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Underrepresented and underserved: barriers to academic success for students of color in higher education

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Underrepresented and underserved: barriers to academic success for students of color in higher education

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Underrepresented and Underserved: Barriers to Academic Success
for Students of Color in Higher Education
by
Colleen Marshall Leigh

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2021

© Copyright by Colleen Marshall Leigh 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Colleen Marshall Leigh certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Briana Hinga
Alexandra Wilcox
Bryant Adibe, Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv
Abstract
Students of color are a growing population at institutions of higher education (IHEs) in the
United States; however, they are not graduating at the same rates as their White peers. This
evaluation study explored the barriers that affect the academic success of students of color in
higher education. Using a mixed-methods design, this study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis framework centered on student knowledge (K), student motivation (M), and
organizational (O) influences. The study was anchored with a quantitative survey with 43 student
participants and incorporated semi-structured interviews with seven student participants. All
participants came from a northeast institution and volunteered to be part of this study. The results
of the study indicated that help-seeking, campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty mentoring,
and student engagement are areas that affect the academic success of students of color. The
findings of this study will be used to improve the experiences of students of color and increase
graduation rates.
Keywords: students of color, underrepresentation, higher education, academic success

v
Dedication
To my dad: I started this doctoral journey with you by my side, and although you are no longer
here, I know you are watching over me every day. You helped me cross this dissertation finish
line. I know you are looking down on me beaming with pride for your Beans—now, Dr. Beans! I
miss you every single day, Dad. Until we meet again…I love you.

vi
Acknowledgments
To my dissertation committee members, this would not be possible without your
guidance. Dr. Hinga, for keeping the interest of the students at the center of everything and
making me think about how to approach my study in a way that best serves them. Dr. Wilcox,
the queen of KMO, for walking me through each chapter and assisting me with how to best
utilize KMO to guide my study. To my chair, Dr. Adibe, also known as Dr. A., you provided me
with support and direction exactly when I needed it the most.
To the P-School students. Thank you for providing me with your time and sharing your
experiences to help improve the P-School for future students.
To my wonderful cohort 12 classmates. All of us were in this together, and we helped
each other throughout this doctoral program. The outpouring of support we had for one another
has made me proud to call you all my Trojan family. Let's fight on!
To my sugar chips crew: Kate, Lisa, Rosana, Liz, and Amanda. I am so happy we met at
our first immersion weekend and then decided to try and take every class together! It’s been an
amazing three years getting to know each of you and I can’t wait see how all of you progress in
life and in your career following this program. Congratulations, doctors!
To my dissertation empowerment group: Alia, Helen, Lisa, Patricia, and Stephanie.
Thank you for our zoom meet-ups, text messages, and all the support. Throughout the program
we kept telling each other that we got this, and look at us now—we did this! Congratulations,
doctors!
To my dear friend, Liz Starr. Your friendship and support has carried me through this
doctoral journey. I could not have done this without your encouragement along the way. Our
daily MPs, GIFs, texts, recipes, and updates on anything and everything, has been a true
vii
blessing. You may no longer be my USC classmate, but instead, I now consider you my family.
Thank you for everything. Let’s SIWN and MP this next phase of life, Dr. Liz Starr!
To my parents, who instilled in me the value of education, determination, and
perseverance. My mother, my nanay, you put your dream of a doctorate on hold to raise me as a
young child. Thank you for everything that you did and continue to do for me. I could not have
completed this dissertation without your love and support. My father, my daddy, I wish you were
here to celebrate this achievement. I would give anything to hear you say, “Good job, Beans,”
and see you clap as I walk across the stage. Thank you for always believing in me and being so
proud of everything I do. I love you!
To my husband, David. When I was thinking about pursuing my doctorate, without
hesitation, you said, do it! Your unwavering support for me has been amazing. Thank you for
understanding when I was stressed out or had to lock myself in the house to work on this
dissertation. Your encouragement during these last three years (four years, if you count the
application process) helped me pursue my dream of becoming Dr. Colleen Leigh. I could not
have done this without you. I look forward to beginning this next phase of our life together. I
love you!

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 1
Positionality Statement ........................................................................................................ 2
Organizational Performance Status ..................................................................................... 2
Organizational Goal ............................................................................................................. 3
Related Literature ................................................................................................................ 3
Importance of Addressing the Problem ............................................................................... 6
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 6
Organizational Mission ........................................................................................................ 7
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 8
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ..................................................... 8
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 9
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................. 11
Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................................... 12
Barriers to the Success of Students of Color ..................................................................... 12
Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................................... 30
Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework ........................................................................ 32
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 44
Chapter Three: Methodology ......................................................................................................... 45
ix
Overview of Design ........................................................................................................... 45
Research Setting ................................................................................................................ 46
Data Sources ...................................................................................................................... 47
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 47
Instrumentation .................................................................................................................. 49
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................... 50
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 51
Reliability and Validity ..................................................................................................... 53
The Researcher .................................................................................................................. 54
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 55
Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................. 57
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 57
Research ............................................................................................................................. 60
Findings ........................................................................................................................... 117
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 128
Chapter Five: Recommendations ................................................................................................. 129
Recommendations for Practice ........................................................................................ 129
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 136
Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................... 138
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 139
References ................................................................................................................................... 142
Appendix A: Interview Information Fact Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical Research ................. 171
Appendix B: Survey Protocol ...................................................................................................... 174
Appendix C: Overview of Coding Process .................................................................................. 180
Appendix D: Interview Protocol .................................................................................................. 181
x
Appendix E: Survey Information Fact Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical Research ...................... 183
Appendix F: List of Codes ........................................................................................................... 185

xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Knowledge Influence on Students 35
Table 2: Motivational Influences on Students 37
Table 3: Organizational Influences on Students 43
Table 4: Research Questions and Data Sources 46
Table 5: Race/Ethnicity of Survey Participants, Class of 2020, and P-School At-Large 58
Table 6: Gender of Survey Participants 59
Table 7: Interview Participants’ Pseudonyms, Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Length
of Interview 59
Table 8: Assumed Influences 61
Table 9: Assumed Knowledge Influences 62
Table 10: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Knowledge Question for Help-Seeking 73
Table 11: Validation Status for Knowledge Influences 73
Table 12: Assumed Motivation Influences 75
Table 13: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Motivation Question for
Expectancy-Value 77
Table 14: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Motivation Question for Self-Efficacy 80
Table 15: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Motivation Question for
Self-Regulation 83
Table 16: Validation Status for Motivation Influences 86
Table 17: Assumed Organizational Influences 87
Table 18: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Campus
Climate 90
Table 19: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Sense
of Belonging 104

xii
Table 20: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Faculty
Mentoring 106
Table 21: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Student
Engagement 111
Table 22: Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for
Financial Aid 112
Table 23: Validation Status for Organizational Influences 116
Table 24: Validated Influences 122
Table 25: Students of Color Validated Influences 127

xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Factors That Influence Academic Success of Students of Color 31
Figure 2: Overall Survey Responses to Question 27 64
Figure 3: Overall Survey Responses to Question 27 by Race/Ethnicity 65
Figure 4: Overall Survey Responses to Question 4 76
Figure 5: Overall Survey Responses to Question 10 79
Figure 6: Overall Survey Responses to Question 9 82
Figure 7: Overall Survey Responses to Question 18 89
Figure 8: Overall Survey Responses to Question 19 102
Figure 9: Breakdown of Responses to Question 19 by Race/Ethnicity 103
Figure 10: Overall Responses to Question 24 105

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Students of color are a rapidly growing demographic at institutions of higher education
(IHEs). The U.S. Department of Education estimates a 27% increase in students of color by 2027
(U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2018). However, students of color graduate at a lower
rate than White students. NCES data indicate the 6-year graduation rate at four-year post-
secondary institutions for White students entering in 2010 and graduating in 2016 is 64%, while
Black, Hispanic, Pacific Islander, and Native American students fail to reach 55% (U.S.
Department of Education, NCES, 2017). Also, the experiences of students of color vastly differs
from the experiences of their White counterparts (Harper & Hurtado, 2007; Rankin & Reason,
2005). Research suggests that although institutions have become more diverse, the campus
climate and culture has not changed along with it. At predominantly white institutions, students
of color experience various forms of racism (Harper et al. 2011; Solorzano et al., 2000; Yosso, et
al., 2009). This unwelcoming environment has contributed to unfavorable consequences for
students of color such as low academic performance, an increase in stress, and an increase in
health issues (Smith et al., 2007; Worthington et al., 2008). As IHEs continue to enroll more
students of color, they will need to understand how to improve the campus environment and
educational outcomes for underserved and underrepresented groups.
Organizational Context and Mission
This research study focuses on the Professional School (P-School, a pseudonym), an
institution of higher education located in the northeast part of the United States. This study
addresses the barriers affecting the academic success of students of color in higher education.
The P-School student body comprises 47 % of students of color, and it is critical that the school

2
removes any institutional obstacles that may prevent students of color from being successful
students. The mission statement of P-School is as follows:
The P-School prepares students from diverse backgrounds. We are rooted in the core
skills and ethics of a professional school. We serve our communities by sharing our
research. We serve our profession by graduating students with professional skills to help
build a sustainable future.
P-School’s mission statement emphasizes the need to diversify the industry and how this
school will be the vehicle for that diversity. Their mission statement highlights their focus to
graduate students of color to meet a broader mission of diversifying the industry and providing a
voice to communities of color.
Positionality Statement
As a senior management leader at the school where the research occurred, a former
professional in the same industry as the P-School teaches its students, and as someone who
graduated from a similar school, the researcher was considered a partial insider. The role of the
researcher in this study is explained in Chapter Three.
Organizational Performance Status
P-School administration has reported that in 2019, transgender students were upset that
the school did not have gender neutral bathrooms to account for gender diversity within the
student body. In addition, a group of students attended a diversity committee meeting and shared
a PowerPoint presentation detailing accounts of racial micro- and macroaggressions, the specific
faculty involved in those incidents, as well as their perspective that there was an overall lack of
support from faculty at P-School. The administration also reported that there was student
backlash regarding a P-School Veteran’s Day social media post. A group of students viewed the

3
post as pro-U.S. military and stated that the post was insensitive of the student body since many
P-School students are affected or have families affected by the U.S. military in their home
countries. Finally, a Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) consultant was hired to conduct
facilitated discussions and survey the students, alumni, faculty, and staff to assess the
experiences, perceptions, and needs of marginalized groups within the P-School.
Organizational Goal
The P-School’s strategic plan was completed in 2018. The strategic plan priority areas are
curriculum innovation, preparation for the job market, diversifying the faculty and student body,
fundraising, facilities, and leadership changes. The organizational performance goals for
administration are to hold diversity trainings for staff to better understand how to serve students
of color and increase their academic success, expand student financial support to include living
stipends, and seek new funding. The organizational performance goals for faculty are to provide
diversity trainings for the faculty body, incorporate a DEI lens into their curriculum, implement
best practices in their classrooms, and increase the diversity of their adjuncts and full-time
faculty. Finally, the organizational performance goals for students are to participate on faculty
and staff search committees and engage in schoolwide programming and initiatives aimed at
increasing a sense of belonging on-campus. The P-School aims to achieve these goals by the
beginning of 2023.
Related Literature
Many studies focus on the shortfalls of students of color, rather than taking a
comprehensive examination into the institutional gaps that affect their academic success.
Determining which factors affect the academic success of students of color is critical to

4
improving their educational outcomes. Five areas are essential to address in this research study:
campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty mentoring, learning behaviors, and financial aid.
A welcoming and supportive campus climate is important to student of color success.
Hussain and Jones (2019) suggested that students of color at a racially diverse campus feel more
supported and less isolated as compared to students at Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs.)
A positive campus climate for students of color may be attributed to institutions having a diverse
faculty body. Studies show that Black and Hispanic students have higher graduation rates when
taught by faculty of color (Umbach, 2006). A study comparing Black male student success at
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and non-HBCUs indicates that HBCUs
surpass non-HBCUs by 14% in graduating Black male students and surpass non-HBCUs by 15%
in graduating Black female students (Richards & Awokoya, 2012). Also, HSIs grant more
college degrees to Hispanic students than all other IHEs combined (Harmon, 2012).
A sense of belonging is a critical aspect for students of color. Studies indicate that a sense
of belonging in college increases through positive relationships with diverse populations and
faculty interest in students (Johnson et al., 2007; Maestas et al., 2007; Nuñez, 2009). Hussain and
Jones (2019) found that sense of belonging increases when students of color engage with their
peers outside of the classroom and helps the students feel more connected to the institution. The
institution’s commitment to diversity and campus diversity issues also increases the sense of
belonging (Hussain & Jones, 2019).
Faculty support and mentoring is important for all students, but especially for students of
color who experience a hostile campus environment. The evidence highlights Black and
Hispanic students’ academic success increases when they have faculty support (Hurtado, 2001).
More than one in three HBCU Black graduates strongly agrees that they had a professor who

5
supported and mentored them while in school compared to only 12% of Black non-HBCU
graduates (Richards & Awokoya, 2012). HBCU Black graduates recalled having professors who
cared about them as compared to non-HBCU black graduates (Richards & Awokoya, 2012).
Nelson Laird et al. (2007) found that Black students at HBCUs experienced considerably more
support and faculty interaction than Black students at PWIs.
Student engagement is also important for students of color. On-campus student
organizations are opportunities for students to get involved with the community and create
connections. Research shows that participation in student organizations also provides students
with the chance to meet and engage with faculty and staff at the school (Museus et al., 2008).
Astin’s (1999) involvement theory indicates that student involvement increases satisfaction and
assists with persistence to graduation. Research also shows that student engagement increases
when Black and Hispanic students interact with faculty of color. HBCU Black graduates are
more than twice as likely as non-HBCU Black graduates to recall experiencing motivation to
achieve their goals, social well-being, financial well-being, a sense of engagement at school, and
physical well-being (Gallup, 2015). Dayton et al. (2004) state that Hispanic faculty and staff are
significant in the academic success and social integration of Hispanic students.
Financial aid is another aspect that is important to persistence to graduation. Studies
indicate that receiving financial aid to attend school helps improve a student’s access to college
and completion (Dynarski and Scott-Clayton, 2013). Hu (2010) found that financial support in
school affects the school choice for students of color and, once enrolled, assists students of color
in becoming more engaged with their institution.
The literature indicates that these areas have an impact, positively or negatively, on
students of color and their academic success. P-School states that it serves as a leader in diversity

6
with a mission to increase diversity within the writing industry. If P-School can improve these
five specific aspects for students of color, these changes will support the academic performance
of students of color and increase graduation rates while assisting P-School in achieving its
mission.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
This problem is important to address, as the U.S population is increasing in diversity. The
U.S. Census forecasts by 2044 individuals identifying as White will make up less than 40% of
the population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). In 2017, people of color represented over 50% of the
U.S. population (U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2017; U.S. Census Bureau, 2017). By
2060, approximately one in five people in the United States will be foreign-born (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2015).
As the United States becomes more diverse, the student population at IHEs is
diversifying. But although there is an increase in diversity, institutions nationwide struggle to
retain and graduate students of color to the same degree as their White peers (Duranczyk et al.,
2004). National data about graduation rates by race indicates imbalances between students of
color and their peers. At four-year institutions, the six-year completion rates show that African
American and Hispanic students were the least likely to graduate (Shapiro et al., 2017).
Institutions need to understand how they can better serve their students of color as this is
essential to improve their graduation rates.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The three stakeholder groups that will contribute to achieving the organizational goal are
the administration, the faculty, and the students. The administration is important to achieving this
goal since they are involved in finding new funding resources and will participate in diversity

7
training to help create a more inclusive and welcoming campus climate. The faculty are crucial
as they will also participate in diversity training which will improve the campus climate. Also, as
more diverse faculty are hired, the faculty will better represent the student body they serve. The
students are the key contributors to achieving this organizational goal.
Organizational Mission
The organizational mission is to successfully prepare students from diverse backgrounds
to build a sustainable future.
Organizational Goal
By 2023, the P-School aims to implement its 2018 strategic plan priority areas to
successfully impact the academic success of its students of color.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Stakeholder performance goals are divided into three groups: administrators, faculty, and
students.
P-School Administrators
By 2023, the P-School administrators will hold diversity trainings for staff to better
understand how to serve students of color and increase their academic success. The
administrators will also expand student financial support to include living stipends, and they will
seek new funding.
P-School Faculty
By 2023, the P-School faculty will provide diversity trainings for the faculty body, will
incorporate a DEI lens into their curriculum, and will implement best practices in their
classrooms. They will also increase the diversity of their adjuncts and full-time faculty.

8
Stakeholders of Focus
The collective efforts of all the stakeholder groups are important to achieve the
organizational goal. However, the combined efforts ultimately aim to assist in improving the
academic success of the students. The diversity training of administration and faculty will
improve the campus climate for students. In addition, the increase in faculty diversity will
improve the representation of faculty at the school, which will help with student engagement and
allow for faculty-student mentoring opportunities. Therefore, the stakeholder of focus for this
study are the students.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of the study is to evaluate the factors perceived by students of color that
impede their academic success and explore strategies to improve their relationships with faculty.
Specifically, this study examines the impact of those relationships on student outcomes through
the lens of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework centered on student knowledge
(K), student motivation (M), and organizational (O) influences surrounding P-School policies
and practices.
The following questions guide this study.
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the
academic success of students of color?
2. What are the experiences of students of color at IHEs?
3. How do faculty impact the academic success of students of color?
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study utilizes the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to identify P-
School’s performance deficiencies in students of color knowledge (K) and motivation (M), as

9
well as the organizational influences (O) impacting the retention and graduation rates of students
of color (collectively, the KMO influences). The KMO gap analysis framework focuses on
factors that create a substandard performance. The gap analysis framework aligns with assessing
student knowledge and motivation along with the organizational influences affecting retention
and graduation rates at the P-School for students of color.
The research methodology utilized in this study is a mixed-methods approach anchored
by a quantitative survey aligned with recommendations by Creswell and Creswell (2018). The
quantitative survey provides a quick overview of the student experiences at the P-School, while
the qualitative interviews provide an in-depth look into those experiences.
Definition of Terms
Words and terms often have various meanings depending upon the context in which they
appear. The definitions provided below detail critical terms utilized throughout this study and are
specific to higher education.
• Campus Climate is the extent to which an institution is inclusive of racial or ethnic
diversity, the amount of diverse representation, the attitudes, and perceptions between
groups, and the behavior of groups at the institution (Hurtado et al., 1998).
• Expectancy-Value refers to choosing to undertake challenges if one values the challenge
and expects to succeed (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002).
• Faculty of Color, as defined by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
includes Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native
(U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2019).
• Help-Seeking is a sequence of actions involved in solving a problem, including
identification of the problem, pursuing assistance for the problem, engaging in assistance,

10
and partaking in treatment or support (Dearing & Twaragowski, 2010; Menna & Ruck,
2004).
• Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), as defined by the Higher
Education Act (HEA), are accredited degree-granting historically Black colleges and
universities founded before 1964, whose mission is to educate Black Americans (U.S.
Department of Education, White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and
Universities, n.d.).
• Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) is defined by the Higher Education Act (HEA), under
Title V, as accredited degree-granting colleges and universities that have at least 25% of
undergraduate Hispanic student enrollment (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
• Microaggressions refer to commonplace interactions that convey disparaging messages
to people of color, unintentional or intentional, because of the racial or ethnic group to
which they identify (Sue et al., 2007).
• Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) are “institutions of higher education that serve
minority populations” (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2020).
• Motivation is the study of action, specifically “on the relation of beliefs, values, and goals
with action” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 110).
• Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) are institutions where most of the students
enrolled are White students rather than students from underrepresented racial groups
(Bourke, 2016).
• Racial Battle Fatigue is defined as “the cumulative negative effect of racial
microaggressions on psychological, behavioral, and physiological outcomes” (Franklin,
2019).

11
• Self-Efficacy refers to one’s belief in accomplishing tasks to reach their goals (Bandura,
1977).
• Self-Regulation is the ability to assess one’s habits, set goals, and develop other options if
their initial strategy does not work (Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
• Sense of Belonging is defined as students’ mental and emotional connection to their
school community and perceived support from students, faculty, and staff on campus
(Strayhorn, 2012).
• Students of Color are defined as Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American
Indian/Alaska Native (NCES, 2018). Any student who identified as multiracial and listed
one of these race/ethnicity categories was considered a student of color for this study.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation includes five chapters. Chapter One offers an introduction to the
problem of practice and an overview of the theoretical framework and research methodology.
Chapter Two provides a review of relevant literature consisting of the changing demographics of
higher education, barriers to recruiting and retaining students of color, as well as the associated
KMO influences embedded within the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework. Chapter
Three discusses the methodology, the population and sample, data collection, and data analysis
procedures. Chapter Four provides findings and data analysis. Chapter Five provides a summary
of the findings, recommendations of strategies to improve the educational outcomes of students
of color based on data findings and relevant literature, and the limitations of the study.

12
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review examines the challenges of students of color at IHEs and how
faculty impact their academic success. A study of student success influences shows that the
persistence of students of color is greatly affected by the racial diversity at their institution (Kuh
et al., 2006). The populations of concern in this literature review focus on students of color,
which are defined in this study as Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, American
Indian/Alaska Native, and multiracial.
The literature revealed that the barriers to students of color are campus climate, sense of
belonging, faculty mentoring, learning behaviors, and financial aid, all of which affect the
students’ academic success. The review continues with a discussion of the conceptual framework
for this study. The chapter concludes by reviewing the literature on KMO gap analysis to
evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that alter the educational
outcomes of students of color.
Barriers to the Success of Students of Color
Institutions of higher education need to address the obstacles within their schools that
may deepen systemic barriers to academic success for students of color in higher education.
Studies show that certain aspects of an institution affect one’s academic success, such as the
campus climate, the feeling of a sense of belonging, faculty mentorship, learning behaviors,
student engagement, and financial aid while in school.
Campus Climate
Students of color often experience an adverse campus climate as compared to White
students. In a 2012 focus group study, Harwood et al. (2012) examined racial microaggressions
at a PWI and found over 70 microaggressions experienced by students of color, ranging from

13
racist jokes and racial slurs written throughout campus, unfair treatment, and the diminishing of
those racial comments. Rankin and Reason (2005) utilized a campus climate assessment tool and
surveyed students across ten campuses to see if students of color had different campus climate
experiences than their White counterparts. The results were that more than one-third of students
of color experienced harassment and felt the climate was racist or unwelcoming. Over one-
quarter of students of color felt the campus was not accepting of differences.
Microaggressions and Microinvalidations
In the same vein as microaggressions, there are microinvalidations that students of color
also experience. Microinvalidations refer to “verbal comments or behaviors that exclude, negate
or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person of color” (Sue
et al., 2007, p. 278). Subtle racial comments and bias frequently occur in the classroom, with
over half of students reporting an occurrence within the last 12 months (Boysen et al., 2009).
A University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign campus study surveyed 4,800 students of
color regarding racial microaggressions on-campus. The study showed that almost 40% of
students of color feel uncomfortable at the school because of their race. Also, over half of the
students of color experienced stereotyping in classes. In addition, one quarter believes they are
not taken seriously because of their race, and another quarter feel their class input was
diminished because of how they spoke (Harwood et al., 2015).
Microaggressions could also impede the academic success of students of color. Research
indicates that African American students who experienced consistent subtle bias had difficulty
processing information (Bair & Steele, 2010; Salvatore & Shelton, 2007).

14
Chilly Campus Climate
A chilly climate refers to an academic environment where specific groups of students
believe they are unseen by their institution (Flam, 1991). Browman and Destin (2016) conducted
three experiments to analyze whether a chilly climate affected the academic motivation of
students from low socioeconomic (SES) backgrounds. The results showed that the low-SES
students’ academic efficacy and cumulative GPA were affected by the chilly campus climate and
their perceptions of an unsupportive institution.
When campus diversity is low, students of color feel like tokens and experience more
stereotypes than if they attended a more diverse campus (Gay, 2004; Hurtado et al., 2008;
Solorzano et al., 2000). Stichman et al. (2010) state Kanter’s definition of tokenism is “a
subgroup, which represents less than 15 percent of the overall workgroup that is perceived to be
different from the rest of the group” (p. 633).
In a more extensive study, the researchers received approximately 9,000 responses from
58 institutions that participated in the Diverse Learning Environments (DLE) survey. The data
revealed that at institutions where there is low student diversity, one in five African American
students and approximately 15% of Latinx students reported a hate crime to a campus authority
(Hurtado & Ruiz Alvarado, 2015).
Diverse Curriculum
A diverse curriculum is one way of improving the campus climate. A survey was
conducted at a large Midwestern PWI to understand what factors influence the perception of a
positive campus climate. The survey received 544 responses with almost one-quarter of the
responses from students of color. The responses indicated that when an IHE reflects diversity in
their curriculum, that creates a perception of a positive campus climate (Mayhew et al., 2005;

15
Milem, 2003). Boysen (2012) found that faculty who taught diversity classes were less likely to
ignore microaggressions than faculty who did not teach diversity classes.
There are vast differences in the campus climate experiences of White students and
students of color, and these experiences affect a student’s educational outcomes at the institution.
An adverse or chilly campus climate may also lead to a lack of a sense of belonging for students
of color at that institution.
Sense of Belonging
A lack of a sense of belonging to their campus community affects a student of color’s
intent to persist to degree completion. The DLE survey indicates that a hostile racial climate
impacts the sense of belonging and the retention of students of color when students of color
experience racial discrimination and bias (Hurtado & Ruiz Alvarado, 2015). Chavous (2005)
revealed similar results through a research study that disclosed that academic success is affected
by an institution’s racial climate and the students’ level of student engagement. Hurtado et al.,
(2015) conducted a study of 20,460 students using the DLE national survey to understand how
faculty and staff affect the sense of belonging of students of color. The study found that the more
validation from faculty and staff they receive, the more they feel a sense of belonging at the
institution (Hurtado et al., 2015). The study examined two forms of validation that have a
positive impact on students of color: academic and interpersonal. The academic validation Likert
scale survey items allowed students to convey which faculty behavior nurtured academic growth,
such as the frequency of feedback, support for asking questions and participation in class,
exhibiting interest in their improvement, and the feeling of being valued (Hurtado et al., 2015).
The interpersonal validation survey examined the degree to which students believe that faculty

16
and staff members are interested in their progress, acknowledge their successes, and encourage
them to be involved with the campus (Hurtado et al., 2015).
Connections
To mitigate the negative effects of a lack of a sense of belonging, students of color can
develop a sense of belonging by forging friendships and connections during their first year.
Murphy and Zirkel (2015) indicate that social relationships early on in college improve the
educational outcomes of students of color, but a lack of those connections does not affect their
White peers.
Respect of Culture
A student’s sense of belonging also improved by acknowledging and respecting students
of color’s culture and heritage. Oxendine (2015) conducted a quantitative study of 154 Native
American students and found that a sense of belonging improved when these students had other
Native friends, and when students showed respect towards their Native culture. A mixed
methods study of 143 Filipino American students showed that the ability to feel connections to
their Filipino culture and heritage contributed to their feeling of a sense of belonging at the
institution. There would be a negative impact if Filipino American students felt they had to
assimilate to the predominantly White campus culture and commit “cultural suicide” (Museus &
Maramba, 2011, p. 239).
Students of color raised in a predominantly White community have an easier time
adjusting to PWIs than those raised in a diverse environment. A qualitative study of Asian
American students indicated that students from minority high schools (MHS) found their PWI
campus unwelcoming and had negative experiences, which was the opposite experience of
students who attended White high schools (WHS) (Museus & Truong, 2009).

17
Faculty Interest
Faculty relationships help to mitigate the lack of a sense of belonging among students of
color. In a study of STEM college students, 201 North Carolina students discussed their feelings
of belonging within the STEM field. The results showed that the relationships created with
faculty help increase their sense of belonging and persistence in STEM (Rainey et al., 2018).
Another study of Latino students at a four-year public institution found that the most direct
positive effect on Latino students’ sense of belonging was faculty interest in their development,
such as faculty-student interaction and interest in the student’s development, as well as cross-
racial interaction (Nuñez, 2009).
The feeling of a sense of belonging at the school is crucial to increase the retention and
graduation of students of color in college. One way to increase a student’s sense of belonging is
through faculty mentoring.
Faculty Mentoring
Faculty-student interactions are essential for student success, and research shows that
faculty of color interact more frequently with students of color than their White counterparts. A
survey of 134 institutions yielded approximately 13,500 faculty responses. This data revealed
that faculty of color engage students more often than White faculty, utilize a wide variety of
teaching techniques, provide a safe environment for students of color, and provide mentoring and
support (Umbach, 2006).
Many institutions developed successful mentoring programs that aim to assist in retaining
students at their campus. Research studies conducted at nursing schools showed that mentorship
programs resulted in higher retention and exam passing rates among students of color compared
to non-mentored students (Colalillo, 2007; Gardner, 2005b).

18
Faculty of color mentors help provide support and improve the self-efficacy of students
of color. In two research studies, African American students participated in surveys evaluating
their experience with mentors. The results disclosed that these students viewed their mentors as
role models; the mentors provided academic and emotional support, and having someone that
looks like allows you to believe that success is attainable, and students’ self-efficacy and GPA
improved as a result of those relationships (DeFreitas & Bravo, 2012, Payton et al., 2013).
Faculty play an essential role in the motivation of students of color. Cokley (2003)
conducted a study of African American students at HBCUs and compared them to African
American students at PWIs. The study found those students at HBCUs reported higher levels of
achievement motivation, intrinsic motivation, and more positive faculty-student interactions. In
other studies, when Black students at PWIs have highly involved mentors and interaction with
Black faculty, they report feeling less isolated and are more likely to excel in school. (Hurtado,
et. al., 2009; Kim & Conrad, 2006). Similarly, HSIs commonly have extraordinary student
engagement and a sense of belonging that leads to the retention of their students (Abraham et al.,
2002).
At one school, the mentoring program consisted of two faculty learning communities
(FLC) to help improve Latino student success and assist the institution in understanding Latino
students’ needs. These learning committees helped the faculty develop an awareness of Latino
students’ pressures and challenges, improved the ways they communicated, improved their
course content and teaching methods, and assisted students in navigating the campus resources
and the financial aid process (Lisagor et al., 2013).

19
Faculty-Student Interactions
Similar to mentorship, student-faculty interactions play an essential role in the self-
efficacy of students of color. DeFreitas and Bravo (2012) studied 249 African American and
Latino college students at a Hispanic serving institution (HSI). They found that the students had
higher academic success when they had regular interactions with their faculty. Patton and
Harper’s (2003) study explored the influence of same-race interactions for Black female graduate
students. Their study found that almost half of the participants did not have same-race female
mentors. The students could specify traits that would set a Black female mentor apart from other
mentors, such as mothering and cultural similarities. Connections, respect, and accessibility with
faculty were related to an increase in self-concept and self-efficacy (Cuellar, 2014; Komarraju et
al., 2010; Santos & Reigadas, 2002; Vogt, 2013).
Faculty-student interactions and mentoring are essential for the success of students of
color, but another element to their success is the learning behaviors of the students.
Learning Behaviors
The academic success of students of color is dependent on the institution itself as well as
the students themselves continually improving their learning behaviors while in school.
Help-Seeking
Help-seeking in this study is defined as a sequence of actions involved in solving a
problem. The actions are the identification of a problem, pursuing assistance for the problem,
engaging in assistance, and partaking in treatment or support (Dearing & Twaragowski, 2010;
Menna & Ruck, 2004). Students must view seeking help from faculty, peers, and campus
resources in a positive manner, as that will assist with degree completion. Myrie and Gannon
(2013) found that Black American males perceived help-seeking as a weakness and it conflicted

20
with their male identity. Addis and Mahik (2003) found that men consider numerous factors
before seeking help. They think about whether this is a typical problem, how the problem reflects
on their male identity, perception from their loved ones if they seek assistance, the sense of loss
of control by asking for help, and finally, the shame and stigma of seeking help.
Stigma in asking for help was a common theme in a study of American college students,
where if students felt any sense of shame, that limited their chances of seeking help (Vogel et al.,
2007). There is public stigma and personal stigma associated with seeking help. Public stigma is
defined as prejudice and stereotypes by the overall community, and personal stigma refers to
prejudice and stereotypes held by the individual (Corrigan, 2004).
An estimated 2 million college students seek help from university counseling centers
each year (American College Health Association, 2008). Research found college counseling
centers are effective at alleviating students’ mental and emotional distress, aiding with academic
performance, and assisting institutions with the retention of their students (Minami et al., 2009;
Vonk & Thyer, 1999; Wilson, et al., 1997). However, there is evidence that shows the use of
college counseling center services varies by race and ethnicity. Although students of color may
need to seek help from counseling services, they rarely utilize those services. One study found
that African American and Latinx/Hispanic students under-utilize college counseling center
services (Davidson, et al, 2004). Stebleton et al. (2014) surveyed 150 students at six large public
research institutions. The findings show that first-generation students utilized fewer counseling
services than non-first-generation students. The most common reasons for not using the facilities
were inconvenient location and hours, not realizing those services existed, and insufficient time.
Other studies indicate that college counseling centers are underutilized by students of color

21
because they may prefer health providers of color, of which there are typically few on college
campuses (Barksdale & Molock, 2009; Thompson et al., 2004; Townes, et al., 2009).
Eisenberg et al. (2007) conducted a research study by sending an online survey to over
5,000 students at a public Midwestern university. The study found that of students with
depression or anxiety conditions, only 36% sought services to assist them. Some students were
unaware of the campus services, and others believed the services would not help them. Finally,
that study also indicated that students from a low socioeconomic background were the least
likely to use services on-campus. College students’ use of mental health resources is important to
their success in and outside of school. A study by Kessler et al. (2005) indicated that individuals
with lifetime mental health issues first experienced problems between the ages of 18-24, which is
the typical age of college students.
An overall theme was that the students who did not use campus services believed that
college stress is standard, and there was no reason to seek help (Eisenberg et al., 2007). The
ability to seek help is an element that will assist students in their success, but students also need
to see value in these challenges to persist to degree completion.
Expectancy-Value
Eccles and Wigfield (2002) stated that expectancy-value refers to individuals who choose
to undertake challenges if they value the challenge and expect to succeed in the challenge. Eccles
(2009) also discusses four types of subjective task values:
• Intrinsic Value—the pleasure of the task itself
• Utility Value—performing a task to help reach a long-term goal
• Attainment Value—performing a task because it is consistent with one’s identity

22
• Cost Value—the negative aspects of performing the task, such as at one’s emotional
or financial expense
Research shows that students of color struggle to stay motivated and focused on school if
they do not see a collective goal for their community. In a study of 32 African American high-
achieving male college students, a theme emerged about improving African American males’
academic success by dedicating non-class time to worthwhile learning experiences (Harper,
2005). Similarly, a study of Native American first-year students found the extraordinary
significance of common goals over individualistic goals (Smith et al., 2014). In a follow-up
survey and interview with these students during their second semester, the study indicated the
importance of shared goals and its effect on their sense of belonging, motivation, and academic
performance (Smith et al., 2014). Finally, a study of 337 undergraduate research students where
100 were students of color showed that when students of color understand that their research
benefits the community, their motivation and involvement in the research increases (Thoman et
al., 2015).
Studies have shown that another factor affecting students’ academic success and
motivation is race-related or “minority stress.” Minority stress refers to the stress that minority
college students experience that impedes their transition into the college community (Smedley et
al., 1993). One hundred sixty-one minority college first-year students completed a questionnaire.
The results indicated a significant association between minority stress and low GPA among
students of color (Smedley et al., 1993).
Another research study examined the various types of stress of 160 minority students
from a PWI. The results indicated that the academic persistence of African Americans, Asian-
Americans, and Latino students was greatly affected by minority stress, with African Americans

23
reporting a slightly higher stress level than the other ethnic groups (Wei et al., 2011). The study
showed that when students of color have a positive view of the university environment, it
impacts their college persistence (Wei et al., 2011). The study also recommends that institutions
should increase their efforts to create a welcoming environment for students of color by
increasing the faculty of color, staff of color, and students of color. These changes will positively
impact the retention of students of color (Wei et al., 2011).
In another study, the factors that affected the persistence of students of color were stress
related to racism on-campus, distressing academic interactions at school, and impressions of the
campus climate (Johnson et al., 2014). One survey focused on 151 Black and Latino
undergraduate students at a PWI and examined how various experiences of students of color
affected their success in college. The findings showed that racism-related stress influenced their
attitudes towards college to where they were uncertain of the value of college and questioned
their decision to persist (Reynolds et al., 2010). Once students of color value their college, they
will also need to have high self-efficacy to believe they can graduate from the institution.
Pintrich and De Groot (1990) state that students who persist at a challenging task or who can
block out distractions preserve their engagement in the task, which allows them to achieve
academic success.
Self-Efficacy
Bandura (1977) described self-efficacy as one’s belief in accomplishing tasks to reach
their goals. People with low self-efficacy have an adverse outlook toward tasks and view them as
intimidating and, in return, establish small goals for themselves (Yusuf, 2011).
Studies show that students at minority-serving institutions (MSIs) have higher self-
efficacy than those students attending PWIs. A study of 427 engineering students compared

24
those students at HBCUs to students at a private institution and to students at a state institution.
The study revealed that those students at HBCUs had higher self-efficacy, higher expectations
after graduation, more social support at the school, and higher achievement goals than their
counterparts at PWIs (Lent et al., 2005).
Concerning Latinx students and self-efficacy, a study of 2,123 Latinx who attended either
an HSI, a developing HSI, and non-HSIs, found that Latinx who first enrolled in HSIs had lower
self-efficacy than other students. But they developed stronger self-efficacy as they progressed
through college (Cuellar, 2014). At HSIs, the study showed that for Latinx students, academics
outside of the classroom, such as engagement with their peers on coursework, had a positive
influence on their academic self-concept (Cuellar, 2014). At developing HSIs, cross-racial
interactions and engaging with professors for advice positively affected their academic self-
concept (Cuellar, 2014). Finally, at non-HSIs, increased faculty support and interaction impacts
their self-concept (Cuellar, 2014). Besides attending an MSI, students of color who are involved
in mentorship programs develop an increase in self-efficacy. Schunk & Mullen (2012), state that
when students have high self-efficacy, this “increases their student engagement and success and,
in return, engagement and success increase self-efficacy.”
Mentorship Programs
Carpi et al. (2016) examined an MSI that had a mentorship program. The results found
that the students were able to develop higher self-identity, self-efficacy, and social support
systems through this mentorship program. It also allowed them to build skills and self-
confidence in the sciences to visualize a career pathway in science in the future. Santos and
Reigadas (2002) surveyed 65 students at California State University, Dominguez Hills, an HSI
where almost half of the students in the survey identified as Latino. This survey examined the

25
impact of a faculty-student mentorship program on the Latino students. The survey found that
mentorship programs helped students cultivate a positive self-identity, increased their self-
efficacy in their capacity to excel in school, and students came out of the program with well-
defined goals. Also, when these students had mentors of color, they identified themselves as
more self-efficacious and were more satisfied with the mentorship program than those matched
with White mentors. The faculty’s values and viewpoints influence the outcomes for students of
color (Bensimon et al., 2005). Faculty perspectives and their involvement with students of color
can impact a student’s engagement with the institution.
Self-Regulation
Dembo and Eaton (2000) discussed Zimmerman’s (1989) research and defined self-
regulation as the ability to assess one’s habits, set goals, and develop other options if their initial
strategy does not work. Pintrich and Zusho (2007) stated that self-regulation to monitor and
change behavior is essential to student success. However, internal, and external barriers can
affect a student’s self-regulation and success in college.
A survey of first and second-generation college students found that the second-generation
students described higher levels of self-regulation than first-generation students, who are more
likely to be married with children and require more financial aid while enrolled (Williams &
Hellman, 2004). In another study of 1,102 community college students, a survey and
questionnaire found that almost half of the students were unable to concentrate on schoolwork.
Also, over one-third indicated family responsibilities took up time, and another one-third stated
that employment outside of school affected their time (Clement, 2016). Hawkins et al. (2005)
studied 300 undergraduate social work students, and almost half indicated that outside
employment affected their schoolwork. Also, students of color described family responsibilities

26
interfered with their studying time more often than White students (Hawkins et al., 2005).
Zimmerman and Schunk (1989) stated that students who have high self-regulation proactively
participate in learning. These students actively implement learning strategies on their own rather
than waiting for teacher guidance (Nota et al., 2000).
Guiding students of color on time management skills and how to effectively prioritize
schoolwork will be an essential strategy for improving their self-regulation and academic success
in college.
Student Engagement
Student engagement is an integral part of student success in post-secondary education.
Student engagement refers to “the time and energy students devote to educationally sound
activities inside and outside of the classroom, and the policies and practices those institutions use
to induce students to participate in these activities” (Kuh, 2003, p. 25). Studies have shown that
student engagement contributes to academic success by improving self-esteem (Harper & Quaye,
2007), sense of belonging (Museus et al., 2017), student satisfaction (Kuh, Kinzie, Cruce, et al.,
2007), and academic persistence (Swail et al., 2003; Tinto, 2005).
The academic success of students of color improves when they are more engaged with
their institution. Studies by Cruce et al. (2006) and Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, et al. (2007) found that
student engagement increased the academic success of African American and Hispanic college
students compared to their White peers. The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE)
(2008) provides examples of student engagement activities such as participating in student
organizations, participating in a learning community, and completing an independent study under
a faculty member’s direction. The most engaged students are typically women, full-time

27
students, students living on-campus, non-transfer students, learning community students,
international students, and students with diverse experiences (Kuh, 2003).
Learning communities are one strategy for student engagement. Learning communities
refer to the same groups of students taking two or more classes together (Brower & Dettinger,
1998). The goal of learning communities is for students to be enrolled in multiple courses
concurrently so they can connect the ideas from different classes and connect students to
encourage continuous social interaction with one another (Kuh, 2003).
The NSSE conducted its annual survey on students and their experiences. The study
found that students who were typically involved with learning communities were: non-transfer
students, students of color, students whose parents have low levels of education, members of
fraternities and sororities, full-time students, students living on-campus, and students that have
more than two majors (Kuh, 2003). The NSSE results found that learning communities positively
impacted academic performance, student engagement, and satisfaction with their college
experience (Kuh, 2003). Students in learning communities also reported more positive
associations with academic advising and their campus as supporting their needs (Kuh, 2003).
Student engagement that focuses on being culturally engaging increases the sense of
belonging among students of color. Museus et al. (2017) conducted a survey of 499 students at
three institutions, one on the east coast and two on the west coast, on how campus environments
influence a sense of belonging. The results found that a culturally engaging campus environment
(CECE) correlates with a sense of belonging. The CECE model focuses on two aspects—cultural
relevance and cultural responsiveness. Cultural relevance signifies how much campus
environments are relevant to students’ cultural backgrounds. In contrast, cultural responsiveness

28
refers to the degree that campus programs and systems successfully respond to the needs of
students of color (Museus et al., 2017).
Students can seek help, find value in their tasks, be self-efficacious, and have high self-
regulation, but if they are unable to pay for tuition, they will not graduate. Financial aid for
students of color is crucial for their persistence.
Financial Aid
Finances were among the most significant strains among college students in the National
College Health Assessment (ACHA, 2011), and more than one-third of the participants reported
that finances were a challenge. The 2012 National Survey of Student Engagement reveals that
finances are a significant concern for most college students, and 60% of first-year students are
concerned about paying for school and everyday expenses (NSSE, 2012).
The ability to navigate the financial aid process and receive funding is a crucial aspect for
students of color to be retained and persist to degree completion. Rueda et al. (2017) conducted
interviews with 43 first-generation, low-income students at Vassar College, asking about various
experiences at this college. The results found that these students experienced confusion over the
terminology in their financial aid award letters, they felt awkward and unwelcome in the
financial aid office, and many of them contributed income from their work-study jobs to their
family. Another study on African American male and Hispanic students found that they shared
the confusion and difficulty of applying for financial aid, especially when those students have
non-English speaking parents (Baum & Flores, 2011, Palmer et al., 2009;).
College financial aid profoundly impacts the persistence of first-generation students.
Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) analyzed data from a national sample to examine first-generation
students’ persistence. They found that the amount of work-study received positively impacted

29
persistence for first-generation and continuing-generation students. Also, first-generation
students who had higher incomes were more likely to persist than those with low incomes. Flynn
et al. (2012) studied American Indian students in South Dakota and found that their persistence
was affected by a lack of financial support, family obligations, and feelings of isolation on
campus. For Hispanic students, financial assistance is an essential aspect of their decision-
making before college and throughout their college career. More importantly, need-based
financial aid is critical for their retention (Oseguera et al., 2009).
The total financial aid students of color receive also impacts their college choice. In a
study of 5,136 students, 83% of Latino students considered the amount of financial aid they
received as somewhat/very important in their college choice. The study found that 71% of
African American students felt financial aid was somewhat/very important in where they
attended school, and 56% of Asian students believe the amount of financial assistance they
receive from a school is vital to their decision-making (Kim, 2004).
College persistence is also affected by their financial aid package. A study of a mid-
Atlantic HBCU indicated that if students receive a large amount of financial aid, then there is a
considerable increase in their second-year retention (Nyirenda & Gong, 2010). St. John et al.
(2005) compared White and African American students to see how financial aid and their
finances impacted their college persistence. The results showed that financial aid heavily
influenced their college choice and their persistence once enrolled. By comparison, the White
students had higher incomes than the African American students studied and were more open to
college loans than the other groups. In another study where 64% of the students were African
American, the results found that financial aid had a significant effect on the persistence of
African American students (St. John et al., 2004). One study found that students of color who

30
graduate with $40,000 or more of student loan debt had considerably lower GPAs than other
students (Baker & Montalto, 2019). An understanding of one’s financial aid package and
receiving financial aid is vital for students of color to persist in college.
Conceptual Framework
This section of the literature review will focus on the conceptual framework used in this
research study. Maxwell (2013) noted that Miles and Huberman (1994) state that a conceptual
framework is a visual or written representation that describes the theories and assumptions in a
research study and their relationships with each other and the study. A conceptual framework
assists the researcher with the organization of their research. It is the researcher’s visual
representation of the various concepts within the research study and how it relates to the
theoretical framework (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
The KMO gap analysis framework will anchor the conceptual framework of this research
study. The following illustration provides the visual representation and description of the factors
that are assumed to interrelate at the P-School and how they influence the academic performance
of students of color at the school. Figure 1 represents the conceptual framework for this study.

31
Figure 1
Factors That Influence Academic Success of Students of Color

Academic success
of students of color
Knowledge
Influence
Help-seeking
Motivational
Influences
Expectancy-value
Self-efficacy
Self-regulation
Organizational
Influences
Campus Climate
Sense of Belonging
Faculty Mentoring
Student Engagement
Financial Aid

32
Figure 1 illustrates how these knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
affect the academic success of students of color. The smaller circles represent stakeholder
influences that depict the various contexts that affect them. The arrows represent each element’s
influences, showing that each one (Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization) has a relationship
with each other and a relationship to the largest circle, which represents the goal of academic
success.
This chapter has discussed an overview of research into possible areas that affect the
educational success of students of color. The next section will discuss the Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis framework and explore the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences
that affect the academic success of students of color.
Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework
This dissertation utilizes the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to identify
the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that have created performance gaps.
The gap analysis examines an organization’s performance by exploring the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors for the performance gap; this is known as the KMO model
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The KMO model first identifies the organization’s performance goal, then
identifies the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps in achieving these goals, and,
finally, evaluates the results to recommend solutions.
This next section of the dissertation will identify the KMO influences that affect the
academic success of students of color.
Knowledge Influences
Improving the academic success of students of color will depend on an understanding of
the student knowledge and skills required to persist to degree completion.

33
Krathwohl (2002) discusses the taxonomy framework, which focuses on what students
learn in schools. This framework has six categories that influence learning, with one of the
groups being knowledge. The knowledge type has four elements: factual, conceptual, procedural,
and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002).
Factual knowledge refers to the necessary information required to understand and solve a
problem (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual knowledge refers to interrelated components that work
together in a more extensive system (Krathwohl, 2002). Krathwohl (2002) defines procedural
knowledge as knowing “how to do something” (p. 214) and using various proficiencies and
approaches to do it. Finally, metacognitive knowledge refers to one’s understanding of cognitive
processes and an understanding of how they attain knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). While each of
these knowledge elements is important, for the purposes of this research study, factual
knowledge is the most relevant.
In this study, factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge refers to help-seeking:
• Factual knowledge for the student knowing which resources exist
• Conceptual knowledge for the student knowing when they should seek help in school
• Procedural knowledge for the student knowing how to utilize those resources
To Be Successful on Campus Students Need to Know What Resources and Support Are
Available
Many students of color do not know about the student campus resources that exist at the
school (Eisenberg et al., 2007; Stebleton et al., 2014), or the campus services hours and location
on-campus were inconvenient because they lived off-campus and commuted to school (Stebleton
et al., 2014). Many international students do not know the resources available to them and their
location of those resources on-campus (Banjong, 2015). As students are aware of the available

34
resources and that these resources are accessible, the more apt the students will be to utilize them
for assistance.
Students Need to Know and Be Able to Pair the Appropriate Resource and Support to Their
Issue or Challenge
At large institutions where there are multiple campus resources, the sheer number of
resources creates confusion for students on where they should go for assistance with their issue.
This confusion makes it more likely that many students do not seek out the help they need
(Stebleton et al., 2014). The students must have a clear understanding of how each campus
resource can assist them. The more knowledge students have on how an office can help them, the
more likely they will seek out the assistance.
Students Need to Know How to Leverage the Resources and Support Available to Them to
Seek Appropriate Help and Remove Any Academic Barriers
Students are more likely to pursue assistance if they can see an immediate connection
between utilizing the services and achieving their academic goals (Stebleton et al., 2014). When
students understand that through help-seeking they will achieve academic success, they will be
more likely to pursue those resources when they face challenges.
Table 1 lists the three assumed knowledge influences, the knowledge types, and how they
will be assessed in this research study.

35
Table 1
Knowledge Influence on Students
Knowledge influence Knowledge type Knowledge assessment
To be successful on campus,
students need to know what
resources and support are
available.
Factual

Quantitative survey and qualitative
interview questions asking if they
know where to find campus
support services on-campus.
Students need to know and be able
to pair the appropriate resource
and support to their issue or
challenge.
Conceptual Quantitative survey and qualitative
interview questions asking about
the steps they take when they are
feeling overwhelmed in school.
Students need to know how to
leverage the resources and
support available to them to seek
appropriate help and remove any
academic barriers.
Procedural Qualitative interview questions
asking about the resources they
used when they had challenges.

Motivational Influences
Motivation and persistence are essential components for success in college. Clark and
Estes (2008) discuss three motivational processes that influence one’s behavior. These three
processes are the decision to assume a work goal, the persistence to continue towards a goal
despite interferences, and the effort devoted to attaining the goal.
Motivation can be defined in various ways such as value, where one needs to see the
value in a task (Wigfield & Eccles, 1994). Motivation can also be defined in terms of self-
efficacy, where one’s level of self-efficacy will determine their ability to achieve certain tasks

36
(Yusuf, 2011). Motivation in this research study can be understood through the motivational
theories of expectancy-value theory, self-efficacy theory, and self-regulation theory.
Students Need to See the Value of Persisting in the Program and Graduating
Expectancy-value theory refers to people engaging in tasks if they see the value in them
and if they believe they can achieve them (Pintrich, 2003). For many students of color, the need
to see the value in college is integral to persisting through graduation (Smith et al., 2014). When
there are benefits to other students of color or members of their community through their
persistence, their motivation and involvement in school increases (Thoman et al., 2015). Along
with seeing the value in their degree, a high self-efficacy will also assist with degree completion.
Students Need to Feel Confident in their Ability to Complete Their School Assignments
Self-efficacy theory refers to one’s belief in their ability to achieve certain tasks
(Bandura, 1977). Students who have a high self-efficacy are more likely to achieve academic
success in school and graduate as compared to those with lower self-efficacy. For example, when
students of color attend a PWI where there are students of color, they may have low self-efficacy
since there is limited student diversity and students who look like them. However, when students
of color attend an MSI such as an HBCU or an HSI, they are surrounded by students of color, are
taught by faculty of color, and have faculty of color mentors and role models which, in turn,
increases the student’s self-efficacy (Lent et al., 2015; Cuellar, 2014). A student’s level of self-
efficacy also relates to their self-regulation while in school.
Students Need to Continually Monitor Their Progress in School and Develop New Strategies if
Current Techniques Are Unsuccessful
Self-regulation theory refers to the ability to assess one’s habits, set goals, and develop
other options if their initial strategy does not work (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Self-regulatory

37
strategies are important for those students of color who have outside family commitments
(Clement, 2016; Hawkins et al., 2005) and outside employment that may affect their schoolwork
(Clement, 2016). These outside influences create another layer of complexity as they try to
balance school and personal responsibilities. Effective use of self-regulation skills allows
students to pivot when their plans need to be adjusted, which will help them persist to
graduation.
Table 2 illustrates the assumed motivational influences discussed in this literature review
related to the academic success of students of color at P-School.

Table 2
Motivational Influences on Students
Assumed motivational influences Motivational influence assessment
Expectancy-value: students need to see the
value of persisting in the program and
graduating.
Quantitative survey to assess if they value
the program.
Self-efficacy: students need to feel confident
in their ability to complete their school
assignments.
Quantitative survey to assess their
confidence level while in school.
Self-regulation: students need to continually
monitor their progress in school and
develop new strategies if current techniques
are unsuccessful.
Quantitative survey and qualitative open-
interview questions to assess what they do
if they are falling behind in school.

38
Organizational Influences
The organization itself can affect the academic success of students of color. Clark and
Estes (2008) state that organizational culture is the most important “work process” (p.107) in an
organization because that affects how individuals work together to complete the task. Clark and
Estes (2008) discuss the three ways an organization can view their culture, and each is a
dominant influence for that organization: environmental culture, group culture, and individual
culture. People who view culture as part of the environment believe that by changing the
organizational culture, one can improve the organization’s performance (Clark and Estes, 2008).
Those who view culture in groups identify organizational performance gaps as the
outcome of varied cultural beliefs of the employees (Clark and Estes, 2008). Culture in
individuals refers to one’s own choices and activities based on their individual life experiences
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (1992) discusses the power of organizational culture and how it
affects performance. Using the lens of cultural models and cultural settings is one way to view
organizations.
Cultural Models
Cultural models are common ways of thinking and responding to obstacles and shifting
environments (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). These models are invisible, familiar to the
community, and developed over time through sharing information and experiences (Shore,
1996). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) describe cultural models as how things work or how
they should work. The cultural models that are relevant in this study are campus climate and a
sense of belonging. These are two areas of importance to this study that may be invisible to the
institution, but greatly affect the academic success of students of color.

39
The University Needs to Prioritize the Needs of Its Students of Color and Create a
Campus Climate and Environment That Is Supportive and Inclusive of Its Students of
Color. Students of colors’ perceptions of the campus climate influences their persistence (Gloria,
et al., 2005). In one study, students of color perceived their campus as more racist and
unwelcoming as compared to White students (Rankin & Reason, 2005). Almost half of the
students of color surveyed indicated that they witnessed hostile or intimidating conduct on
campus, with most of them having experienced derogatory remarks (Rankin & Reason, 2005).
Students of color also disagreed that the University was adequately addressing the racism on
campus (Rankin & Reason, 2005). A positive campus climate allows students of color to make
strong connections with other students, and without that supportive environment, those
interactions will not occur (Saenz et al., 2007). Fischer (2007) finds that students of color who
have a negative view of the campus are less satisfied and are more likely to leave the institution.
The University Needs to Foster a Sense of Belonging on Its Campus. The satisfaction
and sense of belonging of students of color on campus are frequently lower than other students
(Park, 2009). Their adjustment to college is distinctive as well as the impact that the campus
connection has in their success (Fischer, 2007). Swim et al. (2003) conducted a study on African
American college students and found they experienced prejudice, discriminatory remarks,
uncomfortable stares, poor customer service, and struggled with awkward interactions. Ash and
Schreiner (2006) found that a student of color’s intent to persist to graduation was affected by
whether the school was a good fit, their success as a student, and their views of the school’s
commitment to their well-being.
Strayhorn (2012) found that Native American students’ sense of belonging and academic
success flourish in supportive environments that stimulate a positive self-image and prioritize

40
diversity. In another study of Native Americans, it was found that students felt supported, and
sought advice and connectedness from Native American student organizations, multicultural
offices, and faculty and students (Jackson et al., 2003). The campus climate of an institution
contributes to a student’s sense of belonging on-campus. Impactful change on the organizational
level requires alignment of practices and a complete change in culture (Clark & Estes, 2008). In
addition, the culture of an organization changes when there is an implementation of appropriate
support systems within the organization (Rueda, 2011).
Cultural Settings
Cultural settings are when a group of people complete a valued undertaking (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001) and have specific structures such as policies and guidelines (Rueda, 2011).
The cultural settings relevant to this study are faculty mentoring, student engagement strategies,
and financial aid.
The University Needs to Develop Initiatives for Its Faculty to Create Deeper
Connections with Students of Color. Students of color often strive for developing connections
with faculty of color, looking to them as role models (Patton, 2009; Patton & Harper, 2003) to
provide emotional support, and, specifically for African American female students with African
American female faculty mentors, a mothering role (Patton & Harper, 2003). Faculty mentorship
has a positive impact on student persistence (Sorrentino, 2007). A study of students in a
mentorship program indicated that the students believe they benefited by being in the program by
improving their grade point average, developed study, goal-setting strategies, and time
management strategies, and decreased their anxiety with test-taking (Sorrentino, 2007). In a
study of female students in a mentorship program, the students indicated that various shared
experiences, such as being women, an ethnic/racial match to the mentor, similar

41
academic/research interests, and similar lived experiences, helped the students relate to their
mentors, which was beneficial (Rayle, et al., 2006). Strayhorn and Terrell (2007) conducted a
study on Black students and mentoring, and the results indicated that a faculty-student mentoring
relationship positively related to higher levels of satisfaction in college. When students
experience consistent faculty interactions, their self-efficacy and achievement motivation
increase (DeFreitas & Bravo, 2012). Students of color at MSIs have constant faculty of color
interactions and are exposed to faculty of color mentors, which improves their academic success
(Cokley, 2003).
The University Needs to Create Engagement Strategies With Students of Color to
Increase Their Connections With the University. Students are more likely to be engaged with
their institution when they perceive the campus as welcoming and inclusive (Kuh, 2001;
Pascarella, 2001). Umbach and Wawrzynski (2005) conducted a study and found that student
engagement increases when faculty academically challenge students and use collaborative
learning strategies in the classroom. The campus culture is also critical where faculty attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors impact whether a student engages with their school (Umbach &
Wawrzynski, 2005). Myers et al. (2012) discusses “Astin’s Theory of Involvement,” which states
that engagement creates engagement. As students become engaged with campus organizations
and groups, they are more likely to get involved with other groups. Students of color were found
to have a greater engagement response when they interact with faculty and feel supported by
them (Wilson et al., 2020).
In a study of engineering students, a predictor of student engagement was various factors
of faculty support and interaction, such as availability, preparation, respect, and care for students
that they demonstrate to students (Wilson et al., 2020). Students of color have an increase in their

42
academic success when they are more fully involved with the school (Cruce et al., 2006; Kuh,
Kinzie, Buckley, et al., 2007), an increase in their sense of belonging (Museus et al., 2017), and
higher college satisfaction (Kuh, Kinzie, Cruce, et al., 2007). Students who are engaged with
their institutions typically persist to graduation as compared to those who do not engage with
their campus (Myers et al., 2012). Studies have found that institutions that nurture an engaging
campus will see an increase in persistence rates (Museus & Liverman, 2010; Tinto & Pusser,
2006).
The University Needs to Provide More Comprehensive Resources and Support to
Students of Color Regarding Financial Decisions and Aid. The financial aid process is
complex and students of color need guidance, resources, and support to help them navigate it. An
American Council on Education study found that 850,000 students did not complete the required
financial aid forms to receive federal financial aid (King, 2004). The U.S. Department of
Education (2006) published a report on the future of higher education and stated some students
do not enroll in college because of the confusing financial aid process, lack of financial aid
information, and the high cost of college. Students who believe they can afford to go to college
are more likely to focus on their academic success and pursue information on how to apply and
enroll to colleges (Long & Riley, 2007). The ability to pay for tuition and financial aid assistance
greatly impacts students of color. Financial aid affects college choice. Whether or not a student
receives financial aid and how much they receive determines in which institution they decide to
enroll (St. John et al., 2005) and contributes to their retention (Nyirenda & Gong, 2010,
Oseguera et al., 2009, St. John et al., 2005). Hurtado et al. (2007), as cited in Slovacek et al.
(2011), found that students of color face financial and family stress and have major concerns on
how to afford to pay for college. A study of engineering students found that students of color

43
who received financial support such as scholarships played a key role in their persistence in the
engineering program (White et al., 2017).
Table 3 illustrates the assumed organizational influences discussed in this literature
review related to the academic success of students of color at P-School.

Table 3

Organizational Influences on Students

Assumed organizational influences Organizational influence assessment
The University needs to prioritize the needs of
its students of color and create a campus
climate and environment that is supportive
and inclusive of its students of color.
Quantitative survey and qualitative
interview questions asking about their
thoughts on the school environment.
The University needs to foster a sense of
belonging on its campus.
Quantitative survey asking about their
feelings of a sense of belonging at P-
School.
The University needs to develop initiatives for
its faculty to create deeper connections
with students of color.
Quantitative survey and qualitative
interview questions assessing their
relationships with faculty.
The University needs to create engagement
strategies with students of color to increase
their connections with the University.

Quantitative survey asking how involved
the institution is with them while they
are enrolled and how involved they are
with the institution.
The University needs to provide more
comprehensive resources and support to
students of color regarding financial
decisions and aid.
Quantitative survey to assess how
students are paying for tuition.

44
Summary
The purpose of this study is to understand the barriers that affect the academic success of
students of color in college. This chapter reviewed the barriers that students of color face in post-
secondary education and highlighted the conceptual framework and how various influences
interrelate to each other and the goal. Finally, this chapter explored the knowledge influences
(help-seeking), motivational influences (expectancy-value, self-efficacy, and self-regulation),
and organizational influences (campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty mentoring, student
engagement strategies, and financial aid) related to the academic success of students of color.
The next chapter will discuss the methodology of the study.

45
Chapter Three: Methodology
This research study evaluated the factors perceived by students of color that impede their
academic success, and the study explored strategies to improve their relationships with faculty.
The following research questions guided this study.
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the
academic success of students of color?
2. What are the experiences of students of color at IHEs?
3. How do faculty impact the academic success of students of color?
Overview of Design
This research was a mixed-methods study comprising a quantitative survey and
qualitative interviews. The mixed-methods approach provided a comprehensive understanding of
the problem using a combination of data collection to form a complete picture.
Mixed methods research refers to a process encompassing quantitative and qualitative
data collection and theoretical frameworks to help guide the process (Creswell, 2014). The
quantitative survey will seek to understand the full scope of how students perceive the campus
climate, faculty, staff, and resources offered at the school. Following the review of the
quantitative survey, qualitative interviews acquired a richer understanding of the perceptions and
attitudes of students about the campus climate, faculty, and student behaviors. Table 4 provides
the list of research questions and data sources.

46
Table 4
Research Questions and Data Sources
Research questions Survey Interviews
RQ1:
What are the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affect the academic
success of students of color?
X X
RQ2:
What are the experiences of students of color at IHEs?
X X
RQ3:
How do faculty impact the academic success of
students of color?
X X

Research Setting
The research study occurred at a public graduate school located in the northeastern part of
the United States. The school employs 122 faculty, 67 full-time staff, 25 college assistants,
and 189 total students. There are 98 students in the Class of 2020 and 91 students in the Class of
2021. The faculty population comprises 44 faculty of color, and the student population includes
53 students of color.
This setting was selected since the participants for this research study are the class of
2020 graduating students with a total of 98 students. These participants were crucial to the study
since they were at the conclusion of the graduate program. The surveys and interviews occurred
with students graduating from the program to provide a complete picture of their faculty and

47
school experience. They also described which, if any, knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences affected their academic success while they were enrolled.
The students in this study were part of the Class of 2020 and volunteered to participate in
the survey and interview. The survey and interview participants were a mix of students who
identified as students of color and those identified as White. I believed it was essential to include
any student interested in participating in this study to gain a complete perspective of student
experiences at that time. Although this study focuses on the experiences of students of color, the
White students were able to provide their viewpoint as insiders to P-School, although
recognizing that they are outsiders to the group of students who identify as students of color. The
White students’ comments and observations contributed to the study by presenting information
stating that students, regardless of race and ethnicity, view similar areas that P-School needs to
improve.
Data Sources
This research study was conducted to understand the students’ perspectives using a
survey and interviews as the primary data collection methods. I first conducted the survey to
understand a broad sense of student experiences and to determine which students were interested
in a follow-up interview. Following the survey, I conducted the student interviews.
Participants
P-School’s student population totals 189, with 98 students in the Class of 2020 and 91
students in the Class of 2021. The participants for this study were all from the Class of 2020
since the Class of 2021 only completed one semester at P-School when data collection began.

48
Survey Participants
A quantitative survey was the first step in the data collection. The participants for the
survey were the entire Class of 2020 student body. I conducted a census which is defined as
“everyone in a population, as opposed to a sample” (Robinson & Leonard, 2019, p. 211). A
census occurred since the Class of 2020 student population was small, at only 98 students, and I
wanted to receive a high response rate. I received 43 responses out of the 98 students in the Class
of 2020.
Interview Participants
Qualitative interviews occurred as the second method of data collection. The target
population for the interviews was the graduating students from the class of 2020. The criteria of
being in their final semester was crucial since they have gone through the entire program and
have a better understanding of the faculty at the school and what aspects of the program affected
their educational outcomes. There were 98 students in the class of 2020. I conducted a voluntary
response sampling and interviewed the participants who stated in the quantitative survey that
they were interested in being contacted.
Prior to the interview, I emailed an interview information fact sheet to the participant in
advance of the conversation. The interview information fact sheet included the study title,
researcher contact information, purpose of the study, participation involvement,
payment/compensation for participation information, information on protecting confidentiality,
and contact information for the researcher and the Institutional Research Board (IRB) at USC.
When the student logged into Zoom, I attached the fact sheet in the Zoom chat before the
interview began, asked the student if they had any questions, and asked for consent to record the

49
interview. I also let the participant know that I will take notes during the interview. Refer to
Appendix A for the interview information fact information sheet.
Instrumentation
I conducted a mixed-methods study with a quantitative survey and qualitative interviews.
The survey and interview were guided by three research questions and focused on the
knowledge, motivation, and organization influences that affect students in higher education.
Survey Instrumentation
A total of 40 survey questions focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that impacted students while enrolled at P-School. One survey item was adapted from
a campus climate survey at Bloomberg University (2012); six of the items for the survey were
adapted from Brown (2013); twelve of the questions were adapted from Flournoy (2017); and
one of the questions was adapted from Zimmerman et al. (1992). The one survey item from
Bloomberg University was relevant because it related to financial aid. The six questions from
Brown (2013) were relevant for this survey because they focused on motivation. Twelve of the
questions adapted from Flournoy (2017) related to campus climate and faculty-student
relationships. The one question adapted from Zimmerman et al. (1992) was relevant because it
referred to self-efficacy. Twenty-eight of the survey items had a five-point Likert-scale response;
five of the questions were multiple-choice; and one question was open-ended. There was one
drop-down question; one space to enter an email address if they were interested in receiving a $5
Amazon gift card upon completion of the survey; and one space to enter their email address if
they were interested in an interview. The survey took approximately seven minutes to complete.
The survey included both open- and closed-ended items. Refer to Appendix B for the survey
questions and how they related to the research questions and conceptual framework.

50
Interview Instrumentation
A total of 10 interview questions, along with 16 probing questions, focused on
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impacted students while enrolled at P-
School. The interviews were in a semi-structured format to allow for standardized questions in
an informal, conversational tone, but with the ability to ask follow-up questions. Merriam &
Tisdell (2016) define semi-structured interviews as guiding questions with flexible wording,
which allowed me to be responsive to the participant during the meeting. Refer to Appendix B
for the interview questions and how they relate to the research questions and conceptual
framework.
Data Collection Procedures
I began data collection in fall 2020. The data collection consisted of a quantitative survey
and qualitative interviews focused on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that affect the academic success of students in higher education.
Survey Data Collection Procedures
The data collection began in November 2020 and ended in January 2021, as fall 2020 was
the target population’s final semester in the program. Survey questions were administered in
English using Qualtrics© to the Class of 2020 students. The survey was distributed through the
Office of Student Affairs, which distributed the survey using the Class of 2020 student listserv.
The Office of Student Affairs was the appropriate department to send the survey out since this
department had constant communication with the student body and is not part of the management
team at P-School. Also, utilizing the Office of Student Affairs helped me mitigate my
positionality as a senior management leader at the campus.

51
Interview Data Collection Procedures
Due to social distancing rules and USC’s stance on reducing person-to-person contact, I
conducted Zoom interviews. I used the transcription service Rev.com to transcribe the
interviews. All the interviews occurred in English. During the interview, when a participant
stated something relevant to the study, I took notes on those observations and the participant’s
tone and facial expressions.
Data Analysis
Data analysis “involves consolidating, reducing, and interpreting what people have said
and what the researcher has seen and read–it is the process of making meaning” (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016, p. 202). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) also recommend that data analysis coincides
with data collection.
Survey Data Analysis
A survey was the first data analysis to occur, as it was the first in the data collection
process. I used the Qualtrics© software to analyze trends in the survey. Throughout the analysis,
I categorized and coded the survey responses into themes relevant to the study. I showed the
mean and standard deviations to identify the average level of responses for the stakeholder
groups.
I used Microsoft Excel to perform descriptive statistical analyses of the quantitative data
collected from the survey. The results from the surveys were compared across students who
identified as students of color and those who identified as White students. I documented
preliminary thoughts about the data and, after a complete review of the results, I documented the
conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions.

52
In the first phase of analysis, I used open coding, seeking empirical codes, and applying a
priori codes from the conceptual framework. The second phase of analysis combined empirical
and a priori codes that were utilized for axial coding. In the third phase of data analysis,
theoretical coding was used to identify pattern codes and themes that emerged and were aligned
with the conceptual framework and research questions. I organized the transcription into
categories and themes relevant to the study. An overview of the coding process is listed in
Appendix C.
In some instances, I displayed the overall student data, which included White students,
separately from the students of color. The data was displayed this way to emphasize the voices of
the students of color in regards to specific influences and to compare the differences in how
White students may perceive P-School and how students of color perceive the same institution.
In addition, I included the White student data to illustrate, in many examples, how regardless of a
student’s race or ethnicity, this was a school-wide problem that P-School needed to explore.
Interview Data Analysis
For the interviews, data analysis began during data collection. I wrote analytic memos
after each interview. I documented thoughts, concerns, and conclusions about the data
concerning the conceptual framework and research questions. Maxwell (2013) states that memo
writing helps capture analytic thinking on the data and facilitates that type of understanding.

53
I transcribed the interviews using the transcription service, Rev.com, and coded
interviews. In the first phase of analysis, they utilized open coding looking for the empirical
framework. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state that coding involves making notations and
comments regarding any significant statements to the research study. Open coding allows the
researcher to be open to anything at this stage of the data analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Reliability and Validity
This study employed methods to ensure reliability and validity. Reliability is defined as
“the extent to which research findings can be replicated” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 250).
Validity is defined as “how well an item measures what it is intended to measure” (Robinson &
Leonard, 2019, p. 214).
To ensure reliability of the quantitative survey, I allowed eight days for students to
complete the survey and sent them reminders to complete the survey. I asked the Office of
Student Affairs to send three reminder emails following the initial survey distribution to ensure a
high completion rate. I provided those reminder emails to the Office of Student Affairs to
distribute to students. Dillman et al. (2014) recommend that three to four reminders occur to
enhance survey completion. Also, Robinson and Leonard (2019) state that reminders should be
engaging, persuade the participant to finish the survey, and the content of each reminder should
be different from the last to grab the participant's attention.
I maximized response rates by incentivizing the respondents. I stated how the survey
results will be useful to improve the student experience at P-School and that upon completion of
the survey, the participant will receive a $5 Amazon gift card. Dillman et al. (2014) state that
survey participants are more apt to respond when there is a “social exchange” that benefits them,

54
such as understanding the usefulness of the survey or a material incentive they will receive upon
completion.
The quantitative survey retained its validity through content validity. Content validity
refers to making sure that the survey measures what it is intended to measure (Salkind & Frey,
2020). I conducted a pilot test with a population similar to the target population at P-School. This
pilot test study provided feedback on the clarity of the questions, the flow between the survey
items, and the pilot test participants’ interpretations of the survey itself.
For the qualitative interviews, I conducted member checking with all the interview
participants. Member checking refers to providing the analysis or findings to the participants and
asking for feedback on its accuracy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Member checking helped to
eliminate any misinterpretation of the participants’ statements.
The Researcher
This research study focused on students, specifically students of color, their educational
outcomes, and the effect of faculty on their academic success. There are insider/outsider issues
and issues of power and positionality in this study. Insider/outsider issues refer to the researcher
being a member, partial member, or not being a member of the community that they are studying
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
As a senior management leader at the school where the research occurred, a former
professional in the same industry as the P-School teaches its students, and as someone that
graduated from a similar school, I was considered a partial insider. However, I did not attend the
same school where I conducted the research. To mitigate these issues, I explained my
educational and work background before the interview so the participants understood my
membership status with this study.

55
There were also issues of power in this research study. As a senior management leader at
the P-School, I understood that students may see my role in management at the school as an
opportunity to inform the deans, senior management, and faculty about the findings and name the
students and their comments. I mitigated this issue by providing a survey information fact sheet
and an interview fact sheet that outlined my plan to keep their names confidential. I also stated
that if students indicated in the survey that they were interested in a follow-up interview, only I
knew who submitted those answers and maintained their confidentiality.
Another power issue was that participants may assume through my role at the institution,
that I will be able to make an immediate change based on the findings. I explained that I will
share the completed dissertation with the deans in the hope that this is the first step to improving
the experiences and academic success of students of color at the institution.
Positionality refers to the researcher’s stance and demographics concerning the research
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I identified as female and multiracial (white and Filipino), but
many of the participants did not know how I identify myself. The researcher’s identification is
essential since the students of color that they will study may view the researcher as an outsider
and question why they will focus the research study on demographics to which they believe the
researcher does not belong. The participants from underrepresented groups are often skeptical of
how researchers from a majority group portray them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The way I
mitigated this issue was by explaining my background and interest in conducting this research at
the beginning of the survey description and the beginning of the interview.
Ethics
Although I did not have any direct supervision or daily interaction with the study’s
participants, I was a member of the organization in the study. Also, the participants were

56
members of the organization in the study. Therefore, it was crucial to ensure the participants’
confidentiality throughout the study and for three years following the study’s completion.
For the quantitative study, I provided the Office of Student Affairs a survey information
fact sheet and a link to the survey. The information fact sheet included the title of the study,
researcher contact information, the purpose of the study, participation involvement,
payment/compensation for participation information, confidentiality, and contact information for
the researcher and the IRB at USC. Refer to Appendix D for the survey information fact sheet.
I maintained confidentiality through physical safeguards such as removing the recording
from the Zoom platform immediately after receiving the transcription and storing the recording
on an external hard drive that is kept in a locked drawer in my home office. I maintained
administrative safeguards by being the only person having access to the participants’
information. Technical safeguards were secured using a password-protected laptop.
Throughout the qualitative interviews, if students shared information with me that
brought up trauma, pain, anger, or frustration, I was prepared to provide student resources such
as contacts within the Office of Student Affairs and school counseling services. Hence, the
participants were aware of the resources available to assist them with any emotions that arose
during the interview.

57
Chapter Four: Findings
This study evaluated the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the
academic success of students of color. The researcher assumed influences from the related
literature and narrowed and validated possible causes by conducting a performance gap analysis.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the
academic success of students of color?
2. What are the experiences of students of color at IHEs?
3. How do faculty impact the academic success of students of color?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this study were the Class of 2020 students from the P-
School. As discussed in Chapter Three, a mixed methods approach was utilized for this study. A
survey was sent out to all 98 students in the Class of 2020 and 43 students participated in the
survey, with 20 of those students identifying as students of color. A voluntary request sampling
was conducted for interviews and seven students participated in an interview, with five students
identifying as students of color. The survey was conducted to provide a foundation of context for
the interviews. The survey was designed to assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors assumed to affect the academic success of students of color. The survey included 40
questions to determine the validity of the assumed influences. The interview included 10
interview questions, along with 16 probing questions that focused on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that impact students while enrolled at P-School. For an assumed
influence to be validated, the majority or at least 50% of the participants must provide
confirmation that this influence exists.

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Table 5 provides a breakdown of the race/ethnicity of survey participants. Table 6
provides a breakdown of the gender of survey participants. Table 7 provides a breakdown of the
interview participants’ pseudonyms, gender, race/ethnicity, and length of the interview.

Table 5
Race/Ethnicity of Survey Participants, Class of 2020, and P-School At-large
Survey participants % Class of 2020 P-School At-large
Asian or Pacific Islander 2% 10% 7%
Black or African American 9% 16% 8%
Hispanic or Latinx 23% 27% 30%
White or Caucasian 54% 49% 49%
A race or ethnicity not listed here
(please specify)

Latino Americano 2%
Other 2%
Multiracial or Biracial 5% 2% 2%
I prefer not to answer 2%
Total n of students 43 98 189

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Table 6
Gender of Survey Participants
Gender %
Cisgender female/woman 65%
Cisgender male/man 33%
I prefer not to answer 2%

Table 7
Interview Participants’ Pseudonyms, Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Length of Interview
Pseudonym Gender Race/ethnicity Length of interview
Anastasia Female Black or African American 41:34
Emily Female Other 28:48
Marie Female Hispanic or Latinx 1:04:00
Roxie Hart Female White or Caucasian 31:12
Sofia Female Hispanic or Latinx 55:21
Jim Ward Male Hispanic or Latinx 1:28:16
Werner Male White or Caucasian 33:48

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Research
The literature review in Chapter Two explored the barriers that affect the academic
success of students of color in higher education, specifically focused on the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. The conceptual framework (Figure 1) describes the
assumed influences in relation to the academic success of students of color and was used to guide
this study. The assumed knowledge influences are:
• To be successful on campus, students need to know what resources and support are
available.
• Students need to know and be able to pair the appropriate resource and support to
their issue or challenge.
• Students need to know how to leverage the resources and support available to them to
seek appropriate help and remove any academic barriers.
The assumed motivation influences are expectancy-value, self-efficacy, and self-
regulation. The assumed organization barriers are campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty
mentoring, student engagement, and financial aid. Table 8 provides a summary of the assumed
influences that were encompassed in the conceptual framework for this study.

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Table 8
Assumed Influences
Influence type Assumed influence
Knowledge:
Factual To be successful on campus, students need to know what
resources and support are available.
Conceptual Students need to know and be able to pair the appropriate resource
and support to their issue or challenge.
Procedural Students need to know how to leverage the resources and support
available to them to seek appropriate help and remove any
academic barriers.
Motivation:
Expectancy-value Students need to see the value of persisting in the program and
graduating.
Self-efficacy Students need to feel confident in their ability to complete their
school assignments.
Self-regulation Students need to continually monitor their progress in school and
develop new strategies if current techniques are unsuccessful.
Organization:
Campus climate The University needs to prioritize the needs of its students of color
and create a campus climate and environment that is supportive
and inclusive of its students of color.
Sense of belonging The University needs to foster a sense of belonging on its
campus.
Faculty mentoring The University needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to create
deeper connections with students of color.
Student engagement The University needs to create engagement strategies with
students of color to increase their connections with the
University.
Financial aid The University needs to provide more comprehensive resources
and support to students of color regarding financial decisions
and aid.

Knowledge Results
This study focused on the knowledge necessary for students of color to achieve academic
success while in P-School. Help-seeking is the assumed knowledge influence, and the definition
in this study is the identification of a problem, pursuing assistance for the problem, engaging in

62
assistance, and partaking in treatment or support (Dearing & Twaragowski, 2010; Menna &
Ruck, 2004). Eisenberg (2007) and Stebleton et al. (2014) suggested that many students of color
may not know about the student campus resources that exist at the school. Table 9 describes the
assumed knowledge influences.

Table 9
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Knowledge type Assumed influence
Factual To be successful on campus, students need to know what resources
and support are available.
Conceptual Students need to know and be able to pair the appropriate resource
and support to their issue or challenge.
Procedural Students need to know how to leverage the resources and support
available to them to seek appropriate help and remove any
academic barriers.

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To Be Successful on Campus, Students Need to Know What Resources and Support Are
Available
Factual knowledge refers to the essential information necessary to comprehend and
resolve a problem or achieve a goal (Krathwohl, 2002). The first assumed factual knowledge gap
in this study assessed whether students are aware of the resources and support available to them.
The method used to evaluate this area was the quantitative survey. The survey responses indicate
that students have a strong understanding of the resources and support available to them at P-
School, as 83% of students responded positively to question 27—“I know where to find campus
support services if I need them.” Out of the students of color who participated in the survey, 84%
agreed with this statement. Therefore, this assumed knowledge influence was not validated.
There is no gap in knowledge based on the survey responses to this question. Figure 2 provides
the overall responses for the survey question related to this influence. Figure 3 illustrates the
responses to Question 27 based on ethnicity/race.

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Figure 2
Overall Survey Responses to Question 27

Note. Question 27 is: “I know where to find campus support services if I need them.”
Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

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Figure 3
Breakdown of Survey Responses to Question 27 by Race/Ethnicity

Note: Question 27 is: “I know where to find campus support services if I need them.”

Students Need to Know and Be Able to Pair the Appropriate Resource and Support to Their
Issue or Challenge
The conceptual knowledge assumed influence assessed whether students know how to
pair the appropriate campus resource to address their issue. The method used to evaluate this area
was qualitative interviews. There were mixed results, and this was a focal point for two of the
Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

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interview participants. They stated that students are aware there are resources at the school, but
they are unsure of which resource they should utilize to address specific concerns. For example,
Sofia stated:
I guess maybe if there was something a little less complex where people know if I have a
question or I have a problem, I directly fill this out or I directly go to this person, maybe
even something anonymous on the school site for students. ‘Cause I think sometimes it’s
also complicated. Okay, do I go to student affairs? Do I do this?
P-School students of color recognize they have challenges, but there needs to be more
guidance on which resources students should use to assist with their issue. It seems the P-School
does a good job of providing various student resources, but they are not clearly communicating
to students how each resource should be utilized. Anastasia had a similar response and
mentioned there needs to be more transparency at the school.
I think maybe more, more transparency. I think that there were times when students were
not sure . . . who to go to for certain concerns or what resources were available to them if
they had concerns or had negative experiences. And I know that there are certain things
in place for students. But I don’t think it’s always very clear or transparent what those
things are or what that looks like.
Anastasia’s statement is important to note because she acknowledges that P-School offers
student resources when they need help, but students of color are unsure of who to turn to for their
issue or which resource is available for them to use at that time. Help-seeking is important to
student success, but utilizing the appropriate resource will ensure the obstacle is resolved so
students can persist to graduation.

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The results suggest that participants would benefit from increased conceptual knowledge
in this area. Many students are aware that P-School offers a variety of student resources.
However, there are students who state they do not have clear guidance from the school on which
resources students should use to assist with certain issues. There seem to be gaps in how the
institution communicates these resources, and information is not being shared to new students
upon enrolling in the school and throughout their time as a student. For students of color to
persist to graduation, the institution should have numerous ways of conveying help-seeking
information clearly to the student body. Addressing this factual knowledge influence of help-
seeking is important to the academic success of students of color because it allows them to seek
out the help they desire, solve their problem, and progress towards academic success and
graduation. Eliminating the confusion and obstacles to resources will increase the academic
success of students of color.
Students Need to Know How to Leverage the Resources and Support Available to Them to
Seek Appropriate Help and Remove Any Academic Barriers
For procedural knowledge, the study assessed whether students know how to leverage the
resources and support available to them to seek appropriate help and remove any academic
barriers. The method used to evaluate this area was qualitative interviews. The interview
responses showed three students who utilized P-School resources; however, two of the students
were hesitant to take advantage of the support at P-School.
Werner sought the help of faculty, but he wishes he did more to advocate for himself
when he first enrolled in P-School.
I found most faculty very helpful . . . I’m very . . . hesitant to be like, hey, will you help
me out? But . . . I found most would be very helpful . . . [and the only aspect that was] a

68
little frustrating having some experience before [enrolling in the school] I wish I could
have tested out of [some classes] or advocated for myself a little more early on in the
program.
This student, who identifies as White, believe the resources were useful and the faculty were
helpful and accessible. However, he felt that he should have tapped those resources earlier in the
program to see if there was an opportunity for him to bypass some courses based on his
experience before enrolling in the program. The P-School does not seem to communicate
information early enough to students on how to take advantage of the school resources to assist
in obtaining the best learning experience.
When Jim Ward encountered problems, he initially hesitated to reach out to campus
resources until classmates pushed him to connect with student services.
So, I just remember, I really didn’t even talk to anybody about my situation until it was
towards the end, but . . . [the staff from student services said] student services is here, we
got you. And I was just like, I can do it on my own. I’m really old school. I was raised,
you know, like old school [Hispanic]. I was like, no, I got this. I don't need a handout,
you know. I can do it. And then I just remember . . . one of the students was just like,
dude, just legit go to student services. Everybody knows you [have this problem] . . . like
legit just go to student services.
For Jim Ward, who identifies as Hispanic or Latinx, cultural behaviors were instilled in him to
solve problems on his own, rather than seek help. For Jim to seek help from the student services
office, it took the staff themselves to recognize he had challenges as well as his peers to insist
that he utilize the assistance of that department.

69
Sofia, who also identifies as Hispanic or Latinx, had a similar experience where she does
not always seek out help when she has a problem.
I think that everybody is like trying to make themselves approachable . . . but that doesn’t
always mean that people are going to seek what they actually need. Like even for me . . .
I don’t want to admit that I need help you know? ‘Cause I just was never used to doing
that. So, I would kind of be like . . . I’ll figure it out. . . . But I think that . . . even just
always making that presence known that there’s people there to help you with things and,
oh, we have these coaches for this and . . . we have this. And just reminding people, not
just in emails, but directly . . . you know, by faculty and staff directly talking to students
or . . . kind of guiding them . . . is helpful.
These responses show that the two students of color from this group, who both identified
as Hispanic or Latinx, were hesitant to use the support available to them. These students knew
they needed help, but felt they could solve it on their own without P-School’s assistance. One
student admitted his hesitancy was cultural, where he was raised to figure out problems on his
own. The other student stated she never seeks out help and always resolved problems without
assistance. It seems that the students knew how to leverage the resources and support at P-
School, but it just takes some students longer than others to come around and use those
resources. This type of behavior is important to note as P-School staff should stay connected
with the student body to recognize when they are facing challenges as they may not immediately
seek out the help they need.
Another resource that was used by three students was the counseling center, but they
experienced issues with the entire process. Roxie Hart stated:

70
I did reach out to . . . the [school’s] wellness team to set up a therapy appointment, but
honestly it just felt too overwhelming in the end because they set you up with a therapist
for 10 weeks and then you’d have to find a therapist on your own . . . and so it was just
one of those things that got pushed back.
Sofia had a similar response and stated:
I did in person . . . that initial counseling therapy session that you can do at the [P-
School], but of course, you know, they have to then refer you to other therapists and then
I just didn’t do it. . . . I think making a list of resources for students . . . for next semester
would be really helpful as far as therapy goes. ‘Cause in my opinion, everyone needs it to
some extent. So, might as well have it available.
These statements indicate that the counseling center resource is one that P-School
students are aware of and utilize, but the length of time available for students to use may not be
enough since the P-School program is longer than 10 weeks. The P-School may need to revisit
this service and determine the appropriate amount of time students should have access to the
counseling center based on the length of the program and the students’ needs. Help-seeking is
important to student success, but restricting the length of time resources are available for
students is detrimental to it. Student resources should be available to students for the duration of
their program to allow for problems to be resolved in a timely manner so as to not affect their
persistence to graduation.
Jim Ward became overwhelmed when he was in school and initially went back to his
home state rather than use the counseling center.
I was like, I really can’t do this . . . I really can’t do school. And [a student service staff
member said] ask for the counseling. And I was like, no, I wanna go back home . . . and I

71
did go home . . . and I talked to my family . . . and I got through it. I came back and I
asked for the counseling center. I asked for the paperwork, but I never submitted it
because . . . already talking to my family and talking to my friends when I went home,
that was . . . enough for me to get out of my system.
Although the counseling center was available to Jim Ward, this student felt it was in his best
interest to take a break and be with his support system back home. This type of response is
important for P-School departments to understand. There may be times that students need to
physically remove themselves from the situation to see the solution more clearly. Although the
resource was available for this student, they took an alternative route which worked best for
them.
A different type of help-seeking occurred with Marie. She reached out to the provost
when she experienced problems with a professor, but she did not see any results from that
conversation. Marie stated:
I had an experience . . . that made me very uncomfortable in the classroom and nothing
ever happened. I report it to [the provost] and nothing ever happened, and that professor
to my knowledge, literally didn’t get in trouble or anything . . . when I told [the provost]
he’s like, “Yeah, I’ll definitely talk to him.” But then nothing, I wasn’t followed up with.
And I saw that professor was teaching another class. And I was like that’s not super cool
to me.
In this student’s situation she knew that faculty reported to the provost and they were the
appropriate individual to speak with about their concern. However, a lack of transparency
following that conversation made the student believe that the P-School does not take these types
of concerns seriously. Along with providing the resources available to students, P-School faculty

72
and staff should follow up with students to check-in and provide any updates on their end to
facilitate the resolving of a specific concern.
Based on the student responses, this assumed procedural knowledge influence was not
validated. There is no gap in knowledge based on the interview responses for procedural
knowledge. These students are aware of the avenues for help and will seek assistance with their
issues. However, the limited time certain resources are available for students is problematic and
the lack of follow-up from faculty and staff should be addressed. For students of color, having
procedural knowledge is critical to their academic success. When students recognize they have a
barrier, and know how to leverage the resources available to them, this will enable them to
persist to graduation.
Summary of Knowledge Results
There were four assumed knowledge influences for this study, and only one was
validated: Students need to know and be able to pair the appropriate resource and support to
their issue or challenge. Although there were mixed results for this influence, there were several
student responses that revealed a gap in their conceptual knowledge in this capacity. Table 10
provides the mean and standard deviation of each knowledge question in the survey for help-
seeking. Table 11 provides the validation status for the knowledge influences.

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Table 10
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Knowledge Question for Help-Seeking
Help-seeking question Mean Standard deviation
Obtaining this degree will make my life better. 8.90 0.75
I am comfortable approaching my professors for help. 9.05 0.97
The school has the right resources to meet my needs. 8.60 1.14
I know where to find campus support services if I need
them.
8.95 0.97

Table 11
Validation Status for Knowledge Influences
Knowledge type Assumed influence Validated
Factual To be successful on campus, students need to know what
resources and support are available.
No
Factual Students need to see the value of school. No
Conceptual Students need to know and be able to pair the appropriate
resource and support to their issue or challenge.
Yes
Procedural Students need to know how to leverage the resources and
support available to them to seek appropriate help and
remove any academic barriers.
No

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Motivation Results
This study focused on the motivation necessary for students of color to achieve academic
success while in P-School. Motivation can be defined in various ways such as value, where one
needs to see the value in a task (Wigfield & Eccles, 1994). Motivation can also be defined in
terms of self-efficacy, where one’s level of self-efficacy will determine their ability to achieve
certain tasks (Yusuf, 2011). Motivation in this research study can be understood through the
motivational theories of expectancy-value theory, self-efficacy theory, and self-regulation theory.
Table 12 describes the assumed motivation influences.

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Table 12
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivation type Assumed influence
Expectancy-value—students need to see the
value of persisting in the program and
graduating.
Quantitative survey to assess if they value the
program.
Self-efficacy—students need to feel confident
in their ability to complete their school
assignments.
Quantitative survey to assess their confidence
level while in school.
Self-regulation—students need to continually
monitor their progress in school and
develop new strategies if current techniques
are unsuccessful.
Quantitative survey and qualitative open-
interview questions to assess what they do
if they are falling behind in school.

Students Need to See the Value of Persisting in the Program and Graduating
Expectancy-value is one of the assumed motivational influences in this study and refers
to choosing to undertake challenges if one values the challenge and expects to succeed (Wigfield
& Eccles, 2002). The first assumed motivational gap in the study assessed whether students see
the value of persisting in the program and graduating. The method used to evaluate this area was
the quantitative survey.
For Question 3, “The amount of effort it takes to receive my degree is worthwhile to me,”
the survey responses indicate that students see a strong value in persisting in the program and
graduating, as 96% of students responded positively. Out of the students of color who
participated in the survey, 95% agreed with this statement.

76
For Question 4, “Getting this degree is essential to the person that I want to become,” the
survey responses show that 79% of students overall and 95% of students of color agree that they
see this degree as an essential part of realizing their future. Figure 4 provides the overall survey
responses to Question 4.

Figure 4
Overall Survey Responses to Question 4

Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

Note. Question 4 is: “Getting this degree is essential to the person that I want to become.”

77
The final survey question to evaluate expectancy-value was Question 5, “This degree
is useful to my career plans after graduation.” The survey responses demonstrate that 83% of
students overall and 84% of students of color agree that this degree will assist them with their
professional goals following graduation.
The P-School participants seem to have a high level of expectancy-value. They value
the degree, they find it important to have in becoming their future self, and they find it useful to
their goals following graduation. When students of color have a high expectancy-value and
believe in achieving a specific goal, this increases their sense of belonging, motivation, and
academic performance, which lead to persisting to graduation. Table 13 provides the mean and
standard deviation of each motivation influence question related to expectancy-value in the
survey.

Table 13
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Motivation Question for Expectancy-Value
Expectancy-value question Mean Standard deviation
The amount of effort it takes to receive my degree is
worthwhile to me.
4.30 0.70
Getting this degree is essential to the person that I want
to become.
22.07 0.92
This degree is useful to my career plans after graduation. 9.30 1.14

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Students Need to Feel Confident in Their Ability to Complete Their School Assignments
Self-efficacy theory refers to one’s belief in their ability to achieve certain tasks
(Bandura, 1977). Students who have a high self-efficacy are more likely to achieve academic
success in school and graduate as compared to those with lower self-efficacy. The second
assumed motivational gap assessed whether students feel confident in their ability to complete
their school assignments and ultimately graduate from P-School. The method used to evaluate
this area was the quantitative survey.
For survey Question 7, “I am confident in my ability to complete this degree,” the survey
responses indicate that 98% of students overall agree with this statement and 95% of students of
color also agree.
For Question 8, “I am confident in my ability to become an industry professional after
graduation,” the survey responses show that 69% of students overall agree with this statement
and 63% of students of color agree.
For Question 10, “I am less confident as a student now than I was in college,” the survey
responses demonstrate mixed results. Overall, almost half of students disagree with that
statement and almost 40% of students agree with that statement. For students of color, over one-
third disagree with that statement and 42% agree with that statement.
Although almost half of students overall and almost half of students of color disagree
with this statement, the results did not confirm at least 50% of the responses and, therefore, this
influence is not validated. However, these responses are important to note, as there is a large
percentage of students of color who feel less confident in P-School than they did in college.
The P-School survey participants are confident in their ability to graduate, work in the
industry following graduation, and overall are not less confident as compared to when they were

79
in college. When students of color have a high degree of self-efficacy, they develop greater goals
for themselves, tend to be more involved with their institution, and have more social support
while in school. When there is a high degree of self-efficacy among students of color, that is a
critical element in graduating more students of color on-campus. Figure 5 demonstrates the
overall student survey responses to Question 10. Table 14 provides the mean and standard
deviation of each motivation question in the survey for self-efficacy.

Figure 5
Overall Survey Responses to Question 10

Note. Question 10 is: “I am less confident as a student now than I was in college.”
Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

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Table 14
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Motivation Question for Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy question Mean
Standard
deviation
I am confident in my ability to complete this degree. 9.55 0.62
I am confident in my ability to become an industry
professional after graduation.
13.93 1.01
I am less confident as a student now than I was in college. 12.76 1.50

Students Need to Continually Monitor Their Progress in School and Develop New Strategies if
Current Techniques Are Unsuccessful
Self-regulation is the final assumed motivational influence and refers to assessing one's
habits, setting goals, and developing other options if their initial strategy does not work (Dembo
& Eaton, 2000). Clement (2016) states that self-regulatory strategies are important for those
students of color who have outside family commitments and outside employment that may affect
their schoolwork. The method used to evaluate self-regulation was the quantitative survey and
qualitative interviews.
Question 9 in the survey asked if students were confident in their ability to: meet
assignment deadlines, work on school assignments when there are other interesting things to do,
create a plan for completing school assignments, find a place to work on school assignments
without distractions, motivate themselves to work on school assignments, and participate in class
discussions. The survey responses indicate that students overall, as well as students of color
specifically, are confident in their ability to excel in all those areas.

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Question 11 states “When I see myself falling behind, I try to figure out ways to get
caught up.” The students overall responded positively, with 95% agreeing to this statement and
the same percentage for students of color as well. Question 12 states, “I get easily distracted from
the tasks at hand.” Overall, 54% of students agreed with this statement and almost half of the
students of color also agreed with this statement. The final survey question to evaluate self-
regulation was Question 13, “I can accomplish the goals I set out for myself.” The students
overall responded positively, with 98% of students agreeing with this statement and 95% of
students of color agreeing.
Based on the quantitative survey responses, the P-School student participants have high
self-regulatory skills and can assess and monitor their progress while in school. Although, many
students, including students of color, agree they get easily distracted at times, they believe they
can achieve their goals. Figure 6 shows the students’ overall responses to Question 9, “I am
confident in my ability to. . .” Table 15 provides the mean and standard deviation of each
motivation question in the survey for self-regulation.

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Figure 6
Overall Survey Responses to Question 9

Note. Question 9 is: “I am confident in my ability to. . .”

Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

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Table 15
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Motivation Question for Self-Regulation
Self-regulation question Mean
Standard
deviation
I am confident in my ability to:
Meet my assignment deadlines 13.81 1.18
Work on school assignments when there are other
interesting things to do
13.64 0.95
Create a plan for completing my school assignments 13.93 0.96
Find a place to work on school assignments 13.76 1.17
Motivate myself to work on school assignments 13.48 1.10
Participate in class discussions 14.00 1.13
When I see myself falling behind, I try to figure out ways to
get caught up.
9.31 0.64
I get easily distracted from the tasks at hand. 8.62 1.67
I can accomplish the goals I set out for myself. 9.33 0.52

Qualitative interviews were also used to evaluate the self-regulation of students at P-
School. There were two students who felt overwhelmed while in school and that affected their
academic success and well-being. Sofia felt she was doing too much and had to be realistic with
how much she could manage while in school. She was enrolled full-time, had a job with a
company in her hometown, was working locally, and had a full-time summer internship.
If there’s anything this year taught me . . . you can say no. . . . I do like to work . . . and [I
had all these opportunities so] how am I going to say no that?. . . I finally stopped [one of
the jobs, but I] still feel like I’m doing too much. And then it was like . . . okay . . .
getting some therapy and then also being able to say no to things. I think I took one or

84
two personal days from the internship . . . but . . . I think it was . . . just being real about
how much you can handle at a time.
Sofia took advantage of all the opportunities presented to her while in the program, but felt
overwhelmed when it was hard to balance everything. Nonetheless, she was able to evaluate her
situation and realize she needed to reduce her responsibilities for her mental wellbeing and for
her academic success. These types of self-regulatory skills will enable students of color to
achieve academic success.
Roxie Hart also had anxiety and stress while in the program and during the first semester
she was considering dropping out.
I think just being stretched really thin . . . and I’ll hopefully look back and be like, wow, I
can’t believe how much I was [doing]. . . . And there was . . . a point first semester where
I thought . . . should I drop out?. . . Is it worth the anxiety and stress that this program is
causing me? The anxiety was so high that I thought, I’m either going to have to be
medicated or I’m gonna have to drop out of this program.
This student experienced a high amount of stress and their well-being was affected while at P-
School. However, they assessed the situation and realized that completing this degree will assist
them in reaching their goals. This self-regulatory capacity allowed Roxie Hart to persist to
graduation.
For these two students, their self-regulatory skills focused on a reflection of their mental
health and how to better manage the situation. Although the opportunities at the time were
beneficial to them, they had to assess the situation and determine their plan of action to
ultimately complete the program and graduate from P-School.

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One participant, Jim Ward, encountered obstacles in moving into a new city and did not
have any support system to help him navigate these challenges.
There was a point where . . . I stepped off the plane with very little money and just a goal.
. . . I was just like, I’m gonna go to [school], I’m gonna do this, and whatever happens,
happens. . . . [I had several problems] and I didn’t have a support network. [I had one in
my hometown] but I didn’t have one here . . . so . . . what am I gonna do? Do I go back
on the plane? And I just remember calling my family and being like . . . I don’t know . . .
what I’m gonna do.
Many students relocate for school and leave behind their support system while they pursue their
education. However, the lack of a support system may affect a student’s success. Jim assessed
the situation, decided to contact his family for advice, and their guidance and support helped him
progress and continue with the program.
The P-School students had a high level of motivation while they were enrolled in the
program. They had an extraordinary degree of expectancy-value, self-efficacy, and self-
regulatory skills ,which are important for them to achieve academic success. However, the
students encountered a lot of stress while enrolled and that is important to note. They were able
to maneuver their way through those challenges and constantly assessed their situation while
they were students, but the high level of stress for students is a key factor for the P-School to
consider when evaluating the available student resources.
Summary of Motivation Results
There were three assumed motivation influences for this study: expectancy-value, self-
efficacy, and self-regulation. Based on the student survey and interview responses, there is no
gap in motivation, and both expectancy-value and self-regulation were not validated. However, it

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is important to note that although the self-efficacy responses did not total 50% for validation
purposes, a large percentage of students of color that feel less confident in P-School than they
did in college. Table 16 provides the validation status of the motivation influences.

Table 16
Validation Status for Motivation Influences
Motivation type Assumed influence Validated
Expectancy-value Students need to see the value in persisting in the
program and graduating.
No
Self-efficacy Students need to feel confident in their ability to
complete their school assignments.
No
Self-regulation Students need to continually monitor their progress in
school and develop new strategies if current
techniques are unsuccessful.
No

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Organizational Results
Students enrolled in school may have the knowledge to achieve academic success, and
they may be greatly motivated to graduate from the program, but if that institution has
organizational barriers, then the students will not achieve their goal of academic success (Clark
& Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). This research study focused on organizational barriers that affect
the academic success of students of color at P-School, specifically campus climate, sense of
belonging, faculty mentoring, student engagement, and financial aid. Table 17 describes the
assumed organizational influences.

Table 17
Assumed Organizational Influences
Influence type Assumed influence
Campus climate The University needs to prioritize the needs of its students of
color and create a campus climate and environment that is
supportive and inclusive of its students of color.
Sense of belonging The University needs to foster a sense of belonging on its
campus.
Faculty mentoring The University needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to
create deeper connections with students of color.
Student engagement The University needs to create engagement strategies with
students of color to increase their connections with the
University.
Financial aid The University needs to provide more comprehensive
resources and support to students of color regarding
financial aid decisions and aid.

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The University Needs to Prioritize the Needs of Its Students of Color and Create a Campus
Climate and Environment That Is Supportive and Inclusive of Its Students of Color
Campus climate refers to the extent to which an institution is inclusive of racial or ethnic
diversity, the amount of diverse representation, the attitudes and perceptions between groups,
and the behavior of groups at the institution (Hurtado et al., 1998). The first assumed
organizational gap in this study assessed whether students believe the University prioritizes the
needs of its students of color and creates a campus climate and environment that is supportive
and inclusive of its students of color. The method used to evaluate this area was quantitative
survey and qualitative interview questions. There were mixed results. The survey responses
showed that the P-School has a positive campus climate, but the interviews indicated that the
institution needs to improve in this area.
For survey Question 15, “If I had the chance to do it all over again, I would attend this
institution,” the survey responses indicate that almost three-quarters of students overall and
almost 80% of students of color agreed that they would attend this institution if they had to do it
all over again. For Question 16, “I have found this campus environment to be friendly,” the
survey responses indicate that overall, almost 90% of students overall and 95% of students of
color agreed with this statement. Question 18, “This institution needs to prioritize the needs of its
students and create a campus environment that is supportive and inclusive,” almost 70% of
students overall and almost 80% of students of color agreed that the institution needs to create a
supportive and inclusive campus environment. Question 20 states: “I have experienced racial
microaggressions at this institution.” There were 57% of students overall and 58% of students of
color that disagreed with this statement. Question 21 states: “When I try to speak up in class, I
am sometimes interrupted or ignored.” Over 60% of students overall, including students of color,

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disagree. The last survey question, “I believe this school supports you to be successful,” received
84% of students overall and almost 90% of students of color that agreed with that statement.
These survey responses indicate that the students of color have a positive experience at
the P-School and perceive the campus climate as welcoming and friendly. However, they do
believe that P-School can improve in prioritizing the needs of its students and create a more
supportive and inclusive environment. Figure 7 displays the students’ overall responses to
Question 18, “This institution needs to prioritize the needs of its students and create a campus
climate and environment that is supportive and inclusive.” Table 18 provides the mean and
standard deviation of each organization question in the survey for campus climate.

Figure 7
Overall Survey Responses to Question 18

Note. Question 18 is: “This institution needs to prioritize the needs of its students and create a
campus climate and environment that is supportive and inclusive.

Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

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Table 18
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Campus Climate
Campus climate question Mean
Standard
deviation
If I had the choice to do it all over again, I would still attend
this institution.
9.12 0.96
I have found this campus environment to be friendly. 9.43 0.76
This institution needs to prioritize the needs of its students
and create a campus climate that is supportive and
inclusive.
9.07 1.18
I have experienced racial microaggressions at this institution. 7.45 1.31
When I try to speak up in class, I am sometimes interrupted
or ignored.
7.24 1.27
I believe this school supports you to be successful. 9.14 0.80

There were also qualitative interview questions that evaluated campus climate. All
interview participants stated that a diverse learning environment was important while in school.
Two students of color, Emily and Anastasia, stated that having people at the school that look like
them is important to their academic success. Emily stated, “Oh, it was absolutely entirely central.
. . . I think my experience, especially as an international student who was coming to a country for
the first time seeing people who look like me . . . was very, very important.” Anastasia felt
similarly and stated that a diverse learning environment is crucial because students feel invisible
when there is a lack of diversity.
I think it’s like probably one of the most important things that any . . . academic
institution can offer to its students. Because when there’s a lack of diversity, students

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who are in the groups that are left out feel invisible or they feel undervalued. They don’t
feel seen, I think. So, when you don’t have people who can reflect that, you end up
feeling like, what is your place here? Where do you belong?. . . There is something
special about being able to be in community with people who share your identity and
who understand . . . where you’ve come from and who you are.
For these students of color, the perception of a positive campus climate begins with a diverse
learning environment. When there is a diverse learning community, students of color feel that
there are others who understand them and their background. When that aspect is missing, it
affects their connectedness with the institution. However, students of color are not alone in their
appreciation of a diverse learning environment. Werner stated that as a person that identifies as a
heterosexual white male, he needs to speak to people different than himself.
I know what it’s like to be a straight white guy who grew up in the suburbs. I don’t learn
much from talking to other ones of us . . . but [a diverse learning environment], it was
really important to me, I think just ‘cause it increases the input . . . and just heightens
discussion around a lot ideas . . . in terms of [this industry], it has been very White, very
male . . . and it’s not healthy for the industry. So, I think . . . having a broader variety of
people contributing to that discussion will make us better professionally and it’ll
strengthen our education.
All students surveyed, regardless of how they identify racially or ethnically, believe that a
welcoming and supportive campus climate starts with a diverse group of students, faculty, and
staff. Diversity on-campus increases their sense of community within the school and improves
the learning atmosphere for all students.

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Another qualitative interview question asked if they believed the P-School values
diversity. Six students indicated that the P-School does value diversity, but there is room for
improvement. Two students of color, Emily and Anastasia, believe the school values diversity,
but it is not enough. Emily stated:
I definitely think the school does value and is trying to be more conscious and active
about these things, but I’m not sure if they are doing it right all of the time. . . . I have
mixed feelings about it because as we saw on Veteran’s Day the post was very
insensitive, the discussion that came out was not the best, even though there was clearly
an effort, but I don’t think it’s enough yet.
This statement demonstrates that valuing diversity and weaving it throughout an institution goes
beyond what people look like on-campus, but also extends to how the school presents itself to
the world through social media and external messages. P-School needs to reflect their
commitment to diversity by being sensitive to the students they serve in regards to the images
and messages they share to the world.
Anastasia made a similar statement, saying that P-School aspires to have a diverse
community, but they need to do more.
So, I believe the school does value diversity. I don’t know if that is enough. I think that this
school definitely has lots of areas to improve in terms of diversity, but I do think the
administration has expressed a desire to have a diverse student body and has taken some
steps to make that happen. But I don’t know if what they have done is enough and there are
definitely still areas that I think are lacking. But in terms of just if it’s important to the
school, I do think that they care about it.

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These two students of color appreciate P-School’s goals of a diverse campus and believe the
school cares about diversity, but there are areas they should further develop to achieve their
goals. P-School presents a culture that values diversity, but these students of color believe there
is always room for improvement. These statements indicate that diversity is an important facet
for students of color, has an impact on their perception of the school, and affects their academic
success.
Another student of color, Marie, stated that P-School values diversity, but faculty and
employee diversity can be improved and the school lacks a supportive structure once students of
color enroll.
I think they do . . . but . . . they could use a little more work on the higher administration
level and with some of the professors as well. I think they try their best, but I don’t know
if they necessarily have the support system for certain students present at the school. . . . I
think the school definitely does try their best in recruiting different students from all
forms of diverse backgrounds . . . but like I said, I don’t know if the support is necessarily
there . . . once they actually get there.
Marie’s statement is crucial for P-School to acknowledge since she states that there is a lack of
faculty and staff of color and an absence of support for students of color when they arrive on-
campus. P-School spends a lot of time and effort in recruiting students of color to their campus,
and developing the support structure for those students when they arrive is critical to their
academic success and increasing their graduation rates.
Jim Ward, believes that P-School values racial diversity, but the student body lacked a
diversity of viewpoints, which he believes should be improved.

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They obviously value diversity, ‘cause, you know, you had all these different people. .
.Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, White, Mexican, people from Africa . . . we have a pretty
big international population for a small school. So, I believe that they value diversity as
far as like ethnicity and nationality goes . . . so I think the diversity is there . . . as far as
this skin color . . . but as far as viewpoints there was a lot of times where I just felt that
was very much lacking in the [P-School].
This statement is important for P-School to acknowledge, as the definition of diversity may be
different for everyone. Jim Ward believes that P-School values racial and ethnic diversity, but a
diversity of student viewpoints is an area that he believes can be improved.
Werner and Roxie Hart, two students who identify as White, believe the school is
committed to diversity. Roxie Hart states:
I think that they are committed to doing better and they’re committed to staying ahead of
the curve in terms of . . . diverse sources, in terms of diverse students. I think they put
their money where their mouth is and the way that they grant scholarships . . . I think that
they reflect a commitment to diversity.
This student believes the school values diversity and demonstrates their unwavering support for
it by granting many student financial awards. Roxie Hart’s assertion is an important aspect for P-
School to reflect upon, as spending funds to achieve a goal is viewed by students as the school’s
genuine dedication to diversity.
Werner recognizes that, as someone who identifies as White, he may not be able to see all
the issues that students of color may see at the school.
To me it seems like the school makes a great deal of effort to recruit and include and
support students from . . . the wide variety of backgrounds and experiences. That being

95
said . . . there’s just been emails in the last week about . . . people frustrated with what the
school is doing. I don’t see it, but I know like I don’t see it” (he points to his face). That
said, I feel like . . . they do a good job and it could always be better.
The two White students interviewed both believe the P-School is dedicated to diversity and
believe there is always room to improve. They have a positive perception of the current campus
climate, but understand that there are many students of color who do not have the same
perspective of the campus based on their individual experiences.
The final qualitative interview questions that addressed campus climate were focused on
the effect of the campus environment on academic success and recommendations to improve the
campus environment. Anastasia stated that a school’s campus environment is critical to academic
success and when a student of color feels unseen or experiences racial microaggressions, that
affects their academic success.
I definitely think that campus environment does play a big role . . . if students are in an
educational space where they don’t feel seen or where they are experiencing
microaggressions or where their concerns are not heard, or there’s not a place for their
concerns to be heard, then you know those students are not going to succeed and are
going to have a more difficult time learning. So, I definitely think the climate of the
school plays a big role in terms of just the campus atmosphere and how students who are
there feel.
Anastasia’s comment touches on racial microaggressions and how that affects the experience of
students of color. When students have negative experiences, it affects their perception of the
school, campus climate, and their success. P-School must ensure that the voices of students are
heard and there are avenues available for them to express their concerns.

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Marie heard from other students that professors were saying discriminatory comments in
class.
I definitely have heard of certain professors being disrespectful, whether it be to like
pronouns or making racist comments or sympathizing with racist ideals and students
being uncomfortable with that. So, I think consequences would be beneficial.
Faculty are critical to student success and when students encounter professors that make them
uncomfortable and make disparaging and demeaning comments, these actions do not instill the
perception of a positive campus climate. Sofia’s statement on consequences for these actions is
an aspect that P-School may want to consider in terms of being transparent on what happens to
faculty and other employees when these types of incidents take place on-campus. A welcoming
and inclusive campus climate is critical to student success. P-School must review the current
perceptions of students to determine which aspects to examine further to improve student
experiences.
Sofia said the COVID-19 pandemic affected her academic success because she was not
physically on-campus with other students.
I think that’s what was kind of rough about the pandemic was you feel kind of isolated,
like, oh no, I’m the only one going through burnout right now. And just not even wanting
to do the simplest tasks on my laptop. You’re thinking you’re the only one . . . when
really it’s everyone to a certain extent was probably also really going through it. But you
don’t know because you’re not [at the school] where you’re all venting and supporting
each other and helping each other with things.
The COVID-19 pandemic created a completely different learning environment than what
students initially expected to encounter when they enrolled in the program. The pandemic

97
affected the campus climate immensely because transitioning to remote learning was difficult, as
it created a solitary learning environment and zero interaction with their peers and faculty outside
of Zoom. If P-School continues with any aspect of remote learning in the future, they will need
to get creative in establishing a sense of community and a welcoming and inclusive campus
climate while students and faculty are completely online. Regardless of the type of learning
environment—in-person or remote—a positive campus climate is a key factor to student
persistence.
Emily and Roxie Hart had similar experiences where the physical campus and the student
support were crucial to their academic success. Emily stated:
I definitely feel like our campus . . . where you can work around people was very
important in terms of support and really being able to work with each other, support each
other. . . . I remember whenever something went wrong I had people around me who
could be there for me, and the same time whenever something went right I had people to
celebrate with and this is something I missed a lot when we moved to Zoom . . . but yeah,
the campus being there is definitely a major part of the academic experience itself, so
definitely the success as well.
Similarly, Roxie Hart felt that the small campus was helpful in building relationships with
people.
Having a central location place, having . . . a smallish space, I actually felt was . . . more
conducive to camaraderie. . . . I do think having a physical space that’s . . . a meeting
point and also a hangout space is pretty important to connecting with everyone.
Emily and Roxie Hart mentioned the physical campus was important to their student success and
how that affected them during the pandemic. Just being physically near peers who are going

98
through the same school struggles is helpful for students to achieve academic success. The
pandemic created this false impression for students that they were the only ones feeling
overwhelmed, anxious, or stressed, because they were unable to interact with their classmates
outside of Zoom. Many students felt that same way, but were detached from their peers and did
not realize that others were in the same situation. A space where students can gather and be
together creates school connectedness, a sense of community, and instills a positive campus
climate. These are all crucial for academic success.
For two students of color, faculty support was an important part of the campus climate
and their academic success. Jim Ward believes faculty and staff support was critical for him to
graduate.
If I didn’t have professors that I feel didn't care or didn’t actively take an interest in what
I was trying to do, I don’t think I would have made it. I really don’t think I would have
graduated. . . . I just remember [this one professor] having a really welcoming classroom
environment, and I felt like my professors came up to me in a way to check in on me and
on my situation in general . . . so, campus environment, honestly, that’s a big one . . . and
then student services . . . my . . . friends that I was able to make at the [school], just the
environment in itself, it was very supportive and great. So, had it not been for that great
environment, I really don’t think I would be here as a graduate talking to you today.
A welcoming classroom environment, checking in on students, and peer support were all critical
to Jim Ward’s persistence to graduation. Without these factors, Jim stated he would not be an
alumnus of P-School. Marie also stated that supportive professors are key components to a
positive campus climate and to her academic success. “I would say supportive instructors,
instructors that listen and take feedback really well, rather than shut down . . . I mean . . . really

99
listen. . . . There are definitely some professors at this school that will laugh it off.” Faculty are
essential to creating a welcoming campus climate and for students to excel in school. How
faculty respond to students and their willingness to support them and check in with them are all
critical elements for students of color to persist to graduation.
Two students also provided recommendations on how P-School can improve the campus
climate. Anastasia felt the school needs to be more proactive.
I think a lot of the stuff at the school seemed to be very reactive. So, in response to students
complaining or in response to things going on in the news as opposed to proactively. So, I
think just like anticipating the needs of students, trying to be proactive. . . . I think it’s
better and more meaningful to students if those things can be in place already and not
always be in response to something.
Anastasia mentions that P-School needs to be more proactive. Her experience at the school was
that when students complained, the school responded, rather than having the necessary support
structures in place to eliminate the complaints from occurring in the first place. These are
important factors for P-School to consider so they are preemptive, strategic, and visionary when
it comes to providing a positive and supportive campus climate for students.
Emily’s recommendation was that the role of academic advisors could improve, stating:
We do have academic advisors at [P-School] but at least my experience hasn’t been very
helpful, I’ve only went [sic] to her when I needed a paper signed for my scholarships and
I wish I had more support on that end, whether it’s by choosing my classes and my
concentration . . . even about applying for jobs, or just general being at the school at the
time I was.

100
P-School’s academic advisors are faculty members and are vital for student success. When
students arrive to campus, they are assigned an academic advisor who is supposed to guide them
throughout the program. However, it seems that role is not well-defined at P-School and has
transformed into an administrative role, rather than a student mentoring and guidance position.
Academic advisors and faculty members are key elements for students and their positions at P-
School should be clear-cut so all stakeholders are aware of the responsibilities. Based on the
student responses, this assumed organizational influence was validated. There is a gap in a
positive campus climate at P-School based on the interview responses.
The University Needs to Foster a Sense of Belonging on Its Campus
Another assumed organizational influence is a sense of belonging, which refers
to students’ mental and emotional connection to their school community and perceived support
from students, faculty, and staff on campus (Strayhorn, 2012). The method used to evaluate self-
regulation was the quantitative survey.
For Question 14, “In general, I fit in with other students at this institution,” almost 60% of
students overall, including students of color, agreed with this statement. However, it is important
to note that this response generated close results for students of color, with 42% of students of
color disagreeing with this statement. For Question 17, which stated, “I feel out of place in the
classroom,” students overall, including students of color, disagreed with the statement. Although
most students of color who participated in the survey disagreed with that statement, it is
important to note that about one-third of students of color did agree. The final sense of belonging
question that was asked was Question 19, “The school needs to foster a sense of belonging on its
campus.” The responses show that 60% of students overall and almost three-quarters of students
of color agreed with this statement as well.

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The responses to the sense of belonging survey questions indicate that P-School must
improve in this area. Many students of color do not believe they fit in with other students at P-
School: about one-third of students of color responded that they feel out-of-place in the
classroom, and almost three-quarters of students of color indicated that the school needs to foster
a sense of belonging on-campus. When students of color feel a sense of belonging to their
institution, they have a higher retention rate and are more apt to persist to graduation. A sense of
belonging assists in creating community and increases academic success. Figure 8 shows the
overall student responses to Question 19 and Figure 9 breaks down that question by
race/ethnicity.

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Figure 8
Overall Survey Responses to Question 19

Note. Question 19 is: “The school needs to foster a sense of belonging on its campus.”

Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

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Figure 9
Breakdown of Responses to Question 19 by Race/Ethnicity

Note. Question 19 is: “The school needs to foster a sense of belonging on its campus.”

Based on the student responses, this assumed organizational influence was validated.
There is a gap in the sense of belonging of students of color based on the interview responses.
Table 19 provides the mean and standard deviation of each organization question in the survey
for sense of belonging.
Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

104
Table 19
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Sense of Belonging
Sense of belonging question Mean
Standard
deviation
In general, I fit in with the other students at this institution. 8.40 1.29
I feel out of place in the classroom. 7.36 1.21
The school needs to foster a sense of belonging on its
campus.
8.76 1.19

The University Needs to Develop Initiatives for Its Faculty to Create Deeper Connections With
Students of Color
Faculty mentoring is an assumed organizational influence in this study. The methods
used to evaluate this area were the quantitative survey and qualitative interview questions.
Question 21 in the survey stated, “I feel my professors show little interest in my contributions,”
and over three-quarters of students overall and almost 70% of students of color disagreed with
this statement. For Question 24,”The institution needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to
create deeper connections with students,” 64% of students overall and 95% of students of color
agreed.
These survey responses indicate that students believe that faculty are interested in them,
but P-School still needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to create deeper connections with
students. As many students said throughout this study, there is always room for improvement,
and when it comes to faculty and student connectedness, this is an area that is crucial for students
and can always be enhanced. Figure 10 shows the overall responses to Question 24. Table 20

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provides the mean and standard deviation of each organization question in the survey for faculty
mentoring.

Figure 10
Overall Responses to Question 24

Note. Question 24 is: “The institution needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to create deeper
connections with students.”

Strongly Disagree
Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Somewhat Agree
Strongly Agree

106
Table 20
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Faculty Mentoring
Faculty mentoring question Mean
Standard
deviation
I feel my professors show little interest in my contributions. 6.93 1.10
The institution needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to
create deeper connections with students.
8.74 0.95

For the qualitative interviews, students believed that having faculty of color teaching at
P-School was important and faculty mentoring was critical. Emily stated:
There may be two, maybe three people at the school that are also from the [same
geographical region as me] . . . but yeah their presence was very important. . . . I think
them being at the school was so important for me to realize there is someone like me in
the school and that I can look up to and that I can go to . . . this year has been insane in
[my home country] . . . and I felt like a lot of my professors didn’t really understand the
toll that was taking on me and they were like “Just focus in your studies, this is not
important,” and I'm like, “I just came from there and I'm going back there” . . . that was
important to have faculty who can recognize that.
Emily was an international student and mentioned there were situations taking place in her home
country that affected her studies at P-School. She believed that the faculty she developed close
relationships with were the ones who were from the same region as she was and understood what
was going on back home. The faculty who were dismissive of how these circumstances impacted
her mental well-being and her academic success were the ones with whom she had never
established relationships outside of class. Faculty mentorship and faculty of color are key

107
elements to the success of students of color as they assist in developing a sense of community for
the students. In addition, there is a common understanding with these students and faculty about
many external factors that may affect them while they are enrolled.
Jim Ward was focused on networking and learning as much as he could from faculty
while in the program.
So, coming into this program, I knew what I wanted . . . and I had to utilize my faculty
and their knowledge. . . . I looked them up extensively . . . I was like I need to utilize the
hell out of these people and ask them all the possible questions that I can while I’m here.
Roxie Hart stated that at a small school with small class sizes, faculty mentorship was more
attainable. However, for Anastasia and Emily, they did not connect with every professor at P-
School. Anastasia stated:
I hope to gain maybe potential mentors or potential future networking opportunities . . .
where after graduation, those are people that I could still connect with that could still give
me career advice that care about me beyond just the time that I spent as their student . . .
so I think with some of my professors, I was able to achieve that goal, but not with all of
them.
Emily also came to the school with the goal of networking, but as an international student had
mixed experiences with faculty.
There are a number of faculty that I have grown pretty close to, that you know I would
think like this is what I want to be when I grow up . . . which is something absolutely
awesome to have and they’ve been absolutely supportive and very important to me. . . . I
definitely feel like some faculty were more supportive of me as, you know, an

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international student . . . and others who were really dismissive of these problems, of my
experience.
Faculty mentorship is important to all students, regardless of their race and ethnicity. Faculty
mentoring allows students to have someone to support them with personal and professional
issues that may affect them while they are in school. These mentors can also assist students
navigate the professional world and help them prepare to enter the job market.
Although there are benefits to smaller class sizes, Sofia states that there are students who
may not speak up in class, and faculty should recognize that. Sofia states:
Sometimes it happens actually in these smaller spaces where there will be students that
dominate those spaces and whether they realize they’re doing it or not . . . they’re doing it
. . . then you don’t really get to hear what everyone [has to say] . . . and I think that
actually taking one-on-one time for people is a really great way to do that.
Emily makes a similar statement and discusses the importance of faculty check-ins.
[There was this one professor] he’s really one of the people who put me on [a specific
program path] and really encouraged me to apply and said this is something I think you
would like, I think will help you, and these are small things that I appreciated a lot and I
think that helped build our relationship too because I was like, “Oh, he’s actually paying
attention to my work and he knows what interests me.
Sofia and Emily make crucial statements that about faculty. Faculty should observe when there
are students who dominate the classroom space and allow other students the chance to speak. If
students are not as talkative during class, checking in with them after class to hear their
perspective is one way faculty can make sure all students are heard. Check-ins are also a way
that faculty can share information relevant to that student and show the student that this faculty

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member is supportive of them and their goals. Faculty mentoring and faculty interactions inside
and outside of class can pave the way to a more meaningful experience for students.
Many students mentioned the characteristics that comprise the faculty they have
connections with at P-School. Anastasia connected with faculty that were flexible and
understanding, especially during the pandemic. Roxie Hart stated that the professors she
developed a strong relationship with were interested in her and seemed to genuinely care for her.
Werner mentioned the openness of professors and their interest in staying connected after
graduation. Several students discussed their initial goals for building relationships with faculty
while enrolled in school.
Werner mentioned ways faculty can connect better with students, such as formalizing the
amount of time faculty are required to interact with students.
[There should be a] more formal process where [the faculty] should be making time. It
should be something that is kind of driven home during the faculty orientation or should .
. . be a specific . . . kind of open office hours where . . . they have to come in . . . you
have to be there to be available and students know that . . . [one professor] . . . this
semester . . . got on the Zoom 30 minutes early every morning that we had class if you
want to talk then or he would make appointments whenever you wanted.
Werner’s statement about formalizing the amount of time faculty are required to be with students
leads it back the faculty mentoring component at schools. Faculty providing mentorship,
providing time for students, and providing support throughout the program are all fundamental to
increasing the academic success of students. The experiences that students have with their
faculty affect students while they are in school, but also affect how engaged they are with the
institution upon graduation. Based on the student responses, this assumed organizational

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influence was validated. There is a gap at P-School regarding faculty mentoring based on survey
and interview responses.
The University Needs to Create Engagement Strategies With Students of Color to Increase
Their Connections With the University
Student engagement refers to “the time and energy students devote to educationally
sound activities inside and outside of the classroom, and the policies and practices those
institutions use to induce students to participate in these activities” (Kuh, 2003, p. 25). Studies
have shown that student engagement contributes to academic success by improving self-esteem
(Harper & Quaye, 2007), sense of belonging (Museus et al., 2017), student satisfaction (Kuh,
Kinzie, Buckley, et al., 2007), and academic persistence (Swail et al., 2003; Tinto, 2005). The
method used to evaluate this area was quantitative survey questions.
The responses to survey Question 25, “The institution needs to create engagement
strategies with students to increase their connections with the institution,” showed that 57% of
students overall and 84% of students of color agreed with that statement. For Question 29, “Are
you involved in any of the following student organizations,” over half of students overall,
including students of color, were not involved in student organizations at the school.
The responses to this question indicate that regardless of race or ethnicity, students want
the institution to create engagement strategies to help them feel more connected to the school. In
addition, the second question’s responses show that most students are not engaged in any student
organizations inside or outside of the school and the institution can improve in this area. Based
on the student responses, this assumed organizational influence was validated. There is a gap at
P-School regarding student engagement based on survey responses. Table 21 provides the mean
and standard deviation of each organization question in the survey for student engagement.

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Table 21
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Student Engagement
Student engagement question Mean
Standard
deviation
The institution needs to create engagement strategies with
students to increase their connections with the institution.
8.62 1.07

The University Needs to Provide More Comprehensive Resources and Support to Students of
Color Regarding Financial Aid Decisions and Aid
Financial aid is an assumed organizational influence in this study. An American Council
on Education (ACE) study found that 850,000 students did not complete the required financial
aid forms to receive federal financial aid (King, 2004). The U.S. Department of Education (2006)
published a report on the future of higher education and stated some students do not enroll in
college because of the confusing financial aid process, lack of financial aid information, and the
high cost of college. The methods used to evaluate this area were the quantitative survey and
qualitative interview questions.
For Question 30, “How are you paying the tuition and fees at this school,” most students
overall, regardless of race, were paying for tuition and fees using federal loans or school
scholarships. However, for students that identified as white, almost half of them received
financial help from family. For Question 31, “The financial aid process is difficult to navigate,”
the results were split down the middle. The responses indicate that over one-third of students
overall agreed, over one-third of students disagreed, and almost one-third of students neither
agreed nor disagreed. For students of color, the results were also split down the middle, with
almost 40% agreeing and almost 40% disagreeing. For Question 32, “The institution needs to

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provide more comprehensive resources and support to students regarding financial aid decisions
and aid,” the overall responses from students show that 57% of students agreed and 37% of
students of color disagreed. In the final survey question, “I experience financial hardship in these
ways,” regardless of race/ethnicity, most students responded that they had difficulty paying for
tuition (46% students overall/42% students of color), difficulty purchasing required school
supplies (41% students overall/47% students of color), and difficulty paying for housing (49%
students overall/47% students of color). It is important to note that although it was not 50% of
the student population, it was almost half in each of those areas. Table 22 provides the mean and
standard deviation of each organization question in the survey for financial aid.

Table 22
Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Organization Question for Financial Aid
Financial aid question Mean
Standard
deviation
The financial aid process is difficult to navigate. 8.00 1.20

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During the qualitative interviews, three student responses indicated that they believed the
school does a good job of providing students with scholarships, and the paid summer stipend was
helpful. Anastasia felt that the school is great when it comes to funding for students.
I think the school is pretty good about financial aid. That’s not an area that I feel the
school has really been lacking in. Almost everyone I knew has some form of a
scholarship or financial aid, which I think is uncommon and says a lot. So, I think the
school was pretty good about that . . . they’re really good about . . . if your internship is
unpaid, giving you the stipend from the school.
The ability to afford to attend school is an important factor in deciding where a student will
enroll. In addition, once a student is on-campus, a stipend from the school helps students afford
to intern while they are in school. Funding is critical for students of color to persist to graduation.
The COVID-19 pandemic also affected many students’ financial situations. Marie stated that she
believes the school did a lot to assist students during the pandemic, and Anastasia mentioned that
the pandemic emergency funding helped her make it through the program. Marie stated:
I know that [the dean] did . . . raise a whole bunch of money to help students. And I think
that was great. And I think . . . that stipend for the internship and also that increase this
year was really helpful because that paid my most of my tuition. So, while that’s not a
scholarship, I still think that’s really helpful because it kind of helps get you through.
In times of crisis, students look to their schools for support and guidance. The students believed
that the emergency fundraising that P-School did to support its students during the pandemic
showed how much they care for their student body and how they wanted them to persist to
graduation.

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Many P-School students had to work while they were enrolled in school. Anastasia stated
that working while in school was an issue since many students believed that P-School’s
unofficial rule was that students should not work.
Even with my scholarship, it didn’t cover my housing and . . . it didn’t cover food. It
doesn’t cover . . . getting around on the train and having . . . to travel to and from campus.
So, there were still costs that I had to pay for and I paid for them by working. But that
was something I was told I shouldn’t do . . . telling students not to work is unrealistic,
especially when many of us . . . in grad school are older. And so have more
responsibilities that we can’t just put on pause or put on hold [while] we’re at the [P-
School].
The P-School should clearly communicate the policies, if any, surrounding students working
while in school. Anastasia mentions that the message students are receiving is unclear, so gaining
clarity on what the school recommends in regards to working while in school is important for
students to know. Jim Ward worked during the entire program and believes that students should
know it is possible, but they will have to make sacrifices.
I know like a lot of people complain . . . they say . . . you can’t work and that’s not true.
It’s recommended you not work. And having . . . worked all throughout the program. . . .
It can be done, but you’ll have to sacrifice a lot . . . there was a lot of stuff I didn’t attend .
. . a lot of student functions . . . get-togethers . . . because I knew I wanted to work. I’ve
always worked, coming from [my hometown city]. . . . There’s just no way I could think
of not working ‘cause that’s just something already that’s been instilled in me. Like you
work if you can work . . . that’s what you do. So, . . . letting students know . . . you
definitely can work, but you’ll be missing some key stuff that the [P-School] advocates

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for [such as] getting to know your peers, attending those mixers and functions . . . you’re
gonna miss that, and you have to be okay with missing that.
Many students of color work while they are enrolled in school to pay for tuition and external
costs associated with their education and cost of living. For Jim Ward, he mentioned that he
sacrificed attending school events and getting to know his peers because he was working the
entire time he was in school. It is important for P-School students to know the policies
surrounding working while in school as well as the sacrifices students will make by working
while enrolled. This information should be clearly communicated so students can make the best
decision for themselves.
These students’ responses indicate many students are paying for school through internal
school scholarships, federal loans, and are working part-time jobs to help offset expenses. The
institution could do more to provide students with information on what to expect if they work
off-campus while enrolled at P-School. However, the responses did not meet the 50%
requirement to be considered a validated influence.
Summary of Organization Results
There were five assumed organizational influences for this study, and four were
validated: campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty mentoring, and student engagement. Table
23 provides the validation status of the organizational influences.

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Table 23
Validation Status for Organizational Influences
Type Assumed influence Validated
Campus climate The University needs to prioritize the needs of its
students of color and create a campus climate and
environment that is supportive and inclusive of its
students of color.
Yes
Sense of belonging The University needs to foster a sense of belonging
on its campus.
Yes
Faculty mentoring The University needs to develop initiatives for its
faculty to create deeper connections with students
of color.
Yes
Student engagement The University needs to create engagement strategies
with students of color to increase their connections
with the University.
Yes
Financial aid The University needs to provide more comprehensive
resources and support to students of color
regarding financial aid decisions and aid.
No

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Findings
This section will provide answers to the three research questions that guided this study.
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the
academic success of students of color?
2. What are the experiences of students of color at IHEs?
3. How do faculty impact the academic success of students of color?
Research Question 1 Findings
Research Question 1 asks about the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that affect the academic success of students of color. This study evaluated this question in the
context of the assumed influences identified in Chapter Two.
Knowledge
The knowledge that students of color need to achieve academic success in their
institution is conceptual. There is evidence that students are aware of the resources available to
them, but are unsure of which resource to use for their issues. As Sofia described, “…cause I
think sometimes it’s all so complicated. Okay, do I go to student affairs? Do I do this? And
maybe if there was some space where people, if they had something, a problem or concern, even
if it was anonymous, like they could just kind of like spit it out there.” This finding is consistent
with Stebleton et al. (2014), wherein they indicated that when an institution has multiple
resources for students, that creates confusion as to where a student should seek help for their
individual case. When there is confusion on where students need to go to for help, it makes it
more likely that many students do not seek out the help they need. Furthermore, when students
do not seek out the help they need, they may fall behind in school, begin to feel overwhelmed,
and not persist to graduation.

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Motivation
The motivation that students of color need to achieve academic success is expectancy-
value, self-efficacy, and self-regulation. Students of color need to value the institution and the
degree they will receive (expectancy-value), they need to have confidence and believe they can
succeed (self-efficacy), and they need to have the ability to assess and adjust their habits to
achieve their goals (self-regulation).
The findings show that the assumed motivation influence of expectancy-value indicates
that the student of color participants believe there are benefits to the degree. They believe the
degree is essential to becoming who they want to become after graduation, and they believe the
degree will assist them after graduation. Pintrich and De Groot (1990) state that students who
persist at a challenging task or who can block out distractions preserve their engagement in the
task, which allows them to achieve academic success.
Regarding the assumed motivation influence of self-efficacy, the research indicates that
students of color displayed a high level of confidence that they can succeed at the school and can
become an industry professional after graduation. The question, “I am less confident now than I
was in college,” received 42% of students of color who agreed with that statement. Although it
did not reach the required 50% to be a validated influence, it is important to note that this self-
efficacy question is an important aspect to consider for students of color to achieve academic
success. Schunk & Mullen (2012), state that when students have high self-efficacy, it “increases
their student engagement and success and, in return, engagement and success increase self-
efficacy.”
Students of color also have high self-regulatory skills and can monitor their habits and
modify as needed to attain their goals. Zimmerman & Schunk (1989) state that students who

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have high self-regulation proactively participate in learning. These students actively implement
learning strategies on their own rather than waiting for teacher guidance (Nota & Soresi, 2000).
Organization
The organizational barriers that need to be resolved so students of color can achieve
academic success in their institution are campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty mentoring,
and student engagement.
The first validated organizational barrier was campus climate. The survey responses
indicated that students of color believe the P-School has a positive campus climate, but during
the interviews students of color mentioned how there are aspects of the campus climate that the
institution needs to improve. Students mentioned that P-School needs to be sensitive in its social
media posts, that faculty need to improve on what they say in class and to students, and that
students who feel unseen or unheard are not going to achieve academic success. Gloria et al.
(2005) state that perceptions by students of color of the campus climate influence their
persistence. Saenz et al. (2007) assert that a positive campus climate allows students of color to
make strong connections with other students, and without that supportive environment, those
interactions will not occur.
A sense of belonging was another validated organizational barrier. Figure 9 demonstrates
that students of color believe that the school needs to foster a sense of belonging on campus, with
74% of students of color agreeing with that statement. For survey Question 14, “In general, I fit
in with other students at this institution,” although 58% of students of color agreed with this
statement, it is important to note that this response generated close results, with 42% of students
of color disagreeing with this statement. For Question 17, which stated, “I feel out of place in the
classroom,” 68% of students of color disagreed with that statement; however, it is important to

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note that about one-third of students of color who participated agreed with that statement. So,
although Questions 14 and 17 did not meet the 50% requirement to be a validated influence, it is
critical for P-School to be aware of these when looking to increase the sense of belonging for
students of color. Feeling a sense of belonging in college can help students form meaningful
relationships with peers and other institutional agents that directly influence satisfaction and
persistence (Kuh & Associates, 2005).
Faculty mentoring was the third validated organizational influence. For Question 24,
“The institution needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to create deeper connections with
students,” 64% of students overall and 95% of students of color agree. Figure 10 shows the
overall responses to Question 24. Anastasia mentioned that she came to the school seeking
mentorship and did not receive that from the faculty in her specific program.
I hope to gain maybe potential mentors or potential future networking opportunities . . .
where after graduation, those are people that I could still connect with that could still give
me career advice that care about me beyond just the time that I spent as their student . . .
so I think with some of my professors, I was able to achieve that goal, but not with all of
them.
Emily mentioned that seeing faculty that looked like her was important to her success.
There may be two, maybe three people at the school that are also from the [same culture]
. . . but yeah their presence was very important. . . . I think them being at the school was
so important for me to realize there is someone like me in the school and that I can look
up to and that I can go to.
Studies show that when students view their mentors as role models, they provide academic and
emotional support; having someone who looks like you allows you to believe that success is

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attainable, and their self-efficacy and GPA improved as a result (DeFreitas & Bravo, 2012,
Payton et al., 2013).
The final validated organizational barrier was student engagement. For survey
Question 25, “The institution needs to create engagement strategies with students to increase
their connections with the institution,” the responses showed that 84% of students of color
agreed with that statement. In addition, for Question 29, “Are you involved in any of the
following student organizations,” 58% of students of color are not involved in student
organizations at the school. These responses indicate that student engagement initiatives by P-
School need to be improved and students are not involved in student organizations which would
help them feel a sense of belonging to the campus. Studies have shown that student engagement
contributes to academic success by improving self-esteem (Harper & Quaye, 2007), sense of
belonging (Museus et al., 2017), student satisfaction (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, et al., 2007), and
academic persistence (Swail et al., 2003; Tinto, 2005).
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
A comprehensive literature review uncovered factors that affect the academic success of
students of color in higher education. A conceptual framework was created to guide the study
and a Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis was conducted, which resulted in validating five
assumed influences. The validated influences represent gaps in knowledge and organization
barriers, that, if resolved, would positively affect the academic success of students of color.
Table 24 describes the validated influences.

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Table 24
Validated Influences
Influence type Assumed influence
Knowledge
Conceptual Students need to know and be able to pair the appropriate
resource and support to their issue or challenge.
Organization
Campus climate The University needs to prioritize the needs of its students
of color and create a campus climate and environment that
is supportive and inclusive of its students of color.
Sense of belonging The University needs to foster a sense of belonging on its
campus.
Faculty mentoring The University needs to develop initiatives for its faculty to
create deeper connections with students of color.
Student engagement The University needs to create engagement strategies with
students of color to increase their connections with the
University.

Research Question 2 Findings
Research Question 2 asks about the experiences of students of color at IHEs. The
students of color had a variety of different experiences at P-School. Some students discussed the
connections they built with several faculty at the school, other students discussed the challenges
during the COVID-19 pandemic, while others mentioned the housing issues they encountered.
Faculty Connections
Emily mentioned that one the faculty was her go-to person for everything, and the
professor showed that she cared for her personally and professionally. Anastasia stated that one

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professor sent out her resume to job opportunities, and another professor frequently checked in
on her mental and emotional health.
[This professor] has been really helpful to me even now while I’ve been looking for jobs
and I’m working and applying. . . . And he has . . . sent my resume to different places and
. . . asked me what are my goals and being very supportive in that regard . . . and [another
professor] has been great about even just like personal stuff. So, even just beyond
academic things, he always made sure to check in about how we were feeling
emotionally, how we were dealing with the pandemic and, and that kind of struggle.
These two students of color were able to establish deep, meaningful relationships with faculty at
P-School and that has translated into assisting them as a student and following graduation. The
theme that emerged from these two students are that these professors checked in with them and
seemed to truly care about them as individuals, not just as students.
Jim Ward developed strong relationships with many faculty and feels comfortable asking
them to be job references.
My relationships with faculty have been honestly top par. I feel like I can reach out to
them and be like, hey, can you vouch for me at a job, or can you help me with [this issue]
or can you look over this [piece of work]? So, that’s another thing I think I've been really
lucky and getting really good faculty members that I’ve hit it off with.
These statements indicate that regardless of a student’s race or ethnicity, establishing
faculty relationships are beneficial to students overall. The support that students feel from faculty
will help them persist to graduation and beyond when they enter the professional world.

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COVID-19 Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic was an aspect of the Class of 2020 that was unexpected and
affected their student experience. Sofia mentioned that she experienced Zoom fatigue during the
pandemic, while Anastasia stated that the P-school needs to prepare future students for remote
learning.
The biggest thing . . . with COVID . . . [is] preparing students for virtual learning and . . .
giving them an idea of what it’s going to look like and what those challenges might be
like . . . maybe creating more opportunities that can replicate or mimic an in-person
learning environment if things are virtual. . . . There were lots of [Zoom activities] . . . but
I think people are . . . zoomed out . . . one of the best parts of my experience was the
social interaction [on-campus] and . . . the social activities that I had with my classmates
and losing that was . . . really, really hard.
The interaction with peers and faculty is hard to replicate in a remote learning
environment, but for future students, if remote learning becomes part of P-School, the school
needs to prepare students for that type of learning environment and introduce ways to emulate
the in-person experience.
Marie’s faculty did weekly check-ins during the pandemic, which she appreciated, and Jim
Ward’s faculty empathized with students. The faculty check-ins and the empathy from professors
was appreciated by the students. The compassion and understanding from the faculty helped the
students develop a sense of community and connectedness to the school through the virtual
environment.

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Research Question 3 Findings
Research Question 3 asks about the impact of faculty on the academic success of students
of color. All the students of color felt they were able to build a relationship with several faculty
members and that helped them persist at P-School. There were several reasons that students felt
connected to specific professors rather than others, including that these professors supported
students and were flexible and understanding during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Anastasia and Marie mentioned that professors are critical to a student’s academic
success. Anastasia states:
I definitely think the professor is probably the most important thing, because a professor
can really make or break a class. If you have a professor who is supportive, who’s
flexible, who’s resourceful, who is accessible, then I think that definitely will foster
academic success for students. So, I definitely think the professor is a big part of it. And
then . . . you know, depending on how the class is designed and set up, are you covering
material that is relevant and interesting to students and is modern? Is the material
outdated or does it make sense in the context of the time we’re living in?
Faculty who support their students and who try to make their classes exciting and applicable to
students seem to the be the ones with whom students interact throughout their time in school.
How faculty interact with the students, the amount of time they interact, how they teach in class,
and the content they teach seem to all influence how students participate in the class and engage
with the professor.
Anastasia states that she appreciated professors who understood that she had a life
outside of school.

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I never have understood or I think respected professors that feel that their class is the only
thing that should matter in your life or even that school is the only thing that should
matter in your life. Because, you know . . . maybe had jobs . . . or . . . families . . . and
there was a lot of other things going on in a student’s life. And so I think [professors who
were] always very flexible, very understanding, very willing to work with you as things
came up . . . was definitely something that made me connect with them and respect them
and want to work with them.
This aspect is important to for P-School to note, as many P-School students have responsibilities
outside of school that they must balance while they are a student. Faculty should get to know
their students and to what external factors may affect their academic performance. The more the
faculty are aware of a student’s personal situation and how that may affect their success in
school, the better working relationship that student and faculty member will have throughout the
program. Faculty engagement with students is important for students in achieving academic
success and persist to graduation. Table 25 shows the students of color and validated influences.

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Table 25
Validated Influences for Students of Color
Influence type Validated influence Students of color
Conceptual knowledge Help-seeking Anastasia
Sofia
Jim Ward
Organization Campus climate Anastasia
Emily
Marie
Sofia
Jim Ward
Organization Faculty mentoring Anastasia
Emily
Marie
Sofia
Jim Ward
Organization Student engagement More than 50% of students of
color validated through survey

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Summary
The participants in the survey and interviews were from the Class of 2020 at the P-
School. There were five validated influences that came from the findings: conceptual knowledge
(help-seeking), campus climate, sense of belonging, faculty mentoring, and student engagement.
The students of color demonstrated high levels of expectancy-value, self-efficacy, and
self-regulation. In addition, many received institutional scholarships and believed the school did
an excellent job providing students with scholarships. However, even with scholarships, many
students still had to work while in school to pay for housing and other expenses.
The research and findings provided answers to all three research questions by exploring
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that affect the academic success of
students of color. Chapter Five will provide recommendations based on the research and findings
that will remove these barriers.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This study explored the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect
the academic success of students of color in higher education. These influences have the capacity
to shape the experiences of students of color in higher education and affect whether they
graduate from their institution. Chapter Four presented the findings of the study and determined
which of the assumed influences were validated (Table 24). The findings from this study are
aligned with the validated influences that are focused on the gaps in knowledge and organization.
Chapter Five provides recommendations for each validated influence identified in the previous
chapter. If these recommendations are implemented, they could improve the experiences of
students of color and increase their chances of academic success. This chapter will present the
recommendations by knowledge and organization, the limitations and delimitations of the study,
and recommendations for future research.
Recommendations for Practice
The recommendations for practice centered on changes within the organization to
improve the experiences of students of color, increase their academic success, and ultimately
persist to graduation. The four recommendations below addressed the findings of the need to
clarify campus resources to the students, the limited access to certain campus resources that are
in high demand, and improving the campus climate, sense of belonging, and student engagement
Recommendation 1: Create Digital and Hardcopy Student Resource Guides
As discussed in Chapter Four, many students acknowledged the availability of on-campus
resources. However, the students were left uncertain as to where to direct their specific concerns.
For example, when students had questions with registration, they were unsure if they seek out
student affairs or the associate dean; if students had concerns about a professor, they were unsure

130
if they speak with the dean, associate dean, or student affairs; or if students experienced racial
microaggressions, they were unsure if they speak with the chief diversity officer, the deans, or
student affairs. The students required more clarification on the resources and services offered at
P-School.
The clarification of resources can be fulfilled with the addition of a resource path guide
on the P-School’s student resources page and an automated online chat box. This guide and chat
box will assist students in determining which resource best fits the issue they are experiencing. If
the question cannot be answered by the path guide or the automated chat function, the chat box
will ask if they want to connect with a student affairs representative (who is available during
business hours). In addition, there should be a hardcopy resource guide.
During new student orientation, the student affairs office should provide a thorough
overview of the campus resources available and walk students through the resource path guide
and chat box. A hardcopy resource guide can be distributed in the students’ orientation welcome
packet to list the campus resources available, describe the functions and services of each, and
provide examples of typical student issues and the resources students should utilize for each
issue.
This recommendation addresses the barrier of the need to clarify student campus
resources. These digital and hardcopy guides address the knowledge gap that was identified in
the study regarding help-seeking. Digital guides can be modified by the user switching from text
to audio, translated into another language, incorporate additional support functions, and various
support staff engagement opportunities can be embedded in digital text to support diverse
learners (Edyburn, 2011). Interactive digital materials provide students with significant
opportunities for immediate support when they need it (Edyburn, 2011).

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Research indicates that many students of color do not seek help when they experience
stressors in school. The reasons vary, with some students of color perceiving help-seeking as a
weakness (Myrie & Gannon, 2013); some see asking for help as shameful and there is a stigma
surrounding it (Addis & Mahik, 2003; Vogel et al., 2007); others believed the campus resources
were in an inconvenient location and had inconvenient hours (Stebleton et al., 2014); and finally,
others did not know the campus resources existed (Banjong, 2015; Stebleton et al., 2014). For
this study, the students of color at P-School were aware that campus resources existed, but they
did not understand which of those resources they should turn to for their issues. P-school did not
clarify to the students, which resources were available to them, when students should utilize these
resources, and who they should turn to within that specific resource to assist them with their
issue or concern.
Recommendation 2: Develop Mental Health Support Program for Students
The second recommendation is to develop a mental health support program for students.
This recommendation addresses the finding that many students were overwhelmed and stressed,
there was inconsistency with the flexibility of faculty during the pandemic, and students did not
have access to mental health counselors for the duration of the program. Students were only
provided access to mental health counselors for 10 weeks and were then referred to outside
counselors, but none of the students utilized counseling services beyond the initial 10 weeks.
This recommendation also addresses the knowledge gap that was identified in the study
regarding help-seeking.
The mental health support program should include training for faculty and staff and
expand the availability of mental health counselors for students. The faculty and staff training
should include:

132
• ways to identify the students who are struggling in school
• approaches to support students with mental health needs
• practices faculty and staff can use to assist and guide students through the program.
In addition, this program should provide students with access to mental health counselors for the
entire time they are enrolled. This may require the hiring of an additional mental health
counselor or revising the current counselors’ contracts to expand the length of time they are
available for students.
Student mental health services have a positive effect on academic success. In one study,
more than 10% of college students utilize school counseling centers and many would not have
persisted without this mental health support and service (Gallagher, 2013). Another study
suggests that students who utilized counseling centers and remained in counseling until the
student and counselor agreed to conclude treatment were likely to achieve higher GPAs than
students who did not complete the recommended length of counseling (Schwitzer et al., 2018).
College students’ mental health is important to understand as it may affect their academic
success in school and their success in life following graduation. A study by Kessler et al. (2005)
indicated that individuals with lifetime mental health issues first experienced problems between
the ages of 18-24, which is the typical age of college students. At P-school, mental health
counselors were available to students and several students utilized them, but they had access to
those counselors for only 10 weeks. After the 10 weeks, students were referred to an outside
counselor. This study’s findings showed that students who utilized the internal campus mental
health counseling resource did not seek outside counselors following the 10 weeks. Following
their 10 weeks of sessions with the campus mental health counselor, they discontinued
counseling for the remainder of the program.

133
Recommendation 3: Develop Faculty-Student Mentoring Program
Many students mentioned that one of their goals when enrolling in P-School was to find a
faculty mentor who could help guide them throughout the program and after graduation. Some
students were successful in developing these informal faculty-student mentor relationships, and
others were not. Developing a formal faculty-student mentoring program would address the
organizational barrier of a lack of faculty mentoring at P-School and the need for increased
student engagement.
Faculty-student mentoring relationships promote student success (Patton, 2009; Patton &
Harper, 2003), help students navigate complex institutional systems (Wallace et al., 2000). Such
faculty support helps the students feel connected to others at the school (Wallace et al., 2000),
and students feel better prepared to enter the workforce (Johnson & Harreld, 2012).
These mentoring programs also contribute to increased student engagement. Research
shows that student engagement in college, such as participation in faculty research and projects,
internships, extracurricular organizations, or activities, was connected to a stronger sense of
faculty support and mentorship on-campus (Raposa et al., 2020). The promotion of mentoring
relationships at schools positively affects students’ engagement with the institution (Raposa et
al., 2020). However, before faculty begin working with students of color in the formal faculty-
student mentoring program, faculty should receive additional training in managing
discrimination and racism, assessing their own racial and ethnic identity, and acknowledging the
influence of their personal experiences on the mentoring process (Alvarez et al., 2009).
Validated Organizational Influence: Faculty Mentoring
Faculty-student relationships are important for the academic success of students of color.
DeFreitas and Bravo (2012) posited that students of color excel in school more when they

134
regularly interact with faculty. Faculty-student mentoring programs play a crucial role in faculty
familiarizing themselves with their students and the pressures they face. These mentoring
programs also assist faculty in improving their teaching and communication style (Lisagor et al.,
2013). Most of the P-School students surveyed and almost 100% of students of color believe that
P-School needs to develop ways for faculty engage more with students and develop deeper
relationships. Furthermore, most students stated that they enrolled in P-School with the goal of
finding a mentor and networking with faculty in the industry. However, not all of them left the
school with the amount or type of faculty connections that they originally anticipated.
Validated Organizational Influence: Student Engagement
The final validated organizational influence was student engagement. Student
engagement affects academic success by improving self-esteem (Harper & Quaye, 2007), sense
of belonging (Museus et al., 2017), student satisfaction (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, et al., 2007), and
academic persistence (Swail et al., 2003; Tinto, 2005). In this research study, over half of the P-
School students surveyed were not involved in any student organizations on-campus.
Recommendation 4: Increase Diversity of Full-Time Faculty at P-School
The final recommendation is to increase the diversity of full-time faculty at P-School.
This recommendation addresses the finding that majority of the students surveyed believes the
school needs to improve the campus climate and foster a sense of belonging on-campus and
addresses the organizational barriers of the same. Many students believe that the P-School values
diversity, but there is still a lack of diversity among faculty and the school needs to improve in
this area. P-School has many faculty of color in adjunct positions; however, the adjuncts have
limited availability to interact with students outside of class because of their additional outside
work responsibilities and limited time per week at the school. Hiring more full-time faculty of

135
color will allow students of color to interact with faculty who teach more classes at the school,
spend more time on-campus, and are more accessible to students while they in the program.
P-School’s mission statement emphasizes their focus on preparing students from diverse
backgrounds and serving their communities. However, the diversification of the P-School full-
time faculty population has not kept pace with their increase in student diversity. With over half
of the student population comprised of students of color and only 5% of full-time faculty being
faculty of color, their faculty population does not reflect the community they serve.
Faculty diversity positively impacts students of color. Faculty of color create a
welcoming environment and offer support and mentoring for students of color (Cole & Barber,
2003). Faculty of color may better understand the problems and situations of students of color
and provide them with the bolstering and support they need to achieve academic success (Cole
and Barber, 2003). In addition, academic performance increases when faculty of color serve as
role models to students of color (Cole and Barber, 2003). Increasing the faculty diversity at P-
School will assist in fostering a sense of belonging and improving the campus climate for
students of color.
Validated Organizational Influence: Campus Climate
A positive campus climate is critical to student success. Studies indicate that a chilly
campus climate affects the academic efficacy and GPA of students of color (Browman & Destin,
2016). In addition, a lack of diversity can create a negative perception of the campus climate.
When an institution lacks diversity, this perpetuates the feeling of tokenism among students of
color and they may experience more stereotypes (Gay, 2004; Hurtado et al., 2008) and hate
crimes (Hurtado & Alvarado, 2015). This study showed that most students of color surveyed felt
that the institution needs to create a more inclusive and supportive campus. Furthermore, many

136
students of color stated that faculty support and involvement affect the campus climate and their
academic success in school.
Validated Organizational Influence: Sense of Belonging
The feeling of a sense of belonging was an important factor for students in this study.
Research shows that the feeling of a sense of belonging is an indicator of persistence in college
and can affect student retention (Hurtado & Ruiz Alvarado, 2015). In addition, faculty
relationships help increase a student’s sense of belonging and persistence at the institution
(Rainey et al., 2018). This research study of P-School students indicated that the majority of
students surveyed believe the school should foster a sense of belonging on campus.
Limitations and Delimitations
Each research study has limitations and delimitations based on a variety of factors.
Limitations are possible weaknesses that are out of the researcher's control, while delimitations
are weaknesses that develop within the study's scope based on the researcher's choices
(Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2019).
There were six significant limitations present in this study. The first limitation was the
selection of one specific stakeholder for the study—the students at P-School. By studying only
one group of participants at a single organization, the study presented a limited perspective
regarding a more significant problem. The next limitation was that Black or African American
males, Asians or Asian Americans, and Native American and Indigenous students were not
represented in this study. The third limitation was that the study relies on the honesty of the
participants’ answers. When asking questions regarding experiences or incidents, the researcher
was relying on the memory of the participants. Weiss (1994) states that the memory of
participants may, at times, be clear and, at other times, indistinct. The next limitation was a

137
diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) consultant who was hired by P-school and was conducting
their research immediately before the researcher was approved by the IRB. Their research
explored similar aspects of the student experience as this study. This was a limitation because the
students were engaged in a similar survey before this study and may not have wanted to answer
related questions again. In addition, the DEI consultant’s interviews were conducted over Zoom
and by the end of the semester, the students may have been experiencing Zoom fatigue and did
not want to add another Zoom meeting to their calendar. The fifth limitation of the study were
the current events taking place throughout the country. Nationwide Black Lives Matter
demonstrations and police brutality protests may have influenced the responses of the
participants since the data collection occurred only a few months after national attention to these
events began. The events taking place may have impacted the emotional well-being of the
students and impacted their answers to the researcher’s questions. The final limitation of the
research study was the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic altered the classroom experience for
students and the entire on-campus program shifted to online learning. The researcher began their
data collection eight months into the pandemic. By this time, students were experiencing zoom
and survey fatigue and were less responsive to participating in a research study. Their perception
of the campus and faculty may have been influenced by the shift to online learning.
There were also four critical delimitations of the research study. The first delimitation
was the small sample size. The researcher could only sample a small population because they
were examining students in their final semester at P-School, which included 98 students. The
second delimitation was the survey’s low response rate of 43 students. A DEI consultant was
hired by P-school and their survey was being distributed to students the day after the researcher
received IRB approval. The researcher was advised to wait until the consultant’s survey was

138
completed before the researcher asked the Office of Student Affairs to distribute their survey.
This delay resulted in a decreased amount of time available to give students to complete the
survey, as students had only eight days to complete the survey. Another reason for that small
sample size was the third delimitation, which was the timing of the study. The researcher could
only study one graduating class because the Class of 2020 graduated in December 2020, and the
new enrolling students began in fall 2020 and were graduating in December 2021, which was
after the researcher’s data collection time period. The Class of 2021 was impossible for the
researcher to include, given the timing of their data collection and since the Class of 2021 was
beginning their first semester at the school. The timing of the study also affected the low
response rate for interviews, as only seven participants responded to the researcher’s request for
an interview. The interviews occurred in December 2020 and January 2021 as students were
preparing for graduation in December, and then the holidays occurred throughout the remainder
of the month. It was difficult for the researcher to hear back from students who initially stated on
their survey that they would be interested in an interview. The final delimitation is the lack of
statistical analysis for the quantitative survey outside of providing the mean and standard
deviation.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study generated three areas that warrant future research. The first area is with
students of color and mental health. College students of color remain an understudied population
regarding mental health and academic success, yet they face many challenges and obstacles
while in school. Future research should examine students of color and their utilization of college
mental health counselors, its effect on their academic success, their satisfaction with those
resources, and their satisfaction with counselors of color versus white counselors.

139
This study interviewed many students who worked while they were enrolled in the
program and mentioned the limited time they spent at the school and engaged with the campus
community. Therefore, the second area of future research is to examine strategies to increase the
engagement of students of color and their school connectedness for those students who work
while enrolled in school.
The COVID-19 pandemic changed the educational landscape and shifted traditional on-
campus schools to an online environment for teaching and learning. The final area of future
research should examine the impact of remote learning on students of color. In addition, the
research should explore how institutions can maintain these students’ sense of belonging to the
institution and explore strategies to keep students of color engaged with the school and faculty
while working in a fully remote learning environment.
Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to explore the barriers that affected the academic
success of students of color. The study utilized the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework and was centered on student knowledge (K), student motivation (M), and
organizational (O) influences. The findings were used to provide research-based
recommendations to improve P-School for future students of color.
The findings showed that there was a knowledge gap of help-seeking where students
were uncertain of which campus resource to direct their specific concerns. However, students
reported high expectancy-value where they believe pursuing the degree is worthwhile, and it will
be useful for their career. The findings also showed a high degree of self-efficacy where students
were confident in their ability to complete their degree and become an industry professional after
graduation. In addition, there was high self-regulation among the students where they were

140
confident in their ability to motivate themselves to complete classwork, meet deadlines, and
figure out ways to catch up if they fall behind. The findings also indicated four organizational
gaps which focused on the need to improve the campus climate and foster a sense of belonging,
the lack of faculty mentoring on-campus, and a lack of student engagement at the school. The
findings show that students believe P-School supports students financially and there is no need
for improvement in that area.
Recommendations were made based on these findings and concentrated on the below
areas. The first recommendation is to improve the knowledge gap of help-seeking, specifically
on P-School providing better clarity of campus resources by developing a digital and hardcopy
resource guide. The second recommendation is to develop a mental health support program to
improve the knowledge gap of help-seeking and the lack of mental health counselor support
throughout the entire program. The third recommendation is the development of a faculty-
student mentoring program to address the organizational gaps of a lack of a mentoring program
while also increasing student engagement. The last recommendation is to increase the diversity
of full-time faculty which will improve the campus climate and foster a sense of belonging on-
campus. These recommendations can help facilitate the improvement in the knowledge gap and
organizational gaps currently experienced at P-School.
The findings in this study are relevant for today’s society and are important to address.
The U.S. population is increasing in diversity, and in 2017 people of color represented over 50%
of the U.S. population (U.S. Department of Education, 2017, U.S. Census Bureau, 2017). By
2060, approximately one in five people in the U.S. will be foreign-born (U.S. Census, 2015). As
the U.S. becomes more diverse, institutions are recruiting more students of color to campus and
the student of color population at IHEs will increase. However, recruiting students of color does

141
not mean institutions are automatically retaining and graduating more students of color. Students
of color tend to graduate at a lower rate as compared to White students (DeAngelo et al., 2011).
IHEs need to understand how they can better serve their student of color population once they
arrive on-campus. Institutions can do so by clearly communicating the campus resources
available, immediately connecting students of color with faculty mentors, increasing faculty
diversity, and ultimately, by fostering a welcoming, supportive, and inclusive campus
environment for students of color to learn, grow, develop, and graduate into supportive and
proud school alumni.

142
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171
Appendix A: Interview Information Fact Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical Research
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: Understanding which aspects of higher education affect the academic
achievement of students of color
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Colleen Leigh

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to the academic achievement of students of color in higher education. There
are many personal and institutional factors that affect the academic achievement of students of
color. I hope to learn how to improve the experiences of students of color at the Professional
School, so they have increased satisfaction while enrolled, and are more likely to graduate. You
are invited as a possible participant because you are in your final semester at the Professional
School.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participation is voluntary. If you agree to participate in this research study, you will be asked to
participate in a semi-structured interview, which will last approximately one hour. There will be
specific questions for every participant, but the interview will be conversational and there may

172
be follow-up questions. The interview will be video recorded. If you do not want to be video
recorded, then you will be unable to participate in this study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive $10 Amazon gift card for your time. You must answer all the interview
questions to receive the card. The gift card will be emailed to you within one week after you
complete the interview.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
The alternative is to not participate in the research study. Your relationship with the institution is
not affected by your participation or non-participation in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

Any identifiable information obtained will remain confidential. Your responses will be coded
with a pseudonym and maintained separately. The video recording will be destroyed
immediately after it is transcribed. The data will be stored on an external hard drive located in a
locked drawer in the researcher’s home for three years after the study and then destroyed. The
written notes from the interview will be typed up as soon as possible following the interview and
saved on a password protected computer. The written notes will then be destroyed.

173
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Principal Investigator, Colleen Leigh
at cleigh@usc.edu, 201-458-2038.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

174
Appendix B: Survey Protocol
Adapted from Bloomberg University’s campus climate survey (2012),
Brown and Matusovich (2013), Flournoy, C. (2017), Zimmerman et al. (1992)

The survey has 38 questions. One question was adapted from Bloomberg University (2012), six
of the questions were adapted from Brown (2013), 12 questions were adapted from Flournoy
(2017), and one question was adapted from Zimmerman et al. (1992). The one question from
Bloomberg University was relevant because it related to financial aid, the six questions from
Brown (2013) were relevant for this survey because they focused on motivation, 12 of the
questions adapted from Flournoy (2017) related to campus climate and faculty-student
relationships. The one question adapted from Zimmerman et al. (1992) was relevant because it
related to self-efficacy.

Table B1
Survey Summary
Survey question Open /
closed
Response option
a
RQ Concept
measured
b

1. The amount of effort it takes
to receive my degree is
worthwhile to me.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, some dis, some
agree, strong agree
c
1 M – expectancy-
value
2. Getting this degree is
essential to be the person
that I want to become.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, some dis, some
agree, strong agree
1 M – expectancy-
value
3. This degree is useful to my
career plans after
graduation.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – expectancy-
value
4. Obtaining this degree will
make my life better.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 K – Help-seeking
5. I am confident in my ability
to complete this degree.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-efficacy

175
Survey question Open /
closed
Response option
a
RQ Concept
measured
b

6. I am confident in my ability
to become an industry
professional after
graduation.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-efficacy
7. I am confident in my ability
to:
-meet my assignment
deadlines
-work on school
assignments when there are
other interesting things to do
-create a plan for completing
my school assignments
-find a place to work on
school assignments without
distractions
-motiviate myself to work
on school assignments
-participate in class
discussions
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-
regulation
8. When I see myself falling
behind, I try to figure out
ways to get caught up.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-
regulation
9. I am less confident as a
student now than I was in
college.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-efficacy
10. I get easily distracted from
the tasks at hand.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-
regulation
11. I can accomplish the goals I
set out for myself.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 M – Self-
regulation
12. In general, I fit in with other
students at this institution.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Sense of
belonging
13. If I had the choice to do it
all over again, I would still
attend this institution.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Campus
climate
14. I have found this campus
environment to be friendly.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Campus
climate
15. I feel out of place in the
classroom.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Sense of
belonging

176
Survey question Open /
closed
Response option
a
RQ Concept
measured
b

16. This institution needs to
prioritize the needs of its
students and create a climate
and environment that is
supportive and inclusive.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Campus
climate
17. The school needs to foster a
sense of belonging on its
campus.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Sense of
belonging
18. I have experienced racial
microaggressions at this
institution.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2 O – Campus
climate
19. I feel my professors show
little interest in my
contributions.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1
2
3
O – Faculty
mentoring
20. I am comfortable
approaching my professors
for help.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1
2
3
K – Help-seeking
21. When I try to speak up in
class, I am sometimes
interrupted or ignored.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2
3
O – Campus
climate
22. The institution needs to
develop initiatives for its
faculty to create deeper
connections with students.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2
3
O – Faculty
mentoring
23. The institution needs to
create engagement strategies
with students to increase
their connections with the
institution.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
2
3
O – Student
engagement
23. The school has the right
resources to meet my needs.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1
2
K – Help-seeking
24. I know where to find
campus support services if I
need them.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1
2
K – Help-seeking
25. I believe this school
supports you to be
successful.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1
2
O – Campus
climate
26. Are you involved in any of
the following student
organizations? Please check
all that apply.
Closed • Graduate Student
Council
• Nat’l Assn of
Black
Professionals
1
2
O – Student
engagement

177
Survey question Open /
closed
Response option
a
RQ Concept
measured
b

• Nat’l Assn of
Hispanic
Professionals
• Photo Club
• Queer Club
• I am not involved
in any student
organizations at
the school.
27. How are you paying the
tuition and fees at this
school? Please check all that
apply.
Closed • Federal loans
• School
scholarship
• Outside
scholarships
• Outside
scholarships from
racial or ethnic
organizations
• Financial help
from family
• Part-time jobs
off-campus
• Federal work-
study
• Other
1 O – Financial aid
28. The financial aid process is
difficult to navigate.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 O – Financial aid
29. The institution needs to
provide more
comprehensive resources
and support to students
regarding financial decisions
and aid.
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 O – Financial aid
30. I experience financial
hardship in these ways;
-difficulty paying for tuition
-difficulty purchasing
required school supplies
(laptop, external hard drive,
etc.)
-difficulty in paying for
housing
Closed Likert scale: strong
dis, disagree, agree,
strong agree
1 O – Financial aid

178
Survey question Open /
closed
Response option
a
RQ Concept
measured
b

-difficulty in paying for food
-other (please specify)
31. What type of college/
university did you attend
prior to enrolling at this
school?
Closed • Historically Black
College and
University
(HBCU)
• Hispanic
Servicing
Institution (HSI)
• Tribal College
and University
(TCU)
• Other private
college/ university
• Other public
college/ university

32. What is your approximate
cumulative grade point
average?
Closed Dropdown menu of
4.0 scale (A or A+
to D+ or lower, and
I prefer not to
answer)

33. Please select the racial or
ethnic group with which you
most identify. Please select
all that apply.
Closed • American Indian
or Alaska Native
• Asian
• Black or African
American
• Hispanic or
Latinx
• White
• Not listed (please
specify)
• I prefer not to
answer

34. Please select the gender with
which you most identify.
Closed • Female
• Male
• Transgender
female
• Transgender
male
• Non-binary
• Not listed
(please specify)

179
Survey question Open /
closed
Response option
a
RQ Concept
measured
b

• I prefer not to
answer
• Other (box to
list other)
35. Is there anything you want
to tell me about your
experience in school that I
have not already asked
about?
Open
36. If you would like to be
contacted for an interview,
please enter your name and
email address.

37. If you would like to receive
a $5 Amazon gift card for
your time, please enter your
email address.

a
Response option if close-ended.
b
Concept being measured from conceptual framework.
c
Likert scale abbreviations: strong dis = strongly disagree, some dis = somewhat disagree, some
agree = somewhat agree, strong agree = strongly agree.

180
Appendix C: Overview of Coding Process
• The researcher used the Atlas.ti data analysis and research software to code the transcripts.
• The researcher began reviewing the data and conducting open coding on the transcripts. A
codebook was created.
• The researcher moved onto deductive coding and establishing a priori codes based on the
theoretical framework (KMO influences).
• The researcher then began axial/analytic coding and comparative coding to refine the codes
and categorize them across related areas.
• The researcher began analyzing the data and interpreting the qualitative research.

181
Appendix D: Interview Protocol
Semi-structured interview with probing questions
1. Tell me why you decided to enroll in this program. (RQ1, M, expectancy-value)
2. Describe your professional goals. (RQ1, M, expectancy-value)
• How does the school help you to achieve these goals? (RQ1, M, expectancy-
value)
3. What does diversity mean to you? (RQ1, O, campus climate)
• How important is it to you to have a diverse learning environment while in
school? (RQ1, O, campus climate)
4. To what extent do you believe this school values diversity? (RQ2, O, campus climate)
• What are ways the school can increase diversity on-campus? (RQ2, O, campus
climate)
5. How do you define academic success? (RQ1, M, expectancy-value)
• What factors are important to your success in school? (RQ1, M, expectancy-
value)
6. What effect does the campus environment have, if any, on your ability to achieve
academic success? (RQ2, O, campus climate).
• What can the school do to improve the campus environment? (RQ2, O, campus
climate)
7. Describe your relationship with faculty at this school. (RQ2, RQ3, O, faculty mentoring)
• What do you hope to gain from your interactions with faculty? (RQ2, RQ3, O,
faculty mentoring)

182
• Do you believe you have succeeded in achieving those so far? (RQ2, RQ3, O,
faculty mentoring)
• Tell me about any faculty that have helped you at this school. (RQ2, RQ3, O,
faculty mentoring)
• Why do you think you connected more with these faculty than others? (RQ2, RQ3
O, faculty mentoring)
• What are ways faculty can connect more with students? (RQ2, RQ3, O, faculty
mentoring, campus climate)
8. Describe any challenges you have had while in school. (RQ2, M, self-regulation)
• How did you overcome these challenges? (RQ2, M, self-regulation)
• Were you able to take advantage of any support or resources through the
university? (RQ1, K, help-seeking)
• Does this school provide you with the resources you need to succeed? (RQ1, K,
help-seeking)
9. What can the institution do to provide students with more support and resources
regarding:
• financial aid (RQ3, O, financial aid)
• academic tutoring and coaching (RQ3, O, faculty mentoring)
• faculty mentoring and support (RQ2, RQ3, O, faculty mentoring)
10. For new students entering the P-School, can you think of any challenges that the
institution could help students with that we have not yet discussed? (RQ2, O, campus
climate)
11. Is there anything else you want to share?

183
Appendix E: Survey Information Fact Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical Research

INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: Understanding which aspects of higher education affect the academic
achievement of students of color
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Colleen Leigh

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to the academic achievement of students of color in higher education. There
are many personal and institutional factors that affect the academic achievement of students of
color. I hope to learn how to improve the experiences of students of color at the Professional
School, so they have increased satisfaction while enrolled, and are more likely to graduate. You
are invited as a possible participant because you are in your final semester at the Professional
School.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participation is voluntary. If you agree to participate in this research study, you will be asked to
complete a survey, which will take approximately 10 minutes to complete. You do not have to
answer any questions you do not want to answer.

184
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive $5 Amazon gift card for your time. You must answer all the questions to
receive the card. The gift card will be emailed to you within one week after you submit the
survey.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
The alternative is to not participate in the research study. Your relationship with the institution is
not affected by your participation or non-participation in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used. Any identifiable information obtained will remain confidential. Your
responses will be coded with a pseudonym and maintained separately.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Principal Investigator, Colleen Leigh
at cleigh@usc.edu, 201-458-2038.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.
By completing this survey, you are consenting to participate in this research study.
*Please print or save a copy of this form for your records.

185
Appendix F: List of Codes

Code Number of Coded Quotations
Academic Success 20
Campus Climate 88
Definition of Diversity 3
Does P-School Value Diversity? 6
Expectancy-Value 62
Faculty Mentoring 103
Financial Aid 16
FOC (Faculty of Color) 11
Help-seeking 19
Lack of Communication 10
Lack of Supportive Faculty and Staff 23
Overcoming Challenges 53
Recommendations 94
Resources 38
Self-regulation 16
Student Engagement 3
White Faculty & Staff 30

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Leigh, Colleen Marshall (author)

Core Title Underrepresented and underserved: barriers to academic success for students of color in higher education

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2021-08

Publication Date 07/23/2021

Defense Date 06/17/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic success,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,students of color,underrepresentation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Adibe, Bryant (committee chair), Hinga, Briana (committee member), Wilcox, Alexandra (committee member)

Creator Email cfmleigh@gmail.com,colleenleigh923@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC15617644

Unique identifier UC15617644

Legacy Identifier etd-LeighColle-9836

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Leigh, Colleen Marshall

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu