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A comparative study of food safety-related public relations practices in China and the United States

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A comparative study of food safety-related public relations practices in China and the United States

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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FOOD SAFETY-RELATED PUBLIC RELATIONS
PRACTICES IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES

by

Chang Shu

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS)

May 2011

Copyright 2011 Chang Shu

ii

Acknowledgements

I would like to gratefully acknowledge my committee members, Professor Jerry
Swerling, Professor Laura Min Jackson and Professor Jian Wang, for their valuable
suggestions and generous help on this work. I would also like to thank my husband
Chonglin, for his understanding, encouragement and endless support throughout my
graduate study.

iii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Abstract viii
Introduction 1
Background of Food Safety Crises 1
Rationale for the Current Study 3
Chapter One: Literature Review 5
The 10 best practices of Risk and Crisis Communication 5
The Model of Issue Lifecycle by Hainsworth and Meng 9
A Professional Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics 11
Chapter Two: Method 15
Participants 16
Procedure 18
Measurement 18
Chapter Three: Results 19
Demographics of the Participants 19
The Perceived Effectiveness of Pre-crisis Planning 21
Collaboration with Credible Sources 22
Acknowledging the Uncertainty and Ambiguity of the Crisis 23
Partnering with the Public 24
Listening to Public Concerns and Understanding the Audience 26
Open and Honest 28
Meeting the Needs of the Media and Remaining Accessible 30
Communicate with Compassion, Concern and Empathy 32
Provide Messages of Self-efficacy 34
Continuously Evaluate and Update Plans 36
Overall Assessment of the Two Cases 38
Four Stages of Issue Management 40
Third-party Organizations 42
PR Practitioner Being Ethical 43

iv

Chapter Four: Discussion 45
Analysis Based on the 10 best practices of Risk and Crisis Communication 45
Analysis Based on the Four Stages of Issue Management 56
Analysis Based on Professional Responsibility and Public Relations Ethics 60
Analysis Based on U.S-China Differences 63
Conclusion 67
Bibliography 70
Appendix: The 2010 American Egg Recall Survey 73

v

List of Tables

Table 1: Effectiveness during the Four Stages of Issue Management: 40
2010 American Egg Recall
Table 2: Effectiveness during the Four Stages of Issue Management: 40
2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Table 3: Assessment of Public Relations Practices during the 2010 67
American Egg recall and the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

vi

List of Figures

Figure 1.0: Issue Lifecycle 10
Figure 1.1: The Perceived Effectiveness of Pre-crisis Planning for 21
the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 1.2: The Perceived Effectiveness of Pre-crisis Planning for 21
the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 2.1: Whether Collaborated with Credible Sources in the 22
2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 2.2: Whether Collaborated with Credible Sources in the 22
2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 3.1: Acknowledgement of Uncertainty and Ambiguity 23
during the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 3.2: Acknowledgement of Uncertainty and Ambiguity 24
during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 4.1: Partnership with the Public during the 2010 American Egg Recall 24
Figure 4.2: Partnership with the Public during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal 25
Figure 5.1: Effectiveness of Listening to Public Concerns and Understanding 26
the Audience during the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 5.2: Effectiveness of Listening to Public Concerns and Understanding 27
the Audience during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 6.1: Communicate Openly and Honestly in Crisis Communication 28
during the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 6.2: Communicate Openly and Honestly in Crisis Communication 29
during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 7.1: Effectiveness at Meeting the Needs of the Media and 30
Remaining Accessible during the 2010 American Egg Recall

vii

Figure 7.2: Effectiveness at Meeting the Needs of the Media and Remaining 31
Accessible during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 8.1: Communicated with Genuine Compassion, Concern and 32
Empathy during the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 8.2: Communicated with Genuine Compassion, Concern and 33
Empathy during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 9.1: Effectiveness in Providing Messages of Self-efficacy 34
during the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 9.2: Effectiveness in Providing Messages of Self- efficacy 35
during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 10.1: Effectiveness in Continuously Evaluating and Updating 36
Plans during the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 10.2: Effectiveness in Continuously Evaluating and Updating 37
Plans during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 11.1: Overall Assessment of Public Relations Practices during 38
the 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 11.2: Overall Assessment of Public Relations Practices during 39
the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Figure 12.1: Number of Third-party Organizations Serving as Food 42
Safety Watchdogs in the U.S.
Figure 12.2: Number of Third-party Organizations Serving as Food 42
Safety Watchdogs in China
Figure 13.1: Perceived Percentage of PR Practitioners‟ Being Ethical 43
during the Crisis: 2010 American Egg Recall
Figure 13.2: Perceived Percentage of PR Practitioners‟ Being Ethical 43
during the Crisis: 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

viii

Abstract

Public relations practices for recent food safety-related crises varied in China and
the United States. This comparative study researched on the 2010 American egg recall
and the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. Following the theoretical guideline extracted from
the10 Best Practices of Risk and Crisis Communication by National Center for Food
Protection and Defense (NCFPD), the Model of Issue Lifecycle and A Professional
Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics, surveys and individual interviews were
designed and conducted in this study. The results and their implications were discussed.
A discussion based on U.S.-China differences were carried out to seek the reasons for
different public relations practices in the United States and China on food safety issues.
Through analysis, this study provided insights on effectiveness of public relations
practices in the above two cases, and proposed ways for public relation professionals in
the United States and China to better deal with food safety crisis.

1

Introduction

Background of Food Safety Crises

Food safety is a growing concern in China. In recent years, China has endured
several incidents of food contamination and illegal use of prohibited ingredients and
additives in production. One of the most recent outbreaks to attract worldwide attention
was the 2008 melamine-tainted milk scandal, which led to the deaths of at least 6 babies
and caused another 300,000 to fall ill after being fed contaminated baby formula (BBC,
2010). Research conducted at the time revealed that 20% of all Chinese powdered
formula brands tested positive for melamine (Enderwick, 2009). Since that crisis, the
Chinese government has made efforts to tighten the regulation of food production and
upgrade risk assessment systems; 31 new food safety monitoring centers have been
established at the provincial level, another 312 at the county level, and monitoring
process of agricultural products has been reinforced in two hundred and fifty-nine big and
medium cities (BBC, 2010).
In addition to drawing up quality-control regulations, improving inspection
systems, and strengthening law enforcement, practicing effective public relations can
minimize the negative impact of food crises and thus, should be another essential element
in serving the public‟s needs. Failure of crisis communication can lead to speculation,
heavy criticism, mistrust, and even injury among the public. In the 2008 melamine-
tainted milk scandal, the authorities and corporations both conducted ineffective crisis
communication strategies. The Sanlu Group‟s baby formula was the first product
2

discovered to be adulterated with melamine. Evidence has since shown that it was the
result of intentional acts carried out by Sanlu Group‟s milk suppliers, intended to increase
the product‟s perceived quality. Sanlu Group did not notify the public when they became
aware of the problem (Wolf, 2009). Rather, there were delays in corporate responses and
an information vacuum for consumers. On the government side, authorities postponed a
national product recall for fears of social unrest that might threaten the 2008 Olympics in
Beijing (Enderwick, 2009).
A comparable food contamination incident involves the 2010 egg recall in the
United States, which also drew international attention and posed risks to public health, as
did the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. In August 2010, U.S. health officials recalled over
500 million eggs after salmonella bacteria that sickened over 1,500 people was traced to
two large egg producers (Egg Contamination and Recalls, 2010). While dealing with
similar food safety issues, PR practices in these two incidents differed in several respects.
During the egg recall, egg producers and the United States Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), the government agency that protects and promotes public health through the
regulation and supervision of food safety and medications, as well as some principal
industry bodies reached out proactively to the public, sending out messages of self-
efficacy while staying accessible to the media. One key PR practice during the crisis was
the use of social media. According to Chris Myles, SVP at GolinHarris, the public
relations agency of record for United Egg Producers, a cooperative of egg farmers from
all across the United States social media was an effective mode of one-way transmission
to push the information out during the first few days of the crisis (Maul, 2010). The
3

American Egg Board (AEB), the association of US egg producers and marketers, offered
information and announcements regarding the recall on its new egg safety site and social
media outlets. At the time, the AEB‟s online content balanced out the negative chatter
online and resulted in the purchase of local eggs trending as the most
popular conversation on Twitter (Skepys, 2010).

Rationale for the Current Study

Through deconstructive research of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and the 2010
U.S. American egg recall, this study aims to assess the effectiveness of PR practices in
both cases, while exploring the fundamental reasons for the different way of conducting
food safety public relations in the two countries. Specific recommendations on how to
deal with similar incidents will follow upon analysis of the results, as will advice on what
PR practitioners in both countries can learn from each other‟s experience.
The National Center for Food Protection and Defense (NCFPD) has developed 10
best practices for risk and crisis communication, commonly referred to as Guidance of
Crisis Management in Public Health Incidents (Wolf, 2009). The current study will use
the 10 best practices as benchmarks to assess the effectiveness of public relations in the
2008 Chinese milk scandal and the 2010 American egg recall. Using primary and
secondary research methods, the study will examine political, economic, structural and
cultural differences between the two countries that led to their respective styles of crisis
management in food safety incidents.
4

In a model developed by Hainsworth (1990) and Meng (1992), an issue that can
turn into a crisis has a lifecycle made up of four stages: origin, mediation/amplification,
organization and resolution. At each stage, pressure mounts on the organization because
of the issue‟s increasing importance (Michael & Judy, 2005). The present study of the
two cases will look at the authorities‟ and the organizations‟ communications in each
stage and assess their effectiveness through this angle. Finally, this study will focus on
public relations ethics in the crisis management of food safety issues. It will consider the
roles of PR practitioners as institutional advocates and the public conscience of their
organization. Based on reviews of the two cases, the study will give advice on how PR
professionals can balance serving both the organization and the public interest.

5

Chapter One: Literature Review

In order to execute a productive study of PR practices in the two cases, and offer
advice informed by research and analysis, one must first examine the academic theories
commonly used as guidance during crisis management. This literature review discusses
the 10 best practices of risk and crisis communication, the model of issue lifecycle by
Hainsworth and Meng, and the professional responsibility theory of public relations
ethics.

The 10 Best Practices of Risk and Crisis Communication

Supported by the National Center for Food Protection and Defense (NCFPD) and
the National Science Foundation (NSF), a group of crisis communication experts
conducted research on a large sample of cases and synthesized the results into a set of ten
general best practices for effective crisis communication. These best practices are
referred to as a Grounded Theoretical Approach for Improving the Effectiveness of Crisis
Communication (Seeger, 2006). The 10 best practices are described below.
Pre-event Planning
According to NCFPD, communication plans should be developed before a crisis.
A crisis communication plan developed in advance can serve as a constant reminder of
potential problems and provide pointers for employees to follow to avoid crises (Seeger,
2006). An effective plan must include instructions on how to monitor potential problems,
6

clarify responsibilities and decision-making structures, and identify communication
channels to reach different audiences (NCFPD, 2011).
Collaborate and Coordinate with Credible Sources
During a crisis, collaborating with credible sources increases the credibility of the
organization and can showcase genuine efforts. For example, an organization can work
with well-known experts and spokespeople who have high credibility among audiences,
to send out messages (NCFPD, 2011). According to Seeger, “consistency of message is
one important benchmark of effective crisis communication.” (p. 240). Therefore,
collaborative relationships can be even more helpful if they are developed before a crisis,
for it can increase the consistency of agency‟s messages and actions. This kind of
relationship may also reduce speculation and confusion among audiences.
Accept Uncertainty and Ambiguity
An organization should acknowledge the uncertainty and ambiguity of a crisis
situation. In food safety issues, warnings or recalls should be done as soon as the
organization becomes aware of the crisis situation, despite the uncertainty of its impact
(Seeger, 2006). Waiting until every detail is clear can significantly delay the warning or
recall, which may result in more harm (Seeger, 2006). In public statements,
acknowledging uncertainty and ambiguity is necessary when information is not available;
overly reassuring statements may reduce a spokesperson‟s credibility if found to be
inaccurate (Seeger, 2006).

7

Form Partnerships with the Public
As Seeger (2006) points out, “Ideally, the public can serve as a resource, rather
than a burden, in risk and crisis management.” To develop partnerships with the public,
the organization should reach out to them proactively and offer up-to-date information,
using a “dialogic approach.” (p. 238) The partnership can make the public feel that they
are part of the decision-making process so that they may be more willing to adopt the
organization‟s recommended actions (NCFPD, 2011).
Listen to Public Concerns and Understand the Audience
Another best practice requires organizations to make efforts to understand the
needs of their audiences and respond to them appropriately through two-way
communication. According to NCFPD (2011), “value should be placed on considering
various, even conflicting, points-of-view.” (p. 5). It is also important to focus efforts on
developing key messages that fit in with the needs of different audiences.
Be Open and Honest
An organization‟s credibility is built upon honesty. Openness will encourage the
public to join in the crisis management process and start a dialogue with the organization.
Instances of information withholding may push the public to search for other sources of
information, which can lead to an organization‟s failure to control the message.
According to Seeger (2006), “honesty, in the long run, fosters credibility with both the
media and the public.” (p. 239)

8

Meet the Needs of the Media and Remain Accessible
The mass media can be used as the main means to communicate with the public in
a crisis (NCFPD, 2011). However, if the needs of different media outlets cannot be
satisfied by the information offered by the organization, the public may seek alternative
sources (NCFPD, 2011). In such a situation, given the lack of outbound information from
the organization regarding the crisis, alternative sources often speculate or feed the media
with incorrect information, resulting in rumors (NCFPD, 2011). In a crisis, organizations
should offer information available, acknowledge what is unavailable, and show their
efforts on obtaining more information (NCFPD, 2011).
Communicate with Compassion, Concern, and Empathy
Communicating with compassion, concern, and empathy can enhance the
credibility and perceived legitimacy of messages in a crisis (Seeger, 2006). An expression
of genuine concern and empathy will help the public believe that an organization‟s crisis
management efforts and recommended actions are appropriate and legitimate (Seeger,
2006). It will also prove that the organization cares about the safety of those who may
have been harmed (NCFPD, 2011). On the contrary, statements or messages lacking
empathy can be perceived as cold and uncaring (NCFPD, 2011).
Provide Messages of Self-Efficacy
According to Seeger (2006), “messages of self-efficacy can help restore some
sense of control over an uncertain and threatening situation.” (p. 242). During a crisis,
people want to know how to protect themselves and their loved ones (NCFPD, 2011).
9

Information or messages detailing how to prevent or mitigate harm can be very helpful
for the public (NCFPD, 2011).
Continuously Evaluate and Update Plan
In a crisis situation, communication plans should be continuously evaluated and
updated to ensure that information is current (NCFPD, 2011). Organizations should bring
in communication experts or ask for their advice when developing communication plans
and decision-making processes (NCFPD, 2011). A communication plan‟s effectiveness
should be assessed based on how the plan works with different audiences (NCFPD, 2011).

The Model of Issue Lifecycle by Hainsworth and Meng

According to Hainsworth (1990) and Meng (1992), any issue that may grow into a
crisis has a lifecycle made up of four stages: Origin, mediation/amplification,
organization and resolution (Hainsworth & Meng, 1988). In the following figure, the
vertical axis of the diagram represents the level of pressure exerted on an organization by
the developing issue; the horizontal axis represents the various stages of development
(Michael & Judy, 2005).

10

Figure 1.0: Issue Lifecycle

Note: Adopted from Michael & Judy, 2005

As Michael & Judy (2005) point out, the stage of origin, which is also the
„potential stage‟, shows a “defined condition or event which has the potential to develop
into something of importance” (p. 51). The crisis planning process should include
“constantly scanning of the process and early identification of potential issue.” (p. 52).
The stage of mediation/amplification is to be seen as the „emerging‟ issue stage, which
indicates that the pressure of accepting the issue increases as some groups take action to
push or legitimize the issue (Michael & Judy, 2005). At this stage, it‟s still easy for the
organization to intervene proactively and prevent the issue from evolving into crisis
(Hainsworth, 1990). Since media coverage turns from sporadic to regular, media
monitoring and a decision to communicate with media should be included in an action
plan (Michael & Judy, 2005). In the organization stage, the „current‟ phase indicates that
the issue has matured and becomes very difficult to affect, since all the involved parties
recognize the issue‟s full importance (Michael & Judy, 2005). As the diagram illustrates,
11

the issue then ramps up very steeply from „current‟ phase to „crisis‟ mode, reaching
regulatory authorities‟ constraints (Michael & Judy, 2005). In the resolution stage, public
officials will often resolve the conflict via changes to legislation or regulation, which the
organization is forced to accept unconditionally (Michael & Judy, 2005).
Through an analysis of the issue lifecycle model, Michael & Judy (2005)
recommend early research on a developing situation and the relationship of the issue to
the corporation, so as to clarify the origin, intensity and evolution of the issue (Michael &
Judy, 2005). The research should be targeted towards opinion leaders and media
gatekeepers (Michael & Judy, 2005).

A Professional Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics

Having conducted preliminary explored the crisis communications management
of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and the 2010 American egg recall, the author found it
important to further discuss the professional responsibility of public relations
practitioners, as well as public relations ethics. This is because public relations ethics can
have a great impact on practitioners‟ crisis planning and actual actions during food safety
outbreaks. As demonstrated in the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, public relations
practitioners‟ lack of professional responsibility led to several ineffective practices that
increased the intensity of the crisis (Sun, 2008).

12

The Work of the Public Relations Professional
“The public relations practitioner acts as a counselor to management and as a
mediator, helping translate private aims into reasonable, publicly acceptable policy and
action.” (Public Relations Society of America Foundation, 1991, p. 4)
Some public relations practitioners argue that the goal of public relations has
shifted from influencing publics for the good of the organization, to helping organizations
and their publics accommodate each others‟ interests for mutual benefit (Grunig,
Excellence in public relations and communication management, 1992). Others argue that
persuasion is the main focus of public relations work. Kruckeberg & Starck (1988) point
out that serving the organization is still the priority of public relations practitioners,
noting that, “Despite a few voices to the contrary, public relations practitioners generally
and readily accept persuasion and advocacy as their major function”(p. 56). Yet other
scholars maintain that both views are correct, pointing out that contemporary PR
practices include both self-interested persuasive tactics and genuinely benevolent
initiatives (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001). PR campaigns and programs are often
designed to benefit the institution as well as their audiences (Murphy, 1991).
The Study of Fitzpatrick and Gauthier
In a review of several theories of public relations ethics, one might conclude that
few have been fully developed (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001). No single ethical
framework has been accepted as a best practice for public relations practitioners to follow
(Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001). Given the need to develop a professional responsibility
theory of public relations ethics, Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001) conducted a study on
13

that topic. First, the study briefly reviewed existing theories of public relations ethics,
which were: Attorney Adversary (Barney & Black, 1994); Enlightened Self-Interest
(Baker, 1999); Community/Communitarian/Social Responsibility (Baker, 1999);
Sullivan‟s (1965) Partisan Values Versus Mutual Values (Pearson, 1989); and the Two-
Way Symmetrical Model (Grunig & Grunig, 1996). Fitzpatrick and Gauthier showed that
each theory had weaknesses that prevented it from being accepted as the universal
standard. Fitzpatrick and Gauthier subsequently examined the PR practitioner‟s role as a
„professional,‟ assessing the “special obligations” attached to the role and how those
obligations could influence PR practices. Finally, Fitzpatrick and Gauthier studied the
concepts of institutional advocate and „social conscience.‟
Principles as Ethical Guidelines
In their conclusion, Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001) proposed several principles
that could be used as ethical guidelines for responsible public relations practices.
Fitzpatrick and Gauthier argued that PR professionals owe a higher duty to the
organizations they serve than to those organizations‟ constituents. This notion highlights
the role of PR professionals as advocates of institutional interest and clarifies that PR
professionals “best serve society through serving the special interest of their clients and
employers” (p. 208). However, Fitzpatrick and Gauthier also point out that PR
professionals should balance their priority of serving the organization with their
obligations of satisfying public interest, and this calls for a balance between the special
interests of the organization and the interests of those directly affected by the
organization. To realize such balance, public relations professionals should recognize that
14

their greatest loyalty should be given to the organization they serve. However, PR
professionals are also responsible for ensuring their organizations are aware of their
stakeholders‟ interests.
Serving the public interest simply requires public relations professionals to
consider the interests of all affected parties and make a committed effort to
balance them to the extent possible while avoiding or minimizing harm and
respecting all of the persons involved (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001, p. 204).

In other words, PR professionals‟ responsibility to publics is a significant, though
not necessarily determinant, part of their overall professional responsibility.
PR professionals often face a moral dilemma in situations when conflicts between
loyalty to the organization and responsibilities to the public interests occur. Under such
circumstances, it is difficult for PR professionals to decide which side should be their top
priority. Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001) list good reasons for and against each alternative
and give the following three principles that could provide the foundation for a theory of
professional responsibility in public relations.
First, the comparison of harms and benefits: harms should be avoided or, at least,
minimized, and benefits promoted at the least possible cost in terms of harms;
second, respect for persons: persons should be treated with respect and dignity;
third, distributive justice: the benefits and burdens of any action or policy should
be distributed as fairly as possible (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001, p. 207)

15

Chapter Two: Method

For this research project, a mix of qualitative research and quantitative research
approaches were applied. Online surveys form the quantitative research component,
while individual interviews were the chosen qualitative research method. Two surveys
were developed, one specific to the 2010 American egg recall and the other specific to
the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. Both surveys were designed to have three phases;
assessment of the effectiveness of public relations practices based on the NCFPD/NSF 10
best practices of risk and crisis communication; assessment of the effectiveness of
Hainsworth & Meng‟s (1988) four stages of issue management; and assessment of public
relations practices in terms of professional responsibility and public relations ethics.
An online survey platform was employed because it makes it possible to test the
opinions of a comparatively larger sample of respondents. The survey questions aimed to
assess the effectiveness of crisis management in the U.S. and Chinese crises, and a large
survey sample was required to ensure impartiality of results. Online surveys are easily
distributed and data is easily collected and processed; surveys can help translate people‟s
opinions or feelings into tangible statistics and data that facilitate the analysis of results.
For example, to determine how people feel about the effectiveness of crisis management
following an incident, surveys can be designed with a Likert scale that ask respondents to
assign scores on a scale of one to five, with one being worst and five being the best.
Individual interviews were chosen as the qualitative research method for the study.
Interviews reveal individual‟s feelings about whether public relations practitioners
16

behave ethically during crises, as well as the fundamental differences in economics,
politics, culture and structure that led to different public relations practices in the two
cases. Interviews focused on individuals‟ feelings and opinions, issues that need
prolonged interaction with respondents to be fully fleshed out. Interview features open
conversation and enables follow up questions based on feedback. It functions well to get
people‟s insights and more sophisticated feelings on the topic, which cannot be easily
collected by a questionnaire. In addition, the conversational, comfortable setting of the
interview helps people get involved and be willing to diverge to express their personal
opinions and thoughts about the topic.

Participants

The study recruited college students from single universities in the U.S. and China
as the survey participants. One reason for choosing college students to participate in the
surveys is that they are generally educated, well-informed individuals who may have
good judgment and can offer valuable opinions on the topic. In addition, many of them
have genuine interest in the discussions of social issues such as food safety and public
health. College students usually have a network of people with different ages, professions
and social status. They can be influenced by multiple sources of information, such as
media, community, family, school, and social media. Therefore, college students can be
good representatives for a portion of the public, from a survey research standpoint.
17

The participants in the American egg recall survey were all U.S. citizens or
permanent residents who were undergraduate or graduate students enrolled at the
University of Southern California. The respondents were from various fields of study,
and varied on a range of demographic indicators including gender, age, living
environment, upbringing and socio-economic status.
The participants in the Chinese Milk Scandal survey were all graduate students
enrolled at the University of Southern California or college students in the
Communication University of China, Chinese citizens, and aged between 18 and 29 years.
The participants also varied on a range of demographic indicators including gender, age,
living environment, upbringing and socio-economic status.
All of the survey participants were randomly selected from the 2009 enrollment
records of the University of Southern California and the Communication University of
China, using a random number table. The surveys were developed and fielded using
Qualtrics‟ survey software. Possible participants from the designated population were
emailed links inviting them to take the survey; the surveys were also printed out and
faxed to participants to complete.
The individual interview respondents were three young Chinese couples, who
each have two-year-old children. Two of the three couples were currently in China; the
other couple currently lives in the United States. The interview respondents‟ ages ranged
from 20 to 35 years. The three couples also varied on a range of demographic indicators
including gender, age, living environment, upbringing and socio-economic status.
18

Procedure

Survey participants were asked to answer questions as accurately as possible. All
participants were informed that the average time to complete the survey was
approximately seven minutes and that personal information would only be used for the
current study and not disclosed to third parties.
For the individual interviews, participants were informed that the research
concerned the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, and more specifically, their opinions and
thoughts on the authorities‟ and Sanlu‟s public relations practices during the outbreak.
Participants were encouraged to speak freely, but with relevance to the topic. Each
interview lasted about 40 minutes. The interview with the U.S. based couple was
conducted at their house. The remaining four interviews with the China based couples
were conducted via Skype. Key conversations points are noted during the interviews.

Measurement

The surveys were aimed at testing peoples‟ opinions or feelings about public
relations practices and how they would assess them. The answers for the survey questions
were presented using a 5-point Likert scale: very bad, bad, neither bad nor good, good
and very good. (Likert scales are often used within scale building research, especially
when evaluating opinions, beliefs, and attitudes [DeVellis, 2003].) The data were
processed, analyzed and displayed using charts and diagrams.

19

Chapter Three: Results

The results of the quantitative research are outlined in this chapter. To address the
proposed research goals, the surveys contain three phases. The first phase assesses the
effectiveness of public relations practices based on the NCFPD/NSF 10 best practices of
risk and crisis communication; the second phase assesses the effectiveness of Hainsworth
& Meng‟s (1988) four stages of issue management; and the final stage offers an
assessment of public relations practices in terms of professional responsibility and public
relations ethics.

Demographics of the participants

For the 2008 Chinese milk scandal survey, there were a total of 96 valid responses.
Fifty percent of the participants were male and 50% were female. Ninety (94%) of them
were between the age of 20 to 29. Six (6%) of them were under the age of 20.
Thirty six (38%) of them reported having an annual household income below
50,000 RMB (Chinese currency equal to approximately 7,600 dollars). Thirty six (38%)
of them had an annual household income between 50,000RMB (approximately
7,600dollars) to 99,999RMB, (approximately 15,200 dollars). Eighteen (19%) of them
had an annual household income between 100,000RMB (approximately 15,200 dollars)
to 499,999RMB (approximately 76,000 dollars), and six (6%) of them had an annual
household income above 500,000RMB (approximately 76,000 dollars).
20

For thirty (31%), the highest educational level was a four-year college education,
while 66 (69%) of them had graduate school education.
Ninety six (100%) participants live in an urban community.
For the 2010 American egg recall survey, there were a total of 91 valid responses.
Seven (8%) of the participants were male and 84 (92%) of them were female. Forty nine
(54%) of them were between the ages of 20 to 29; twenty eight (31%) of them were
between the ages of 30 to 39; seven (8%) of them were between the ages of 40 to 49; and
7 (8%) of them were over the age of 50.
Twenty three (23%) of them had an annual household income below 22,000
dollars; twenty one (23%) of them had an annual household income between 22,000
dollars to 49,999 dollars; fourteen (15%) of them had an annual household income
between 50,000 dollars to 99,999 dollars; and 35 (38%) of them had an annual household
income greater than 100,000 dollars.
Forty two (46%) of them had a highest educational level of four-year college
education, while 49 (54%) of them had a highest educational level of graduate school
education.
Ninety one (100%) participants live in an urban community.

21

The Perceived Effectiveness of Pre-crisis Planning

Figure 1.1: The Perceived Effectiveness of Pre-crisis planning for the 2010 American
Egg Recall

Figure 1.2: The perceived Effectiveness of Pre-crisis Planning for the 2008 Chinese Milk
Scandal
Figure 1.1 shows that the perceived pre-crisis planning of Authorities for the 2010
egg recall was primarily assessed as “neither good nor bad.” Only 9.09% of the total
responses indicated the companies did a bad job in pre-crisis planning. By comparison,
Figure 1.2 shows that more than 70% of the respondents thought the authorities did “bad”
22

or “very bad” in pre-crisis planning, and more than 80% of them thought Sanlu Group did
“bad” or “very bad.”
The above observations can be translated into two insights. Basic practices for
pre-crisis planning were employed before the 2010 American egg recall. For the 2008
Chinese milk scandal, there was little effective pre-crisis planning before the outbreak.

Collaboration with Credible Sources

Figure 2.1: Whether or Not Collaborated with Credible Sources during the 2010
American Egg Recall

Figure 2.2: Whether or Not Collaborated with Credible Sources in the 2008 Chinese Milk
Scandal

23

As shown in Figure 2.1, two thirds of respondents thought that the authorities and
the corporations did not collaborate with credible sources during the 2010 American egg
recall. Figure 2.2 shows that 41.18% of respondents thought the authorities did
collaborate with credible sources during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, while 29.41% of
respondents think the Sanlu Group collaborated with credible source during the scandal.
These results suggest that the majority of respondents felt in both cases that, the
authorities and corporations either did not collaborate effectively with credible sources or
failed to inform their audience of their cooperation with credible sources.

Acknowledging the Uncertainty and Ambiguity of the Crisis

Figure 3.1: Acknowledgement of Uncertainty and Ambiguity during the 2010 American
Egg Recall

24

Figure 3.2: Acknowledgement of Uncertainty and Ambiguity of the Crisis during the
2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

Figures 3.1 and 3.2 above show that in both cases, most respondents believed the
authorities and corporations did not acknowledge the uncertainty and ambiguity of the
crisis.

Partnering with the Public

Figure 4.1: Partnership with the Public during the 2010 American Egg Recall

25

Figure 4.2: Partnership with the Public during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

Figure 4.1 shows that for the 2010 American egg recall, 31.25% of respondents
thought the authorities‟ efforts towards building partnerships with the public were “good”
or “very good”, while 18.75% of respondents thought the efforts were “bad” or “very
bad.” On the other hand, 25% of respondents thought the corporations did a “good” or
“very good” job at partnering with the public and 18.75% of respondents thought the
corporations did a “bad” or “very bad” job at partnering with the public. Around 50% of
the respondents thought both the authorities and the corporations did a “neither good nor
bad” job at partnering with the public.
Figure 4.2 shows that for the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, more than 50% of
respondents thought the authorities did a “bad” or “very bad” job at building partnerships
with the public, while only 11.76% of them thought the authorities did a “good” job.
More than 60% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “bad” or “very bad” job at
26

building partnerships with the public, while 5.88% of respondents thought the authorities
did a “good” job.
Given the above observations, more respondents believed the authorities and
corporations formed good partnership with the public following the 2010 American egg
recall than otherwise. However, respondents tended to believe the authorities and Sanlu
Group did a bad job at partnering with the public regarding the 2008 Chinese milk
scandal.

Listening to Public Concerns and Understanding the Audience

Figure 5.1: Effectiveness of Listening to Public Concerns and Understanding the
Audience during the 2010 American Egg Recall

27

Figure 5.2: Effectiveness of Listening to Public concerns and Understanding the
Audience during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

Figure 5.1 shows that for the 2010 American egg recall, one third of respondents
thought the authorities and the corporations did a “good” or “very good” job at listening
to public concerns and understanding the audience. One third of respondents thought the
authorities and the corporations did a “neither good nor bad” job. The remaining third of
respondents thought the authorities and the corporations did a “bad” or “very bad” job.
Figure 5.2 indicates that for the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 35.29% of the total
respondents believed the authorities did a “bad” or “very bad” job at listening to public
concerns and understanding the audience. 35.29% of respondents believed the authorities
did a “neither good nor bad” job and 29.41% of respondents believed the authorities did a
“good” or “very good” job. Figure 5.2 also indicates that more than 60% of respondents
believed Sanlu Group did a “bad” or “very bad” job at listening to public concerns and
understanding the audience. 35.29% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “neither
28

good nor bad” job and none of them thought Sanlu Group did a “good” or “very good”
job in this respect.
These observations can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg
recall, people held varied attitudes towards the authorities and the corporation‟s efforts on
listening to public concerns and understanding the audience. For the 2008 Chinese milk
scandal, people believed Sanlu Group did a bad job in listening to public concerns and
understanding the audience. Respondents found the authorities‟ efforts unsatisfactory, but
still better than Sanlu‟s.

Open and Honest

Figure 6.1: Communicate Openly and Honestly in Crisis Communication during the 2010
American Egg Recall

29

Figure 6.2: Communicate Openly and Honestly in Crisis Communication during the 2008
Chinese Milk Scandal

Figure 6.1 shows that 25% of the respondents thought the authorities did a “bad”
job at communicating openly and honestly during the 2010 American egg recall. 31.25%
of respondents thought the authorities did a “neither good nor bad” job and 43.75% of
respondents thought the authorities did a “good” or “very good” job in this respect.
Figure 6.1 also shows that 37.50% of respondents thought the corporations did a “bad”
job in this respect. 25% of respondents thought the corporations did a “neither good nor
bad” job and 37.5% of respondents thought the corporations did a “good” or “very good”
job.
Figure 6.2 indicates that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 42.94% of
respondents believed the authorities did a “bad” or “very bad” job at communicating
openly and honestly. 29.41% of respondents believed the authorities did a “neither good
nor bad” job, and 17.65% of respondents thought the authorities did a “good” job in this
respect. 88.24% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “bad” or “very bad” job
30

communicating openly and honestly. 11.76% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a
“neither good nor bad” job, and none of them thought Sanlu Group did a “good” or “very
good” job in this respect.
These observations can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg
recall, people held varied attitudes about the authorities‟ and the corporations‟ efforts to
communicate openly and honestly. However, the respondents believed the authorities did
better than the corporations in this respect. For the 2008 Chinese milk scandal,
respondents felt neither the authorities nor Sanlu group communicated openly and
honestly. In this respect Sanlu Group performed far worse than the authorities.

Meeting the Needs of the Media and Remaining Accessible

Figure 7.1: Effectiveness at Meeting the Needs of the Media and Remaining Accessible
during the 2010 American Egg Recall

31

Figure 7.2: Effectiveness at Meeting the Needs of the Media and Remaining Accessible
during the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

Figure 7.1 shows that 25% of respondents thought the authorities did a “bad” or
“very bad” job at meeting the needs of the media and remaining accessible during 2010
American egg recall. 43.75% of respondents thought the authorities did a “neither good
nor bad” job and 31.25% of respondents thought the authorities did a “good” or “very
good” job in this respect. Figure 7.1 also shows that 25% of respondents thought the
corporations did a “bad” or “very bad” job in this respect. 37.5% of respondents thought
the corporations did a “neither good nor bad” job and 37.5% of respondents thought the
corporations did a “good” or “very good” job.
Figure 7.2 indicates that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 68.75% of
respondents believed the authorities did a “bad” or “very bad” job at meeting the needs of
the media and remaining accessible. 25% of respondents believed the authorities did a
“neither good nor bad” job, and 6.25% of them thought the authorities did a “good” job in
32

this respect. 70.59% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “bad” or “very bad” job at
meeting the needs of the media and remaining accessible. 29.41% of respondents thought
Sanlu Group did a “neither good nor bad” job, and none of the respondents thought Sanlu
Group did a “good” or “very good” job in this respect.
These results can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg recall,
people hold varied attitudes about the authorities‟ and the corporations‟ efforts to meet
the needs of the media and remain accessible. For the 2008 Chinese milk scandal,
respondents perceived that neither the authorities nor Sanlu group was effective at
meeting the needs of the media and remaining accessible. Sanlu Group‟s performance in
this respect was worse than the authorities‟.

Communicate with Compassion, Concern and Empathy

Figure 8.1: Communicated with Genuine Compassion, Concern and Empathy during the
2010 American Egg Recall

33

Figure 8.2: Communicated with Genuine Compassion, Concern and Empathy during the
2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

Figure 8.1 shows that 25% of respondents thought the authorities did not
communicate with genuine compassion, concern and empathy during the 2010 American
egg recall. 43.75% of respondents were indifferent regarding the authorities‟ performance.
31.25% of respondents thought the authorities did communicate with genuine
compassion, concern and empathy. Figure 8.1 also shows that 25% of the respondents
thought the companies did not communicate with genuine compassion, concern and
empathy. 50% of respondents were indifferent regarding the corporations‟ performance.
25% of the respondents thought the corporations did communicate with genuine
compassion, concern and empathy.
Figure 8.2 indicates that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 62.5% of the
respondents believed the authorities didn‟t communicate with genuine compassion,
concern and empathy. 12.5% of respondents were indifferent regarding the authorities‟
34

performance. 25% of respondents thought the authorities did communicate with genuine
compassion, concern and empathy. 75% of respondents thought Sanlu Group didn‟t
communicate with genuine compassion, concern and empathy. 18.75% of respondents
were indifferent on the subject for Sanlu Group. 6.25% of respondents thought Sanlu
Group did communicate with genuine compassion, concern and empathy.
These results can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg recall, a
large percentage of the respondents could not decide whether the crisis communication
was conducted with genuine compassion, concern and empathy. For the 2008 Chinese
milk scandal, respondents considered neither the authorities nor Sanlu group was
effective at expressing genuine compassion, concern and empathy in crisis
communication. In this respect, however, Sanlu Group‟s performance was perceived to
be worse than the authorities‟.

Provide Messages of Self-efficacy

Figure 9.1: Effectiveness in Providing Messages of Self-efficacy during the 2010
American Egg Recall

35

Figure 9.2: Effectiveness in Providing Messages of Self- efficacy during the 2008
Chinese Milk Scandal

As Figure 9.1 shows, 18.75% of respondents thought the authorities did a “bad”
or “very bad” job at providing messages of self-efficacy during the 2010 American egg
recall. 43.75% of respondents thought the authorities did a “neither good nor bad” job,
and 37.5% of respondents thought the authorities did a “good” or “very good” job in this
respect. Figure 9.1 also shows that 25% of respondents thought the corporations did a
“bad” or “very bad” job at providing messages of self-efficacy during the 2010 American
egg recall. 37.5% of respondents thought the corporations did a “neither good nor bad”
job, and 37.5% of respondents thought the corporations did a “good” or “very good” job.
Figure 9.2 indicates that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 50% of
respondents believed the authorities did a “bad” or “very bad” job at providing messages
of self-efficacy. 31.25% of respondents believed the authorities did a “neither good nor
bad” job, and 18.75% of respondents thought the authorities did a “good” job in this
respect. 56.25% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “bad” or “very bad” job at
providing messages of self-efficacy. 37.5% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a
36

“neither good nor bad” job, and 6.25% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “good”
or “very good” job in this respect.
These results can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg recall, the
respondents considered the authorities and corporations were effective at providing self-
efficacy messages. For 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal, neither the authorities nor Sanlu
group were perceived as effectively providing messages of self-efficacy. Sanlu Group‟s
performance in this respect was worse than the authorities‟.

Continuously Evaluate and Update Plans

Figure 10.1: Effectiveness in Continuously Evaluating and Updating Plans during the
2010 American Egg Recall

37

Figure 10.2: Effectiveness in Continuously Evaluating and Updating Plans during the
2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

Figure 10.1 shows that 18.75% of respondents thought that both the authorities
and corporations did a “bad” or “very bad” job at continuously evaluating and updating
plans during the 2010 American egg recall. 43.75% of respondents thought both the
authorities and the corporations did a “neither good nor bad” job, and 37.5% of
respondents thought both the authorities and the corporations did a “good” or “very good”
job in this respect.
As figure 10.2 indicates, during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 43.75% of
respondents believed the authorities did a “bad” or “very bad” job at continuously
evaluating and updating plans. 37.5% of respondents believed the authorities did a
“neither good nor bad” job, and 18.75% thought the authorities did a “good” or “very
good” job in this respect. 62.5% of respondents thought Sanlu Group did a “bad” or “very
bad” job at continuously evaluating and updating plans. 31.25% of respondents thought
38

Sanlu Group did a “neither good nor bad” job, and 6.25% thought Sanlu Group did a
“good” or “very good” job in this respect.
The results can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg recall, a
large percentage of the audience could not decide whether the crisis communication plan
was continuously evaluated and updated. However, a significant percentage of people
believed the crisis communication was effective in this respect. For the 2008 Chinese
milk scandal, neither the authorities nor Sanlu group were perceived as effective at
continuously evaluating and updating plans. Sanlu Group‟s performance was perceived
as worse than the authorities‟ in this respect.

Overall Assessment of the Two Cases

Figure 11.1: Overall Assessment of Public Relations Practices during the 2010 American
Egg Recall

39

Figure 11.2: Overall Assessment of Public Relations Practices during the 2008 Chinese
Milk Scandal

Figure 11.1 shows that 30.76% of respondents think the public relations practices
during the 2010 American egg recall were “good” or “very good”. 30.77% of respondents
think public relations practices were “neither good nor bad,” and 38.46% think the public
relations practices were “good” or “very good”. Figure 11.2 indicates that during 2008
Chinese Milk Scandal, 87.5% of respondents believe the public relations practices were
“bad” or “very bad,” 6.25% believe the public relations practices during the 2008
outbreak were “neither good nor bad,” and 6.25% think the public relations practices
were “good” or “very good”.
These results can be interpreted as follows: for the 2010 American egg recall,
respondents have varied assessments of the crisis management. A significant percentage
of respondents cannot rate the overall effectiveness of the public relations practices
40

during the 2010 outbreak. However, more respondents thought the crisis management
was effective than thought it was ineffective. During the 2008 Chinese milk scandal,
most of the people believe that the public relations practices were ineffective and that the
crisis management failed.

Four Stages of Issue Management

Table 1: Effectiveness during the Four Stages of Issue Management: 2010 American Egg
Recall
2010 American Egg Recall
Adequate Inadequate
Origin
Authorities 38.46% 61.54%
Corporate 38.46% 61.54%
Mediation/amplification
Authorities 61.54% 38.46%
Corporate 53.85% 46.15%
Organization
Authorities 46.15% 53.85%
Corporate 46.15% 53.85%
Resolution
Authorities 53.85% 46.15%
Corporate 53.85% 46.15%

Table 2: Effectiveness during the Four Stages of Issue Management: 2008 Chinese Milk
Scandal
2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Adequate Inadequate
Origin
Authorities 6.25% 93.75%
Sanlu 6.25% 93.75%
Mediation/amplification
Authorities 25.00% 75.00%
Sanlu 12.50% 87.50%
Organization
Authorities 25.00% 75.00%
Sanlu 25.00% 75.00%
41

Table 2, continued
Resolution
Authorities 43.75% 56.25%
Sanlu 50.00% 50.00%

According to the theory of issue management, and as shown in Figure 1, during
the 2010 American egg recall, respondents viewed the crisis communication during the
stages of mediation/amplification and resolution as effective. Respondents viewed crisis
communication during origin and resolution stages as ineffective. The perceived
effectiveness of the authorities‟ efforts and the effectiveness of the corporations‟ efforts
were similar.
According to the theory of issue management, and as shown in Figure 2, during
the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, respondents believed crisis communication failed in the
origin stage, the mediation/amplification stage and the stage of organization. Respondents
hold varied attitudes regarding the effectiveness of crisis communication during the
resolution stage. Roughly half of the respondents believe that the authorities‟ crisis
communication was effective during the resolution stage, with the remaining half believe
that the authorities‟ crisis communication was ineffective. Also, roughly half of the
respondents believe that Sanlu Group‟ crisis communication was effective during the
resolution stage, with the remaining half believe that Sanlu Group‟ crisis communication
was ineffective. Respondents also perceived Sanlu Group to be slightly more effective
than the authorities during the resolution stage.

42

Third-party Organizations

Figure 12.1: Number of Third-party Organizations/associations Serving as Food Safety
Watchdogs in the U.S.

Figure 12.2: Number of Third-party Organizations/associations Serving as Food Safety
Watchdogs in China

Figure 12.1 shows that 23.08% of respondents think there is no effective watch
dog for food safety in U.S.; 30.77% of respondents think there are few; 30.77% of them
think there are some; and 15.38% of them think there are many. Figure 12.2 shows that
68.75% of respondents believe there is no effective watch dog for food safety in China.
43

31.25% of respondents think there are few such watchdogs; and none of them think there
are some or many such organizations.
The results can be translated into the following insights: respondents believe there
are some third-party organizations/associations serving as watchdogs to secure the food
safety in the United States. Respondents think there are few third-party
organizations/associations serving as watchdogs to secure food safety in China.

PR Practitioner Being Ethical

Figure 13.1: Perceived Percentage of PR Practitioners‟ Being Ethical during the Crisis:
the 2010 American Egg Recall

Figure 13.2: Perceived Percentage of PR Practitioners‟ Being Ethical during the Crisis:
the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal

44

Figure13.1 shows that during the 2010 American egg recall, none of the
respondents think the public relations practitioners were being less than 20% ethical;
38.46% of them think public relations practitioners were being 20% to 50% ethical; 38.46%
of them think public relations practitioners were being 50% to 80% ethical; and 23.08%
of them think public relations practitioners were being more than 80% ethical.
Figure13.2 shows that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, 25% of respondents
think public relations practitioners were being less than 20% ethical; 56.25% think public
relations practitioners were being 20% to 50% ethical; 18.75% think public relations
practitioners were being 50% to 80% ethical; and none of the respondents think public
relations practitioners were being more than 80% ethical.
The results can be interpreted as follows: respondents believe public relations
practitioners behaved ethically during the 2010 American egg recall crisis. Most
respondents don‟t believe public relations practitioners behaved ethically during the 2008
Chinese milk scandal.

45

Chapter Four: Discussion

The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of PR practices during
the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and the 2010 American egg recall, explore the
fundamental reasons behind the different crisis communications approaches in the two
cases, and finally, to give solid recommendations on how to deal with similar incidents
and what PR practitioners in both countries can learn from each other‟s experience. This
section discusses the results of the surveys based on the 10 best practices in risk and crisis
communication, the theory of issue management and the professional responsibility
theory of public relations ethics. Key findings from the individual interviews are also
applied to the analysis of the different practices in crisis management in the two cases. In
addition, the discussion identifies factors originating from political, economic, structural
and cultural differences between the U.S and China that may lead to different approaches
to crisis communication on food safety issues.

Analysis Based on the 10 Best Practices of Risk and Crisis Communication

Pre-crisis planning
According to the survey, most people hold a neutral attitude towards the pre-crisis
planning for 2010 American Egg Recall. One possible reason why respondents didn‟t
give a definite answer is that they don‟t have access to relevant information on the
subject. For the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, the results suggest a perceived inefficiency in
pre-crisis planning.
46

Given that the respondents for the 2008 Chinese milk scandal survey may not
have information on the subject, the study used individual interviews to explore how
respondents can offer definite answers while lacking detailed factual information. The
results indicate that because respondents believe the actual crisis management during the
2008 Chinese milk scandal was ineffective, they also perceive the pre-crisis planning
before the outbreak as ineffective. Two respondents commented that they do not believe
there could have been effective pre-crisis planning, since the subsequent crisis
management is ineffective.
There are several limitations in assessing pre-crisis planning in both cases, based
on audience opinions; as explained above, pre-crisis planning is essential to effective
crisis management. Pre-crisis planning provides a clear chain of command and
communication in advance of a crisis (Drinkwine, 2010). Pre-crisis planning also
functions as a reminder of potential problems (Seeger, 2006). According to the results of
the individual interviews, public relations practitioners need to improve their ability of
pre-crisis planning to enhance the overall effectiveness of crisis management in China.
The study also shows that respondents want to know the specific actions an organization
takes for pre-crisis planning; respondents feel it helps to build trust with the organization.
This finding can also be applied to the 2010 American egg recall, encouraging
corporations to update key audiences with their actions.
Collaborate and Coordinate with Credible Sources
The survey results suggest that neither the authorities nor corporations
collaborated and coordinated effectively with credible sources during the 2010 American
47

egg recall. There is little evidence of either the authorities or corporations seeking to
collaborate with credible sources during the crisis. The only such action that can be
identified is that of medical experts who announced they believe the source of the
Salmonella outbreak was chicken feed and feed ingredients (Iannelli, 2010).
The survey also shows that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, Sanlu Group
didn‟t work with credible sources. The authorities‟ actions showed more effectiveness in
this respect. According to the timeline of the crisis, authorities had worked with public
health experts in several stages of crisis management, such as investigation of the
problem, updating crisis situations, sending out messages of self-efficiency and creating
future plans after crisis (Sun, 2008). Records of the individual interviews reveal that
respondents remember public health experts‟ participation in the crisis management of
the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. Respondents believe that public health experts‟ opinions
added credibility to the authorities‟ actions and messages. Subject-area experts and
similar credible sources can enhance the consistency of the message, which is an
important benchmark of effective crisis communications (Seeger, 2006).
Therefore, public relations practitioners in the U.S. and those working for Chinese
corporations should actively seek to collaborate and coordinate with credible sources;
these kinds of strategic partnerships should be developed before a crisis occurs so that
they can function well when needed (Seeger, 2006).
Accept Uncertainty and Ambiguity
According to the survey results, public relations practitioners didn‟t acknowledge
the uncertainty and ambiguity during either crisis. The survey results indicate that the
48

2008 Chinese milk scandal was perceived as worse than the 2010 American egg recall in
this respect. Records show that at the beginning of the outbreak, on September 11, 2008,
Sanlu refused to acknowledge the problem and argued that its products met the standards
of General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of China
(Sun, 2008). The company then performed an about-face and carried out national recalls
when the Chinese Ministry of Health confirmed that Sanlu‟s baby formula caused infant
kidney stones (Sun, 2008).
In follow-up interviews, the study revealed that people expect complete and
accurate information in crisis situations. Any uncertainty will raise the level of anxiety
and concerns. When spokespeople are certain and reassuring, yet their messages are
found to be contrary to the facts, those spokespeople will lose credibility among the
audience. Contrastingly, people seem more tolerant towards those who acknowledge the
uncertainty and ambiguity of incidents in the first place. This strategy allows the
organization to refine its messages and prevent future accusation for offering inaccurate
statements, as more information becomes available (Ulmer & Sellnow, 2000).
Form Partnerships with the Public
Partnering with the public requires organizations to adopt a dialogic approach to
inform the public of the current situation, warn them about the risks, and accept their
concerns as legitimate. The surveys revealed that the respondents were satisfied with the
attempts to partner with the public during the 2010 American egg recall.
Conversely, people were not convinced of the effectiveness of efforts to partner
with the public during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. Sanlu received complaints as
49

early as March 2008, alleging that its baby formula caused infant health problems. Upon
investigation in August, 2008, Sanlu identified melamine contamination in its products.
The company remained silent however, and kept the problem secret until the Ministry of
Health confirmed that Sanlu was responsible for several cases of infant kidney stones
(Sun, 2008).
The individual interviews show respondents‟ feelings of distrust and anger
towards Sanlu because the company withheld information from the public despite being
aware of the problem. Respondents don‟t believe the company intended to partner with
the public. Rather, respondents felt that Sanlu‟s actions were meant to prevent dialogue
with the public and can be interpreted as distrust towards the public. Respondents also
argue that the public cannot build a partnership with the company in the absence of trust.
To increase credibility during crisis communication, organizations should view the public
as a resource rather than a burden (Seeger, 2006).
Listen to Public Concerns and Understand the Audience.
According to the survey, people hold different opinions about public relations
practitioners‟ effectiveness at listening to public concerns and understanding the audience
during the 2010 American egg recall. In the follow-up interviews, respondents indicate
that they were impressed with the use of social media platforms during the outbreak, to
solicit the public‟s concerns and respond to them. The survey also shows that people hold
varied opinions about the authorities‟ efforts to listen to public concerns and understand
their audience during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. During the crisis, top Chinese
officials including Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, visited hospitals and communities in
50

Beijing to see the infants sickened by tainted milk powder, asking families about their
concerns and feelings (Xinhua News, 2008).
More specifically, the survey also showed that Sanlu was thought to be ineffective
at listening to public concerns and understanding their audience. Individual interview
respondents indicated that Sanlu neither encouraged dialogue with the public nor made
efforts to understand their concerns. Instead, Sanlu‟s actions before and during crisis
were focused on covering up the problem for as long as possible.
Seeger (2006) however, suggests that listening to the concerns of the public and
responding accordingly helps create a dialogue, which is essential to effective crisis
communication. Finally, the study revealed that using social media platforms - as was
done during the 2010 American egg recall - is a positive example that can and should be
used to understand public concerns during future food safety crises.
Be Open and Honest
The survey shows that the authorities and the corporations were generally open
and honest with the public during the 2010 American egg recall. The results also indicate
that neither the authorities nor Sanlu was open and honest during the 2008 Chinese milk
scandal. Sanlu fared worse than the Chinese authorities. Records show that after
receiving complaints, Sanlu conducted an investigation in August, 2008 but keep the
results secret. Despite being aware of the problem, the company initially denied
allegations connecting Sanlu with tainted baby formula, bought off critics and covered up
the contamination (Fan, 2008).
51

Chinese authorities were also far from open and honest in managing the crisis.
After the scandal broke out, the authorities suppressed negative media coverage to ensure
a perfect Olympic Games (Macartney & Yu, 2008). In July, 2008 a journalist from
Southern Weekend, a major Chinese newspaper, began investigating a report about
infants who had fallen ill after consuming Sanlu‟s milk powder. The report was never
published. It was only after the story came to light six weeks later that one of the
newspaper's top editors, Fu Jianfeng, revealed on his personal blog that this report had
been suppressed by the authorities (Bandurski, 2008).
In the individual interviews, the study revealed that respondents think the Chinese
authorities and Sanlu never intended to be open and honest. Respondents say that the
company and officials lost credibility in the early stages of the crisis because they chose
to withhold information as a primary method to reduce the negative impact of the crisis, a
tactic that made the public feel cheated.
Meet the Needs of the Media and Remain Accessible.
According to the survey, American authorities and corporations met the needs of
the media in the 2010 American egg recall. As regards the 2008 Chinese milk scandal,
both the Chinese authorities and Sanlu are perceived to have failed to stay accessible and
satisfy the needs of the media. In the individual interviews, respondents indicated that
authorities‟ failure to feed information to the media lies in the early stage of the crisis.
They say that Chinese authorities focused their efforts on minimizing the outbreak‟s
impact, and they tried to suppress negative media coverage of the issue to control
message.
52

The respondents also commented that the Chinese authorities tried to ensure a
favorable environment for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games by influencing media
coverage related to the issue. In August, 2008, Sanlu was honored by many Chinese
national media outlets in an award campaign called "30 Years: Brands that Have
Changed the Lives of Chinese." (Bandurski, 2008). A senior public relations manager at
Sanlu wrote a press release acknowledging the honor ,that was put on the web site of the
official People's Daily (Bandurski, 2008). The respondents from the individual
interviews perceive Sanlu‟s attitude towards the media to be an extremely inaccessible
and uncooperative one. Scores of blogs posted a memo dated 11 August 2008, indicating
that a Beijing-based public relations agency, Teller International, advised Sanlu to seek
cooperation with Baidu - the largest search engine in China - to censor negative
information. Teller International had repeatedly contacted key account staff at Baidu and
proposed a ¥ 3 million (US$440,000) budget to screen all negative news (Fauna, 2008).
The study revealed that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, the authorities‟ and
Sanlu‟s ineffectiveness with regards to providing information to the media involved not
just being inaccessible, but also making a conscious effort to suppress the flow of
information from other sources..
Communicate with Compassion, Concern, and Empathy.
The survey shows that people hold varied opinions on whether public relations
practitioners communicated with compassion, concern and empathy during the 2010
American egg recall. Around half of the respondents indicate that the efforts made in this
respect were neither good nor bad. In the follow-up interviews, respondents say that they
53

were satisfied with the authorities‟ and corporations‟ efforts to communicate with
compassion, concern and empathy because they feel the frequent updates on facts and
messages of self-efficacy display genuine compassion and concern for the public.
The survey also revealed that people think that during the 2008 Chinese milk
scandal, neither Sanlu nor the authorities communicated with genuine compassion,
concern and empathy.
There are records however, indicating several occasions during the crisis when
spokespersons for the Chinese authorities and Sanlu delivered message expressing their
concern and empathy for the victims and affected family members. After the scandal
broke, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao visited hospitals and communities in Beijing on
September 21, 2008 to see the infants sickened by tainted milk powder. He comforted
those victims and apologized to their families on behalf of the Chinese government for
errors in governmental supervision of the milk sources, quality and marketing
administration (Du, 2008). On September 22, 2008 Wen said he felt "extremely guilty"
about the poisoned milk products that had killed four babies and sickened tens of
thousands, adding, "I sincerely apologize to all of you" (Elegant, 2008). Similarly,
Sanlu‟s vice president Zhang Zhenling, read a letter of apology at a news briefing on
September 15, 2008 in Shijiazhuang (capital of Hebei Province), where the corporation is
based (China Daily, 2008).
The individual interviews revealed that people think these apologies, received
after information was withheld and the truth was initially covered up, don‟t seem credible;
54

interview respondents noted that the public could only feel a corporations‟ genuine
compassion if the company is open and honest from the beginning.
Provide Messages of Self-Efficacy.
The survey shows that both the authorities and corporations were effective at
providing messages of self-efficacy during the 2010 American egg recall. In the follow-
up interviews, respondents said they were impressed by the use of social media platforms
during the crisis to update facts and provide guidance on how to prevent or reduce harm.
The American Egg Board, the principle industry U.S. body for the egg industry,
responded to the crisis by directing traffic to its new egg safety site, which offered tips
and announcements on how to choose egg products and prevent harm. The egg safety site
was linked to the Egg Board‟s social media pages, such as a Facebook page and Twitter
feed, which also provided frequently updated messages of self-efficacy for the public
(Skepys, 2010). The individual interview respondents say that this kind of information
was quite effective at restoring some control over the uncertain situation.
As the crisis moved on, rather than complaints, the most popular conversations on
the American Egg Board‟s social media pages were those encouraging the purchase of
local eggs (Skepys, 2010).
The survey shows that during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, Sanlu and the
authorities were ineffective at providing messages of self-efficacy. In the follow-up
interviews, respondents noted that Sanlu and the Chinese authorities did not provide
much information on how to prevent or reduce harm caused by the tainted milk. On the
contrary, respondents noted that the authorities‟ censorship of outbound information and
55

Sanlu‟s decision to withhold information limited the public‟s chance to improve self-
efficacy.
Continuously Evaluate and Update Plan
The survey shows that around half of the respondents feel that during the 2010
American egg recall, the authorities‟ and corporations‟ efforts to continuously evaluate
and update plans were neither good nor bad. More than a third of the respondents
indicate that public relations practitioners‟ efforts to continuously evaluate and update
plans during the crisis were effective. The survey also revealed that during the 2008
Chinese milk scandal, respondents felt that Sanlu and the authorities were ineffective in
this respect.
In order to ensure a favorable environment for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games,
Chinese authorities created an action plan focused on “social stability,” in which negative
information such as food safety concerns were deemed sensitive topics during the period
(Liu, 2008). When the crisis broke out, the authorities did not adjust their action plan
based on the new dynamic but rather, stuck to the original plan to censor the media.
During the individual interviews, respondents said they don‟t believe Sanlu had a
reasonable crisis plan in advance, since Sanlu‟s initial response to the outbreak was to
simply withhold information and cover up the truth. Respondents note that even if Sanlu
had a crisis plan before the outbreak, the firm‟s actions were totally ineffective, adding to
the public‟s anger and making the situation worse.

56

Analysis Based on the Four Stages of Issue Management

For the 2010 American egg recall, public relations practices in the origin stage
were inadequate. The problems began to show in April, 2010 when Salmonella cases
increased in several states and led to 26 outbreaks (Iannelli, 2010). However, the public
was not adequately informed about the issue and its cause or potential impact. As the
problem moved to the mediation/amplification stage, the authorities‟ and the corporations‟
actions became more effective.
On August 13, 2010, Wright County Egg, an egg producer in Iowa, announced a
recall of 228 million eggs, found to be tainted with Salmonella (Iannelli, 2010). Soon
afterwards, on August 18, 2010, another large egg producer, Hillandale Farms, added
itself to the egg recall. Meanwhile, Wright County Egg expanded its recall lists and
several egg distributors notified the public that their eggs were produced by Wright
County Egg. In this stage, people felt that producers and distributors swiftly responded to
the growing concerns and took adequate actions to respond to it. Furthermore, the
voluntary recalls and proactive communication reduced the risks of harm to consumers.
In the organization stage, scores of egg distributors were added to the recall lists.
Geographically, more states were added to the area listed as affected by the outbreak. The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and
several industry bodies conducted investigations, issued announcements, and sent out
messages to guide the public on how to prevent/combat harm caused by the tainted eggs.
57

While people were generally satisfied with the public relations during this period,
there is still some space for improvement. The study, for example, found that the public
expects more direct dialogue during crisis communication with the authorities and
corporations, through which they can get answers to the questions they care about. The
public also expect emotional consolation from both the authorities and the corporations,
consolation that should be evident in all messages.
Public relations practices during the resolution stage were perceived as inadequate.
Respondents felt they were only told that the problem was minimized and most of the
threats were removed. The two main sources of the outbreak, Wright County Egg and
Hillandale Farms, were allowed to sell eggs again by November 2010 (Iannelli, 2010).
However, people still pointed out the lack of clear information on the cause of the
issue as well as the absence of a future plan to ensure the products‟ quality, which is very
crucial for consumers to rebuild trust in the industry.
Based on analysis according to the four stages of issue lifecycle, the study
concludes that crisis management during the 2010 American egg recall was perceived as
generally effective. One essential element of effective issue management is early research
and early action (Michael & Judy, 2005). Early research and action were on display in the
crisis management of the 2010 American egg recall. Through research on the lifecycle of
the crisis, the study found that the authorities and corporations responded quickly to the
issue, such that the major stages of mediation/amplification and organization lasted for
only one month.
58

For the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, the perceived effectiveness of public relations
practices in the stages of origin, mediation/amplification, and organization, were all low.
People were found to hold varied attitudes towards the effectiveness of crisis
communication during the resolution stage. The origin stage of the crisis began when
Sanlu received consumers‟ complaints in March, 2008 regarding its tainted products; the
number of complaints kept increasing over the following four months (Sun, 2008). In this
period, Sanlu neither conducted research nor took any action on the issue. Chinese
authorities were not notified about the issue.
This is in contrast to Michael & Judy‟s (2005) assertion that constant scanning
early identification of potential issues is important for corporate planning.
The mediation/amplification stage of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal began in July,
2008 when outbreaks caused by Sanlu‟s products were exposed by the media. Sanlu
carried out secret investigations and identified the problem in August, 2008. The
company however, remained silent and did not warn consumers of the danger (Sun,
2008). At the same time, the Chinese authorities censored media coverage to ensure a
favorable environment for 2008 Olympic Games; media censorship involved strict limits
on negative coverage regarding food safety issues. Overall significant information and
facts on the issue were withheld by the public relations practices of the Chinese
authorities and Sanlu.
According to the theory of issue management, during the mediation/amplification
stage it is still relatively easy for an organization to intervene and play a proactive role in
preventing a situation from becoming worse (Michael & Judy, 2005). Sanlu however,
59

chose to simply withhold information in this stage so that it missed the opportunity to
prohibit the issue from developing into a crisis.
The organization stage of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal began on September 8,
2008 when two major Chinese media outlets exposed that Sanlu‟s baby formula had
caused kidney stones in at least fourteen infants. At this stage, Sanlu initially denied the
allegation but were forced to accept it when the Ministry of Health confirmed the reports.
Sanlu then carried out national recalls and apologized to the public on television.
Authorities meanwhile, conducted an investigation into Sanlu and the industry. Top
government officials also apologized to the public. Most people however, viewed these
efforts as ineffective. Respondents to the survey and the individual interviews indicated
that the public did not sense genuine compassion and concerns in either side‟s public
relations practices and had even lost trust in the organization before this stage. According
to the theory of issue management, when an issue has matured to the stage of
organization, it becomes very difficult to affect (Michael & Judy, 2005).
People also hold varied opinions on the effectiveness of public relations during
the resolution stage of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. According to the theory of issue
management, at this stage, the issue has run the full course of its lifecycle and reaches a
height that will force the authority to adjust policies (Michael & Judy, 2005). At this
stage, the Chinese authorities carried out careful investigations. The authorities also
designed future plans that include stricter inspection rules and regulations to prevent
similar incidents in the future (Sun, 2008).
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Based on analysis according to the four stages of issue lifecycle, the study
concludes that crisis management during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal was generally
perceived as ineffective. The theory of issue management emphasizes the importance of
early action in a crisis (Michael & Judy, 2005). Sanlu did not take early action or conduct
early research, and only finally accepted the problem when the issue matured into a crisis.
As such, Sanlu missed the opportunity to prevent more potential harms.

Analysis Based on Professional Responsibility and Public Relations Ethics

According to the survey and the individual interviews, the study found that public
relations practitioners were thought to have behaved ethically during the crisis
management of the 2010 American egg recall. The voluntary recalls that immediately
followed the identification of the problem displayed the organizations‟ sense of
responsibility towards consumers. On August 13, 2010, Wright County Egg voluntarily
announced a recall of 228 million eggs (Iannelli, 2010). Soon afterwards, another
producer and scores of distributors were added to the recall lists. For consumers unaware
of the problem at the time, the industry exposed the situation themselves, and warned
consumers of the risks through the action of recalls.
The authorities and the corporations used different communication platforms to
send out messages and update facts and information on the crisis. People felt that both the
authorities and the corporations effectively provided guidance to the audience on how to
prevent harm, minimize risk and choose safe products. The authorities and corporations
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leveraged social media platforms to encourage dialogue with the public, solicit concerns
and respond to them. The study found that public relations practitioners displayed an
attitude of openness and honesty.
According to the survey and the individual interviews, the study found that most
people feel public relations practitioners didn‟t behave ethically during the crisis
management of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. Sanlu‟s initial response to the tainted
products was to withhold information for as long as possible, so as to prevent the
negative impact from expanding. In choosing the that strategy, public relations
practitioners took the benefit of the organization they serve as their top priority and
decided that free conversations and dialogue about the issue may cause additional harm
to the organization. The public relations practitioners, in this case, did not fully
understand the chosen strategy‟s impact on the consumers, who are also stakeholders in
the organization. In August 2008 the public relations agency Teller International, advised
Sanlu to seek cooperation with Baidu - the largest search engine in China - to censor
negative information and had proposed a ¥ 3 million (US$440,000) budget for Baidu to
screen all negative news (Fauna, 2008). When the Teller International memo detailing the
proposal to bribe Baidu was exposed online and circulated by blogs, public anger peaked.
Sanlu lost credibility with all consumers and suffered more severe consequences due to
their unethical actions.
According to the professional responsibility theory of public relations ethics, PR
professionals should balance their priority of serving the organization with their
obligations to serve the public interest (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001). PR professionals
62

meanwhile, are responsible for ensuring their client organizations‟ awareness of
stakeholders‟ interests (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001). Several public relations practices
during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal indicate that public relation professionals designed
their action plan mainly with the benefits of their client organizations in mind and at the
price of damage to public health. The study revealed that Sanlu‟s public relations
practices showed few signs of attempting to balance their interests with those of the
public.
Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001) proposed three principles for public relations
practitioners to follow when faced with moral dilemmas, in situations when conflicts
occur between client loyalty and responsibilities to the public. “First, the comparison of
harms and benefits: harms should be avoided or, at least, minimized, and benefits
promoted at the least possible cost in terms of harms” (p. 207). During the 2008 Chinese
milk scandal, public relations practitioners focused their actions on securing the benefits
of their client organizations but took inadequate steps to avoid harm to the public.
“Second, respect for persons: persons should be treated with respect and dignity”
(p. 207). Sanlu withheld key information that could have protected more infants from
being poisoned. Withholding information was disrespectful to the affected infants and
their families.
“Third, distributive justice: the benefits and burdens of any action or policy
should be distributed as fairly as possible” (p. 207). Sanlu‟s action plan was unbalanced;
most of the benefits went to the corporation and most of the burdens fell on consumers.
63

The study concludes that public relations practices during the 2008 Chinese milk
scandal were generally not perceived as ethical. The study recommends the application of
the three principles proposed by Fitzpatrick and Gauthier to resolve similar dilemmas for
public relations practitioners in the future.

Analysis Based on U.S-China Differences

Political difference between the U.S. and China that lead to different public relations
strategies in food safety issues
The study examined the relationship between the government and the press to
search for reasons that may have resulted in different public relations strategies on food
safety issues in both countries. Freedom of the press in the United States is protected by
the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. This clause is generally
understood to prohibit government interference with the printing and distribution of
information and/or opinion. The press can therefore function as an informer, providing
key facts to the public, act as a channel for organizations to push messages out, and serve
as a platform for public relations practitioners to communicate with their audiences.
During the 2010 American egg recall, both online media and traditional media effectively
joined the crisis communication process and helped minimize harm.
There is a comparatively lower level of freedom of the press in China, as
showcased by the public relations practices of the Chinese authorities during the 2008
Chinese milk scandal; On occasion, the government intervened and censored media
64

coverage of the milk scandal. The censorship weakened the media‟s function of feeding
necessary information to the public and preventing the harms that were caused by the
tainted products. In general, the comparatively lower level of freedom of the Chinese
press reduced the effectiveness of public relations practices in food safety.
Economic differences between the U.S. and China that lead to different public relations
strategies in food safety issues
The study examined the economic uniqueness of large Chinese corporations and
how that results in different approaches to public relations on food safety issues in China
and the United States. In contrast to the United Sates, many large companies in China -
including Sanlu - are state-owned. Before the scandal broke, Tian Wenhua, chairman of
Sanlu, was named deputy chairman of the China Dairy Industry Association, and elected
to the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.
Tian‟s prominent position in government, and the government‟s significant influence
over the media made it more difficult for the media and third-party organizations to
investigate or expose the problem. Under the circumstances, the authorities‟ and Sanlu‟s
public relations practices might also be significantly influenced by the government‟s
guideline, which was to reduce negative conversations to ensure a perfect Olympic
Games.
Structural differences between the U.S. and China that leads to differing public relations
strategies in food safety issues
In order to identify reasons for the differences in public relations strategies on
food safety issues in both countries, the study examined the number and effectiveness of
65

third-party organizations that serve as watchdogs. According to the survey and the
individual interviews, most respondents believe there are several third-party
organizations in United States that function effectively and independently to ensure the
quality and safety of food. During the individual interviews, most people were able to
name one or two such organizations in under a minute. During the 2010 American egg
recall, the egg industry principle body - American Egg Board - was a good example of
how to serve as an informer as well as an industrial watch dog, helping the public combat
the crisis.
According to the survey and individual interviews, the study revealed that there
are few independent third-party organizations in China serving as industrial watchdogs to
ensure food safety. One effect of this situation is an unsophisticated consumer base
characterized by price sensitivity, acceptance of poor quality, and widespread faking of
products (Enderwick, 2009). Public relations practitioners need organizations that can
provide information to consumers, offer valuable insights on the situation and also, the
chance to test key messages.
Cultural differences between the U.S and China that lead to different public relations
strategies in food safety issues
The study examined the cultural uniqueness of the Chinese business environment
and how it may result in different public relations approaches to food safety issues in
both countries. The Chinese business system is relationship-based. „Guanxi‟ relations ask
business owners to build good relationships with suppliers, distributors and government
officials at all levels to survive (Enderwick, 2009). Another characteristic of the
66

relationship-based business system is that the outcomes of transactions are governed by
tacit and implicit conditions instead of codification (Enderwick, 2009). In order to secure
stable supplies from very widely dispersed collection sites, business owners must
maintain strong relations with government officials at all levels given the pervasiveness
of regional protection (Enderwick, 2009).
Sanlu, as a dairy company, needs a stable supply of milk. According to „guanxi‟
rules, Sanlu must build good relationships with milk suppliers, distributers and
government officials at all levels within its supply chain. When faced with the tainted
milk scandal, Sanlu affected its crisis management plan in accordance with the need to
maintain good relationship with all necessary parties, meaning that every action
undertaken and message released by Sanlu must benefit all of the aforementioned parties.
When there is conflict between the benefit of the public and the benefit of one‟s supply
chain stakeholders, the resulting action plan can sacrifice the public‟s wellbeing.

67

Conclusion

The findings of the current study examined the effectiveness of PR practices
during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and the 2010 American egg recall. The study
discussed the four stages of issue management, public relation ethics in crisis situations,
and some fundamental reasons for the different public relation plans in the two cases.
This chapter seeks to summarize the findings from the angle of public relations, and also
propose ways in which public relation professionals in the United States and China can
better deal with food safety crisis.
In general, public relations practices during crisis management of the 2010
American egg recall were perceived as effective. Public relations practices during crisis
management of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal were perceived as ineffective. Based on
the 10 best practices in risk and crisis communication, assessment of public relations
practices during the two cases can be summarized as follows:
Table 3: Assessment of Public Relations Practices during the 2010 American Egg Recall
and the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal
Egg Recall Milk Scandal
Pre-event planning N/A Ineffective
Collaborate and Coordinate with Credible Sources Ineffective Ineffective
Accept Uncertainty and Ambiguity Ineffective Ineffective
Form Partnerships with the Public Effective Ineffective
Listen to Public Concerns and Understand the Audience Effective Ineffective
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Table 3, continued

Be Open and Honest Effective Ineffective
Meet the Needs of the Media and Remain Accessible Effective Ineffective
Communicate with Compassion, Concern, and Empathy Effective Ineffective
Provide Messages of Self-Efficacy Effective Ineffective
Continuously Evaluate and Update Plan Effective Ineffective

Crisis management of the 2010 American egg recall was perceived as effective
based on analysis according to the four stages of issue lifecycle. The authorities and the
corporations responded and acted very fast to engage the crisis and the major span of the
stages of mediation/amplification and organization only lasted for one month. The study
also concludes that crisis management during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal was
perceived as ineffective based on analysis according to the four stages of issue lifecycle.
Sanlu only accepted the problem after the issue had matured into a crisis, causing it to
miss the opportunity to prevent additional harm. Thus, for future reference, it is
recommended that firms perform early research and take early action in the stages of
origin and mediation/amplification.
According to the survey and the individual interviews, public relations
practitioners were perceived to have behaved ethically during crisis management of the
2010 American egg recall. The study revealed that most people feel public relations
practitioners did not behave ethically during crisis management of the 2008 Chinese milk
69

scandal. The main cause of this viewpoint is Sanlu‟s decision to withhold information
and attempt to bribe Baidu to screen related negative entries.
The study proposes the following suggestions for public relations practitioners
when faced with moral dilemmas and conflicts between loyalty and responsibilities to the
public: seek a balance between the priority of serving the client organization and the
obligations of satisfying the public interest. Follow the three principles proposed by
Fitzpatrick and Gauthier (2001)
First, the comparison of harms and benefits: harms should be avoided or, at least,
minimized, and benefits promoted at the least possible cost in terms of harms;
second, respect for persons: persons should be treated with respect and dignity;
third, distributive justice: the benefits and burdens of any action or policy should
be distributed as fairly as possible (Fitzpatrick & Gauthier, 2001, p. 207)

Finally, through examination of the differences in politics, economics, structure
and culture in both countries, the study concluded that future research on public relations
regarding food safety issues in China should include situational analysis of the
relationship between the government and the press, ownership of the firm in question, the
presence of third-party industrial entities, and the uniquely Chinese relationship-based
business model. Freedom of the press and third-party industry entities are two additional
factors that contribute to effective public relations practices on food safety issues in
China.

70

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Appendix: the 2010 American Egg Recall Survey

My name is Chang Shu and I am a master student in the Strategic Public Relation
Program of USC Annenberg School. As part of my thesis research I am looking at public
opinions on crisis management of the 2010 Egg Recall. You are invited to complete the
following survey. The average time to take the survey is approximately 7 minutes and all
responses will be confidential with the results only being displayed in summary. Thank
you very much for your consideration of this study.
Q1. To the best of your knowledge, how well have the authorities and the corporations
done the pre-crisis planning(2010 Egg Recall), in terms of monitoring potential problems,
clarifying responsibilities & decision-making structures and identifying how information
will be communicated?
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

Q2. To the best of your knowledge, did the authorities and the corporations collaborate
and coordinate with credible sources (e.g. well-known experts) during the crisis? (2010
Egg Recall)
Yes No
Authorities
Corporations
74

Q3. As the crisis kept going on, did the authorities and the corporations necessarily
acknowledge the uncertain nature of the crisis (2010 Egg Recall) when communicating
with various audiences?
Yes No
Authorities
Corporations

Q4. To the best of your knowledge, how well did the authorities and the corporations
form partnerships with their different publics, which would support them overcome the
crisis?(2010 Egg Recall)
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

Q5. How do you feel about the authorities' and the corporations' efforts on listening to
public concerns and understanding the audience during the crisis? (2010 Egg Recall)
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

75

Q6. How was the authorities and the corporations‟ efforts on being open and honest in
crisis communication? (2010 Egg Recall)
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

Q7. How would you comment on the authorities' and the corporations' efforts on meeting
the needs of the media and remaining accessible during the crisis? (2010 Egg Recall)
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

Q8. Do you agree that the authorities and the corporations communicated with genuine
compassion, concern and empathy about people who were harmed in the food safety
outbreak? (2010 Egg Recall)
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
Authorities
Corporations

76

Q9. How well would you say the authorities and the corporations did in providing
messages of self-efficiency to guide people to do meaningful things to protect themselves
and their loved ones during the crisis? (2010 Egg Recall)
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

Q10. How well would you say the authorities and the corporations did in continuously
evaluating and updating plans to secure the most updated information during the
crisis?(2010 Egg Recall)
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good
Authorities
Corporations

77

Q11. According to Hainsworth and Meng, any issue that results in crisis has a lifecycle
made up of 4 stages: Origin, mediation/amplification, organization and resolution. In the
following figure, the vertical axis of the diagram represents the level of pressure exerted
on an organization by the developing issue; the horizontal axis represents the various
stages of development. Please look back on the 2010 Egg Recall and decide how much
communication the authorities and the corporations have conducted at the various stages.
Origin Amplification Organization Resolution
Adequate Inadequate Adequate Inadequate Adequate Inadequate Adequate Inadequate
Authorities
Corporations

78

Q12. To the best of your knowledge, how many third-party organizations/associations are
there in the United States serving as watchdog that to secure the safety of food products?
Please specify one or two of them.
None Very Few Some Many

Q13. In what percent do you think the PR practitioners were being ethical in the crisis
management, keeping balance between serving their clients and caring for public health?
(2010 Egg Recall)
Less than 20% 20%-50% 50%-80% More than 80%

Q14. Please evaluate on the overall effectiveness of the crisis management in 2010 Egg
Recall.
Very Bad Bad Neither Good nor Bad Good Very Good

Q15. Which age demo do you fall into?
Under 20 20-29 30-39 40-49 Over 50

79

Q16. What is your gender?
Male Female

Q17. Which category best describes your annual household income?
Under $22,000 $22,000-$49,999 $50,000-$100,000 Greater than $100,000

Q18. What is the highest level of your education?
Grade
school/junior high
High
school
Vocational or technical
school/ community
college
4 year
college/university
Graduate
school

Q19. How would you describe the community in which you live?
Rural Urban

Q20. Are you an American citizen or permanent resident?
Yes No

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Shu, Chang (author)

Core Title A comparative study of food safety-related public relations practices in China and the United States

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/04/2011

Defense Date 04/01/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag china,crisis management,egg recall,Food Safety,melamine,OAI-PMH Harvest,Public Relations

Place Name China (countries), USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Swerling, Gerald (committee chair), Jackson, Laura Min (committee member), Wang, Jian (Jay) (committee member)

Creator Email aprillovesc@gmail.com,cshu@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3884

Unique identifier UC1196529

Identifier etd-Shu-4561 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-470133 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3884 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Shu-4561.pdf

Dmrecord 470133

Document Type Thesis

Rights Shu, Chang

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu