning Test), while one student mentioned the American College Test (ACT).
Three students mentioned AVID as a primary source of information about college.
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The participants were unable to articulate any specific known information about
financial aid.
Magdaleno, expressed the benefits of attending a small school and the
opportunities it provides,
I like it ‘cause it’s divided, it’s more independent; the teachers focus more on
the students meaning there’s a small amount of students, so they focus more on
the students; that’s what I like about this school. You choose which school
you want to go to, arts, science, business. I chose business so I could get
business classes. Ifeel like good just coming to school, just getting the work
done.

I like it ‘cause I’ve been through a lot; they give you a lot of opportunities,
like AVID and honors classes; this year I went on a college trip that teaches
you a lot about colleges; that’s an advantage ‘cause you learn about colleges
and what’s the requirements; what do they have to offer you; what you should
do to prepare and reach that goal; and just like a lot of stuff that they help you
to get to college.

A college-going culture was identified as one of seven critical conditions for
student achievement and college access (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). In a
college-going school culture, students are well informed about college requirements,
including SATs, college expectations, financial aid, teachers support student learning,
and encourage their students to persist in their academic endeavors in order to stay on
the college path (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). In a college-going culture,
students believe that college is for them and, with the support from school personnel,
are able to do what is necessary to apply and enroll in college after high school
(Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). The participants in this study appeared to have a
limited amount of information dealing with college information, particularly
admission requirements and financial aid.
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The Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program was
designed to prepare underrepresented students in high school settings for admission in
four-year colleges (Swanson, 1993). Students in the AVID programs are enrolled in
college prep classes while given the academic and motivational support to complete
homework and do well in their courses. At the same time, students receive
information about college requirements, how to enroll, and financial aid. Students are
taught note-taking and study skills as well as inquiry and critical thinking skills.
AVID programs provide college tutors to assist students with assignments. In
addition, AVID teachers collaborate with other teachers and administrators in order to
provide AVID students with classroom support, a variety of instructional strategies to
meet their individual needs, and learning strategies to help students become more
independent learners (Swanson, 1993).
School Personnel Influences
The school counselor was cited as a significant influence in the academic lives
of some of the participants. Due to the size of the small school, it had one counselor
serving the needs of the entire student body. For Magdaleno, this counselor was more
than just a counselor, she was a role model for him because her parents were Mexican
and she spoke Spanish. This made it easier and more comfortable for him to approach
her. She encouraged him to take AP classes by telling him that it wouldn’t hurt him to
take them because, “What if next year you get your citizenship, you might wanna go
back and say, ‘I should have taken those classes’; just take them, just in case you do
go to a four year college or university.” Magdaleno cited his counselor as being the
most influential in the decisions he made about coursework, particularly AP classes.
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A few of the students reported that the AP Spanish teacher was the most
influential in their decision to take AP courses, especially the AP Spanish Language
course. According to the AP Spanish teacher, in this small school, the AP Spanish
Language course was a gateway to other AP courses for EL students. If students did
well here, they moved on to AP Spanish Literature; if they did well in that course, they
were recommended for other AP courses. Teacher recommendation was a strong
criterion for AP participation at this school site; thus, this teacher was influential in
providing information to students and parents, recommending students, and in
advising or encouraging students to take AP courses. This was true whether or not
students were identified as gifted.
Students stated that their teacher advisors were influential in their decision to
take AP courses. They were providers of information, specifically the English teacher
who was also the AP English teacher, and the AVID teacher.
The questions evolving around social networks revealed that, for the
participants, the relationship with their teachers, and the time spent with teacher
advisors was an opportunity to obtain information about AP classes and college
related information. All respondents expressed a desire to go to college, and had a
general idea as to what the requirements were for college admission.
The school complex had a Student Center available to students in all the six
schools, but not one of the students mentioned it as a source of information about
college. The majority cited their teachers, teacher advisors, and counselor as being the
primary sources of information about college. The AP Spanish Language teacher, in
particular, was frequently referred to by these students, not only because three of them
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happened to be enrolled in her class, but also because she served as the teacher advisor
for the majority of the EL student population within the School of Business.
Stanton-Salazar (2001) defines social capital as the supportive relationships
developed by young people and their institutional agents such as teachers, counselors,
and middle class peers who have access to social networks that working class youth do
not. Using his Social Capital Framework, Stanton-Salazar aims to explain the
socialization of minority children and youths in public schools. When students and
their families do not have access to social capital, as do families from a higher social
class or who are native to the U.S., these students depend on others to provide them
with the information and the emotional support they need to succeed in school socially
and academically. At the high school level, strong relationships with their teachers,
counselors, and peers are necessary for finding out about the benefits of AP programs,
college requirements, and financial aid.
Stanton-Salazar’s (2001) work is also supported by Oakes, Mendoza, and
Silver, (2006) who have identified a college-going school culture and opportunities to
develop a multicultural college-going identity as critical indicators of the extent to
which a school provides quality education as well as student access to college and
admission. Through the support of caring school personnel who help students create
an identity where they truly believe that college is for them, and by providing them
with the information they need to achieve toward a college education, students and
families who lack the social capital are able to access the information and benefit from
it.

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Table 6
Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process
Summary of the Findings
Categories Commonalities Differences
The Role of Teachers Participants felt that their teachers
were good teachers, were accessible,
taught them well, gave lots of
examples, and had high
expectations.
One participant related well to his
teachers because they were young,
spoke Spanish, were Hispanic or of
Mexican background, and lived in
the local area.
Seeking Academic Assistance Participants sought academic help
when they need it, are aware of
when they need help, and know
where and how to find academic
help.

None reported.
The Integration of the Students’
Language and Culture
Into Classroom and School
Activities

Participants cited the AP Spanish
class as the only place where
Spanish was spoken or where their
culture was integrated into lessons.
Participants were unable to cite any
examples of how their language or
culture was integrated into school-
wide activities.
One student mentioned the presence
of a folkloric group on campus and
a mariachi band that played on cam
pus on occasion.
Students’ Knowledge of AP
Programs
Participants had limited knowledge
of the requirements for enrolling in
AP classes, the purpose of AP, and
the advantages/disadvantages of
taking AP courses.
One participant appeared to know a
lot about AP classes because he had
an older brother and sister that had
taken AP courses in the past.
Parents’ Knowledge of AP Courses Most of what the participants’
parents knew about AP courses
came primarily from their children.
Generally, parents had limited
information about AP courses,
therefore, had a limited influence on
their children’s decisions to enroll in
AP courses.
Some participants reported that they
took information home about AP
programs that was provided by the
school in English and Spanish for
their parents to read.

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Table 6, Continued
Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process
Summary of the Findings
Categories Commonalities Differences
Parents’ College Aspirations for
their Children
All six participants shared that it
was extremely important to their
parents that they attend college for a
better life and for a good career or
job.
One participant reported that his
parents were aware of how
expensive college was and
encouraged him to at least finish
high school to obtain his diploma.
The Preparation of ELs for the
Rigors of AP Classes
Participants expressed being
prepared in their Honors and AVID
courses because teachers reviewed
the subject matter, taught them
different ways to study, gave them
more advanced work or work from
higher grades, and had high
expectations for them.
One participant expressed that he
did not feel prepared for AP level
work because he felt that he did not
have the right study habits or study
skills necessary to succeed in an
AP class.
School and District Policies Participants were not aware or
certain of any specific school or
district rules or regulations that
would allow or prevent them from
participating in AP classes.
Participants reported different
examples that would allow or
prevent them from enrolling in AP
classes. Varied responses included
GPA, grades, a pretest in math and
English, or a test to qualify.
The College Going Culture Participants stated that they were
well informed about college related
events, college requirements,
college field trips, and college fairs.

None reported.
School Personnel Influences The school counselor, the AP
Spanish teacher, the AVID teacher,
and the teacher advisors were cited
as the most influential people in the
academic lives of the participants
and in their decisions to take AP
classes.

None reported.

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Personal Perceptions and Interest in AP Courses
Data Analysis
The findings reported in this section aim to answer the second research
question in this study: 2. How do the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English
Learners affect their personal interest and participation in Advanced Placement
Classes?
The investigator transcribed and coded all the interviews in this study.
Transcriptions were read numerous times while notes were recorded on a separate
sheet of paper and organized into themes within the categories utilized to organize the
interview questions (Patton, 2002). The process used to code the data for this question
is the same as the one used for research question number one. The data revealed the
following common themes dealing with student perceptions:
• Students’ personal traits were attributed to their enrollment and success in
the AP classroom.
• Students’ reasons for choosing to participate or not participate in AP
classes were varied and inconsistent.
• Students were not aware that they were ELs or did not understand why
they were labeled ELs.
• Parents had limited influence on their children’s decisions to take AP
courses because they lacked information about AP programs.
• Student peers served as the social capital needed to learn about AP
courses.

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Profile of the AP Student
Questions that centered on student perception and interest revealed that
students’ perceptions and interest in AP courses were varied and depended on personal
experiences and personality traits. When asked what kind of student took AP courses,
five out of six participants responded that smart students took AP classes. One
participant was unable to provide a response. In addition to being smart, some
participants described personal traits of students who might take AP classes besides
being smart. Traits included working hard, getting good grades, being responsible,
and being focused. Nevertheless, being smart was the most significant trait according
to the majority of the respondents. According to Maximo, “Students that, that are like
more smarter than maybe the ordinary; they are responsible; they do their work;
They’re students that are into it, I guess, that are willing to stick with it because
they’re smarter I guess.” Another participant responded that regular kids took AP
classes as well; it just depended on the AP class.
Only two of the six respondents considered themselves such students as the
ones they described above, not because they were smart, but because they were
dedicated students. For example, Maximo explained, “Like for me, I usually do my
work and everything and I try my best and everything, but as an AP student, well I
never took it before, I think I would be pretty good at it ‘cause I speak both languages;
I’m responsible; I like to do my work all the time, and I hardly miss school, ditch.”
Two respondents said they probably would not do well in AP classes because
they didn’t do their work and fell behind. Magdaleno was very candid in his response,
“I could be one of those students, but it’s due to a lack of … I really don’t put myself
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to do it; I have a lot of distractions. I get distracted with other stuff; Some times I let
go of the school stuff; I start slacking.” When asked if he knew why he didn’t do his
school work, Magdaleno responded,
‘Cause I don’t put myself to do it. I get too distracted; I don’t have too much,
how’d you say? I don’t say I’m gonna do it, I’m gonna do it (emphasized) I
just say “Amma do it,” but I don’t put too much attention to it. But if I do
determine myself I can do it; also, I have a very unorganized agenda; I really
don’t know how to deal with time; I don’t give myself what I need, I’ll just be
like… I’ve done that-I’ve told myself I’ll go to school, come back from 2 to 3
Amma do this, then I’ll do my homework, go to the store with my friend, take
a shower, eat dinner-if I do that it works out perfect because I set my time, but
if I just say I have all these things to do I’ll see if I do them, but never like this
time, this time, this time.

Lack of organization, motivation, and focus were reasons for not perceiving
themselves as AP worthy candidates, but not necessarily for lack of intelligence or
ability. The last two participants were unable to determine whether they were the type
of student they described as taking AP classes. Generally, students felt that they could
possibly do well in AP classes if they worked hard, and persisted in their studies.
Studies on the perceptions of gifted ELs towards AP classes and their ability to
do well in them were nonexistent. Le Claire et al. (2009) conducted a study in which
they compared the classroom perceptions of ELs with those of non-EL students in
grades three through five. Although this study does not to specifically address EL
student perceptions in AP courses, it does address the perceptions of elementary EL
students towards their classroom environment. The study found that the participating
ELs reported lower levels of academic efficacy as compared to their non-EL peers.
The reasons for these perceptions were not clear, but one possible explanation was
provided. The explanation dealt with the consistent academic underachievement of
ELs which has lead to students’ feelings of frustration towards their inability to
138
perform at the same level and at the same rate as their non-EL peers. Although the
study conducted by Le Claire, Doll, Osborn, & Jones (2009) does not necessarily
support the findings of the current investigation, it is an indication of the presence of
low levels of academic efficacy perceived by ELs in the early grades. These
perceptions may or may not be present in the later grades, or affect ELs’ perceived
ability to participate and do well in AP courses.
The Participation of ELs in AP Programs
When asked why they were taking or not taking AP classes, the responses
varied again depending on their personal experiences. The students that were taking
an AP class were currently enrolled in AP Spanish Language, so their responses were
based on their experiences in that class. Two participants responded that they did not
know why they were not taking AP classes, although one of them did say that maybe it
was because he had not done well in school and needed to improve, but wasn’t sure.
For Margarita, it was a matter of passing the AP Spanish Language exam so that she
did not have to take that class in college, and it would prepare her for AP Spanish
Literature in the 10
th
grade. Also, she mentioned that taking AP Spanish Language
would teach her the formal Spanish she needs to do well in AP Spanish Literature, “I
do, but it’s different; it’s hard, I have to really like pay attention and try to understand
the language (Spanish); I talk Spanish, but not the real Spanish, the formal Spanish.
It’s a lot more different than the Spanish I talk because I was raised talking like that. I
have to practice it when I write it because if I write it I don’t write it exactly…”
Ronaldo shared that he did not sign up for the AP Spanish Language class, but
had enrolled, instead, in Spanish for Spanish speakers, and it was his first time in
139
that class that semester. Ronaldo explained that most of the students had already
been enrolled in the previous semester and that it had been the teacher’s decision to
convert the Spanish class to an AP Spanish Language class, thus, his participation
was unintentional.
Magdaleno shared the following reasons for taking AP courses:
Just so I can make my family happy. Just so I can show them that I was
brought here for good; that I’m doing really good; I want to let them know that
it’s like a thank you for them; You brought me over here I want to take
advantage of what you’ve done; I’m gonna do really good in school; to show
you I can do it and that I achieved something good. That’s why I take all that,
other than that I could just take regular classes and just graduate.

When asked why he didn’t just take regular classes, Magdaleno’s response was the
following:
‘Cause, one, I want to stand out in school; I’m in the AOF (Academy of
Finance), that’s why I’m all dressed up today; you stand out; they say, look at
you, that student’s smart; they speak about you; you go to school; they see me
doing homework; it makes me look good. AOF prepares you for the business
world; teaches you to do business, what are the fundamentals; it’s just a really
really good head start for the business world.

Finally, Maximo shared that he didn’t know about how to enroll in them, “I
don’t know, I thought since I didn’t ask for them, I thought they just gave them to
you if they see that you’re smart.”
The data revealed that, in this school context, respondents perceived AP
students as smart and dedicated, and believed they could succeed if they worked
hard and were responsible. According to the respondents, AP courses appeared to
place a student at a higher status than regular students because they prepared them
for college and were more challenging than the regular courses. Taking AP classes
was a matter of pride and brought a sense of accomplishment to the students in the
140
study. They appeared to have a general understanding of the importance of AP
classes for college readiness.
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan’s (2008) research on gifted students’ perceptions
of Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Programs (IB) found that
for the few student participants who were from rural, low-SES, and/or minority
backgrounds, their participation in these programs filled them with a sense of pride.
In addition, these programs were an opportunity to be the first to attend college,
and an opportunity to improve their life styles and future opportunities. The
participants’ responses reinforced this literature.
On Being Gifted and an English Learner
In regards to being gifted, students expressed that being gifted made them feel
good, special, and smart; for many, it was an advantage that would help them
succeed in AP classes. When asked how they felt about being an EL learner, those
that had been in school in the United States since pre-kindergarten were not sure
why they were still considered English Learners. Most said they spoke English
more often, and a few said that it was important for them to continue to learn more
English. One respondent, Margarita, acknowledged the English test she had to take
every year, “I have to improve; I have to retake this English test that I’ve been
taking every year and I have to get better.” Although Margarita did not specifically
state the English test she was referring to, she is the only one that expressed any
awareness of a criterion that determined her status as an English learner.
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Magdaleno was perplexed as to why he was still an English learner considering
he’d been in the U.S. since he was two years old. Magdaleno shared the following
point of view:
I really don’t consider myself as an English Learner; I’m very fluent with
English; maybe if I try to speak very sophisticated it will be hard, but I’m very
fluent with English. I don’t know…I think it’s just because I started really
small; I’ve been in school since Pre-K. I was here in the U.S. since I was two,
so I wasn’t even in school yet. So I was three, then I was four, then I started
school, so I started like everybody else; they didn’t speak any English, I don’t
know, just the basics; so I started from there, like everybody else, that’s how I
started; to now I don’t think I’m an English learner; I can be an English
Learner, but to speak more, beyond the basics, sound very fancy, and all that,
you know; I don’t know.

When asked how he felt about being both gifted and an English learner,
Magdaleno responded, “Yeah, ‘cause being in there, students don’t know, but if
they knew ‘he’s an English learner and he’s gifted.’ Just by saying he’s an EL and
he’s in AP, it’s big; you stand out; how is he here?” Most of the respondents
perceived being gifted and an English learner as an advantage because knowing
Spanish helped them do really well in their AP Spanish Language class. It made it
easier for them to understand what they were studying; being gifted and an English
learner were traits that would help them achieve. As Maximo explained, “For me, I
guess, it’s really important because none in my family has achieved in life. I want
to be the first one, right? I don’t know, it’s just really important to me. I’m not
messing around in school; I want to get it over with so I could go on to college…”
Margarita expressed that even if she were not gifted she would still try to take AP
classes because she wanted to “…try more; if there is an open chance to do
something bigger, then I will go ahead and do it.”
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Being identified as gifted may be an advantage for English learners at the high
school level because it might make it possible for them to access AP courses and
honors classes at a higher rate than those who are not identified as gifted (Bernal,
1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen, 1990; Gandara & Contreras, 2009). However,
Bernal (2007) poses that simply identifying more culturally and linguistically
diverse (C/LD) students for gifted programs does not necessarily mean that
teachers and other school personnel are meeting their individual academic,
psychological, social, and emotional needs. Bernal suggests that the needs of C/LD
gifted students might be met only when children are not stripped of their identities,
when teacher education programs adequately prepare pre-service teachers for
teaching a diverse student population, when teachers genuinely care for their
students and respect them as individuals, and when more teachers of color are
assigned to teach in gifted programs. Educating students who are gifted and
English learners is a challenge that not many schools are currently prepared to
successfully undertake (Bernal, 2007).
According to the demographic data, five of the six student participants had
attended school in the United States since pre-kindergarten or first grade, yet were
still identified as English learners in high school. The sixth participant started her
academic career in the Unites States in fifth grade. All six participants were
identified as gifted in elementary school, and all, but one, were confused as to why
they were still considered English learners. These students are what Callahan
(2005) describes as Long-term English learners. These are students who
“…remain designated as LEP after 5 or more years of school enrollment in U.S.
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schools. Sixty-eight percent of the 7
th
to 12
th
grade students taking the California
English Language Development Test (CELDT) in 2003 reported having been in
California schools 7 years or more” (Callahan, 2005, p.306). Callahan attributes
the lack of reclassification to policies that make it difficult for students to exit
English learner programs. This results in tracking students in classes that are not
rigorous and that do not prepare students for participation in more rigorous courses
such as AP and honors courses.
Parental Influences Toward Taking AP Classes
When asked how their parents or guardians showed their support for their
education, respondents provided the following examples: by giving them good advice
such as “ …do your work, don’t be late, behave, tener respeto a los maestros, haz tu
tarea [respect your teachers, do your homework]”; by encouraging them to work hard,
try their best, turn in their work, get their diploma, and be a good student; by
rewarding their good grades by taking them out to dinner or shopping; by encouraging
them to go to college and making them proud. For example, Maximo shared the
following about his mother, “My mom, I talk to her about college, and she says, ‘Give
it all you got; achieve in life, something your brothers never did.’ And to make her
proud. Yeah, she sometimes motivates me to do it, to go for it.” Maximo is the fifth
of twelve children, so to him, attending and completing college would bring his family
pride and a sense of accomplishment.
When asked how important it was for their parents to take AP classes, the
responses once again varied according to family background and experiences. The
data revealed that most parents did not have a lot of information about AP courses and
144
that they depended on their children for obtaining any information. For instance,
Maximo explained that his mother’s lack of information was due to her being a
Spanish speaker, and, because he had not taken AP courses and did not know much
about them himself, his mother did not get the information because he did not provide
it. Furthermore, Maximo’s mother does not attend Open House or school events
because she is a stay-at-home mom that must tend to his younger brother and sisters as
well as his step-dad. One participant responded that his parents would be supportive
of AP classes as long as they were something good that would benefit him in school,
but they might not necessarily understand the significance of the AP courses in terms
of college preparation. The participants shared that their parents encouraged them to
take advanced courses and to work hard to do well in them.
Previous research has found that Latino parents value education and expect
their children to take advantage of the educational opportunities in the United States in
order to be successful (Delgado & Gaitan, 1992; Duran & Weffer, 1992; Fuligni,
1997; Horn & Chen, 1998; Kao & Tienda, 1995). The data collected on the ways in
which parents showed their support for their children’s education reinforces this
research. Parents supported and encouraged their children to do well, but influenced
their children very little in regards to taking AP courses because they did not know
about them or enough about them to have a strong direct influence. Although parents
had strong college aspirations for their children, they were unaware of the benefits of
AP courses for college preparation.

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Peer Influences
For Margarita, her peers, the people she hung out with, were also those who
took AP courses, thus they served as a source of encouragement and a source of
information. It was through her peers that she found out and became interested in AP
classes. Her peers encouraged others to take AP courses and they expressed the pride
they felt in getting good grades because AP courses looked good on college
applications.
Ronaldo shared that his friends helped him with his schoolwork and
encouraged him to do well in his AP class. He shared that his friends took AP
seriously because they thought they would need that class for college. Maximo shared
that his friends showed off to him about taking AP classes, and that, although they did
not say anything bad about AP classes, they never encouraged him either. He
admitted that he never thought about taking AP classes, but he had taken advanced
classes. Magdaleno stated that he only took AP classes because his friends told him to
in order to be in the same classes together. Magdaleno took the courses even though
he didn’t feel that he could succeed in AP, however, he did it for them. Rosario and
Reynaldo did not comment on their peer influences other than to say I don’t know or I
haven’t asked them. It is unclear from this information whether their peers
participated in AP classes or whether they ever talked about the AP program.
In this school context, it is apparent that peers influenced the students’
decisions to enroll in AP. For the majority, peers had influenced their participation, or
had piqued their curiosity, as in Maximo’s case. With the exception of Rosario and
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Reynaldo, their peers, who were also enrolled in AP class, served as the social capital
needed to learn about AP courses as well as about the benefits of taking AP courses.
Research has found that although parents do influence their children’s long-
term educational plans, student peers are a stronger influence on their children’s daily
behaviors such as time spent on homework, classroom behavior, and whether they
enjoy coming to school (Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992). This same research
has found that Hispanic youth are a lot more influenced by their peers than by their
parents in matters of academic achievement. Stanton-Salazar’s (1997) Social Capital
Framework emphasizes the importance of social networks among middle class peers
who have access to information that working class peers do not. Horn & Chen (1998)
have found that students who socialize with peers who have goals of going to college
are more likely to apply and attend four-year colleges than those who do not.

147
Table 7
Personal Perceptions and Interest in AP Courses
Summary of the Findings
Categories Commonalities Differences
Profile of the AP Student Participants described AP students
as smart, hard working, got good
grades, responsible, and focused.
Only two respondents felt they fit
this profile of an AP student
because they were dedicated to
school.
Two participants felt they did not fit
the profile of an AP student as
described by them because they
lacked motivation, they lacked
organization, and they lacked focus,
but not due to a lack of intelligence
or ability. Two other respondents
stated that they did not know
whether or not they fit the profile.
The Participation of ELs in AP
Programs
Reasons for participating in AP
classes varied. One participant said
it would prepare her for taking AP
classes the following school year;
another explained that he was in AP
Spanish unintentionally, while
another stated that he took AP
courses to look good and please his
family. Another participant stated
that he didn’t know how to enroll in
AP classes and assumed that
teachers selected the smart students
for AP courses.
Two participants were not sure why
they did not participate in AP
classes. One thought it was perhaps
because he did not do well in school
the previous year.
On Being Gifted and an English
Learner
Participants expressed that being
gifted made them feel good, special,
and smart; it was an advantage that
would help them succeed in AP
classes.

Participants were not sure as to why
they were still identified as EL since
most have been in the U.S. since
pre-kindergarten and spoke
predominantly English. Participants
saw their ability to speak Spanish as
an advantage in AP Spanish.
One participant acknowledged that
she needed to do well on an English
test that she took every year as an
EL.
Parental Influences Toward Taking
AP Classes
Participants shared that although
their parents knew very little about
AP classes, they encouraged them to
take AP courses or any courses that
would benefit them academically.
One respondent attributed his
parents’ limited knowledge of AP
courses to their lack of English
skills as well as home and work
obligations.
Peer Influences The peers of the participants were a
source of information about AP and
encouraged them to do well in their
AP classes. These peers served as
the social capital needed to learn
about AP classes.
Two participants did not comment
on peer influences other than to say
that they did not know or haven’t
asked their peers about AP classes.

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Results: School Personnel
Two AP teachers and one counselor participated in this study. Interviews of
school personnel were conducted one on one, and took place on the school campus
where they taught. Pseudonyms were used in order to ensure the confidentiality of
each participant. Teachers were first asked to complete a short survey. The first part
of the survey included questions regarding demographic information, general
questions regarding their teaching, and questions about the specialized credentials they
held that allowed them to teach EL students. The counselor did not participate in the
survey.
One teacher, who will be referred to as Carmen, taught AP Spanish for Spanish
speakers, levels 3-4, AP Spanish Literature, and AP Spanish Language. She taught
students in grade levels 9 through 12. The second teacher, who will be referred to as
Margarita, taught AP English Literature, AVID, and English as a Second Language
(ESL), levels 3-4. This teacher taught students in grade levels 9 through 12. The AP
English teacher was also the school AP coordinator. The counselor in the School of
Business was the only counselor servicing all the students within the small campus.
The counselor defined her role in the following way:
My role primarily is to make sure that all students meet graduation
requirements, so reviewing transcripts; making sure they meet A through G
requirements, diploma requirements, or if they’re non-diploma bound, make
sure to set them up with special ed. Services, post-secondary options; I deal a
lot with the college prep, college applications, financial aid, scholarships; I
handle testing as well; I’m the testing coordinator-that’s a big task; I also help
the principal with master schedule, so that’s another big task.

This counselor also helped the AP coordinator with some of the responsibilities such
as ordering AP materials. Both teachers identified themselves as Hispanic or Latino
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women on the teacher survey. The counselor was also of Hispanic or Latino origin.
Table 8 summarizes the information completed by the teachers on the teacher survey.
Table 8
Background Information of Teacher Participants
Participant Gender Ethnic
Background
Years of
Teaching
Experience
at the High
School
Level
Subjects
Taught
Grade
Levels
Taught
Specialized
Credential Held
Carmen Female Hispanic or
Latino
8 Spanish for
Spanish
Speakers,
Levels 3-4;
AP Spanish
Language;
AP Spanish
Literature
9-12 Bilingual
Crosscultural
Language
and
Academic
Development
(BCLAD)
Margarita Female Hispanic or
Latino
4 AP English
Literature;
AVID;
ESL,
Levels 3-4
9-12 Bilingual
Crosscultural
Language
and
Academic
Development
(BCLAD)

The survey asked teachers to list any special training that they had received for
meeting the academic and language needs of English learners in the classroom.
Carmen stated that she had received training in Specially Designed Academic
Instruction in English (SDAIE). Margarita stated that she had received training in
SDAIE, Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP), and in Quality Teaching
for English Learners (QTEL). Teachers were asked to list specific strategies that they
had found to be successful with the English learners they had worked with. Carmen
stated that she was unable to answer this question because it did not pertain to her
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given that she taught in Spanish all day. Margarita reported the following strategies:
Think-Pair-Share, smaller steps, and chunking assignments instead of expecting a due
date.
Teachers were asked about the training they received in order to determine the
extent to which teacher participants were formally prepared and qualified to instruct
English learners. The data revealed that both teachers were BCLAD (Bilingual
Crosscultural Language and Academic Development) certified which, by state law,
found them qualified to instruct English learners and to provide Spanish language
support (California State Department of Education, 2009).
The rationale for asking teachers about the strategies they have found
successful with their ELs was to determine if the teacher participants stated any of the
strategies that research has found to help ELs succeed academically in the classroom
setting. For example, Maxwell-Jolly et al. (2007) found the following instructional
strategies helpful in developing the academic literacy among English learners:
connecting the content to student’s lives, using primary language to support learning,
optimal student interaction with each other and with the text, attention to improving
reading comprehension, providing students with abundant opportunities to read and
write, attention to metacognitive skills, and flexible grouping. There is insufficient
information to determine how the strategies the teachers listed had been successful
with their EL students. Table 9 and Table 10 summarize the information provided by
the teachers in regard to training received for the instruction of ELs and instructional
strategies used with ELs in their classrooms.

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Table 9
Training Received for Meeting the Academic and Language
Needs of English Learners

Participant Training Received

Carmen Specially Designed Academic Instruction
in English (SDAIE)

Margarita Specially Designed Academic Instruction
in English (SDAIE)
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol
(SIOP)
Quality Teaching for English Learners (QTEL)

Table 10
Strategies that Had Been Found to be Successful With English Learners

Participant Strategies

Carmen None Stated
Margarita Think-Pair-Share
Smaller Steps
Chunking Assignments

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Data Analysis
During the interviews, school personnel responded to questions similar to
those of the students in an effort to identify relationships between their responses and
those of the students. The interview questions sought to uncover schooling factors as
well as perceptions that school personnel hold towards the enrollment of English
learners in AP classes. As with the students, interview questions were organized by
categories dealing with the amount of information that students and their parents have
about AP programs, EL involvement in AP programs, the college-going culture, peer
influences, and parental influences in their children’s decision to participate in AP
classes. The investigator transcribed and coded all the interviews in this study.
Having the questions already organized into categories facilitated the coding process.
Common themes were pulled out of the school personnel data gathered under each
category within the interview protocol. Common themes that the data revealed
include:
• Parents were not well informed about AP classes.
• The perception that parents were not interested in AP classes for their children.
• The perception that gifted students’ personal traits keep them out of AP
classes.
• Teachers played a role in the participation of ELs in AP programs.
• There was a lack of integration of the students’ language and culture into the
classroom and campus activities.
• The perception that parents did not influence their children’s participation in
AP classes.
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• Students and families’ socio-economic status as a barrier for attending a four-
year college after high school.
Themes were found by reading over the transcribed responses multiple times and then
recording responses side by side on a three column table, one column for each of the
school personnel participants, and a row for the responses to each of the questions.
Responses were then cross-referenced and coded for common themes. The
investigator was able to do this given the small number of school personnel
participants.
The Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process
This study aimed to answer the following research question: What are the
contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish
speaking English Learners into Advanced Placement classes? The data reported in
this section relates to the contextual factors of the schooling process at the School of
Business. The contextual factors in this study were the following: the extent to which
the school provides students information about AP programs, college requirements,
and financial aid; the existence of school and district policies that might help or hinder
student participation in AP classes, the extent to which ELs are prepared for the rigors
of AP classes; the integration of students’ language and culture into the school
curriculum and school activities; the presence of a college-going culture on campus;
the presence of academic programs that support students’ academic achievement; and
teacher perceptions of EL students in AP programs and perceptions of parents of EL
students.

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The appropriateness of EL student enrollment in AP classes
All school personnel participants were asked to share their thoughts on the
appropriateness of EL enrollment in AP classes through open enrollment. Carmen, the
AP Spanish teacher, shared that she specifically selected students who had been with
her at least one year because that gave her time to get to know them and their abilities.
She stated that students did very well in her classes because they already spoke
Spanish, but that allowing them into other AP classes would set them up for failure
because they lacked the language skills necessary to do well in those courses. Carmen
explained,
They succeed in Spanish because that’s their language. For instance, in this
school, this class is obtaining the highest score (on the AP exam). AP
Economics, AP English, other APs, are failing the AP test; regular English
speakers…I don’t think they (Spanish speaking ELs) have the language skills.
Yes, they are GATE, they could, they have the potential, but in order to
develop the skills you have to have the tool, and the tool is the language.

Margarita, the AP English teacher, stated that having ELs in AP classes was a
good thing because many of them do not enroll either because they were afraid of the
work or they simply did not know enough about it to participate. She noted that
parents did not push their children to take the more rigorous courses.
The counselor stated that, although students participated in AP courses based
on teacher recommendation and CST scores, they did not turn any student away if he
or she was truly interested in participating. Students were given an opportunity to
participate in AP courses, but were taken out if they were struggling. The counselor
explained,
We don’t turn people away; we have some hard working students and
sometimes we give them a chance, and if we later find out that they’re really
struggling, of course we don’t want to set them up for failure, we do take them
155
out, so we do make a few exceptions. If they’re motivated, and most of the
time a student who’s motivated and is a hard worker will try to keep up with
the class.

Carmen’s comment about language being the tool for succeeding in AP classes
reinforced the literature that has found that teachers believe that students must learn
the language first before taking more challenging courses, which in turn keeps them
out of more rigorous courses such as Honors and AP courses (Callahan, 2005; Olsen
1997).
Although the current data is not clear on the reasons, other than the perceived
language limitations, the EL students on this campus struggled and failed in AP
courses. Research has found that EL students struggle and fail in school due to low
expectations and systematic tracking in courses that do not challenge students or
prepare them for more rigorous college-level work (Callahan, 2005). Other research
has cited other factors, which contribute to the lack of academic achievement of EL
students (American Federation of Teachers, 2006). Those factors included high
mobility rates; low enrollment in early childhood education; little or non-existent
formal schooling in their native country; lack of health services; disproportionate
attendance at resource-poor schools; lack of access to specialized instruction and staff;
lack of participation in rigorous, college preparatory coursework; and families who are
unfamiliar with the educational system in the U.S. and who live in poverty (American
Federation of Teachers, 2006).
The counselor’s statement about access for all is in keeping with the College
Board’s (2002) vision of allowing all students who are interested and motivated to
enroll in AP classes. However, research has found that EL students enrolled in AP
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classes should be provided with the support systems necessary to ensure that they are
motivated and successful in their classes (Burton et al., 2002; Klopfenstein, 2005;
Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis, & Calahan, 2007). These support systems will come
primarily from the institutional agents that students come in daily contact with at
school. These agents, like counselors and teachers, have been found to influence
students’ academic choices, their course enrollment, school engagement, and their
academic success (Conchas, 2001; Olsen, 1997; Katz, 1999; Stanton Salazar, 1997;
2001)
EL Participation in AP Programs
The counselor reported that during Articulation, students were provided with a
list of classes that were offered, including AP courses, from which they were to check
off their choices. Articulation was an event where the counselor and other school
faculty visited the feeder middle schools to explain the enrollment process to students,
explain programs, and other high school related information. Articulation was an
opportunity for students to ask questions about high school courses and to select the
desired courses they would like to undertake. Once the counselor collected all the
student forms and was going through the process of scheduling, she submitted the
names of students interested in AP classes to the AP teachers. The teachers made the
final decisions about who they would allow to enroll in their AP courses. The
counselor mentioned that CST test scores were considered when determining which
students were allowed participation in AP courses. Once teachers got to know the
students, however, teachers recommended the students for future enrollment in other
AP courses.
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The participation of ELs in AP classes was found to be primarily in the AP
Spanish Language or AP Spanish Literature classes. Carmen stated that she required
her students to participate in Spanish for Spanish speakers for one year before
enrolling in AP Spanish. She noted that being a Spanish speaker is not always enough
to do well in AP Spanish. Carmen chose her students based on their perceived
potential and their abilities based on an assessment she administered in Spanish.
Margarita stated that there were no prerequisites for taking AP English. In the case of
ELs, she noted that taking AP Spanish would help them prepare for AP English and
was highly recommended, but was not required to enroll in AP English.
Carmen reported that the negative behaviors that gifted students displayed kept
them out of AP classes. The following quote illustrates her perception of students in
the GATE program:
You know what else happens with the GATE students? GATE students are not
generally focused; GATE students are smart, the potential is there, on average,
but they also have other traits? Qualities? Defects? That don’t let them
succeed in school. Sometimes, teachers, without knowing that that student is
GATE, a teacher will never accept that student because of the behavior in
class, etc. etc. etc. Negative traits may be behavior or not being focused.

The data revealed that, in the School of Business, AP Spanish appeared to be
the gateway to participating in other AP courses, and participation was based primarily
on teacher recommendation. The College Board (2007) has stated that such criteria as
teacher recommendation and teacher discretion often times keep many students out of
AP classes. Teacher recommendation many times may be based on teacher
perceptions of the linguistic and cognitive abilities of the students they allow or
exclude from their AP classes (Callahan, 2005; Bernal, 1994). Teacher
recommendation and teacher discretion may also keep students who are perceived as
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behavioral problems, but who might benefit from the program, including gifted
students, to be left out of AP programs (Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen, 1990;
Gandara & Contreras, 2009).
Knowledge of the AP Program
The school personnel participants were asked to describe how EL students and
their parents were informed of the benefits of AP classes and enrollment requirements.
Both Margarita and the counselor explained that the school sponsored an AP Parent
Night where the benefits of AP classes were explained to parents as well as the
significance of the AP exam for receiving college credit. Parents were also informed
about their child’s progress in their AP classes if they were currently enrolled.
The counselor expressed that parents were invited to attend Articulation, but
that they experienced minimal parent attendance. Articulation had taken place both in
the morning and in the evening, both with the same results. The counselor offered an
example of one of their feeder schools that had an enrollment of about 800 eighth
grade students of which perhaps less than 100 parents attended an Articulation event
scheduled in the evening time. Parents were informed of such events through
automated phone calls, fliers that went home, and announcements on the school
marquee.
Research has emphasized the importance of supportive social networks at the
school site that inform students and their parents of the importance and value of
academic programs such as Advanced Placement (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006;
Klopfenstein, 2004; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The extent to which these networks find
a variety of creative, varied, and aggressive ways to inform students and their parents
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about AP programs impacts the participation of EL students in AP classes (Oakes,
Mendoza, & Silver, 2006; Klopfenstein, 2004; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
School and/or District Policies
In regards to school and/or district policies that might allow or prevent gifted
Spanish speaking ELs in AP classes, Carmen stated that she was unable to answer this
question because she was afraid to provide incorrect or misleading information, thus,
chose not to respond. Margarita described the AP Incentive Grant their school
received and benefited from for two to three years. According to Margarita, the grant
opened the doors for the participation of many Spanish speakers because it paid for
books, field trips, and parent nights. Although the grant was no longer available,
Margarita did not state any specific differences in the amount of participation on the
part of Spanish speaking students or of any changes that have occurred as a result of
the grant no longer being available.
The counselor responded that parents were an obstacle to the participation of
ELs in AP classes. She explained,
I know sometimes parents can be an obstacle because sometimes they don’t
want their children to have a rigorous schedule or to be challenged; I’ve had
gifted student parents come and ask me to take their kids out of AP because
they’re stressing out too much. You try your best to convince them it’s going
to prepare them for college, that we’re not here to set them up for failure, and
to at least give them a chance. Most of the time I’m lucky and I convince a
parent to at least let the student stay until at the first progress report to see how
they fare out and at that point we meet again or I call the parent and say ok,
this is what’s going on and I get feed back from the teachers and that kind of
stuff. So sometimes the parent can be an obstacle.

It is not clear from the data how often parents requested their children out of an AP
class. When asked specifically about school or district policies, the counselor
responded that at one time paying for the AP exam was a deterrent for participation,
160
but that in recent years the school and the district had been able to pay for all AP
exams. Students had not paid for AP exams since the 2004-2005 academic school
year. The counselor shared that “…sometimes with the money being tight, having to
pay some dollars might be a financial obstacle for a family.”
The data revealed that school personnel reported school or district policies that
prevented or enabled EL students’ participation in terms of financial limitations or
opportunities. No specific factors were cited such as teacher perceptions, enrollment
criteria, language expectations, tracking, or other gate-keeping practices that have
been found to keep ELs and other language and ethnic minorities out of AP programs
(College Board, 2007; Callahan, 2005).
The counselor cited parents as an obstacle to AP participation due, perhaps, to
their lack of information. When the counselor explained the purpose of AP to parents,
and its benefits, she was able to convince them to keep their children in the AP
classes. This illustrates, once again, what the research has found about the importance
of actively seeking the participation of Latino parents, particularly immigrant parents,
in school activities, information meetings, or any other means possible so that they are
informed about AP programs, about how they can support their children in AP
programs, and about other resources available to help them succeed (College Board,
2002; Kao & Tienda, 1995; Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006). Not having the social
or cultural capital to help their children, parents are dependent on those institutional
agents and supportive networks that can provide the information and the tools to
support and positively influence their children’s educational attainment (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997; 2001).
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The Preparation of ELs for the Rigors of AP Classes
Study participants were asked to comment on how prepared gifted Spanish
speaking EL students were for the rigors of AP level coursework. Margarita explained
that her students were not as well prepared as she would like because they lacked the
reading foundation necessary to do well in AP English, and didn’t have the classical
literature background. She expressed that most of her students did not understand the
amount of outside work and reading that must be completed, and were not as apt to
complete the reading homework. Carmen shared that her students were not ready for
the rigors of AP work. She shared that she has to slow down for her AP Spanish
students at the beginning in order to help them with their other classes and to teach
them English vocabulary. Her AP Spanish Language class required that students
complete translations, and that it was through translations that she had been able to
teach them English vocabulary. Along the same lines, the counselor shared that
students struggled at the beginning, but that the AP teachers had been really good
about tutoring and scaffolding the work for the students to help them succeed. In
some cases, she has had to pull students out when they were really struggling in class.
The data revealed that participation in AP classes was a challenge for EL
students, even gifted EL students, in the School of Business. It is not clear from the
data whether students struggled due to language limitations, due to teachers’ inability
to address their academic needs in the AP classroom, due to a lack of rigor and
preparation from the students’ previous coursework, or due to student behaviors and
traits. Burton et al.’s (2002) study of successful teachers of minority students in AP
classes supports Darling-Hammond (2000) and Haycock’s (1998) work on the
162
importance of well prepared teachers to achieve optimal learning experiences. Burton
et al.’s (2002) work has found that the quality and effectiveness of teachers matters in
AP courses, particularly in classrooms with high minority enrollment. Burton et al.
found that effective teachers always held their students to high standards, had strong
content knowledge and teaching skills, used varying teaching techniques, and
provided parents and students with information about college, and more. Also, Oakes,
Mendoza, & Silver (2006) have stressed the importance of additional programs that
support students in AP programs so that failure is not an option; rather, students are
supported for success.
ELD/Sheltered/Bilingual Classes
When asked whether students enrolled in ELD, sheltered, or bilingual courses
were equally prepared for AP courses as the rest of the school population in regular
English classes, teachers did not directly respond to the question in specific terms of
preparation, instead, Margarita and the school counselor stated that EL students
enrolled in AP Spanish Language or AP Spanish Literature where they would most
likely do well, and where they would be better prepared for the rigors of other AP
courses. Margarita stated that students in AP Spanish Literature had a better passing
rate on the AP exams than the students in other AP courses, something Carmen
mentioned in her interview as well. However, it is not clear from the information
provided what the better passing rates may be attributed to. Margarita indicated that
students enrolled in ELD were allowed to enroll in AP Spanish classes.
The counselor expressed that it would take a hard working, motivated EL
student to take another AP class besides AP Spanish due to his or her limited language
163
proficiency. The counselor made the following statement: “…we’d have to evaluate
their English levels to see if they can perform in a different AP class.” According to
the data, it appears that EL students in the School of Business are limited to taking AP
Spanish courses unless they are proficient enough in English or motivated enough to
complete the coursework. The data does not reveal the extent to which ELD,
sheltered, or bilingual classes prepared gifted English learners for the rigors of AP
courses.
The research illustrates that typically, EL students are limited in their
participation in AP courses due to their lack of English proficiency, and due to
perceptions of teachers that students’ lack of language proficiency does not qualify
them for AP level work (Callahan, 2005; Olsen, 1997). Also, a lack of understanding
as to how to develop the literacy skills of ELs at the high school level may lead to
limiting their preparation and the opportunities for EL students to enroll in more
rigorous coursework (Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007).
Academic Support for EL Students Enrolled in AP Classes:
Campus-Wide
In respect to the kinds of after school programs, tutoring, mentoring, or
outreach programs that were available to help EL students enrolled in AP classes,
Carmen and the counselor stated that the Student Center offered tutoring and was
available for all students complex-wide. Margarita mentioned that students on
probation had to attend mandatory tutoring, and that the AVID program was another
source of academic support for the students in the program. In addition, Margarita
reported that all academy teachers were required to stay after school once a week to
tutor students. The counselor mentioned that AP teachers provided extra support to
164
their students on an individual basis. Many AP teachers met with their students on
Saturdays, as the AP exam got closer, to help them review and prepare. All three
participants reported that there were no specific academic support programs for EL
students. Participants indicated that only a small number of EL students took
advantage of the academic support offered on campus; the counselor noted that
perhaps one fourth of the EL population stayed after school perhaps once every two
weeks to receive academic support.
Academic Support for EL students Enrolled in AP Classes:
School Personnel
Participants were asked to describe their role in providing EL students enrolled
in AP classes with the support needed to help them do well in AP classes. Margarita
responded that, as the AP English Literature teacher, she structured her class, “…so
it’s accessible and rigorous at the same time by bringing in a variety of literature that
is classic, but also new, and more culturally diverse.” Carmen offered the following
explanation for the success of her students in her AP Spanish classes,
I don’t make a difference; they don’t need the extra help. If they were in an
English class, then they would need extra or different kind of help from
me. But since this is their language, this is where they succeed. That’s
probably why they like to take this AP class. They see the results. In other
classes they are not passing, they are passing only this class because they have
the support, because they feel they have the opportunity to succeed.

Carmen explained that she attributed her students’ success to the following:
We work hard. I focus myself, from the very first day, to train them to pass the
test; that’s my objective; that’s my work, to score high on this test. My
activities, everything runs around the test, the examination, it’s just what they
need to pass the test. I don’t think it’s fair that these kids, Spanish speakers,
fluent Spanish speakers, go to college and have to pay for a language class;
that’s the way I tell them, “You are Spanish speakers. Your reading and
writing is not exemplary, but hey, if you just work a little bit harder, you will
save money.” And also to compete with the work force. There was a time
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when it was required only to speak Spanish, that was a long time ago, not true.
Now the employers want somebody who also can read and write, and writes
translations.

While Carmen perceived her role as preparing her students for passing the AP exam;
Margarita saw her role as making the class accessible and rigorous at the same time.
The counselor expressed her role as a mediator between the students, the parents, and
the teachers. She set up conferences with all three where they developed interventions
for the students such as requiring them to attend after school tutoring.
The importance of supportive networks that encourage and motivate students
to do well has been found to be crucial for the success of EL students (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997; 2001). Students need to be aware of the support that is available to
them to help them succeed. The work of Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver (2006), highlights
the importance of before and after school programs, tutoring, mentoring, and outreach
programs that can support ethnic minorities in general, and gifted EL students in
particular.
The Integration of the Students’ Language and Culture
Into Classroom and School Activities
School personnel described the ways in which the students’ language and
culture was integrated into the classroom curriculum. Margarita mentioned that
Spanish is used in lessons and translation in order to facilitate the discussion of the
literature in Spanish. The counselor explained, “I would see that happening a lot in
the AP Spanish Language and AP Spanish Literature, just them relating to the culture
and of course to the language. I don’t suspect that it happens a lot in the other AP
classes.” Carmen made it clear that she explained to her students that regardless of
their culture, and background, there was no one way to speak or one way to think, and
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that all her students needed to learn from the diversity within the Hispanic culture.
She illustrated the following, “Identifying one thing that is true in Chile, in Colombia
it’s not true, in Spain it’s not, and in Mexico it’s not; Don’t think that because, in your
little world, because you speak like that this is the way.” The data revealed that AP
Spanish was the place where EL students encountered the language and felt connected
to their culture and to other students who shared their language and their culture. For
the EL students in the School of Business, the AP Spanish classroom was the context
where they could expect to be exposed to their language and culture for academic as
well as social purposes.
When the participants were asked to describe ways in which the language and
culture of the students was integrated into school activities, Carmen stated that there
was a folkloric dance group on campus that some of her students participated in. She
made the following comment: “We have music and food. I mean you’re working
here and you think you are in Mexico.” Margarita mentioned that Parent Nights were
translated into Spanish for the Spanish-speaking parents, but did not provide any other
examples. The counselor noted that a MECHA (Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de
Aztlan-Chicano Student Movement of Aztlan) program was getting started, but that
there wasn’t anyone on campus who was willing to lead the program. In addition, she
mentioned a World Fair and explained, “That’s a way that we celebrate all cultures.
It’s pretty much like a food festival type of thing; the clubs are assigned a country and
they have to sell food from their country; we have different artists come and do
performances and stuff like that.”
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Jim Cummins’s (1986) work has emphasized the importance of integrating the
language and culture of culturally and linguistically diverse students into the
classroom and the school for optimal academic success. Cummins bases his work on
the premise that minority students may be empowered or disabled as a consequence of
their relationships and interactions with the school personnel on their school campus.
The interactions between educators and their students are based upon four institutional
characteristics of schools and the extent to which they demonstrate the following: 1.
The use of students’ language and culture 2. Encourage minority community
participation 3. Utilize pedagogy designed for intrinsic motivation on the part of the
students to use language actively to construct their own knowledge 4. Educators are
advocates for minority students.
The data revealed that for the students in the School of Business, the
integration of their language and culture took place primarily in their AP Spanish
classes, and that other uses of Spanish were for translation purposes in order to be able
to discuss the literature in the AP English class. Campus integration of the language
and culture appeared to be limited; it was reserved only for occasional events on
campus and for translation for parents during school activities and events.
College-Going Culture
The school personnel participants were asked about how informed Spanish
speaking EL students were about college requirements, college field trips, college
fairs, and financial aid. Margarita felt that students were very well informed as
illustrated in the following comment:
I think they’re very well informed. Our counselor builds the ties with them. I
think, for myself, I’m the AVID teacher, whenever I find a scholarship or
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whatever, I inform them about it. We’ve been to various college fairs, there’s
a college trip. Financial Aid Nights. Even in my class, we go over the
college essay; it’s an assignment; I get to check it.

Carmen stated that ELs were just as informed as any other students on campus. The
counselor explained that students were informed through their Advisory every Friday.
She explained,
All that stuff pretty much goes to our advisory, which is every Friday. We use
thattime for like college presentations. For my seniors we do the financial aid
workshops; we do have it in the evenings too; we run our college applications
workshops too during that time, so it’s pretty much for everybody in general.
Through advisory, that’s how students get the messages too.

The counselor reported that parents received information about college through
automated phone system, fliers, and announcements on the school marquee as means
of communicating with parents. Carmen was not sure how the office shared the
information with parents, while Margarita mentioned school-wide events and phone
calls as ways to provide information to parents.
The data revealed that the School of Business made concerted efforts to inform
parents and students about college requirements, college activities, events, fieldtrips,
and financial aid through different means. Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver (2006) has
found that a college-going culture, opportunities to develop a multicultural college-
going identity, and family-neighborhood-school connections around college going are
three of seven critical conditions that a high school must have in place to help ensure
student achievement and access to a college education. According to this research,
high school personnel must make every effort possible to inform students about
college, and to build in the students and parents the sense that college is for them, that
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it can be part of their future, and that they can achieve at higher levels beyond their
high school experience.
The 4x4 Block Schedule
During a discussion about the extent to which parents of gifted EL students
showed interest in having their children attend college, Carmen expressed the time
limitations she has encountered due to the 4x4 block schedule on campus. Being on a
4 X 4 schedule meant she had only one semester to prepare her students for the AP
exam, which was her primary focus. She explained,
And it’s because I have been so busy with preparing them for the exam in two
weeks, I have been concentrating myself only in preparing for the exam.
That’s the difference between having that class a whole year and preparing for
the exam. Preparing for the exam is lot’s of work, and if you have the class for
the whole year you have time for projects.

Carmen touched on an issue that the research on AP coursework has found, the
overemphasis on test preparation at the expense of content depth and actual college
preparation (Klopfenstein, 2002; Lewin, 2006; Oxtoby, 2007). Concerns have been
expressed that in their haste to take too many AP classes, and an overemphasis on test
preparation, students are not developing the conceptual understanding in the subjects
tested (Klopfenstein, 2002; Lewin, 2006; Oxtoby, 2007). Carmen’s continuous
comments in regards to test preparation as the focus of her instruction reinforce the
literature. Both Carmen and Margarita reported a higher rate of passing scores on the
AP Spanish exam than in any other AP exam. However, there is not enough
information in the data to explain what specific factors, other than perhaps the focus
on test preparation, might have contributed to the high rates of passing scores in AP
Spanish.
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Carmen credited her overemphasis on test preparation to the nature of the 4x4
schedule, which forced teachers to cover a year’s worth of subject matter in one
semester. The research on the 4x4 schedule overwhelmingly reports the benefits of
adopting such a schedule at the high school level. Some of the benefits included: 1.
advanced students have an opportunity for acceleration and enrichment 2. teachers are
able to provide students with more interactive and engagement activities 3. if students
fail a class in one semester, they may retake it the following semester 4. lessons can be
extended and maintained with greater continuity 5. teachers are responsible for
teaching less students, and 6. it allows for higher AP offerings (Queen, 2000; Stanley
& Gifford, 1998). Limitations and concerns of the 4x4 schedule have also been
documented (Queen, 2000; Stanley & Gifford, 1998).
Limitations of the 4x4 block schedule that deal with AP courses include the
concern that students who take an AP course in the fall might forget the material by
the time they take the AP exam in the spring, and the overreliance of lecture as the
primary means of instruction (Queen, 2000; Stanley & Gifford, 1998). Many schools
have found a way to remedy the time gap between fall courses and the test in the
spring by offering after school and Saturday class review sessions right before the AP
exams (Queen, 2000; Stanley & Gifford, 1998). Both of these strategies have been
reported to take place in the School of Business by the school counselor. It is not clear
from the data the type of instructional activities that take place in the AP classrooms,
other than, perhaps, an emphasis on test preparation.

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School Personnel Perceptions of EL Students, Peers, and Parents
This study aimed to answer the following research questions: 1.What are the
contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish
speaking English learners into Advanced Placement classes? 2. How do the
perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English learners affect their personal interest
and participation in Advanced Placement Classes? The data reported in this section
relates to teacher perceptions of EL students, their peers, and the parents of EL
students that may affect the extent to which EL students enroll and participate in AP
classes in the School of Business. Relationships between teacher perceptions of their
EL students and perceptions of the students will be reported in a separate section.
Data Analysis
School personnel were asked questions similar to those of the students in an
effort to identify relationships between their responses and those of the students on
contextual factors within the School of Business that hinder or support the enrollment
of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in AP classes. In addition, the interview questions
sought to uncover perceptions that school personnel hold towards the enrollment of
English learners in AP classes. As with the students, interview questions centered on
perceptions of students in AP programs, college aspirations, peer influences, and
parental influences on their children’s decision to participate in AP classes. The
investigator transcribed and coded all the interviews in this study. Having the
questions already organized into categories facilitated the coding process. Common
themes were pulled out of the data gathered under each category within the interview
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protocol. Common themes found within the data gathered from the school personnel’s
responses include:
• The perceptions of the type of student that would do well in AP classes.
• The perception that peers were a negative influence or had a limited influence
on EL participation in AP classes.
• The perception that parents did not influence their children’s participation in
AP classes.
• The perception that students aspired to go to college, but felt limited by
financial issues.
• The perception that parents held high college aspirations for their children.
The themes were found by reading over the transcribed responses and then recording
responses side by side on a three column table, one column for each of the school
personnel participants, and a row for the responses to each of the questions.
Responses were then cross-referenced and coded for common themes. The
investigator was able to do this given the small number of school personnel
participants.
Profiles of AP Students
The school personnel participants were asked to describe the students who
participated in AP classes on their campus. Responses included hard-working,
motivated, want to go to college, achievers, responsible, mature, and multi-taskers.
One teacher mentioned that the students on her campus were not as competitive as
other students in other schools. They did not compete to enroll in AP, but rather,
teachers needed to “track them down” and “pull them” into AP classes. Teachers
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talked to each other about their students, and recruited the students themselves based
on their conversations and who they perceived to be a good candidate for the program.
The participants did not specifically mention being smart, intelligent, or gifted
as traits of students who took AP classes. Carmen, however, did comment on the
giftedness of the students enrolled in her AP Spanish Language class. She stated,
“They are unrealistic; they are not down to earth; not very practical. If you give me
one GATE student and an achiever, a hard worker, I will go 100% for the achiever. I
don’t know, unfortunately, if it’s just my impression, but there has to be a combination
of GATE and achiever.”
Carmen explained that she felt that the needs of gifted students were not being
met at her school site. She felt that they need a special class for gifted students where
“the teacher and the other students are on the same page.” She stated that many of the
gifted students she worked with generally failed their classes with the pretext that the
work was too easy and that they didn’t need to do it, thus, resulting in low or failing
grades. Carmen admitted that she did not know she had any GATE students in her
class until she saw the list the principal gave her of those gifted students that would be
participating in the study, three of which were enrolled in her AP Spanish Language
class.
The perceptions shared by school personnel in regards to the profiles of AP
students are a contextual factor because teacher perceptions may impact who is
admitted into AP classes. In a school that relies heavily on teacher recommendation,
this may be a deterrent for the participation of gifted EL students in AP classes
(College Board, 2007). In terms of giftedness, Bernal (2007) has posed that culturally
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and linguistically diverse students (C/LD) are not being serviced adequately in their
classrooms. Identifying C/LD students as gifted is only part of the challenge,
followed by adequately placing them in programs with teachers who are able to
effectively meet their academic and social needs. Bernal argues that often times,
C/LD students are underserved, misserved, or deracinated in the gifted programs.
Bernal asserts that programs deracinate C/LD students when their language and ethnic
background are not respected and when multicultural perspectives are not integrated
into their GATE programs. This deracination is contrary to what Gonzalez & Padilla’s
(1997) research with Mexican-American high school students has found, that a
supportive school environment and a sense of belonging to their school helps students
achieve academically.
College Aspirations of English Learners
School personnel were asked to describe how important it was to gifted
Spanish speaking ELs to attend college after high school. All three participants
believed that college was very important to their students, but that it was an
unachievable goal to many of them due to financial constraints. They expressed that
students shied away from applying to college because they were afraid of the financial
strain on their families. Carmen expressed how she has tried to motivate students,
We have different attitudes. That depends on the home, the grades, many
factors play a role here. In this culture it plays a big role the socio-economic
status, because they have the culture, the mentality, for instance from Mexico
or South America, that if I don’t have money I won’t be able to do it. Here is
different. I have provided them with many examples; it is possible! You are
not in Mexico, you can do it.

The counselor shared the school’s attempts to inform parents of the financial aid
opportunities that are available to their children:
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It’s important, but the thing with them is that some of them don’t have the
information that they need. Unfortunately a lot of our families think that
college is not an option because there’s not a lot of money, they’re poor, they
can’t afford it. So, when we do the college financial aid nights that’s when
they get a wealth of information, and they realize, “Oh, it’s possible. I have to
apply for it, but I need a social security number.” For our undocumented
students, there’s still a way to get it. This is the first year where we have a
monthly parent night for the whole complex, so we survey parents as to what
type of workshops they’d like toattend. I know one of them was high school
graduation requirements and how to make college happen for your child. Little
by little we’re trying to give them more information and have it not wait until
their child is a Senior and this is the first time they’re hearing about it.

Margarita expressed that it was the fear of an expensive education rather than
the fear of failing in college that prevented students from applying to four-year
colleges, and that many of them opted for community colleges instead. She told
students that although applying to community colleges was not a bad thing, they could
attend four-year colleges if they really wanted to.
The data revealed that the participants in this study encouraged their students
to look beyond their socio-economic status, and to not allow it to stand in the way of
their college aspirations. Research has found that EL students must be supported and
guided on the college path (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silever, 2006). Institutional agents
are crucial in providing students with the information, options, opportunities,
motivation, and encouragement they need to stay on the college path, so they
understand that college can be an option to them, and not just for those that have the
social and economic status to do so (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006; Klopfenstein,
2004; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Peer Influences on English Learners
Participants were asked to describe the peers that ELs socialized with on
campus. Margarita and the counselor responded that ELs mostly hung out with other
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Hispanic or Latino classmates, usually ELs themselves. The counselor told of a few
exceptions as in the case of a girl who chose to hang out with White friends in order to
learn English “…because if she hung out with her friends she was going to keep
speaking Spanish and she wanted to practice English.” Carmen responded that EL
students hung out with the “worst” kind of students; kids that like to explore negative
things. She offered the class clown as an example, and students who may not be
focused on the academics. Carmen did not describe peers in terms of ethnicity or
language, but rather, she described students in terms of negative personality traits that
distracted ELs from achieving academically.
Margarita reported that EL students feel proud to be enrolled in AP Spanish
based on a conversation she overheard between two students. Carmen responded that
taking AP classes was not very important to peers and that students often jokingly
talked about how AP classes were too much work or it’s not cool to take AP classes.
The counselor’s response concurred with that of Carmen’s,
Sadly, out of the bunch, you’re just gonna get a few that will actually want
to take the classes and follow through with it. Unfortunately AP is not like,
“Oh my god, my friend is in AP. I’m gonna go join.” They know it’s
rigorous and sometimes they’re afraid of the challenge, so they opt to take
the regular class, I guess they choose the easy way.

Carmen expressed the importance of teachers in motivating students to
participate in AP classes. She shared the belief that
It has a lot to do with the teacher too. We have to find a way to motivate them.
If we just say, “Oh you don’t want it, okay don’t worry” then they won’t. I
truly believe that if we fight them we can help them because they have the
potential. Not having the language skills doesn’t mean they don’t have the
potential.

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Carmen explained that students who were recent arrivals felt inferior to those who
have been in the United States longer and spoke fluent English. Carmen reported that
this was expressed when the recent arrivals refused to participate in class and were
quieter during class time.
When asked to describe the extent to which friends influenced gifted Spanish
speaking ELs’ decision to enroll in AP classes, the counselor stated that in the AP
Spanish class most students encouraged each other to take the class in spite of their
fears of the strict teacher that taught the class, and that the students supported each
other and learned a lot in the class. Carmen expressed that the influence peers had on
ELs was the same as the influence of any peers and that peer pressure may be both
positive and negative with any group of kids whether EL or GATE. She did not state
specifically how friends influenced ELs to take AP classes. Margarita stated that
friends influenced EL students very little, and that if a student really wanted to
participate in AP classes they would do it regardless of their friends.
The data revealed that, for the ELs at the School of Business, AP Spanish was
an opportunity to meet friends who might influence them towards enrolling in other
AP classes, and who were supportive of their efforts to do well. The data also
revealed that school personnel perceived the influence that friends have on the
decisions of gifted ELs to enroll in AP classes was very limited. The research on peer
influences states that peer groups may have both positive and negative influences on
youth (Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992). Similar
research also reports that students who socialize with other students who aspire
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towards attending college do apply and attend college at a higher rate than those
students who don’t (Horn & Chen, 1998).
Perceptions of Parents of ELs
School personnel were asked to describe how the parents or guardians of gifted
Spanish speaking EL students showed their support for their children’s education.
Carmen mentioned that she has met the parents during Open House and that they were
very supportive, but she did not provide any specific ways, besides Open House
attendance, in which parents showed their support. Margarita struggled with her
response as she explained the following:
Some parents come in and want to know what the requirements are for certain
colleges; they want to know what community service, what other programs
they need to do. Some of the parents are well informed, some of them let the
teacher kind of be the guide, or the counselor. Some of them are more
proactive; it’s kinda difficult to say. I think it depends on the kind of exposure
the parent is willing to get. Like do the extra stuff like come to the meetings.
The parent that is more opt to come on campus and not as scared. Well, I don’t
even know if they’re scared or why some parents don’t come.

This data illustrated that teachers believed that parent support was demonstrated by
their presence on campus during school events and through taking the initiative to
contact the teachers to inquire about programs, activities, or events.
In regard to the extent to which parents of gifted Spanish speaking EL students
showed interest in having their children enroll in college preparation courses such as
AP, Margarita shared that she believed parents wanted their children to be challenged
by taking the rigorous classes, and they wanted the support in those classes for their
children to be successful. Carmen stated that she did not know the answer to this
question because she took the initiative to change the regular Spanish language class
to an AP Spanish Language class based on her perceived potential of the students in
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her class. She stated that she explained the difference between the two classes to the
parents, they understood the difference, and supported her endeavor.
The counselor offered the following explanation regarding the interest of the
parents:
Very little. I find that if the parents are educated they will talk to me about it.
But those parents that are not educated all they want is for their kid to make
sure they have just their diploma requirements. I can’t tell you a number, but
it’s not common, unfortunately.

The counselor contended that what was important to less educated parents was that
their children graduate and receive their high school diploma, while more educated
parents actively sought information from school personnel about AP courses.
School personnel described the extent to which parents showed interest in
having their children attend college and the extent to which parents participated in
school activities and events. Margarita mentioned that parents appeared to be more
interested and involved when their children were in 9
th
grade, but appeared to back off
by the time their children were in the 12
th
grade. She didn’t know why this was,
perhaps because the parents wanted their children to be more independent, but in the
end, parents wanted their children to finish school.
Carmen reported that for two of her students, attending college was not a
question for the parents, but a given –they expected their children to attend college.
She admitted that she had been very busy preparing her students for the AP Spanish
exam which hasn’t given her much time to find out more about her students and their
parents. Carmen felt that her primary job was to prepare her students for the AP
exam, develop their potential, and develop their academic skills in the classroom.
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According to Carmen, this was the reason why she had not had the time to discuss
issues about college expectations with the students or the parents.
The counselor described the different events that parents had been invited to
attend to inform them about college and financial aid. She mentioned college
application nights and financial aid nights that took place on three different evenings
between the months of December and February. The counselor explained that on the
day this interview took place, she had taken 130 freshmen, sophomores, and seniors to
the convention center for the National College Fair, and that in the evening, during
their Parent Night, they would be providing buses for parents to attend the college fair
as well. The district sponsored a smaller college fair for students and parents as well.
Parents were informed about these events through automated phone messages and
fliers that went home. However, specific information about the extent to which
parents attended these events was not provided.
In regard to the extent to which parents of EL students influenced their
children’s decision to enroll in AP classes, Margarita shared that parents did want their
children to attend rigorous courses. She explained that she has listened to parent
conversations during parent nights where they have expressed their desire for their
children to do well. Margarita spoke to parents during parent nights, parent
conferences, or through phone calls where they have expressed their desire for their
kids to do well. Margarita stated, “I think parents want their kids to be in rigorous
courses, to do the best they can, and to challenge themselves.”
Carmen and the counselor’s responses were opposite to Margarita’s response.
They both felt that parents had little to no influence in their children’s participation in
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AP courses. Carmen expressed the following opinion: “No influence, because I
haven’t received a phone call from a parent asking, ‘I want my child in an AP class.’
Maybe the counselor has, but I haven’t.” The counselor shared the same sentiment as
Carmen; she believed that the influence came from the teachers and administrators,
rather than the parents. She offered the following perspective:
Sadly, I haven’t seen a lot. Pretty much the influence I think comes from a
teacher, from myself, from the principal. We tell them that we see potential in
them and that we think they would succeed in an AP class. I think it has to do,
again, with the parent’s educational level. Pretty much what they want is for
them to meet diploma requirements. I see very little of parent influence, but
then again there’s a few who are educated. Like last week during Open House,
this family from Honduras or Guatemala, they have two sons, one is a tenth
grader, one is a ninth grader. The older one he, we mainstream them in
English classes, he’s been successful because he’s motivated, he’s hard
working. Her younger son, last year he was at his middle school, this is his
first year here, he’s still in ESL, and he’s struggling a little bit. I can see the
older one moving on to advanced courses. The parents were talking to me
about how they want both of them challenged. We had that conversation, but
it’s very unique when I have that opportunity because for the most part, AP is
something they don’t really know much about and most of the time they don’t
care for it.

The data revealed that school personnel perceived parents to be generally
interested in their children’s education and that the amount of support they provided
for their children, and the interest they demonstrated, had to do with the amount of
education the parents had. Kao & Tienda (1995) report that it is the immigrant status
of parents rather than that of the children that determines the educational outcomes of
children, as well as the extent to which parents have acculturated to the U. S. school
system and learned English. These factors affect student’s access to cultural capital,
that is, the resources in time and money, as well as the educational background
necessary to support their children’s education and ensure their access to rigorous
classes like AP (Valdez, 1996). Due to the complexity of familial factors, research
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emphasizes the need to actively seek out Latino parents, particularly immigrant
parents, in order to inform them of the benefits of AP programs, enrollment criteria,
and college requirements and preparation (Kao & Tienda, 1996; Oakes, Mendoza &
Silver, 2006).
Results: Relationships Between Student and School Personnel Responses
The purpose of this study was to answer the following research questions:
1.What are the contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of
gifted Spanish speaking English learners into Advanced Placement classes? 2. How
do the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English learners affect their personal
interest and participation in Advanced Placement Classes? The data reported in this
section captures the relationships that were identified between gifted EL students and
the responses of the school personnel.
Data Analysis
Analysis of the data revealed some relationships in the responses provided by
the students and the school personnel. Relationships were identified by re-reading
both sets of transcriptions, those of students and school personnel, and then listing the
themes which appeared in the transcriptions from both groups of participants. The
following relationships were uncovered:
1. The importance of teachers and other school personnel to motivate, inform,
challenge, support, and provide access to AP classes through teacher
recommendation.
2. AP Spanish was the primary gateway to other AP classes for gifted Spanish
speaking EL students.
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3. There was a lack of integration of the EL students’ culture and language into
the classroom curriculum and school activities beyond the Spanish language or
AP Spanish class.
4. The AVID program was a source of information and support for gifted EL
students.
5. Parents of gifted EL students had limited knowledge of AP programs.
6. Socio-economic status was perceived as a barrier for students and their
families for applying to four-year colleges.
7. The perception that student traits were the primary predictors of student access
and success in AP classes.
The Role of Teachers

Both student and school personnel responses pointed to the importance of
teachers to motivate, inform, challenge, and support their gifted EL students as well
the primary providers of access to AP classes through teacher recommendation.
Although CST scores, reading and math assessments, and English proficiency tests
were cited as tools that helped determine whether a student is fit to take AP classes,
overwhelmingly, it was the teachers, through their conversations, and perceptions of
their students’ abilities and potential, who decided which students to recommend and
admit to AP classes. Furthermore, when students checked off their course preferences
during Articulation, the counselor provided AP teachers with students’ names and
background information; teachers made the last decision as to which incoming ninth
graders they would allow in their AP classes. Only one student mentioned that access
to AP came through teacher recommendation or through applying for it, and was
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unsure about the enrollment criteria as indicated in the following statement, “I think
you have to apply for it, or I think they put you in if they (teachers, counselor) see you
do good in advanced courses.” All the other student participants either did not state or
were not sure about how to enroll or access AP courses.
School personnel and student responses revealed that weekly advisory
meetings were the main source for gathering information about college and financial
aid. Students stated that this was a way to get the help and support they needed from
their teachers to do well in their classes. Four of the student participants stated that
they did not go to their counselor for any type of academic help, but relied more on the
help and information they received from their teachers. The student responses
revealed that they felt their teachers supported them and motivated them to do well.
Two students mentioned that the counselor was influential in their academic lives
because she motivated them to do well and to challenge themselves by taking the more
rigorous courses. School personnel responses revealed that they, and other staff
members, provided their students with academic support through advisory, after
school tutoring, Saturday reviews, by providing additional English vocabulary
support, by structuring their class for access and rigor, and by setting up conferences
with parents and students to establish interventions when needed.
AP Spanish as a Gateway to Other AP Classes
Student and school personnel responses revealed that EL student enrollment in
AP Spanish, although not required, was an ideal way to prepare students for other AP
courses. The counselor mentioned that AP Spanish was the first AP class ELs would
be able to take and that it would take a hard working, motivated student to go on and
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take other AP courses. English proficiency was cited as another key determinant in a
student’s ability to take an AP class other than AP Spanish and to actually do well in
it. Three of the student participants mentioned their AP Spanish teacher specifically as
the one person that influenced their decision to take AP classes and which provided
the most information to them about AP classes. In addition, the AP Spanish teacher
stated that she was assigned as the advising teacher to the majority of the EL
population. This allowed her to translate the announcements and to help ELs with
homework. As the advisor, and the AP Spanish teacher, Carmen was in constant
communication with EL students, gifted and non-gifted. For many EL students,
taking the AP Spanish class was the beginning of their AP academic career, and if
they did well, they might be recommended for other AP classes. The following
statement illustrates this point: “Teacher conversations [is] where they [teachers] talk
about which students would do well for AP. No prerequisite classes are necessary.
Taking AP Spanish will prepare them, but is not required. Teachers recruit and
choose.”
Lack of Integration of Students’ Language and Culture
Student responses revealed that there was a lack of integration of their
language and culture in the classroom and on campus activities. The only place where
students cited speaking Spanish or learning about their culture was in the AP Spanish
classroom. Campus activities were limited to a student folkloric dance group and an
occasional mariachi band. School personnel responses cited the AP Spanish class as
the primary place where students were exposed to their language and culture through
units of study. Campus activities included the MECHA club and the annual World
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Fair, as well as the folkloric dance group. Other statements by one of the teachers
included translations in the classroom to clarify content and translation at parent nights
for their Spanish-speaking parents.
The AVID Program
Three students and one teacher mentioned the AVID program as a source of
information about college and financial aid as well as a source of support for students
in the program. The AP English teacher, who was also the AVID teacher, stated that
AVID was a growing program, “We also have AVID; it’s starting to be more in the
upper grades. It’s a growing program. Before it was 9
th
and 10
th
and now we’re
growing into the higher grades.”
The data revealed that the AVID program served as a way for students to
access information about college and financial aid, as well as a way to access
academic support and opportunities for participating in college related activities and
events on and off campus.
Parents Have Limited Knowledge About AP Programs
Both student and school personnel expressed that the parents of EL students
had limited knowledge about AP classes due to a variety of reasons. Four students
stated that their parents did not have any knowledge about AP classes. One student
stated that his parents’ limited knowledge was due to their lack of English proficiency
and that his parents did not attend school events due to family obligations and work;
two students stated that their parents relied on them for information related to AP
courses as well as academic or college activities; one student stated that he did not tell
his parents about AP because they did not understand and it was too difficult to
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explain; one student stated that his parents knew about AP because his sister had taken
AP courses, while another student stated that her parents knew about AP through her
AP Spanish teacher. One student expressed that taking AP courses would probably be
very important to his parents if they knew about it. Another student explained that AP
classes would be important for his parents, as long as they were something that
benefited him in school. This same student stated that for his parents, finishing high
school and having him earn his high school diploma was most important. Five out of
six students stated that attending college was very important to their parents, but,
according to this data, parents lacked the knowledge of AP classes and how they might
support their hopes of having their children attend and succeed in college.
The school personnel expressed that in spite of their efforts to inform parents
about the events offered for parents and students such as Articulation and parent
nights, the parent attendance within the EL population, and within the small school in
general, was limited. Although one of the teachers stated that parents were interested
in having their children take rigorous courses, based on conversations she had
overheard, she doesn’t understand or know exactly why parents did not attend these
events. This teacher stated that parents of EL students did not push their children to
take AP classes as much as the traditional American family did. She explained, “A lot
of times I think it’s closed to them (EL students) because they don’t know about it;
they’re so scared to find out about it. Their family doesn’t know much; there’s not the
push of the traditional American family; the push towards the more rigorous classes.”
The counselor perceived parents’ knowledge of AP courses to be based on the
amount of education the parents had. She felt that the most educated parents were the
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most actively involved in acquiring information about AP classes, graduation
requirements, and other school related issues. For uneducated parents, the counselor
explained, it was important that their children received their high school diploma. The
counselor perceived that the lack of information about AP classes resulted in the
parents having little influence on their children’s decisions on whether or not to enroll
in AP classes, “…for the most part, AP is something they don’t really know much
about and most of the time they don’t care for it.”
Socio-Economic Status as a Barrier to College Enrollment
One of the students commented repeatedly that for him, his family’s lack of
money and their legal status in the United States were barriers toward enrolling in a
four year college and obtaining financial aid; therefore, AP classes were not as
important to him because ultimately, he would not be attending a four-year college.
Although only one of the six student participants expressed this sentiment, all school
personnel participants stated that financial difficulties drove many EL students, and
their families, away from applying to four-year colleges. School personnel described
their attempts to motivate their students, to provide them with financial aid
information, and to provide them with examples of people in the same situation who
have succeeded in completing college; letting students know that it was possible; that
there were ways; that there were options.
Student Traits and AP Enrollment and Success
The data revealed that many of the students perceived that there were specific
traits a student must have in order to enroll and achieve in AP classes. The traits
included working hard, getting good grades, being responsible, and being focused.
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School personnel participants responded that students who did well were hardworking,
motivated, achievers, wanted to go to college, responsible, and mature. One teacher
stated that, even when lacking the academic skills, students with these traits were more
apt to do well than students who had the academic skills, but did no have these traits.
School personnel expressed that students had many forms of support through their
advisors, the Student Center, additional support from their AP teachers, and, when
needed, mandatory tutoring. However, only the EL students who had the ideal traits
would be successful and would persevere in spite of the challenges of AP courses.
Those students who did not succeed in AP classes were moved out of the class in
order to prevent further failure. Success in AP, according to the responses from the
students and teachers, was attributed to students’ personal traits rather than to course
design, or any teacher or school factors that might affect the achievement of EL
students in AP classes.
Summary of the Findings
This study aimed to uncover specific contextual factors of the schooling
process that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking EL students in AP
programs. The study also investigated the perceptions that gifted Spanish speaking
ELs hold toward AP classes that might affect their interest and participation in AP
classes. The lack of underrepresented student minorities such as gifted Spanish
speaking EL students has been documented (College Board, 2009; Callahan, 2005;
Hertnerg-Davis & Callahan, 2008). The present study sought to contribute knowledge
that might help districts, schools, and policymakers understand the issues dealing with
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EL underrepresentation in AP courses in order to inform their decisions regarding
student accessibility and support for EL students in AP programs.
In regard to contextual factors of the schooling process, the student data
revealed that 1. Students lacked knowledge and/or had misconceptions about the
benefits of AP courses and how to enroll 2. Parents of gifted EL students lacked
knowledge about the benefits of AP classes 3. Teachers were sources of information
and of academic support 4. There was a lack of integration of the students’ language
and culture in the school curriculum and on campus, and 5. The Achievement Via
Individual Determination (AVID) program was a source of information about college
requirements and financial aid opportunities for gifted EL students.
The data regarding students’ perceptions about AP classes revealed the following:
1. Students aspired to attend college after high school, but were not well informed
about how AP classes can help prepare them for college 2. Parents held high
aspirations for their children to attend college after high school, but were not well
informed about how AP classes can benefit their children in college 3. Students were
not aware that they were ELs or did not understand why they were labeled ELs 4.
Parents’ SES was perceived as a barrier to four year college enrollment 5. Students’
personal traits were attributed to their enrollment and to the extent of their success in
AP classes.
With respect to contextual factors, the data gathered from the school personnel
uncovered the following: 1. Parents were not well informed about AP classes 2. The
perception that gifted students’ personal traits kept them out of AP classes 3. Teachers
played a role in the participation of ELs in AP programs 4. The integration of the
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students’ language and culture into the classroom and campus activities was limited 5.
Students and families perceived their socio-economic status to be a barrier for students
to actually enroll and attend college after high school.
There were five major findings regarding school personnel perceptions toward
their gifted EL students in AP programs. The findings were as follows: 1. Students
that participate and do well in AP classes have specific personality traits 2. Peers were
a negative influence or had a limited influence towards EL participation in AP classes
3. Parents did not influence their children’s participation in AP classes 4. Gifted EL
students aspired to go to college, but felt limited by financial issues 5. Parents held
high college aspirations for their children.
This study identified relationships between the student and school personnel
responses to similar questions dealing with contextual factors of the schooling process
and student perceptions of AP classes. These relationships revealed that the role of
teachers was to motivate, inform, challenge, support, and provide access to AP classes
through teacher recommendation; EL students’ access to AP classes took place
primarily through teacher recommendation; and EL student enrollment in AP Spanish
was their gateway to other AP courses if teachers perceived them to do well in it.
Also, the integration of the students’ language and culture was limited to the AP
Spanish classroom and to limited activities on campus; the AVID program was a
source of information and support for gifted EL students who were enrolled in it;
parents of gifted EL students had limited knowledge of AP programs and did not
attend information meetings in large numbers for various reasons such as language
barriers or home obligations; students perceived their socio-economic status as a
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barrier for applying to four-year colleges. Finally, both students and school personnel
shared the perception that student traits such as being motivated, organized, mature,
responsible, and a hard worker were the primary predictors of student access and
success in AP classes.
The relationships uncovered in this study tell a story about school factors and
perceptions that student and school personnel have in regards to the participation of
Spanish speaking gifted ELs in AP programs. Examining these factors and
perceptions may provide insights as to how the school structure limits or aids EL
student access to AP programs. Furthermore, such examination may shed light on
what districts and schools can do to provide the necessary information and support to
gifted Spanish speaking EL students and their parents so that gifted Spanish speaking
EL students may fully enjoy the benefits of AP classes.
The research findings are supported by the research on social capital and
institutional support conducted by Stanton-Salazar (1997; 2001) in regards to the
importance of school agents who serve as advocates for their students and who keep
them informed about school processes that will enable them to succeed academically.
This includes providing students and their parents with information about AP
programs, how to enroll, and where to get the support they need to be successful in
these classes. Cummins’s (1986) theoretical framework for empowering minority
students supports the findings in this study in respect to the importance of integrating
the students’ language and culture into the school curriculum, going out into the
community to encourage their participation in the school process, developing and
utilizing pedagogy that will encourage students to actively use their language to
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support their learning, and the importance of educators to adopt the role of active
advocates for their students. Other literature has also expressed the need for educators
to be active change agents for their students and to participate in creating new
curriculums that might better serve the academic achievement of Latino students
(Chavez, 1997).

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CHAPTER 5
Conclusions
Summary of the Problem
There is an underrepresentation of English Learners (EL) and other ethnic
minorities in Advanced Placement (AP) programs (College Board, 2009; Hertberg-
Davis & Callahan, 2008; Callahan, 2005). The underrepresentation of ELs and other
ethnic minorities has been attributed to enrollment criteria that limit their participation
in AP programs. Enrollment criteria may include teacher recommendation, AP
teacher’s discretion, GPA, prerequisite classes, entrance examinations, and
standardized test scores (Guice & Miller, 2007). Other school practices, such as
tracking students into less rigorous courses, has been found to be detrimental to the
opportunities that EL students have of participating in AP classes and of succeeding
once they are in them (Callahan, 2005). EL students are oftentimes tracked into low-
level courses because many educators associate ELs’ limited English proficiency with
limited intelligence and ability (Callahan 2005; Bernal, 1994).
These same issues are found in the limited identification of EL students in
gifted programs (Bernal, 1994; Matthews, 2006). Non-identification into gifted
programs limits EL students’ access to AP programs because it has been found that
high achieving and gifted students are more likely to participate in more rigorous
programs such as AP and Honors courses (Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen,
1990; Gandara & Contreras, 2009). The education of EL students and access to
college preparatory courses is a pressing issue given the high number of EL students
enrolled in our public schools, and the fact that they are not succeeding academically,
195
at a national level (American Federation of Teachers, 2006; Gandara & Rumberger,
2006; Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007 Parrish et al., 2006 ).
Overview of the Methodology
This study sought to uncover the contextual factors of the schooling process
that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners in AP courses.
In addition, this study investigated the perceptions that gifted Spanish speaking EL
students hold towards AP programs and how these perceptions might affect their
enrollment and participation in AP courses. In order to accomplish this, the following
research questions were developed:
1. What are the contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the
enrollment of Spanish speaking English Learners into Advanced Placement
courses?
2. How do the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners affect
their personal interest and participation in Advanced Placement classes?
Approximately twenty school sites were contacted for information about the
number of gifted Spanish speaking EL students enrolled in their schools, and for
permission to conduct this study on their school campuses. Not all of the people that
were contacted responded to the investigator’s inquiries; others responded that
although they had large numbers of EL students, they were not identified as gifted
students, thus, they did not qualify to participate in the study. The recruitment
process took place over a period of a year; it was difficult to locate schools with a high
enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking EL students and who would allow the
investigator on their campus to conduct the study.
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Research Sample
The participants of this study were Spanish speaking EL students who were
also identified as gifted students at the high school level, grades 9-12. Other
participants recruited for this study were school personnel such as teachers,
counselors, and program coordinators, who worked closely with English Learners
either outside of class or in English Language Development, sheltered, bilingual, and
AP classes.
The student and school personnel participants in this study attended and
worked in a high school that was divided into six smaller schools. All the participants
attended or worked in the School of Business, which had a student population of
approximately 451 students and approximately twenty-three teachers on the staff at the
time the study was conducted. The school enrolled a student population who was 75
percent Hispanic, 15 percent Black, 6 percent White, and 4 percent a combination of
Filipino, Vietnamese, and Pacific Islander (School principal, personal communication,
May 7, 2010). During the time the study was conducted, 100 percent of the students
enrolled received free lunch. The School of Business provided English Language
Development and sheltered instruction to their EL students. The gifted student
population was enrolled in either the Seminar program for the highly gifted or the
Cluster program for the gifted and high ability students. All student participants were
enrolled in the Cluster program. The School of Business offered four AP classes
during the 2009-2010 academic school year.

197
Instrumentation
This study utilized qualitative methods to investigate the research questions.
Qualitative methods included a short open-ended survey and a semi-structured, one-
on-one interview protocol for students and teachers. Other school personnel
participated in a one-on-one interview, but did not participate in a survey. The student
interview protocol included twenty-three questions regarding contextual factors of the
schooling process that might affect their enrollment in AP courses as well as questions
meant to uncover student perceptions about AP courses. The questions were
organized into categories based on the conceptual frameworks utilized for this study.
The work of Stanton-Salazar (2001) on social capital and institutional support and Jim
Cummins’s theoretical framework for empowering minority students, Empowering
Minority Students: A Framework for Intervention, were the impetus for developing the
interview protocol.
The student survey had two sections; the first section asked for student’s
demographic data regarding themselves and their parents’ backgrounds; the second
section asked participants to list AP, Honors, or Advanced courses taken in the past, in
the present, or which they planned to take in the future. These questions aimed to
provide a snapshot as to the extent to which participants had been involved in
advanced, honors, and college preparation courses, and the extent to which they
planned on becoming involved in the future. Students were also asked to list any
ELD, sheltered, or bilingual courses taken in the past or in the present. This question
was meant to provide information on the academic programs these students
participated in as part of their English language development and the extent to which
198
these programs might have prepared them for participation in AP, Advanced, and
Honors courses.
The interview protocol for school personnel included nineteen questions
similar to those of the students, and was organized under similar categories as those of
the students. The purpose of including school personnel in the study was to find
relationships between student and school personnel responses as well as to verify
student responses. Teachers participated in a short survey that asked about general
information regarding their teaching experience and specialized credentials held that
allowed them to teach EL students at the high school level. Teachers were also asked
to list special training that they had received that supported the learning of English
learners as well as strategies implemented in their classrooms that they had found to
be successful with their EL students. The intent of these questions was to determine
the extent to which the teachers used strategies that have been found to benefit EL
students (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Cummins, 1986; Echeverria et al., 2004;
Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007; Rueda & Garcia, 1996).
Research Findings: Students
Research Question #1
The first question this study aimed to answer was, What are the contextual
factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of Spanish speaking English
Learners into Advanced Placement courses? The contextual factors considered in this
study were the following:
1. Students’ affiliation to their school.
2. Academic support and programs for gifted ELs.
199
3. The integration of the students’ language and culture into classroom and school
activities.
4. Student knowledge of AP programs and how they access this knowledge.
5. Parents’ knowledge of AP programs and how they access this knowledge.
6. The preparation of ELs for the rigors of AP courses.
7. School or district policies that limit or aid the participation of gifted EL
students in AP programs.
8. The presence of a college-going culture on the school campus.
9. The influences of school personnel on the academic decisions of gifted ELs
and on their academic success.
Student Data
Student responses revealed that teachers were sources of information and
academic support. All the student participants expressed that they felt that their
teachers had high expectations for them and taught them well. Through the weekly
advisory sessions, students perceived that they received the academic support needed
to do well in school. Another student indicated that he felt comfortable with and was
able to relate to school personnel who spoke Spanish, were of Mexican background,
lived locally, and were young. This student was the only participant to express his
satisfaction with school personnel in terms not related to teaching ability and
classroom expectations.
The seminal work of Darling-Hammond (2000) and Haycock (1998)
emphasizes that well prepared, caring, and culturally sensitive teachers do matter
when it comes to the education of linguistically and culturally diverse students in
200
public schools to ensure their academic success. This has implications for the ways in
which teacher education programs are preparing future teachers to educate and support
students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. Future teachers need
to have the knowledge and skills necessary for meeting the social, psychological,
emotional, and academic needs of students whose backgrounds are different from their
own (Chavez, 1997; Cochran-Smith, 2001; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Haycock, 1998;
Jenks, Lee, & Kanpol, 2001).
The student data revealed that students sought academic support when they felt
they needed it, or when they had time after school. Participants acknowledged that
they did not seek help as often as they should, but felt comfortable approaching
teachers for help. Research has found that one of the critical conditions for the
academic achievement of minority students at the high school level and for college
access is the provision of academic programs, tutoring, and other services that will
support student efforts toward a college education (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006).
Districts and schools should examine how they can facilitate the availability of before
or after school programs and how they can encourage students to take advantage of
these opportunities to help them succeed in their AP classes.
The student data revealed that there was a lack of integration of the students’
language and culture in the school curriculum and on campus. Students were unable
to cite how their language and culture was integrated into campus activities. One
student mentioned a folkloric dance group and a mariachi band that performed on
campus on occasion, but no other examples were provided. In the classroom, most
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students mentioned that the AP Spanish class was where they used their language and
studied about their culture. No other examples were cited.
Research has found that the integration of the language and culture of minority
students into classroom lessons and activities can help support students’ academic
success and their literacy development (Au, 2006; Cummins, 1986; Garcia, 1991;
Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996; Rueda & Garcia, 1996). These research findings,
along with the data revealed in this study, might serve to prompt schools and districts
with similar student populations to examine the ways in which they can support
teachers in changing their pedagogy to utilize the language and culture of their
linguistically and culturally diverse student population to support their academic
success. The same may be true for the integration of the students’ language and
culture to campus activities and events in order to empower minority students and
develop strong feelings of affiliation to their school. These actions may result in
higher levels of achievement that may lead to higher levels of college enrollment
(Cummins, 1986; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997).
The data revealed that students lacked the knowledge and/or had
misconceptions about AP classes. Students had a general idea about the benefits of
AP courses; however, students were unable to specify about the enrollment criteria.
Some thought that teachers selected students to participate while others had no
information or misinformation about the enrollment criteria. Three students said they
did not get any information about AP classes at all. One stated he got information
from his older siblings, while only two stated they got information about AP classes
from their teachers.
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Student responses revealed that their parents lacked knowledge about AP
classes and about the benefits they provide for college preparation. What little
information parents received came primarily from their children. Another student
stated that his parents did not know about AP because he didn’t know about AP, so he
did not talk to them about it. Only one participant said his parents knew a lot about
AP because his older siblings had taken AP classes already. Even in this situation, the
information parents received appeared to come from their children who were the first
to attend a U.S. school and had obtained the social capital needed to help their younger
brother access AP classes. Although parents did not know a lot about AP courses, the
data revealed that parents were supportive of anything related to school as long as it
benefited their children academically and helped them obtain their high school
diploma. Although a few students stated that their parents had obtained information
about AP from literature sent home from the office in English and Spanish, their
parents remained uninformed about AP classes.
This information on the lack of knowledge that students and their parents had
about AP programs reinforces the literature that exists on the underrepresentation of
language and ethnic minorities in AP classes and the need to inform them about the
process of enrollment, the benefits of enrollment, and the support systems that are
available to ensure that students do well in AP classes (College Board, 2009;
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008; Callahan, 2005; Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006;
Stanton-Salazar, 1997; 2001). The students in this study attended a school that was 75
percent Hispanic and participated in the gifted Cluster program. It would appear that
such students, who are the ethnic majority rather than the minority on campus, should
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be much better informed about how to enroll in AP and what the benefits are. It is
crucial that districts, schools, and policymakers examine the extent to which they
make every effort to ensure that gifted EL students and their parents are informed
about AP programs and how these programs may support their aspirations for college
enrollment.
There was not enough information to support the extent to which ELD,
sheltered, and bilingual classes prepared EL students for the rigors of AP coursework.
Research has found that even the bilingual or ESL/ELD classes designed to support
ELs’ language development have been found to be less than adequate in helping EL
students develop the academic language necessary to succeed in advanced level
courses and later in college (Callahan, 2005; Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1997). Given
that five out of the six students have been enrolled in U.S. schools since pre-
kindergarten or 1
st
grade, and were not reclassified as fluent English speakers before
entering high school, policy makers, district, and school decision makers need to
examine closely their reclassification criteria, as well as the language programs EL
students are enrolled in, to determine the extent to which they might contribute to the
failure to reclassify gifted EL students before entering high school.
Student data revealed that students were not aware of any school or district
policies that might aid or prevent them from enrolling in AP classes. One student
mentioned that perhaps his low GPA from the previous academic school year might
prevent him from enrolling because he struggled and had a low GPA. However,
according to the counselor, GPA is not a criterion for AP, but rather CST scores,
teacher recommendation, and a reading test are used to determine whether a student
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will participate in the AP program. This information illustrates once again the lack of
information that students had about how to enroll in AP classes and the
misconceptions they held in regards to criteria needed for enrollment.
The data revealed that students had high aspirations to attend college and that
college was also important to their parents. Students’ parents held high aspirations for
their children to attend college and to take advantage of the educational opportunities
found in the United States. Most students were able to cite examples of campus
events dealing with college field trip opportunities and financial aid. As far as college
requirements, student responses varied and were not consistent. Students
demonstrated limited knowledge about financial aid. Three students cited the
Achievement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program as a source of
information about college and financial aid.
Data about the extent to which school personnel influenced students’ academic
decisions and their academic success revealed that the school counselor, the AP
Spanish teacher, and the teacher advisors influenced the academic paths of the EL
students in this study. These school personnel motivated, supported, and informed
their students. In particular, the AP Spanish teacher served as a means of information
about AP and other school related issues as well. This teacher, who served as advisor
to the majority of the EL population, also determined who might be qualified to
participate in other AP classes other than the AP Spanish course. If students did well
in the AP Spanish course, and had the positive traits to succeed, then they might be
recommended for participation in future AP courses.

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Summary: Research Question #1
The findings in this study revealed contextual factors of the schooling process
that may affect the participation of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in AP courses.
Teachers were found to be sources of information about AP courses and college
requirements as well as sources of academic support to the students in this study.
Both students and their parents were found to have high aspirations to attend college,
but lacked the necessary knowledge about AP courses and how they might be able to
prepare students for college access. Parents were found to have limited knowledge
about AP programs and what little information they had came primarily from their
children. The work of Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver (2006) and that of Stanton-Salazar
(1997) illustrates the significance of social networks and institutional support that may
keep students informed about school programs that can support their learning and how
to access those programs. If parents receive information primarily from their children,
then efforts should be made to provide students with accurate information that they
can provide to their parents. This also necessitates a more aggressive approach from
district and schools to ensure that parents are receiving the necessary information to
support their children in their academic endeavors.
Another contextual factor that the data revealed was a lack of integration of the
students’ language and culture in the class curriculum and in school-wide activities
and events. Districts, schools, teacher preparation programs, and policymakers need
to consider how new pedagogy can be created or enhanced in order to integrate the
language and culture of culturally and ethnically diverse students into the classroom
and campus activities in order to empower their students, in order to support their
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literacy development in English, and ultimately ensure their academic success (Au,
2006; Cummins, 1986; Garcia, 1991; Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996; Lee, 1995;
Rueda & Garcia, 1996).
Research Findings: School Personnel
The first question this study aimed to answer was, What are the contextual
factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of Spanish speaking English
Learners into Advanced Placement courses? The contextual factors considered in this
study are the following:
1. The appropriateness of EL participation in AP classes through student
enrollment.
2. EL participation in EL programs.
3. Student knowledge of AP programs and how they access this knowledge.
4. School or district policies that limit or aid the participation of gifted EL
students in AP programs.
5. The preparation of ELs for the rigors of AP courses, academic support and
programs for gifted ELs.
6. The integration of the students’ language and culture into classroom and school
activities.
7. The presence of a college-going culture on the school campus.
8. Teacher perceptions of gifted EL students, their parents, and peers of EL
students.

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School Personnel Data
Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process
The question on the appropriateness of EL student enrollment in AP classes
revealed that one teacher felt that open enrollment was a great way to encourage more
EL students to participate in AP programs. According to this teacher’s perception,
students were afraid to take the more rigorous courses, their family did not push them
toward taking rigorous courses, or students did not know enough about AP courses to
take them. The counselor explained that although the criteria for AP was teacher
recommendation and CST scores, students were not turned away if they were truly
interested in enrolling in AP classes. However, if students failed or struggled in their
AP classes they were pulled out and placed into a regular class or an advanced version
of the course.
School personnel data revealed that for the students in the School of Business,
gifted EL students’ first experience in an AP class would more than likely take place
in an AP Spanish class. How well students performed in this class determined
whether the AP Spanish teacher would recommend students for future AP enrollment.
Although incoming students were asked to check off AP courses they were interested
in during Articulation, the school counselor indicated that she provided AP teachers
with student names and that it was the AP teachers who had the final say on who they
allowed to participate in their classes. It is apparent based on this data that teacher
recommendation was a factor that determined the extent to which gifted EL students
participated in AP programs at this site.
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The College Board (2004) has recognized that traditional criteria used to admit
students into AP classes such as teacher recommendation, AP teacher’s discretion,
standardized test scores, or placement tests may serve as gate-keeping mechanisms
that keep many groups of students out of AP classes. The College Board encourages
the high schools to adopt an open door policy that will allow many underrepresented
students to participate in AP classes. Once admitted, it is just as important that
schools have support systems in place that will ensure that all students are successful
in AP classes. Districts and schools need to examine the extent to which their AP
enrollment criteria might prevent many students from participating in AP classes,
particularly students who teachers perceive not to qualify for participation in AP
programs.
The data revealed that gifted EL students struggled in their AP courses due to a
lack of foundational reading skills. Students coming in were unprepared for the
amount of outside reading work and homework that was required. The counselor
stated that in spite of the struggles EL students experienced at the beginning, teachers
were generally supportive of their students, provided the tutoring they needed to do
well, and scaffolded their lessons. Specific examples of how teachers scaffolded their
lessons were not provided. The counselor explained that students who struggled in AP
classes had been pulled out of AP classes and placed in an advanced course in the
same subject.
A different perspective was shared by the AP Spanish teacher who explained
that EL students did well in AP Spanish because it was their language, but that
placement in any other AP classes would set students up for failure due to their lack of
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English language skills. This teacher explained, that even though these students were
gifted, their lack of language skills would make it difficult for gifted EL students to
succeed in AP courses.
This information illustrates the need for districts, schools, and decision makers
to examine the language and literacy instruction and development of EL students,
beginning in elementary school, to determine how they can be improved or enhanced
to ensure that students enter high school with the literacy and language skills
necessary to do well in AP classes. The significance of strong language and literacy
development programs for English learners cannot be ignored given the history of
poor achievement that ELs have experienced in U.S. public schools, which has in turn
affected their enrollment and participation in AP courses (American Federation of
Teachers, 2006; Gandara & Rumberger, 2007; Maxwell-Jolly et al., 2007).
School personnel responses revealed that students and their parents were
informed about AP courses through school sponsored AP Parent Nights and parents
were invited to Articulation so that they received information about course selection
along with their children. A means for informing parents about school events included
automated phone calls, fliers, and announcements on the school marquee. The
counselor expressed that parent turn out for these events was very low, particularly for
Articulation. It was not clear why parent turn out was low for these informational
events. The AP Spanish teacher shared that she informed parents about AP Spanish
through individual phone calls she made to parents. Through the phone calls she
explained the differences between AP Spanish and the regular Spanish language class
as well as the benefits of taking the course.
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The research findings did not reveal any specific information about how ELD,
sheltered, or bilingual courses prepared EL students for AP classes. The school
personnel responses revealed that students in ELD courses may enroll in AP courses
and that they usually began in AP Spanish Language. One teacher stated that,
although it is not required, beginning their AP career in AP Spanish was a good way to
prepare ELs for other AP courses. The counselor reaffirmed this belief by stating that
it would take a really motivated, hard working EL student to enroll and do well in
another AP class other than AP Spanish due to their lack of English proficiency.
Therefore, the school evaluated EL students to determine their level of English and
whether they were ready to take other AP courses.
The information provided in this study indicated that students received
academic support through the AVID program, the Student Center, advisory, and
through additional support provided individually by AP teachers. Participants
indicated that programs that supported EL students in particular did not exist on
campus. When asked about what their individual role was in supporting EL students
in AP classrooms, the AP English teacher perceived her role as structuring her class
for access to the curriculum and for rigor while the AP Spanish teacher saw her role as
primarily preparing her students to do well on the AP exam. The AP Spanish teacher
explained that it did not make any sense to her to have her Spanish speaking students
pay for a language class in college when they can pass the AP exam with high marks
in order to receive college credit for that class and save money. It was for this reason,
according to this teacher, that she placed her efforts on test preparation. The school
counselor saw her role as mediator between students, parents, and teachers. She
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scheduled parent conferences to discuss student progress and to develop interventions
that might help struggling students improve their skills and their academic
performance.
Questions regarding the extent to which students’ language and culture were
integrated into the classroom and campus activities revealed that students encountered
their language primarily in the AP Spanish classroom through units of study. On
campus, students experienced their language and culture through folkloric and
mariachi band performances, the annual World Fair, and the beginnings of a MECHA
club. No other examples were cited regarding the extent to which the students’
language and culture were integrated into the classroom and school activities.
The data revealed that school personnel perceived their students to be well
informed about college and financial aid. School personnel cited the AVID program
as a source of information as well as meetings with their teacher advisors. The school
sponsored financial aid workshops for seniors as well as Financial Aid Nights. The
means for informing students and their parents about these activities included
automated phone calls, fliers, and announcements on the school marquees.
School personnel explained that the students and their families perceived
financial limitations as an obstacle for enrolling and taking the AP exam because the
exams were costly for under-resourced families. One of the teachers cited the AP
Incentive Grant as a source of monetary aid that paid for books, field trips, and parent
nights. The counselor stated that the school and district have paid for AP exams since
the 2004-2005 school year, which has helped many students access AP classes and
take the AP exams. No other district or school policies were cited that might limit or
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encourage the participation of gifted EL students in AP classes. This information has
implications for how districts and schools may support students in their goals of
enrolling in AP programs and taking the AP exams in spite of their perceived expense.
Districts and schools should research grants and programs available that might help
them support their students’ financial needs.
Contextual Factors: Perceptions of School Personnel
When asked to describe the profiles of students that took AP classes, school
personnel responded that they were hardworking, motivated, they wanted to go to
college, they were achievers, responsible, mature, and multi-taskers. One teacher
explained that teachers talked to each other about potential students and recommended
students based on whom they perceived to be qualified to enroll in their AP class.
Another teacher expressed her perceptions about gifted students and commented that
simply being identified as gifted did not guarantee that students would be ready for an
AP class. If students were gifted, but lacked motivation and dedication, they would be
less likely to do well in AP classes. Given that enrollment in AP classes was based on
teacher recommendations, school personnel’s perceptions of the ideal candidate for
AP determined which students were selected to participate.
School personnel participants expressed that going to college was important to
their students, but that many students were discouraged by their low socio-economic
status and the expense of a college education. All three expressed that they tried to
encourage their students to look beyond their financial circumstances; they tried to
motivate them, encouraged them to look at different options, and provided examples
of others like them who had been successful in obtaining a college degree. One teacher
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has told students who have opted or planned to opt for community college, that,
although going to a community college was not a bad thing, they were capable of
attending four- year institutions.
School personnel perceived school peers to be a limited influence on student
decisions because most EL students hung out with students that did not value AP
classes or who thought they were not be important. School personnel expressed that
friends generally thought AP was too difficult, a lot of work, or simply not cool. One
teacher stated that peers might influence EL students negatively or positively just like
any other students. Also, it was reported that usually the students in AP Spanish
supported and motivated each other to do well.
The data revealed that school personnel generally perceived the parents of EL
students to be interested in their children’s education and wanted their kids to be
challenged. One of the teachers was not certain about why parents were not as
involved in school events in later grades as they were when their kids first entered the
school in 9
th
grade. She was unable to explain why there was a lack of parent
attendance in school activities. The counselor’s response indicated that parents had
little influence on their children’s decision to enroll in AP courses because they knew
very little about them. The counselor explained that it was the more educated parents
that actively sought out information about AP courses while the less educated parents
were satisfied with having their kids finish school and obtain a high school diploma.
According to the counselor, the influence on students’ decisions to enroll in AP
courses came primarily from teachers and administrators rather than from the parents.
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These findings illustrate the influence of school personnel on the decisions of
gifted EL students to take AP classes. This reinforces the literature on the role of
institutional agents and institutional support in informing the academic decisions of
gifted EL students (Stanton-Salazar, 1997; 2001). These findings demonstrate that the
perceptions of gifted students and the type of students school personnel perceived will
do well in AP classes influenced who got to participate in AP classes. Examining
teacher perceptions and how they affect gifted EL participation in AP classes is
necessary for ensuring that all students have equal opportunities to participate in AP
courses and to reach their full potential.
Research Findings: Students
Research Question #2
The second question this study aimed to answer was, How do the perceptions
of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners affect their personal interest and
participation in Advanced Placement classes? Research has shown that family, peers,
and school personnel may influence student perceptions and interest (Arellano &
Padilla, 1996; Fuligni, 1997; Gandara, 1982; Stanton-Salazar, 2001). Questions on
student perceptions and interest in AP classes asked students to describe the profile of
an AP student, to explain their reasons for choosing to participate, or not, in AP
classes, to express their feelings about being identified as gifted and an English
Learner, to describe their parent’s college aspirations and the extent to which their
parents influenced their participation in AP classes, to describe the extent to which
their peers influenced their participation in AP courses, and to describe the extent to
which school personnel influenced students’ decisions to participate in AP classes.
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Student Perceptions and Interest
Student data on the profile of AP students indicated that the participants
generally perceived students in AP classes to be smart, hard working, got good grades,
were responsible, and were focused. When asked if they considered themselves this
type of student, two students said yes, not because they were smart, but because they
were dedicated students. Two students said they weren’t because they had a tendency
to not do their work and fell behind. These students cited lack of organization,
motivation, and focus as reasons for not being the ideal AP student. The other two
participants did not comment on whether they perceived themselves to fit their profile
of an AP student.
Research on the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking ELs towards
themselves and their ability to enroll and do well in AP classes is nonexistent. It is not
clear from the data in this study how these students came to develop the perceptions
they reported about themselves and students in AP courses. Student data regarding
peer influences revealed that peers influenced their participation in AP classes because
the people they socialized with also took AP courses. These peers encouraged the
participants to do well in their classes, and encouraged them to participate in AP
courses. Two respondents said they did not know how their friends felt about AP.
There is research that indicates that student perceptions and interest may be
influenced by family, peers, and school personnel (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Fuligni,
1997; Gandara, 1982; Stanton-Salazar, 2001). The students in this study reported that
their decisions to enroll in AP courses were influenced primarily by their teachers,
teacher advisors, counselor, and their peers. This has implications for considering
216
how school personnel’s perceptions of their students’ abilities are communicated and
how it might carry over to the ways in which students perceive themselves and their
peers.
Student responses as to why they were taking or not taking AP classes were
varied and depended on individual experiences. Two respondents were not sure why
they weren’t enrolled in AP, thus were not able to respond. One student said that
passing the AP Spanish Language exam would earn her college credit and it would
prepare her for AP Spanish Literature next year. Another student said he was enrolled
unintentionally because the teacher changed the regular Spanish language class to AP
Spanish Language, and his parents encouraged him to stay and do well since he
already knew the language. Another student said he enrolled in AP classes because he
wanted to stand out and wanted to make his family happy and show them what he was
capable of achieving. Another student said he wasn’t enrolled in AP classes because
he didn’t know about how to enroll in them.
Hertberg-Davis & Callahan’s (2008) research on gifted students’ perceptions
of Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Programs (IB) revealed that
students valued their experiences in AP and IB programs and felt that they were
challenged. This study discovered an underrepresentation of minority students in
these programs, but found that for those few students who participated in this study
who were from rural, low-SES, and/or minority backgrounds, participating and
succeeding in these programs provided them with an opportunity to be the first in their
family to graduate from college, an opportunity to prove that they were capable of
succeeding in such programs, and the opportunity to change and improve their own
217
life styles. The lack of understanding and knowledge the participants in the current
study had about AP classes, and Hertberg-Davis & Callahan’s (2008) research
illustrate the need for districts and schools to consider how they can improve the ways
in which they inform gifted EL students and their parents about how to enroll in AP
classes and how they can benefit from such programs.
Five of the six students expressed that they felt good about being gifted, and
that being gifted would help them in their AP courses. In respect to being an English
Learner, four students were not sure why they were English Learners since they
predominantly spoke English and had been enrolled in U.S. schools since pre-
kindergarten or first grade. Still, most felt that being both gifted and an EL was an
advantage because speaking Spanish would help them do well in AP Spanish. One
stated that being a gifted EL in AP classes was cause for admiration because it was
another way to stand out and it was a big deal to him. Although being gifted is not a
prerequisite for participating in AP classes, studies have found that high achieving and
gifted students are strong candidates for participation in AP and Honors courses
(Bernal, 1994; Castellano, 2008; Cohen, 1990; Gandara & Contreras, 2009). Districts
and schools might consider how they can ensure that their gifted EL students are better
informed about how to enroll in AP classes, what the benefits are, and what support is
available to them in order to ensure that they succeed in AP classes.
All respondents expressed that going to college was extremely important to
their parents for a better life, a better job, or a better career. For five of the students,
going to college meant that they would be the first in their family to attend college and
receive a college education. All the students shared that their parents had high college
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aspirations for them. For one student, however, the prospect of attending college was
dampened by financial limitations and by his legal status in the United States. His
parents encouraged him to do his best and to at least finish high school.
Although parents have high college aspirations for their children, student
responses revealed that their parents did not have enough information about the
benefits of AP courses such as college preparation and college course credit. Also,
parents depended on their children for information on AP classes. One respondent
cited a lack of English fluency and home obligations as reasons for not having
information about AP. Those parents who did know about AP classes, such as the AP
Spanish class, encouraged their children to work hard and do well in them. Students
expressed that their parents were supportive and encouraging, and wanted them to
attend college.
Vernez & Abrahamse (1996) have found that immigrant students and their
parents have positive attitudes towards schooling and have high expectations for a
college education. These positive attitudes and high expectations served to overcome
challenges related to the attainment of a college education. In the absence of social
and cultural capital, parents depend on the school institution to provide the support
and information necessary to help their children accomplish their goals (Conchas,
2001; Olsen, 1997; Katz, 1999; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; 2001). At the high school
level, the school community needs to ensure that they are providing their students and
their parents with the information and support needed to enroll and successfully
complete and achieve in AP courses (Burton; 2002; Klopfenstein, 2005; Kyburg,
Hertberg-Davis, & Callahan, 2007). Such institutional support will make it possible
219
for students to develop a college-going identity that enables them to make informed
educational decisions that will allow them to enjoy the benefits of AP classes and
make college attendance, and completion, a reality (Oakes, Mendoza, & Silver, 2006).
Summary: Research Question #2
The student data on perceptions and interest in AP classes revealed that at least
two students felt they had the personal characteristics to do well in AP classes. Two
others didn’t think they had them due to negative traits that they perceived would
interfere with their ability to do well in AP courses. Reasons for participating in AP
courses were varied and inconsistent. Research has documented the lack of
participation of ethnically and linguistically diverse students in AP programs (College
Board, 2009; Hertberg-Davis & Callahan, 2008; Callahan, 2005). The research on the
perceptions of gifted EL students towards AP courses is nonexistent. The data
collected from the students participating in this study revealed a lack of understanding
as to how students enrolled in AP classes and how these courses could support their
efforts to prepare, enroll, and succeed in college. Students and their parents had high
aspirations for college enrollment, but lacked the information about AP courses that
would better inform their decisions about taking AP courses and how to obtain the
support necessary to do well in them.
Results: Relationship Between Student and School Personnel Responses
This study revealed relationships in the responses between student and school
personnel participants. The following common themes were uncovered through the
data analysis, and are based on institutional factors:
220
1. The role of teachers in motivating, informing, challenging, supporting, and
providing student access to AP classes through teacher recommendation.
2. AP Spanish as the primary gateway to other AP classes for gifted Spanish
speaking EL students.
3. There was a lack of integration of the EL students’ culture and language into
the classroom curriculum and school activities beyond the Spanish language or
AP Spanish class.
4. The AVID program was a source of information and support for gifted EL
students.
5. Parents of gifted EL students had limited knowledge of AP programs.
6. Socio-economic status was perceived as a barrier for students and their
families for applying to four-year colleges.
7. The perception that students’ personal traits were the primary predictors of
student access and success in AP classes.
Both student and school personnel touched upon contextual factors of the
schooling process that may affect the participation of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in
AP classes. These factors dealt with the amount of information teachers and other
school personnel provided EL students about the benefits of AP classes, the amount of
support and motivation teachers provided their EL students in AP classes to ensure
that they succeeded, and the extent to which their teachers challenged and held high
expectations for their students. Further, teacher perceptions of which students were
best suited to participate in AP programs had a direct effect on the enrollment of gifted
Spanish speaking ELs in AP programs.
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AP Spanish appeared to be the beginning of the college preparation path for
the EL participants in this study. How well they did in this course determined whether
their teacher would recommend them to other AP courses. Through teacher and
school support students might stand a better chance of doing well in AP Spanish,
enroll in other AP courses, and succeed in those courses.
Other common contextual factors uncovered through the student and school
personnel data included the extent to which the students’ language and culture was
integrated into classroom lessons and campus activities to help support student
learning and achievement. Further, the availability of the AVID program for gifted
EL students for the purpose of receiving information about college requirements,
financial aid, and for academic support appeared to be a common theme. The extent
to which parents were informed about AP programs was a contextual factor that
affected the extent to which parents influenced their children’s enrollment and
participation in AP classes. Both school personnel and students expressed that parents
did not know enough about AP programs to be a strong influence on students’
decisions. Data from both group of respondents revealed that teacher and other school
personnel asserted a higher amount of influence on students’ decisions to enroll in AP
classes.
Student and school personnel data revealed that many students and their
families perceived socio-economic status as a barrier to college access. This is a
contextual factor because it deals with the extent to which students were informed
about financial aid opportunities and options that might make college a reality for
gifted EL students.
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Finally, student and school perceptions of student traits, such as being
motivated, organized, hard working, and responsible, were found to be a barrier to
students’ enrollment in AP courses if school personnel’s perceptions determined who
they will recommend for AP classes. These perceptions may be adopted by the
students themselves who will learn, and accept, that it is the teachers who decide who
participates in AP classes. Thus, if students feel that they do not possess the traits that
teachers look for in prospective AP students, they might feel that they are not fit to be
in AP courses. How much students know and understand about AP courses ultimately
becomes the responsibility of the districts, schools, administrators, and school
personnel.
Implications of the Study
The data extracted from this study have found that the participating gifted
Spanish speaking English learners reported that their teachers and other school
personnel were supportive of them. All participants stated that they felt comfortable
going to them for help when they needed it, and felt that their teachers motivated
them, taught them well, and had high expectations for them. The study revealed that
although the participants had a general idea as to the benefits of AP classes, they were
unsure as to how exactly to enroll in them, or as to what the exact benefits were in
helping them prepare for college. Student responses revealed that they were the
primary source of information for their parents; therefore, if they did not know about
the AP program, their parents probably didn’t either. Siblings who had previously
taken AP classes were cited as being a source of information for their parents as well.
Although interviews with school personnel indicated that various efforts were made to
223
inform students and parents about AP classes, students were not as well informed as
school personnel thought they might be, and parents appeared to not be well informed
at all.
This study has implications for examining the different ways in which gifted
ELs and their parents can be better informed about AP classes that would help gifted
ELs make educational decisions that might better prepare them for future college
enrollment. Informing students and their parents about the benefits of AP classes and
about how to enroll might allow for more parents to discuss program options with
their children, thus, perhaps allowing parents to exert a greater influence on their
children’s decision to enroll in such courses. Continued efforts to disseminate
information to parents and students through Articulation, Parent Nights, Financial Aid
Nights, individual phone calls to parents, fliers, automated phone calls, and the AVID
program should be continued, supported, and expanded.
Other mediums for informing parents and students about AP programs may
include the English Language Advisory Committee, not only at the high school level,
but as early as middle school, and at the district level as well. This effort might help
target English learners and their parents for the purpose of informing them about AP
programs. Efforts to invite parents to campus and district events in spite of the
reportedly low parent attendance should be continued and be made more aggressive in
order to ensure that parents are informed about AP programs, college requirements,
financial aid, and other school related issues.
Based on the data in this study, incoming 9
th
graders selected their future high
school courses during Articulation when high school representatives visited their
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middle school to inform and answer student questions about high school course
enrollment. Perhaps the high school can make a concerted effort of informing
students throughout their eighth grade year about AP programs rather than waiting
until Articulation when students are not given enough time to consider their options
before having to make a decision. By the same token, middle schools might benefit
from working with high schools to develop ways they can help inform students about
AP programs throughout their middle school years. Conversations between middle
schools and high schools should also focus on ways to support gifted ELs
academically at the middle school level so that students are ready for the challenge of
rigorous courses by the time they actually do enroll in high school.
Discussions with the school counselor revealed that students were not denied
the opportunity to enroll in AP classes if they were really motivated to do so, but that
students were taken out if they were failing or struggling. Conversations with all
school personnel participants revealed that gifted ELs were not as prepared for AP
classes as they should be because they lacked the reading and language skills
necessary to do well. School personnel also mentioned that a lack of study skills and
motivation to work hard and persist contributed to gifted ELs’ lack of success in AP
courses. This necessitates an examination of the support systems that are available for
gifted ELs enrolled in AP classes in order to determine the extent to which programs
need to be developed, improved, and expanded to better support gifted EL students in
AP programs and to ensure that failure is not an option.
This study revealed that, although students who were interested in participating
in AP classes were able to enroll, the primary criterion for student enrollment was
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teacher recommendation. The teachers at this site identified the students who they
perceived had the traits and skills necessary to enroll in AP courses. Their decisions
determined who they would recommend and admit in their AP classes. This calls for
district and school policymakers to reconsider how the enrollment criteria are utilized
to admit or deny gifted and non-gifted EL participation in AP courses. Teacher
perceptions of their students, especially those they perceived to not qualify for
enrollment, may affect the extent to which EL students participate in AP classes aside
from the AP Spanish course. If students are allowed participation into AP classes
through open enrollment, which the College Board (2002) supports, then district and
school administrators and school personnel need to examine the types of support
systems that are in place, and available, to ensure that gifted ELs and other interested
students succeed in AP courses.
School personnel’s comments about the AP Spanish class having higher
passing rates than other AP courses on the AP exams has implications for
investigating why these students were doing well on the AP Spanish exam while
students in other AP courses, including native speakers of English, were not.
Considering that the ethnic population on this campus was 75 percent Hispanic, these
findings require an analysis of the ways in which students are being prepared for AP
classes, the instructional strategies utilized in AP courses, and how students are
supported once they do enroll in AP classes.
Careful thought should be given to how schools can improve their ability to
provide students with information about the different academic paths they can choose
from and how their choices lead to different outcomes. Schools must take the
226
responsibility for explicitly guiding students toward creating an academic road map
that will allow them to analyze their academic choices, and the effect of those choices,
throughout their school career and long after they have graduated. These academic
road maps might guide students to making informed decisions that will affect their
academic endeavors.
Literature on the perceptions that gifted ELs hold towards AP courses and how
these perceptions affect their interest and participation in AP courses is nonexistent.
All six students reported that participating in the AP program was a positive aspect of
their education, but their ability to do well depended largely on how they perceived
themselves as learners. Student comments revealed that the participants attributed
their academic success or failure in AP courses primarily to perceived personal traits.
It is important to examine why the students in this study, or others like them,
perceived their success or failure to be tied to their own personal characteristics.
Given that they were satisfied with their teachers, the student respondents appeared to
place the sole responsibility of their success or failure on themselves rather than on
school personnel or on other institutional structures within the school site.
This knowledge is an indication of the continued efforts that school personnel
must make in order to encourage, motivate, prepare, and support all gifted ELs in
developing a college-going identity that will provide students with the confidence and
the skills necessary to achieve in an AP classroom. In addition, educators must help
students develop goal orientation strategies that will allow students to become active
in the decisions they make about coursework and the programs they choose to enroll
in. Educators must take an active role in teaching students to be self-advocates so that
227
they do not rely solely on their teachers and other school personnel to choose their
academic career paths for them. This is especially crucial given that the research
findings revealed that school personnel influenced students’ academic decisions much
more than their parents did.
Data results indicated that the language and culture of the student participants
was not integrated into the classroom curriculum or campus activities, but rather,
integration was cited as happening primarily in the AP Spanish class. It should be
considered that the AP Spanish class might have been the first time the gifted Spanish
speaking ELs in this study experienced their language and culture as valuable and
worthy of study in the academic classroom. More needs to be done in order to ensure
that the use of students’ language occurs as a means for academic development rather
than for translating information during school events and for students in the classroom.
District and school personnel may use this information to examine the ways in
which the language and the culture of the gifted EL student can be incorporated into
classroom lessons and campus activities. These actions will support the integration of
the academic identity of the students with their language and cultural identity, thus
validating who they are as individuals and as students. Cummins’ (1986) theoretical
framework for empowering minority students supports the integration of students’
language and culture for the purpose of empowering minority students and for
supporting their academic achievement. Cummins advocates the development of new
pedagogy that utilizes students’ language and culture to guide their own learning and
their construction of knowledge. Engaging students in the use of their language and
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culture may serve to support their English language and literacy development, which
has been found to be crucial for the success of gifted ELs in AP courses.
This study revealed that five out of the six gifted EL participants in this study
had been enrolled in schools in the United States since pre-kindergarten or first grade,
and are, by definition, long-term English learners (Callahan, 2005). It is necessary to
analyze the reasons why these English learners who have also been identified as gifted
had not yet been reclassified as English proficient before beginning their high school
careers. Examining programs for ELs at the elementary and middle school level and
how they might be improved to support the language and literacy development of
gifted ELs is a worthwhile task in order to reclassify more gifted ELs before entering
high school.
School and district personnel can further support EL students by examining the
gifted programs these students are enrolled in to determine how they are being
challenged academically. Consideration must be given to the fact that it was difficult
to locate a high number of gifted Spanish speaking ELs at the high school level to
participate in this study. This impresses upon decision makers at the district and high
school level to examine their gifted identification policies in order to allow for the
identification of Spanish speaking English learners for gifted programs regardless of
their English language proficiency.
Finally, student and school personnel responses revealed that gifted ELs and
their families perceived their lack of financial means as a barrier for obtaining a
college education, particularly an education at a four-year college. Responses from
school personnel and students indicated that school personnel made concerted efforts
229
to motivate and encourage their students to enroll in four year colleges, and that they
should not limit their opportunities as a result of financial constraints. The district has
the responsibility of supporting the efforts of school personnel in ensuring that
students continue to receive as much information as possible about financial aid
opportunities so that the high aspirations expressed by the students and their parents
are an achievable life-long dream.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of this study include the small number of gifted Spanish
speaking English Learners and school personnel that participated in this investigation.
Furthermore, the participants in this study attended a high school complex that had
been divided into six small individual schools, each with its own student population,
staff, and administrators. This school setting is not typical of high schools in
California. This fact, coupled with such a small number of student and school
personnel participants, does not allow for a broad generalization of the results in this
study. Nevertheless, although this school site is not typical in structure, it has
elements of the educational process found in comprehensive public high schools.
Suggestions for Further Research
This research study focused on uncovering the contextual factors of the
schooling process that might hinder or support the participation of gifted Spanish
speaking English Learners in Advanced Placement programs. Given the small number
of student participants, it is recommended that, provided the time and resources, this
study be continued with a larger number of students in other contexts such as
comprehensive high school settings that are more typical of schools in California,
230
charter schools, and settings where Spanish speaking ELs are not the majority.
Responses from a larger population of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in a variety of
school settings might provide different perspectives about how different school
contexts affect the enrollment of gifted ELs in AP programs. Considerations must be
given to the AP enrollment criteria, which may vary from district to district and from
school to school. This knowledge can help inform the educational community,
including policy makers, about how AP programs can be made more accessible to
gifted Spanish speaking EL students and how they can be supported to ensure their
success in college preparatory courses. Replicating this study might provide
knowledge that is more generalizeable across high schools in California.
In addition, this study aimed to investigate the perceptions that gifted Spanish
speaking ELs have towards AP programs that might influence their interest and
participation in AP programs. Given the absence of research in these areas, replicating
this study with a larger number of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in different high
school settings might better inform the educational community about how student
perceptions, along with family, peer, and school personnel influences, combine to
affect the enrollment and participation of gifted Spanish speaking ELs in AP
programs.
Further considerations should be given to replicating this study with other
gifted English learners from other ethnic groups representing the diversity of
languages spoken in our California public schools. This knowledge might shed light
on whether other EL students in schools with similar contexts have similar academic
and social experiences as well as similar perceptions of AP programs. This
231
information might help inform the educational community, including policymakers,
about support systems that might benefit different language groups that attend high
schools where Spanish speaking ELs may or may not be the majority.

232
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245
APPENDIX A

University of Southern California (USC)
Luz Torres
Student Survey Questions
Please respond to the following questions as thoroughly as possible.

Name _____________________________________________________________________ _

Age ______ Grade Level ________ Gender (circle one): Male Female

1. Ethnic Background
 Mexican
 Mexican-American
 Central American
 South American
 Other _____________________________

2. What language did you learn to speak first?
 Spanish
 English
 Other _____________________________

3. What other languages do you speak?
 Spanish
 English
 French
 Italian
 Other ______________________________

4. Where was your mother born? __________________________________________

5. Where was your father born? __________________________________________

6. Where were you born? _______________________________________________

7. In what grade did you first attend school in the United States? ____________

8. Did you attend school in your native country? ___________If yes, up to what grade
were you in school? _________________________ (If applicable)

9. What is the highest level of education that your mother completed? Circle grade
completed
 Elementary School K 1 2 3 4 5
 Middle School 6 7 8
 High School 9 10 11 12
 Some College
246
 College
 Other _________________________________

10. What is the highest level of education that your father completed?
 Elementary School K 1 2 3 4 5
 Middle School 6 7 8
 High School 9 10 11 12
 Some College
 College
 Other _________________________________

11. Please list any Honors classes or AP classes that you have taken in the past.

12. Please list any Honors classes or AP classes that you are participating in this school
year.

247
13. Please list any Honors classes or AP classes that you plan on taking in the future.

14. Please list any ELD/ESL classes, bilingual classes, or sheltered instruction classes
that you have taken in the past or that you are taking this coming school year.

PAST THIS SCHOOL YEAR

248
Luz Torres
Semi-structured Interview
(Interview Guide Approach –Patton, 2002, p.349)

Contextual Factors of the Schooling Process that Affect Enrollment in AP Classes

Affiliation Questions

1. Tell me about your school. How do you feel about coming to school or being
here in school?
a. What do you like/dislike about it?
b. What has been your overall experience in this school?

2. In what ways have your teachers been supportive and helpful in making sure
that you do well in school/AP classes?
a. Are you comfortable asking them for help? Why or why not?

3. How often do you seek help from your teachers, from after school tutoring, or
from other available before or after school academic programs?
a. In what ways has this help or support benefited you?

4. In what ways is your language and culture integrated into classroom lessons,
and into school activities or events?

The AP Program

5. What do you know about AP courses (requirements for enrollment, the purpose
of AP, the advantages/disadvantages of taking AP courses)?
a. How did you get this information?
b. Who do you talk this information over with?

6. Who takes AP courses?
a. Do you consider yourself one of those students (smart, school boy,
studious, high achiever, etc.)

7. How important is it to you to take AP courses?

8. Why are you taking AP courses? Why are you not taking AP courses?

9. Which school personnel, teachers, counselors, administrators, have been most
influential in your decisions to take/not take AP courses?

10. I understand that you are identified as gifted, how do you feel about being
gifted?
a. How do you feel about being gifted and an English Learner?
b. How has being gifted and an EL influenced your decision to enroll
249
in AP courses?

11. How have your teachers and the courses you’ve taken, including
ELD/Bilingual/Sheltered/SDAIE courses, prepared you for AP level course
work?
a. How do you feel about your ability to take AP courses and do well in
them?

12. What school or district rules or regulations have allowed you or prevented you
from participating or enrolling in AP courses?
-tracking practices, standardized test scores, AP entrance criteria such as
teacher recommendations, grade point average, placement tests, etc.

College-Going Culture

13. How important is it to you to go to college after high school?

14. How informed are you about college requirements, college field trip
opportunities, college fairs, and financial aid?

a. How informed are your parents?
b. Who gave you this information?
c. How do you access or obtain this information?

Peer Influences

15. How important is taking AP classes to your friends?

16. In what ways have your friends or classmates influenced your decision to enroll
in AP classes?

Parent/Guardian Influences and Knowledge of AP Courses

17. How have your parents/guardians shown their support for your education?

18. Who has provided your parents/guardians with information about AP classes?

19. How important is it to your parents/guardians that you take AP courses?

20. In what ways have your parents/guardians influenced your decision to enroll in
AP classes?

21. How important is it to your parents/guardians that you got to college?

250
Influences of and Relationship to School Personnel
22. Describe your relationship with your counselors. In what ways are they
supportive and doing all they can to help you succeed in school/AP classes?
a. Are you comfortable asking them for help? Why or why not?

23. Describe your relationship with administrators and other school personnel. In
what ways are they supportive and doing all they can to help you succeed in
school/AP classes?
a. Are you comfortable asking them for help? Why or why not?

This concludes our interview. Is there anything that you want to add about AP classes
or about your high school academic experience that I may not have asked about?

I want to thank you for taking the time to talk to me. Your experiences have provided
valuable information for my study. I appreciate your participation.

251
APPENDIX B

University of Southern California (USC)
Luz Torres

Teacher Survey

Please respond to the following survey as thoroughly as possible.
Name _____________________________________________________________________ _

School Site__________________________________________________________________

Subject/s Taught
___________________________________________________________________________

Grade Level/s Taught ______________ Gender (circle one): Male Female

Years of teaching experience at the high school level_______________

1. Ethnic Background
 White
 Hispanic or Latino
 African-American
 Asian
 Other _____________________________

2. Specialized credentials held
 BCLAD
 CLAD
 Other __________________________________

3. What special training have you received for meeting the academic and language needs
of English Learners in the classroom? (i.e. SIOP, CALLA, GLAD, ELD, SDAIE, etc.)

4. Please list specific strategies that you have found to be successful with the EL
students you have worked with.

252
Luz Torres
Teacher Semi-structured Interview
(Interview Guide Approach –Patton, 2002, p.349)

Teacher attitudes and beliefs that influence their perceptions of ELs in AP classes
1. I want to talk to you about the appropriateness of EL students enrolling in AP
classes through open enrollment. What are your thoughts on that?
2. What are the profiles of the students that participate in AP classes here at your
site?
3. To what extent do gifted Spanish speaking EL students participate in AP
classes?
4. How are EL students and their parents informed of the benefits of AP classes
and enrollment requirements?
5. What school or district policies have allowed or prevented gifted Spanish
speaking ELs from participating in AP courses?
-tracking practices, standardized test scores, AP entrance criteria such as
teacher recommendations, grade point average, placement tests, etc.
6. How prepared are EL students for the rigors of AP level coursework?
a. How prepared are gifted EL students for the rigors of AP level
coursework?
7. To what extent are gifted EL students enrolled in ELD/SDAIE/English
Immersion programs equally prepared for enrolling in AP classes as those
students taking regular courses?
253
8. What types of before or after school programs, tutoring, mentoring, or outreach
programs are available to students who need additional academic support to do
well in their AP classes?
9. What programs are available for specifically for EL students enrolled in AP
classes?
a. How frequently or to what extent do gifted EL students seek out help
from such programs?
10. What is your role in providing EL students enrolled in AP classes with the
support needed to help them do well in AP classes?
11. In what ways is the language and culture of the Spanish speaking gifted student
integrated into the classroom curriculum?
a. In what ways is it integrated into school activities, events, and the
school culture in general?
College-Going Culture

12. How informed are gifted Spanish speaking ELs about college requirements,
college field trip opportunities, college fairs, and financial aid?
-How informed are the parents of EL students?
-How do students/parents access this information?

13. How important is it to gifted Spanish speaking ELs to attend college after high
school?
Peer Influences
14. Who do gifted Spanish speaking EL students befriend or hang out with?
-How important is taking AP classes to these friends?
254
15. To what extent do friends influence gifted Spanish speaking ELs’ decision to
enroll in AP classes?
Teacher perceptions of parents of ELs
16. How do the parents/guardians of gifted Spanish speaking EL students show
their support for their children’s education?

17. To what extent do parents of gifted Spanish speaking ELs show interest in
having their children enroll in college preparation courses such as AP?
18. To what extent do parents show interest in having their children attend
college?
a. What is the extent of their participation in school activities and events?
19. Overall, what is the extent to which parents of EL students influence their
children’s decision to enroll in AP classes?
This concludes our interview. Is there anything that you want to add about gifted EL
students in AP courses?

I want to thank you for taking the time to talk to me. Your experiences have provided
valuable information for my study. I appreciate your participation.

255
APPENDI X C

Luz Torres
School Personnel Semi-structured Interview
(Interview Guide Approach –Patton, 2002, p.349)

Information on AP Programs and EL Involvement
1. What is your role as AP Program Coordinator, ELL /Bilingual Coordinator,
GATE Coordinator, Counselor?
2. What are your thoughts on the appropriateness of EL students enrolling in AP
classes through open enrollment?
3. What are the profiles of the students that participate in AP classes here at your
site?
4. To what extent are gifted Spanish speaking EL students encouraged to
participate in AP classes?
a. To what extent do gifted Spanish speaking ELs participate in AP classes?
5. What school or district policies have allowed or prevented gifted Spanish
speaking ELs from participating in AP courses?
-tracking practices, standardized test scores, AP entrance criteria such as
teacher recommendations, grade point average, placement tests, etc.
6. How prepared are gifted Spanish speaking EL students for the rigors of AP
level coursework?
7. To what extent are gifted Spanish speaking EL students enrolled in
ELD/SDAIE/English Immersion programs equally prepared for enrolling in
AP classes as those students taking regular courses?
256
8. What types of before or after school programs, tutoring, mentoring, or outreach
programs are available to students who need additional academic support to do
well in their AP classes?
9. What programs are available for specifically for EL students enrolled in AP
classes?
a. How frequently or to what extent do gifted EL students seek out help
from such programs?
10. What is your role in providing EL students enrolled in AP classes with the
support needed to help them do well in AP classes?
11. In what ways is the language and culture of the Spanish speaking gifted student
integrated into the classroom curriculum?
College-Going Culture

12. How informed are gifted Spanish speaking ELs about college requirements,
college field trip opportunities, college fairs, and financial aid?
-How informed are their parents?
-How do students/parents access this information?

13. How important is it to gifted Spanish speaking ELs to attend college after high
school?
Peer Influences
14. Who do gifted Spanish speaking EL students befriend or hang out with?
-How important is taking AP classes to these friends?
15. To what extent do friends influence gifted Spanish speaking ELs’ decision to
enroll in AP classes?
257
Information on Parent Awareness and Involvement
16. How are EL students and their parents informed of the benefits of AP classes
and enrollment requirements?
17. To what extent do parents of gifted Spanish speaking ELs show interest in
having their children enroll in college preparation courses such as AP?
18. To what extent do parents show interest in having their children attend
college?
a. What is the extent of their participation in school activities and events?
19. Overall, what is the extent to which parents of EL students influence their
children’s decision to enroll in AP classes?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study sought to uncover the contextual factors of the schooling process that affect the enrollment of gifted Spanish speaking English Learners (ELs) in Advanced Placement (AP) courses. In addition, this study investigated the perceptions of gifted Spanish speaking ELs toward AP courses and how these perceptions might affect their participation in AP courses. Six student participants and two teachers of EL students completed a short survey and responded to questions that asked specifically about what students and their parents know about AP courses, college requirements, financial aid, and how they accessed this information. One school counselor participated in the interview, but did not participate in the survey.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Torres, Luz Adriana (author)

Core Title Gifted Spanish speaking English learners' participation in advanced placement programs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2010-08

Publication Date 08/02/2010

Defense Date 06/28/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag English Learners and AP courses,gifted English Learners,gifted English Learners and AP courses,gifted Spanish speaking English Learners,OAI-PMH Harvest

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kaplan, Sandra N. (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee member), Stillman, Jamy (committee member)

Creator Email luztorre@usc.edu,usdlmu@msn.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3248

Unique identifier UC1161892

Identifier etd-Torres-3996 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-361985 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3248 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Torres-3996.pdf

Dmrecord 361985

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Torres, Luz Adriana

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu